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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Demographics.", "2010 census.", "2000 census.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1796, Col. Ebenezer Zane received funds to blaze a road suitable for travel by horse through the Ohio wilderness from a point on the Ohio River opposite Wheeling, Virginia (now Wheeling, West Virginia) to another point opposite Maysville, Kentucky. Where this road, known as Zane's Trace, crossed Wills Creek, a ferry was established in 1798. This was followed by the first bridge authorized by the legislature of the Northwest Territory, built in 1803. The land on which part of Cambridge stands was granted to Zaccheus Biggs and Zaccheus Beatty by the government in 1801. A settlement grew up at the creek crossing. The town of Cambridge was platted there in 1806. Both Cambridge, Maryland and Cambridge, Massachusetts have been speculated by historians as having inspired the naming of the town. Also in 1806, another group of early settlers from the Isle of Guernsey in the English Channel pitched camp in Cambridge, reportedly because the women in the party refused to move on. The county for which Cambridge serves as the county seat was later named in honor of its many settlers from Guernsey. In 1828, the federally built National Road came through Cambridge. The first railroad arrived in 1854. The Cambridge area experienced massive flooding in late June 1998. Mayor of Cambridge is Tom Orr.", "Cambridge is located along Wills Creek; its tributary Leatherwood Creek flows into Wills Creek in the southern part of the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, all land.", "", "As of the census of 2010, there were 10,635 people, 4,651 households, and 2,604 families living in the city. The population density was. There were 5,313 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city was 92.7% White, 3.4% African American, 0.3% Native American, 0.3% Asian, 0.3% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.2% of the population. There were 4,651 households of which 30.3% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 33.9% were married couples living together, 16.9% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.2% had a male householder with no wife present, and 44.0% were non-families. 38.2% of all households were made up of individuals and 17% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.23 and the average family size was 2.94. The median age in the city was 38.8 years. 24.6% of residents were under the age of 18; 8.7% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 24.6% were from 25 to 44; 24.8% were from 45 to 64; and 17.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 46.6% male and 53.4% female.", "As of the census of 2000, there were 11,520 people, 4,924 households, and 2,954 families living in the city. The population density was 2,055.1 people per square mile (792.9/km2). There were 5,585 housing units of an average density of 996.3 per square mile (384.4/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.84% White, 3.91% African American, 0.33% Native American, 0.37% Asian, 0.47% from other races, and 2.07% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.96% of the population. There were 4,924 households out of which 30.5% had children under the age of 18, 39.2% were married couples living together, 16.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 40.0% were non-families. 35.3% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.92. The population of the city was spread out with 25.9% under the age of 18, 9.2% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 20.9% from 45 to 64, and 17.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females, there were 85.8 males and every 100 females aged 18 and over, there were 79.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $24,102, and the median income for a family was $30,780. Males had a median income of $26,368 versus $20,596 for females. The per capita income for the city was $14,452. About 18.1% of families and 30.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.5% of those under age 18 and 12.2% of those age 65 or over.", "The Cambridge City School District administers one primary school (K-2), one intermediate school (3-5), one middle school and Cambridge High School. St. Benedict Elementary School is a Roman Catholic institution. The Guernsey County Public Library operates two libraries in the city." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origin.", "Cat shows and popularity.", "Description.", "Markings.", "Habits.", "Personality.", "Size.", "Diet.", "Health." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The ancestral origins of the Maine Coon are unknown — there are only speculation and folk tales. One story involves Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France who was executed in 1793. The story goes that before her death, Antoinette attempted to escape France with the help of Captain Samuel Clough. She loaded Clough's ship with her most prized possessions, including six of her favorite Turkish Angora (or possibly Siberian) cats. Although she did not make it to the United States, her pets safely reached the shores of Wiscasset, Maine, where they bred with other short-haired breeds and developed into the modern breed of the Maine Coon.", "The first mention of Maine Coon cats in a literary work was in 1861, in Frances Simpson's \"The Book of the Cat\" (1903). F.R. Pierce, who owned several Maine Coons, wrote a chapter about the breed. During the late 1860s, farmers located in Maine told stories about their cats and held the \"Maine State Champion Coon Cat\" contest at the local Skowhegan Fair. In 1895, a dozen Maine Coons were entered into a show in Boston. On 8 May 1895, the first North American cat show was hosted at Madison Square Garden in New York City. A female Maine Coon brown tabby, named Cosey, was entered into the show. Owned by Mrs. Fred Brown, Cosey won the silver collar and medal and was named Best in Show. The silver collar was purchased by the Cat Fanciers' Association (CFA) Foundation with the help of a donation from the National Capital Cat Show. The collar is housed at the CFA Central Office in the Jean Baker Rose Memorial Library. In the early 20th century, the Maine Coon's popularity began to decline with the introduction of other long-haired breeds, such as the Persian, which originated in the Middle East. The last recorded win by a Maine Coon in a national cat show for over 40 years was in 1911 at a show in Portland, Oregon. The breed was rarely seen after that. The decline was so severe that the breed was declared extinct in the 1950s, although this declaration was considered to be exaggerated and reported prematurely at the time. The Central Maine Cat Club (CMCC) was created in the early 1950s by Ethylin Whittemore, Alta Smith and Ruby Dyer in an attempt to increase the popularity of the Maine Coon. For 11 years, the CMCC held cat shows and hosted exhibitions of photographs of the breed and is noted for creating the first written breed standards for the Maine Coon. The Maine Coon was denied provisional breed status — one of the three steps required for a breed not yet recognized by the CFA to be able to compete in championship competitions — by the CFA three times, which led to the formation of the Maine Coon Cat Club in 1973. The breed was finally accepted by the CFA under provisional status on 1 May 1975, and was approved for championship status on 1 May 1976. The next couple of decades saw a rise in popularity of the Maine Coon, with championship victories and an increase in national rankings. In 1985, the state of Maine announced that the breed would be named the official state cat. Today the Maine Coon is the third most popular cat breed, according to the number of kittens registered with the CFA.", "", "The Maine Coon is a long- or medium-haired cat. The coat is soft and silky, although texture may vary with coat color. The length is shorter on the head and shoulders and longer on the stomach and flanks, with some cats having a lion-like ruff around their neck. Minimal grooming is required for the breed compared to other long-haired breeds, as their coat is mostly self-maintaining owing to a light-density undercoat. The coat is subject to seasonal variation, with the fur being thicker in the winter and thinner during the summer. Maine Coons can have any colors that other cats have. Colors indicating crossbreeding, such as chocolate, lavender, the Siamese pointed patterns or the \"ticked\" patterns, are not accepted by some breed standards (the ticked pattern, for example, is accepted by TICA and CFA). The most common pattern seen in the breed is brown tabby. All eye colors are accepted under breed standards, with the exception of blue or odd-eyes (i.e. heterochromia iridium, or two eyes of different colors) in cats possessing coat colors other than white.", "Maine Coons have several physical adaptations for survival in harsh winter climates. Their dense water-resistant fur is longer and shaggier on their underside and rear for extra protection when they are walking or sitting on top of wet surfaces of snow or ice. Their long and bushy raccoon-like tail is resistant to sinking in snow, and can be curled around their face and shoulders for warmth and protection from wind and blowing snow. It can even be curled around their backside like an insulated seat cushion when sitting down on a frozen surface. Large paws, and especially the extra-large paws of polydactyl Maine Coons, facilitate walking on snow and are often compared to snowshoes. Long tufts of fur growing between their toes help keep the toes warm and further aid walking on snow by giving the paws additional structure without significant extra weight. Heavily furred ears with extra long tufts of fur growing from inside can keep warm more easily.", "Maine Coons are known as the \"gentle giants\" and possess above-average intelligence, making them relatively easy to train. They are known for being loyal to their family and cautious—but not mean—around strangers, but are independent and not clingy. The Maine Coon is generally not known for being a \"lap cat\", but their gentle disposition makes the breed relaxed around dogs, other cats, and children. They are playful throughout their lives, with males tending to be more clownish and females generally possessing more dignity, yet both are equally affectionate. Many Maine Coons have a fascination with water and some speculate that this personality trait comes from their ancestors, who were aboard ships for much of their lives. Maine Coons are also well known for being very vocal cats. They are known for their frequent yowling or howling, trilling, chirping, and making other loud vocalizations.", "The Maine Coon is the largest breed of domestic cat. On average, males weigh from, with females weighing from. The height of adults can vary between and they can reach a length of up to, including the tail, which can reach a length of and is long, tapering, and heavily furred, almost resembling a raccoon's tail. The body is solid and muscular, which is necessary for supporting their weight, and the chest is broad. Maine Coons possess a rectangular body shape and are slow to physically mature; their full size is normally not reached until they are three to five years old, while other cats take about one year. In 2010, the \"Guinness World Records\" accepted a male purebred Maine Coon named \"Stewie\" as the \"Longest Cat\", measuring from the tip of his nose to the tip of his tail. Stewie died 4 February 2013, from cancer at his home in Reno, Nevada, at age 8. As of 2015 the living record-holder for \"Longest Cat\" is \"Ludo\", measuring 3 ft 10.59 in (118.33 cm). He lives in Wakefield, UK. In May 2018 the Maine Coon \"Barivel\" measured 120 cm (3 ft 11.2 in), making him the current holder of the \"Guinness World Records\". This was verified on 22 May 2018 by \"Guinness Book Of World Records\". Large Maine Coons can overlap in length with Eurasian lynxes, although with a much lighter build and lower height.", "Maine Coons require ample protein and nutrients in their diets. Since they are a large cat breed with high levels of energy, it is best to feed them quality food. Food that lists meat as the first ingredient is best for the Maine Coon.", "Pet insurance data obtained from a study during years 2003–2006 in Sweden puts the median lifespan of the Maine Coon at > 12.5 years. 74% lived to 10 years or more and 54% lived to 12.5 years or more. Maine Coons are generally a healthy and hardy breed that is adapted to survive the challenging climate of New England. The most severe threat is feline hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), the most common heart disease seen in cats, whether purebred or not. In Maine Coons, it is thought to be inherited as an autosomal dominant trait. Middle-aged to older cats and males are thought to be predisposed to the disease. HCM is a progressive disease and can result in heart failure, paralysis of the hind legs due to clot embolization originating in the heart, and sudden death. A specific mutation that causes HCM is seen in Maine Coons for which testing services are offered. Of all the Maine Coons tested for the MyBPC mutation at the Veterinary Cardiac Genetics Lab at the College of Veterinary Medicine at Washington State University, approximately one-third tested positive. Not all cats that test positive will have clinical signs of the disease, and some Maine Coon cats with clinical evidence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy test negative for this mutation, strongly suggesting that a second mutation exists in the breed. The HCM prevalence was found to be 10.1% (95% CI 5.8 -14.3% ) in this study. Early growth and nutrition, larger body size, and obesity may be environmental modifiers of genetic predisposition to HCM. Another potential health problem is spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), another genetically inherited disease which causes the loss of the spinal-cord neurons which activate the skeletal muscles of the trunk and limbs. Symptoms are normally seen within 3–4 months of age and result in muscle atrophy, muscle weakness, and a shortened lifespan. A test is offered to detect the genes responsible for SMA. Hip dysplasia is an abnormality of the hip joint which can cause crippling lameness and arthritis. The cats most commonly affected with hip dysplasia tend to be males of the larger, big-boned breeds such as Persians and Maine Coons. The relatively smaller size and weight of cats frequently results in symptoms that are less pronounced. X-rays submitted to the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals (OFA) between 1974 and 2011 indicates that 24.3% of Maine Coons in the database were dysplastic. The Maine Coon is the only cat breed listed in the database. The hip dysplasia registry (public and private) collected by OFA through April 2015 also showed that there were 2,732 cats got hip dysplasia, and 2,708 (99.1%) were Maine Coons. Dysplasia was more severe in bilateral than unilateral cases and with increasing age. Polycystic kidney disease (PKD) is an inherited condition in cats that causes multiple cysts (pockets of fluid) to form in the kidneys. These cysts are present from birth. Initially they are very small, but they grow larger over time and may eventually disrupt kidney function, resulting in kidney failure. While renal cysts are observed with a low incidence in Maine Coons, PKD appears to be a misnomer in this particular breed. In a recent study spanning 8 years, renal cysts were documented by ultrasound in 7 of 187 healthy Maine Coons enrolled in a pre-breeding screening programme. The cysts were mostly single and unilateral (6/7, 85.7%) small (mean 3.6 mm in diameter) and located at corticomedullary junction (4/6, 66.7%), thus different in size, number, and location from those observed in Persian-related breeds. In the same study, not only did all six Maine Coon cats with renal cysts test negative for the PKD1 mutation, proving the disease in these cats to be unrelated to the PKD observed in Persians and related breeds, but gene sequencing of these cats failed to demonstrate any common genetic sequences. ‘Maine Coon PKD’ thus appears to represent a form of juvenile nephropathy other than AD-PKD. The presence of renal cysts in the absence of other changes, does not appear to negatively impact the patients' quality of life, as those for which follow-up was available were reported alive and well in adulthood. Although the exact nature and clinical relevance of renal cysts in Maine Coons are currently unknown, screening is still recommended for pre-breeding assessment. Ultrasonography is currently the only valid diagnostic method for its detection in this breed. Many of the original Maine Coon cats that inhabited the New England area possessed a trait known as polydactylism (having one or more extra toes on a paw). While some sources claim that the trait is thought to have occurred in approximately 40% of the Maine Coon population in Maine at one time, little evidence has been given to substantiate this. Polydactylism is rarely, if ever, seen in Maine Coons in the show ring, since it is not allowed by competition standards. The gene for polydactylism is a simple autosomal dominant gene, which has shown to pose no threat to the cat's health. Polydactyly in Maine Coon cats is characterised by broad phenotypic diversity. Polydactyly not only affects digit number and conformation, but also carpus and tarsus conformation. The trait was almost eradicated from the breed due to the fact that it was an automatic disqualifier in show rings. Private organizations and breeders were created in order to preserve polydactylism in Maine Coon cats." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Liberation of Brno.", "Prelude to expulsion.", "The march.", "Pohořelice camp.", "History of the camp in Pohořelice.", "Living conditions.", "Casualties.", "Remembrance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "After six years of German occupation the city of Brno, capital of the Czechoslovak province Moravia, was liberated on April 26, 1945 by the Soviet and Romanian armies of 2nd Ukrainian Front, in the context of the Bratislava–Brno Offensive. The next day, the Nazi German administration of the city was abolished and replaced by newly created and Czech-led \"Národní výbor města Brna\" (\"People's Committee of the City of Brno\"). While at the beginning of 1945 there were about 58,000 Germans registered in the city, most them were evacuated before the fighting reached the city or fled on their own in fear of the Red Army. After the liberation the Národní výbor registered about 26,000 people considered as Germans. Shortly after, the Germans were marked with white armbands and became subject to similar restrictions previously directed against the Jews by the Nazis.", "Shortly after the war had ended, the Czechoslovak government incited the expulsion of its large ethnic German minority from the country. Over half a million people were forced to march to the German and Austrian borders and thousands were killed. During May 1945 the \"Národní výbor\" several times discussed the need to punish Nazi war criminals, their Czech collaborators and the general situation of Germans in the city. About 1,500 people were arrested, most of them Germans. On 23 May the \"Národní výbor\" of Brno urged the Czechoslovak government to immediately establish courts for such criminals, because the people in Brno were rioting in front of the prison in an attempt to lynch the prisoners. Moreover, there was severe housing shortage in Brno as a consequence of the combat and previous bombings. In particular, factory workers demanded confiscation of the apartments of the Germans, as the Germans had done with the apartments of the Jews. On May 30, 1945 the \"Zemský národní výbor\" (\"Provincial National Committee\"), which resided in Brno, issued its order No. 78/1945, which ordered the immediate expulsion of the non-working German population from Brno. All women, boys under the age of 14 and men over the age of 60 should leave the city immediately, and the working men after they had been replaced in their work. On the morning of 30 May the representatives of the large firearm factory in Brno urged the police director to fulfill this order immediately. They also offered armed men from the factory to assist. In order to select the particular Germans to be expelled, police used a rationing system which was originally introduced by Germans at the Invasion of Poland and which also allocated food to the recipients by race and ethnicity.", "At around 6 pm on 29 May 1945, police and assistance troops started to gather all recipients of food coupons marked with a \"D\" (for Germans) and at around 10 pm on 30 May the first groups of Germans were forced to march south towards the Austrian border. According to police reports, 18,072 Germans were expelled. In the middle of the night the group reached the town of Rajhrad about from Brno, where most of those expelled spent the rest of the night in the orphanage. While the Sudeten German propaganda later claimed thousands of people were killed on the march or in Rajhrad and \"the road was paved with corpses\", there are only 3 confirmed deaths (2 of them violent). As of 2015, none of the alleged mass graves has been found along the road. The next morning the group reached the small town of Pohořelice, further south. Next to the town was an abandoned concentration camp in which the Germans of Brno were interned. The next day, 1 June, many people were too exhausted, so the guards selected approximately 10,000 people still able to walk and escorted them to the Austrian border near Mikulov. At the time, the representatives of Austria in Brno as well as Soviet occupation authorities in Austria had already protested against this unarranged transfer of large numbers of people, and persuaded the Czechoslovak government to stop the expulsion. About half of the expellees thus remained in the camp of Pohořelice.", "", "The town of Pohořelice had a large German minority and after the Munich agreement it became part of the Third Reich. After the outbreak of the war a small camp for prisoners of war was established near the town. In 1944 it became a concentration camp for Hungarian Jews who were used for the hardest work. The Jews were liberated by the Red Army in the middle of April 1945 and the then empty camp was used to accommodate the Germans of Brno, whose number by far exceeded the camp's capacity.", "Since the Austrian authorities refused to accept any people before their Austrian origin was proven and since the Czech authorities in Brno considered the return of Germans to Brno as politically unacceptable, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Interior decided that the group of approximately 10,000 Germans had to stay in Pohořelice and surrounding villages, where significant German minorities were already accommodated. As the Pohořelice camp was abandoned more than a month before, there was no opportunity to provide proper housing, food and health care for thousands of people. Not until 5 June was proper camp administration established and regular food supply provided. At this time, an epidemic of dysentery (shigellosis) broke out. According to official records, 455 dead were buried near the town of Pohořelice, mostly victims of diseases. Sudeten German sources, however, estimated that between 1,300–8,000 people either died of disease or were murdered. Later in June, the camp inmates were better identified and approximately 2,000-2,500 were selected and allowed to return to Brno, most of whom had Czech origin or Czech relatives in Brno. Once the news about their return spread into the city, police reported a new wave of anti-German protests. About 1,000 expellees were accommodated by families of surrounding villages, and 1,807 mostly elderly people were relocated to the former Institute for Juvenile in Mušlov next to Mikulov. Hundreds of individuals with German or Austrian citizenship were allowed to go to Austria. Others were sent to other camps in Brno and Svatobořice. The camp in Pohořelice was officially dissolved on 7 July 1945. At this time, there were still about 80 Germans from Brno in Pohořelice, about 60 of them were sick people in provisory hospital.", "Because of the quick improvised course of events, the exact number of casualties is very difficult to state. The estimates vary widely and have become a source of political disputes and propaganda. Austrian researchers found 1,950 victims of the march itself, 2,000 victims in the Pohořelice camp and 190 victims in surrounding villages. In total 4,140 German victims from Brno plus 1,062 who died in Austria. German sources regard the later communist police officer Bedřich Pokorný as responsible of organizing the Ústí massacre of hundreds of ethnic Germans on 31 July 1945. There have been attempts to confirm statements that Pokorný had thousands of people executed. Emilia Hrabovec was unable to substantiate these charges but instead, according to her research, old people and tired young children had been sent away on trucks under supervision of Czechoslovak guards. According to official death records from 1945, 455 people from Brno died and were buried in Pohořelice (near the town), 129 in Mušlov, 65 in villages surrounding the town of Pohořelice. In total 649 victims originally expulsed from Brno died on Czech territory.", "In 1995 Czech writer Ludvík Vaculík filed criminal charge for the crime of genocide related to the event of expulsion of Germans from Brno. Czech police however did not find evidence for such crime as there were only 3 confirmed violent deaths (two on the march and one later in Mušlov). In 2000 a group of young Czech students called for an adequate way to remember the events in Brno. In 2015 the council of Brno officially regretted the harm on the victims of the death march and organized a \"Pilgrimage of Reconciliation\" along the route. In 2002, a joint commission of German and Czech historians collected evidence and published the results in a book titled \"Rozumět dějinám\" (\"Understanding History\"). In 2007 a group of young people organized a night Memorial March from Brno to Pohořelice to commemorate the event. At the first time, only three people participated in the march and in the following years about 20-30 people attended. On the 70th anniversary of the event in 2015 the march was supported by the city of Brno and the number of participants was about 300, including some representatives of Sudeten German organisations. Until 2013 some eyewitnesses also participated in the memorial march. There is a memorial stone in St Thomas's Abbey garden to bear the tragic events in remembrance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structures.", "Evolution.", "X-ray sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Cartwheel galaxy shows non-thermal radio and optical spokes, but they are not the same spokes.", "The galaxy was once a normal spiral galaxy before it apparently underwent a head-on collision with a smaller companion approximately 200 million years ago (i.e., 200 million years prior to the image). When the nearby galaxy passed through the Cartwheel Galaxy, the force of the collision caused a powerful shock wave through the galaxy, like a rock being tossed into a sandbed. Moving at high speed, the shock wave swept up gas and dust, creating a starburst around the galaxy's center portion that were unscathed. This explains the bluish ring around the center, brighter portion. It can be seen that the galaxy is beginning to retake the form of a normal spiral galaxy, with arms spreading out from a central core. Alternatively, a model based on the gravitational Jeans instability of both axisymmetric (radial) and nonaxisymmetric (spiral) small-amplitude gravity perturbations allows an association between growing clumps of matter and the gravitationally unstable axisymmetric and nonaxisymmetric waves which take on the appearance of a ring and spokes.", "The unusual shape of the Cartwheel Galaxy may be due to a collision with a smaller galaxy such as those in the lower left of the image. The most recent star burst (star formation due to compression waves) has lit up the Cartwheel rim, which has a diameter larger than the Milky Way. Star formation via starburst galaxies, such as the Cartwheel Galaxy, results in the formation of large and extremely luminous stars. When massive stars explode as supernovas, they leave behind neutron stars and black holes. Some of these neutron stars and black holes have nearby companion stars, and become powerful sources of X-rays as they pull matter off their companions (also known as ultra and hyperluminous X-ray sources). The brightest X-ray sources are likely black holes with companion stars, and appear as the white dots that lie along the rim of the X-ray image. The Cartwheel contains an exceptionally large number of these black hole binary X-ray sources, because many massive stars formed in the ring." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Battle of France.", "Royal Air Force.", "Years of training.", "Friction.", "Spitfire ace.", "V1 flying bombs.", "Promotion and more friction.", "First crash in the Netherlands.", "Squadron leader and death.", "Burial, exhumations and reburials.", "Achievements and honours.", "Monuments and memorials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Smik was born in Borjomi, a spa town in the Georgian SSSR. His father Rudolf Smik was a Slovak from Tisovec who had served in the Royal Hungarian Honvéd in the First World War, been captured by the Imperial Russian Army and interned at Borjomi as a prisoner of war. Smik's mother Antonia (\"née\" Davydova) was the daughter of a Russian army officer who had guarded Rudolf Smik. After the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Rudolf and Antonia were married and the couple lived in Borjomi in the briefly-independent Democratic Republic of Georgia, which in 1921 was taken over by the Bolsheviks and became part of the Soviet Union in 1922. Antonia bore Rudolf Smik three sons, of whom Otto was the second. Smik grew up fluent in Russian and Georgian and with some knowledge of Hungarian. (Tisovec had been in the Hungarian part of Austria-Hungary when his father lived there.) In 1934 the Smik family moved to Czechoslovakia, initially to Hájniky near Sliač in central Slovakia and then to Bratislava. Smik learnt Slovak, which he spoke with a Russian accent. He also learnt English. As a child his hobby was aeromodelling. As a teenager he became a glider pilot, and by the age of 17 he had completed 22 flying hours. From 1937 to 1939 he trained at a private business school. He then got a job as a clerk in the head office of a power station in Bratislava.", "On 15 March 1939 Nazi Germany partitioned the Second Czechoslovak Republic. Bratislava remained the capital of the Slovak Republic, which became a client state of Germany. Smik decided to escape to France to fight Germany. On 18 March 1940 he crossed illegally into Hungary, planning to reach the French Consulate in Budapest. Hungarian authorities arrested him and detained him in Toloncház prison, but was soon released. Smik obtained a false passport and joined 12 other Czechoslovak refugees. People smugglers got them into Yugoslavia by helping them to cross the River Drava near Terezino Polje in Sava Banovina. They reached Zagreb, where they joined a larger group of Czechoslovak refugees. The group travelled through Bulgaria to Thessaloniki in Greece, whence they went by train to Istanbul in Turkey. There they crossed the Bosphorus and continued by train to Beirut in French-ruled Lebanon. There they embarked on the Messageries Maritimes passenger ship \"Mariette Pacha\" which took them to Marseille in France. By now Germany had conquered the Netherlands and Belgium and reached the River Somme in northern France. Smik and his compatriots disembarked in Marseille in the south of France just as Operation Dynamo was evacuating encircled British, French and Belgian troops from Dunkirk in the north. On 3 June 1940 Smik joined the Czechoslovak Army, which the Czechoslovak government-in-exile had reconstituted in France since October 1939. He was posted to a Czechoslovak training unit in Agde on the coast of Languedoc, where he applied to transfer to the Czechoslovak Air Force group in the French \"Armée de l'Air\". But the \"Armée de l'Air\" was now fighting the \"Luftwaffe\"s increasing air supremacy and had no spare resources to train any more Czechoslovak recruits. On 5 June German forces launched \"Fall Rot\" to advance west and south from the Somme, and on 22 June France capitulated. Czechoslovaks based in Agde evacuated west to Vendres, where on 24 June the Elder Dempster Lines ship \"Apapa\" rescued them. The ship brought them to Liverpool in England on 7 July.", "", "Many of the RAF Volunteer Reserve's new Czechoslovak recruits had qualified as pilots with the Czechoslovak Air Force and then retrained on modern French or American fighters with the French \"Armée de l'Air\". Some had fought in the Battle of France and a few had previously fought in the Invasion of Poland. The RAF was able quickly to teach these experienced pilots about RAF structures and tactics, give them conversion training to fly and fight using RAF aircraft. Many were ready to be posted to combat squadrons within weeks of enlisting. But Smik had only been a civilian glider pilot. On 24 July 1940 he joined the RAF Volunteer Reserve as an Aircraftman 2nd Class. He then spent almost two and a half years in training. His first few months were as a batman at the RAF's new central training depôt for Czechoslovak recruits, which was at RAF Cosford in Shropshire. In March 1941 he was promoted to Leading Aircraftman and posted to No. 1 Reception Wing at Babbacombe in Devon to start training to be a pilot. From June to September 1941 he was at No. 4 Initial Training Wing at Paignton. From September to the end of November he was in a group of Czechoslovak trainees at No. 3 Elementary Flying Training School, where they learnt to fly the de Havilland Tiger Moth II. At the end of November four of them completed the course and went to RAF Clyffe Pypard in Wiltshire for further Tiger Moth training. At the end of 1941 they sailed to Canada for training at No. 39 Service Flying Training School at Swift Current airfield in Saskatchewan under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. Smik completed his course, rated as an \"excellent\" pupil. In 1942 Smik and his group then waited at No. 3 Personnel Reception Centre at Moncton, New Brunswick for a ship back to the UK. Smik returned to Britain in July. He then had further training at No. 5 Advanced Training Unit at RAF Ternhill in Shropshire and final training to become a fighter pilot at No. 61 Operational Training Unit. Also in 1942 Smik was commissioned as a Pilot Officer.", "On 5 January 1943 Smik was finally posted to an operational unit: No. 312 (Czechoslovak) Squadron RAF at RAF Church Stanton in Somerset. But he lasted only a week there before being transferred to a different Czechoslovak unit, No. 310 Squadron RAF. Some of the more experienced Czechoslovak pilots quickly resented Smik. Many had fought in the Battle of France and some had fought in the RAF from the Battle of Britain onwards. Some had first fought in the defence of Poland in September 1939. They had many flying hours' of operation experience, had frequently been in combat, but many of them were still only sergeants. Smik was younger than they, had no combat experience, had only just qualified to fly a Supermarine Spitfire but was already an officer. Smik responded by requesting a transfer to a non-Czechoslovak squadron. The RAF agreed, and on 15 January sent him to No. 131 Squadron RAF, which at the time was at RAF Castletown in Caithness, Scotland for a period of rest and recuperation. But then in March 1943 Smik was transferred again, to No. 122 Squadron RAF at RAF Hornchurch in Essex.", "At the time 122 Squadron was operating the Spitfire Mk IXC, with which it escorted bombers over German-occupied Europe. On 13 March 1943 Smik achieved his first \"probable\" shooting down of an enemy aircraft: a Messerschmitt Bf 109G-4 over Lumbres in the Pas-de-Calais. On 29 April No. 222 Squadron RAF arrived at Hornchurch, and on 18 May 122 Squadron moved to RAF Eastchurch in Kent for R&R. But Smik was still a fresh arrival, so he was transferred to 222 Squadron in order to remain at Hornchurch. With 222 Squadron Smik became a fighter ace. On 15 July 1943 he shot down a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A-4 near Le Crotoy on the Baie de Somme. It was the first of 101⁄2 enemy aircraft that he shot down between then and 27 September: five Fw 190s, five Bf 109s plus a shared victory when he and a South African pilot, Flight Lieutenant J Lardner-Burke DFC, brought down a Bf 109G-6 near Boulogne-sur-Mer on 8 September. Smik acquired a reputation as a talented and aggressive pilot who took every opportunity to attack the enemy. He was the RAF's highest-scoring Czechoslovak pilot for the year 1943. On 1 November he was posted to the Central Gunnery School to be trained as in instructor. In the same month he was awarded the DFC. On 12 December he completed his course and was posted to No. 13 Armament Practice Camp at RAF Llanbedr in Merionethshire, Wales. After four years of war many RAF airmen had been killed, captured or too badly wounded to resume flying. The RAF tried to attract Czech and Slovak Americans and Czech and Slovak Canadians to join its Czechoslovak squadrons, but with little success. So on 15 March 1944 Smik was recalled to combat service. Smik's posting was to 310 Squadron, where his fellow-Czechoslovaks had made him so unwelcome 14 months earlier. But in the meantime he had won 101⁄2 victories and a DFC, and many of the sergeants who had resented him had been commissioned as officers. From 28 March to 3 April Smik received a week's fighter-bomber training at Southend in Essex. By June 310 Squadron was based at RAF Appledram in West Sussex, where it provided air cover for the Allied Invasion of Normandy. On 8 June Smik shot down a Focke-Wulf Fw 190 A fighter near Lisieux. On 17 June he shot down another near Caen. Also he and another 310 Squadron pilot, F/O František Vindiš, shared in shooting down another Fw 190.", "On 13 June 1944 the first German V-1 flying bomb had hit London. Allied countermeasures included training fighter pilots to intercept them. In one sortie on 8 July Smik brought down three V-1 bombs in 32 minutes.", "On 11 July 1944 Smik was promoted to Flight Lieutenant and posted to 312 Squadron to command its \"B\" flight. But here some pilots still resented him, feeling that they should have been promoted to that position. But the squadron's senior officers recognised Smik's achievements and suitability for the job, and resentment of him was quashed. At this stage 312 Squadron was flying Spitfire Mk IX aircraft, with which it escorted RAF Bomber Command and United States Army Air Forces heavy bombers that attacked targets in the German-occupied Netherlands. But by now \"Luftwaffe\" resistance was limited. Accordingly, 312 Squadron's rôle shifted to attacking targets on the ground. As with 222 Squadron in 1943, Smik again proved to be an aggressive pilot who seldom missed an opportunity to attack. Railway locomotives were a favourite target. In one raid in August, Smik and his flight of four Spitfires went to attack an airfield at Steenwijk in Overijssel but found no \"Luftwaffe\" aircraft to attack. On the way to Steenwijk they had seen three railway trains in a rail yard at Raalte, so on the way back Smik and his flight attacked it. One of the trains was loaded with 15 to 20 tanks, all of which they destroyed.", "On 3 September 1944 Smik took part in the escort of Ramrod 1258, which was bomber raid on Soesterberg Air Base in Utrecht Province. On the way back Smik saw about 30 Junkers Ju 188 medium bombers on the ground at Gilze-Rijen Air Base in North Brabant. Smik led his flight of four Spitfires to attack, but the airfield's ground defences retaliated with intense and accurate anti-aircraft fire. Smik hit two Ju 188s and set them on fire, but his Spitfire was badly hit and he had to make a forced landing near the village of Prinsenbeek. The village was in German-held territory, but villagers successfully hid him. Then Dutch resistance members hid him first in Breda and then in the village of Ginneken, where he was joined other RAF and USAAF airmen who were evading capture. On 26 October they escaped through the German front line, where they came under machine gun fire and managed to cross a minefield to reach the Allied front line.", "In November 1944 Smik was promoted to Squadron Leader and given command of No. 127 Squadron RAF, which was then operating Spitfire LF Mark IXe and Mark XVIe aircraft. The squadron was based at Grimbergen Airfield in Belgium and helping Allied ground forces such as the First Canadian Army to liberate the Netherlands. On the morning of 28 November Smik led a reconnaissance patrol over Arnhem, Hengelo and then Zwolle, where he led an attack on a railway marshalling yard. Heavy German anti-aircraft fire shot down two Spitfires, killing both pilots. One was RR229, flown a Free Belgian pilot, F/O Henri Taymans, which crashed near Kampen. The other was RR227 flown by Smik, which crashed near Ittersum, which is now part of Zwolle. Taymans' Spitfire crashed into a dyke next to a railway embankment and was not found for 20 years. Smik's aircraft was found and his body recovered, but not identified. Smik was carrying no identification. Many Czechoslovaks serving in Allied armed forces took precautions to prevent being identified if they were killed behind enemy lines or captured, as otherwise the Germans carried out reprisals against their families in occupied Czechoslovakia.", "Smik was buried at Kranenburg near Bronckhorst in Gelderland as an \"unknown Englishman\". After the Netherlands were liberated, his body was wrongly identified as Taymans'. The Belgian pilot had a fiancée, who had the body exhumed and reinterred in a family burial vault in Brussels. On 12 May 1965 workmen digging in the dyke at Kampen found Spitfire RR229 and the remains of Henri Taymans' body. As a result, Smik's body was removed from the vault in Brussels and reburied, this time at Adegem Canadian War Cemetery near Ghent in East Flanders. In 1992–93 Czechoslovakia was dissolved. In 1994 the government of Slovakia had Smik's body exhumed again and on 12 September he was reinterred in Slávičie Údolie cemetery in Bratislava.", "Smik flew more than 371 flying hours in 263 sorties. His victories included eight enemy aircraft shot down single-handed, two more shared, two more probables, and four damaged. In one sortie he shot down three V-1 flying bombs in 32 minutes. From the air he also destroyed numerous targets on the ground, including two Ju 188 bombers, two tanks, 22 other military vehicles and six railway locomotives. Smik was the RAF's highest-scoring Czechoslovak ace in 1943 and again in 1944: a period when \"Luftwaffe\" presented far fewer airborne targets than it had earlier in the war. He was the RAF's fifth-highest scoring Czechoslovak ace and highest-scoring Slovak ace in the Second World War.", "In 1994 Slovenská televízia broadcast a documentary \"Stratený syn Slovenska\" (\"Lost Son of Slovakia\") about Smik. On 19 July 1995 the Slovak Air Force posthumously promoted Smik to Major-General. In 2006 the British Ambassador in Bratislava presented a replica of Smik's DFC to the Slovak Air Force headquarters at Zvolen in central Slovakia. On 28 August 2002 Sliač airbase was renamed his in honour. On 1 July 2009 a wing of the Slovak Air Force based at Sliač was renamed the \"Zmiešane Krídlo Generála Otta Smika, Sliač\" (\"Combined Wing of General Otto Smik, Sliač\"). It is now called the \"Taktické krídlo generálmajora Otta Smika Sliač\" (\"Tactical Wing of Major General Otto Smik Sliač\"). On 26 October 2010 a bust of Smik was unveiled at the headquarters of the \"Combined Wing of General Otto Smik, Sliač\". There is an annual air show at Sliač. Since 2012 it has included a \"Best display Smik Trophy\". In Bratislava there is a bronze plaque commemorating Smik designed by the sculptor Milan Struhárik. In March 1992 a plaque was unveiled at the farm at Blooksteed in the Netherlands where Smik crashed and died. Three streets are named after Smik: \"Otto Smikstraat\" in Zwolle, \"Smikova\" in the Černý Most suburb of Prague and \"Smikova\" in Bratislava." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Administration.", "History.", "Main sights.", "Climate.", "Transport.", "Education.", "Performing arts.", "Notable people.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities.", "Sculpture.", "Representations in art." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rouen and its metropolitan area of 70 suburban communes form the Métropole Rouen Normandie, with 494,382 inhabitants at the 2010 census. In descending order of population, the largest of these suburbs are Sotteville-lès-Rouen, Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray, Le Grand-Quevilly, Le Petit-Quevilly, and Mont-Saint-Aignan, each with a population exceeding 20,000.", "Rouen was founded by the Gaulish tribe of the Veliocasses, who controlled a large area in the lower Seine valley. They called it \"Ratumacos\"; the Romans called it \"Rotomagus\". It was considered the second city of Gallia Lugdunensis after Lugdunum (Lyon) itself. Under the reorganization of Diocletian, Rouen was the chief city of the divided province Gallia Lugdunensis II and reached the apogee of its Roman development, with an amphitheatre and \"thermae\" of which foundations remain. In the 5th century, it became the seat of a bishopric and later a capital of Merovingian Neustria. From their first incursion into the lower valley of the Seine in 841, the Normans overran Rouen. From 912, Rouen was the capital of the Duchy of Normandy and residence of the local dukes, until William the Conqueror moved his residence to Caen. In 1150, Rouen received its founding charter which permitted self-government. During the 12th century, Rouen was the site of a yeshiva known as. Discovered in 1976, it is now a museum. At that time, about 6,000 Jews lived in the town, comprising about 20% of the population. On 24 June 1204 King Philip II Augustus of France entered Rouen and definitively annexed Normandy to the French Kingdom. He demolished the Norman castle and replaced it with his own, the Château Bouvreuil, built on the site of the Gallo-Roman amphitheatre. A textile industry developed based on wool imported from England, for which the cities of Flanders and Brabant were constantly competitors, and finding its market in the Champagne fairs. Rouen also depended for its prosperity on the river traffic of the Seine, on which it enjoyed a monopoly that reached as far upstream as Paris. In the 14th century urban strife threatened the city: in 1291, the mayor was assassinated and noble residences in the city were pillaged. Philip IV reimposed order and suppressed the city's charter and the lucrative monopoly on river traffic, but he was quite willing to allow the Rouennais to repurchase their old liberties in 1294. In 1306, he decided to expel the Jewish community of Rouen, then numbering some five or six thousand. In 1389, another urban revolt of the underclass occurred, the \"Harelle\". It was suppressed with the withdrawal of Rouen's charter and river-traffic privileges once more. During the Hundred Years' War, on 19 January 1419, Rouen surrendered to Henry V of England, who annexed Normandy once again to the Plantagenet domains. But Rouen did not go quietly: Alain Blanchard hanged English prisoners from the walls, for which he was summarily executed; Canon and Vicar General of Rouen Robert de Livet became a hero for excommunicating the English king, resulting in de Livet's imprisonment for five years in England. Joan of Arc, who supported a return to French rule, was burned at the stake on 30 May 1431 in this city, where most inhabitants supported the duke of Burgundy, the French king's enemy. The king of France, Charles VII, recaptured the town in 1449. Rouen was staunchly Catholic during the French Wars of Religion, and underwent an unsuccessful five-month siege in 1591/2 by Henry IV and an English force commanded by the Earl of Essex. A brief account by an English participant has survived. See 'Memoirs of Robert Carey', (F.H.Mares (ed.), Oxford, 1972), pp. 18–21. During the German occupation, the Kriegsmarine had its headquarters located in a chateau on what is now the Rouen Business School. The city was heavily damaged during World War II on D-day, and its famed cathedral was almost destroyed by Allied bombs.", "Rouen is known for its Rouen Cathedral, with its \"Tour de Beurre\" (\"butter tower\") financed by the sale of indulgences for the consumption of butter during Lent. The cathedral's gothic façade (completed in the 16th century) was the subject of a series of paintings by Claude Monet, some of which are exhibited in the Musée d'Orsay in Paris. The \"Gros Horloge\" is an astronomical clock dating back to the 14th century. It is located in the \"Gros Horloge\" street. Other famous structures include Rouen Castle, whose keep is known as the \"tour Jeanne d'Arc\", where Joan of Arc was brought in 1431 to be threatened with torture (contrary to popular belief, she was not imprisoned there but in the since destroyed \"tour de lady Pucelle\"); the \"Church of Saint Ouen\" (12th–15th century); the \"Palais de Justice\", which was once the seat of the \"Parlement\" (French court of law) of Normandy; the Gothic \"Church of St Maclou\" (15th century); and the Museum of Fine Arts and Ceramics which contains a splendid collection of faïence and porcelain for which Rouen was renowned during the 16th to 18th centuries. Rouen is also noted for its surviving half-timbered buildings. There are many museums in Rouen: the Musée des Beaux-Arts de Rouen, an art museum with pictures of well-known painters such as Claude Monet and Géricault; the Musée maritime fluvial et portuaire, a museum on the history of the port of Rouen and navigation; Musée des antiquités, an art and history museum with local works from the Bronze Age through the Renaissance, the Musée de la céramique and the Musée Le Secq des Tournelles. The Jardin des Plantes de Rouen is a notable botanical garden once owned by Scottish banker John Law dated from 1840 in its present form. It was the site of Élisa Garnerin's parachute jump from a balloon in 1817. In the centre of the Place du Vieux Marché (the site of Joan of Arc's pyre) is the modern church of St Joan of Arc. This is a large, modern structure which dominates the square. The form of the building represents an upturned viking boat and a fish shape. Rouen was also home to the French Grand Prix, hosting the race at the nearby Rouen-Les-Essarts track sporadically between 1952 and 1968. In 1999 Rouen authorities demolished the grandstands and other remnants of Rouen's racing past. Today, little remains beyond the public roads that formed the circuit. Rouen has its own palace of Rouen Opera House, whose formal name is Rouen Normandy Opera House – Theatre of Arts (in French: \"Opéra de Rouen Normandie – Théâtre des arts\").", "Rouen has an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\" in the Köppen climate classification).", "Mainline trains operate from Gare de Rouen-Rive-Droite to Le Havre and Paris, and regional trains to Caen, Dieppe and other local destinations in Normandy. Daily direct trains operate to Amiens and Lille, and direct TGVs (high-speed trains) connect daily with Lyon and Marseille. City transportation in Rouen consists of a tram and a bus system. The tramway branches into two lines out of a tunnel under the city centre. Rouen is also served by TEOR (Transport Est-Ouest Rouennais) and by buses run in conjunction with the tramway by TCAR (Transports en commun de l'agglomération rouennaise), a subsidiary of Veolia Transport. Rouen has its own airport, serving major domestic destinations as well as international destinations in Europe. The Seine is a major axis for maritime cargo links in the Port of Rouen. The Cross-Channel ferry ports of Caen, Le Havre, Dieppe (50 minutes) and Calais, and the Channel Tunnel are within easy driving distance (two and a half hours or less).", "The main schools of higher education are the University of Rouen and NEOMA Business School (former École Supérieure de Commerce de Rouen), ésitpa (agronomy and agriculture), both located at nearby Mont-Saint-Aignan, and the INSA Rouen, ESIGELEC and the CESI, both at nearby Saint-Étienne-du-Rouvray.", "The main opera company in Rouen is the Opéra de Rouen – Normandie. The company performs in the Théâtre des Arts, 7 rue du Docteur Rambert. The company presents opera, classical and other types of music, both vocal and instrumental, as well as dance performances. Every five years, the city hosts the large maritime exposition, L'Armada.", "Rouen was the birthplace of:", "", "Rouen is twinned with:", "During the second half of the 20th century, several sculptures by Jean-Yves Lechevallier were erected in the city. Inaugurated in 2010, the Rouen Impressionnée hosted the contemporary urban (re)development installation sculpture 'Camille' by Belgian artist Arne Quinze. Quinze's use of interlocking systems in sculpture employ wood, concrete, paint and metal. The Quasi-Quinze method of sculpture utilizes structural integrity and randomness as key elements for 'Camille'. Located on the Boieldieu Bridge in the center of Rouen, this intentional location was chosen by the artist to magnify the historical separation of its city's citizens.", "Rouen Cathedral is the subject of a series of paintings by the Impressionist painter Claude Monet, who painted the same scene at different times of the day. Two paintings are in the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.; two are in the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow; one is in the National Museum of Serbia in Belgrade. The estimated value of one painting is over $40 million." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Establishment of the Red Army Faction.", "Action in the Red Army Faction and arrest.", "Imprisonment and death.", "Last days in prison.", "Autopsy and death investigation.", "Suicide disputation.", "Portrayals.", "Music.", "Bibliography.", "Further reading.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ulrike Meinhof was born in 1934 in Oldenburg, Germany. In 1936, her family moved to Jena when her father, art historian Dr. Werner Meinhof, became Director of the city's museum. Her father died of cancer in 1940, causing her mother to take in a boarder, Renate Riemeck, to make money. In 1946, the family moved back to Oldenburg because Jena fell under Soviet rule as a result of the Yalta agreement. Ulrike's mother, Dr. Ingeborg Meinhof, worked as a teacher after World War II and died from cancer in 1949. Renate Riemeck took on the role of guardian for Ulrike and her elder sister. In 1952, she took her \"Abitur\" at a school in Weilburg. She then studied Philosophy, Sociology, Education and German at Marburg where she became involved with reform movements. In 1957, she moved to the University of Münster, where she met the Spanish Marxist Manuel Sacristán (who later translated and edited some of her writings) and joined the Socialist German Student Union. Meinhof participated in the protests against the rearmament of the Bundeswehr and its involvement with nuclear weapons that were proposed by Konrad Adenauer's government. She eventually became the spokeswoman of the local \"Anti-Atomtod-Ausschuss\" ('Anti Atomic-Death Committee'). In 1958, Meinhof spent a short time on the AStA (German: \"Allgemeiner Studierendenausschuss\", or General Committee of Students) of the university and wrote articles for various student newspapers. In 1959, Meinhof joined the banned Communist Party of Germany (KPD) and later began working at the magazine \"konkret\", serving as chief editor from 1962 until 1964. In 1961, she married the co-founder and publisher of \"konkret\", Klaus Rainer Röhl. Their marriage produced twins, Regine and Bettina, on 21 September 1962. Meinhof and Röhl separated in 1967 and divorced a year later.", "The attempted assassination of socialist activist Rudi Dutschke on 11 April 1968 provoked Meinhof to write an article in \"konkret\" demonstrating her increasingly militant attitude and containing perhaps her best-known quote: Later that year, her writings on arson attacks in Frankfurt as protests against the Vietnam War resulted in her developing an acquaintance with the perpetrators, most significantly Andreas Baader and Gudrun Ensslin. She stopped writing for \"konkret\" which had in her opinion evolved into a completely commercial magazine in the early part of 1969, and many other authors followed her. She stated that neither she nor her collaborators wanted to give a left-wing alibi to the magazine that sooner or later \"would become part of the counter-revolution, a thing that I cannot gloss over with my co-operation, especially now that it is impossible to change its course\". Later, they organised an occupation at \"konkret\"s office (along with several members of the ), to distribute proclamations to the employees, something that failed since Röhl learned about it, and moved the employees to their homes to continue their work from there. Finally, Röhl's house was vandalised by some of the protesters. Meinhof arrived in Röhl's villa at 11:30, after police and journalists had already arrived. She was accused by Röhl (and subsequently described by the media) as the organizer of the vandalism. It was difficult to prove, as she was not there when it happened. Perhaps her last work as an individual was the writing and production of the film \"\" in 1970, where she put focus on a group of borstal girls in West Berlin; by the time it was scheduled to be aired, she had become wanted for the breakout of Andreas Baader, and its broadcast was delayed until 1994. Meinhof had been approached by Gudrun Ensslin, girlfriend of jailed arsonist Andreas Baader, for her help in securing the release of Baader from police custody. A scheme was developed where Meinhof would approach leftist publisher Klaus Wagenbach, seeking to have him hire Meinhof and the imprisoned Baader in writing a book. After securing a contract from Wagenbach (who was not aware of Meinhof's ulterior motives), Meinhof petitioned authorities to allow Baader to travel from Moabit Prison to an institute for social research in the Dahlem district of Berlin. The plan was for armed guerrillas to enter the institute and secure the release of Baader; it was intended that no shooting was to take place. Meinhof was to stay behind, and have a plausibly deniable explanation that she was not involved in the planning of Baader's escape. Baader arrived with two guards, and set to work with Meinhof in the institute's library. Two women compatriots of Ensslin's, along with a man with a criminal record (hired because of his supposed experience with armed encounters) broke into the institute. The man shot the elderly librarian Georg Linke, severely wounding him in his liver. It was later claimed that the man was holding two weapons, a pistol and a gas canister gun, and accidentally fired the wrong weapon in the confusion. Because of the shooting of the librarian, it is speculated that Meinhof made a snap decision to join Baader in his escape. Within days wanted posters appeared throughout Berlin offered a 10,000 DM reward for her capture for \"Attempted Murder.\" In the beginning, Meinhof meant to stay behind to use her power as an influential reporter to help the rest outside, but in the panic after the shooting she joined the others jumping out of the institute's window. Immediately after their escape Meinhof called a friend to pick up her children from school. This call helped illustrate her overall lack of planning.", "In the next two years Meinhof participated in the various bank robberies and bombings perpetrated by the group. She and other RAF members attempted to kidnap her children so that they could be sent to a camp for Palestinian orphans and educated there according to her desires; however, the twins were intercepted in Sicily and returned to their father, in part due to the intervention of Stefan Aust. During this period, Meinhof wrote or recorded many of the manifestos and tracts for the RAF. The most significant of these is probably \"The Concept of the Urban Guerrilla\", a response to an essay by Horst Mahler, that attempts to set out more correctly their prevailing ideology. It also included the first use of the name \"Rote Armee Fraktion\" and, in the publications of it, the first use of the RAF insignia. Her practical importance in the group, however, was often overstated by the media, the most obvious example being the common name \"Baader-Meinhof gang\" for the RAF. (Gudrun Ensslin is often considered to have been the effective female co-leader of the group rather than Meinhof.) Meinhof wrote an essay defending the Munich massacre, which historian Jeffrey Herf describes as \"one of the most important documents in the history of antisemitism in Europe after the Holocaust\". On 14 June 1972, in Langenhagen, Fritz Rodewald, a teacher who had been providing accommodation to deserters from the U.S. Armed Forces, was approached by a stranger asking for an overnighting house the next day for herself and a friend. He agreed but later became suspicious that the woman might be involved with the RAF and eventually decided to call the police. The next day the pair arrived at Rodewald's dwelling while the police watched. The man was followed to a nearby telephone box and was found to be Gerhard Müller who was armed. After arresting Müller, the police then proceeded to arrest the woman – Ulrike Meinhof.", "In December 1972, Meinhof, who was awaiting trial, was called to testify at Horst Mahler's trial where Mahler questioned her about the statement of support the two had issued for the September 1972 massacre of Israeli athletes at the Munich Olympics. His questioning led her to say: How was Auschwitz possible, what was anti-Semitism? It used the hatred of the people of their dependence on money as a medium of exchange, their longing for communism. Auschwitz means that six million Jews were murdered and carted on to the rubbish dumps of Europe for being that which was maintained of them – Money-Jews. What had happened was that finance capital and banks, the hard core of the system of imperialism and capitalism, had diverted the people's hatred of money and exploitation away from themselves and on to the Jews. After two years of preliminary hearings, Meinhof was sentenced to eight years' imprisonment on 29 November 1974. Eventually Meinhof, Baader, Ensslin, and Raspe were jointly charged on 19 August 1975, with four counts of murder, fifty-four of attempted murder, and a single count of forming a criminal association. However, before the trial was concluded, Meinhof was found hanged by a rope, fashioned from a towel, in her cell in the Stammheim Prison on 9 May 1976. It is highly probable that, if not for her death, she would have been sentenced to 'life imprisonment plus 15 years'. (The remaining three defendants received such a sentence, designed to minimize the possibility of early parole.) The official verdict was Meinhof had committed suicide. It was later discovered she had become increasingly isolated from other RAF prisoners. Notes exchanged between them in prison included one by Gudrun Ensslin, describing her as \"too weak\". The official findings were not accepted by many in the RAF and other militant organisations, and there are still some who doubt their accuracy and believe that she was murdered by the authorities. A second investigation was carried out by an international group. The findings of the inquiry were published under the title \"Der Tod Ulrike Meinhofs. Bericht der Internationalen Untersuchungskommission\" (\"The Death of Ulrike Meinhof. Report of the International Investigation Committee\") in 1979. Meinhof's body was buried six days after her death, in Berlin-Mariendorf. Her funeral turned out to be a demonstration of about 4,000 people. In late 2002, following investigations by her daughter Bettina, it was discovered that Meinhof's brain had been retained (apparently without permission) following the autopsy performed as part of the investigation into Meinhof's death. The original autopsy had found brain injury near the amygdala, resulting from successful surgery in 1962 to remove a (benign) cyst. The unpublished autopsy results at the time stated that the brain injuries \"justified questions as to the culpability\" of Meinhof. Bernhard Bogerts, a psychiatrist at Magdeburg university, later re-examined the brain and also doubted that Meinhof was fully criminally responsible. On Bettina's request, the brain was interred in Meinhof's burial place on 19 December 2002.", "Meinhof's last appearance in court was on 4 May 1976 when the defendants requested to provide evidence about the participation of West Germany in the Vietnam war, claiming that this was the cause of their radicalization, and making the novel request to be granted the status of prisoners of war (see above). According to Jutta Ditfurth, the last days before Meinhof's death went smoothly. The prisoners (including Meinhof) spent their meeting time (30 minutes, twice per day) discussing various philosophers and political issues. One of the guards noted that they were laughing. According to Meinhof's sister, Wienke Zitzlaff, during her last visit in prison, Meinhof had told her: \"You can stand up and fight only while you are alive. If they say I committed suicide, be sure that it was a murder.\" In early May, attorney contacted his client (Meinhof). They were hopeful about the possibilities that the new strategy seemed to offer. They also discussed whether Meinhof could testify as witness in the International Law Conference in Geneva where a delegation of lawyers planned to denounce the measure of detention in solitary confinement. Finally, Meinhof was planning to reveal main witness Gerhard Müller's role in trial. Federal prosecutors had blamed exclusively the four defendants for the murder of policeman, who was shot by Müller himself. During the press conference called by defense attorneys, one of Meinhof's lawyers, Michael Oberwinder, stated that it was less than a week before Meinhof's death that they had a very involved conversation. He claimed that there was not the least sign of depression or lack of interest on her part, and that it was an animated discussion in the context of which Meinhof explained the group's point of view. Meinhof's last visitor was Giovanni Capelli, lawyer of the Red Brigades. He conveyed the desire of the Red Brigades to contact her and described the conditions of detention in Italy where prisoners were not held in isolation (except Renato Curcio) and were politically active. They also discussed the establishment of an international committee of lawyers to defend the RAF. Capelli later said that Meinhof gave him the impression of \"a vivid, lifelike woman\", \"open to all questions\". They arranged to meet again soon. \"She behaved like a woman who wanted to live\".", "At 9.20 a.m. on 9 May, the Ministry of Justice of Baden-Württemberg disseminated the information that Meinhof had committed suicide, although the initial post mortem body examination began only after 9:25 AM by professor Joachim Rauschke. At 9:34 a.m. the German news agency (dpa) announced \"Suicide by hanging\".. Two hours later professor Rauschke together with performed the official autopsy in the general hospital of Stuttgart from 11:45 a.m. until 12:45 p.m., whose outcome was \"death by hanging beyond doubt\". According to Ditfurth the hasty press releases that followed Meinhof's death, were similar to those of April 1972, when it was incorrectly broadcast that Meinhof had committed suicide.. The following days the newspapers reported in detail what supposed to be Meinhof's thoughts, like: \"she realised her mistake,\" \"she had become aware of the futility,\" and that she \"resigned to death\". There was a concern of Meinhof supporters about the forensic surgeons chosen by the state to perform the autopsy. Mallach (NSDAP Member No. 9154986) had been a member of the SS. He served in World War II as corporal in a Panzer division. In 1977, he made (without approval) and kept for a long time the death masks of Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and Jan-Carl Raspe. Professor Rauschke was the one who also performed the autopsy of Siegfried Hausner one year earlier and was accused by fellows and supporters of the RAF for ignoring the injuries to Hausner's head, so as to cover up the true cause of his death. On 11 May, a second autopsy was performed on demand of Wienke Zitzlaff by Dr. Werner Janssen and Dr. Jürgen Schröder, even though the brain, a lot of critical organs, and tissue parts had been previously removed from the body. Also her nails had been cut, so the doctors could not determine clearly if there were traces of struggle. Some examinations could not take place since critical time had passed. Janssen concluded that the most probable cause of death was \"suicide by hanging\", however in order to come to a definite conclusion he insisted to be given access to the report of the first autopsy, something that never happened. Finally on demand of Meinhof's attorney Klaus Croissant and the International Committee for Political Prisoners, an international investigation commission was created in order to examine the conditions surrounding Meinhof's death. Once more the German authorities refused to give the complete (first) autopsy report to the commission, hindering their investigation. In 1978 the committee published its report, concluding that: \"The formal claim that Ulrike Meinhof committed suicide by hanging is unfounded, given the fact that the investigation results reasonably converge to the conclusion that she could not hang herself. Most probably Ulrike Meinhof was already dead before she was hanged and there are warning signs indicating the involvement of a third party regarding her death.\"", "The circumstances around Meinhof's death have been disputed by people close to her, including many of Meinhof's relatives, friends, lawyers, and comrades, presenting various arguments. There are inquiries regarding the procedure followed by the authorities, including the autopsy reports and the findings of the international commission. Some of them are: Some other questions still remain, like: Finally there is dispute over the arguments regarding Meinhof's motive. Some of the points usually mentioned are:", "The book \"\" (Better angry than sad) by Alois Prinz was intended as a mainly faithful account of Meinhof's lifestory for adolescents. Meinhof's life has been the subject, to varying degrees of fictionalisation, of several films and stage productions. Treatment in films include Reinhard Hauff's 1986 \"Stammheim\", an account of the Stammheim trial, Margarethe von Trotta's 1981 \"Marianne and Juliane\" and Uli Edel's 2008 film \"The Baader Meinhof Complex\". Stage treatments include the 1990 opera \"Ulrike Meinhof\" by Johann Kresnik, the 1993 play \"Leviathan\" by Dea Loher, the 2005 play \"La extraordinaria muerte de Ulrike M.\" by Spanish playwright Carlos Be and the 2006 play \"\" by Austrian playwright Elfriede Jelinek. The 1981 French movie \"Birgitt Haas Must Be Killed\" is inspired by Meinhof's death. In 1978 Dario Fo and Franca Rame wrote the monologue \"Moi, Ulrike, je crie...\" The 2010 feature documentary \"Children of the Revolution\" tells Meinhof's story from the perspective of her daughter, journalist and historian Bettina Röhl). \"Subtopia\", a novel published in 2005 by Australian author and academic A.L. McCann, is partially set in Berlin and contains a character who is obsessed with Ulrike Meinhof and another that claims to have attended her funeral. The 2013 book \"Revolutionary Brain\" by Harold Jaffe features a titular section devoted to the brain of Ulrike Meinhof. The 2018 film \"7 Days in Entebbe\" about Operation Entebbe mentions Meinhof as motivation for the participation of the Germans in the hijacking, particularly Brigette Kuhlmann. The film suggests Meinhof was a friend of Kuhlmann and Böse and that a mistake Kuhlmann made resulted in her imprisonment and subsequent death.", "Marianne Faithfull's album \"Broken English\" had the title track dedicated to Meinhof. The anarcho punk band Chumbawamba's 1990 album, \"Slap!\" featured an opening and closing track, both named after Meinhof. The first track was entitled \"Ulrike\" and featured lyrics which directly involved Ulrike Meinhof as the protagonist and the final track was an instrumental reprise of the first track. and was entitled \"Meinhof\". The album's liner notes included information and an article relating to the song Ulrike. Electronica act Doris Days created a track entitled \"To Ulrike M.\", in which there is a passage spoken in German throughout the song, presumably an archived audio file from Ulrike Meinhof herself. This track has since been remixed by other electronica acts like Zero 7, Kruder & Dorfmeister, and The Amalgamation of Soundz. The German duo Andreas Ammer and F.M. Einheit released an album in 1996 entitled \"Deutsche Krieger\", a substantial portion of which consists of audio recordings of and about Ulrike Meinhof. Der Plan, the electronic music group from Düsseldorf published in 2004 the song \"Ulrike\", as part of the Die Verschwörung album. London-based experimental group Cindytalk have an electronic side-project called Bambule, named after the Meinhof film.", "Works of the Red Army Faction", "Books Films", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Rio 2016 qualification controversy.", "Records.", "Personal records.", "In-line skating and cycling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "As a junior, Sáblíková already achieved some notable results during international tournaments. In 2005, she came seventh in the 5000 m during the World Single Distance Championships. On 18 November 2005, she skated the 3000 m junior world record 4:00.69 in Salt Lake City. She was Czech youth champion in 1999, 2001 and 2004. In the 2006 European allround championships in Hamar, she finished fourth overall, placing third at the 3000 m and winning the 5000 m. In the 5000 m, she surprisingly beat favorite Claudia Pechstein. At the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, she finished fourth in the 5000 m behind Clara Hughes, Pechstein, and Cindy Klassen. During her race against Klassen she was more than three seconds faster in the last round, but eventually missed the bronze medal by a second. Because of Sáblíková's results, her position on the all-time world ranking, the Adelskalender, increased from the 94th to the 15th place within a year. In March 2006, she skated a world record at the 10,000 m, beating Clara Hughes's best time by more than 11 seconds. The next year she won her first major tournament, the 2007 European Speed Skating Championships in Collalbo, with an outdoor world record samalog score 162.954 points. She won both the 3000 m and the 5000 m in outdoor world record times. She did not perform as well at the World allround championships in Heerenveen, where she finished fifth, but she managed to win the 3000 and 5000 m events at the 2006–07 Speed Skating World Cup. At the end of the season she won two gold medals at the 2007 World Single Distance Speed Skating Championships in Salt Lake City, in the 3000 m and 5000 m events. At those Championships, she set a new world record of 6:45.61 in the 5000 m event, 1.3 seconds faster than the previous record of Claudia Pechstein. On 15 March 2007, Sáblíková became the first female speed skater to skate a 10,000 m below 14 minutes when she went 13:48.33 in Calgary. She improved her own one-year-old world record by almost 20 seconds and this result would have belonged to top 100 men all time. In December 2007, she took 18th place in the poll European Sportsperson of the Year of the Polish Press Agency. She also won the title of the Sportsperson of the Year of the Czech Republic twice – in 2007 and 2009. One week before the start of the 2007–08 World Cup season, Sáblíková fell during her training, and fractured her humerus and stretched ligaments. Although the injury limited her training in the beginning, she had an excellent season, and finally got the title with 6 out of 7 world cup wins (including the final) at the 3000 m and 5000 m distances. She also finished 9th at the 1500 m. On 13 January, she took bronze at the 2008 European allround championships in Kolomna, Russia. On 12 January, the first day of the event, she improved her personal best at the 500 m distance, her weakest distance, with a time of 40.58 seconds. However, it was still too slow to compete with the best skaters, and she finished 3rd despite winning the 3000 m and 5000 m distances. On 10 February she finished 5th at the World Allround Championships in Heerenveen, again winning the 5000 m, but with a poor 500 m result. On 9 March 2008 she won gold at the 5000 m at the World Single Distance Championships in Nagano, Japan. However, she was very disappointed with her 3000 m performance two days before, when she finished 4th. On 11 January 2009 she repeated her previous bronze performance at the European allround championships despite her traditionally weak performance at the 500 m and surprising 4th place at the 3000 m. However, on 8 February she took gold at the World allround championships in Hamar after setting a new Czech national record in the 500 m at 40.28 seconds and winning the 3000 m and 5000 m distances. It was the first world allround medal in her career. On 1 February 2009, Sáblíková and her fellow Czech competitors Andrea Jirků and Karolína Erbanová won the team pursuit competition at the World Cup Final in Erfurt, setting new Czech national record of 3:05.32. After the leading Dutch team did not finish the race, they also won the whole 2008/2009 World Cup. At the Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver in 2010, Sáblíková won three medals, two golds (3000 and 5000 metres) and one bronze (1500 metres). She thus became the first Czech to win two gold medals in the same Winter Olympic Games. At the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi, Sáblíková successfully defended her title in the 5000 meter, while also winning a silver medal in the 3000 meter. Martina Sáblíková and Milan Sáblík are a rare example of sister and brother both holding world records in the same sport at the same time; Martina holds the (senior) world records in the 5000 m and 10,000 m events (both from March 2007) and in the 3000 m event (from March 2019), while Milan shared the junior world record for the team pursuit with fellow Czech junior skaters Pavel Kulma and Zdeněk Haselberger (from November 2007 till March 2010). Sáblíková has been successful despite there being no speed skating rinks in the Czech Republic. Because of this, Sáblíková's coach Petr Novák had to devise several unorthodox but successful training methods.", "As an international calibre cyclist, Sáblíková has long harboured the dream of competing in the Olympic time trial event at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro. After finishing 12th in 2015 in the women's time trial at the UCI World Road Championships in Richmond, U.S. (9th in the reduced rankings), Sáblíková was thought to have secured a place at Rio 2016. However, when the UCI published the list of nations that had qualified for this event at Rio 2016, the Czech Republic was not among them. The UCI used an interpretation of the qualification rules where an athlete also has to qualify for the road race. She decided to travel to Rio in the hope that the decision might be overturned, but did not compete.", "", "She is currently in 2nd position in the adelskalender.", "Sáblíková also competed in several inline speed skating and cycling races as a part of her summer preparation for the skating season. In 2004, she finished 16th at the Junior Inline Speed Skating World Championships on the 20 km distance in Sulmona. In 2006, she won the marathon (42.2 km) at the Czech Inline Speed Skating Championships in Plzeň and in 2007 the halfmarathon (21.6 km) in Ostrava. In 2007, she also took bronze in individual time trial on the 24 km distance at the European U23-Junior Road Cycling Championships in Sofia and another bronze on the 18 km distance at the Czech Road Cycling Championships in Žďár nad Sázavou. In 2010, she took gold at the Czech Road and Time Trial National Championship." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Russian fort.", "Soviet regional capital.", "Collapse of Russian authority.", "First Chechen War.", "Second Chechen War.", "After the wars.", "Developments.", "Akhmat Tower.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "City divisions.", "Culture and education.", "Transportation.", "Train.", "Tram and trolleybuses.", "Airport.", "Sharing system.", "Sports.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In Russian, \"Grozny\" means \"fearsome\", \"menacing\", or \"redoubtable\", the same word as in Ivan Grozny (Ivan the Terrible). While the official name in Chechen is the same, informally the city is known as \"\" (\"\"), which literally means \"the city () on the Sunzha River ()\". In 1996, during the First Chechen War, the Chechen separatists renamed the city Dzhokhar-Ghala (), or Dzhokhar/Djohar for short, after Dzhokhar Dudayev, the first President of the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria. In December 2005, the Chechen parliament voted to rename the city \"Akhmadkala\" (after Akhmad Kadyrov)—a proposition which was rejected by his son Ramzan Kadyrov, the prime minister and later President of the republic.", "", "The fortress of Groznaya (; lit. \"fearsome\") (a feminine form of Grozny, as the word fortress () is feminine in Russian) was founded in 1818 as a Russian military outpost on the Sunzha River by general Aleksey Petrovich Yermolov. As the fort was being built the workers were fired upon by the Chechens. The Russians solved the problem by placing a cannon at a carefully chosen point outside the walls. When night fell and the Chechens came out of their hiding places to drag the gun away all the other guns opened up with grapeshot. When the Chechens recovered their senses and began to carry away the bodies the guns fired again. When it was over 200 dead were counted. Thus did the 'fearsome' fort receive its baptism of fire. It was a prominent defense center during the Caucasian War. Russian poets Alexander Griboedov, Alexander Polezhayev, Mikhail Lermontov, the classic of Russian literature Leo Tolstoy, the Decembrist and writer Alexander Bestuzhev and other famous figures of Russian culture visited the fortress. After the annexation of the region by the Russian Empire, the military use of the old fortress was obsolete and on ) it was granted town status and renamed Grozny (as the word town () is masculine in Russian). As most of the residents there were Terek Cossacks, the town grew slowly until the development of oil reserves in the early 20th century. The founder of the Nobel prize Alfred Nobel took part in the development of the oil industry of the city of Grozny, as well as members of the Rothschild family. In addition to the Nobels and Rothschilds, British companies played an important role in the oil industry from 1893 onward. Alfred Stuart, an English engineer, completed the first well in Grozny by drilling in 1893 the largest oil field in the Caucasus region (outside the Baku district). Eleven firms drilled 116 wells before 1900. This encouraged the rapid development of industry and petrochemical production. In addition to the oil drilled in the city itself, the city became a geographical center of Russia's network of oil fields, and in 1893 became part of the Transcaucasia — Russia Proper railway. The result was the population almost doubled from 15,600 in 1897 to 30,400 in 1913. In early 1914, the largest oil company Royal Dutch Shell was established in the city thus making Grozny one of the largest industrial centers of the Caucasus.", "One day after the October Revolution, on November 8, 1917, the Bolsheviks headed by N. Anisimov seized Grozny. As the Russian Civil War escalated, the Proletariat formed the 12th Red Army, and the garrison held out against numerous attacks by Terek Cossacks from August 11 to November 12, 1918. However, with the arrival of Denikin's armies, the Bolsheviks were forced to withdraw and Grozny was captured on February 4, 1919, by the White Army. Underground operations were carried out, but only the arrival of the Caucasus front of the Red Army in 1920 allowed the city to permanently end up with the Russian SFSR on March 17. Simultaneously it became part of the Soviet Mountain Republic, which was formed on January 20, 1921, and was the capital of the Chechen National Okrug inside it. On November 30, 1922, the mountain republic was dissolved, and the national okrug became the Chechen Autonomous Oblast (Chechen AO) with Grozny as the administrative center. At this time most of the population was still Russian, but of Cossack descent. As Cossacks were viewed as a potential threat to the Soviet nation, Moscow actively encouraged the migration of Chechens into the city from the mountains. In 1934 the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Oblast was formed, becoming the Chechen-Ingush ASSR in 1936. Due to its oil, Grozny with Maikop were the main strategic objectives of the German Fall Blau operation in summer of 1942. \"See Battle of the Caucasus\". The failure to take Grozny was a major defeat for Germany and was a factor in holding fast at Battle of Stalingrad, as that city could have served as a base from which to take Grozny or cut off oil supplies up the Volga River from Astrakhan. The failure to prioritize Grozny, even transferring critical Panzer divisions north to the Siege of Leningrad, was a major factor in Adolf Hitler taking operational level control of the Wehrmacht from his generals who had repeatedly prioritized the two major cities over the oil supplies - against Hitler's express orders. Soviet doctrine however never failed to prioritize the food of the Ukraine nor the oil of the Caucasus, which resulted in drastic action after Germany's expulsion/retreat in 1943. In 1944, the entire population of Chechens and Ingush was deported after rebelling against Soviet rule. Large numbers of people who were not deemed fit for transport were 'liquidated' on the spot, and the adverse situation with transport and the stay in Siberia caused many deaths as well. According to internal NKVD data, a total of 144,704 died in 1944–1948 alone (death rate of 23.5% per all groups). Authors such as Alexander Nekrich, John Dunlop and Moshe Gammer, based on census data from the period estimate a death toll of about 170,000–200,000 among Chechens alone, thus ranging from over a third of the total Chechen population that was deported to nearly half dying during those 4 years (rates for other groups for those four years hover around 20%). All traces of them in the city, including books and graveyards, were destroyed by the NKVD troops. The act was recognized by the European Parliament as an act of genocide in 2004. Grozny became the administrative center of Grozny Oblast of the Russian SFSR, and the city at the time was again wholly Russian. In 1957, the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was restored, and the Chechens were allowed to return. The return of the Chechens to Grozny, which had been lacking of Nakh for thirteen years, would cause massive disruptions to the social, economic and political systems of what had been a Russian city for the period until their return. This caused a self-feeding cycle of ethnic conflict between the two groups, both believing the other's presence in the city was illegitimate. Once again migration of non-Russians into Grozny continued whilst the ethnic Russian population, in turn, moved to other parts of the USSR, notably the Baltic states, after the inter-ethnic conflict broke briefly out in 1958. According to sociologist Georgy Derluguyan, the Checheno-Ingush Republic's economy was divided into two spheres—much like French settler-ruled Algeria—and the Russian sphere had all the jobs with higher salaries, while non-Russians were systematically kept out of all government positions. Russians (as well as Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in education, health, oil, machinery, and social services. Non-Russians (excluding Ukrainians and Armenians) worked in agriculture, construction, a long host of undesirable jobs, as well as the so-called \"informal sector\" (i.e., illegal, due to the mass discrimination in the legal sector). At the same time a great deal of development occurred in the city. Like many other Soviet cities, the Stalinist style of architecture was prevalent during this period, with apartments in the centre as well as administrative buildings including the massive Council of Ministers and the Grozny University buildings being constructed in Grozny. Later projects included the high-rise apartment blocks prominent in many Soviet cities, as well as a city airport. In 1989, the population of the city was almost 400,000 people.", "After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Grozny became the seat of a separatist government led by Dzhokhar Dudayev. According to some, many of the remaining Russian and other non-Chechen residents fled or were expelled by groups of militants, adding to a harassment and discrimination from the new authorities. These events are perceived by some as an act of an ethnic cleansing of non-Chechens, which has been reflected in the materials of General Prosecutor's office of the Russian Federation. This view is disputed by authors, such as Russian economists Boris Lvin and Andrei Illarionov, who argue that Russian emigration from the area was no more intense than in other regions of Russia at the time. According to this view of the ethnic situation in Ichkeria, the primary cause of Russian emigration was the extensive bombing of Grozny (where 4 out of 5, or nearly 200,000 Russians in Chechnya lived before the war) by the Russian military during the First Chechen War. The covert Russian attempts of overthrowing Dudayev by means of armed Chechen opposition forces resulted in repeated failed assaults on the city. Originally, Moscow had been backing the political opposition of Umar Avturkhanov \"peacefully\" (i.e. without supplying the opposition with weapons and encouraging them to try a coup). However, this changed in 1994, after the coups in neighboring Georgia and Azerbaijan (both of which Moscow was involved with), and Russia encouraged armed opposition and occasionally assisted. In August 1994 Avturkhanov attacked Grozny, but was repelled first by Chechen citizens who were then joined by Grozny government troops and Russian helicopters covered his retreat. On September 28, one of these interfering helicopters was shot down and its Russian pilot was held as a prisoner-of-war by the Chechen government. The last one on 26 November 1994 ended with capture of 21 Russian Army tank crew members, secretly hired as mercenaries by the FSK (former KGB, soon renamed FSB); their capture was sometimes cited as one of the reasons of Boris Yeltsin's decision to launch the open intervention. In the meantime, Grozny airport and other targets were bombed by unmarked Russian aircraft.", "During the First Chechen War, Grozny was the site of an intense battle lasting from December 1994 to February 1995 and ultimately ending with the capture of the city by the Russian military. Intense fighting and carpet bombing carried out by the Russian Air Force destroyed much of the city. Thousands of combatants on both sides died in the fighting, alongside civilians, many of which were reportedly ethnic Russians; unclaimed bodies were later collected and buried in mass graves on the city outskirts. The main federal military base in Chechnya was located in the area of Grozny air base. Chechen guerrilla units operating from nearby mountains managed to harass and demoralize the Russian Army by means of guerilla tactics and raids, such as the attack on Grozny in March 1996, which added to political and public pressure for a withdrawal of Russian troops. In August 1996, a raiding force of 1,500 to 3,000 militants recaptured the city in a surprise attack. They surrounded and routed its entire garrison of 10,000 MVD troops, while fighting off the Russian Army units from the Khankala base. The battle ended with a final ceasefire and Grozny was once again in the hands of Chechen separatists. The name was changed to Djohar in 1997 by the President of the separatist Ichkeria republic, Aslan Maskhadov. By this time most of the remaining Russian minority fled.", "Grozny was once again the epicenter of fighting after the outbreak of the Second Chechen War, which further caused thousands of fatalities. During the early phase of the Russian siege on Grozny on October 25, 1999, Russian forces launched five SS-21 ballistic missiles at the crowded central bazaar and a maternity ward, killing more than 140 people and injuring hundreds. During the massive shelling of the city that followed, most of the Russian artillery were directed toward the upper floors of the buildings; although this caused massive destruction of infrastructure, civilian casualties were much less than in the first battles. The final seizure of the city was set in early February 2000, when the Russian military lured the besieged militants to a promised safe passage. Seeing no build-up of forces outside, the militants agreed. One day prior to the planned evacuation, the Russian Army mined the path between the city and the village of Alkhan-Kala and concentrated most firepower on that point. As a result, both the city mayor and military commander were killed; a number of other prominent separatist leaders were also killed or wounded, including Shamil Basayev and several hundred rank-and-file militants. Afterwards, the Russians slowly entered the empty city and on February 6 raised the Russian flag in the centre. Many buildings and even whole areas of the city were systematically dynamited. A month later, it was declared safe to allow the residents to return to their homes, although demolition continued for some time. In 2003 the United Nations called Grozny the most destroyed city on earth.", "The federal government representatives of Chechnya are based in Grozny. Since 2003, the city has been rebuilt from scratch, and hardly any destroyed buildings now remain there. Out of several dozens of industrial enterprises, three have been partially rebuilt — the Grozny Machine-Building Factory, the \"Krasny Molot\" (Red Hammer) and \"Transmash\" factories. Although most of the city's infrastructure was destroyed during the war, the city's sewage, water, electricity and heating systems have since been repaired, along with of roads, 13 bridges and some 900 shops. Before the war, Grozny had about 79,000 apartments, and the city authorities expected to be able to restore about 45,000 apartments; the rest were in buildings that were completely destroyed. Railway connection was restored in 2005, and Grozny's airport was reopened in 2007 with three weekly flights to Moscow. In 2009 the IAC gave Grozny's Severny airport the international certificate after checking and evaluating the airport's airworthiness. On November 16, 2009, the airport had its first international flight, taking pilgrims on Hajj to Saudi Arabia via a Boeing 747. After four years of construction, the Akhmad Kadyrov Mosque was formally opened to the public on October 16, 2008, and is considered one of the largest mosques in Europe. In 2009, the city of Grozny was honored by the UN Human Settlements Program for transforming the war-scarred city and providing new homes for thousands.", "", "In 2013, the Akhmat Tower was proposed. Its renders were released to the public, the design was based on traditional military towers, but many disliked the design. In 2015, the tower was redesigned, it is estimated to be completed in 2020. Construction started in 2016.", "Grozny is the capital of the republic. Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is incorporated as the city of republic significance of Grozny—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, the city of republic significance of Grozny is incorporated as Grozny Urban Okrug. The city also serves as the administrative center of Groznensky Municipal District, but not of the corresponding administrative district.", "For administrative purposes, the city is divided into four city districts: Leninsky, Zavodskoy, Staropromyslovsky, and Oktyabrsky. All of the districts are residential, but Staropromyslovsky District is also the city's main illegal oil drilling area, and Oktyabrsky District hosts most of the city's industry.", "Grozny is known for its modern architecture and as a spa town and although nearly all the town was destroyed or seriously damaged during the Chechen Wars, it has since been entirely rebuilt. It is home to Chechen State University and FC Terek Grozny, which after a fifteen-year absence from its hometown returned to Grozny in March 2008. Also in Grozny is Chechen State Pedagogical Institute.", "", "The first train pulled into the Grozny Railway station on May 1, 1893.", "On November 5, 1932, the Grozny Tram system was opened to the public, and by 1990 it was long, with 107 new Russian-built KTM-5 trams that it received in the late 1980s, and two depots. The Grozny Trolleybus system began operation on December 31, 1975, and by 1990 was approximately long with 58 buses and one depot. Both versions of transport came under difficult pressure in the early 1990s, with frequent theft of equipment, staff not being properly paid and resultant strikes. A major planned Trolleybus extension route to the airport was cancelled. With the outbreak of the First Chechen War both transport services stopped operation. During the destructive battles, the tram tracks were blocked or damaged, and cars and buses were turned into barricades. The trolleybus system was luckier, as most of its equipment, including the depot, survived the war. In 1996 it was visited by specialists from the Vologda Trolleybus Company, who repaired some of the lines, with services planned to be restarted in 1997. However, after they returned, most of the equipment was stolen. The surviving buses were transported to Volzhsky where they were repaired and used in the new trolleybus system there. After the Second Chechen War, little of the infrastructure of both systems was left. The Ministry of Transport of the Chechen Republic, created in 2002, decided not to rebuild the tram system (rated as too expensive, and no longer answering to the city's needs, as it had since lost half of its population). The trolleybus system however was more fortunate, and despite delays, reopened in 2012, but is a fraction of its former operational size.", "The city is served by Grozny Airport.", "In 2018 the \"Delimobil\" car sharing company officially provided the capital of the Checen Republic with 30 Hyundai Solaris. To drive the automobiles, the user has to book them through the app of the owning company. In the same year the \"Delisamokat\" provided the city with 120 electric scooters and some scooter stations.", "Grozny is home to Russian Football Premier League club FC Akhmat Grozny. After winning promotion by coming 2nd in the Russian First Division in 2007, Akhmat Grozny finished 10th in the Russian Premier League in 2008. The team still plays in the top tier. The club is owned by Ramzan Kadyrov and play in the recently built city's Akhmat Stadium. Ruud Gullit was the team manager from the beginning of the season 2011, but was later sacked by the club in June.", "", "Grozny has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfa\") with hot summers and cold winters.", "Grozny is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ground-based imagery." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Violent gas collisions that produced supersonic shock fronts in a dying star are seen in a detailed image from NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. The object is sometimes called the Rotten Egg Nebula as it contains a relatively large amount of sulphur. The densest parts of the nebula are composed of material ejected recently by the central star and accelerated in opposite directions. This material, shown as yellow in the image, is zooming away at speeds up to one and a half million kilometers per hour (one million miles per hour). Most of the star's original mass is now contained in these bipolar gas structures. A team of Spanish and US astronomers used NASA's Hubble Space Telescope to study how the gas stream rams into the surrounding material, shown in blue. They believe that such interactions dominate the formation process in planetary nebulae. Due to the high speed of the gas, shock-fronts are formed on impact and heat the surrounding gases. Although computer calculations had predicted the existence and structure of such shocks for some time, previous observations had not been able to prove the theory. This new Hubble image used filters that only let through light from ionized hydrogen and nitrogen atoms. Astronomers were able to distinguish the warmest parts of the gas heated by the violent shocks and found that they form a complex double-bubble shape. The bright yellow-orange colors in the picture show how dense, high-speed gas is flowing from the star, like supersonic speeding bullets ripping through a medium in opposite directions. The central star itself is hidden in the dusty band at the center. Much of the gas flow observed today seems to stem from a sudden acceleration that took place about 800 years ago. Astronomers believe that 1,000 years from now, the Calabash Nebula will become a fully developed planetary nebula.", "In wide field images, the Calabash nebula is visible near the bright planetary nebula NGC 2438 in deep photographs. Although the Calabash Nebula is at the same distance as M46, NGC 2438 is a larger object in the foreground." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "University of Glasgow.", "Music.", "Other cathedrals in Glasgow." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The history of the cathedral is linked with that of the city, and is allegedly located where the patron saint of Glasgow, Saint Mungo, built his church. The tomb of the saint is in the lower crypt. Walter Scott's novel \"Rob Roy\" gives an account of the kirk. Built before the Reformation from the late 12th century onwards and serving as the seat of the Bishop and later the Archbishop of Glasgow, the building is a superb example of Scottish Gothic architecture. It is also one of the few Scottish medieval churches (and the only medieval cathedral on the Scottish mainland) to have survived the Reformation not unroofed. James IV ratified the treaty of Perpetual Peace with England at the high altar on 10 December 1502. The cathedral and the nearby castle played a part in the battles of Glasgow in 1544 and 1560. Twenty years after the Reformation, on 22 April 1581 James VI granted the income from a number of lands to Glasgow town for the kirk's upkeep. He traced the ownership of these lands to money left by Archbishop Gavin Dunbar as a legacy for repairing the cathedral. The town council agreed on 27 February 1583 to take responsibility for repairing the kirk, while recording they had no obligation to do so. The church survives because of this resolution. Inside, the rood screen is also a very rare survivor in Scottish churches. The cathedral has been host to number of congregations and continues as a place of active Christian worship, hosting a Church of Scotland congregation. The current minister (since April 2019) is the Rev Mark E. Johnstone DL MA BD, who was previously minister at St. Mary's Church, Kirkintilloch. The building itself is in the ownership of The Crown, is maintained by Historic Scotland, and is a popular destination for tourists.", "The University of Glasgow originated in classes held within the precinct of the cathedral. William Turnbull, Bishop of Glasgow was primarily responsible for the foundation of the university around the year 1451. In 1460, the university moved out of the cathedral to an adjacent site on the east side of the High Street, known locally as the college, and moved to its current home on Gilmorehill in 1870.", "Glasgow Cathedral Choir is a professional adult ensemble, singing at the two regular Sunday services each week. The current director of music is Andrew Forbes and the cathedral organist is Malcolm Sim. The four-manual Father Willis organ was installed in 1879, and has been maintained by Harrison & Harrison since they rebuilt the instrument in 1996.", "Other cathedrals in Glasgow are St. Andrew's Cathedral (Roman Catholic), St. Mary's Cathedral (Scottish Episcopal) and St Luke's Cathedral (Greek Orthodox)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Description.", "The Explorer ́s Dome.", "The White Gothic Dome.", "The Dome of Pagados.", "The Riverbed.", "The Tall Gothic Dome.", "The Labyrinth Dome.", "Fauna." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The entrance to the cave had long been known to local people. They used it as a shelter during bad weather and called it Izbica. But it was only on 22 June 1932 that the 18-year-old Michal Bacúrik discovered the cave. While he was doing a detailed survey of the entrance, he found a narrow fissure to the cave itself. Through this fissure he noticed a strong draft and bats were flying in and out. This made him assume that the cave spaces were located behind this fissure. At this spot the entrance door of today ́s cave is located. After two weeks of digging he was able to enter the first parts of the cave. Soon the speleologists discovered other parts of the cave. The cave was opened to the public in 1950, and in 1972 it was registered as a national monument.", "Up to now, more than 2,700 m of underground passages have been discovered but only 720 m are open to the public. The air temperature varies between 5.8 and 6.4° Celsius. The humidity is between 92 and 94 percent.", "The Explorer ́s Dome is the first dome that is reached by visitors through the artificial passage from the entrance. The dome holds many different forms of sinter decoration like stalactites, stalagmites and sinter columns. The sinter decoration is made from atmospheric water filtering through the cave roof and by precipitation of calcite from water. A one cubic millimeter of dripstone decoration in this cave takes approximately 10 to 15 years to grow.", "The White Gothic Dome is named after the shape of the ceiling which resembles a Gothic vault and also after the characteristic white colour. Because the cave roof is formed from chemically clean white calcite, the decoration has a pure white colour. This white colouring is very specific for the Harmanec cave. If the roof contained different elements of metals it would be more colourful. A sinter waterfall called the \"Tongue of the Mother-in-Law\" can be seen hanging from the ceiling. These parts of the cave as far as the end of the White Gothic Dome were discovered by Michal Bacurik. The other parts were discovered in 1938 by Ondroušek and Kovalčik.", "The Dome of Pagados is the biggest area of the cave open to the public. It is 28m high and consists of different halls. It was named after the big stalagmites in the shape of pagodas which reach between 12 and 15m in height. This part of the cave was flooded many times and the water level lines on the walls are evidence of these floods. On one of the walls of the Dome of Pagados very rich sinter decorations can be found. In the Pease Hall the main feature is a Stone vase, the symbol of the Harmanec cave.", "The Riverbed is the lowest part of the cave that is open to the public and is located 30m below the cave entrance. Above this room lies a 70m layer of limestone. The Riverbed was named after the shape of this passages which are proof of the erosion activities of the underground waters. Only during spring a lake can be seen on the bottom of the Riverbed.", "The Tall Gothic Dome measures 20m in height. On one of the walls big sinter decorations in the shape of draperies and waterwalls were formed. They are made of soft sinter matter, also known as rockmilk. Rockmilk is a specific cave fill made of crystalline calcite and it contains 40-80 percent water.", "The Labyrinth Dome is 100m in length, 18m in width and 12m in height. It is named after the explorers Bacurik and Babjak who lost their way in this area. The area was formed as a result of the ceiling collapsing.", "Because of the security, stable temperature and optimal humidity, many different animals live in these spaces. The most common animals are bats. They generally stay in the cave in the winter months and during their hibernation they subsist on the fat stored underneath their skin. In the Harmanec cave 10 bat species have been identified so far. The most common of these species are the Greater Mouse-Eared bat and the Lesser Mouse-Eared bat. They can be found in groups of up to 1200 individuals. Invertebrates can also be found in these underground areas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Racing career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Schneider was born in Elm, the daughter of a shoemaker. Her mother died of cancer when Schneider was a teenager: as a result she put her ski career on hold and dropped out of school to look after the family home.", "Schneider made her World Cup debut at the age of 20. Schneider won the overall alpine skiing World Cup three times and eleven discipline World Cups in Slalom and Giant Slalom, along with 55 World Cup races (number four all-time among women to Moser-Pröll, Vonn and Shiffrin). She also won five medals at the Winter Olympics including 3 golds (Slalom and Giant Slalom at Calgary in 1988 and Slalom at Lillehammer in 1994), and six medals at the World Championships including 3 more golds (Giant Slalom at Crans-Montana in 1987 and Vail in 1989; Slalom at Saalbach in 1991). During the 1988–89 season she won 14 World Cup races, a record for single season wins that stood until Shiffrin beat that record in the 2018–19 season. In April 1995, after eleven successful seasons, she announced her retirement. Today she runs a ski and snowboard school in her home village of Elm as well as a sport equipment shop in Glarus. Vreni Schneider is praised in the Half Man Half Biscuit song 'Uffington Wassail' thus: \"Vreni Schneider – you’re my downhill lady! Vreni Schneider – you’re the queen of the slopes!\" The song is on the album \"Trouble Over Bridgwater\" from the year 2000." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Choir.", "Concerts and concert tours.", "Festivals.", "Main projects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Boni Pueri (\"Good Boys\"), the Czech Boys Choir, has held more than 2,500 concerts in North America, Asia, and Europe, produced 13 recordings, and been invited to participate in 20 other recordings with Supraphon, EMI, BMG, and ArcoDiva. In addition, Boni Pueri has been featured on a number of television and radio broadcasts. The choirs are invited to perform regularly with eminent artists, including José Carreras, and with other important ensembles and orchestras around the world. Boni Pueri is also a private music school with 350 students and since 2006 has been under the patronage of the Czech Ministry of Education. They are a cultural ambassador of the \"European Federation of Choirs of the Union\".", "Boni Pueri has been privileged to perform in some of the world's great concert halls including Grace Cathedral in San Francisco, Winspear Centre in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, the Tokyo Bunka Kaikan, Seoul Arts Centre, Concertgebouw in Amsterdam, De Doelen in Rotterdam, Basilica di S. Maria Maggiore in Bergamo, Italy, Meistersingerhalle in Nuremberg, and the Rudolfinum Dvořák Hall in Prague.", "The choirs have appeared at numerous international music festivals including The Prague Spring Festival (1994, 1995, 1998, 2004, 2005), Europalia (Brussels 1998), AmericaFest International Festival for Boys’ & Men’s Choirs (Minneapolis 1998, 2002), and Jeonju International Sori Festival (South Korea 2002). In July 2004, Boni Pueri became the first European organization to host the highly acclaimed World Festival of Singing for Men and Boys and did so again in 2008. Individual members of Boni Pueri are often invited to be soloists in other performances, including The Magic Flute at the Teatro dell'Opera di Roma in 2004.", "Boni Pueri performs frequently with the Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, including a notable performance of King Roger by Karol Szymanowski in 2007. In 2006, the choirs were invited to open the Orchestra's Choral Concert Series in Dvořák Hall. Other important projects of recent years have included performances of Bach's St Matthew Passion, the Mozart Requiem, the Fauré Requiem, a theatrical staging of Hans Krása's Terezín children's opera Brundibár, and a premiere recording of music by the baroque composers Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer, Pavel Josef Vejvanovský, and Jan Dismas Zelenka. In 2003, Boni Pueri's recording of Zelenka's Sub olea pacis et palma virtutis received the prestigious Cannes Classical Award, and in 2004, their recording of Benjamin Britten's A Ceremony of Carols was named as the Recording of the Month." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Original conversation(s).", "Basis.", "Empirical evidence.", "Electromagnetic emissions.", "Direct planetary observation.", "Conjectures about interstellar probes.", "Searches for stellar-scale artifacts.", "Hypothetical explanations for the paradox.", "Extraterrestrial life is rare or non-existent.", "No other intelligent species have arisen.", "Intelligent alien species lack advanced technologies.", "Water world hypothesis.", "It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy itself.", "It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others.", "Periodic extinction by natural events.", "Intelligent civilizations are too far apart in space or time.", "Lack of resources to spread physically throughout the galaxy.", "Lack of desire to live on planets.", "It is cheaper to transfer information for exploration.", "Human beings have not existed long enough.", "We are not listening properly.", "Civilizations broadcast detectable radio signals only for a brief period of time.", "They tend to isolate themselves.", "Colonization is not the norm.", "They have only settled part of the galaxy.", "They are too alien.", "Everyone is listening but no one is transmitting.", "Earth is deliberately not contacted.", "Earth is purposely isolated (planetarium hypothesis).", "It is dangerous to communicate.", "They are here unacknowledged." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Fermi was not the first to ask the question. An earlier implicit mention was by Konstantin Tsiolkovsky in an unpublished manuscript from 1933. He noted \"people deny the presence of intelligent beings on the planets of the universe\" because \"(i) if such beings exist they would have visited Earth, and (ii) if such civilizations existed then they would have given us some sign of their existence.\" This was not a paradox for others, who took this to imply the absence of ETs. But it was one for him, since he believed in extraterrestrial life and the possibility of space travel. Therefore, he proposed what is now known as the zoo hypothesis and speculated that mankind is not yet ready for higher beings to contact us. That Tsiolkovsky himself may not have been the first to discover the paradox is suggested by his above-mentioned reference to other people's reasons for denying the existence of extraterrestrial civilizations. In 1975, Michael H. Hart published a detailed examination of the paradox, one of the first to do so. He argued that if intelligent extraterrestrials exist, and are capable of space travel, then the galaxy could have been colonized in a time much less than that of the age of the Earth. However, we see no evidence they have been here, which Hart called \"Fact A\". Other names closely related to Fermi's question (\"Where are they?\") include the Great Silence, and \"silentium universi\" (Latin for \"silence of the universe\"), though these only refer to one portion of the Fermi Paradox, that we see no evidence of other civilizations.", "At Los Alamos National Laboratory in the summer of 1950, Fermi and co-workers Emil Konopinski, Edward Teller, and Herbert York had one or several casual lunchtime conversation(s). Herb York does not remember a previous conversation, although he says it makes sense given how all three later reacted to Fermi's outburst. Teller remembers seven or eight of them at the table, so he may well be remembering a different previous conversation. In one version, the three men discussed a spate of recent UFO reports while walking to lunch. Konopinski remembered mentioning a", "The Fermi paradox is a conflict between the argument that scale and probability seem to favor intelligent life being common in the universe, and the total lack of evidence of intelligent life having ever arisen anywhere other than on the Earth. The first aspect of the Fermi paradox is a function of the scale or the large numbers involved: there are an estimated 200–400 billion stars in the Milky Way (2–4 × 10) and 70 sextillion (7×10) in the observable universe. Even if intelligent life occurs on only a minuscule percentage of planets around these stars, there might still be a great number of extant civilizations, and if the percentage were high enough it would produce a significant number of extant civilizations in the Milky Way. This assumes the mediocrity principle, by which the Earth is a typical planet. The second aspect of the Fermi paradox is the argument of probability: given intelligent life's ability to overcome scarcity, and its tendency to colonize new habitats, it seems possible that at least some civilizations would be technologically advanced, seek out new resources in space, and colonize their own star system and, subsequently, surrounding star systems. Since there is no significant evidence on Earth, or elsewhere in the known universe, of other intelligent life after 13.8 billion years of the universe's history, there is a conflict requiring a resolution. Some examples of possible resolutions are that intelligent life is rarer than we think, that our assumptions about the general development or behavior of intelligent species are flawed, or, more radically, that our current scientific understanding of the nature of the universe itself is quite incomplete. The Fermi paradox can be asked in two ways. The first is, \"Why are no aliens or their artifacts found here on Earth, or in the Solar System?\" If interstellar travel is possible, even the \"slow\" kind nearly within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the galaxy. This is relatively brief on a geological scale, let alone a cosmological one. Since there are many stars older than the Sun, and since intelligent life might have evolved earlier elsewhere, the question then becomes why the galaxy has not been colonized already. Even if colonization is impractical or undesirable to all alien civilizations, large-scale \"exploration\" of the galaxy could be possible by probes. These might leave detectable artifacts in the Solar System, such as old probes or evidence of mining activity, but none of these have been observed. The second form of the question is \"Why do we see no signs of intelligence elsewhere in the universe?\" This version does not assume interstellar travel, but includes other galaxies as well. For distant galaxies, travel times may well explain the lack of alien visits to Earth, but a sufficiently advanced civilization could potentially be observable over a significant fraction of the size of the observable universe. Even if such civilizations are rare, the scale argument indicates they should exist somewhere at some point during the history of the universe, and since they could be detected from far away over a considerable period of time, many more potential sites for their origin are within range of our observation. It is unknown whether the paradox is stronger for our galaxy or for the universe as a whole.", "There are two parts of the Fermi paradox that rely on empirical evidence—that there are many potential habitable planets, and that we see no evidence of life. The first point, that many suitable planets exist, was an assumption in Fermi's time but is now supported by the discovery that exoplanets are common. Current models predict billions of habitable worlds in our galaxy. The second part of the paradox, that we see no evidence of extraterrestrial life, is also an active field of scientific research. This includes both efforts to find any indication of life, and efforts specifically directed to finding intelligent life. These searches have been made since 1960, and several are ongoing. Although astronomers do not usually search for extraterrestrials, they have observed phenomena that they could not immediately explain without positing an intelligent civilization as the source. For example, pulsars, when first discovered in 1967, were called little green men (LGM) because of the precise repetition of their pulses. In all cases, explanations with no need for intelligent life have been found for such observations, but the possibility of discovery remains. Proposed examples include asteroid mining that would change the appearance of debris disks around stars, or spectral lines from nuclear waste disposal in stars.", "Radio technology and the ability to construct a radio telescope are presumed to be a natural advance for technological species, theoretically creating effects that might be detected over interstellar distances. The careful searching for non-natural radio emissions from space may lead to the detection of alien civilizations. Sensitive alien observers of the Solar System, for example, would note unusually intense radio waves for a G2 star due to Earth's television and telecommunication broadcasts. In the absence of an apparent natural", "Exoplanet detection and classification is a very active sub-discipline in astronomy, and the first possibly terrestrial planet discovered within a star's habitable zone was found in 2007. New refinements in exoplanet detection methods,", "Self-replicating probes could exhaustively explore a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as little as a million years. If even a single civilization in the Milky Way attempted this, such probes could spread throughout the entire galaxy. Another speculation for contact with an alien probe—one that would be trying to find human beings—is an alien Bracewell probe. Such a hypothetical device would be an autonomous space probe whose purpose is to seek out and communicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to von Neumann probes, which are usually described as purely exploratory). These were proposed", "In 1959, Freeman Dyson observed that every developing human civilization constantly increases its energy consumption, and, he conjectured, a civilization might try to harness a large part of the energy produced by a star. He proposed that a Dyson sphere could be a possible means: a shell or cloud of objects enclosing a star to absorb and utilize as much radiant energy as possible. Such a feat of astroengineering would drastically alter the observed spectrum of the star involved, changing it at least partly from the normal emission lines of a natural stellar atmosphere", "", "Those who think that intelligent extraterrestrial life is (nearly) impossible argue that the conditions needed for the evolution of life—or at least the evolution of biological complexity—are rare or even unique to Earth. Under this assumption, called the rare Earth hypothesis, a rejection of the mediocrity principle, complex multicellular life is regarded as exceedingly unusual. The Rare Earth hypothesis argues that the evolution of biological complexity requires a host of fortuitous circumstances, such as a galactic habitable zone, a star and planet(s) having the requisite conditions, such as enough of", "It is possible that even if complex life is common, intelligence (and consequently civilizations) is not. While there are remote sensing techniques that could perhaps detect life-bearing planets without relying on the signs of technology, none of them has any ability to tell if any detected life is intelligent. This is sometimes referred to as the \"algae vs.", "It may be that while alien species with intelligence exist, they are primitive or have not reached the level of technological advancement necessary to communicate. Along with non-intelligent life, such civilizations would also be very difficult for us to detect, short of", "This hypothesis is that other water-bearing planets have much less landmass than does Earth. David Brin states, \"It turns out that our Earth skates the very inner edge of our sun’s continuously habitable—or 'Goldilocks'—zone. And the Earth may be anomalous. It may be that because we are so close to our sun, we have an anomalously oxygen-rich atmosphere, and we have anomalously little ocean for a water world. In other words, 32 percent continental mass may be high among water worlds.\" Brin continues, \"In which case, the evolution of creatures like us, with hands and fire and all that sort of thing, may be rare in the galaxy. In which case, when we do build starships and head", "This is the argument that technological civilizations may usually or invariably destroy themselves before or shortly after developing radio or spaceflight technology. Possible means of annihilation via major global issues, where global interconnectedness actually makes humanity more vulnerable than resilient, are many, including war, accidental environmental contamination or damage, the development of biotechnology, synthetic life like mirror life, resource depletion, climate change, or poorly designed artificial intelligence. This general theme is explored both in fiction and in scientific hypothesizing. In 1966, Sagan and Shklovskii speculated that technological civilizations will either tend to destroy themselves within a century of developing interstellar communicative capability or master their self-destructive tendencies and survive for billion-year timescales. Self-annihilation may also be viewed in terms of thermodynamics: insofar as life is an ordered system that can sustain itself against the tendency to disorder, Hawking's \"external transmission\" or interstellar communicative phase, where knowledge production and knowledge management is more important than transmission of information via evolution, may be", "Another hypothesis is that an intelligent species beyond a certain point of technological capability will destroy other intelligent species as they appear, perhaps by using self-replicating probes. Science fiction writer Fred Saberhagen has explored this idea in his \"Berserker\" series, as has physicist Gregory Benford. A species might undertake such extermination out of expansionist motives, greed, paranoia, or aggression.", "New life might commonly die out due to runaway heating or cooling on their fledgling planets. On Earth, there have been numerous major extinction events that destroyed the majority of complex species alive at the time; the extinction of the dinosaurs is the best", "It may be that non-colonizing technologically capable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too far apart for meaningful two-way communication. If two civilizations are separated by several thousand light-years, it is possible that one or both cultures may become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be established. Human searches may be able to detect their existence, but communication will remain impossible because of distance. It has been suggested that this problem might be ameliorated somewhat if contact/communication is made through a Bracewell probe. In this case at least one partner in the exchange may obtain meaningful information. Alternatively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it. This is similar to the transmission of information from ancient civilizations to the", "Many speculations about the ability of an alien culture to colonize other star systems are based on the idea that interstellar travel is technologically feasible. While the current understanding of physics rules out the possibility of faster-than-light travel, it appears that there are no major theoretical barriers to the construction of \"slow\" interstellar ships, even though the engineering required is considerably beyond our present capabilities. This idea underlies the concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell probe as a potential evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.", "Some colonization scenarios predict spherical expansion across star systems, with continued expansion coming from the systems just previously settled. It has been suggested that this would cause a strong selection process among the colonization front favoring cultural or biological adaptations to living", "If a human-capability machine construct, such as via mind uploading, are possible, and if it is possible to transfer such constructs over vast distances and rebuild them on a remote machine, then it might not make strong economic sense to travel the galaxy by spaceflight. After the first civilization has physically explored or colonized the galaxy, as well", "Humanity's ability to detect intelligent extraterrestrial life has existed for only a very brief period—from 1937 onwards, if the invention of the radio telescope is taken as the dividing line—and \"Homo sapiens\" is a geologically", "There are some assumptions that underlie the SETI programs that may cause searchers to miss signals that are present. Extraterrestrials might, for example, transmit signals that have a very high or low data rate, or employ unconventional (in our terms) frequencies, which would make them hard to distinguish from background noise. Signals might be sent from non-main sequence star systems that we search with lower priority; current programs assume that most alien life will be orbiting Sun-like stars. The greatest challenge is the sheer size of the radio search needed to look for signals (effectively spanning the entire observable universe), the limited amount of resources committed to SETI, and the sensitivity of modern instruments. SETI estimates, for instance, that with a", "It may be that alien civilizations are detectable through their radio emissions for only a short time, reducing the likelihood of spotting them. The usual assumption is that civilizations outgrow radio through technological advancement. However, there could be other leakage such as that from microwaves used to transmit power from solar satellites to ground receivers. Regarding the first point, in a 2006 \"Sky & Telescope\" article, Seth Shostak", "It has been suggested that some advanced beings may divest themselves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual environments, transfer themselves into these environments through mind uploading, and exist totally within virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe. It may also be that intelligent alien life develops an \"increasing disinterest\" in their outside world. Possibly any sufficiently advanced", "In response to Tipler's idea of self-replicating probes, Stephen Jay Gould wrote, \"I must confess that I simply don’t know how to react to such arguments. I have enough", "A February 2019 article in \"Popular Science\" states, \"Sweeping across the Milky Way and establishing a unified galactic empire might be inevitable for a monolithic super-civilization, but most cultures are neither monolithic nor super—at least if our experience is any guide.\" Astrophysicist Adam Frank, along with co-authors such as astronomer Jason Wright, ran", "Another possibility is that human theoreticians have underestimated how much alien life might differ from that on Earth. Aliens may be psychologically unwilling to attempt to communicate with human beings. Perhaps human mathematics is parochial to Earth and not shared by other life, though others argue this can only apply to abstract math since the math associated with physics must be similar (in results, if not in methods). Physiology might also cause a communication barrier. Carl Sagan speculated that an alien species might have a thought process orders of magnitude slower (or faster) than ours. A message broadcast by that species might well seem like random background noise to us, and therefore go undetected. Another thought is", "Alien civilizations might be technically capable of contacting Earth, but are only listening instead of transmitting. If all, or even most, civilizations act the same way, the galaxy could be full of civilizations eager for contact, but everyone is listening and no one is transmitting. This is the so-called \"SETI Paradox\". The only civilization we know, our own, does", "The zoo hypothesis states that intelligent extraterrestrial life exists and does not contact life on Earth to allow for its natural evolution and development. A variation on the zoo hypothesis is the laboratory hypothesis, where humanity has been or is being subject to experiments, with the Earth or solar system effectively serving as a laboratory. The zoo hypothesis may break down under the uniformity of motive flaw: all it takes is a single culture or civilization to decide to act contrary to the imperative within our range of detection", "A related idea to the zoo hypothesis is that, beyond a certain distance, the perceived universe is", "An alien civilization might feel it is too dangerous to communicate, either for us or for them. It is argued that when very different civilizations have met on Earth, the results have often been disastrous for one side or the other, and the same may well apply to interstellar contact. Even contact at a safe distance could lead to infection by computer code or even ideas themselves. Perhaps prudent civilizations actively hide not only from Earth but", "A significant fraction of the population believes that at least some UFOs (Unidentified Flying Objects) are spacecraft piloted by aliens. While most of these are unrecognized or mistaken interpretations of mundane phenomena, there are those that remain puzzling even after investigation. The consensus scientific view is that although they may be unexplained, they do not rise to the level of convincing evidence. Similarly, it is theoretically possible that SETI groups are not reporting positive detections, or governments" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Biology.", "Genome.", "Population structure.", "Metabolism.", "Cellular cooperation.", "Pathogenesis.", "Toxins.", "Phenazines.", "Triggers.", "Plants and invertebrates.", "Quorum sensing.", "Biofilms formation and cyclic-di-GMP.", "Biofilms and treatment resistance.", "Diagnosis.", "Identification.", "Treatment.", "Antibiotic resistance.", "Prevention.", "Experimental therapies.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"Pseudomonas\" means \"false unit\", from the Greek \"pseudēs\" (Greek: ψευδής, false) and (, from Greek: μονάς, a single unit). The stem word \"mon\" was used early in the history of microbiology to refer to germs, e.g., kingdom Monera. The species name \"aeruginosa\" is a Latin word meaning verdigris (\"copper rust\"), referring to the blue-green color of laboratory cultures of the species. This blue-green pigment is a combination of two metabolites of \"P. aeruginosa\", pyocyanin (blue) and pyoverdine (green), which impart the blue-green characteristic color of cultures. Another assertion is that the word may be derived from the Greek prefix \"ae-\" meaning \"old or aged\", and the suffix \"ruginosa\" means wrinkled or bumpy. The names pyocyanin and pyoverdine are from the Greek, with \"pyo-\", meaning \"pus\", \"cyanin\", meaning \"blue\", and \"verdine\", meaning \"green\". Pyoverdine in the absence of pyocyanin is a fluorescent-yellow color.", "", "The genome of \"P. aeruginosa\" consists of a relatively large circular chromosome (5.5–6.8 Mb) that carries between 5,500 and 6,000 open reading frames, and sometimes plasmids of various sizes depending on the strain. Comparison of 389 genomes from different \"P. aeruginosa\" strains showed that just 17.5% is shared. This part of the genome is the \"P. aeruginosa\" core genome.", "The population of \"P. aeruginosa\" forms three main lineages, characterised by the finished genomes PAO1, PA14, and the highly divergent PA7. While \"P. aeruginosa\" is generally thought of as an opportunistic pathogen, several widespread clones appear to have become more specialised pathogens, particularly in cystic fibrosis patients, including the Liverpool epidemic strain (LES) which is found mainly in the UK, DK2 in Denmark, and AUST-02 in Australia (also previously known as AES-2 and P2). There is also a clone that is frequently found infecting the reproductive tracts of horses.", "\"P. aeruginosa\" is a facultative anaerobe, as it is well adapted to proliferate in conditions of partial or total oxygen depletion. This organism can achieve anaerobic growth with nitrate or nitrite as a terminal electron acceptor. When oxygen, nitrate, and nitrite are absent, it is able to ferment arginine and pyruvate by substrate-level phosphorylation. Adaptation to microaerobic or anaerobic environments is essential for certain lifestyles of \"P. aeruginosa\", for example, during lung infection in cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia, where thick layers of lung mucus and bacterially-produced alginate surrounding mucoid bacterial cells can limit the diffusion of oxygen. \"P. aeruginosa\" growth within the human body can be asymptomatic until the bacteria form a biofilm, which overwhelms the immune system. These biofilms are found in the lungs of people with cystic fibrosis and primary ciliary dyskinesia, and can prove fatal.", "\"P. aeruginosa\" relies on iron as a nutrient source to grow. However, iron is not easily accessible because it is not commonly found in the environment. Iron is usually found in a largely insoluble ferric form. Furthermore, excessively high levels of iron can be toxic to \"P. aeruginosa\". To overcome this and regulate proper intake of iron, \"P. aeruginosa\" uses siderophores, which are secreted molecules that bind and transport iron. These iron-siderophore complexes, however, are not specific. The bacterium that produced the siderophores does not necessarily receive the direct benefit of iron intake. Rather, all members of the cellular population are equally likely to access the iron-siderophore complexes. Members of the cellular population that can efficiently produce these siderophores are commonly referred to as cooperators; members that produce little to no siderophores are often referred to as cheaters. Research has shown when cooperators and cheaters are grown together, cooperators have a decrease in fitness, while cheaters have an increase in fitness. The magnitude of change in fitness increases with increasing iron limitation. With an increase in fitness, the cheaters can outcompete the cooperators; this leads to an overall decrease in fitness of the group, due to lack of sufficient siderophore production. These observations suggest that having a mix of cooperators and cheaters can reduce the virulent nature of \"P. aeruginosa\".", "An opportunistic, nosocomial pathogen of immunocompromised individuals, \"P. aeruginosa\" typically infects the airway, urinary tract, burns, and wounds, and also causes other blood infections. It is the most common cause of infections of burn injuries and of the outer ear (otitis externa), and is the most frequent colonizer of medical devices (e.g., catheters). \"Pseudomonas\" can be spread by equipment that gets contaminated and is not properly cleaned or on the hands of healthcare workers. \"Pseudomonas\" can, in rare circumstances, cause community-acquired pneumonias, as well as ventilator-associated pneumonias, being one of the most common agents isolated in several studies. Pyocyanin is a virulence factor of the bacteria and has been known to cause death in \"C. elegans\" by oxidative stress. However, salicylic acid can inhibit pyocyanin production. One in ten hospital-acquired infections is from \"Pseudomonas\". Cystic fibrosis patients are also predisposed to \"P. aeruginosa\" infection of the lungs due to a functional loss in chloride ion movement across cell membranes as a result of a mutation. \"P. aeruginosa\" may also be a common cause of \"hot-tub rash\" (dermatitis), caused by lack of proper, periodic attention to water quality. Since these bacteria thrive in moist environments, such as hot tubs and swimming pools, they can cause skin rash or swimmer's ear. \"Pseudomonas\" is also a common cause of postoperative infection in radial keratotomy surgery patients. The organism is also associated with the skin lesion ecthyma gangrenosum. \"P. aeruginosa\" is frequently associated with osteomyelitis involving puncture wounds of the foot, believed to result from direct inoculation with \"P. aeruginosa\" via the foam padding found in tennis shoes, with diabetic patients at a higher risk.", "\"P. aeruginosa\" uses the virulence factor exotoxin A to inactivate eukaryotic elongation factor 2 via ADP-ribosylation in the host cell, much as the diphtheria toxin does. Without elongation factor 2, eukaryotic cells cannot synthesize proteins and necrotise. The release of intracellular contents induces an immunologic response in immunocompetent patients. In addition \"P. aeruginosa\" uses an exoenzyme, ExoU, which degrades the plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells, leading to lysis. Increasingly, it is becoming recognized that the iron-acquiring siderophore, pyoverdine, also functions as a toxin by removing iron from mitochondria, inflicting damage on this organelle.", "Phenazines are redox-active pigments produced by \"P. aeruginosa\". These pigments are involved in quorum sensing, virulence, and iron acquisition. \"P. aeruginosa\" produces several pigments all produced by a biosynthetic pathway: pyocyanin, 1-hydroxyphenazine, phenazine-1-carboxamide, 5-methylphenazine-1-carboxylic acid betaine, and aeruginosin A. Two operons are involved in phenazine biosynthesis: \"phzA1B1C1D1E1F1G1\" and \"phzA2B2C2D2E2F2G2\". These operons convert a chorismic acid to the phenazines mentioned above. Three key genes, \"phzH\", \"phzM\", and \"phzS\" convert phenazine-1-carboxylic acid to the phenazines mentioned above. Though phenazine biosynthesis is well studied, questions remain as to the final structure of the brown phenazine pyomelanin. When pyocyanin biosynthesis is inhibited, a decrease in \"P. aeruginosa\" pathogenicity is observed \"in vitro\". This suggests that pyocyanin is most responsible for the initial colonization of \"P. aeruginosa\" \"in vivo\".", "With low phosphate levels, \"P. aeruginosa\" has been found to activate from benign symbiont to express lethal toxins inside the intestinal tract and severely damage or kill the host, which can be mitigated by providing excess phosphate instead of antibiotics.", "In higher plants, \"P. aeruginosa\" induces soft rot, for example in \"Arabidopsis thaliana\" (Thale cress) and \"Lactuca sativa\" (lettuce). It is also pathogenic to invertebrate animals, including the nematode \"Caenorhabditis elegans\", the fruit fly \"Drosophila\" and the moth \"Galleria mellonella.\" The associations of virulence factors are the same for plant and animal infections.", "\"P. aeruginosa\" is an opportunistic pathogen with the ability to coordinate gene expression in order to compete against other species for nutrients or colonization. Regulation of gene expression can occur through cell-cell communication or quorum sensing (QS) via the production of small molecules called autoinducers that are released into the external environment. These signals, when reaching specific concentrations correlated with specific population cell densities, activate their respective regulators thus altering gene expression and coordinating behavior. \"P. aeruginosa\" employs five interconnected QS systems – las, rhl, pqs, iqs and pch – that each produce unique signaling molecules. las and rhl systems are responsible for the activation of numerous QS-controlled genes, pqs system is involved in quinolone signaling and iqs system plays an important role in intercellular communication. QS in \"P. aeruginosa\" is organized in a hierarchical manner. At the top of the signaling hierarchy is the las system, since las regulator initiate the QS regulatory system by activating the transcription of a number of other regulators, such as rhl. So, the las system defines a hierarchical QS cascade from the las to the rhl regulons. Detection of these molecules indicates \"P. aeruginosa\" is growing as biofilm within the lungs of cystic fibrosis patients. QS is known to control expression of a number of virulence factors in a hierarchical manner, including the pigment pyocyanin. However, although las system initiates the regulation of the gene expression, its absence does not lead to loss of the virulence factors. Recently, it has been demonstrated that rhl system partially controls las-specific factors, such as proteolytic enzymes responsible for elastolytic and staphylolytic activities, but in a delayed manner. So, las is a direct and indirect regulator of QS-controlled genes. Another form of gene regulation that allows the bacteria to rapidly adapt to surrounding changes is through environmental signaling. Recent studies have discovered anaerobiosis can significantly impact the major regulatory circuit of QS. This important link between QS and anaerobiosis has a significant impact on production of virulence factors of this organism. Garlic experimentally blocks quorum sensing in \"P. aeruginosa\".", "As in most Gram negative bacteria, \"P. aeruginosa\" biofilm formation is regulated by one single molecule: cyclic-di-GMP. At low c-di-GMP concentration, \"P. aeruginosa\" has a free-swimming mode of life. But when c-di-GMP levels increase, \"P. aeruginosa\" start to establish sessile communities on surfaces. The intracellular concentration of c-di-GMP increases within seconds when \"P. aeruginosa\" touches a surface (\"e.g.\": a rock, plastic, host tissues...). This activates the production of adhesive pili, that serve as \"anchors\" to stabilize the attachment of \"P. aeruginosa\" on the surface. At later stages, bacteria will start attaching irreversibly by producing a strongly adhesive matrix. At the same time, c-di-GMP represses the synthesis of the flagellar machinery, preventing \"P. aeruginosa\" from swimming. When suppressed, the biofilms are less adherent and easier to treat. The biofilm matrix of \"P. aeruginosa\" is composed of nucleic acids, amino acids, carbohydrates, and various ions. It mechanically and chemically protects \"P. aeruginosa\" from aggression by the immune system and some toxic compounds. \"P. aeruginosa\" biofilm's matrix is composed of 2 types of sugars (or \"exopolysacharides\") named PSL and PEL: Upon certain cues or stresses, \"P. aeruginosa\" revert the biofilm program and detach. Recent studies have shown that the dispersed cells from \"P. aeruginosa\" biofilms have lower c-di-GMP levels and different physiologies from those of planktonic and biofilm cells. Such dispersed cells are found to be highly virulent against macrophages and \"C. elegans\", but highly sensitive towards iron stress, as compared with planktonic cells.", "Biofilms of \"P. aeruginosa\" can cause chronic opportunistic infections, which are a serious problem for medical care in industrialized societies, especially for immunocompromised patients and the elderly. They often cannot be treated effectively with traditional antibiotic therapy. Biofilms seem to protect these bacteria from adverse environmental factors. \"P. aeruginosa\" can cause nosocomial infections and is considered a model organism for the study of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Researchers consider it important to learn more about the molecular mechanisms that cause the switch from planktonic growth to a biofilm phenotype and about the role of QS in treatment-resistant bacteria such as \"P. aeruginosa\". This should contribute to better clinical management of chronically infected patients, and should lead to the development of new drugs. Recently, scientists have been examining the possible genetic basis for \"P. aeruginosa\" resistance to antibiotics such as tobramycin. One locus identified as being an important genetic determinant of the resistance in this species is \"ndvB\", which encodes periplasmic glucans that may interact with antibiotics and cause them to become sequestered into the periplasm. These results suggest a genetic basis exists behind bacterial antibiotic resistance, rather than the biofilm simply acting as a diffusion barrier to the antibiotic.", "Depending on the nature of infection, an appropriate specimen is collected and sent to a bacteriology laboratory for identification. As with most bacteriological specimens, a Gram stain is performed, which may show Gram-negative rods and/or white blood cells. \"P. aeruginosa\" produces colonies with a characteristic \"grape-like\" or \"fresh-tortilla\" odor on bacteriological media. In mixed cultures, it can be isolated as clear colonies on MacConkey agar (as it does not ferment lactose) which will test positive for oxidase. Confirmatory tests include production of the blue-green pigment pyocyanin on cetrimide agar and growth at 42 °C. A TSI slant is often used to distinguish nonfermenting \"Pseudomonas\" species from enteric pathogens in faecal specimens. When \"P. aeruginosa\" is isolated from a normally sterile site (blood, bone, deep collections), it is generally considered dangerous, and almost always requires treatment. However, \"P. aeruginosa\" is frequently isolated from nonsterile sites (mouth swabs, sputum, etc.), and, under these circumstances, it may represent colonization and not infection. The isolation of \"P. aeruginosa\" from nonsterile specimens should, therefore, be interpreted cautiously, and the advice of a microbiologist or infectious diseases physician/pharmacist should be sought prior to starting treatment. Often, no treatment is needed.", "\"P. aeruginosa\" is a Gram-negative, aerobic (and at times facultatively anaerobic), rod-shaped bacterium with unipolar motility. It has been identified as an opportunistic pathogen of both humans and plants. \"P. aeruginosa\" is the type species of the genus \"Pseudomonas\". Identification of \"P. aeruginosa\" can be complicated by the fact individual isolates often lack motility. Furthermore, mutations in the gene lasR drastically alter colony morphology and typically lead to failure to hydrolyze gelatin or hemolyze. In certain conditions, \"P. aeruginosa\" can secrete a variety of pigments, including pyocyanin (blue), pyoverdine (yellow and fluorescent), pyorubin (red), and pyomelanin (brown). These can be used to identify the organism. Clinical identification of \"P. aeruginosa\" may include identifying the production of both pyocyanin and fluorescein, as well as its ability to grow at 42 °C. \"P. aeruginosa\" is capable of growth in diesel and jet fuels, where it is known as a hydrocarbon-using microorganism, causing microbial corrosion. It creates dark, gellish mats sometimes improperly called \"algae\" because of their appearance.", "Many \"P. aeruginosa\" isolates are resistant to a large range of antibiotics and may demonstrate additional resistance after unsuccessful treatment. It should usually be possible to guide treatment according to laboratory sensitivities, rather than choosing an antibiotic empirically. If antibiotics are started empirically, then every effort should be made to obtain cultures (before administering first dose of antibiotic), and the choice of antibiotic used should be reviewed when the culture results are available. Due to widespread resistance to many common first-line antibiotics, carbapenems, polymyxins, and more recently tigecycline were considered to be the drugs of choice; however, resistance to these drugs has also been reported. Despite this, they are still being used in areas where resistance has not yet been reported. Use of β-lactamase inhibitors such as sulbactam has been advised in combination with antibiotics to enhance antimicrobial action even in the presence of a certain level of resistance. Combination therapy after rigorous antimicrobial susceptibility testing has been found to be the best course of action in the treatment of multidrug-resistant \"P. aeruginosa\". Some next-generation antibiotics that are reported as being active against \"P. aeruginosa\" include doripenem, ceftobiprole, and ceftaroline. However, these require more clinical trials for standardization. Therefore, research for the discovery of new antibiotics and drugs against P. \"aeruginosa\" is very much needed. Antibiotics that may have activity against \"P. aeruginosa\" include: As fluoroquinolones are one of the few antibiotic classes widely effective against \"P. aeruginosa\", in some hospitals, their use is severely restricted to avoid the development of resistant strains. On the rare occasions where infection is superficial and limited (for example, ear infections or nail infections), topical gentamicin or colistin may be used. For pseudomonal wound infections, acetic acid with concentrations from 0.5% to 5% can be an effective bacteriostatic agent in eliminating the bacteria from the wound. Usually a sterile gauze soaked with acetic acid is placed on the wound after irrigation with normal saline. Dressing would be done once per day. Pseudomonas is usually eliminated in 90% of the cases after 10 to 14 days of treatment.", "One of the most worrisome characteristics of \"P. aeruginosa\" is its low antibiotic susceptibility, which is attributable to a concerted action of multidrug efflux pumps with chromosomally encoded antibiotic resistance genes (e.g., \"mexAB\", \"mexXY\", etc.) and the low permeability of the bacterial cellular envelopes. In addition to this intrinsic resistance, \"P. aeruginosa\" easily develops acquired resistance either by mutation in chromosomally encoded genes or by the horizontal gene transfer of antibiotic resistance determinants. Development of multidrug resistance by \"P. aeruginosa\" isolates requires several different genetic events, including acquisition of different mutations and/or horizontal transfer of antibiotic resistance genes. Hypermutation favours the selection of mutation-driven antibiotic resistance in \"P. aeruginosa\" strains producing chronic infections, whereas the clustering of several different antibiotic resistance genes in integrons favors the concerted acquisition of antibiotic resistance determinants. Some recent studies have shown phenotypic resistance associated to biofilm formation or to the emergence of small-colony variants may be important in the response of \"P. aeruginosa\" populations to antibiotics treatment. Mechanisms underlying antibiotic resistance have been found to include production of antibiotic-degrading or antibiotic-inactivating enzymes, outer membrane proteins to evict the antibiotics and mutations to change antibiotic targets. Presence of antibiotic-degrading enzymes such as extended-spectrum β-lactamases like PER-1, PER-2, VEB-1, AmpC cephalosporinases, carbapenemases like serine oxacillinases, metallo-b-lactamases, OXA-type carbapenemases, aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes, among others have been reported. \"P. aeruginosa\" can also modify the targets of antibiotic action, for example methylation of 16S rRNA to prevent aminoglycoside binding and modification of DNA, or topoisomerase to protect it from the action of quinolones. \"P. aeruginosa\" has also been reported to possess multidrug efflux pumps systems that confer resistance against a number of antibiotic classes and the MexAB-OprM (Resistance-nodulation-division (RND) family) is considered as the most important\".\" An important factor found to be associated with antibiotic resistance is the decrease in the virulence capabilities of the resistant strain. Such findings have been reported in the case of rifampicin-resistant and colistin-resistant strains, in which decrease in infective ability, quorum sensing and motility have been documented. Mutations in DNA gyrase are commonly associated with antibiotic resistance in \"P. aeruginosa\". These mutations, when combined with others, confer high resistance without hindering survival. Additionally, genes involved in cyclic-di-GMP signaling may contribute to resistance. When grown \"in vitro\" conditions designed to mimic a cystic fibrosis patient's lungs, these genes mutate repeatedly. Two small RNAs : Sr0161 and ErsA were shown to interact with mRNA encoding the major porin OprD responsible for the uptake of carbapenem antibiotics into the periplasm. The sRNAs bind to the 5'UTR of \"oprD\" causing increase in bacterial resistance to meropenem. Another sRNA: Sr006 was suggested to positively regulate (post-transcriptionally) the expression of PagL, an enzyme responsible for deacylation of lipid A. This reduces the pro-inflammatory property of lipid A. Furthermore, similarly to study in \"Salmonella\" Sr006 regulation of PagL expression was suggested to aid in polymyxin B resistance.", "Probiotic prophylaxis may prevent colonization and delay onset of \"Pseudomonas\" infection in an ICU setting. Immunoprophylaxis against \"Pseudomonas\" is being investigated. The risk of contracting \"P. aeruginosa\" can be reduced by avoiding pools, hot tubs, and other bodies of standing water; regularly disinfecting and/or replacing equipment that regularly encounters moisture (such as contact lens equipment and solutions); and washing one's hands often (which is protective against many other pathogens as well). However, even the best hygiene practices cannot totally protect an individual against \"P. aeruginosa,\" given how common \"P. aeruginosa\" is in the environment.", "Phage therapy against \"P. aeruginosa\" has been investigated as a possible effective treatment, which can be combined with antibiotics, has no contraindications and minimal adverse effects. Phages are produced as sterile liquid, suitable for intake, applications etc. Phage therapy against ear infections caused by \"P. aeruginosa\" was reported in the journal \"Clinical Otolaryngology\" in August 2009.", "In 2013, João Xavier described an experiment in which \"P. aeruginosa\", when subjected to repeated rounds of conditions in which it needed to swarm to acquire food, developed the ability to \"hyperswarm\" at speeds 25% faster than baseline organisms, by developing multiple flagella, whereas the baseline organism has a single flagellum. This result was notable in the field of experimental evolution in that it was highly repeatable. \"P. aeruginosa\" has been studied for use in bioremediation and use in processing polyethylene in municipal solid waste." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Thermodynamics.", "Transport types.", "Passive diffusion and active diffusion.", "Active and co-transport.", "Secondary active transporter proteins.", "Pumps.", "Membrane selectivity.", "Electrolyte selectivity.", "Non-electrolyte selectivity.", "Creation of membrane transport proteins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Thermodynamically the flow of substances from one compartment to another can occur in the direction of a concentration or electrochemical gradient or against it. If the exchange of substances occurs in the direction of the gradient, that is, in the direction of decreasing potential, there is no requirement for an input of energy from outside the system; if, however, the transport is against the gradient, it will require the input of energy, metabolic energy in this case. For example, a classic chemical mechanism for separation that does not require the addition of external energy is dialysis. In this system a semipermeable membrane separates two solutions of different concentration of the same solute. If the membrane allows the passage of water but not the solute the water will move into the compartment with the greatest solute concentration in order to establish an equilibrium in which the energy of the system is at a minimum. This takes place because the water moves from a high solvent concentration to a low one (in terms of the solute, the opposite occurs) and because the water is moving along a gradient there is no need for an external input of energy. The nature of biological membranes, especially that of its lipids, is amphiphilic, as they form bilayers that contain an internal hydrophobic layer and an external hydrophilic layer. This structure makes transport possible by simple or passive diffusion, which consists of the diffusion of substances through the membrane without expending metabolic energy and without the aid of transport proteins. If the transported substance has a net electrical charge, it will move not only in response to a concentration gradient, but also to an electrochemical gradient due to the membrane potential. As few molecules are able to diffuse through a lipid membrane the majority of the transport processes involve transport proteins. These transmembrane proteins possess a large number of alpha helices immersed in the lipid matrix. In bacteria these proteins are present in the beta lamina form. This structure probably involves a conduit through hydrophilic protein environments that cause a disruption in the highly hydrophobic medium formed by the lipids. These proteins can be involved in transport in a number of ways: they act as pumps driven by ATP, that is, by metabolic energy, or as channels of facilitated diffusion.", "A physiological process can only take place if it complies with basic thermodynamic principles. Membrane transport obeys physical laws that define its capabilities and therefore its biological utility. A general principle of thermodynamics that governs the transfer of substances through membranes and other surfaces is that the exchange of free energy, Δ\"G\", for the transport of a mole of a substance of concentration C in a compartment to another compartment where it is present at C is: When C is less than C, Δ\"G\" is negative, and the process is thermodynamically favorable. As the energy is transferred from one compartment to another, except where other factors intervene, an equilibrium will be reached where C=C, and where Δ\"G\" = 0. However, there are three circumstances under which this equilibrium will not be reached, circumstances which are vital for the \"in vivo\" functioning of biological membranes: Where F is Faraday's constant and Δ\"P\" the membrane potential in volts. If Δ\"P\" is negative and Z is positive, the contribution of the term \"ZFΔP\" to Δ\"G\" will be negative, that is, it will favor the transport of cations from the interior of the cell. So, if the potential difference is maintained, the equilibrium state Δ\"G\" = 0 will not correspond to an equimolar concentration of ions on both sides of the membrane. Where Δ\"G\" corresponds to a favorable thermodynamic reaction, such as the hydrolysis of ATP, or the co-transport of a compound that is moved in the direction of its gradient.", "", "As mentioned above, passive diffusion is a spontaneous phenomenon that increases the entropy of a system and decreases the free energy. The transport process is influenced by the characteristics of the transport substance and the nature of the bilayer. The diffusion velocity of a pure phospholipid membrane will depend on:", "In active transport a solute is moved against a concentration or electrochemical gradient; in doing so the transport proteins involved consume metabolic energy, usually ATP. In primary active transport the hydrolysis of the energy provider (e.g. ATP) takes place directly in order to transport the solute in question, for instance, when the transport proteins are ATPase enzymes. Where the hydrolysis of the energy provider is indirect as is the case in secondary active transport, use is made of the energy stored in an electrochemical gradient. For example, in co-transport use is made of the gradients of certain solutes to transport a target compound against its gradient, causing the dissipation of the solute gradient. It may appear that, in this example, there is no energy use, but hydrolysis of the energy provider is required to establish the gradient of the solute transported along with the target compound. The gradient of the co-transported solute will be generated through the use of certain types of proteins called biochemical pumps. The discovery of the existence of this type of transporter protein came from the study of the kinetics of cross-membrane molecule transport. For certain solutes it was noted that the transport velocity reached a plateau at a particular concentration above which there was no significant increase in uptake rate, indicating a log curve type response. This was interpreted as showing that transport was mediated by the formation of a substrate-transporter complex, which is conceptually the same as the enzyme-substrate complex of enzyme kinetics. Therefore, each transport protein has an affinity constant for a solute that is equal to the concentration of the solute when the transport velocity is half its maximum value. This is equivalent in the case of an enzyme to the Michaelis–Menten constant. Some important features of active transport in addition to its ability to intervene even against a gradient, its kinetics and the use of ATP, are its high selectivity and ease of selective pharmacological inhibition", "Secondary active transporter proteins move two molecules at the same time: one against a gradient and the other with its gradient. They are distinguished according to the directionality of the two molecules: Both can be referred to as co-transporters.", "A pump is a protein that hydrolyses ATP to transport a particular solute through a membrane, and in doing so, generating an electrochemical gradient membrane potential. This gradient is of interest as an indicator of the state of the cell through parameters such as the Nernst potential. In terms of membrane transport the gradient is of interest as it contributes to decreased system entropy in the co-transport of substances against their gradient. One of the most important pumps in animal cells is the sodium potassium pump, that operates through the following mechanism:", "As the main characteristic of transport through a biological membrane is its selectivity and its subsequent behavior as a barrier for certain substances, the underlying physiology of the phenomenon has been studied extensively. Investigation into membrane selectivity have classically been divided into those relating to electrolytes and non-electrolytes.", "The ionic channels define an internal diameter that permits the passage of small ions that is related to various characteristics of the ions that could potentially be transported. As the size of the ion is related to its chemical species, it could be assumed \"a priori\" that a channel whose pore diameter was sufficient to allow the passage of one ion would also allow the transfer of others of smaller size, however, this does not occur in the majority of cases. There are two characteristics alongside size that are important in the determination of the selectivity of the membrane pores: the facility for dehydration and the interaction of the ion with the internal charges of the pore. In order for an ion to pass through a pore it must dissociate itself from the water molecules that cover it in successive layers of solvation. The tendency to dehydrate, or the facility to do this, is related to the size of the ion: larger ions can do it more easily that the smaller ions, so that a pore with weak polar centres will preferentially allow passage of larger ions over the smaller ones. When the interior of the channel is composed of polar groups from the side chains of the component amino acids, the interaction of a dehydrated ion with these centres can be more important than the facility for dehydration in conferring the specificity of the channel. For example, a channel made up of histidines and arginines, with positively charged groups, will selectively repel ions of the same polarity, but will facilitate the passage of negatively charged ions. Also, in this case, the smallest ions will be able to interact more closely due to the spatial arrangement of the molecule (stericity), which greatly increases the charge-charge interactions and therefore exaggerates the effect.", "Non-electrolytes, substances that generally are hydrophobic and lipophilic, usually pass through the membrane by dissolution in the lipid bilayer, and therefore, by passive diffusion. For those non-electrolytes whose transport through the membrane is mediated by a transport protein the ability to diffuse is, generally, dependent on the partition coefficient K. Partially charged non-electrolytes, that are more or less polar, such as ethanol, methanol or urea, are able to pass through the membrane through aqueous channels immersed in the membrane. There is no effective regulation mechanism that limits this transport, which indicates an intrinsic vulnerability of the cells to the penetration of these molecules.", "There are several databases which attempt to construct phylogenetic trees detailing the creation of transporter proteins. One such resource is the Transporter Classification database" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Early years.", "First compositions and \"Les Six\".", "1920s: increasing fame.", "1930s: new seriousness.", "1940s: war and post-war.", "1950–63: \"The Carmelites\" and last years.", "Music.", "Orchestral and concertante.", "Piano.", "Chamber.", "Songs.", "Choral.", "Opera.", "Recordings.", "Reputation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Poulenc was born in the 8th arrondissement of Paris, the younger child and only son of Émile Poulenc and his wife, Jenny, \"née\" Royer. Émile Poulenc was a joint owner of Poulenc Frères, a successful manufacturer of pharmaceuticals (later Rhône-Poulenc). He was a member of a pious Roman Catholic family from Espalion in the département of Aveyron. Jenny Poulenc was from a Parisian family with wide artistic interests. In Poulenc's view, the two sides of his nature grew out of this background: a deep religious faith from his father's family and a worldly and artistic side from his mother's. The critic Claude Rostand", "Poulenc made his début as a composer in 1917 with his \"Rapsodie nègre\", a ten-minute, five-movement piece for baritone and chamber group; it was dedicated to Satie and premiered at one of a series of concerts of new music run by the singer Jane Bathori. There was a fashion for African arts in Paris at the time, and Poulenc was delighted to run across some published verses purportedly Liberian, but full of Parisian boulevard slang. He used one of the poems in two sections of the rhapsody. The baritone engaged for the first performance lost his nerve on the platform, and the composer, though no singer, jumped in. This \"jeu d'esprit\" was the first of many examples of what Anglophone critics came to call \"leg-Poulenc\". Ravel was amused by", "From the early 1920s Poulenc was well received abroad, particularly in Britain, both as a performer and a composer. In 1921 Ernest Newman wrote in \"The Manchester Guardian\", \"I keep my eye on Francis Poulenc, a young man who has only just arrived at his twenties. He ought to develop into a farceur of the first order.\" Newman said that he had rarely heard anything so deliciously absurd as parts of Poulenc's song cycle \"Cocardes\", with its accompaniment played by the unorthodox combination of cornet, trombone, violin and percussion. In 1922 Poulenc and Milhaud travelled to Vienna to meet Alban Berg, Anton", "At the start of the decade, Poulenc returned to writing songs, after a two-year break from doing so. His \"Epitaphe\", to a poem by Malherbe, was written in memory of Linossier, and is described by the pianist Graham Johnson as \"a profound song in every sense\". The following year Poulenc wrote three sets of songs, to words by Apollinaire and Max Jacob, some of which were serious in tone, and others reminiscent of his earlier light-hearted style, as were others of his works of the early 1930s. In 1932 his music was among the first to be broadcast on television, in a transmission by the BBC", "Poulenc was briefly a soldier again during the Second World War; he was called up on 2 June 1940 and served in an anti-aircraft unit at Bordeaux. After France surrendered to Germany, Poulenc was demobilised from the army on 18 July 1940. He spent the summer of that year with family and friends at Brive-la-Gaillarde in south-central France. In the early months of the war, he had composed little new music, instead re-orchestrating \"Les biches\" and reworking his 1932 Sextet for piano and winds. At Brive-la-Gaillarde he began three new works, and once back at his home in Noizay in October he started on a fourth. These were \"L'Histoire de Babar, le petit éléphant\" for piano and narrator, the Cello Sonata, the ballet \"Les Animaux modèles\" and the song cycle \"Banalités\". For most of the war, Poulenc was in Paris, giving recitals with Bernac,", "Poulenc began the 1950s with a new partner in his private life, Lucien Roubert, a travelling salesman. Professionally Poulenc was productive, writing a seven-song cycle setting poems by Éluard, \"La Fraîcheur et le feu\" (1950), and the \"Stabat Mater\", in memory of the painter Christian Bérard, composed in 1950 and premiered the following year. In 1953, Poulenc was offered a commission by La Scala and the Milanese publisher Casa Ricordi for a ballet. He considered the story of St Margaret of Cortona but found a dance version of her life impracticable. He preferred to write an opera on a religious theme; Ricordi suggested \"Dialogues des Carmélites\", an unfilmed screenplay by Georges Bernanos. The text, based on a short", "Poulenc's music is essentially diatonic. In Henri Hell's view, this is because the main feature of Poulenc's musical art is his melodic gift. In the words of Roger Nichols in the \"Grove\" dictionary, \"For [Poulenc] the most important element of all was melody and he found his way to a vast treasury of undiscovered tunes within an area that had, according to the most up-to-date musical maps, been surveyed, worked and exhausted.\" The commentator George Keck writes, \"His melodies are simple, pleasing, easily remembered, and most often emotionally expressive.\" Poulenc said that he was not inventive in his harmonic language. The composer Lennox Berkeley wrote of him, \"All through his life, he was content to use conventional harmony, but his use of it was so individual, so immediately recognizable as his own, that it gave his music freshness and validity.\" Keck considers Poulenc's harmonic language \"as beautiful, interesting and personal as his melodic writing... clear, simple harmonies moving in obviously defined tonal areas with chromaticism that is rarely more than passing\". Poulenc had no time for musical theories; in one of his many radio interviews he called for \"a truce to composing by theory, doctrine, rule!\" He was dismissive of what he saw as the dogmatism of latter-day adherents to dodecaphony, led by René Leibowitz, and greatly regretted that the adoption of a theoretical approach had affected the music of Olivier Messiaen, of whom he had earlier had high hopes. To Hell, almost all Poulenc's music is \"directly or indirectly inspired by the purely melodic associations of the human voice\". Poulenc was a painstaking craftsman, though a myth grew up – \"\"la légende de facilité\"\" – that his music came easily to him; he commented, \"The myth is excusable, since I do everything to conceal my efforts.\" The pianist Pascal Rogé commented in 1999 that both sides of Poulenc's musical nature were equally important: \"You must accept him as a whole. If you take away either part, the serious or the non-serious, you destroy him. If one part is erased you get only a pale photocopy of what he really is.\" Poulenc recognised the dichotomy, but in all his works he wanted music that was \"healthy, clear and robust – music as frankly French as Stravinsky's is Slav\".", "Poulenc's principal works for large orchestra comprise two ballets, a \"Sinfonietta\" and four keyboard concertos. The first of the ballets, \"Les biches\", was first performed in 1924 and remains one of his best-known works. Nichols writes in \"Grove\" that the clear and tuneful score has no deep, or even shallow, symbolism, a fact \"accentuated by a tiny passage of mock-Wagnerian brass, complete with emotive minor 9ths\". The first two of the four concertos are in Poulenc's light-hearted vein. The \"Concert champêtre\" for harpsichord and orchestra (1927–28), evokes the countryside seen from a Parisian point of view: Nichols comments that the fanfares in the last movement bring to mind the bugles in the barracks of Vincennes in the Paris suburbs. The Concerto for two pianos and orchestra (1932) is similarly a work intended purely to entertain. It draws on a variety of stylistic sources: the first movement ends", "Poulenc, a highly accomplished pianist, usually composed at the piano and wrote many pieces for the instrument throughout his career. In Henri Hell's view, Poulenc's piano writing can be divided into the percussive and the gentler style reminiscent of the harpsichord. Hell considers that the finest of Poulenc's music for piano is in the accompaniments to the songs, a view shared by Poulenc himself. The vast majority of the piano works are, in the view of the writer Keith W Daniel, \"what might be called'miniatures'\". Looking back at his piano music in the 1950s, the composer viewed it critically: \"I tolerate the \"Mouvements perpétuels\", my old \"Suite en ut\" [in C], and the \"Trois pieces\". I like very much my two collections of Improvisations, an Intermezzo in A flat, and certain Nocturnes. I condemn \"Napoli\" and the \"Soirées de Nazelles\" without reprieve.\" Of the pieces cited with approval by Poulenc, the fifteen Improvisations were composed at intervals between 1932 and 1959. All are brief: the longest lasts a little more than three minutes. They vary from swift and balletic to tender lyricism, old-fashioned march, \"perpetuum mobile\", waltz and a poignant musical portrait of the singer Édith", "In \"Grove\", Nichols divides the chamber works into three clearly differentiated periods. The first four sonatas come from the early group, all written before Poulenc was twenty-two. They are for two clarinets (1918), piano duo (1918), clarinet and bassoon (1922) and horn, trumpet and trombone (1922). They are early examples of Poulenc's many and varied influences, with echoes of rococo \"divertissements\" alongside unconventional harmonies, some influenced by jazz. All four are characterised by their brevity – less than ten minutes each – their mischievousness and their wit, which Nichols describes as acid. Other chamber works from this period are the \"Rapsodie nègre\", FP 3, from 1917 (mainly instrumental, with brief vocal episodes) and the Trio for oboe, bassoon and piano (1926). The chamber works of Poulenc's middle period were written in the 1930s and 1940s. The best known is the Sextet for Piano and Wind (1932), in Poulenc's light-hearted vein, consisting of two lively outer movements and a central", "Poulenc composed songs throughout his career, and his output in the genre is extensive. In Johnson's view, most of the finest were written in the 1930s and 1940s. Though widely varied in character, the songs are dominated by Poulenc's preference for certain poets. From the outset of his career he favoured verses by Guillaume Apollinaire, and from the mid-1930s the writer whose work he set most often was Paul Éluard. Other poets whose works he frequently set included Jean Cocteau, Max Jacob, and Louise de Vilmorin. In the view of the music critic Andrew Clements, the Éluard songs include many of Poulenc's greatest settings; Johnson calls the cycle \"Tel Jour, Telle Nuit\" (1937) the composer's \"watershed work\", and Nichols regards it as \"a masterpiece worthy to stand", "Apart from a single early work for unaccompanied choir (\"Chanson à boire\", 1922), Poulenc began writing choral music in 1936. In that year he produced three works for choir: \"Sept chansons\" (settings of verses by Éluard and others), \"Petites voix\" (for children's voices), and his religious work \"Litanies à la Vierge Noire\", for female or children's voices and organ. The Mass in G major (1937) for unaccompanied choir is described by Gouverné as having something of a baroque style, with \"vitality and joyful clamour on which his faith is writ large\". Poulenc's new-found religious theme continued with \"Quatre motets pour un temps de pénitence\" (1938–39), but among his most important choral works is the secular cantata \"Figure humaine\" (1943). Like the Mass, it is unaccompanied, and to succeed in performance it requires singers of the highest quality. Other", "Poulenc turned to opera only in the latter half of his career. Having achieved fame by his early twenties, he was in his forties before attempting his first opera. He attributed this to the need for maturity before tackling the subjects he chose to set. In 1958 he told an interviewer, \"When I was 24 I was able to write \"Les biches\" [but] it is obvious that unless a composer of 30 has the genius of a Mozart or the precociousness of Schubert he couldn't write \"The Carmelites\" – the problems are too profound.\" In Sams's view, all three of Poulenc's operas display a depth of feeling far distant from \"the cynical stylist of the 1920s\": \"Les mamelles de Tirésias\" (1947), despite the riotous plot, is full of nostalgia and a sense of loss. In the two avowedly serious operas, \"Dialogues des Carmélites\" (1957) and \"La Voix humaine\" (1959), in which Poulenc depicts deep", "Poulenc was among the composers who recognised in the 1920s the important role that the gramophone would play in the promotion of music. The first recording of his music was made in 1928, with the mezzo-soprano Claire Croiza accompanied by the composer at the piano, in the complete song cycle \"La bestiaire\" for French Columbia. He made numerous recordings, mainly for the French division of EMI. With Bernac and Duval he recorded many of his own songs, and those of other composers including Chabrier, Debussy, Gounod and Ravel. He played the piano part in recordings of his \"Babar the Elephant\" with Pierre Fresnay and Noël Coward as narrators. In 2005, EMI issued a DVD, \"Francis Poulenc & Friends\", featuring filmed performances of Poulenc's music, played by the composer, with Duval, Jean-Pierre Rampal, Jacques Février", "The two sides to Poulenc's musical nature caused misunderstanding during his life and have continued to do so. The composer Ned Rorem observed, \"He was deeply devout and uncontrollably sensual\"; this still leads some critics to underrate his seriousness. His uncompromising adherence to melody, both in his lighter and serious works, has similarly caused some to regard him as unprogressive. Although he was not much influenced by new developments in music, Poulenc was always keenly interested in the works of younger generations of composers. Lennox Berkeley recalled, \"Unlike some artists, he was genuinely interested in other people's work, and surprisingly appreciative of music very far removed from his. I remember him playing me the records of Boulez's \"Le marteau sans maître\" with which he was already familiar when that work was much less well-known than it is today.\" Boulez did not take a reciprocal view, remarking in 2010, \"There are always people who will take an easy intellectual path. Poulenc coming after \"Sacre [du Printemps]\". It was not progress.\" Other composers have found more merit in Poulenc's work; Stravinsky wrote to him in 1931: \"You are truly good, and that is what I find again and again in your music\". In his last years Poulenc observed, \"if people are still interested in my music in 50 years' time it will be for my \"Stabat Mater\" rather than the \"Mouvements perpétuels\".\" In a centenary tribute in \"The Times\" Gerald Larner commented that Poulenc's prediction was wrong, and that in 1999 the composer was widely celebrated for both sides of his musical character: \"both the fervent Catholic and the naughty boy, for both the Gloria and Les Biches, both Les Dialogues des Carmélites and Les Mamelles de Tirésias.\" At around the same time the writer Jessica Duchen described Poulenc as \"a fizzing, bubbling mass of Gallic energy who can move you to both laughter and tears within seconds. His language speaks clearly, directly and humanely to every generation.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Later life.", "Five basic psychological needs.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Matějček was born in 1922 in Chlumec nad Cidlinou, East Bohemia. His father was a director of the Kladruby Stud Farm, where he lived until his adulthood with his parents and a younger brother. His parents were Czech evangelists. After graduating from Pardubice High School he was not allowed to study due to the war, and so he assisted his father at the horse farm as a regular worker, and later at Bata shoe company in Zlín. After the war Matějček studied at the Faculty of Arts of Charles University, hoping to become a teacher. He graduated with a degree in Czech and philosophy (which at the time included psychology), and as he had already studied it, he decided to become a psychologist. From 1950-51 he worked briefly at an educational institute, before he started working at the Sociodiagnostic Institute of Prague, focusing on developmental research on children in orphanages and children's homes. The institute, focused on child care, disorder and handicap diagnostics and therapy, was ahead of its time in involving an entire team of experts in the diagnostic process, including psychologists, doctors, and social workers. Close attention was paid to the functioning of the family. At the institute Matějček started his cooperation with Josef Langmeier, and together they created an original and innovative approach to understanding mental deprivation, defining the mental needs of children and the consequences of unfulfilled basic needs. Based on regular and long-standing study of children in children's homes - conditions depriving them of many of their basic psychological and social needs - the authors proved that institutional care presents a great risk to a child's mental and social development, and its negative consequences continue their impact on these children throughout their lives. Together they coined a new psychological term, \"mental deprivation\", publishing their findings in the book \"Childhood Mental Deprivation\", which attracted great attention locally, running into four editions, as well as internationally, where it was translated into English, German and Russian.", "From 1953 until 1969 he worked at a Psychiatry clinic for children in Prague. After that he accepted an invitation from Josef Švejcar and joined the Institute for Further Education of Doctors and Pharmacists in the Department of Pediatrics as an assistant professor. Here, he resumed his cooperation with Langmeier. Together they finalised their pedagogy and clinical research and founded the Prague School of Clinical Psychology and Psychological Counselling. Matějček supervised many theses, which proved fruitful when he founded the Professor Matějček Foundation to reward the best theses on child developmental psychology. Gradually, he gained a reputation as an expert on psychology. He published and lectured throughout Czechoslovakia as well as abroad. He also dedicated himself to dyslexia and was a co-founder of SOS children's villages in the Czech Republic. From 1991 until the end of his life he worked at the Psychiatry Center in Prague and from 1994 in Paprsek child centre. He devoted himself to creating new diagnostic tools, adapting diagnostic methods (drawing of a family) and translating Gesell’s Maturational Theory as well as other diagnostic methods. He was a member of many professional organizations in Czech Republic, including the Czech Doctors Academy and Czech and Moravian Psychological Society, as well as international groups including the International Dyslexia Association and the International Study Group on Children with Special Education Needs. He was granted numerous awards and received worldwide recognition, such as the American Psychological Association's award for Distinguished Contribution to Research in Public Policy, and an honorary doctorate from the University of Saskatchewan. He authored and co-authored many books on parenting, child care, dyslexia and psychological deprivation. Matějček died in Prague in 2004.", "Based on his research in child deprivation as well as clinical practice as a child psychologist, Matějček outlined five basic psychological needs on which he elaborates in his books for parents and carers.", "Parenting books (in Czech) Foster care books (in Czech) Articles and books in English" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Skill system.", "Player vs. player.", "Game world.", "History.", "Development and release.", "Commercial problems and \"Free Ryzom Campaign\".", "Nevrax and Ryzom sold.", "Source code and assets freely released.", "Availability.", "Reception and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Ryzom\" features open world gameplay. Instead of character classes, it has a unique system for character abilities that allows players to construct custom actions like spells or attacks in detail. The game world is complex modeled, incorporating realistic effects like changing weather and seasons. Computer controlled entities ('mobs') display complex behaviors, and animals will, for example, graze in herds or hunt in packs. \"Ryzom\" offers a scenario editor that lets players design their own areas that can be uploaded and played on the official server.", "Each character gains levels independently in the fields of weapon-oriented fighting, magic, crafting, and harvesting simply by performing appropriate acts (killing enemies with a sword for fighting, assembling jewelry for crafting, etc.) Each level gained in one of these fields awards the character 10 skill points that can be spent on new abilities specific to that field, on general character improvements, or simply saved. As a character progresses in levels, the skills become more refined. For instance, a starting character casting spells will acquire points in the skill called \"magic\". After level 20, points are accumulated in either \"offensive magic\" or \"defensive magic\", and attack spells will add points to the former, while healing spells add to the latter category. At later levels, these are also split, allowing higher level characters to specialize. All player actions are built of components called \"stanzas\". Each stanza defines one of the action's effects, costs, or usage restrictions. Players may assemble actions out of any legal combination of stanzas their character knows. Components for crafting can come from the corpses of killed animals or from hidden resource deposits scattered throughout Atys. Different ingredients provide varying benefits to different characteristics of the finished object. For example, when crafting a mace, using a certain kind of animal bone for the head may produce a hard-hitting but slow weapon, while using a particular wood may produce a weapon that is fast and gives a large bonus to parrying enemy attacks, but causes less damage. Further complicating things is the fact that any ingredient may occur in one of five classes and with a quality from 1 to 250, all of which affect the attributes of the final product. Harvesting is a complex and sometimes team-oriented procedure. The player must first locate the desired materials using prospecting skills, as resources give no visible sign of their presence. If he does not have teammates to aid him, he may need to balance his work between extracting the resource and treating the extraction site to prevent it from collapsing prematurely or exploding. The site's location and the harvester's own skill levels both affect the maximum possible quality of the extracted resource.", "In general, player characters are not allowed to attack other player characters or peaceful non-player characters. The exception is specifically marked zones, either smaller areas, like the PvP arena in the starting region, or larger regions, like the \"Prime Roots\" of Atys. It is also possible to engage other players in one-on-one combat (duels), this requires acceptance by both combatants.", "The game takes place on the planet Atys. Unlike normal planets, Atys is an enormous tree large enough to sustain an atmosphere and multiple ecosystems on its surface and within immense networks of branches and roots. The various creatures in Ryzom have differing AI based upon their species that allows them to perform many realistic behaviors, such as migration and movement as a herd. Carnivores, for example, will attack specific animals for food, and certain animals hunt in packs. The game also features changing seasons and weather. Weather effects include rain, snow, and wind. Tied to the season and weather changes are the movements of animals and the availability of harvestable materials. For example, a certain type of sap may only be harvested during spring rains and be unattainable during other seasons or weather conditions. Weather conditions can change minute by minute. Each game season (spring, summer, fall, and winter) lasts four real-time days. Player characters come from one of four distinct humanoid races, collectively called \"homins\". The 'Matis' are a proud and noble race of forest dwellers. They have mastered the art that is a fusion of botany and genetic manipulation, and consequently they have constructed their kingdom and castles from massive trees grown for that very purpose. The 'Tryker' are a fiercely independent and fun-loving race of lake dwellers. They build large floating cities on their lakes, and networks of wind-powered water pumps around them. The 'Zoraï' are a spiritual and tranquil race of jungle dwellers. They build their temple-cities within naturally fortified areas of the jungle. Finally, the 'Fyros' are a tough and obstinate race of desert dwellers. They have mastered fire technology, which they like to build into their weapons and architecture. Interacting benevolently with all four homin cultures, but hostile towards each other, were two additional and far more advanced races: the magical Kami and the technological Karavan. The Kami are depicted as elusive, chaotic, playful, and highly protective of Atys, while the Karavan are more secretive and have never been shown outside their environmental suits or far from their machinery. The Matis, and to a lesser extent, the Tryker, cultures tend to ally with the Karavan, while the Zoraï and Fyros tend to side with the Kami. In the game year 2481, the homin races were decimated when the hostile, insect-like Kitins were accidentally released from their home deep within Atys's root system. Surviving refugees from all four homin cultures began working together in 2485 to rebuild a single, mixed society in relatively remote areas. Soon came the added threat of the \"Goo,\" a spreading infestation that renders areas uninhabitable and drives wildlife mad with rage. At release, the game year was 2525. New characters come from one of the four homin races, and start out as \"refugees\", they are scattered survivors of the kitin invasion who have somehow managed to make it to an area called the \"Ruins of Silan\". This area, which is not connected to the rest of Atys, contains a variety of animals, as well as various traders and trainers, and representatives for the cultures in the game. There are several NPCs providing missions, including four whose missions act as tutorials in the four skill areas (fighting, magic, crafting, and foraging). When a character decides to, he or she may choose to travel (teleportation) to the main world (called the \"mainland\"), and must choose one of the four homin capitals to travel to. This decision can not be reversed, and although it is possible to travel between capitals, the journey is long and dangerous, even for experienced characters.", "", "The independent French game development studio Nevrax began development of Ryzom, and the underlying game engine NeL (for Nevrax Library), around 2000. In October 2002 Nevrax made the NeL engine open source as free software using the GPL. The game launched in September 2004 with the name \"The Saga of Ryzom\" and received little attention at the time. The publisher was Winch Gate. After the initial release, several updates were released as \"Chapters\", providing new features and content. The first update, titled \"Changing Times\", featured the addition of a merchants system in which players could sell their crafted items using vendors. It also revamped several of the game's key systems, including prospecting and harvesting. On December 13, 2004 the first part of three from \"Chapter Two: Open Conflict\" was released, the third on January 13, 2005. Major features included the addition of the encyclopedia system and the addition of player mounts. \"Chapter Three: Outposts\" was released on December 19, 2005. Major features included the introductions of PvP outposts as well as major changes to the game's fame system. On June 15, 2006 an update called the \"New Player Experience\" was released. It replaced the beginning area with an area called \"The Ruins of Silan\", which provided more tutorial material for beginners. On October 3, 2006 an expansion called \"Ryzom Ring\" was released, offering players the ability to create their own content in the form of scenarios. It provides a scenario editor where players can design content, and subsequently upload it to the game's main servers. Other players may then access the player-created areas through terminals located in each race's capital city. In August 2006, the game's name was simplified to \"Ryzom\" for marketing purposes.", "Since the game was not a commercial success, Nevrax announced, on November 20, 2006, that it would enter receivership sometime in December. On November 21, Nevrax confirmed that \"Nevrax as a corporate entity will probably cease to exist in a few weeks\" and announced that \"several companies and/or individuals are actively engaged in negotiations to take over Ryzom\". In response, the \"Free Ryzom Campaign\" was launched in order to gather enough funds from crowdfunding donations to purchase Ryzom and release the game as free software. On December 14, 2006 the Free Software Foundation pledged a donation of 60,000 dollars, but the campaign ultimately raised €172,988 instead of the €200,000 requested.", "On December 21, 2006, Nevrax SARL was eventually sold to the owners of Gameforge AG, a German company specialising in browser games, which started up GameForge France SARL as a'sister company' and transferred all the rights. Less than a year later, Gameforge France had filed for bankruptcy. As GameForge had not fully paid for the Nevrax assets, these were returned to the original liquidator. Currently, the game can be played free of charge with a limitation on character level.", "On May 6, 2010, Ryzom announced the full release of source code under GPL and the artwork under a Creative Commons license, and a partnership with the Free Software Foundation to host a repository of the game's artistic assets. Since then Ryzom is community developed. Ryzom offers a portal for open-source development of their GPL licensed engine NeL, on which the game Ryzom is based. Since 2010 all the software's source code is available as free software under the AGPL. Similarly, the game's artistic work is available under an open content Creative Commons license. The game's 3D models and textures were ported to the Blender software format in 2016.", "\"Ryzom\" is free-to-play available for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux on the official servers. The game requires registration, and a paid subscription is required for characters to advance beyond level 125. Each account may have up to five different characters. The different \"Ryzom\" servers use the same game world, but are differentiated by language, with the choice of English, French, or German being offered when starting a game. From the start, the client software, referred to as NeL, for the Nevrax Library, was released as free software under the GPL. As of May 6, 2010, the entire software base, including client, server, and associated tools, was made available under the GNU Affero General Public License (AGPL), and current development uses a community-based open source model. A 13Gb archive containing all textures and effects, 3D models, animations, characters and clothing (but not music or sounds) was released under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike (CC-BY-SA) license. The commercial ongoing game-world data (story plots, quests, maps, lore, etc.) is not available for download, so as not to disrupt the fan-base. Also, in order to combat cheating, connecting to official servers with unofficial client builds is prohibited.", "Metacritic rates \"Ryzom\" 64/100, indicating \"mixed or average\" reception. Initial reception ranged from great to mediocre. \"GameZone\" rated \"Ryzom\" at 8.1, highlighted the innovative skill system, and called \"Ryzom\" a \"fun game that has some very innovative features\", with \"good graphics, and great gameplay and concept\". \"GameSpot\" also acknowledged the novel skill system and friendly community, but rated the game at 5.6 (\"mediocre\"), being unfinished and needlessly complex. In 2005, the game received the Reader's Choice Award from MMORPG.com for the best game story." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Evolution.", "Subspecies.", "Description.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Diet.", "Reproduction.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Relationships with humans.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Viverra capensis\" was the scientific name used by Johann Christian Daniel von Schreber in 1777 who described a honey badger skin from the Cape of Good Hope. \"Mellivorae\" was proposed as name for the genus by Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr in 1780. Mellivorina was proposed as a tribe name by John Edward Gray in 1865. The honey badger is the only species of the genus \"Mellivora\". Although in the 1860s it was assigned to the badger subfamily, the Melinae, it is now generally agreed that it bears very few similarities to the Melinae. It is much more closely related to the marten subfamily, Guloninae, but furthermore is assigned its own subfamily, Mellivorinae. Differences between Mellivorinae and Guloninae include differences in their dentition formulae. Though not in the same subfamily as the wolverines, which are a genus of large-sized and atypical Guloninae, the honey badger can be regarded as another, analogous, form of outsized weasel or polecat.", "The species first appeared during the middle Pliocene in Asia. Its closest relation was the extinct genus \"Eomellivora\", which is known from the upper Miocene, and evolved into several different species throughout the whole Pliocene in both the Old and New World.", "In the 19th and 20th centuries, 16 zoological specimens of the honey badger were described and proposed as subspecies., 12 subspecies are recognised as valid taxa. Points taken into consideration in assigning different subspecies include size and the extent of whiteness or greyness on the back.", "The honey badger has a fairly long body, but is distinctly thick-set and broad across the back. Its skin is remarkably loose, and allows it to turn and twist freely within it. The skin around the neck is thick, an adaptation to fighting conspecifics. The head is small and flat, with a short muzzle. The eyes are small, and the ears are little more than ridges on the skin, another possible adaptation to avoiding damage while fighting. The honey badger has short and sturdy legs, with five toes on each foot. The feet are armed with very strong claws, which are short on the hind legs and remarkably long on the forelimbs. It is a partially plantigrade animal whose soles are thickly padded and naked up to the wrists. The tail is short and is covered in long hairs, save for below the base. Honey badgers are the largest terrestrial mustelids in Africa. Adults measure in shoulder height and in body length, with the tail adding another. Females are smaller than males. In Africa, males weigh while females weigh on average. The mean weight of adult honey badgers from different areas has been reported at anywhere between, with a median of roughly, per various studies. This positions it as the third largest known badger, after the European badger and hog badger, and fourth largest extant terrestrial mustelid after additionally the wolverine. However, the average weight of three wild females from Iraq was reported as, about the typical size of the males from largest-bodied populations of wolverines or from male European badgers in late autumn, indicating that they can attain much larger than typical sizes in favorable conditions. However, an adult female and two males in India were relatively small, at the respective weights of and a median of. Skull length is in males and for females. There are two pairs of mammae. The honey badger possesses an anal pouch which, unusual among mustelids, is eversible, a trait shared with hyenas and mongooses. The smell of the pouch is reportedly \"suffocating\", and may assist in calming bees when raiding beehives. The skull bears little similarity to that of the European badger, and greatly resembles a larger version of that of a marbled polecat. The skull is very solidly built, with that of adults having no trace of an independent bone structure. The braincase is broader than that of dogs. The dental formula is:. The teeth often display signs of irregular development, with some teeth being exceptionally small, set at unusual angles or absent altogether. Honey badgers of the subspecies \"signata\" have a second lower molar on the left side of their jaws, but not the right. Although it feeds predominantly on soft foods, the honey badger's cheek teeth are often extensively worn. The canine teeth are exceptionally short for carnivores. The tongue has sharp, backward-pointing papillae which assist it in processing tough foods. The winter fur is long, (being long on the lower back), and consists of sparse, coarse, bristle-like hairs, with minimal underfur. Hairs are even sparser on the flanks, belly and groin. The summer fur is shorter (being only long on the back) and even sparser, with the belly being half bare. The sides of the head and lower body are pure black. A large white band covers the upper body, from the top of the head to the base of the tail. Honey badgers of the \"cottoni\" subspecies are unique in being completely black.", "The honey badger is mostly solitary, but has also been sighted in Africa to hunt in pairs during the breeding season in May. It also uses old burrows of aardvark, warthog and termite mounds. It is a skilled digger, able to dig tunnels into hard ground in 10 minutes. These burrows usually have only one entry, are usually only long with a nesting chamber that is not lined with any bedding. The honey badger is notorious for its strength, ferocity and toughness. It is known to savagely and fearlessly attack almost any other species when escape is impossible, reportedly even repelling much larger predators such as lion and hyena. Bee stings, porcupine quills, and animal bites rarely penetrate their skin. If horses, cattle, or Cape buffalos intrude upon a honey badger's burrow, it will attack them. In Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, a honey badger was killed by a lion. In the Cape Province it is a potential prey species of the African leopard. African rock pythons, Nile crocodiles and spotted hyenas also prey on honey badgers occasionally.", "The honey badger has the least specialised diet of the weasel family next to the wolverine. It accesses a large part of its food by digging it out of burrows. It favours honey and often searches for beehives. It is also feeds on insects, frogs, tortoises, turtles, lizards, rodents, snakes, birds and eggs. It also eats berries, roots and bulbs. When foraging for vegetables, it lifts stones or tears bark from trees. Some individuals have even been observed to chase away lion cubs from kills. It devours all parts of its prey, including skin, hair, feathers, flesh and bones, holding its food down with its forepaws. It feeds on a wide range of vertebrates and seems to subsist primarily on small vertebrates. Honey badgers studied in Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park preyed largely on geckos and skinks (47.9% of prey species), gerbils and mice (39.7% of prey). The bulk of its prey comprised species weighing more than such as cobras, young African rock python and South African springhare. In the Kalahari, honey badgers were also observed to attack domestic sheep and goats, as well as kill and eat black mambas. A honey badger was suspected to have broken up the shells of tent tortoises in the Nama Karoo. In India, honey badgers are said to dig up human corpses. Despite popular belief, there is no evidence that honeyguides guide the honey badger.", "Little is known of the honey badger's breeding habits. Its gestation period is thought to last six months, usually resulting in two cubs, which are born blind. They vocalise through plaintive whines. Its lifespan in the wild is unknown, though captive individuals have been known to live for approximately 24 years. The voice of the honey badger is a hoarse \"khrya-ya-ya-ya\" sound. When mating, males emit loud grunting sounds. Cubs vocalise through plaintive whines. When confronting dogs, honey badgers scream like bear cubs.", "The honey badger ranges through most of sub-Saharan Africa, from the Western Cape, South Africa, to southern Morocco and southwestern Algeria and outside Africa through Arabia, Iran and western Asia to Turkmenistan and the Indian Peninsula. It is known to range from sea level to as much as 2,600 m above sea level in the Moroccan High Atlas and 4,000 m in Ethiopia's Bale Mountains. In 2014 and 2015, it was recorded in Benin’s Pendjari National Park by camera-traps.", "Honey badgers often become serious poultry predators. Because of their strength and persistence, they are difficult to deter. They are known to rip thick planks from hen-houses or burrow underneath stone foundations. Surplus killing is common during these events, with one incident resulting in the death of 17 Muscovy ducks and 36 chickens. Because of the toughness and looseness of their skin, honey badgers are very difficult to kill with dogs. Their skin is hard to penetrate, and its looseness allows them to twist and turn on their attackers when held. The only safe grip on a honey badger is on the back of the neck. The skin is also tough enough to resist several machete blows. The only sure way of killing them quickly is through a blow to the skull with a club or a shot to the head with a gun, as their skin is almost impervious to arrows and spears. During the British occupation of Basra in 2007, rumours of \"man-eating badgers\" emerged from the local population, including allegations that these beasts were released by the British troops, something that the British categorically denied. A British army spokesperson said that the badgers were \"native to the region but rare in Iraq\" and \"are usually only dangerous to humans if provoked\". The director of Basra's veterinary hospital, Mushtaq Abdul-Mahdi, confirmed that honey badgers had been seen in the area as early as 1986. The deputy dean of Basra's veterinary college, Ghazi Yaqub Azzam, speculated that \"the badgers were being driven towards the city because of flooding in marshland north of Basra.\" The event received coverage in the Western press during the 2007 silly season. In many parts of North India, honey badgers are reported to have been living in the close vicinity of human dwellings, leading to many instances of attacks on poultry, small livestock animals and, sometimes, even children. They retaliate fiercely when attacked. According to a 1941 volume of \"The Fauna of British India\", the honey badger has also been reported to dig up human corpses in that country. In Kenya, the honey badger is a major reservoir of rabies and suspected to be a significant contributor to the sylvatic cycle of the disease.", "The 2011 YouTube viral video \"The Crazy Nastyass Honey Badger\" popularized the image of honey badgers as fearless and erratic, including the catchphrase \"Honey badger don't care\". Spinoffs of the popular video include a book and mobile app. A 2015 Disney Junior series, \"The Lion Guard\", includes a honey badger as one of the main characters. Honey badger is a frequently used nickname for professional athletes, primarily being used for an athlete that is known for being tough and fearless. Rugby player Nick Cummins, Australian Formula 1 driver Daniel Ricciardo, Cuban footballer Osvaldo Alonso, and American football player Tyrann Mathieu are notable athletes who have received the nickname honey badger at some point in their careers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Publication History.", "Plot.", "Characters.", "Interpretation.", "Adaptations.", "Other books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The book was first published in 1971 and in an English translation first as \"The Satanic Mill\" from 1972 to 1991, then republished in 2000 as \"The Curse of the Darkling Mill\", in 2011 as \"Krabat\" and in 2014 as \"Krabat and the Sorcerer's Mill\".", "Set in the mid 17th century during the Thirty Years' War, the story follows the life of Krabat, a 14-year-old Wendish beggar boy living in the eastern part of Saxony. For three consecutive nights, he is called to a watermill near the village Schwarzkollm through a dream. Upon heeding the call and arriving at the mill, he begins his apprenticeship as a miller's man. He soon joins the secret brotherhood, composed of journeymen and apprentices, and discovers that the skill he is meant to learn through this apprenticeship is Black Magic. The first magic powers Krabat acquires are rather harmless, such as the ability to turn himself into a raven. Other peculiarities of this watermill include the lack of any outside visitors, including farmers who would have brought grain. The only visitor to the mill is one Goodman, who may be the devil, although this is never made explicit. The senior journeyman Tonda, Krabat's best friend and older brother figure, dies, ostensibly of an accident, on New Year's Eve in Krabat's first year at the mill. Tonda offers strangely little resistance to his own death. Krabat's suspicions of foul play are further reinforced when another journeyman and friend, Michal, dies the following New Year's Eve. He soon realizes that the master is bound in a pact to the Goodman: the master must sacrifice one journeyman every year on New Year's Eve, or perish himself. Wishing to take revenge for his friends' death, Krabat secretly trains to increase his magical strength so he can fight the master. His quest is aided by a girl from the nearby village, a church singer, “Kantorka”, whose name is never mentioned (“Kantorka” meaning just ‘little chorister’). Krabat learns that to end the spell, his lover must challenge the master for him; then whoever loses the challenge, the master or the two lovers, will die. The master offers Krabat another solution: He will retire and let Krabat inherit the mill, along with the pact to the Goodman; but Krabat refuses to perpetuate the evil pact. So the challenge goes ahead, and the girl's task is to distinguish Krabat from the rest of the journeymen, all of them are standing in a row, while she is blindfolded. She manages to pick him out by the fact that he fears mainly for her life, while the others fear mainly for their own. Ultimately, she rescues Krabat from death, and they and the journeymen escape the mill. The master is left to die in the burning mill on New Year's Eve, while the survivors lose all their magic powers and are now simple millers who have to provide for themselves through normal hard work.", "The characters of this novel provide a stark distinction between good and evil. Krabat, his love interest the Kantorka, Tonda, Juro and Michal stand for the side of the good, whereas the master of the mill, the Goodman and the one journeyman who betrays his brothers stand for the bad. There are, however, a few journeymen who are indifferent or ambiguous to the ongoing struggle, and who neither support nor oppose the master.", "Although the story is quite close to the original Sorbian tale of Krabat that dates back to the 18th century, Preußler himself also considered it to tell the story of himself, his generation, and all young people who encounter power and its temptations and get ensnarled by it.", "The story was adapted into a 1977 Czechoslovakian animated film, \"Čarodějův učeň\" (\"The Sorcerer's Apprentice\"), directed by Karel Zeman. The band ASP started with a musical version of the story, in 12 parts, in 2006. In 2008 they finished the project with a 15-track album (on two CDs) called \"Zaubererbruder\" (i.e. \"Sorcerer-Brother\"). Marco Kreuzpaintner's film adaptation of Otfried Preußler's book, also named \"Krabat\", was released in Germany on October 9, 2008. The 1975 East German television film \"Die schwarze Mühle\" is based on a different novelization of the same folk tale by Jurij Brězan. It aired on Fernsehen der DDR", "Krabat is also the main character of three novels, written by the Sorbian writer Jurij Brězan, published in 1968, 1976 and 1993." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath.", "Namesake." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Americans had landed troops from the 3rd Marine Division around Torokina on Bougainville on 1 November 1943. Judging the landings a ruse, and that the real Allied objective were the airfields around Buka to the north of Bougainville, the Japanese delayed launching a concerted counterattack on Cape Torokina, and instead determined to reinforce Buka. As a result, 920 Japanese Army troops were embarked on the destroyers, and under the command of Captain Katsumori Yamashiro and were sent to reinforce the garrison, escorted by the destroyers and under the command of Captain Kiyoto Kagawa. The convoy was spotted by reconnaissance aircraft, and the United States Navy sent Captain Arleigh Burke's Destroyer Squadron 23, composed of Destroyer Division 45 (,, and ), under Burke's direct command, and Destroyer Division 46 ( and ), under Commander Bernard Austin to intercept it. Meanwhile, nine PT boats under Commander Henry Farrow moved into the Buka Passage to engage the Japanese if Burke's force was unable to make contact.", "The Japanese battle plan divided their force into two columns, with the three transport destroyers trailing the two escort destroyers. The American battle plan also divided their force into two columns using tactics devised by Burke and first employed successfully by Commander Frederick Moosbrugger at the Battle of Vella Gulf the previous August. One column would make a torpedo attack while the other took up a supporting position ready to open gunfire as soon as the first column's torpedo attack struck home. The Japanese destroyers landed the 920 troops and supplies and embarked 700 Navy aviation personnel being withdrawn as Allied bombing had rendered the airfield at Buka non-operational. The Japanese force was returning to Rabaul when Farrow's PT boats spotted four of the Japanese ships on their radar just after midnight; however, the PT boats mistook the Japanese vessels for friendly forces and hove to further ashore. Two of the Japanese ships subsequently attacked the PT boats, firing on them and attempting to ram \"PT-318\". They failed to score any hits, though, while one of the PT boats, \"PT-64\", fired a torpedo which missed its target. Afterwards, the Japanese destroyers steamed west towards Cape St. George. Around 01:41, Kagawa's two screening destroyers were picked up by radar by Burke's destroyers, which had moved into position between Cape St. George and Buka, with \"Dyson\" making contact first. Poor visibility prevented the Japanese from spotting the American ships in turn. Burke elected to use his own division for the torpedo attack. Superior radar allowed the American ships to approach within and launch their torpedoes at about 01:55 before the Japanese sighted them. \"Onami\" was hit by several torpedoes and sank immediately with all hands, including Kagawa. \"Makinami\" was hit by one torpedo and disabled. Burke's force established radar contact with the rest of the Japanese force at soon after launching their torpedoes and turned to pursue; Yamashiro's three transport destroyers fled north, pursued by Burke's division, while \"Converse\" and \"Spence\" from Austin's division finished off the disabled \"Makinami\" with torpedoes and gunfire. Burke's three destroyers steadily gained on the three heavily laden Japanese destroyers, opening fire around 02:22, scoring several hits. \"Uzuki\" was hit by one dud shell and escaped without significant damage. \"Amagiri\" escaped untouched. Around 02:25, the Japanese ships split up and fled in different directions. Burke chose to pursue \"Yugiri\" with his entire force and sank her at about 03:28 after a fierce engagement.", "By 03:45, Burke’s and Austin's divisions had linked up, continuing to push north to pursue the withdrawing Japanese ships. Burke subsequently called off the attempt at 04:04, low on fuel and ammunition, and needing to withdraw before daylight, when Japanese aircraft would likely begin operations to search for them. In the event, the only aircraft the US ships spotted once daylight came were friendly AirSols P-38 Lightnings. The battle represented a significant victory for the Americans and was later described as an \"almost perfect action\" and Burke was awarded a Navy Cross. It was the final surface engagement of the Solomon Islands campaign, and the last such action in the wider Pacific for nine months. Although the Japanese were able to land their troops and withdraw their supporting personnel, they lost three destroyers sunk and one damaged, without inflicting any losses on the American force. Amongst the Japanese crews, a total of 647 were killed. A total of 278 survivors were rescued from \"Yugiri\" by the submarine \"I-177\".", "The U.S. Navy \"Ticonderoga\"-class guided-missile cruiser, in commission since 1993, was named for this battle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Bullion Suppliers to the Berlin Mint.", "Jacob Abraham and Abraham Abramson." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Son of the coiner Jacob Abraham, like him Abramson belonged to the court of Frederick the Great, and he also was the first Jew to be admitted into the Prussian Academy of Arts. Abramson was a prolific medalist. He depicted among others Immanuel Kant, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing, Moses Mendelssohn, Christoph Martin Wieland, Johann Georg Sulzer and Leonhard Euler.", "The Hohenzollern Elector of Brandenberg, Frederick William (1620–88) appointed Israel Aaron as bullion supplier to the Berlin mint and granted the right of striking small coins to Esther Liebmann, wife first of Israel Aaron and then, after Aaron's death to the Court jeweller, Jost Liebmann. As Hohenzollern King of Prussia, Frederick William I (1688–1740) reluctantly appointed Jewish mint suppliers after Christian officials had failed. Levin Veit was succeeded in this function by the Gompertz brothers, the tobacco manufacturers. Frederick the Great (1740–86) shared his father's prejudices but found it necessary to lease the state mint to the Jews. In 1751 the Gompertz brothers joined with the banker Daniel Itzig and his brother-in-law Moses Isaak to lease the six state mints. In 1755 they beat competition from the Fraenkel brothers to retain this concession. In 1758 these factions merged and shared the ignominy of the anti-Semitism provoked by Frederick's devaluation in order to finance his many wars, although this expedient may have saved the Prussian state. In the design of medals the celebration of personalities and events was the province of the individual artist or craftsman. However, Frederick the Great imposed restrictions on creativity and the Swiss Hedlinger and his pupil Georgi resigned. The supply of bullion to the Prussian mint at Berlin by Jews since the early 17th century would now pave the way for a highly skilled medallic craftsman and contemporary of Meyer Rothschild.", "Jacob Abraham (1723–1800) originated in the German duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. He first cut precious gems at the age of thirteen in Polish Lissa. On the death of his father in 1731 the family moved to Sverin and then to Mecklenburg. In 1750 he married Beilchen, daughter of a teacher. His talents were recognised by Frederick the Great who confirmed his appointment at the Berlin mint as a die cutter in 1752 after a two-year apprenticeship. The following year, at the age of 31, he was transferred to Stettin as Royal Medalist to inaugurate a new mint. He also engraved small coins and Polish money before moving to Königsberg in 1755. Abraham fled before the Russian advance in the Seven Years' War (1756–63) to Danzig in 1758, Dresden in 1759 and Berlin in 1761 where he cut a new Prussian eagle for the thaler and struck medals in honour of Frederick's military successes. In his biography Hoffmann describes Abraham as astute, intelligent and industrious; more of a craftsman than an artist. He worked at both the Neue Muntze and Berlin Altmuntze. In the last twenty years of his life his powers declined and much of his work was done collaboratively with his son Abraham Abramson. Forrer catalogued the better known works. Of note is the famous medal of Moses Mendelssohn where the portraiture is the work of the son. In the English series the marriage medal of George III is noteworthy. On his death in 1800, he was, most unusually, granted full civil rights, and laid to rest at the Hamburg Street Cemetery, Berlin (row 28, stone 19!) with many tributes. Abramson (1754–1811) was the most successful of Abraham's three artistic sons. The male children, Abraham, Hirsch and Michel inherited full civil rights, but these were not available to female offspring, Roschen and Yachet. The descendants of Roschen could still be traced in Berlin in Hoffmann's time. Abraham officially became his father's assistant at the Berlin mint at the age of seventeen. He was appointed Royal Medalist in 1782 after a long apprenticeship and travelled extensively from 1787 to 1791 learning design and modelling techniques, mainly in Italy. He is considered the outstanding medalist of this remarkable period. His output was enormous amounting to over 250 medals. He was fortunate to be at the height of his powers at such a time of artistic, scientific and technological advance, military struggle, political and social reform. His best known medal in the English series is that commemorating the death of Nelson in 1805. Again Forrer lists many of the more outstanding works and Hoffmann gives a remarkably comprehensive catalogue of father and son. Abramson died from overwork at the age of 57." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "President of Turkmenistan.", "Criticism.", "Accusations of totalitarianism.", "Violation of individual rights.", "Corruption.", "Personal life.", "Family.", "Father and grandfather in cult of personality.", "Hobbies.", "Health." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Berdimuhamedow was born on 29 June 1957 in Babarap, in what is now the Geok Tepe \"etrap\" (\"district\") of Ahal Province, to Mälikguly Berdimuhamedowiç Berdimuhamedow (born 12 August 1932) and Ogulabat Ataýewna Kürräýewa. He is the only son in a family of six children. Berdimuhamedow’s father worked as a senior Interior Ministry officer in a prison guard detachment. He retired as a Colonel of police. His grandfather, Berdimuhamed Annayev, was a local teacher who served in the Red Army during the Great Patriotic War as part of the 748th Rifle Regiment of the 206th Rifle Division of the 2nd Ukrainian Front. In September 1943, his unit was one of the first to cross into the Dnepr River. He was later killed in the 1948 Ashgabat earthquake. Berdimuhamedow graduated from the Turkmen State Medical Institute in 1979 and entered a career in dentistry. He also received a PhD in medical sciences in Moscow. By 1992 he had become part of the dentistry faculty at the Medical Institute. In 1995, during the rule of Saparmurat Niyazov, Berdimuhamedow became head of the dentistry center of the Ministry of Health and Medical Industry. He was appointed to the government as Minister of Health in 1997, and he was additionally appointed as Deputy Chairman of the Cabinet of Ministers (also referred to as Deputy Prime Minister, despite the lack of a Prime Ministerial post in Turkmenistan), a post akin to that of a Vice-President, in 2001. In April 2004, Niyazov suspended Berdimuhamedow's salary for three months because healthcare workers were not being paid. The Health Ministry was responsible for carrying out Niyazov's notorious order to close all hospitals outside of the capital city and major regional towns in 2005.", "Following Niyazov's death in December 2006, the State Security Council of Turkmenistan appointed Berdimuhamedow as acting president. The Council stated in its announcement that Öwezgeldi Ataýew, who, as the Chairman of the Assembly of Turkmenistan was to become the acting president, was not appointed \"in view of the fact that the prosecutor-general had instituted criminal proceedings against him\". Article 60 of the Turkmen Constitution stipulated that the acting president \"may not stand for election to the Presidency\", which would have barred Berdimuhamedow from running in the 2007 presidential elections. However, on 24 December 2006, the People's Council voted to remove this provision, making him eligible for the election as one of the six chosen candidates, all members of the Democratic Party of Turkmenistan. Berdimuhamedov was supported by the political elite, and the official results showed him as winning 89% of the vote. In his first presidential trip abroad, Berdimuhamedov visited Saudi Arabia in mid-April 2007. There he performed the Umrah pilgrimage and met with King Abdullah. He then visited Russia and President Vladimir Putin at the end of the same month. After taking office, Berdimuhamedow reversed several of Niyazov's more eccentric policies. Internet cafés offering free and uncensored web access opened in Ashgabat, compulsory education was extended from nine to ten years and classes in sports and foreign languages were re-introduced into the curriculum, and the government announced plans to open several specialised schools for the arts. President Berdimuhamedow has called for reform of education, health care and pension systems, and government officials of non-Turkmen ethnic origin who had been sacked by Niyazov were allowed to return to work. He also restored the pensions of 100,000 elderly people whose pensions Niyazov had slashed in the face of an unspecified budget crisis. Later on, he reopened the Turkmen Academy of Sciences, which had been closed by Niyazov. In February 2017, he was reelected to a third term as President of Turkmenistan (seven-year term) with nearly 98% of the votes in his favor and with an eligible voter turnout of 97%. In October 2017, he offered a top Turkmen-bred variety of the Central Asian shepherd dog to Vladimir Putin. He was reelected as president of the National Olympic Committee of Turkmenistan on 22 April 2018.", "", "Upon taking office, Berdimuhamedow eased travel restrictions and reopened libraries in rural areas. He also took steps to curb Niyazov's extensive personality cult. He called for an end to the elaborate pageants of music and dancing that formerly greeted the president on his arrival anywhere, and said that the Turkmen \"sacred oath\", part of which states that the speaker's tongue should shrivel if he ever speaks ill of Turkmenistan or its president, should not be recited multiple times a day but reserved for \"special occasions.\" He also gave up his right to rename any landmarks, institutions, or cities, restored the traditional names of the months of the year and days of the week (Niyazov had renamed them after himself and his mother, among other things), and announced plans to move the infamous gold rotating statue of Niyazov from Ashgabat's central square. However, he explicitly ruled out any move toward Western-style democracy. In 2008, he dismissed Akmyrat Rejepow, the longtime chief of the presidential security detail and one of the main proponents of Niyazov's personality cult. In 2011, he sang a song on a video posted to YouTube. In July 2013, Jennifer Lopez publicly apologized for singing \"Happy birthday!\" to Berdimuhamedow during a sponsored concert, stating she was not aware of the human rights issues in Turkmenistan prior to the show. In August 2013, Berdimuhamedow suspended his Democratic Party of Turkmenistan membership for the duration of his presidency, ostensibly to remain \"above partisan politics\" and \"promote a multiparty system.\" In May 2013, he fell off his horse during a race. The fall was censored on TV but leaked online. On 11 August 2019, an episode of HBO's \"Last Week Tonight with John Oliver\" featured a clip of the incident, which was played thrice. This was part of a long piece satirising the dictator, culminating in the unveiling of a 55 sq meter marble cake decorated with a giant image of the president falling off the horse (ironically breaking the world record for the size of marble cakes). According to Oliver, Guinness World Records, which was criticized in the episode for its relations with authoritarian regimes, refused to certify the record unless the show signed a contract prohibiting it from criticizing the company, which Oliver stated that \"is clearly ridiculous.\" In 2015, a golden statue of Berdimuhamedow riding a horse atop a white-marble cliff was erected in Ashgabat. According to international observers, Berdimuhamedow now leads \"one of the most oppressive\" and \"closed\" regimes in the world. Freedom House has consistently placed Turkmenistan near the bottom of its Freedom in the World rankings since Berdimuhamedow took office; in 2017, the country was one of 11 with the lowest aggregate scores for political and civil rights. Human Rights Watch noted that Berdimuhamedow not only has complete control over public life, but presides over a regime that does not tolerate \"alternative political or religious expression\" and has complete control over the media. Reporters Without Borders (RSF) has ranked Turkmenistan near the bottom of its Press Freedom Index for most of Berdimuhamedow's tenure. In 2017, RWB ranked Turkmenistan 178th out of 180 countries surveyed, ahead of Eritrea and North Korea. RSF noted that internet access is heavily censored in Turkmenistan, and that satellite dishes have been removed by government officials. In September 2016, the Turkmenistan Parliament abolished term limits for the presidency, which allowed Berdimuhamedow to run for a third term. In January 2018, Berdimuhamedow ordered the impounding of black cars in the capital because he considered the color white to be \"lucky.\" Police seized dark-colored vehicles in Ashgabat and their owners were told they must pay to have them repainted silver or white. The capital, known as the 'City of White Marble', holds the world record for the highest concentration of white-marble buildings. Berdimuhamedow is a known lover of the color white, living in a white palace and travelling in white limousines. In July 2018, he appeared in a rap video with his grandson. He had previously lifted weights on camera, and also acted as DJ. By decree of Berdymuhamedov in January 2019, the government will gradually end state funding of the Academy of Sciences of Turkmenistan; it will be phased out in three years.", "The \"Obozrevatel\" magazine named Berdimuhamedow the 5th of the 23 worst dictators in the world. In the Press Freedom Index (Reporters Without Borders), Turkmenistan ranks 176 out of 178. Turkmenistan leads in the number of political prisoners from all countries of the former Soviet Union.", "The country's economy is under total state control. Numerous attempts to attract foreign investors into the country often end in lawsuits in international courts. In 2018, the International Center for the Settlement of Investment Disputes (arbitration, part of the World Bank group of organizations) received claims against Turkmenistan from Sece Inşaat (Turkey) and investment company Unionmatex Industrieanlagen GmbH (Germany). In 2019, the Belarusian construction company Belgorkhimprom also filed a similar claim with the court, to which Turkmenistan should pay about $200 million. Investors talk about discrimination against the Turkmen authorities, politicized bureaucracy, and a high level of corruption. In the Transparency International Corruption Perception Index, Turkmenistan ranked 161 among 180 countries in 2018. This is the lowest rating among countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. In 2019, Turkmenistan ranked 164th among 180 countries in the ranking of economic freedom.", "", "According to a cable from the U.S. embassy in Ashgabat, Berdimuhamedow is married and has three daughters and one son. One of his sons-in-law, Yhlasgeldi Amanov, headed the Turkmen State Agency for Management and Use of Hydrocarbon Resources in London, was later assigned to the Turkmenistan Embassies in Berlin and London, and as of 23 November 2019 was Turkmenistan's consul general in Dubai. The other son-in-law is also a diplomat, with a prior posting in Paris, but currently assigned to Brussels. According to the same leaked cables, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow has a mistress, Marina, a Russian nurse that he supposedly met earlier in his dentist career. They have a 14-year old daughter together. Berdimuhamedow's wife has been living in London since 2007. His son, Serdar Berdimuhamedow, is a lieutenant colonel in the Armed Forces. Serdar was appointed governor of Ahal velayat (province) in June 2019. At least three of Berdimuhamedow's grandchildren study in Switzerland: Kerimguly, Ogulbäbek, and Aýgül. According to a biography of Berdimuhamedow's father published in 2012, Berdimuhamedow has five sisters: Durdynabat (born 1960), Gulnabat (born 1962), Mähri (born 1964), Guljamal (born 1969), and Oguljamal (born 1974).", "Berdimuhamedow's grand father and father both serve as part of his cult of personality. His grandfather, Berdimuhamed Annayev has since 2018 been a posthumous recipient of the Russian Order of Honour, being one of two awards he holds (the other being the Soviet Order of the Badge of Honour). The Berdimuhamed Annayev 1st Specialized Military School of the Ministry of Defence is named in his honour. a museum in the defence ministry is also named after him. In May 2020, a special delegation from Russia led by Deputy Minister of Defence Alexander Fomin brought the banner of Annayev's unit to Ashgabat, being trooped through the square in front of the Halk Hakydasy Memorial Complex during the inaugural Victory Day Parade in the capital. On 1 September 2009, secondary school No. 27 was renamed after Berdimuhamed Annaev and was opened with his son at the opening ceremony. In October 2012, the Main Drama Theater of Turkmenistan staged a play based on Berdimuhamedov's book about his grandfather called \"Good Name Imperishable\". The Military Unit 1001 of the Ministry of Internal Affairs is named in the legacy of Berdimuhamedow's father. In addition, in honor of him, in the village of Yzgant, the Palace of Culture is named after him.", "During his spare time from being President, from his dentistry career and from his political career, he writes books that are popular in Turkmenistan according to Turkmen propaganda. Aside from writing books, he is known for writing songs, DJing and engaging in health activities.", "On 20 July 2019, the YouTube channel of a Turkmen opposition media outlet announced that Berdimuhamedow had reportedly died while on holiday at the age of 61. He was said to have been on leave since 15 July. These reports were published by multiple Russian media outlets on the next day. The Turkmen Ambassador to Kyrgyzstan, Shadurdy Mereov, and the Kyrgyz Ministry of Foreign Affairs denied these claims on 21 July. According to The Chronicle of Turkmenistan, Berdimuhamedow went to Germany because his mother was receiving medical treatment there, and her condition was critical." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hyphenation.", "Composition.", "Jurisdiction.", "By country.", "Canada.", "Finland.", "Germany.", "India.", "Indonesia.", "Luxembourg.", "Netherlands.", "New Zealand.", "Singapore.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Fictional examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Court-martial is hyphenated in US usage, whether used as a noun or verb. However, in British usage, a hyphen is used to distinguish between the noun, \"court martial\", and the verb, \"to court-martial\".", "Usually, a court-martial takes the form of a trial with a presiding judge, a prosecutor and a defense attorney (all trained lawyers as well as officers). The precise format varies from one country to another and may also depend on the severity of the accusation.", "Courts-martial have the authority to try a wide range of military offences, many of which closely resemble civilian crimes like fraud, theft or perjury. Others, like cowardice, desertion, and insubordination, are purely military crimes. Military offences are defined in the Armed Forces Act 2006 for members of the British Military. Regulations for the Canadian Forces are found in the Queen's Regulations and Orders as well as the National Defence Act. For members of the United States Armed Forces offenses are covered under the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). These offences, as well as their corresponding punishments and instructions on how to conduct a court-martial, are explained in detail based on each country and/or service.", "", "In Canada, there is a two-tier military trial system. Summary trials are presided over by superior officers, while more significant matters are heard by courts martial, which are presided over by independent military judges serving under the independent Office of the Chief Military Judge. Appeals are heard by the Court Martial Appeal Court of Canada. Capital punishment in Canada was abolished generally in 1976, and for military offences in 1998. Harold Pringle was the last Canadian soldier executed pursuant to a court martial, in 1945, having been convicted of murder.", "In Finland, the military has jurisdiction over two types of crimes: those that can be committed only by military personnel and those normal crimes by military persons where both the defendant and the victim are military persons or organizations and the crime has been defined in law as falling under military jurisdiction. The former category includes e.g. various types of disobedience and absence without leave, while the latter category includes e.g. murder, assault, theft, fraud and forgery. However, war crimes and sexual crimes are not under military jurisdiction. In crimes where the military has jurisdiction, the military conducts the investigation. In non-trivial cases, this is done by the investigative section of Defence Command or by civilian police, but trivial cases are investigated by the defendant's own unit. The civilian police has always the right to take the case from the military. If the case does not warrant a punishment greater than a fine or a disciplinary punishment, the punishment is given summarily by the company, battalion or brigade commander, depending on severity of the crime. If the brigade commander feels that the crime warrants a punishment more severe than he can give, he refers the case to the local district attorney who commences prosecution. The crimes with military jurisdiction are handled by the civilian district court which has a special composition. In military cases, the court consists of a civilian legally trained judge and two military members: an officer and a warrant officer, an NCO or a private soldier. The verdict and the sentence are decided by a majority of votes. However, the court cannot give a more severe sentence than the learned member supports. The appeals can be made as in civilian trials. If a court of appeals handles a military matter, it will have an officer member with at least a major's rank. The Supreme Court of Finland has, in military cases, two general officers as members. Courts-martial proper are instituted only during a war, by the decree of the government. Such courts-martial have jurisdiction over all crimes committed by military persons. In addition, they may handle criminal cases against civilians in areas where ordinary courts have ceased operation, if the matter is urgent. Such courts-martial have a learned judge as a president and two military members: an officer and an NCO, warrant officer or a private soldier. The verdicts of a war-time court-martial can be appealed to a court of appeals.", "The Basic Law (Grundgesetz) (adopted after the Second World War in 1949) establishes in Art. 96 para. 2 that courts-martial can be established by federal law. Such courts-martial would take action in a State of Defense (Verteidigungsfall) and only against soldiers abroad or at sea. However, no such law has been passed to date and German soldiers are tried exclusively before civil courts.", "There are four kinds of courts-martial in India. These are the General Court Martial (GCM), District Court Martial (DCM), Summary General Court Martial (SGCM) and Summary Court Martial (SCM). According to the Army Act, army courts can try personnel for all kinds of offenses, except for murder and rape of a civilian, which are primarily tried by a civilian court of law. Higher government authorities do not deal with the military doctrines. The President of India can use his judicial power, (Article 72), to give either pardon, reprieve, respite or remission of punishment or sentence given by a court martial.", "In Indonesia, any criminal offense conducted by military personnel will be held in trial by military court. There are four levels of military jurisdiction: The judges will received acting rank the same as the defendant if rank of the defendant is higher than the judges.", "In Luxembourg, there are three levels of military jurisdiction:", "In the Netherlands, members of the military are tried by a special military section of the civilian court in Arnhem. This section consists of a military member and two civilian judges. The decision whether or not to prosecute is primarily made by the (civilian) attorney general.", "Service members of the New Zealand Defence Force are tried under a Court Martial for offences pertaining to the most serious offences against the Armed Forces Discipline Act 1971. Offences such as such as mutiny, murder, sexual offences, serious assaults, drug offences, or offences where the maximum punishment exceeds a 7 year prison term will be heard by Court Martial. Below this 7 year threshold the accused is dealt with by their Commanding Officer in what is known as a Summary Trial. During Court Martial the appointed judge is either a New Zealand High Court or District Court Judge and he or she presides over the trial. Defendants are assigned Legal Counsel, and for the prosecution, a lawyer is assigned who generally comes from a military background. The Judge Advocate is usually made up of senior NZDF Officers and Warrant Officers who hear the defence and prosecution evidence during Court Martial. Punishment on Guilty findings of a defendant will see them face being charged with a punishment such as serious reprimand, loss of rank, dismissal from the NZDF, or being sent to military or civilian prison.", "Under the Singapore Armed Forces Act, any commissioned officer is allowed to represent servicemen when they are tried for military offences in the military courts. The cases are heard at the Court-Martial Centre at Kranji Camp II. Some of the courts martial in Singapore include that of Capt. G. R. Wadsworth in 1946 due to use of insubordinate language and, in the modern day, misbehaviour by conscripted servicemen.", "The Court Martial is one of the Military Courts of the United Kingdom. The Armed Forces Act 2006 establishes the Court Martial as a permanent standing court. Previously courts-martial were convened on an \"ad hoc\" basis with several traditions, including usage of swords. The Court Martial may try any offence against service law. The Court is made up of a Judge Advocate, and between three and seven (depending on the seriousness of the offence) officers and warrant officers. Rulings on matters of law are made by the Judge Advocate alone, whilst decisions on the facts are made by a majority of the members of the court, not including the Judge Advocate, and decisions on sentence by a majority of the court, this time including the Judge Advocate.", "Most commonly, courts-martial in the United States are convened to try members of the U.S. military for violations of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ), which is the U.S. military's criminal code. However, they can also be convened for other purposes, including military tribunals and the enforcement of martial law in an occupied territory. Courts-martial are governed by the rules of procedure and evidence laid out in the Manual for Courts-Martial, which contains the Rules for Courts-Martial, Military Rules of Evidence, and other guidance. There are three types: Special, Summary, and General.", "In Herman Melville's novella \"Billy Budd\" (first published 1924), the title character is convicted at a drumhead court-martial of striking and killing his superior officer on board HMS \"Indomitable\", is sentenced to death, and is hanged. The novella has been adapted for the stage, film and television; notably in Benjamin Britten's 1951 opera \"Billy Budd\". In C.S. Forester's 1938 novel \"Flying Colours\", Captain Horatio Hornblower is court-martialed for the loss of HMS \"Sutherland\". He is \"most honourably acquitted\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Development.", "Ubu.", "Première.", "Adaptations.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "References in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The story is a parody of Shakespeare's \"Macbeth\" and some parts of \"Hamlet\" and \"King Lear\". Though the writing and dialogue is obscene and childish, the material began to express something deeper, an inner consciousness in a way that is similar to the Symbolists, with some critics considering Jarry a Symbolist author. As the play begins, Ubu's wife convinces him to lead a revolution, and kills the King of Poland and most of the royal family. The King's son, Bougrelas, and the Queen escape, but the latter later dies. The ghost of the dead king appears to his son and calls for revenge. Back at the palace, Ubu, now King, begins heavily taxing the people and killing the nobles for their wealth. Ubu's henchman gets thrown into prison; who then escapes to Russia, where he has the Tsar declare war on Ubu. As Ubu heads out to confront the invading Russians, his wife tries to steal the money and treasures in the palace. She is driven away by Bougrelas, who is leading a revolt of the people against Ubu. She runs away to her husband, Ubu, who has, in the meantime, been defeated by the Russians, been abandoned by his followers, and been attacked by a bear. Ubu's wife pretends to be the angel Gabriel, in order to try to scare Ubu into forgiving her for her attempt to steal from him. They fight, and she is rescued by the entrance of Bougrelas, who is after Ubu. Ubu knocks down the attackers with the body of the dead bear, after which he and his wife flee to France, which ends the play. The action contains motifs found in the plays of Shakespeare: a king's murder and a scheming wife from \"Macbeth\", the ghost from \"Hamlet\", Fortinbras' revolt from \"Hamlet\", the reneging of Buckingham's reward from \"Richard III\", and the pursuing bear from \"The Winter's Tale\". It also includes other cultural references, for example, to Sophocles' \"Oedipus Rex\" (\"Œdipe Roi\" in French) in the play's title. \"Ubu Roi\" is considered a descendant of the comic grotesque French Renaissance author François Rabelais and his \"Gargantua and Pantagruel\" novels. The language of the play is a unique mix of slang code-words, puns and near-gutter vocabulary, set to strange speech patterns.", "\"The beginnings of the original Ubu\", writes Jane Taylor, \"have attained the status of legend within French theatre culture\". In 1888, when he became a student at the Lycée in Rennes at the age of fifteen, Jarry encountered a brief farcical sketch, \"Les Polonais\", written by his friend Henri Morin, and Henri's brother Charles. This farce was part of a campaign by the students to ridicule their physics teacher, Félix-Frederic Hébert (1832–1917). \"Les Polonais\" depicted their teacher as the King of an imaginary Poland, and was one of many plays created around Père Hébé, the character that, in Jarry's hands, eventually evolved into King Ubu. \"Les Polonais\" was performed as a marionette play by the students at their homes in what they called the \"Theatre des Phynances\", named in honor of Père Hébert's lust for \"phynance\" (finance), or money. This prototype for \"Ubu Roi\" is long-lost, so the true and complete details of the authorship of \"Ubu Roi\" may never be known. It is clear, however, that Jarry considerably revised and expanded the play. While his schoolmates lost interest in the Ubu legends when they left school, Jarry continued adding to and reworking the material for the rest of his short life. His plays are controversial for their scant respect to royalty, religion and society, their vulgarity and scatology, their brutality and low comedy, and their perceived utter lack of literary finish.", "According to Jane Taylor, \"the central character is notorious for his infantile engagement with his world. Ubu inhabits a domain of greedy self-gratification\". Jarry's metaphor for the modern man, he is an antihero—fat, ugly, vulgar, gluttonous, grandiose, dishonest, stupid, jejune, voracious, greedy, cruel, cowardly and evil—who grew out of schoolboy legends about the imaginary life of a hated teacher who had been at one point a slave on a Turkish galley, at another frozen in ice in Norway and at one more the King of Poland. \"Ubu Roi\" follows and explores his political, martial and felonious exploits. \"There is\", writes Taylor, \"a particular kind of pleasure for an audience watching these infantile attacks. Part of the satisfaction arises from the fact that in the burlesque mode which Jarry invents, there is no place for consequence. While Ubu may be relentless in his political aspirations, and brutal in his personal relations, he apparently has no measurable effect upon those who inhabit the farcical world which he creates around himself. He thus acts out our most childish rages and desires, in which we seek to gratify ourselves at all cost\". The derived adjective \"ubuesque\" is recurrent in French and francophone political debate.", "Both \"Ubu Cocu\" and \"Ubu Roi\" have a convoluted history, going through decades of rewriting and, in the case of the former, never arriving, despite Jarry's exertions, at a definitive version. By the time Jarry wanted \"Ubu Roi\" published and staged, the Morins had lost their interest in schoolboy japes, and Henri gave Jarry permission to do whatever he wanted with them. Charles, however, later tried to claim credit, but it had never been a secret that he had had some involvement with the earliest version. The first word of the play (\"merdre\", the French word for \"shit\", with an extra \"r\") may have been part of the reason for the response to the play in Paris. At the end of the performance a riot broke out, an incident which has since become \"a stock element of Jarry biographia\". After this, \"Ubu Roi\" was outlawed from the stage, and Jarry moved it to a puppet theatre. Jarry said to the audience in a curtain speech just before that first performance in Paris: \"You are free to see in M. Ubu however many allusions you care to, or else a simple puppet—a school boy's caricature of one of his teachers who personified for him all the ugliness in the world\". The poet W. B. Yeats, though he did not understand French, attended the premiere with a companion who interpreted the action for him. He recalled, in his memoir \"The Trembling of the Veil\", his dismay that the play challenged the symbolist, spiritual-themed literature he advocated: \"Feeling bound to support the most spirited party, we have shouted for the play, but that night at the Hotel Corneille I am very sad, for comedy, objectivity, has displayed its growing power once more. I say, 'After Stéphane Mallarmé, after Paul Verlaine, after Gustave Moreau, after Puvis de Chavannes, after our own verse, after all our subtle colour and nervous rhythm, after the faint mixed tints of Conder, what more is possible? After us the Savage God.'”.", "", "In 1936 Tadeusz Boy-Żeleński, the great Polish modernist and prolific writer and translator created in Polish \"Ubu Król czyli Polacy\" (\"King Ubu, otherwise, The Poles\"). Some of his phraseology in the play has passed into the language. In 1990, at the invitation of the Munich Opera, Krzysztof Penderecki wrote the Opera buffa on Jarry's theme, entitled \"Ubu Rex\" staged on 8 July 1991 for the opening of the Munich Opera Festival. The production was later put on in Poland in 2003. The first English translation was \"Ubu Roi. Drama in Five acts followed by the Song of Disembraining\" by Barbara Wright for which she wrote the preface. It was illustrated by Franciszka Themerson and published by the Gaberbocchus Press in 1951. In 1964 the Stockholm Puppet theatre produced a highly popular version of \"Ubu Roi\" directed by Michael Meschke and scenery by Franciszka Themerson. \"Ubu Roi\" was translated into Serbian in 1964 by and performed at Atelje 212 theatre in Belgrade for the next 20 years when Zoran Radmilović who played Père Ubu, died. The play was so successful at the box-office that it was adapted into a movie in 1973. \"Ubu Roi\" was translated into Czech by Jiří Voskovec and Jan Werich as \"Král Ubu\", and premiered in 1928 at Osvobozené divadlo. The play was banned in Czechoslovakia after the 1968 Soviet invasion. The play was the basis for Jan Lenica's animated film \"Ubu et la Grande Gidouille\" (1976). In 1976–1977 Oakley Hall III translated and adapted \"Ubu Roi\" (called \"Ubu Rex\") and its sequels, and directed them in New York City Off-Off-Broadway and at the Lexington Conservatory Theatre in Lexington, New York. The adaptations starred Richard Zobel, who also produced the play and created the masks for it. In Lithuania (then part of the USSR) the play was adapted as \"Karalius Ūbas\" by director Jonas Vaitkus in 1983. The play has been adapted for an opera with libretto by Michael Finnissy and Andrew Toovey with music by Andrew Toovey. Production by the Banff Centre Theatre, Canada, in collaboration with Music Theatre Wales (May 1992). Directed by Keith Turnbull. A musical adaptation, \"Ubu Rock\", book by Andrei Belgrader and Shelly Berc, music and lyrics by Rusty Magee, premiered at the American Repertory Theater in 1995 and was remounted at ART the following year. The play was adapted for the Czech film \"Král Ubu\", directed by F. A. Brabec in 1996. The film received three Czech Lion Awards. Sherry C. M. Lindquist's adaptation was performed in Chicago, at The Public Theater in New York City, at the International Festival of Puppet Theater, and at the Edison Theater, St. Louis, Missouri, by Hystopolis Productions, Chicago, from 1996 to 1997. Jane Taylor adapted \"Ubu Roi\" as \"Ubu and the Truth Commission\" (1998), a play critical of the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, which was formed in response to the atrocities committed during apartheid.", "In Poland the play was adapted for the film \"Ubu Król\" (2003) by Piotr Szulkin, highlighting the grotesque nature of political life in Poland immediately after the fall of communism. The play was translated by David Ball in \"The Norton Anthology of Drama\" in 2010, and performed at the University of Virginia the same year. Inspired by the black comedy of corruption within \"Ubu Roi\", the Puerto Rican absurdist narrative \"United States of Banana\" (2011) by Giannina Braschi dramatizes, with over-the-top grotesque flourishes of \"pataphysics\", the fall of the American Empire and the liberation of Puerto Rico. The play was adapted and directed by Dash Kruck as part of Vena Cava Production's 2013 mainstage season. Performed in Brisbane, Australia, the adaptation made cultural political references to Queensland's Premier Campbell Newman, even including him in the show's promotional poster. In 2014, Toronto's One Little Goat Theatre Company produced \"Ubu Mayor: A Harmful Bit of Fun\", combining the \"merde\"-filled sensibilities of \"Ubu Roi\" with the internationally renowned antics, absurdities and obscenities of Toronto's mayor Rob Ford and his brother Doug. In 2016, the play was adapted by Jared Strange into \"UBU ROY: An American Tale\", an updated version of the original play through the lens of the 2016 United States presidential election. The show opened November 3, 2016, in Lubbock, Texas, as the Lubbock Community Theatre's first play in their \"LCT After Dark\" season. In 2020, the play was adapted and set in modern-day Tasmania, taking place on a purpose-built stage in the Cataract Gorge. In 2020, the play was also adapted into a musical by Kneehigh Theatre company. In February 2020, Vernal & Sere Theatre staged a world-premiere adaptation in Atlanta, GA called \"UBU\", which imagined the titular character of King Ubu as a headmaster walking the halls of a quintessential American schoolyard and called into question the fundamental system by which the United States governs and instructs its citizenry.", "Alfred Jarry is one of the few real figures to appear among the many literary characters in \"Les Faux-Monnayeurs\" (\"The Counterfeiters\"), by André Gide. In Part III, Chapter 8, Jarry attends a literary banquet, where the fictional Comte de Passavant introduces him as the author of \"Ubu Roi\", saying that they (the literary set) \"lui confèrent du génie, parce que le public vient de siffler sa pièce. C'est tout de même ce qu'on a donné le plus curieux au théâtre depuis longtemps\". They \"have dubbed him a genius because the public have just damned his play. All the same, it's the most interesting thing that's been put on the stage for a long time\". Joan Miró used \"Ubu Roi\" as a subject of his 50 1940 lithographs called the Barcelona Series. These pictures could be Ubu Roi but they also satirise General Franco and his generals after he had won the Spanish Civil War. In her book \"Linda McCartney's Sixties: Portrait of an Era\", Linda McCartney mentions that Paul had become interested in avant-garde theatre and immersed himself in the writings of Jarry. This is how McCartney discovered the word \"pataphysical\", which he used in the lyrics of his song \"Maxwell's Silver Hammer\". The Walter Jon Williams' novel \"Angel Station\" is based on the plot. Puerto Rican novelist Giannina Braschi's postmodern dramatic novel United States of Banana is a metaphorical riff on Ubu Roi. The American experimental rock group Pere Ubu is named after the main character. Their 2009 album \"Long Live Père Ubu!\" is an adaptation of Jarry's play. Dead Can Dance's frontman Brendan Perry makes a reference to Père Ubu in the song \"The Bogus Man\" (on his second solo album \"Ark\") with the line \"Hail, Father Ubu, here comes the Grand Guignol\". The figure of Ubu Roi, particularly as depicted by Jarry in his woodcut, appears to have inspired the character Oogie Boogie in Tim Burton's animated film \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\". Television producer Gary David Goldberg named his dog Ubu and his production company Ubu Productions after Ubu Roi. Australian band Methyl Ethel's song \"Ubu\" contains references to the play." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Economic development.", "Local services.", "Education.", "Recreation.", "Transportation.", "Places of worship.", "Health.", "Nearby Pangnirtung.", "Small craft harbour.", "Broadband communications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "There is some confusion about the village name. Residents say the real name is \"Pangniqtuuq\", which means \"the place of many bull caribou\". Early in 2005 residents voted against officially changing the name of the village to the native one, as Pangnirtung has achieved an international reputation. Its residents have created high-quality traditional arts in sculpture, as well as adaptation of themes and design in printmaking and weaving. Pangnirtung is nicknamed the \"Switzerland of the Arctic\", or simply Pang.", "The Inuit and their ancestors have inhabited the area for thousands of years, perhaps as long as 4,000. Their cultures became well-adapted to the climate and environment. Contact with European Canadians has been limited to less than the last century. In 1921, the Hudson's Bay Company established a trading post in Pangnirtung. Two years later, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police erected a permanent office. The first government-appointed teacher arrived in 1956. The first administrative office was established in 1962. Since then, numerous Inuit have achieved success with marketing their traditional arts. They transformed traditional drawing skills to produce lithographs and other forms of prints, allowing reproduction and wider distribution of their work. Other artists have made sculptures and carvings in local stone. Since the government established a weaving studio in 1970, many Inuit have learned to weave and are producing tapestries and other works that find an international market.", "The community operates a turbot fishery. In 2008, the federal government budgeted for the construction of a harbour. Pangnirtung Fisheries Limited operates a packing plant to process local turbot catches. Founded in 1992 during peak summer operations the company has 40 employees. Auyuittuq Lodge is the hamlet's only hotel, which comprises 25 rooms, shared facilities, a dining room, and a lounge.", "Power is supplied to Pangnirtung via stand alone diesel generators. Fuel is imported via tanker and stored in a tank farm near the Pangnirtung Airport. The purchase of diesel fuel is the responsibility of the government of Nunavut. Water, sewage, and garbage services are provided by the municipality of Pangnirtung. Water trucks fill up at a reservoir adjacent to the hamlet and is delivered seven days a week. Sewage is pumped out and treated at the municipal treatment plant. Garbage is picked up five days a week and transported to a landfill that slowly deteriorates due to Arctic temperatures. For emergency services it is protected by the 14 member Pangnirtung Fire Department. The fire service uses one pumper with one older reserve from one station. Policing is provided by the RCMP Pangnirtung Detachment attached to V Division. Mini C, Northern Store and Inuit Co-Operative are the only local retailers and grocery options. The Northern Store also home to the only fast food in town, namely Quickstop, KFC Express and Pizza Hut. Perishable goods are ship by air and all other items by sealift when waters are ice free. There are no banks in town so transactions are done on credit or money orders. Gas for cars or snowmobile is done at Quickstop.", "There are two schools in Pangnirtung: Post secondary studies it opportunities can be made through Nunavut Arctic College's Community Learning Centre.", "Aksayuk Arena is a sports and recreational centre.", "Like all Nunavut communities Pangnirtung is a fly-in community with no road access to the rest of Nunavut. Pangnirtung Airport provides the only viable means of access. There are gravel roads in the community and residents use SUV's, pickup trucks, 4-wheel ATV's and snowmobiles.", "Two churches can be found in Pangnirtung:", "Basic medical services are available at the Health Centre. Four beds are available for assessment only, with advance care via medevac in Iqaluit.", "Pangnirtung is the nearest town (1 hour by boat) to Auyuittuq National Park and the location of one of two park offices, the other is in Qikiqtarjuaq. Located near to the Parks Canada office is the Angmarlik Visitor Centre. Iglunga, now uninhabited, is an Inuit hamlet to the west.", "In 2009 Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper proposed building a new modern harbour in Pangnirtung to support the region's turbot-fishing industry. Harper received a warm welcome with many residents gathered at the airport to greet him. The town's 1,500 residents listened as Harper announced that $17 million worth of harbour construction promised in the last two budgets would get under way in the fall of that year. Harper said the greatest potential for the hamlet's future lies in the inshore turbot fishery. The shortfalls of the previous harbour were a big problem for fishermen: When the tide receded, the harbour turned to mud. The work on the harbour was completed in September 2013. The entire project ended up costing about $40.5 million. The improvements to the harbour include a fixed wharf, breakwater, marshalling area, sea lift ramp and a dredged channel and basin. The improvements will allow residents to unload their catches faster by allowing smaller crafts to dock easily and safely.", "The community has been served by the Qiniq network since 2005. Qiniq is a fixed wireless service to homes and businesses, connecting to the outside world via a satellite backbone. The Qiniq network is designed and operated by SSI Micro. In 2017, the network was upgraded to 4G LTE technology, and 2G-GSM for mobile voice." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Althaea was the daughter of King Thestius and Eurythemis, and was sister to Leda, Hypermnestra, Iphiclus, Euippus. She was also the wife of Oeneus, king of Calydon, and mother of sons, Meleager, Toxeus, Thyreus (Pheres or Phereus), Clymenus, Agelaus (Ageleus), Periphas and daughters, Deianeira, Gorge, Melanippe and Eurymede (the latter two were included in the Meleagrids). According to some writers, Meleager was the result of a liaison with the Greek god Ares, and Deianeira the progeny of Althaea and the god Dionysus. In some accounts, Ancaeus was called her son by the god Poseidon.", "Althaea is especially celebrated in ancient story about the fate of her son Meleager; they became the cause of each other's deaths. When Meleager was born, the Moirai (the Fates) predicted he would only live until a brand, burning in the family hearth, was consumed by fire. In Aeschylus' \"Libation Bearers\" Althaea is mentioned by the Chorus of captive slaves, serving women of Clytemnestra, in a recollection of 'hatreds that stopped at nothing'. Meleager grew to be a well-respected prince. One spring Oeneus sacrificed the first fruits of the seasons to all the gods, omitting Artemis by mistake. Enraged by the slight, Artemis sent a boar of unnatural size and strength to ruin the land of Calydon. Meleager was one of the warriors who hunted the boar, along with the famous huntress Atalanta and Althaea's brothers. Meleager killed the boar, but gave the skin to Atalanta both because he had fallen in love with her and because she had landed the first blow on the animal. When Althaea's brothers, “thinking scorn that a woman should get the prize in the face of men, took the skin from her, alleging that it belonged to them by right of birth if Meleager did not choose to take it,” Meleager flew into a rage and killed both of his uncles. When Althaea learned what had happened, she retrieved the brand from where she had concealed it and placed the brand back upon the fire, killing him. Some say that she and Meleager's wife Cleopatra later hanged themselves, others that she killed herself with a dagger." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geology.", "Geography.", "Annexation.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "2010 Census data.", "2000 Census data.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Attractions.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Fishing.", "Wind sports.", "Government.", "Municipal government.", "State and federal representation.", "Education.", "Colleges and universities.", "Schools.", "Corpus Christi Independent School District.", "Libraries.", "Transportation.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Karankawans inhabited the Corpus Christi region in pre-Columbian times. Spaniard Alonso Alvarez de Pineda traveled in 1519 to this bay on the day of the religious Feast of Corpus Christi, so named the semitropical bay Corpus Christi. Cabeza de Vaca may have passed through Corpus Christi in the 1500s, but the first European to study the Nueces River and Corpus Christi Bay was Joaquín de Orobio y Basterra in 1747. A few years later, José de Escandón organized a colony of about 50 families to settle the head of the bay, though this was short-lived. In 1839, the first known permanent settlement of Corpus Christi was established by Colonel Henry Lawrence Kinney and William P. Aubrey as Kinney's Trading Post, or Kinney's Ranch. It was a small trading post that sold supplies to a Mexican revolutionary army camped about west. In July 1845, U.S. troops commanded by General Zachary Taylor set up camp there in preparation for war with Mexico, where they remained until March 1846. About a year later, the settlement was named Corpus Christi and was incorporated on September 9, 1852. The Battle of Corpus Christi was fought between August 12 and August 18, 1862, during the American Civil War. United States Navy forces blockading Texas fought a small land and sea engagement with Confederate forces in and around Corpus Christi Bay and bombarded the city. Union forces defeated Confederate States Navy ships operating in the area, but were repulsed when they landed on the coast. The Port of Corpus Christi was opened in 1926, and the Corpus Christi Naval Air Station was commissioned in 1941. The 1919 Storm devastated the city, killing hundreds on September 14. Only three structures survived the storm on North Beach. To protect the city, the seawall was built. The city also suffered damage from Hurricane Celia in 1970 and Hurricane Allen in 1980, but little damage from Hurricane Ike in 2008. In 2017, the city was affected by Hurricane Harvey.", "Corpus Christi is situated on fluvial deposits that are of Holocene – Pleistocene age. Although no solidified rock occurs naturally at the surface, the Deweyville Formation of sand, silt, clay, and gravel, is locally indurated with calcium carbonate (caliche) deposits. In 2017, Hurricane Harvey's storm surge eroded down to shale bedrock at a depth around 40 ft in Packery Channel, an artificial pass cut between North Padre and Mustang Islands. This feature has become a gathering place for game fish, and can be identified from the surface by its whirlpool-like current. The large, shallow bay makes Corpus Christi an ideal feeding place for birds, and this is one reason why Corpus Christi is known as the \"Bird Capital\" of North America. Consequently, the San Diego Audubon Society has designated Corpus Christi as \"America's birdiest place\".", "According to the United States Census Bureau, Corpus Christi has a total area of 460.2 square miles (1,192.0 km), of which 154.6 mi (400.5 km, 33.60%) are land and 305.6 mi (791.5 km, 66.40%) are covered by water. Drinking water for the city is supplied by three reservoirs, Lake Corpus Christi, the Choke Canyon Reservoir, and Lake Texana. Through an effective regional partnership with the Nueces River Authority and the Port of Corpus Christi Authority, a pipeline was built which transports water from Lake Texana to the city's O.N. Stevens Water Treatment Plant. It was named the Mary Rhodes Pipeline, after the late mayor. Phase two of the pipeline is underway to draw water from the Colorado River. All reservoirs are outside the city limits, but Lake Corpus Christi and Choke Canyon Reservoir are managed directly by the public utility of the City of Corpus Christi. To support future water needs, plans are being completed to build a desalinization plant.", "Since its founding, the city has annexed nearby lands and waters for growth and development purposes. The original area encompassed several city blocks in present-day downtown Corpus Christi with the majority of city expansion occurring in the 20th century.", "The city has a humid subtropical climate, with hot, very humid summers and very short, mild winters. In November through February, the weather is the coolest. A noticeable warming trend occurs in March through April. The warmest part of the year is June through September, with August being the peak of summer. October in the city is very warm, but not as hot as the summer. The city itself much like the Gulf Coast of Texas experiences just two seasons, a wet season from April to October and a dry season from November to March. Corpus Christi is very windy, with wind speeds often reaching to with gusts reaching more than. The city's record high temperature is, on September 5, 2000, and the hottest month August 2012 with an average of. Average night-time winter lows in January, the coldest month, are a little less than and its record low is on February 12, 1899, and the coldest maximum on five occasions, the most recent being on January 30, 1951. Winter and early spring are generally dry, and average monthly precipitation is highest in September, when the threat from hurricanes and other tropical weather systems is greatest. The coolest month on record has been February 1905, with a mean of. In December 2004, the city experienced snowfall on Christmas Eve, the city's largest recorded snowstorm at. The snow melted the day after Christmas. The city experienced light snowfall a second time, on December 8, 2017, nearly 13 years later. Between 1981 and 2010, Corpus Christi averaged of rainfall; however, long periods with very little rainfall are normal, and hurricanes can frequently produce daily falls of over. The wettest day on record is July 2, 2007, with, while the wettest month on record is September 1967, with, including four days with over. Eight months with not even a trace of rainfall have happened, of which the most recent was May 1998, and 21 with merely a trace. The longest spell without measurable rainfall in Corpus Christi has been 55 days from June 23 to August 17 (inclusive) of 1895, and from June 1 to July 25 of 1915, while easily the driest calendar year has been 1917, with a mere. The two wettest calendar years have been 1888 with and 1991 with, although from August 1967 to July 1968, fell, and for the 12 months ending January 1918, only. Hurricanes rarely hit the city, but those which have been destructive, such as the 1919 Florida Keys hurricane and Hurricane Harvey in 2017.", "", "At the 2010 Census, 305,215 people resided in Corpus Christi, a 10.0% increase since 2000. In 2012, Corpus Christi was ranked as the second-least literate city in the U.S. in a study by Central Connecticut State University. According to the 2010 Census, 80.9% of Corpus Christi's population was White; 4.3% was African American; 1.8% Asian; 0.1% Pacific Islander; 10.4% of some other race; and 2.5% of two or more races. About 62.23% of Corpus Christi's population was of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race, and 33.3% of the population was non-Hispanic White, down from 56% in 1970.", "At the census of 2000, 277,454 people, 98,791 households, and 70,437 families resided in the city. The population density was 1,794.2 people per square mile (692.7/km). The 107,831 housing units averaged 697.3 per square mile (269.2/km). The racial makeup of the city was 71.62% White, 4.67% African American, 0.64% Native American, 1.28% Asian, 0.08% Pacific Islander, 18.58% from other races, and 3.13% from two or more races. Hispanics of any race were 54.33% of the population. Of the 98,791 households, 36.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.9% were married couples living together, 15.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.7% were not families. About 23.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.75 and the average family size was 3.27. In the city, the population was distributed as 28.1% under the age of 18, 10.6% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 21.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.2 males. The median income for a family was $41,672. Males had a median income of $31,863 versus $22,616 for females. The per capita income for the city was $17,419. About 14.1% of families and 17.6% of the population were below the poverty line, including 22.9% of those under age 18 and 15.5% of those ages 65 or over.", "The majority of the population is employed in the services, wholesale and retail trades, and government sectors. Corpus Christi has an unemployment rate of 4.5% as of July 2019. The Port of Corpus Christi, which is the fifth-largest U.S. port and deepest inshore port on the Gulf of Mexico, handles mostly oil and agricultural products. Much of the local economy is driven by tourism and the oil and petrochemicals industry. In 2005, the port was ranked as the 47th-largest in the world by cargo tonnage. Corpus Christi is home to Naval Air Station Corpus Christi, providing 6,200 civilian jobs to the local economy, making it the single largest employer in the city. Corpus Christi Army Depot, located on NAS Corpus Christi, is the largest helicopter repair facility in the world. Additionally located on NAS Corpus Christi is the United States Coast Guard Sector/Air Station Corpus Christi. Corpus Christi is the original home of the headquarters of Whataburger, a fast-food restaurant operator and franchiser with 650 stores in 10 states and Mexico; however, the company relocated its headquarters to San Antonio in 2009. Other large employers include CHRISTUS Spohn Health System at 5,400 local employees, the Corpus Christi Independent School District with 5,178, H-E-B at 5,000, and Bay Ltd. at 2,100. Other companies based in Corpus Christi include Stripes Convenience Stores and AEP Texas. Corpus Christi became the first major city to offer citywide free wi-fi in April 2005 to allow remote meter reading after a meter reader was attacked by a dog. In 2007, the network was purchased by Earthlink for $5.5 million, and stopped being a free service on May 31, 2007.", "Various sections of Corpus Christi maintain distinct senses of identity and community from the city proper, especially the Calallen and Flour Bluff areas.", "The city is home to a number of popular destinations for both tourists and residents. The official visitor and tourism information organization is the Corpus Christi Convention and Visitors Bureau. Some of the most visited attractions are located on North Beach, where the Texas State Aquarium and the Museum on the Bay are located. USS \"Lexington\" was also part of the set for the 2000 film \"Pearl Harbor\". Corpus Christi's museum district is located near USS \"Lexington\". Some attractions located in the museum district are the Museum of Asian Cultures, the Corpus Christi Museum of Science and History, the South Texas Institute for the Arts, and the Harbor Playhouse Theatre, one of the oldest continually operating community theatres in Texas. Heritage Park is also in the museum district, where a number of older restored houses can be found. The downtown area, of which the museum district is a part, is home to skyscrapers such as One Shoreline Plaza, company offices, various shops, a popular center of marinas, and Mirador de la Flor. Downtown also is home of the Texas Surf Museum, which explores the history of surfing and focuses on surf culture along Texas' coast, as well as K Space Contemporary, a nonprofit art organization promoting and presenting local, regional, and national contemporary art. The Corpus Christi Botanical Gardens and Nature Center, also located in the city, hosts gardening programs from time to time. On Oso Bay near the Pharaoh Valley subdivision, the Hans and Pat Suter Wildlife Refuge is known for seabird-watching. The nearby Pharaohs golf course also serves as a haven for coastal and migratory birds. Directly east of Corpus Christi are Padre Island and Mustang Island, home to various municipal, state, and national parks, most notably the Padre Island National Seashore. The city is also near King Ranch, one of the world's largest ranches, upon which the movie \"Giant\" was based.", "Corpus Christi has professional sports to offer residents and visitors. The city is home to the Corpus Christi IceRays of the North American Hockey League and the Corpus Christi Hooks are the AA minor-league baseball club for the Houston Astros, which play in the Texas League. Year-round NCAA Division I collegiate athletics may be found at Texas A&M-Corpus Christi as the Islanders compete in 14 men's and women's sports as a member of the Southland Conference. Sailing races are held weekly off downtown's T-heads every Wednesday, where spectators watch vessels competing at sunset. Additionally, Corpus Christi is also home to the Corpus Christi Rugby Football Club, which is a member of the Texas Rugby Union, an affiliate of the Western Rugby Union and of the United States Rugby Football Union.", "The city's location beside Corpus Christi Bay, the Gulf of Mexico, and Laguna Madre provides opportunities for water sports and nature tourism. Waterfowl hunting is available in the region for duck, geese, coot, and teal. White-winged dove and mourning dove are also hunted on private leases. The brushland inland from Corpus Christi is also ideal for hunting feral hogs and white-tailed deer.", "Fishing is a popular recreational activity in Corpus Christi, including fishing from various piers around Corpus Christi Bay, wade fishing in Oso Bay, and fishing from the Gulf of Mexico at Packery Channel or at Bob Hall Pier.", "The city has one of the highest average wind speeds of coastal cities in North America. Combined with the Bay Front area along Ocean Drive, making the city an important destination for wind sports such as kite boarding, wind surfing, kite flying, and sailing. In 1990, Corpus Christi hosted the Windsurfing World Championships. In 2018, Corpus Christi hosted the 2018 Youth Sailing World Championships. The Corpus Christi Skate Park opened on February 17, 2007. It is located in Cole Park on the shoreline of the Corpus Christi Bay near downtown. The concrete park includes a skating bowl and a street course with stairs, railings, and flat surfaces. Being a coastal city, Corpus Christi is a good spot for seabird watching. Popular spots include Blucher Park in downtown, the Hans and Pat Suter Wildlife Refuge along Oso Bay, Hazel Bazemore County Park along the Nueces River in Calallen, and the South Texas Botanic Garden and Nature Center along the Oso Creek.", "", "In 1852, the City of Corpus Christi was incorporated. Texas' 31st Legislature chartered the city as a political and corporate municipal entity in 1909. By ordinance, the city possesses power to \"fix, alter and extend its boundaries.\" Corpus Christi is under a council-manager municipal government. The elected city council is the primary authority in municipal matters such as enacting local legislation, determining policies, and appointing the city manager. Together, the city council and city manager execute laws and administer the municipal government. Organized by governmental sectors of city council, city management, city secretary, and several city departments, Corpus Christi is seated in Nueces County. The city council currently consists of these elected members: Peter Zanoni, former deputy city manager of San Antonio, was appointed city manager in May 2019. Upon appointment, Zanoni created two new positions in his leadership team and appointed Michael Rodriguez as his Chief of Staff and Constance Sanchez as Chief Financial Officer. The city manager works alongside Assistant City Managers Mark Van Vleck, Samuel \"Keith\" Selman and Steven Viera. The city's intergovernmental relations director is Tammy Embrey. Rebecca L. Huerta serves as the city secretary. Former City Manager Margie C. Rose was appointed in 2016 and served as the first African-American city manager in Corpus Christi. Rose resigned in 2018. Selman served as interim city manager in 2018 following Rose's resignation and until the appointment of Zanoni. The Corpus Christi City Charter was adopted by public referendum in 1987, with amendments to the entire charter conducted January 19, 1991, and April 3, 1993. Further revisions to the charter were conducted on November 2, 2004, November 7, 2006, and November 8, 2016. The charter consists of 10 articles and 41 sections regarding stipulations of home rule government, city council and city manager procedures, administration, planning, boards and commissions, etc. The Code of Ordinances of Corpus Christi was codified through Ordinance No. 028493, and adopted Feb. 23, 2010. From 2012 to 2016, Nelda Martinez was mayor of Corpus Christi, the first Hispanic woman to the hold the office. On January 19, 2017, Corpus Christi Mayor Dan McQueen resigned from office after 37 days, an outgrowth of a comment by McQueen claiming that the city council members were only high school graduates and he was an engineer. He does not have an engineering degree and some college graduates are on the city council.", "The Texas 13th Court of Appeals is located in the Nueces County Courthouse in Corpus Christi. The Texas Department of Criminal Justice operates the Corpus Christi Parole Office in Corpus Christi. The United States Postal Service operates the Corpus Christi Post Office, the city's main post office, and several station post offices.", "", "Corpus Christi is home to several institutions of higher learning: Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi, Del Mar College, Saint Leo University-Corpus Christi and numerous vocational schools, including Southern Careers Institute, South Texas Vo-Tech, Career Centers of Texas-Corpus Christi, and Vogue Cosmetology School. The city is also home to Stark College and Seminary (formerly known as the South Texas School of Christian Studies) located on Ward Island alongside Texas A&M-Corpus Christi. Texas A&M University-Corpus Christi is a component of the Texas A&M University System. It was formerly known as Corpus Christi State University, Texas A&I University at Corpus Christi, and the University of Corpus Christi. Saint Leo University-Corpus Christi Education Center is located at Corpus Christi's Naval Air Station. Del Mar College is a local community college begun in the 1940s at a location behind Wynn Seale Jr. High School. The main campus began with the administration building, which was constructed after World War II on Del Mar. The college grew to encompass a good portion of a residential addition called Southmoreland built from the Bohemian farmlands in the late 1930s. Del Mar now includes a west campus located in the area of Corpus Christi that once was Cliff Maus Airport. Southern Careers Institute offers career training at two Corpus Christi locations, primarily in the medical, business, and cosmetology fields. In 2015, WalletHub ranked Corpus Christi near the bottom, 138 out of 150 cities in America, for its low educational level and low-income opportunities. To improve literacy levels in the city, a multiyear effort has been made to promote reading through annual literacy festivals. Started by First Lady Laura Bush and the Texas Book Festival, a series of book festivals is held each spring.", "Six school districts provide primary and secondary education for area residents: Corpus Christi Independent School District, Calallen ISD, Flour Bluff ISD, Tuloso-Midway ISD, West Oso ISD, and London ISD. The Roman Catholic Diocese of Corpus Christi provides the primary and secondary education for Catholic schools. Several Open Enrollment Charter Schools are in Corpus Christi. These public schools are: Accelerated Learning Center, Cesar E Chavez Academy, Corpus Christi College Preparatory HS, Corpus Christi Montessori School, Dr ML Garza-Gonzalez Charter School, GCCLR Institute of Technology, Premier HS of Corpus Christi, Richard Milburn Academy, School of Science and Technology, Seashore Learning Center, and Seashore Middle Academy.", "High Schools Middle Schools Elementary Schools Alternative", "Libraries in the city include: TexShare card holders also have limited borrowing privileges at these area libraries:", "Corpus Christi is served by Corpus Christi International Airport and Interstate 37. Interstate 69E/U.S. Highway 77 connects the city to Brownsville and Victoria. Texas State Highway 44 is a main thoroughfare that connects Corpus Christi to Laredo and the western part of South Texas by way of Interstate 69W/U.S. Highway 59, Interstate 35, and U.S. Highway 83. The inner-city public transportation is provided by Corpus Christi Regional Transportation Authority with its 28 bus routes. Corpus Christi once had a streetcar system functioning from 1910 to 1931 and a railway station (passenger service ended in 1965). Despite the convenience of a large harbor, the city does not have a passenger port. The city of Corpus Christi has a lower than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 8.5% of Corpus Christi households lacked a car, and decreased slightly to 7.9% in 2016. The national average was 8.7% in 2016. Corpus Christi averaged 1.77 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8. The city is accessed by two major bridges, the Harbor Bridge (US 181) and the John F. Kennedy Causeway (PR 22). Both bridges are maintained by the Texas Department of Transportation. Freight service from San Antonio to Corpus Christi is provided by the Union Pacific Railroad, but the original line, both freight and passenger, was the San Antonio, Uvalde and Gulf Railroad, which operated to Corpus Christi from 1913 to 1956. Then the SAU&G, or \"The Sausage\", as it was commonly called, was merged into the Missouri Pacific Railroad. It was subsequently procured by the Union Pacific.", "Corpus Christi keeps a thriving and active relationship with these sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Cycling.", "Auto racing.", "Early career.", "Formula One.", "Benetton (1997–2000).", "Testing (2001–2006).", "Williams (2007).", "Honda and Brawn GP (2008–2009).", "Williams (2012).", "Sportscars.", "Rallycross.", "Road safety.", "Medical car driver.", "Team management.", "Team Superfund.", "Personal life.", "Racing record.", "Complete Formula One results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "4", "4", "4", "4", "4", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Born in Waidhofen an der Thaya, Wurz first tasted competition in the BMX World Championship, which he won in 1986 at the age of 12. This gave him an underlying physical fitness suitable for motor racing. In 2000, Wurz returned somewhat to his cycling roots, starting an MTB team with countryman Markus Rainer. The team, Rainer-Wurz.com, is currently sponsored by sponsors McLaren, Siemens, and Cannondale amongst others. They are multiple World Cup winners. In the early 2000s, niche bicycle brand Katarga presented a limited edition high-end mountain bike called the Alexander Wurz EVO SL, whose frame prominently featured Wurz's autograph.", "", "Like most Formula One drivers, Wurz's motorsport career began with karting. In 1991, Wurz drove in Formula Ford. In 1993, he switched to the German Formula Three Championship. During his time in Formula 3, Wurz crashed out of the lead at a race at AVUS in 1995 after a collision with the safety car. From 1996, Wurz drove an Opel Calibra for the Joest Racing touring car team in the DTM. Also in 1996, Wurz, together with Davy Jones and Manuel Reuter, won the Le Mans 24 Hours and in so doing became the youngest ever winner of the 24-hour race, a record he still holds.", "", "Wurz's Formula One debut was on 15 June 1997 at Montreal for Benetton filling in for fellow Austrian Gerhard Berger, who couldn't race due to illness. Wurz impressed with a podium position in his third race (1997 British Grand Prix) before returning to being a test driver upon Berger's return to the cockpit at the German Grand Prix, which Berger won. However, Wurz was rewarded with a full-time race seat for the 1998 season with Benetton and spent three more seasons at the team, partnered each year by Giancarlo Fisichella. A strong start to 1998 suggested a bright future, and even attracted the interest of Ferrari, but the three-season stint at Benetton turned out to be a disappointment. Toward the end of his Benetton time, Fisichella produced better results, although in 1998 Fisichella had one point less than Wurz, finishing 9th whereas Wurz finished 8th in that Season with 17 points (together with Heinz-Harald Frentzen, who finished 7th.) and five 4th places. One notable race was the 1998 Monaco Grand Prix, where he was running 2nd ahead of Michael Schumacher for a brief period. His hopes of a podium finish were ruined when Schumacher tried to pass through at Loews hairpin, but collided together with him and like Schumacher's Ferrari, his suspension broke, causing him to spin off and crash at the Nouvelle Chicane exiting the tunnel. He retired and Schumacher finished 10th in the end after the German pitted for repairs. The 1999 season was a disappointment for both drivers with the uncompetitive B199 (although Fisichella scored a podium in Canada), but the 2000 season was disastrous for him, scoring points only at the Italian Grand Prix, while his teammate scored podium finishes three times. For 2001, Benetton's last season before its transformation into Renault, he was replaced with Jenson Button.", "In he took on the role of test driver for McLaren. In he was almost promoted as race driver for McLaren to replace Mika Häkkinen but he remained as test driver after Kimi Räikkönen took over. In April 2005, with Juan Pablo Montoya injured, Wurz drove for McLaren in the 2005 San Marino Grand Prix, finishing fourth in the race, but taking third place after both BAR-Honda drivers were disqualified. This gave him the record for the longest interval between podium finishes at eight years. Since signing to McLaren as test driver, Wurz had been eager to return to racing. At various times during this time he was linked in rumours to a return to a full race seat. His large size for a Formula One driver () caused some difficulties. In fact, because they were so sure he would be driving for Austrian-owned Red Bull Racing in, the designers at McLaren neglected to allow for his size, meaning he could not physically fit in the car. In he was strongly linked to a race seat at Jaguar, where the under-fire Antônio Pizzonia was struggling. However, McLaren were struggling with their abortive new car and blocked the move to retain Wurz as a development driver. Jaguar then decided to give Pizzonia more time to prove himself, before drafting in Justin Wilson.", "Alexander Wurz signed a deal with WilliamsF1 to become the team's official test and reserve driver at the beginning of 2006. He drove the third car at all Grand Prix Fridays in. It was announced on 3 August 2006 that Wurz would replace Mark Webber as a race driver at Williams for the season. This was Wurz's first full-time race drive since 2000, and his teammate was Nico Rosberg. At the Monaco GP on 27 May 2007, Wurz scored his first points for the Williams F1 team, finishing in 7th place after qualifying 11th. He came 3rd for the 3rd time in his F1 career at the Canadian Grand Prix on 10 June 2007, staying out of trouble from 19th on the grid in an action packed race. He actually damaged his rear wing early on in the race, but battled against it and finished on the podium. He nearly repeated this at the European Grand Prix, but just didn't make it past Mark Webber at the final chicane. That race turned of to be Wurz's last points finish and especially from now on, teammate Rosberg distanced him. The qualifying for the Japanese Grand Prix, where Rosberg started from 16th on the grid, although he lost 10 places due to an engine change in practice, and Wurz started even further back in 18th without being put further back on the grid. On 8 October 2007 Wurz announced his immediate retirement from Formula One, meaning that the 2007 Chinese Grand Prix was his final race. The official Formula One website announced that \"Williams driver Alexander Wurz has confirmed that he is to retire from Formula One racing with immediate effect\". Wurz himself also released a statement saying \"I would like to thank my family and fans, everyone at AT&T Williams and my previous teams, as well as the media, for all of their support during my Formula One racing career. I may race again, perhaps in Le Mans or other categories and certainly some of my time will now be committed to the very important subject of road safety.\" The 33-year-old cited doubts over his own commitment as the main reason for his departure despite having a relatively successful season racing with Williams. He was replaced by Williams test driver Kazuki Nakajima for the final race of the 2007 season in Brazil.", "Wurz was the Honda F1 test driver for the 2008 Formula One season, a role he kept on the transition to Brawn GP in.", "For the 2012 Formula One season, Wurz rejoined the Williams F1 Team, this time to guide the team's inexperienced drivers Bruno Senna and Pastor Maldonado.", "Wurz signed with Peugeot to be part of their driving squad for the 2008 24 Hours of Le Mans and he also participated 1000km of Spa in the Le Mans Series. In 2009, together with Marc Gené and David Brabham, he took outright victory in the Le Mans 24 Hours, driving a works Peugeot. The 13-year gap between Wurz's victories is the largest in the event's history. Together with his victory in 2010 of the 12hrs race of Sebring with Marc Gené and Anthony Davidson and his victory of the 1000 miles race of Road Atlanta with Stéphane Sarrazin and Franck Montagny in 2011 it made him win the 3 big Sportscar Classic Races in a Peugeot 908. Wurz continued to race for Peugeot Sport Total through 2010 and 2011, though no further Le Mans wins were forthcoming. In November 2011, Toyota Motorsports confirmed Wurz as one of their factory drivers for the companies planned return to the 24 Heures du Mans in 2012. Wurz will drive their new LMP1 Hybrid Prototype alongside Nicolas Lapierre and Kazuki Nakajima.", "In May 2018 Wurz announced that he would follow in the footsteps of his father by making his competitive rallycross debut at the FIA World Rallycross Championship's World RX of Norway at Lånkebanen the following month, driving a Ford Fiesta Supercar for MJP Racing Team Austria.", "Wurz is involved in many projects regarding road safety and driver education and training. In 2006, he and his father founded the company \"Test and Training International\", a leader in the field of road safety and driver training. He also works closely with the FIA (Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile), since 2011 as an operating partner of the FIA Institute Young Driver Excellence Academy.", "In the 2008 Singapore Grand Prix, Wurz drove the medical car after regular driver Jacques Tropenat fell ill.", "", "Wurz lodged an entry for his own team into Formula One (announced on 31 May 2009) but the application was unsuccessful. Team Superfund was one of several new applicants hoping to compete in the sport from the 2010 season onwards. It was believed that Wurz would prefer to align the team with an existing constructor based in the UK, perhaps renting space, facilities and staff from its factory, while Superfund takes time to build up its own headquarters, possibly based on existing resources in Austria. The team would have been funded by Christian Baha, the owner of the Superfund Group, and the cars would be powered by Cosworth engines.", "Wurz is the second son of former rallycross driver Franz Wurz, who won the European Rallycross Championship in 1974, 1976 and 1982. Wurz is married to Julia Horden and has three sons: Charlie, Felix and Oscar. He used to race with different coloured boots on each foot, but since his return to racing in 2007, he wears matching pairs. On 10 November 2015 Wurz announced via his Twitter that after 20 years he would retire from racing.", "", "Driver did not finish the Grand Prix, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Refugee Camp (Bundesbetreuungsstelle für Asylwerber).", "Issues.", "Education.", "Schools.", "Police education school.", "Issues.", "Sights.", "Franz-Koller Observatory.", "St. Nicholas Church.", "St. Margaret Church.", "Lutheran Church.", "The Geldscheisser.", "Malt Factory.", "Castle of Moellersdorf.", "Castle of Tribuswinkel.", "Basketball." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Traiskirchen is home of the largest refugee camp in Austria and one of the largest of these camps in the EU. The refugee camp is based in the centre of Traiskirchen on the area of the formally Imperial Artillery Cadet School which was built in 1900. The Cadet School Traiskirchen could accommodate up to 340 cadets, 160 person staff and 110 horses (for riding lessons). During the time of the Allied-occupied Austria, a barrack of the Soviet army (about 2000 Soviet armored troops) and a hospital were housed in the former buildings until the autumn of 1955. The buildings have been first used from the government as a refugee camp 1956 - 1960. The camp was used as a shelter for Hungarian refugees who left their country according to the Hungarian Revolution in November in 1956 for the first time. 113,810 people came to Austria on the 5th of the month and 6000 were taken to the camp in Traiskirchen. This was the first large use as a refugee camp and according to this act further decisions to host refugees from around the world were taken. The Federal Ministry of the Interior assigned an amount of 20 million Schilling (€1.45 million) for the renovation of the building substance on 8 March 1957. Even after the Prague Spring (1968 ) Czech and Slovak refugees were brought here. In the 1970s and 1980s, refugees mainly from Eastern Europe, but also from Uganda, Chile, Iran, Iraq, Vietnam have been accommodated. Many prominent refugees found initial reception here: The later Vienna State Opera Director Ioan Holender as well as the journalist Paul Lendvai. In May 1990 it was announced by the Mayor of Traiskirchen that according to promise of the Minister of the Interior the institute will be closed permanently. This plan was rejected because only a few refugees could be accommodated up elsewhere during the year 1990 and it was likely to accommodate new refugees from the Soviet Union in January 1991. In 1993, the refugee camp was renamed the Asylum Office of the Federal Ministry of the Interior (\"Bundesbetreuungsstelle für Asylwerber\"). In 2015, as a result of the European migrant crisis, the Asylum Office in Traiskirchen had to admit a rising number of illegal immigrants. Due to heavy criticism by the press and civilians alike, Amnesty International inspected the facility on August 6, 2015. More than 4500 people were accommodated by the end of July 2015. On August 5, one day prior to the inspection, the authorities declared a stop to further admittances. However, at the time of inspection circa 1500 people were unsheltered, amongst them more than 500 unattended children and teenagers. According to the report, the conditions at the refugee camp are inhumane and unworthy of any human being: lack of staff and translators, lack of organization, food supply problems (two hours wait), terrible sanitary conditions, no separate sections for women and men, point system for punishment when fighting but also for complaints, resulting in spending several nights outside the facility.", "The refugee camp in Traiskirchen is always subject to political and media debates in Austria. The poor living conditions of refugees have been criticized. On the other hand, the inmates have been accused of dealing with drugs, property crimes and also violent crimes. The police is also often accused of conducting partly unlawful actions in raids inside and outside the camp. Interior Minister Ernst Strasser outsourced the camp to the German company European Home Care In 2003. This (criticized) contract was cancelled from the company in 2010 because of low occupancy of the camp. The primary school in Traiskirchen is encircled by a fence for security purposes.", "", "", "The \"Bildungszentrum der Sicherheitsexekutive (BZS)\" Traiskirchen is an education institution for the Austrian police.", "The percentage of foreigners in the secondary and primary schools sometimes exceeds 70% and is often discussed in the public. Traiskirchen has no highschool or college for higher education.", "", "This observatory is the oldest in the state of Lower Austria and has been open to the public since 1967. It is unlike many observatories due to its location in the middle of the city and its low elevation, making it susceptible to the winter fog that plagues the region.", "This church is notable for its age. It was built around the year 1400.", "The church was rebuilt in 1683 after the siege of Vienna based on its gothic foundations.", "The church was built 1913.", "The famous \"Geldscheisser\" is located in the city centre.", "The malt factory was owned by the banker Max Mauthner (born 22. Juli 1838 in Prague, † 28. Dezember 1904 in Vienna).", "The castle was erected about 1690–1700 from Thomas Zachäus Czernin von und zu Chudenitz. About 1780 Joseph II dedicated the facility to a casern.", "The founding is dated 1136, but earlier resourcers refer to 1120. The weir would probably have been built as surrounding water castle around 1120-1230. The wall surrounding the castle and the moult is not existing anymore.", "The town is home to the Traiskirchen Lions, 3-time Champion of the Österreichische Basketball Bundesliga. The team plays its home games in the \"Lions Dome\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Contest for Marpessa's hand.", "Fight with the Dioscuri.", "Hyginus version.", "Apollodorus version.", "Other adventures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Idas was the son of Aphareus and Arene and the elder brother of Lynceus and Pisus. He was sometimes regarded as the offspring of Poseidon. In some accounts, the wife of Aphareus and thus, Idas' possible mother was named as Polydora or Laocoosa. By Marpessa, Idas had one daughter named Cleopatra Alcyone who married Meleager.", "", "When Idas came from Messenia to ask for the hand of Marpessa, daughter of Evenus. The maiden's father refused his request because he wanted his daughter to remain a virgin. Idas went to his father Poseidon and begged for the use of a winged chariot. Poseidon consented to his use of the chariot, and Idas stole Marpessa away from a band of dancers and fled to Pleuron in Aetolia. Her father, after chasing the couple for a long time and realizing he could not catch up to them, killed his horses and then drowned himself in a nearby river Lycormas and became immortal. The river was named later after him. Apollo also pursued them in his own chariot, wanting Marpessa for himself.\"\"Idas that was mightiest of men that were then upon the face of earth;\"<br>\"who also took his bow to face the king Phoebus Apollo<br>for the sake of the fair-ankled maid [i.e. Marpessa].\"\"As the two fought for the girl's hand, Zeus eventually intervened and commanded Marpessa to choose between her mortal lover and the god. Marpessa chose Idas, reasoning to Apollo that had she chosen the god, she would have eventually grown old and lost his affections: \"\"And thou beautiful god, in that far time,\"<br>\"When in thy setting sweet thou gazest down\"<br>\"On this grey head, wilt thou remember then\"<br>\"That once I pleased thee, that I once was young?\"\"", "", "The two beautiful daughters of Leucippus, Phoebe and Hilaeira were promised brides of their cousins, Idas and Lynceus. Because of their beauty, the twins Castor and Pollux who were inflamed with love, carried off the maidens. Trying to recover their lost brides-to-be, the two Messenian princes, took to arms and joined the celebrated fight between them and their rival suitors. During the battle, Castor killed Lynceus while Idas, at his brother's death, forgot both the strife and bride, and started to bury his brother. When he was placing the bones in a funeral monument, Castor intervened and tried to prevent his raising of the monument, because he had won over him as if he were a woman. In anger, Idas pierced the thigh of Castor with the sword he wore. Others say that, as he was building the monument he pushed it on Castor and thus killed him. When they reported this to Pollux, he rushed up and overcame Idas in a single fight, recovered the body of his brother, and buried it.", "A different tale was presented in the \"Bibliotheca\", where the cause of the strife of the Aphareids and Disocuri was not the abduction of the Leucippides but the division of spoils between them. Castor and Pollux, having driven booty of cattle from Arcadia, in company with Idas and Lynceus, they allowed Idas to divide the spoil. He cut a cow in four and said that one half of the booty should be his who ate his share first, and that the rest should be his who ate his share second. And before they knew where they were, Idas had swallowed his own share first and likewise his brother's, and with him had driven off the captured cattle to Messene. But the Dioscuri marched against Messene, and drove away that cattle and much else besides. And they lay in wait for Idas and Lynceus. But Lynceus spied Castor and discovered him to Idas, who killed him. Pollux chased them and slew Lynceus by throwing his spear, but in pursuing Lynceus he was wounded in the head with a stone thrown by him, and fell down in a swoon. In revenge, the divine father of Pollux, Zeus, smote Idas with a thunderbolt and carried up his son to heaven where he shared his immortality with his mortal brother, Castor. After the deaths of the two Messenian princes, the kingdom was bereft of male descendants and thus, Nestor, son of Neleus and a relative obtained the whole land including all the part ruled formerly by Idas, but not that subject (Tricca) to the sons of Asclepius, Machaon and Podalirius.", "Idas wished to rob Teuthras, king of Moesia, of his kingdom but was overcame in one battle by Telephus, son of Auge and Heracles, with the help of Parthenopaeus, son of Atalanta. On their journey to fetch the Golden Fleece, Idas avenged the death of Idmon, son of Apollo by slaying the wild boar that wounded and killed the seer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Local government.", "Mayor.", "Demographics.", "Cityscape.", "Old Town.", "Outside the Old Town.", "Tourism.", "Beaches.", "Nightlife.", "Other.", "Culture.", "Education.", "Sports.", "Transport.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Ernst Eichler and others, Budva is ultimately derived from the Albanian word \"butë\". In Montenegrin the town is known as Будва or \"Budva\"; in Italian and Latin as \"Budua\"; in Albanian as \"Budua\" and in ancient Greek as Bouthoe (Βουθόη).", "Extensive archaeological evidence places Budva among the oldest urban settlements of the Adriatic coast. Substantial documentary evidence provides historical references dating back to the 5th century BC. A legend recounts that Bouthoe (Βουθόη - Vouthoe) was founded by Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, Greece, when exiled out of Thebes, finding a shelter in this place for him and his wife, goddess Harmonia. Greek colonization of Adriatic began in the 4th century BC, when an Emporium was established on the site of Budva. In the 2nd century BC, the area of Budva became part of the Roman Empire. Upon the fall of the Empire and its division into east and west, the defensive barrier which separated the two powers happened to run across this area, subsequently making a lasting impact on the history and culture of this town. In the 6th century, Budva was part of the Byzantine Empire, and in the following two centuries, Slavs and, to a lesser extent, Avars began to arrive in the area, mixing with the native Roman population. Budva bay was reportedly known as \"Avarorum sinus\" (Avar bay') during the Avar incursions. In 841, Budva was sacked by Muslim Saracens, who devastated the area. In the early Middle Ages, Budva was reigned by a succession of Doclean kings, as well as Serbian and Zetan aristocrats. Circa 1200, it became the see of a Roman Catholic Diocese of Budua, which lasted until 1828 and was nominally revived as a Latin titular bishopric. The Venetians ruled the town for nearly 400 years, from 1420 to 1797. Budva, called \"Budua\" in those centuries, was part of the Venetian Republic region of Albania Veneta and was fortified by powerful Venetian walls against Ottoman conquests. According to the historian Luigi Paulucci in his book \"Le Bocche di Cattaro nel 1810\" (The Bay of Kotor in 1810), most of the population spoke the Venetian language until the beginning of the 19th century. One of the most renowned theater librettists and composers, Cristoforo Ivanovich, was born in Venetian Budua. With the fall of Republic of Venice in 1797, Budva came under the rule of the Habsburg Monarchy. During the Napoleonic Wars, Montenegrin forces allied with Russia took control over the city in 1806, only to relinquish the city to France in 1807. French rule lasted until 1813, when Budva (along with Boka Kotorska) was ceded to the Austrian Empire, which remained in control of the city for the next 100 years. A union of Boka Kotorska (and Budva) with Montenegro took place for a brief period (1813–1814), but from 1814 until the end of World War I in 1918, Budva remained under Austria-Hungary. The southernmost fortress in the Austro-Hungarian empire, Fort Kosmač, was constructed nearby to guard the road from Budva to Cetinje. After the war, the Serbian army entered Budva after it was abandoned by Austrian forces and it came under the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In 1941, with the beginning of World War II, Budva was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy. Budva was finally liberated from Axis rule on 22 November 1944 and incorporated in the Socialist Republic of Montenegro (which was a part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). A catastrophic earthquake struck Budva on 15 April 1979. Much of old town was devastated, but today there is little evidence of the catastrophe – almost all the buildings were restored to their original form. Montenegro became an independent country in 2006, with Budva as its primary tourist destination.", "The municipal parliament consists of 33 deputies elected directly for a four-year term. Following the last local election held on 16 October 2016, the ruling DPS lost its absolute majority, the new local government being formed by a coalition of opposition parties.", "\"Mayor of Budva\" is the head of the town and Municipality of Budva. He acts on behalf of the Town, and performs an executive function in the Municipality Budva. Current mayor is Marko Carević, member of Democratic Front. \"List of Mayors since Montenegrin independence (2006-present):\"", "Budva is the administrative centre of Budva municipality, which includes the neighbouring towns of Bečići and Petrovac, and has a population of 19,218 (2011 census). The town itself has 13,338 inhabitants. Ethnicity in 2011 (Municipality):", "", "The Old Town of Budva is situated on a rocky peninsula, on the southern end of Budva field. Archaeological evidence suggests that Illyrian settlement was formed on the site of the Old Town before Greek colonization of the Adriatic. While the site was permanently settled since Roman era, most of existing city walls and buildings were erected during the Venetian rule. The entire town is encircled with defensive stone walls. The fortifications of Budva are typical of the Medieval walled cities of the Adriatic, complete with towers, embrasures, fortified city gates and a citadel. Originally, there were gates on all of the four sides of the walled city. However, sea-facing gates were closed up over the years. The main city gate is Porta di Terra Ferma, the grand entry to the city from the west. It is also the beginning of the city's main thoroughfare, Njegoševa Street. There are also four more gates on the north wall, facing Budva marina (Porta Pizana, Porta Pizana 1 and 2, and Porta Pizanella), and one small gate facing the southwestern beach of Ričardova glava. The layout of the town is roughly orthogonal, although many streets deviate from the grid, resulting in somewhat irregular pattern, with many piazzas connected with narrow streets. Today, the entire city within the walls is pedestrian-only. The town citadel is situated on the southern tip of the city. Originally known as Castle of St Mary, fortification was continually rebuilt and expanded through Middle Ages, reaching its final form during the Austro-Hungarian rule. The sea-facing 160m long ramparts of the citadel, complete with eastern and western towers, are intricately connected to the rest of the city walls. Austrian stone barracks form the most prominent structure within the castle, separating the citadel from the rest of the walled city. Ruins of the Santa Maria de Castello church, after which the entire complex was originally named, are located within the citadel. A large public square is located to the north of the citadel, containing all of the churches of the old town - St. Ivan Church (17th century), Santa Maria in Punta Church (840 AD),St Sava Orthodox Church (12th century) and The Holy Trinity Orthodox church (1804). The Old Town suffered extensive damage in 1979 earthquake; repair and reconstruction took eight years (until 1987), but traces of the damage are now hardly noticeable. Today, it is a prime visitor attraction of Budva, packed with tourists during the summer months. Its narrow cobbled streets are lined with restaurants, cafes, pubs and shops.", "Although confined to the walls of the Old Town for most of its history, Budva started significant expansion into the adjacent \"Budva field\" in the 20th century, with the development of tourism industry. Hotels started springing up near the Old Town and to the west of it, along the 1600m long Slovenska beach, including the landmark Avala hotel (built in 1939), the Mogren hotel, and the Slovenska plaža hotel complex (built in 1984). Development near the Old Town and along the longest city beach was done in a planned and sustainable manner, with parts of Budva built in the SFRY having all the characteristics of a well-organized resort town. Most of the hotels and facilities built during this period are situated to the south of the town's main traffic artery, a portion of Adriatic Highway (E65/E80) that crosses the city parallel to the Slovenska plaža beach. However, the rest of the Budva field, to the north of the Adriatic Highway, developed in a less uniform manner. The western part of Budva field, containing a civic center (an area featuring local government offices, schools, sports center, police and fire station, health center and bus station), Rozino, Dubovica and Golubovina neighbourhoods, was developed relatively in accordance with principles of urban planning. In contrast, the eastern part of the Budva field, and slopes of the hills surrounding it, saw the emergence of the chaotic urban sprawl. Spontaneous growth begun in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as a combination of high demand and inability of the state to enforce urban planning, as the Breakup of Yugoslavia took place. This trend continued into the 2000s, with prices of real estate skyrocketing following the Montenegrin independence. Overwhelming demand, fueled by the influx of foreign capital (in large part from Russia), meant that all the undeveloped lots in the Budva field and surrounding hills were quickly being turned into construction sites. Local and state authorities have failed to keep up with the developers, resulting in the unfortunate lack of urban planning in much of the area. Thus, large parts of Budva are connected with an irregular grid of narrow streets, and have overall inadequate infrastructure. This trend continues even today, with limited land forcing developers to turn to building towering high rises in place of small detached residences that made up for majority of Budva field in the early 1990s. The pressures of the real estate market and neglect of urban planning have resulted in chronic and severe lack of parking space, and frequent traffic jams during the summer. Even the water and electricity supply have failed to keep up with the explosive growth in the 2000s, but those issues have since been addressed. A testament to the urban sprawl, the city bypass (Obilaznica, a crescent road that circles the northern ends of Budva field, with ends connecting to the Adriatic Highway) is a bypass only in name, as it now a busy urban street, swallowed by the city's expanding urban area. The term \"Budvanizacija\" (\"Budvanization\") has been used regionally to denote a form of chaotic and massive urban growth, tailored to the needs of individual land owners and developers, without regard for sustainability or environment.", "Tourism is the main driver of the economy of Budva. It is a significant tourist destination on the eastern Adriatic, and by far the most popular destination in Montenegro. During the 2013, Budva recorded 668,931 tourist visits, and 4,468,913 overnight stays, thus accounting for 44,8% of tourist visits to Montenegro, and 47,5% of its overnight stays. Although Budva is notable for its long history and its well-preserved Old Town, it is not primarily known as a destination for sightseeing or cultural tourism. Unlike Kotor or Dubrovnik, Budva has an image of a crowded beach resort, with a lively and vibrant atmosphere and a very active nightlife.", "The Budva Riviera has some of the most attractive beaches of south Adriatic, and the most pleasant climate in Montenegro. Mogren beach is arguably the best known and most attractive of the Budva city beaches, nested beneath the cliffs of the Spas hill, between cape Mogren and the Avala hotel. The beach is separated from the city by the slopes of Spas hill that plunge to the sea, and is only accessible by a 250m long narrow path along the cliffs. Other city beaches include the small Ričardova glava (\"Richard's Head\") and Pizana beaches, next to the Old Town, as well as the long Slovenska plaža (Slav beach), that makes up the most of the city's coast. However, majority of the beaches of Budva Riviera are outside the city itself. Jaz Beach is a long and spacious beach west of Budva, its hinterland serving as a popular concert and festival venue, as well as a campground. Bečići resort town, with its long sandy beach, is situated south-east of the city, separated from Budva by the Zavala peninsula. Further to the south, numerous small beaches and towns, make up the more high end and exclusive part of Budva Riviera. This is especially true for the famous Sveti Stefan town, but also for other smaller Paštrovići settlements in the area, that once were unassuming fishing villages. The area of Sveti Stefan and Pržno, including Miločer resort with its park and secluded beaches, is considered the most exclusive area of the Montenegrin coast. The town of Petrovac and the undeveloped Buljarica field occupy the very south of the Budva municipality. Sveti Nikola Island is located opposite of Old Town, across the Budva bay. It is a mostly undeveloped island with some beautiful beaches. Well connected to the mainland with water bus, it is a popular excursion site for tourists visiting Budva.", "Budva is well known regionally as the capital of nightlife of the eastern Adriatic. The first discothèques in Budva started to emerge during the 1980s, as hotel-attached dance clubs. However, the clubbing scene mushroomed in the 1990s, with numerous open-air clubs opening along the Budva sea promenade. This trend continued into the 2000s, with Old Town and its promenade hosting a large number of bars, pubs and restaurants, and two big clubs, Top Hill and Trocadero, dominating the clubbing scene.", "Budva is home to the Adriatic Fair (Jadranski sajam), the only specialized exhibition venue in Montenegro. It hosts numerous trade fairs throughout the year, including the only auto show in Montenegro, held annually in autumn. Gambling tourism is also popular in Budva, as many hotels have attached casinos. Maestral hotel and casino in Pržno are particularly popular among international gamblers, but other large hotels have also attracted players from European countries. The 2006 James Bond film \"Casino Royale\" is partly set in the eponymous casino in the fictional Montenegrin Hotel Splendide, thus giving a boost to Budva's profile as a gambling destination. Budva marina, nestled to the north of the Old Town city walls, contributes to the image of Budva as a nautical tourism destination. Luxury yachts dominate marina berths during the summer, overshadowing small fishing vessels owned by the locals. Budva marina was host to periodic boat shows, but in recent years it has been losing primacy to the larger and more luxurious Porto Montenegro. Budva was the host of the Class 1 World Powerboat Championship Grand prix in May 2008.", "Among the cultural events and establishments in the city, the annual cultural event \"Theatre City\" (Budva Grad Teatar) is of particular importance. Founded in 1987, and held in July and August every year, this festival transforms the entire Old Town into an open-air venue for a programme of theatre, musical, literary and visual art events and performances. Another popular event in Budva was the Pjesma Mediterana (\"Song of the Mediterranean\"), annual pop musical festival, held in Budva from 1992 to 2010. Its format was similar to that of Sanremo Music Festival, featuring a competition of previously unreleased songs. The song contest attracted popular performers from the EX Yugoslavia region. However, the festival was cancelled in 2011 due to lack of funds, and has not been renewed since. In 2014, the Sea Dance Festival was organized at Budva's Jaz Beach for the first time. A spin-off of the popular Exit festival, Sea Dance is set to be an annual event. Jaz Beach rose to prominence as a popular concert and festival venue with The Rolling Stones concert held on 9 July 2007. The show was part of their A Bigger Bang Tour and attracted a crowd of some 35,000 spectators, twice the population of Budva town itself. Madonna staged a show attended by 47,000 spectators at the same venue on 25 September 2008, while Lenny Kravitz and Armand Van Helden performed at Jaz beach during the \"Live Fest\" in August 2008, along with Goran Bregović, Dino Merlin and Zdravko Čolić. Budva Carnival is a three day long festive event in Budva, happening annually during late April or early May. It has been organized every year since 2003, and although a recent carnival, it has attracted significant regional attention. Budva, together with nearby Kotor, was host to the Federation of European Carnival Cities (FECC) World Carnival City Congress in May 2009. Budva city museum is one of the prominent cultural institutions in the city, featuring permanent archaeological and ethnographic exhibits. Stefan Mitrov Ljubiša memorial home is another significant institution, honoring the legacy of the famous native of Budva. Budva occupies a significant place in the history of the cinema of Montenegro, as it was home to the Zeta Film, the Montenegrin primary motion picture company from the Yugoslav era. The now-defunct company has produced numerous Yugoslav movies, including pictures by the famous Montenegrin director Živko Nikolić. Zeta Film was privatized in 2004, and its building was converted to a nightclub, leaving Budva without a single movie theater for a decade. On 30 May 2015, a brand new four screen multiplex cinema opened in TQ Plaza shopping mall. The city has occasionally provided the backdrop for international movie productions. The 1964 movie \"The Long Ships\" was shot in and around Budva, and the prop from the movie, a large 4m tall cracked bell, has been permanently displayed in front of the Old Town walls, becoming one of the local landmarks. Recently, Budva has been the setting and the filming location of the locally produced, and regionally very popular TV series \"Budva na pjenu od mora\" (\"Budva, on the sea foam\").", "Budva has two elementary schools and one high school. In 2009, city administration founded Knowledge Academy (Akademija Znanja), an institution envisioned to act as a university center and introduce higher education to Budva. The Knowledge Academy building, situated in the Rozino neighbourhood of Budva, is currently home to Budva city library and private Business and Tourism faculty, and serves as the center of higher education of the municipality.", "FK Mogren is the most popular football club in Budva, and the sports club with longest tradition in the city. Founded in 1920, it competes in Montenegrin First League, winning the championship in 2008-09 and 2010-11. The club also won the Montenegrin Cup of 2008. Stadion Lugovi, the home ground of FK Mogren, will probably be relocated in the near future, as it is situated on a very valuable land lot, right next to the Slovenska beach. OFK Petrovac, from the eponymous town, is another significant football team from the Budva municipality. Another popular sport in Budva is volleyball, with Budvanska Rivijera volleyball team being successful in domestic and international competition. Mediteranski sportski centar (\"Mediterranean sports center\") is the main indoor sport venue of Budva, and is the home of Budvanska Riviera volleyball team and RK Budvanska Rivijera handball team. Water polo is a very popular sport in Budva, as on the rest of the Montenegrin coast. VK Budva is the city's water polo team, competing in the regional Adriatic Water Polo League. Paragliding is a popular summer activity in Budva. Steep 700m high hills provide perfect setting and stunning vistas for paragliders, with the hamlet of Brajići being the usual launching point.", "Budva is connected to inland Montenegro by two-laned highways. There are two ways to reach Budva from Podgorica – either through Cetinje, or through the Sozina tunnel (opened 2005). Either way, Podgorica, the capital and main road junction in Montenegro, is around away. Budva is connected to the rest of the coastal towns of Montenegro by the Adriatic Highway, which extends from Ulcinj in the far south to Herceg Novi in the north, and on to Croatia. Tivat Airport is away. There are regular flights to Belgrade and Moscow throughout the year, and dozens of seasonal and charter flights land daily at the airport during the summer season. Podgorica Airport is away, and it has regular flights to a number of European destinations throughout the year. Urban transport consists of Mediteran Express buses, which operate between Budva city center and Sveti Stefan. This line services a large portion of the Budva urban core, as well as some small towns between Budva and Sveti Stefan. The frequency of this line is high during the summer months, and it is very popular among tourists. The closest train station is Sutomore. This stop on Belgrade–Bar railway is some away from Budva city center.", "Budva is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Extensibility.", "Linux and MacOS version.", "Licensing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Far Manager features an internal viewer and editor, customizable user menus, tree views, file search, compare, integrated help, and a task switcher for its tools. Its standard functionality can be expanded with macros (which allow scripting) and plugins. Far Manager's default interface combines two file panels with a command prompt. Panels may be fully customized as to which columns are shown and in which order, and operations may be done to and from either panel. The file panels support wildcard selection, advanced filtering, sorting and highlighting. The file panels and the command prompt are both active at the same time (they are interacted with using different keys), and most features can be accessed using keyboard shortcuts (the key bar at the bottom displays the function key actions for the currently held down modifier keys).", "Far's standard functionality can be greatly extended with macros (written in Lua scripting language, primarily used to record keypress sequences) and plugins. Standard plugins installed by default include FTP, Windows network, extensible archive file support and temporary panel (sandbox) virtual file systems, a process list, print manager, filename case converter, and several editor plugins to format, wrap, and otherwise alter text. Third-party plugins are available from the PlugRing repository and plugin announcement forum (in Russian). Some popular plugins include regular expression search and replace (both in the text editor and across multiple files), syntax highlighting and auto-completion for the text editor, SFTP/SCP and Windows Registry virtual file systems, 7-zip integration, a hex editor and a picture viewer (which overlays a DirectX surface over Far's console window). Wrappers are available which allow using some Total Commander plugins with Far Manager, and vice versa. Plugins can be developed using the native C/Pascal API, or using wrappers which permit plugin development in other platforms and languages, such as.NET (including PowerShell), and Lua.", "far2l project develops Linux and MacOS ports of Far Manager. As for now, port successfully builds and most common functions work as expected. Among ported and working plugins there are FarFTP, Colorer, MultiArc, TmpPanel.", "Far Manager is available under the revised BSD license. Originally, Far Manager was available as 40 days shareware for everyone except for citizens of the former USSR countries, who could use it as freeware for non-commercial use only. On 26 October 2007, the source code for the Unicode development version (1.80, later renamed to 2.0) was released under the revised BSD license. On 17 May 2010 the 1.x branch has also been released under the revised BSD license, though without source code." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation.", "Involvement in independence struggle.", "After independence.", "Present situation.", "Leadership.", "National Executive.", "National Council Members.", "Lok Sabha election tally.", "State election results.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Communist Party of India has officially stated that it was formed on 26 December 1925 at the first Party Conference in Kanpur, then \"Cawnpore\". S.V. Ghate was the first General Secretary of CPI. But as per the version of CPI (M), the Communist Party of India was founded in Tashkent, Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic on 17 October 1920, soon after the Second Congress of the Communist International. The founding members of the party were M.N. Roy, Evelyn Trent Roy (Roy's wife), Abani Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani's wife), Mohammad Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui, Hasrat Mohani, Rafiq Ahmed of Bhopal and \"M.P.T. Aacharya\", and Sultan Ahmed Khan Tarin of North-West Frontier Province. The CPI says that there were many communist groups formed by Indians with the help of foreigners in different parts of the world and the Tashkent group was only one of. contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Bengal. Small communist groups were formed in Bengal (led by Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led by S.A. Dange), Madras (led by Singaravelu Chettiar), United Provinces (led by Shaukat Usmani) and Punjab and Sindh (led by Ghulam Hussain). However, only Usmani became a CPI party member.", "During the 1920s and the early 1930s the party was badly organised, and in practice there were several communist groups working with limited national co-ordination. The British colonial authorities had banned all communist activity, which made the task of building a united party very difficult. Between 1921 and 1924 there were three conspiracy trials against the communist movement; First Peshawar Conspiracy Case, Meerut Conspiracy Case and the Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case. In the first three cases, Russian-trained muhajir communists were put on trial. However, the Cawnpore trial had more political impact. On 17 March 1924, Shripad Amrit Dange, M.N. Roy, Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani, Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain and R.C. Sharma were charged, in Cawnpore (now spelt Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case. The specific pip charge was that they as communists were seeking \"to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of British India, by complete separation of India from imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution.\" Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational communist plans and people for the first time learned, on such a large scale, about communism and its doctrines and the aims of the Communist International in India. Singaravelu Chettiar was released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was in Germany and R.C. Sharma in French Pondichéry, and therefore could not be arrested. Ghulam Hussain confessed that he had received money from the Russians in Kabul and was pardoned. Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani and Dange were sentenced for various terms of imprisonment. This case was responsible for actively introducing communism to a larger Indian audience. Dange was released from prison in 1927. Rahul Dev Pal was a prominent communist leader On 25 December 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur. Colonial authorities estimated that 500 persons took part in the conference. The conference was convened by a man called Satyabhakta. At the conference Satyabhakta argued for a 'National communism' and against subordination under Comintern. Being outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left the conference venue in protest. The conference adopted the name 'Communist Party of India'. Groups such as Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan (LKPH) dissolved into the unified CPI. The émigré CPI, which probably had little organic character anyway, was effectively substituted by the organisation now operating inside India. Soon after the 1926 conference of the Workers and Peasants Party of Bengal, the underground CPI directed its members to join the provincial Workers and Peasants Parties. All open communist activities were carried out through Workers and Peasants Parties. The sixth congress of the Communist International met in 1928. In 1927 the Kuomintang had turned on the Chinese communists, which led to a review of the policy on forming alliances with the national bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. The Colonial theses of the 6th Comintern congress called upon the Indian communists to combat the 'national-reformist leaders' and to 'unmask the national reformism of the Indian National Congress and oppose all phrases of the Swarajists, Gandhists, etc. about passive resistance'. The congress did however differentiate between the character of the Chinese Kuomintang and the Indian Swarajist Party, considering the latter as neither a reliable ally nor a direct enemy. The congress called on the Indian communists to utilise the contradictions between the national bourgeoisie and the British imperialists. The congress also denounced the WPP. The Tenth Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, 3 July 192919 July 1929, directed the Indian communists to break with WPP. When the communists deserted it, the WPP fell apart. On 20 March 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and other labour leaders were made in several parts of India, in what became known as the Meerut Conspiracy Case. The communist leadership was now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were to last for four years. As of 1934, the main centres of activity of CPI were Bombay, Calcutta and Punjab. The party had also begun extending its activities to Madras. A group of Andhra and Tamil students, amongst them P. Sundarayya, were recruited to the CPI by Amir Hyder Khan. The party was reorganised in 1933, after the communist leaders from the Meerut trials were released. A central committee of the party was set up. In 1934 the party was accepted as the Indian section of the Communist International. When Indian leftwing elements formed the Congress Socialist Party in 1934, the CPI branded it as Social Fascist. The League Against Gandhism, initially known as the Gandhi Boycott Committee, was a political organisation in Calcutta, founded by the underground Communist Party of India and others to launch militant anti-Imperialist activities. The group took the name ‘League Against Gandhism’ in 1934. In connection with the change of policy of the Comintern toward Popular Front politics, the Indian communists changed their relation to the Indian National Congress. The communists joined the Congress Socialist Party, which worked as the left wing of Congress. Through joining CSP, the CPI accepted the CSP demand for a Constituent Assembly, which it had denounced two years before. The CPI however analysed that the demand for a Constituent Assembly would not be a substitute for soviets. In July 1937, the first Kerala unit of CPI was founded at a clandestine meeting in Calicut. Five persons were present at the meeting, P. Krishna Pillai E.M.S. Namboodiripad, N.C. Sekhar, K. Damodaran and S.V. Ghate. The first four were members of the CSP in Kerala. The latter, Ghate, was a CPI Central Committee member, who had arrived from Madras. Contacts between the CSP in Kerala and the CPI had begun in 1935, when P. Sundarayya (CC member of CPI, based in Madras at the time) met with EMS and Krishna Pillai. Sundarayya and Ghate visited Kerala at several times and met with the CSP leaders there. The contacts were facilitated through the national meetings of the Congress, CSP and All India Kisan Sabha. In 1936–1937, the co-operation between socialists and communists reached its peak. At the 2nd congress of the CSP, held in Meerut in January 1936, a thesis was adopted which declared that there was a need to build 'a united Indian Socialist Party based on Marxism-Leninism'. At the 3rd CSP congress, held in Faizpur, several communists were included into the CSP National Executive Committee. In Kerala communists won control over CSP, and for a brief period controlled Congress there. Two communists, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and Z.A. Ahmed, became All India joint secretaries of CSP. The CPI also had two other members inside the CSP executive. On the occasion of the 1940 Ramgarh Congress Conference CPI released a declaration called \"Proletarian Path\", which sought to utilise the weakened state of the British Empire in the time of war and gave a call for general strike, no-tax, no-rent policies and mobilising for an armed revolutionary uprising. The National Executive of the CSP assembled at Ramgarh took a decision that all communists were expelled from CSP. In July 1942, the CPI was legalised, as a result of Britain and the Soviet Union becoming allies against Nazi Germany. Communists strengthened their control over the All India Trade Union Congress. At the same time, communists were politically cornered for their opposition to the Quit India Movement. CPI contested the Provincial Legislative Assembly elections of 1946 of its own. It had candidates in 108 out of 1585 seats. It won in eight seats. In total the CPI vote counted 666 723, which should be seen with the backdrop that 86% of the adult population of India lacked voting rights. The party had contested three seats in Bengal, and won all of them. One CPI candidate, Somnath Lahiri, was elected to the Constituent Assembly.", "During the period around and directly following Independence in 1947, the internal situation in the party was chaotic. The party shifted rapidly between left-wing and right-wing positions. In February 1948, at the 2nd Party Congress in Calcutta, B. T. Ranadive (BTR) was elected General Secretary of the party. The conference adopted the 'Programme of Democratic Revolution'. This programme included the first mention of struggle against caste injustice in a CPI document. In several areas the party led armed struggles against a series of local monarchs that were reluctant to give up their power. Such insurgencies took place in Tripura, Telangana and Kerala. The most important rebellion took place in Telangana, against the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Communists built up a people's army and militia and controlled an area with a population of three million. The rebellion was brutally crushed and the party abandoned the policy of armed struggle. BTR was deposed and denounced as a 'left adventurist'. In Manipur, the party became a force to reckon with through the agrarian struggles led by Jananeta Irawat Singh. Singh had joined CPI in 1946. At the 1951 congress of the party, 'People's Democracy' was substituted by 'National Democracy' as the main slogan of the party. Communist Party was founded in Bihar in 1939. Post independence, communist party achieved success in Bihar (Bihar and Jharkhand). Communist party conducted movements for land reform, trade union movement was at its peak in Bihar in the sixties, seventies and eighties. Achievement of communists in Bihar placed the communist party in the forefront of left movement in India. Bihar produced some of the legendary leaders like Kishan leaders Sahjanand Saraswati and Karyanand Sharma, intellectual giants like Jagannath Sarkar, Yogendra Sharma and Indradeep Sinha, mass leaders like Chandrashekhar Singh and Sunil Mukherjee, Trade Union leaders like Kedar Das and others. It was in Bihar that JP's total revolution was exposed and communist party under the leadership of Jagannath Sarkar fought Total Revolution and exposed its hollowness. \"Many Streams\" Selected Essays by Jagannath Sarkar and Reminiscing Sketches, Compiled by Gautam Sarkar, Edited by Mitali Sarkar, First Published : May 2010, Navakaranataka Publications Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore. In the Mithila region of Bihar Bhogendra Jha led the fight against the Mahants and Zamindars. He later went on the win Parliamentary elections and was MP for seven terms. In early 1950s young communist leadership was uniting textile workers, bank employees and unorganised sector workers to ensure mass support in north India. National leaders like S A Dange, Chandra Rajeswara Rao and P K Vasudevan Nair were encouraging them and supporting the idea despite their differences on the execution. Firebrand Communist leaders like Homi F. Daji, Guru Radha Kishan, H L Parwana, Sarjoo Pandey, Darshan Singh Canadian and Avtaar Singh Malhotra were emerging between the masses and the working class in particular. This was the first leadership of communists that was very close to the masses and people consider them champions of the cause of the workers and the poor. In Delhi, May Day (majdoor diwas or mai diwas) was organised at Chandni Chowk Ghantaghar in such a manner that demonstrates the unity between all the factions of working classes and ignite the passion for communist movement in the northern part of India. In 1952, CPI became the first leading opposition party in the Lok Sabha, while the Indian National Congress was in power. Communist movement or CPI in particular emerged as a front runner after Guru Radha Kishan undertook a fast unto death for 24 days to promote the cause of textile workers in Delhi. Till than it was a public misconception that communists are revolutionaries with arms in their hands and workers and their families were afraid to get associated with the communists but this act mobilised general public in the favour of communist movement as a whole. During this period people with their families used to visit 'dharna sthal' to encourage CPI cadre. This model of selflessness for the society worked for the CPI far more than what was expected. This trend was followed by almost all other state units of the party in the Hindi heartland. Communist Party related trade union AITUC became a prominent force to unite the workers in textile, municipal and unorganised sectors, the first labour union in unorganised sector was also emerged in the leadership of Comrade Guru Radha Kishan during this period in Delhi's Sadar Bazaar area. This movement of mass polarisation of workers in the favour of CPI worked effectively in Delhi and paved the way for great success of CPI in the elections in working class dominated areas in Delhi. Comrade Gangadhar Adhikari and E.M.S. Namboodiripad applauded this brigade of dynamic comrades for their selfless approach and organisational capabilities. This brigade of firebrand communists gained more prominence when Telangana hero Chandra Rajeswara Rao rose to be General Secretary of the Communist Party of India. In the 1952 Travancore-Cochin Legislative Assembly election, Communist Party was banned, so it couldn't take part in the election process. In the general elections in 1957, the CPI emerged as the largest opposition party. In 1957, the CPI won the state elections in Kerala. This was the first time that an opposition party won control over an Indian state. E. M. S. Namboodiripad became Chief Minister. At the 1957 international meeting of Communist parties in Moscow, the Communist Party of China directed criticism at the CPI for having formed a ministry in Kerala. Ideological differences lead to the split in the party in 1964 when two different party conferences were held, one of CPI and one of the Communist Party of India (Marxist). There is a common misconception that the rift during the Sino-Indian war, when Communist Party Of India proudly supported China in the war led to the 1962 split. In fact, the split was leftists vs rightists, rather than internationalists vs nationalists. The presence of nationalists in CPI, and internationalists P. Sundarayya, Jyoti Basu, and Harkishan Singh Surjeet in the Communist Party of India (Marxist) proves this fact. During the period 1970–77, CPI was allied with the Congress party. In Kerala, they formed a government together with Congress, with the CPI-leader C. Achutha Menon as Chief Minister. After the fall of the regime of Indira Gandhi, CPI reoriented itself towards co-operation with CPI(M). In 1986, the CPI's leader in the Punjab and MLA in the Punjabi legislature Darshan Singh Canadian was assassinated by Sikh extremists. Then on 19 May 1987, Deepak Dhawan, General Secretary of Punjab CPI(M), was murdered. Altogether about 200 communist leaders out of which most were Sikhs were killed by Sikh extremists in Punjab.", "CPI was recognised by the Election Commission of India as a 'National Party'. To date, CPI happens to be the only national political party from India to have contested all the general elections using the same electoral symbol. Owing to a massive defeat in 2019 Indian general election where the party saw its tally reduce to 2 MP, the Election Commission of India has sent a letter to CPI asking for reasons why its national party status should not be revoked. If similar performance is repeated in the next election, the CPI will no longer be a national party. On the national level they supported the Indian National Congress-led United Progressive Alliance government along with other parliamentary Left parties, but without taking part in it. Upon attaining power in May 2004, the United Progressive Alliance formulated a programme of action known as the Common Minimum Programme. The Left bases its support to the UPA on strict adherence to it. Provisions of the CMP mentioned to discontinue disinvestment, massive social sector outlays and an independent foreign policy. On 8 July 2008, the General Secretary of CPI(M), Prakash Karat, announced that the Left was withdrawing its support over the decision by the government to go ahead with the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act. The Left parties combination had been a staunch advocate of not proceeding with this deal citing national interests. In West Bengal it participates in the Left Front. It also participated in the state government in Manipur. In Kerala the party is part of Left Democratic Front. In Tripura the party is a partner of the Left Front, which governed the state till 2018. In Tamil Nadu it is part of the Progressive Democratic Alliance. It is involved in the Left Democratic Front in Maharashtra The current general secretary of CPI is D. Raja.", "Newly Elected CPI National Leadership The following are the members of the Central Control Commission, National Council and Candidate Members to National Council, National Executive, National Secretariat and Party Programme Commission elected at the 23rd Party Congress of Communist Party of India held from 25 to 29 April 2018 in Kollam, Kerala Ex-Officio Members", "Invitees", "Members from Centre: Andhra Pradesh Assam Bihar Chhattisgarh Delhi Goa Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh Jharkhand Jammu and Kashmir Vacant Karnataka Kerala Manipur Meghalaya Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh Odisha Puducherry Punjab Rajasthan Tripura Tamil Nadu Telangana Uttar Pradesh Uttarakhand West Bengal Candidate Members Invitee Members", ": 12 seats in Assam and 1 in Meghalaya did not vote.", "Results from the Election Commission of India website. Results do not deal with partitions of states (Bihar was bifurcated after the 2000 election, creating Jharkhand), defections and by-elections during the mandate period.", "1962: When CPI said donating blood to jawans was anti-party activity. Achutanandan who was a CPM politburo member at that time was sacked for suggesting that they should organise a blood donation camp for the Indian Army soldiers. The pro-India line he took was declared anti-party by the Communists. It was an known fact that during the 1962 war, the CPI had supported China. They cited ideology and put the same above the nation. The government at that time had sent many comrades to jail. Achutanandan who was also thrown into jail suggested that the narrative must change against the party. He was part of the jail committee in the Thiruvananthapuram central jail." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Definition.", "Geology.", "Geography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the term \"subcontinent\" signifies a \"subdivision of a continent which has a distinct geographical, political, or cultural identity\" and also a \"large land mass somewhat smaller than a continent\". It was especially convenient for referring to the region comprising both British India and the princely states under British Paramountcy. Though the English term \"subcontinent\" mainly refers to the Indian subcontinent from early 20th century, the term was earlier attested in 1845 to refer to the North and South Americas, before they were regarded as separate continents. The geopolitical definition and the use of terms such as Indian subcontinent, South Asian subcontinent and South Asia is a contested topic. The region has been variously labelled as \"India\" (in its pre-modern sense), Greater India, the Indian Subcontinent (a term in particularly common use in the British Empire and its successors) and South Asia. Though the terms \"Indian subcontinent\" and \"South Asia\" are generally used interchangeably, some academics hold that the term \"South Asia\" is the more common usage in Europe and North America. According to historians Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Indian Subcontinent has come to be known as South Asia \"in more recent and neutral parlance.\" Indologist Ronald B. Inden argues that the usage of the term \"South Asia\" is becoming more widespread since it clearly distinguishes the region from East Asia. The terms \"Indian subcontinent\" and \"South Asia\" are sometimes used interchangeably. There is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. The Indian subcontinent has been a term particularly common in the British Empire and its successors. Historians Catherine Asher and Cynthia Talbot state that the term \"Indian subcontinent\" describes a natural physical landmass in South Asia that has been relatively isolated from the rest of Eurasia. According to Mittal and Thursby, it has also been labelled as India (in its classical and pre-modern sense), Greater India, or as South Asia. The BBC and some academic sources refer to the region as the \"Asian Subcontinent\". Some academics refer to it as \"South Asian Subcontinent\".", "According to anthropologist John R. Lukacs, \"the Indian Subcontinent occupies the major landmass of South Asia\", while the political science professor Tatu Vanhanen states, \"the seven countries of South Asia constitute geographically a compact region around the Indian Subcontinent\". According to Chris Brewster, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal and Bhutan constitute the Indian subcontinent; with Afghanistan and Maldives included it is more commonly referred to as South Asia. The geopolitical boundaries of the Indian subcontinent, according to Dhavendra Kumar, include \"India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and other small islands of the Indian Ocean\". The Maldives, a country consisting of a small archipelago southwest of the peninsula, is considered part of the Indian subcontinent. The precise definition of an \"Indian subcontinent\" as opposed to \"South Asia\" in a geopolitical context is somewhat contested. There is no globally accepted definition on which countries are a part of South Asia or the Indian subcontinent. While Afghanistan is not considered as a part of the Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan is often included in South Asia. Similarly, Myanmar is included by some scholars in South Asia but not in Indian subcontinent.", "Geologically, the Indian subcontinent was first a part of so-called \"Greater India\", a region of Gondwana that drifted away from East Africa about 160 million years ago, around the Middle Jurassic period. The region experienced high volcanic activity and plate subdivisions, creating Madagascar, Seychelles, Antarctica, Austrolasia and the Indian subcontinent basin. The Indian subcontinent drifted northeastwards, colliding with the Eurasian plate nearly 55 million years ago, towards the end of Paleocene. This geological region largely includes Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. The zone where the Eurasian and Indian subcontinent plates meet remains geologically active, prone to major earthquakes. The English term \"subcontinent\" mainly continues to refer to the Indian subcontinent. Physiographically, it is a peninsular region in south-central Asia delineated by the Himalayas in the north, the Hindu Kush in the west, and the Arakanese in the east. It extends southward into the Indian Ocean with the Arabian Sea to the southwest and the Bay of Bengal to the southeast. Most of this region rests on the Indian Plate and is isolated from the rest of Asia by large mountain barriers. Using the more expansive definition – counting India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan and Maldives as the constituent countries – the Indian subcontinent covers about 4.4 million km (1.7 million sq mi), which is 10% of the Asian continent or 3.3% of the world's land surface area. Overall, it accounts for about 45% of Asia's population and over 25% of the world's population, and it is home to a vast array of peoples.", "The Indian subcontinent is a natural physical landmass in South Asia, geologically the dry-land portion of the Indian Plate, which has been relatively isolated from the rest of Eurasia. Given the difficulty of passage through the Himalayas, the sociocultural, religious and political interaction of the Indian subcontinent has largely been through the valleys of Afghanistan in its northwest, the valleys of Manipur in its east, and by maritime routes. More difficult but historically important interaction has also occurred through passages pioneered by the Tibetans. These routes and interactions have led to the spread of Buddhism out of the Indian subcontinent into other parts of Asia. And the Islamic expansion arrived into the Indian subcontinent in two ways, through Afghanistan on land and to Indian coast through the maritime routes on the Arabian Sea. Whether called the Indian subcontinent or South Asia, the definition of the geographical extent of this region varies. Geopolitically, it had formed the whole territory of Greater India. In terms of modern geopolitical boundaries, the Indian subcontinent comprises the Republic of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, besides, by convention, the island nation of Sri Lanka and other islands of the Indian Ocean, such as the Maldives. The term \"Indian continent\" is first introduced in the early 20th century, when most of the territory was part of British India. The Hindu Kush, centered on eastern Afghanistan, is the boundary connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia to the northwest, and the Persian Plateau to the west. The socio-religious history of Afghanistan are related to the Turkish-influenced Central Asia and northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, now known as Pakistan. Others state Afghanistan being a part of Central Asia is not an accepted practice, and it is \"clearly not part of the Indian subcontinent\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early career.", "Tatran Prešov.", "Hibernian (loan).", "CSKA Sofia.", "International." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Diviš began his senior career with Slavia Prague. He played his first full game in a UEFA Cup match against AFC Ajax on 17 December 2008. He played from January to June 2008 on loan at Sparta Krč, where he scored a last-minute goal in a league match against Ústí nad Labem, which finished 2–2.", "In June 2009, Diviš was loaned out to Slovak side Tatran Prešov. At Tatran he quickly became a first-choice goalkeeper and in early 2010 signed a permanent deal with the club.", "In January 2011, Diviš was loaned to Scottish club Hibernian on a 12-month deal, making his debut in a 2–1 defeat against St Johnstone on 30 April 2011. Diviš returned to Tatran Presov in June 2011 after Hibs declined an option to extend his loan.", "On 12 July 2014, Diviš signed with CSKA Sofia on a two-year deal. He made his competitive debut five days later, in a 1–1 home draw against Zimbru Chișinău in the second qualifying round of the 2014–15 Europa League. In the first two league games of the 2014–15 season he recorded two clean sheets against Litex Lovech (1–0) and Levski Sofia (2–0). Diviš conceded his first goals for CSKA in the Bulgarian A Group in a 2–2 draw with Slavia Sofia on 3 August. He remained the first choice goalkeeper until the resignation of Stoycho Mladenov in late March 2015, being soon after that relegated to the bench by Maksims Uvarenko and Anatoli Gospodinov.", "Diviš played three times for the Czech Republic national under-21 football team, including one against Scotland U21 at the Falkirk Stadium." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Use in other media.", "Cover artwork.", "Cover versions.", "Motörhead version.", "The \"SCTV\" satire.", "Red Flag version." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The single was released on 27 May 1977, and was regarded by many of the general public as an assault on Queen Elizabeth II and the monarchy. The song's title is taken directly from the national anthem of the United Kingdom of the same name. At the time, it was highly controversial for its equation of the queen with a \"fascist regime\" and for the lyric \"there is no future in England's dreaming\". According to Glen Matlock, who had co-written the song—although he was no longer a member of the band by the time it was released—the bass was inspired by The Move's \"Fire Brigade\". Although many believe it was created because of the Silver Jubilee, the band have denied it, with Paul Cook saying that \"it wasn't written specifically for the Queen's Jubilee. We weren't aware of it at the time. It wasn't a contrived effort to go out and shock everyone.\" Johnny Rotten has explained the lyrics as follows: \"You don't write 'God Save the Queen' because you hate the English race. You write a song like that because you love them, and you're fed up with them being mistreated.\" He intended to evoke sympathy for the English working class and a general resentment towards the monarchy. On 7 June 1977 — the Jubilee holiday itself — the band attempted to play the song from a boat named the \"Queen Elizabeth\" on the River Thames, near the Palace of Westminster. After a scuffle involving attendee Jah Wobble and a cameraman, 11 people, including Malcolm McLaren, the man who organised the concert, and several other members of the band's entourage, were arrested when the boat docked. The song peaked at No. 2 (below Rod Stewart's \"I Don't Want to Talk About It\" released as a double A-side budget single along with \"The First Cut Is the Deepest\") on the official UK Singles Chart used by the BBC, though there have been persistent rumours that it was actually the biggest-selling single in the UK at the time, and was kept off No. 1 because it was felt that it might cause offence. Various sources state that it was indeed the highest-selling single of the week, despite a ban by the BBC and some major retailers. In order to prevent it from reaching the top of the \"official\" BMRB chart, for one week compilers \"decreed that shops which sold their own records could not have those records represented in the chart\", and thus sales from Virgin Megastores were not counted. Virgin had few doubts that theirs was the higher-selling single; the company's sales total out of stock exceeded the officially cited sales for the Rod Stewart single. In addition to the BBC, the single was banned by the Independent Broadcasting Authority which regulated Independent Local Radio. On at least one singles chart for the period, TOP 20 POPS, the song's position at No. 2 was represented by a blank line. In March 2001, the BBC published an article that stated ‘\"God Save the Queen\" reached number one in the UK in 1977 despite being banned by the BBC, and marked a defining moment in the punk revolution.’ The \"NME\" magazine chart did in fact place the single at number-one during the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II. The phrase \"no future\", the song's closing refrain, became emblematic of the punk rock movement. The lyric provided the title of Jon Savage's 1991 history of the Sex Pistols and punk rock titled \"England's Dreaming\". Before the group signed to Virgin, a small number of copies of \"God Save the Queen\" had been pressed on the A&M label. These are now among the most valuable records ever pressed in the UK, with a resale value as of 2006 of between £500 to £13,000 a copy, depending on condition of the disc. The highest recorded sale price of £13,000 was achieved in 2006 by UK collector Marshal Peters who sold a copy of the single complete with its A&M card envelope, of which only nine copies are known to exist. The B-side of the A&M single was \"No Feeling\", an early rough mix or performance of \"No Feelings\". (A later version was released on the Pistols' debut album.) \"Record Collector\" named the A&M single the most collectable record of all time. \"God Save the Queen\" was featured on \"Never Mind the Bollocks, Here's the Sex Pistols\", the band's only album, and several compilation albums. \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"God Save the Queen\" number 175 on its list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time and it is also one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. It was \"Sounds\" magazine's Single of the Year in 1977. In 1989, it was eighteenth in the list of \"NME\" writers' all-time top 150 singles. \"Q\" magazine in 2002 ranked it first on its list of \"The 50 Most Exciting Tunes Ever...\" and third on its list of \"100 Songs That Changed The World\" in 2003. In 2007, \"NME\" launched a campaign to get the song to number 1 in the British charts and encouraged readers to purchase or download the single on 8 October. However, it only made number 42. In 2010, the \"New Statesman\" listed it as one of the \"Top 20 Political Songs\". In 2010, the song was ranked among the top 10 most controversial songs of all time in a poll conducted by PRS for Music. In 2002, the song was re-released to coincide with the Queen's Golden Jubilee, whereupon the single charted in the top 20. In 2012, it was announced that the single would be re-released on 28 May 2012, coinciding with the 35th anniversary of the original release and the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Lydon has voiced his disapproval over the re-release and the campaign, saying in a statement: \"I would like to very strongly distance myself from the recent stories and campaign to push 'God Save the Queen' for the number one spot. This campaign totally undermines what The Sex Pistols stood for. It is certainly not my personal plan or aim. I am proud of what The Sex Pistols achieved and always will be but this campaign totally undermines what The Sex Pistols stood for. This is not my campaign. I am pleased that the Sex Pistols recordings are being put out there for a new generation, however, I wish for no part in the circus that is being built up around it.\" The 2012 re-release peaked at no. 80 in the singles chart.", "The song could be heard during \"Journey Along the Thames\", a two-minute film directed by Danny Boyle and played at the beginning of the 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony, an event opened by the queen, and held during her Diamond Jubilee. A camera traverses the route the band took in the boat the \"Queen Elizabeth\", between Tower Bridge and Westminster, as the song plays. On 3 November 2016, Andrew Rosindell, a Conservative MP, argued in an early day motion for a return to the broadcasting of the national anthem (named \"God Save the Queen\") at the end of BBC One transmissions each day (The practice was dropped in 1997, ostensibly due to BBC One adopting 24-hour broadcasting by simulcasting BBC News 24 overnight, rendering closedown obsolete), to commemorate the Brexit vote and Britain's subsequent withdrawing from the European Union. At the evening of the same day, BBC Two's \"Newsnight\" programme ended its nightly broadcast with host of that night Kirsty Wark saying that they were \"incredibly happy to oblige\" Rosindell's request, and then played a clip of the Sex Pistols' similarly named song, much to Rosindell's discontent. In his 1983 novel, The Place of Dead Roads, William S Burroughs echoes the infamous coupling of the song when describing the United Kingdom with the words \"God save the Queen and a fascist regime... a flabby toothless fascism, to be sure. Never go too far in any direction, is the basic law on which Limey-Land is built.\" Burroughs also claimed he sent a congratulatory letter to the Sex Pistols following the release of the song.", "The single's picture sleeve, featuring a defaced image of Queen Elizabeth II, was designed by Jamie Reid and in 2001 was ranked No. 1 in a list of the 100 greatest record covers of all time by \"Q\" magazine.", "", "A cover version by the English heavy metal band Motörhead was released as a single in 2000 to promote their album, \"We Are Motörhead\". The cover art gives further reference to the Sex Pistols by using the same cut-out words to form the title as the Sex Pistols' single cover. A performance of the song recorded during the band's twenty-fifth anniversary concert at Brixton Academy, on 22 October 2000, appears on their 25 & Alive Boneshaker DVD.", "On the 18 March 1983 episode of \"SCTV\" in the \"Mel's Rock Pile\" segment, Mel Slirrup (Eugene Levy) has a tribute to punk rock featuring a number by the band The Queenhaters—Martin Short (lead singer), Andrea Martin (lead guitarist/back-up vocals), Eugene Levy (secondary guitarist), Joe Flaherty (bass), and John Candy (drummer)—performing \"I Hate The Bloody Queen\", a sound-alike song that almost matches the original it is spoofing, with references to the Falklands War (\"I'd like to drown the Queen/Off the coast of Argentine/Throw her off a battleship/With her Falkland war machine!\") and the problems that Princess Diana was, and would be soon having with her in-laws (\"I feel sorry for you, Lady Di/Having a mother-in-law like that!\"). This spoof of The Sex Pistols' \"God Save the Queen\" even has its own cover version by Mudhoney on the tribute album \"Oh Canaduh! 2\".", "In 2002 American synth-pop project Red Flag featured the \"Dustbin Mix\" on the \"Cause and Consequence\"-Maxi CD." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Early years.", "Loan to Jablonec.", "CSKA Moscow.", "Loan to PAOK.", "Loan to Slavia Prague.", "Loan to Zwolle.", "Return to CSKA Moscow.", "PEC Zwolle.", "Bursaspor.", "Loan to Legia Warsaw.", "Third spell at Slavia Prague.", "ADO Den Haag.", "International career.", "Youth sides.", "Senior side.", "Honours.", "Club." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Necid played his first match for the senior team of SK Slavia Prague in September 2006, when he was just 17 years old. A month later, he scored his first league goal.", "In the 2007–08 season, Necid made his debut in the UEFA Champions League, however, he was loaned to FK Jablonec for the second half of the season. Despite playing only 14 matches (of 30), he was Jablonec's top scorer of the season with five goals. When Necid came to FK Jablonec they were in 15th place (out of 16), which means relegation to a lower league. Nevertheless, the team finished the season in 12th place, and therefore survived, with Necid being one of the heroes of the team. When his loan came to an end, he stated he wanted to return to Slavia and did not want to play for Jablonec again. At the end of the season, in his first match for Slavia after his return from Jablonec, he scored a goal against Liberec. Slavia Prague won the 2007–08 Gambrinus liga. In 2008, he won the Talent of the Year award at the Czech Footballer of the Year awards.", "In August 2008, CSKA Moscow, who were interested in Necid since 2006, signed a deal with Slavia Prague according to which Necid would stay at Slavia until the end of the year and would join CSKA in January 2009. He played his first competitive match for CSKA Moscow on 7 March 2009 in the Russian Super Cup 2009 where he came on as a substitute on the 78th minute and scored the winning goal for his team in extra time in the 113th minute. Before joining CSKA Moscow Necid played 16 games in the 2008–09 Gambrinus liga and scored 11 goals (which was making him the season's top league scorer at the time he left). In his debut match for CSKA at the 2009 Russian Super Cup, Necid came on as a substitute when the score was 1–1 and scored the winning goal. In June 2011, Necid suffered a knee injury that required two operations and it sidelined him for 22 months (until April 2013).", "Necid signed for PAOK for the 2013–14 season to gain more playing time with Olympiacos, Rennes and Twente all interested.", "On 6 January 2014, Slavia Prague announced signing Necid on loan to the end of 2013–14 season.", "In August 2014, he was sent on loan to Dutch Eredivisie side PEC Zwolle.", "His loan ended in January 2015 and he returned to CSKA Moscow. After being linked with Chievo Verona, Necid dissolved his contract with CSKA on 2 February 2015.", "He returned to PEC Zwolle as a free agent and signed a contract until the end of the season.", "On 2 July 2015, Necid signed four-year contract for Turkish Süper Lig side Bursaspor. He came the club for a key role in filling the shoes of top goalscorer from 2014–15 season, Fernandão.", "On 30 January 2017, he was loaned to Legia Warsaw for a half-year.", "On 1 September 2017, Necid rejoined Slavia Prague on a season-long loan deal. On 9 May 2018, he played as Slavia Prague won the 2017–18 Czech Cup final against FK Jablonec. He left Slavia after the loan was over.", "On 28 August 2018, he joined Dutch side ADO Den Haag on a two-year contract after his Bursaspor contract was dissolved.", "", "He finished as a joined top scorer with five goals in five games scored at the 2006 UEFA European Under-17 Football Championship, where the Czech Republic won a silver medal. He became the top scorer of 2008 UEFA European Under-19 Football Championship, with four goals in four games. At that tournament the Czech Republic reached the semi-final. Necid is to be part of the Czech U-20 team at the 2009 FIFA U-20 World Cup.", "His first match with the senior team took place on 19 November 2008, in a qualification match against San Marino. The Czech national football team won 3–0, with Necid scoring the third goal. After that, Necid scored three goals in World Cup qualification. He scored his fifth goal in a 4–2 win over the USA in an international friendly on 25 May 2010. His sixth was scored in a 4–1 win over Latvia.", "", "Slavia Prague CSKA Moscow PEC Zwolle Czech Republic U17" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Ancient Sirmium.", "After the Avar conquest.", "After the First World War.", "Inhabited places.", "Demographics.", "Ethnic groups.", "Religion.", "Archeology.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Famous and notable residents.", "Roman emperors.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In Serbian, the town is known as Сремска Митровица or \"Sremska Mitrovica\", in Rusyn as Сримска Митровица, in Croatian as \"Srijemska Mitrovica\", in Hungarian as \"Szávaszentdemeter\" or \"Mitrovica\", in German as \"Syrmisch Mitrowitz\", in Latin as \"Sirmium\", and in Turkish as \"Dimitrofça\". \"Sremska Mitrovica\" means \"Mitrovica of Syrmia\" (Mitrovica, Kosovo and Mačvanska Mitrovica also exist), while \"Mitrovica\" itself stems from the name \"Saint Demetrius\" or \"Sveti Dimitrije\" in the Serbian language (in Cyrillic form \"Свети Димитрије\"). The name of the city during the reign of the Roman Empire was Sirmium. Beginning in 1180 AD the name changed from \"Civitas Sancti Demetrii\" to \"Dmitrovica\", \"Mitrovica\", and finally to the present form - \"Sremska Mitrovica\".", "", "Sremska Mitrovica is one of the oldest cities in Europe. Archaeologists have found a trace of organized human life dating from 5000 BC onwards. Ionian jewellery dating to 500BC was excavated in the city. When the Romans conquered the city in the 1st century BC, Sirmium already was a settlement with a long tradition. In the 1st century, Sirmium gained a status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, and became a very important military and strategic location in Pannonia province. The war expeditions of Roman emperors Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Claudius II, were prepared in Sirmium. In 103, Pannonia was split into two provinces: Pannonia Superior and Pannonia Inferior, and Sirmium became the capital city of the latter. In 296, Diocletian implemented a new territorial division of Pannonia. Instead of previous two provinces, there were four new provinces established in former territory of original Pannonia: Pannonia Prima, Pannonia Valeria, Pannonia Savia and Pannonia Secunda. Capital city of Pannonia Secunda was Sirmium. In 293, with the establishment of tetrarchy, the Roman Empire was split into four parts; Sirmium became one of the four capital cities of the Empire, the other three being Augusta Treverorum, Mediolanum, and Nicomedia (modern Trier, Milan and Izmit). During the tetrarchy, Sirmium was the capital of emperor Galerius. With the establishment of praetorian prefectures in 318, the capital of the prefecture of Illyricum was Sirmium. Beginning in the 4th century, the city was an important Christian centre, and was a seat of the Episcopate of Sirmium. Four Christian councils were held in Sirmium. At the end of the 4th century, Sirmium was brought under the sway of the Goths, and later, was again annexed to the Eastern Roman Empire. In 441, Sirmium was conquered by the Huns, and after this conquest, it remained for more than a century in the hands of various Germanic tribes, such were Eastern Goths and Gepids. For a short time, Sirmium was the center of the Gepide State and the king Cunimund minted golden coins in it. After 567, Sirmium was again incorporated into Eastern Roman Empire. The city was conquered and destroyed by Avars in 582. This event marked the end of the period of late Antiquity in the history of Sirmium. 11 luxurious golden belts of Avar handicraft dating to the 6th century was excavated in the vicinity.", "For the next two centuries Sirmium was a place of little importance. At the end of the 8th century, Sirmium belonged to the Frankish State. The historical role of Sirmium increased again in the 9th century, when it was part of the Bulgarian Empire. Pope Adrian II gave St Methodius the title of Archbishop of Sirmium. After having adopted Christianity, the Bulgarians restored in Sirmium the Christian Episcopate, having in mind old Christian traditions and the reputation this city had in the ancient world. In the 11th century, Sirmium was a residence of Sermon, a duke of Syrmia, who was a vassal of the Bulgarian Samuil. After 1018, the city was again included into the Byzantine Empire, and since the end of the 11th century, Sirmium was a subject of a dispute between the Byzantine Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary, until 1180 when the Byzantine Empire gave up Sirmium, surrendering it to the Kingdom of Hungary. In the 11th century, a Byzantine province named Theme of Sirmium had its capital in this city. For a while, about 1451, the city was in possession of the Serbian despot Đurađ Branković. In 1521 the city came into Ottoman hands and it remained under the Ottoman rule for almost two centuries. According to Ottoman traveler Evliya Celebi, Mitrovica had been conquered by the Bosnian sanjak bey Husrev-bey. It was renamed as \"Dimitrofça\". The name of the mayor of the city was Dimitar and since the middle of the 16th century, the city was mostly populated with Muslims. According to the 1566/69 data, the population of the city was composed of 592 Muslim and 30 Christian houses, while according to the 1572 data, it was composed of 598 Muslim and 18 Christian houses. According to the 1573 data, the city had 17 mosques and no Christian church. During the Ottoman rule, Sremska Mitrovica was the largest settlement in Syrmia, and was the administrative center of the Ottoman Sanjak of Syrmia. It was temporarily occupied by Austrian troops between 1688 and 1690. They finally took it in 1717 and took possession of it after signing Treaty of Passarowitz in 1718. With the establishment of the Habsburg administration in 1718, the Muslim population fled from the city and was replaced with Serbian, Croatian, and German settlers. According to the 1765 data, the population of the city numbered 809 people, of whom 514 were Serbs and 290 Catholics. Sremska Mitrovica was part of the Habsburg Military Frontier (Slavonian Krajina). In 1848-49, it was part of the Serbian Voivodship, a Serb autonomous region within Austrian Empire, but in 1849, it was returned under administration of the Military Frontier. With the abolition of the Slavonian Military Frontier in 1881, Sremska Mitrovica was included into Syrmia County, which was part of the Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia within Austria-Hungary. According to the 1910 census, the population of the city numbered 12,909 people, of which 8,793 spoke the Serbo-Croatian language (4,878 of those spoke Serbian and 3,915 spoke Croatian) and 2,341 German. The administrative area of the city (which did not included the city itself) had 32,012 inhabitants, of which 28,093 spoke Serbo-Croatian (27,022 of those spoke Serbian and 1,071 spoke Croatian) and 2,324 German.", "In 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed and the Syrmia region first became a part of the newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, and then, on 24 November 1918, the assembly of Syrmia in Ruma decided that most of Syrmia (including Mitrovica) join to the Kingdom of Serbia. Subsequently, on 1 December 1918, Kingdom of Serbia united with the Kingdom of Montenegro and the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (renamed to Yugoslavia in 1929). Between 1918-22, Sremska Mitrovica was part of the Syrmia County, between 1922-29 part of the Syrmia Oblast, between 1929-31 part of the Drina Banovina, and, between 1931-41, part of the Danube Banovina. During World War II, the city was occupied by Axis troops and was attached to the Independent State of Croatia. During that time its name was changed to \"Hrvatska Mitrovica\" (meaning \"Croatian Mitrovica\"). One of the largest Nazi concentration/death camps in the Independent State of Croatia existed in Sremska Mitrovica and as many as 10,000 victims (Serbs, Jews, and antifascists) were killed here. The Serbian Jewish population was to be interned in a concentration camp built first in Jarak and then at Zasavica. However, both locations proved to be too flooded for construction. The Germans had to abandon these locations and use Sajmište, which resulted in the destruction of 83% of Serbian Jewry. In the Yugoslav wars in Sremska Mitrovica Prison, some Croatian prisoners of war were kept in this prison. The main prison facility; the largest known in Serbia, was open from November 1991 to August 1992 and was a scene where many prisoners were killed, tortured, abused and raped. Beginning in 1944, the town was part of the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina within the new Socialist Yugoslavia and, from 1945, within the Socialist Republic of Serbia. From 1992 to 2003 it was part of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, which was then transformed into the state union of Serbia and Montenegro. Since the 2006 independence of Montenegro, Sremska Mitrovica is part of an independent Serbia.", "The city of Sremska Mitrovica includes the town of Mačvanska Mitrovica, and several villages. Villages on the northern bank of the river Sava, in the region of Syrmia: Villages on the southern bank of the river Sava, in the region of Mačva:", "According to the 2011 census results, the city administrative area has a population of 79,940 inhabitants.", "Most of the settlements in the city have an ethnic Serb majority. Ethnically mixed settlement with relative Serb majority is Stara Bingula. The main concentration of ethnic minorities is in the urban area of the city. The ethnic composition of the city:", "In 2002, the population of city of Sremska Mitrovica included 76,290 Orthodox Christians, 3,935 Roman Catholics, 252 Protestants and 106 Muslims. Orthodox Christians in Sremska Mitrovica are belonging to the Eparchy of Syrmia of the Serbian Orthodox Church. Catholics belong to the Diocese of Syrmia, which has its seat in Sremska Mitrovica.", "During work on the new Sremska Mitrovica trade center in 1972, a worker accidentally broke into an old Roman pot, about 2m deep, over the site of an old Sirmium settlement. 33 gold Roman coins enclosed in a leather pouch were found inside a Roman house wall, probably the hidden savings of a wealthy Roman family stashed centuries ago. Of this extraordinary rare find of Sirmium minted coins were four Constantius II era coins, considered the most valuable examples from the late Roman empire of the 4th century AD. The young worker whose shovel brought this significant discovery to light was never rewarded. The only known unexcavated Roman horse racing arena in the world is in Sirmium. A colossal building about 150m wide and 450m long lays directly under the Sremska Mitrovica town center and just beside the old Sirmium Emperor's Palace (one of just a few Sirmium publicly accessible archeological sights). The presence of the arena has clearly affected the layout of the present town (Sremska Mitrovica is today about 2-4m above ground line of the former Sirmium settlement).", "Sremska Mitrovica has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Cfb\") bordering very closely on a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Dfb\") as well as a humid subtropical climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Cfa\").", "The following table gives a preview of total number of registered people employed in legal entities per their core activity (as of 2018):", "", "Ten Roman emperors were born in the city and its envirions: The last emperor of the united Roman Empire, Theodosius I (378–95), became emperor in Sirmium. The usurpers Ingenuus and Regalianus also declared themselves emperors in this city (in 260) and many other Roman emperors spent some time in Sirmium including Marcus Aurelius who might have written parts of his famous work \"Meditations\" in the city.", "", "Sremska Mitrovica is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and career.", "Illness.", "Contributions to mathematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The son of a tailor, Baire was one of three children from a poor working-class family in Paris. He started his studies when he entered the Lycée Lakanal through the use of a scholarship. In 1890, Baire completed his advanced classes and entered the special mathematics section of the Lycée Henri IV. While there, he prepared for and passed the entrance examination for the École Normale Supérieure and the École Polytechnique. He decided to attend the École Normale Supérieure in 1891. After receiving his three-year degree, Baire proceeded toward his agrégation. He did better than all the other students on the writing portion of the test but he did not pass the oral examination due to a lack of explanation and clarity in his lesson. After retaking the agrégation and passing, he was assigned to teach at the secondary school (lycée) in Bar-le-Duc. While there, Baire researched the concept of limits and discontinuity for his doctorate. He presented his thesis on March 24, 1899 and was awarded his doctorate. He continued to teach in secondary schools around France but was not happy teaching lower level mathematics. In 1901 Baire was appointed to the University of Montpellier as a \"Maître de conférences\". In 1904 he was awarded a Peccot Foundation Fellowship to spend a semester in a university and develop his skills as a professor. Baire chose to attend the Collège de France where he lectured on the subject of analysis. He was appointed to a university post in 1905 when he joined the Faculty of Science at the University of Dijon. In 1907 he was promoted to Professor of Analysis at Dijon where he continued his research in analysis. He retired from Dijon in 1925 and spent his last years living in multiple hotels that he could afford with his meager pension.", "Since he was young, Baire always had \"delicate\" health. He had developed problems with his esophagus before he attended school and he would occasionally experience severe attacks of agoraphobia. From time to time, his health would prevent him from working or studying. The bad spells became more frequent, immobilizing him for long periods of time. Over time, he had developed a kind of psychological disorder that made him unable to undertake work that required long periods of concentration. At times this would make his ability to research mathematics impossible. Between 1909 and 1914 this problem continually plagued him and his teaching duties became more and more difficult. He was given a leave of absence from the University of Dijon due to all these breakdowns.", "Baire's skill in mathematical analysis led him to study with other major names in analysis such as Vito Volterra and Henri Lebesgue. In his dissertation \"Sur les fonctions de variable réelles\" (\"On the Functions of Real Variables\"), Baire studied a combination of set theory and analysis topics to arrive at the Baire category theorem and the definition of a nowhere dense set. He then used these topics to prove the theorems of those he studied with and further the understanding of continuity. Among Baire's other most important works are \"Théorie des nombres irrationnels, des limites et de la continuité\" (Theory of Irrational Numbers, Limits, and Continuity) published in 1905 and both volumes of \"Leçons sur les théories générales de l’analyse\" (Lessons on the General Theory of Analysis) published in 1907–08." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Russia and USSR.", "Russian Empire.", "USSR.", "Russian Federation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Podpolkovnik () — military rank and special rank in the historical Imperial Russian Army, in the USSR and in Russia. First it appeared in Russia as appointment or assignment to the assistant or deputy commander of a regiment sized military formation at the end of the 15th — early 16th century. In the Streltsy formations, as a general role, the \"podpolkovnik\" was responsible for all administrative tasks and functions. Normally it was of Nobility or Boyar origin. From the 17th - to early 17th century there was a rank and an appointment under the designation polupolkovnik (). Beyond its normal responsibilities, he was in charge to command the second halve of the regiment, the rear -, reserve -, and other regular units (until the introduction of the battalion structure).", "From the introduction of the Russian table of ranks to the abolishment in 1917 \"podpolkovnik\" was quoted to rank positioned VII, and until 1856 it was privileged by hereditary nobility. In 1884, as the \"mayor\" rank in the Russian army was suppressed, all \"mayors\", by exemption of retirement, loss of civil rights, or mercilessly, were converted to \"podpolkovnik\". From this moment, the rank \"podpolkovnik\" was equivalent to the rank \"armed forces' starshina\" (, ). Before 1884, the \"armed forces' starshina\" was adequate to \"mayor\". In line to this reform, the shoulder board rank insignia had been changed from two big stars to three smaller ones. To the formations of the so-called leyb-guard (), the rank \"podpolkovnik\" had not been introduced. Normally, \"kapitan\" officers might have been promoted to \"polkovnik\" immediately, by skipping the ranks \"major\" and \"podpolkovnik\". In the Russian imperial navy the rank \"Kapitan 2nd rank\" was equivalent to \"podpolkovnik\", in the civil administration it was corresponding to privy councillor (). The rank \"podpolkovnik\" was abolished 16 December 1917, together with all previous ranks and rank insignia of the former Russian imperial army. In the white voluntary army the rank was in the period from December 1917 to November 1918. Than it was abolished as well, and harmonized to the Kapitan ranks of the guard and other officers of the other formations. However, in the Russian army of general Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel the \"podpolkovnik\" rank was reestablished in April 1920.", "By foundation of the Soviet Union the rank designation and rank insignia of the Imperial Russian Army were suppressed. An equivalent rank to \"podpolkovnik\" was created in 1924, by the introduction of the so-called \"status category 8 rank\" – (; ). However, this was overtaken by the introduction of individual ranks in 1935. \"Podpolkovnik\" as a military rank was reintroduced September 1, 1939 by disposal of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union (from September 2, 1939), and the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR No. 2690 (article 41, pertaining the law of universal compulsory military service), published by the order No. 226 of the People's Commissar of Defence (from July 26, 1940). The Red Army used this rank together with a number of other former Russian ranks, and it has been used in many ex-USSR countries, including Russia, to the present day. By the first promotion to that particular rank the hitherto (old) \"polkovnik\" collar distinction insignia with three parallel bars had to be used. The new \"polkovnik\" rank was from now on characterized by four bars. This insignia had to be worn until the introduction of shoulder boards, and were finally replaced in 1943. In the Soviet navy the rank \"kapitan 2nd rank\" was equivalent to \"podpolkovnik\". In the civil administration it was corresponding to privy councillor (). The rank \"podpolkovnik\" was abolished 16 December 1917, together with all previous ranks and rank insignia of the former Russian imperial army. In the military political organization it was equivalent to \"starshy battalion commissar\" (), another corresponding rank designation was \"Specialist 1st rank\" (pertaining to: military engineers, surgeons, commissionaires, veterinary surgeons, and legal personnel). In late 1943 shoulder boards were reintroduced as rank designation. From this moment in the \"podpolkovnik\" rank of the Red Army was specified by two big horizontal stars, on shoulder boards, with parallel piping (two straps). The stars had to be established on a distance of 35 mm from the lower end of the shoulder board (Rules to wear military uniforms in the Soviet Army and the Navy). From 7 November 1944 the stars were pinned direct (symmetrically to the piping) on piping.", "If military personnel serves in a guards formation, or on a guards war ship, to the rank designation will be placed in front the noun guards (e.g. \"Gurds podpolkovnik\"). Civil – or military personnel with a specific defined level of expertise or knowledge in medical or judicial professions, to the military rank will be added the noun \"legal or the wording \"medical service\". Further adding to the military rank designation might be \"retired\" or \"on retirement\". Personnel serving in the executive of the Russian Federation might be specified by rank designation as follows." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Morphology.", "Lexicography.", "Pronunciation.", "Difference between stem and lemma." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The form of a word that is chosen to serve as the lemma is usually the least marked form, but there are several exceptions, such as, for several languages, the use of the infinitive for verbs. For English, the citation form of a noun is the singular: e.g., \"mouse\" rather than \"mice\". For multi-word lexemes that contain possessive adjectives or reflexive pronouns, the citation form uses a form of the indefinite pronoun \"one\": e.g., \"do one's best\", \"perjure oneself\". In European languages with grammatical gender, the citation form of regular adjectives and nouns is usually the masculine singular. If the language additionally has cases, the citation form is often the masculine singular nominative. For many languages, the citation form of a verb is the infinitive: French ', German ', Spanish \"\". For English this usually coincides with the uninflected, least marked form of the verb (that is, \"run\", not \"runs\" or \"running\"); the present tense is used for some defective verbs (\"shall\", \"can\", and \"must\" have only the one form). For Latin, Ancient Greek, and Modern Greek, however, the first person singular present tense is traditionally used, although some modern dictionaries use the infinitive instead. (For contracted verbs in Ancient Greek, an uncontracted first person singular present tense is used to reveal the contract vowel: \"philéō\" for \"philō\" \"I love\" [implying affection]; \"agapáō\" for \"agapō\" \"I love\" [implying regard]). Finnish dictionaries list verbs not under the verb root but under the first infinitive, marked with \"-(t)a\", \"-(t)ä\". For Japanese, the non-past (present and future) tense is used. For Arabic, which has no infinitives, the third-person singular masculine of the past tense is the least-marked form, and is used for entries in modern dictionaries. In older dictionaries, which are still commonly used today, the triliteral of the word, either a verb or a noun, is used. Hebrew often uses the third-person masculine perfect, e.g., ברא \"bara' \" create, כפר \"kaphar\" deny. Georgian uses the verbal noun. For Korean, \"-da\" is attached to the stem. In Irish, words are highly inflected depending on their case (genitive, nominative, dative and vocative); they are also inflected on their place within a sentence because of initial mutations. The noun \"cainteoir\", the lemma for the noun meaning \"speaker\", has a variety of forms: \"chainteoir\", \"gcainteoir\", \"cainteora\", \"chainteora\", \"cainteoirí\", \"chainteoirí\" and \"gcainteoirí\". Some phrases are cited in a sort of lemma, e.g., \"Carthago delenda est\" (literally, \"Carthage must be destroyed\") is a common way of citing Cato, although what he said was nearer to \"censeo Carthaginem esse delendam\" (\"I hold Carthage to be in need of destruction\").", "In a dictionary, the lemma \"go\" represents the inflected forms \"go\", \"goes\", \"going\", \"went\", and \"gone\". The relationship between an inflected form and its lemma is usually denoted by an angle bracket, e.g., \"went\" < \"go\". The disadvantage of such simplifications is, of course, the inability to look up a declined or conjugated form of the word, although some dictionaries, like Webster's, will list \"went\". Multilingual dictionaries vary in how they deal with this issue: the Langenscheidt dictionary of German does not list \"ging\" (< \"gehen\"); the Cassell does. Lemmas or word stems are used often in corpus linguistics for determining word frequency. In such usage the specific definition of \"lemma\" is flexible depending on the task it is being used for.", "A word may have different pronunciations depending on its phonetic environment (neighbouring sounds) or its degree of stress within a sentence. An example of the latter is the weak and strong forms of certain English function words such as \"some\" and \"but\" (pronounced, when stressed, but, when unstressed). Dictionaries usually give the pronunciation used when the word is pronounced alone (in its isolation form) and with stress, although they may also note commonly occurring weak forms of pronunciation.", "The stem is the part of the word that never changes even when morphologically inflected; a lemma is the base form of the word. For example, from \"produced\", the lemma is \"produce\", but the stem is \"produc-\". This is because there are words such as production. and producing In linguistic analysis, the stem is defined more generally as the analyzed base form from which all inflected forms can be formed. When phonology is taken into account, the definition of the unchangeable part of the word is not useful, as can be seen in the phonological forms of the words in the preceding example: \"produced\" vs. \"production\". Some lexemes have several stems but one lemma. For instance the verb \"to go\" (the lemma) has the stems \"go\" and \"went\" due to suppletion: the past tense was co-opted from a different verb, \"to wend\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and Air Force career.", "Vice President of Egypt.", "President of Egypt.", "Egypt's return to the Arab League.", "Governing style.", "Gulf War of 1991.", "Stance on the invasion of Iraq in 2003.", "2005 elections.", "State corruption during Mubarak's presidency.", "Wealth and allegations of personal corruption.", "Presidential succession.", "Israeli–Palestinian conflict.", "Revolution and overthrow.", "Protests.", "Post-resignation.", "Trial.", "Support for Sisi.", "Health problems.", "Acquittal.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hosni Mubarak was born on 4 May 1928 in Kafr El-Meselha, Monufia Governorate, Egypt. On 2 February 1949, he left the Military Academy and joined the Air Force Academy, gaining his commission as a pilot officer on 13 March 1950 and eventually receiving a bachelor's degree in aviation sciences. Mubarak served as an Egyptian Air Force officer in various formations and units; he spent two years in a Spitfire fighter squadron. Some time in the 1950s, he returned to the Air Force Academy as an instructor, remaining there until early 1959. From February 1959 to June 1961, Mubarak undertook further training in the Soviet Union, attending a Soviet pilot training school in Moscow and another at Kant Air Base near Bishkek in the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic. Mubarak undertook training on the Ilyushin Il-28 and Tupolev Tu-16 jet bombers. In 1964 he gained a place at the Frunze Military Academy in Moscow. On his return to Egypt, he served as a wing commander, then as a base commander; he commanded the Cairo West Air Base in October 1966 then briefly commanded the Beni Suef", "In April 1975, President Anwar Sadat appointed Mubarak Vice President of Egypt. In this position, he took part in government consultations that dealt with the future disengagement of forces agreement with Israel. In September 1975, Mubarak went on a mission to Riyadh and Damascus to persuade the Saudi Arabian and Syrian governments to accept the disengagement agreement signed with the Israeli government (\"Sinai II\"), but was refused a meeting by the Syrian President Hafez Al-Assad. During his meetings with the Saudi government, Mubarak developed a friendship with the nation's powerful Crown Prince Fahd, whom Sadat had refused to meet or contact and who was now seen as major player who could help mend", "Mubarak was injured during the assassination of President Sadat in October 1981 by soldiers led by Lieutenant Khalid Islambouli. Following Sadat's death, Mubarak became the fourth president of Egypt.", "Until Libya's suspension from the Arab League at the beginning of the Libyan Civil War, Egypt was the only state in the history of the organization to have had its membership suspended, because of President Sadat's peace treaty with Israel. In June 1982, Mubarak met King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, which marked a beginning of an Egyptian-Saudi rapprochement. Since Egypt is the most populous Arab country and Saudi Arabia the richest, the Saudi–Egyptian axis was a powerful force in the Arab world. At an Arab League summit later in 1982 in Fez, Saudi Arabia put forward an Egyptian peace plan where in exchange for Israel resolving the Israeli–Palestinian conflict by allowing a Palestinian state, the entire Arab world would make peace with Israel. The Islamic Republic of Iran had, from 1979 onward, been making the claim to be the leader of the Islamic world, and in particular Ayatollah Khomeini had called for the overthrow of the governments of Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and other Arab states along the southern shores of the Persian Gulf, calling these states illegitimate. The claim of the Ayatollah Khomeini to be the rightful leader of the Islamic", "Throughout the 1980s, Mubarak increased the production of affordable housing, clothing, furniture, and medicine. By the time he became President, Mubarak was one of a few Egyptian officials who refused to visit Israel and vowed to take a less enthusiastic approach to normalizing relations with the Israeli government. Under Mubarak, Israeli journalists often wrote about the \"cold peace\" with Egypt, observing Israeli–Egyptian relations were frosty at best. Mubarak was quick to deny that his policies would result in difficulties for Egyptian–Israeli dealings in the future. The Israeli historian Major Efraim Karsh wrote in 2006 that in Egypt \"...numberless articles, scholarly writings, books, cartoons, public statements, and radio and television programs, Jews are painted in the blackest terms imaginable\". Karsh accused Mubarak of being personally antisemitic, writing he \"evidently shared the premises\" of his propaganda. Egypt's heavy dependence on US aid and its hopes for US pressure on Israel for a Palestinian settlement continued under Mubarak. He quietly improved relations with the former Soviet Union. In 1987, Mubarak won an election", "Egypt was a member of the allied coalition during the 1991 Gulf War; Egyptian infantry were some of the first to land in Saudi Arabia to remove Iraqi forces from Kuwait. Egypt's participation in the war solidified its central role in the Arab World and brought financial benefits for the Egyptian government. Reports of sums", "President Mubarak spoke out against the 2003 invasion of Iraq, arguing that the Israeli–Palestinian conflict should have been resolved first. He", "President Mubarak was re-elected by majority votes in a referendum for successive terms on four occasions in 1987, 1993, and 1999. Each time, Mubarak secured his position by having himself nominated by Parliament then confirmed without opposition in a referendum. The September 2005 ballot was a multiple-candidate election rather than a referendum,", "While in office, political corruption in the Mubarak administration's Ministry of the Interior rose dramatically. Political figures and young activists were imprisoned without trial. Illegal, undocumented, hidden detention facilities were established, and universities, mosques, and newspaper staff were rejected because of their political views. In 2005 Freedom House, a non-governmental organization that conducts research into democracy, reported that the Egyptian government", "In February 2011, ABC News reported that experts believed the personal wealth of Mubarak and his family was between and from military contracts made during his time as an air force officer. \"The Guardian\" reported that Mubarak and his family might be worth up to garnered from corruption, bribes and legitimate business activities. The money was said to be spread out in various bank accounts, including some in Switzerland and the UK, and invested in foreign property. The newspaper said some of the information about the family's wealth might be ten years old. According to \"Newsweek\", these allegations are poorly substantiated and lack credibility. On 12 February 2011, the government of Switzerland announced it was freezing the Swiss bank accounts of Mubarak and his family. On 20 February 2011, the Egyptian Prosecutor General ordered the freezing of Mubarak's assets and those of his wife Suzanne, his sons Alaa and Gamal Mubarak, and his daughters-in-law Heidi Rasekh and Khadiga Gamal. The", "In 2009, US Ambassador Margaret Scobey said, \"despite incessant whispered discussions, no one in Egypt has any certainty about who will eventually succeed Mubarak nor under what circumstances.\" She said presidential son Gamal Mubarak was the most likely successor; some thought intelligence chief Omar Suleiman might seek the office, or Arab League Secretary-General Amr Moussa might stand. President Mubarak and his son denied this; they said \"a multi-candidate electoral system introduced in 2005 has made the political process", "During his presidency, Mubarak upheld the U.S.-brokered Camp David Accords treaty signed between Egypt and Israel in 1978. Mubarak, on occasion also hosted meetings relating to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict and made a number of attempts to serve as a broker between them. Mubarak was concerned that Rabbi Menachem M. Schneerson didn't trust him on the issue and considered meeting him in New York. In October 2000, Mubarak hosted an emergency summit meeting at Sharm el-Sheikh to discuss the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. In attendance were: U.S. President Bill Clinton, P.L.O. Chairman Yasser Arafat, Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, King Abdullah of Jordan, NATO Sec. General Javier Solana, and U.N. Sec. General Kofi Annan. Mubarak was involved in the Arab League, supporting Arab efforts to achieve a lasting peace in the region. At the Beirut Summit on 28 March", "Protests against Mubarak and his regime erupted in Cairo and other Egyptian cities in January 2011. On 1 February, Mubarak announced he would not contest the presidential election due in September. He also promised constitutional reform. This did not satisfy most protesters, who expected Mubarak to depart immediately. The demonstrations continued and on 2 February, violent clashes occurred between pro-Mubarak and anti-Mubarak protesters. On 10 February, contrary to rumours, Mubarak said he would not resign until the September election, though he would be delegating responsibilities to Vice President Omar Suleiman. The next day, Suleiman announced that Mubarak had resigned. The announcement sparked cheers, flag-waving, and celebrations from protesters in Egypt. Discussions about the nation's future direction began. It had been suggested that Egypt be put in the hands of a caretaker government.", "On 25 January 2011, protests against Mubarak and his government erupted in Cairo and around Egypt calling for Mubarak's resignation. Mubarak stated in a speech that he would not leave, and would die on Egyptian soil. Opposition leader Mohamed ElBaradei paid no attention to Mubarak's remarks and labeled it as a trick designed to help Mubarak to stay in power. In a state televised broadcast on 1 February 2011, Mubarak announced that", "Mubarak made no media appearances after his resignation. Except for his family and a close circle of aides, he reportedly refused to talk to anyoneeven his supporters. His health was speculated to be rapidly deteriorating; some reports said he was in a coma. Most sources said he was no longer interested in performing any duties and wanted to \"die in Sharm El-Sheikh\". On 28 February 2011, the General Prosecutor of Egypt issued an order prohibiting Mubarak and his family from leaving Egypt. It was reported that Mubarak was in contact with his lawyer in case of possible criminal charges against him. As a result, Mubarak and his family were placed under", "On 24 May 2011, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protesters during the revolution and, if convicted, could face the death penalty. The decision to try Mubarak was made days before a scheduled protest in Tahrir Square. The full list of charges released by the public prosecutor was \"intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators... misuse of influence, deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits\". On 28 May, a Cairo administrative court found Mubarak guilty of damaging the national economy during the protests by shutting down the Internet and telephone services. He was fined LE200 millionabout which the court ordered he must pay from his personal assets.", "Though mostly out of the public eye, Mubarak granted a rare interview in February 2014 with Kuwaiti journalist Fajer al-Saeed, expressing support for then-Minister of Defense and Commander-in-Chief of the Egyptian Armed Forces Abdel Fattah el-Sisi as the next President of Egypt, recognizing that Sisi was working to", "In July 2010, the media said Egypt was about to undergo dramatic change because Mubarak was thought to have cancer and because of the scheduled 2011 presidential election. Intelligence sources said he had esophageal cancer, stomach or pancreatic cancer; this was denied by Egyptian authorities. Speculation about his ill health increased after his resignation from the presidency. According to Egyptian media, Mubarak's condition worsened after he went into exile in Sharm el-Sheikh. He was reportedly depressed, refused to take medications, and was slipping in and out of consciousness. According to the sourcean unnamed Egyptian security official\"Mubarak wants to be left alone and die in his homeland\". The source denied that Mubarak was writing his memoirs, stating that he was almost completely unconscious. After his resignation, Egypt's ambassador to the United States Sameh Shoukry reported that his personal sources said Mubarak \"is possibly in somewhat of bad health\", while several Egyptian and Saudi Arabian newspapers reported that Mubarak was in a coma and close to death. On 12 April 2011, it was reported that he had been hospitalized after suffering a heart attack during questioning over possible corruption charges. In June 2011, Mubarak's lawyer Farid el-Deeb", "On 2 March 2017, the Court of Cassation, Egypt's top appeals court, acquitted", "Hosni Mubarak was married to Suzanne Mubarak and together they had two sons: Alaa and Gamal. Both sons served four years in Egyptian jail for corruption and were released in 2015. Through his son Alaa, Mubarak has two grandsons, Mohammed and Omar; and through his son Gamal, he has a granddaughter Farida. Mohammed died in 2009 from a cerebral hemorrhage. In April 2016, Alaa Mubarak was named in the Panama Papers as someone with financial interests that intersect with that of Mossack Fonseca, the firm implicated in that scandal. Hosni Mubarak died on 25 February 2020, in a Cairo military hospital, at the age of 91." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Government.", "Local government.", "UK Parliament.", "Geography and ecology.", "Ecology.", "Climate.", "Air quality.", "Green Belt.", "Architecture.", "Lace Market.", "Public houses.", "Education.", "Economy.", "Retail.", "Victoria Centre.", "Broadmarsh.", "Other shopping outlets.", "Enterprise zone.", "Creative Quarter.", "Culture.", "Theatres and cinemas.", "Galleries and museums.", "Music and entertainment.", "Annual events.", "Arts and crafts.", "Food.", "Tourism.", "People.", "Miscellaneous.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Other sports.", "Transport.", "Air.", "Railways.", "Trams.", "Workplace parking levy.", "Buses.", "Waterways.", "Public services.", "Emergency.", "Healthcare.", "Water supply.", "Energy supplies.", "Religion.", "Demographics.", "Media.", "Television.", "Radio.", "Student radio.", "Newspapers and magazines.", "Film.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The settlement may predate Anglo-Saxon times, as hinted at in a Welsh tradition of an earlier Brythonic name being \"Tig Guocobauc\", meaning \"Place of Caves\" (known also as \"City of Caves\"). In modern Welsh it is known poetically as \"Y Ty Ogofog\" and Irish as \"Na Tithe Uaimh\" \"The Cavey Dwelling\". When it fell under the rule of a Saxon chieftain named Snot it became known as \"Snotingaham\"; the homestead of Snot's people (\"-inga\" = the people of; \"-ham\" = homestead). Some authors derive \"Nottingham\" from \"Snottenga\", caves, and \"ham\", but \"this has nothing to do with the English form\". Nottingham Castle was constructed in 1068 on a sandstone outcrop by the River Leen. The Anglo-Saxon settlement was originally confined to the area today known as the Lace Market and was surrounded by a substantial defensive ditch and rampart, which fell out of use following the Norman Conquest and was filled by the time of the Domesday Survey (1086). Following the Norman Conquest the Saxon settlement developed into the English Borough of Nottingham and housed a Town Hall and Law Courts. A settlement also developed around the castle on the hill opposite and was the French borough supporting the Normans in the castle. Eventually, the space between was built on as the town grew and the Old Market Square became the focus of Nottingham several centuries later. Defences consisted initially of a ditch and bank in the early 12th century. The ditch was later widened, in the mid-13th century, and a stone wall built around much of the perimeter of the town. A short length of the wall survives, and is visible at the northern end of Maid Marian Way, and is protected as a Scheduled Monument. On the return of Richard the Lionheart from the Crusades, the castle was occupied by supporters of Prince John, including the Sheriff of Nottingham. It was besieged by Richard and, after a sharp conflict, was captured. In the legends of Robin Hood, Nottingham Castle is the scene of the final showdown between the Sheriff and the hero outlaw. By the 15th century Nottingham had established itself as a centre of a thriving export trade in religious sculpture made from Nottingham alabaster. The town became a county corporate in 1449 giving it effective self-government, in the words of the charter, \"for eternity\". The Castle and", "", "There are two major local authorities that serve the Nottingham area. These are Nottingham City Council and Nottinghamshire County Council. Nottingham City Council is a unitary authority based at Loxley House, Nottingham on Station Street. It consists of 55 councillors, representing 20 wards, who are elected every four years; the last elections being held on 7 May 2015. The city also has a Lord Mayor who is selected by city councillors from among themselves. The position is largely ceremonial but the Lord Mayor also acts as Chair of Full Council meetings. The City of Nottingham's boundaries are tightly drawn and exclude several suburbs and satellite towns that are usually considered", "Nottingham has three UK parliamentary constituency seats within its boundaries. Nottingham North has been represented since 2017 by Labour MP Alex Norris, Nottingham East since 2010 by Labour MP Chris Leslie (Change UK - The Independent Group as of February 2019) and Nottingham South since 2010 by Labour", "Nottingham is situated on an area of low hills along the lower valley of the River Trent, and is surrounded by the Sherwood Forest in the north, the Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Yorkshire Coalfield in the west, and the Trent and Belvoir Vales in the east and south.", "Within the city, native wildlife includes red fox, peregrine falcon and common kingfisher. Notable nature reserves around the city include Attenborough Nature Reserve SSSI, Sherwood Forest National Nature", "Like most of the United Kingdom, Nottingham has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb) and experiences warm mild summers and mild to cool winters with abundant precipitation throughout the year. There are weather-reporting stations close to Nottingham—the former \"Nottingham Weather Centre\", at Watnall, about north-west of the city centre; and the University of Nottingham's agricultural campus at Sutton Bonington, about to the south-west of the city centre. The highest temperature recorded in Nottingham (Watnall) stands at, whilst Sutton Bonington recorded a temperature", "In 2017 it was reported that Nottingham is one of a number of UK cities", "Nottingham is bounded by a green belt area, provisionally drawn up from the", "The geographical centre of Nottingham is usually defined as the Old Market Square. The square is dominated by the Council House, which replaced the Nottingham Exchange Building, built in 1726. The Council House was built in the 1920s to display civic pride, ostentatiously using baroque columns and placing stone statues of two lions at the front to stand watch over the square. The Exchange Arcade, on the ground floor, is an upmarket shopping centre containing boutiques. Tall office buildings line Maid Marian Way. The Georgian area around Oxford and Regent Streets is dominated by small professional firms. The Albert Hall faces the Gothic revival St Barnabas' Roman Catholic Cathedral by Pugin. Nottingham Castle and its grounds are located further south in the western third of the city. The central third descends from the University district in the north, past Nottingham Trent University's Gothic revival Arkwright Building. The university also owns many other buildings in this area. The Theatre Royal on Theatre Square, with its pillared façade, was built in 1865. King and Queen Streets are home to striking Victorian buildings designed by such architects as Alfred Waterhouse and Watson Fothergill. To the south, is Broadmarsh Shopping Centre. The Canal-side further south of this is adjacent to Nottingham railway station and home to numerous redeveloped 19th-century industrial buildings, reused as bars and restaurants. The eastern third of the city centre contains the Victoria Shopping Centre, built in the 1970s on the site of the demolished Victoria Railway Station. All that remains of the old station is the clock tower and the station hotel, now the Nottingham Hilton Hotel. The 250-foot-high Victoria Centre flats stand above the shopping centre and are the tallest buildings in the city. The eastern third contains Hockley Village. Hockley is where many of Nottingham's unique, independent shops are to be found. It is also home to two alternative cinemas.", "The Lace Market area just south of Hockley has streets with four- to seven-storey red brick warehouses, iron railings and red phone boxes. Many of the buildings have been converted into apartments, bars and", "\"Ye Olde Trip To Jerusalem\" (the \"Trip\"), partially built into the cave system beneath Nottingham Castle, is a contender for the title of England's Oldest Pub, as it is supposed to have been established in 1189. \"The Bell Inn\" in the Old Market Square, and \"Ye Olde Salutation Inn\" (the \"Salutation\") in Maid Marian Way have both disputed this", "Almost 62,000 students attend the city's three universities, Nottingham Trent University, the University of Law and the University of Nottingham; in the 2016/17 academic year, Trent University was attended by 29,370 students and Nottingham University by 32,515. The University of Nottingham Medical School is part of the Queen's Medical Centre. There are three colleges of further education located in Nottingham: Bilborough College is", "Nottingham is the East Midlands' largest economy. In 2010, Nottingham City Council announced that the target sectors of their economic development strategy would include low-carbon technologies; digital media; life sciences; financial and business services; and retail and leisure. Nottingham is home to the headquarters of several companies. These include Alliance Boots (formerly Boots the Chemists); Chinook Sciences; GM (cricket bats); Pedigree pet food; VF Corporation (American clothing); Changan Automobile (Chinese-made automobiles); the credit reference agency Experian; energy company E.ON UK; betting company Gala Group; amusement and gambling machine manufacturer Bell-Fruit-Games; engineering company Siemens; sportswear manufacturers Speedo; high-street opticians Vision Express and Specsavers; games and publishing company Games Workshop; PC software developer Serif Europe (publisher of PagePlus and other titles); web hosting provider Heart Internet; the American credit card company Capital One; the national law firm Browne Jacobson; and Earache Records, an independent music company founded by local resident Digby Pearson, based on Handel Street in Sneinton. Nottingham also has offices of Nottingham Building Society (established 1849); HM Revenue and Customs; the Driving Standards Agency; Ofsted; the Care Quality Commission; and BBC East Midlands. Nottingham was named one of the UK's six science cities in 2005 by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown. Among the science-based industries within the city is BioCity. Founded as a joint venture between Nottingham Trent University and the University of Nottingham, it is the UK's biggest bioscience innovation and incubation centre, housing around 80 science-based companies. Until recently, bicycle manufacturing was a major industry: the city was the birthplace of Raleigh Cycles in 1886, later joined by Sturmey-Archer, the developer of three-speed hub gears. However, Raleigh's factory on Triumph Road, famous as the location for the filming of \"Saturday Night and Sunday Morning\", was demolished in 2003 to make way for the University of Nottingham's expansion of its Jubilee Campus. The schools and aerial photographers, H Tempest Ltd, were Nottingham-based for many years, until relocating to St. Ives (Cornwall) around 1960. In 2015, Nottingham was ranked in the top 10 UK cities for job growth (from 2004 to 2013), in the public and private sectors. And in the same year, it was revealed that more new companies were started in Nottingham in 2014-15 than in any other UK city, with a 68% year-on-year increase.", "In 2017, Nottingham came seventh in HDH's Top 50 British Centres, behind the West End of London, Glasgow, Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds and Liverpool.", "Nottingham's Victoria Centre is the city's main retail shopping centre. It was the first to be built in the city and was developed on the site of the former Nottingham", "Broadmarsh is undergoing a major redevelopment as part of the city's £2bn southside regeneration scheme, due for completion in 2021.", "Smaller shopping centres in the city are The Exchange Arcade, the Flying Horse Walk, Hockley and newer developments in Trinity Square and The Pod. The Bridlesmith Gate area has numerous designer shops, and is the home of the original Paul Smith boutique. There are various side streets and alleys with some interesting and often overlooked buildings and shops—such as Poultry Walk, West End Arcade and Hurts Yard. These are home to many specialist shops, as is Derby Road, near the Roman Catholic Cathedral and once the antiques area. Nottingham has a number of department stores including the House of Fraser, John Lewis and Debenhams.", "In March 2011, the government announced the creation of Nottingham Enterprise Zone, an enterprise zone sited on part of the Boots Estate. In March 2012, Nottingham Science Park, Beeston Business", "The Creative Quarter is a project started by Nottingham City Council as part of the Nottingham City Deal. Centred on the east of the city (including", "", "Nottingham has two large-capacity theatres, the Nottingham Playhouse and the Theatre Royal, which together with the neighbouring Royal Concert Hall forms the Royal Centre. The city also contains smaller", "The city contains several notable museums and art galleries including: In 2015, the National Videogame Arcade was opened in the Hockley area of the city;", "Nottingham has several large music and entertainment venues including the Royal Concert Hall, Rock City, Nottingham Royal Concert Hall (2,500-capacity) and the Nottingham Arena (Social centre). Nottingham's City Ground played host to rock band R.E.M with Idlewild and The Zutons supporting in 2005, the first time a concert had been staged at the football stadium. Nottingham also has a selection of smaller venues, including the Albert Hall (800-capacity), Ye Olde Salutation Inn, Malt Cross, Rescue Rooms, the Bodega, the Old Angel, the Central, the Chameleon and the Corner. 1960s Blues-rock band Ten Years After formed in Nottingham, as did the 1970s pop act Paper Lace and the critically acclaimed Tindersticks, as well as influential folk singer Anne Briggs. Since the beginning of the 2010s, the city has produced a number of artists to gain media attention, including; Jake Bugg, London Grammar, Indiana, Sleaford Mods, Natalie Duncan, Ady Suleiman, Dog Is Dead, Saint Raymond, Childhood, Rue Royale, Spotlight Kid and Amber Run. Nottingham is home to Earache Records, a large independent", "Nottingham holds several multicultural events throughout the year. The city has hosted an annual Asian Mela every summer since about 1989, there is a parade on St Patrick's Day, fireworks at the Chinese New Year, Holi in the Park to celebrate the Hindu spring festival, a West Indian-style carnival, and several Sikh events. The city", "The Hockley Arts", "There are several hundred restaurants in Nottingham, with there being several AA rosette winning restaurants in 2010 Iberico World Tapas,", "In 2010, the city was named as one of the \"Top 10 Cities to Visit in 2010\" by DK Travel. In 2013 it was estimated the city received 247,000 overseas visitors. Nottingham was ranked number one for the ‘Best Value City Break’ in August 2017 by TripAdvisor. The Robin Hood Pageant takes place in Nottingham each year and has been rebranded Robin Hood Live for 2020. The city is home to the Nottingham Robin Hood Society, founded in 1972 by Jim Lees and Steve and Ewa Theresa West. Each February Nottingham celebrates Light Night, with dozens of free creative events illuminating the city. The city has also hosted the Nottingham Cave", "Many local businesses and organisations use the worldwide fame of Robin Hood to represent or promote their", "Nottingham has featured in", "", "Nottingham is home to two professional football clubs: Notts County and Nottingham Forest. Their two football grounds, facing each other on opposite sides of the River Trent, are noted for geographically being the closest in English league football. Notts County, formed in 1862, is the oldest professional football club in the world. They were also among the Football League's founder members in 1888. For most of their history they have played their home games at Meadow Lane, which currently holds some 20,000 spectators, all seated. They currently play in Football League Two, at Level 4 in the English football league system (most recently played at Level 1 in May 1992). Nottingham Forest, who currently play in the Level 2 Football League Championship, were English Level 1", "Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club play at Trent Bridge—an international cricket venue. The club were 2010 Cricket County Champions. Trent Bridge cricket ground is a host of Test Cricket, and was one of the venues for the 2009 ICC World Twenty20. The Rugby team, Nottingham R.F.C., have played their home games at League One, Notts County's Meadow Lane stadium since 2006. In January 2015 they will play home matches at their training base, Lady Bay Sports Ground. Currently in the RFU Championship, if Nottingham are promoted to the Rugby Premiership they will return to Meadow Lane for home matches. Nottingham Outlaws are an amateur Rugby League club who play in the Rugby League Conference National Division. The Nottingham Caesars who were formed in 1984 play", "", "Nottingham is served by East Midlands Airport (formerly known as Nottingham East Midlands Airport", "Nottingham Station, the second busiest railway station in the Midlands for passenger", "The reintroduction of trams in 2004 made Nottingham the newest of only six English cities to have a light rail system. The trams run from the city centre to Hucknall", "In April 2012, Nottingham became the first city in the UK to introduce a workplace parking levy. The levy charges businesses £350 on each parking space made available to their employees, provided", "Nottingham City Transport (NCT) is the biggest transport operator in Nottingham, with 330 buses. In September", "Nottingham's waterways, now primarily used for", "", "Fire and rescue services are provided by Nottinghamshire Fire and Rescue Service, and emergency medical care by East Midlands Ambulance Service, both of which have their headquarters in Nottingham. Law enforcement is carried out by Nottinghamshire Police, whose headquarters are at Sherwood Lodge in Arnold. The city has a Crown", "There are two major National Health Service hospitals in Nottingham, the Queen's Medical Centre (QMC) and Nottingham City Hospital, both managed by the Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust. The QMC is a teaching hospital with", "Severn Trent Water is the company responsible for supplying fresh water to households and businesses in", "Nottingham is host to the UK's first and only local authority-owned and not-for-profit energy company, Robin Hood Energy. The city has one of the largest district heating schemes in the UK, operated by EnviroEnergy Limited, which is", "Historically, the requirement for city status was the presence of a (Church of England) cathedral. Nottingham, however, does not have one, having only been designated a city in 1897, in celebration of Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee. From around AD 1100 Nottingham was part of the Diocese of Lichfield, controlled as an archdeaconry from Lichfield Cathedral in Staffordshire. However, in 1837 the archdeaconry was placed under the control of the Diocese of Lincoln. In 1884 it became part of the newly created Diocese of Southwell, which it, and the city, are still part of today. The bishop is based at Southwell Minster, north-east of the city. Despite not having a cathedral, Nottingham has three notable historic Anglican parish churches, all of which date back to the Middle Ages. St. Mary the Virgin, in the Lace Market, is the oldest and largest. The church dates from the eighth or ninth centuries, but", "The ONS 2014 basis population projections indicate that the city is once again in a phase of steady population growth and that the 350,000 mark should be reached around 2030. The city of Nottingham has a population at 312,900 with the Greater Nottingham population", "", "The BBC has its East Midlands headquarters in Nottingham on London Road. \"BBC East Midlands Today\" is broadcast from the city every weeknight at 6.30 pm. From 1983 to 2005 Central Television (the ITV region for the east Midlands) had", "In addition to the national commercial and BBC radio stations, the Nottingham area is served by licensed commercial radio stations (though all broadcast to a wider area than the city). Radio stations include:", "The city's two universities both broadcast their own student radio stations. Nottingham Trent University's FlyFM is based at the university's city campus and is broadcast online. Nottingham University's University Radio Nottingham is broadcast around the main and Sutton Bonnington campuses on medium wave (AM), as well as over the internet.", "Nottingham's main local newspaper, the \"Nottingham Post\", is owned by Local World and is published daily from Monday to Saturday each week. LeftLion", "Nottingham has been used as a location in many locally,", "Nottingham is twinned with the following cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Discovery.", "Name.", "Orbit and rotation.", "Physical characteristics.", "Composition.", "Internal structure.", "Surface features.", "Atmosphere and ionosphere.", "Origin and evolution.", "Potential habitability.", "Exploration.", "Old proposals.", "Potential colonization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Callisto was discovered by Galileo in January 1610, along with the three other large Jovian moons—Ganymede, Io, and Europa.", "Callisto is named after one of Zeus's many lovers in Greek mythology. Callisto was a nymph (or, according to some sources, the daughter of Lycaon) who was associated with the goddess of the hunt, Artemis. The name was suggested by Simon Marius soon after Callisto's discovery. Marius attributed the suggestion to Johannes Kepler. However, the names of the Galilean satellites fell into disfavor for a considerable time, and were not revived in common use until the mid-20th century. In much of the earlier astronomical literature, Callisto is referred to by its Roman numeral designation, a system introduced by Galileo, as or as \"the fourth satellite of Jupiter\". There's no established English adjectival form of the name. The adjectival form of Greek Καλλιστῴ \"Kallistōi\" is Καλλιστῴος \"Kallistōi-os\", from which one might expect Latin \"Callistōius\" and English *Callistóian, parallel to Sapphóian for \"Sapphōi\" and Letóian for \"Lētōi\". However, the iota subscript is often omitted from such Greek names (cf. \"Inóan\" from \"Īnōi\" and \"Argóan\" from \"Argōi\"), and indeed the analogous form Callistoan is found. In Virgil, a second oblique stem appears in Latin: \"Callistōn-,\" but the corresponding Callistonian has rarely appeared in English. One also sees \"ad hoc\" forms, such as Callistan, Callistian and Callistean.", "Callisto is the outermost of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter. It orbits at a distance of approximately 1 880 000 km (26.3 times the 71 492 km radius of Jupiter itself). This is significantly larger than the orbital radius—1 070 000 km—of the next-closest Galilean satellite, Ganymede. As a result of this relatively distant orbit, Callisto does not participate in the mean-motion resonance—in which the three inner Galilean satellites are locked—and probably never has. Like most other regular planetary moons, Callisto's rotation is locked to be synchronous with its orbit. The length of Callisto's day, simultaneously its orbital period, is about 16.7 Earth days. Its orbit is very slightly eccentric and inclined to the Jovian equator, with the eccentricity and inclination changing quasi-periodically due to solar and planetary gravitational perturbations on a timescale of centuries. The ranges of change are 0.0072–0.0076 and 0.20–0.60°, respectively. These orbital variations cause the axial tilt (the angle between rotational and orbital axes) to vary between 0.4 and 1.6°. The dynamical isolation of Callisto means that it has never been appreciably tidally heated, which has important consequences for its internal structure and evolution. Its distance from Jupiter also means that the charged-particle flux from Jupiter's magnetosphere at its surface is relatively low—about 300 times lower than, for example, that at Europa. Hence, unlike the other Galilean moons, charged-particle irradiation has had a relatively minor effect on Callisto's surface. The radiation level at Callisto's surface is equivalent to a dose of about 0.01 rem (0.1 mSv) per day, which is over ten times higher than Earth's average background radiation.", "", "The average density of Callisto, 1.83 g/cm, suggests a composition of approximately equal parts of rocky material and water ice, with some additional volatile ices such as ammonia. The mass fraction of ices is 49–55%. The exact composition of Callisto's rock component is not known, but is probably close to the composition of L/LL type ordinary chondrites, which are characterized by less total iron, less metallic iron and more iron oxide than H chondrites. The weight ratio of iron to silicon is 0.9–1.3 in Callisto, whereas the solar ratio is around 1:8. Callisto's surface has an albedo of about 20%. Its surface composition is thought to be broadly similar to its composition as a whole. Near-infrared spectroscopy has revealed the presence of water ice absorption bands at wavelengths of 1.04, 1.25, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 micrometers. Water ice seems to be ubiquitous on the surface of Callisto, with a mass fraction of 25–50%. The analysis of high-resolution, near-infrared and UV spectra obtained by the \"Galileo\" spacecraft and from the ground has revealed various non-ice materials: magnesium- and iron-bearing hydrated silicates, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and possibly ammonia and various organic compounds. Spectral data indicate that Callisto's surface is extremely heterogeneous at the small scale. Small, bright patches of pure water ice are intermixed with patches of a rock–ice mixture and extended dark areas made of a non-ice material. The Callistoan surface is asymmetric: the leading hemisphere is darker than the trailing one. This is different from other Galilean satellites, where the reverse is true. The trailing hemisphere of Callisto appears to be enriched in carbon dioxide, whereas the leading hemisphere has more sulfur dioxide. Many fresh impact craters like Lofn also show enrichment in carbon dioxide. Overall, the chemical composition of the surface, especially in the dark areas, may be close to that seen on D-type asteroids, whose surfaces are made of carbonaceous material.", "Callisto's battered surface lies on top of a cold, stiff, and icy lithosphere that is between 80 and 150 km thick. A salty ocean 150–200 km deep may lie beneath the crust, indicated by studies of the magnetic fields around Jupiter and its moons. It was found that Callisto responds to Jupiter's varying background magnetic field like a perfectly conducting sphere; that is, the field cannot penetrate inside Callisto, suggesting a layer of highly conductive fluid within it with a thickness of at least 10 km. The existence of an ocean is more likely if water contains a small amount of ammonia or other antifreeze, up to 5% by weight. In this case the water+ice layer can be as thick as 250–300 km. Failing an ocean, the icy lithosphere may be somewhat thicker, up to about 300 km. Beneath the lithosphere and putative ocean, Callisto's interior appears to be neither entirely uniform nor particularly variable. \"Galileo\" orbiter data (especially the dimensionless moment of inertia—0.3549 ± 0.0042—determined during close flybys) suggest that, if Callisto is in hydrostatic equilibrium, its interior is composed of compressed rocks and ices, with the amount of rock increasing with depth due to partial settling of its constituents. In other words, Callisto may be only partially differentiated. The density and moment of inertia for an equilibrium Callisto are compatible with the existence of a small silicate core in the center of Callisto. The radius of any such core cannot exceed 600 km, and the density may lie between 3.1 and 3.6 g/cm. In this case, Callisto's interior would be in stark contrast to that of Ganymede, which appears to be fully differentiated. However, a 2011 reanalysis of Galileo data suggests that Callisto is not in hydrostatic equilibrium; its S22 coefficient from gravity data is an anomalous 10% of its C22 value, which is not consistent with a body in hydrostatic equilibrium and thus significantly increases the error bars on Callisto's moment of inertia. Further, an undifferentiated Callisto is inconsistent with the presence of a substantial internal ocean as inferred by magnetic data, and it would be difficult for an object as large as Callisto to fail to differentiate at any point. In that case, the gravity data may be more consistent with a more thoroughly differentiated Callisto with a hydrated silicate core.", "The ancient surface of Callisto is one of the most heavily cratered in the Solar System. In fact, the crater density is close to saturation: any new crater will tend to erase an older one. The large-scale geology is relatively simple; there are no large mountains on Callisto, volcanoes or other endogenic tectonic features. The impact craters and multi-ring structures—together with associated fractures, scarps and deposits—are the only large features to be found on the surface. Callisto's surface can be divided into several geologically different parts: cratered plains, light plains, bright and dark smooth plains, and various units associated with particular multi-ring structures and impact craters. The cratered plains constitute most of the surface area and represent the ancient lithosphere, a mixture of ice and rocky material. The light plains include bright impact craters like Burr and Lofn, as well as the effaced remnants of old large craters called palimpsests, the central parts of multi-ring structures, and isolated patches in the cratered plains. These light plains are thought to be icy impact deposits. The bright, smooth plains constitute a small fraction of Callisto's surface and are found in the ridge and trough zones of the Valhalla and Asgard formations and as isolated spots in the cratered plains. They were thought to be connected with endogenic activity, but the high-resolution \"Galileo\" images showed that the bright, smooth plains correlate with heavily fractured and knobby terrain and do not show any signs of resurfacing. The \"Galileo\" images also revealed small, dark, smooth areas with overall coverage less than 10,000 km, which appear to embay the surrounding terrain. They are possible cryovolcanic deposits. Both the light and the various smooth plains are somewhat younger and less cratered than the background cratered plains. Impact crater diameters seen range from 0.1 km—a limit defined by the imaging resolution—to over 100 km, not counting the multi-ring structures. Small craters, with diameters less than 5 km, have simple bowl or flat-floored shapes. Those 5–40 km across usually have a central peak. Larger impact features, with diameters in the range 25–100 km, have central pits instead of peaks, such as Tindr crater. The largest craters with diameters over 60 km can have central domes, which are thought to result from central tectonic uplift after an impact; examples include Doh and Hár craters. A small number of very large—more than 100 km in diameter—and bright impact craters show anomalous dome geometry. These are unusually shallow and may be a transitional landform to the multi-ring structures, as with the Lofn impact feature. Callisto's craters are generally shallower than those on the Moon. The largest impact features on Callisto's surface are multi-ring basins. Two are enormous. Valhalla is the largest, with a bright central region 600 kilometers in diameter, and rings extending as far as 1,800 kilometers from the center (see figure). The second largest is Asgard, measuring about 1,600 kilometers in diameter. Multi-ring structures probably originated as a result of a post-impact concentric fracturing of the lithosphere lying on a layer of soft or liquid material, possibly an ocean. The catenae—for example Gomul Catena—are long chains of impact craters lined up in straight lines across the surface. They were probably created by objects that were tidally disrupted as they passed close to Jupiter prior to the impact on Callisto, or by very oblique impacts. A historical example of a disruption was Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9. As mentioned above, small patches of pure water ice with an albedo as high as 80% are found on the surface of Callisto, surrounded by much darker material. High-resolution \"Galileo\" images showed the bright patches to be predominately located on elevated surface features: crater rims, scarps, ridges and knobs. They are likely to be thin water frost deposits. Dark material usually lies in the lowlands surrounding and mantling bright features and appears to be smooth. It often forms patches up to 5 km across within the crater floors and in the intercrater depressions. On a sub-kilometer scale the surface of Callisto is more degraded than the surfaces of other icy Galilean moons. Typically there is a deficit of small impact craters with diameters less than 1 km as compared with, for instance, the dark plains on Ganymede. Instead of small craters, the almost ubiquitous surface features are small knobs and pits. The knobs are thought to represent remnants of crater rims degraded by an as-yet uncertain process. The most likely candidate process is the slow sublimation of ice, which is enabled by a temperature of up to 165 K, reached at a subsolar point. Such sublimation of water or other volatiles from the dirty ice that is the bedrock causes its decomposition. The non-ice remnants form debris avalanches descending from the slopes of the crater walls. Such avalanches are often observed near and inside impact craters and termed \"debris aprons\". Sometimes crater walls are cut by sinuous valley-like incisions called \"gullies\", which resemble certain Martian surface features. In the ice sublimation hypothesis, the low-lying dark material is interpreted as a blanket of primarily non-ice debris, which originated from the degraded rims of craters and has covered a predominantly icy bedrock. The relative ages of the different surface units on Callisto can be determined from the density of impact craters on them. The older the surface, the denser the crater population. Absolute dating has not been carried out, but based on theoretical considerations, the cratered plains are thought to be ~4.5 billion years old, dating back almost to the formation of the Solar System. The ages of multi-ring structures and impact craters depend on chosen background cratering rates and are estimated by different authors to vary between 1 and 4 billion years.", "Callisto has a very tenuous atmosphere composed of carbon dioxide. It was detected by the \"Galileo\" Near Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (NIMS) from its absorption feature near the wavelength 4.2 micrometers. The surface pressure is estimated to be 7.5 picobar (0.75 μPa) and particle density 4 cm. Because such a thin atmosphere would be lost in only about 4 days \"(see atmospheric escape)\", it must be constantly replenished, possibly by slow sublimation of carbon dioxide ice from Callisto's icy crust, which would be compatible with the sublimation–degradation hypothesis for the formation of the surface knobs. Callisto's ionosphere was first detected during \"Galileo\" flybys; its high electron density of 7–17 cm cannot be explained by the photoionization of the atmospheric carbon dioxide alone. Hence, it is suspected that the atmosphere of Callisto is actually dominated by molecular oxygen (in amounts 10–100 times greater than ). However, oxygen has not yet been directly detected in the atmosphere of Callisto. Observations with the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) placed an upper limit on its possible concentration in the atmosphere, based on lack of detection, which is still compatible with the ionospheric measurements. At the same time, HST was able to detect condensed oxygen trapped on the surface of Callisto. Atomic hydrogen has also been detected in Callisto's atmosphere via recent analysis of 2001 Hubble Space Telescope data. Spectral images taken on 15 and 24 December 2001 were re-examined, revealing a faint signal of scattered light that indicates a hydrogen corona. The observed brightness from the scattered sunlight in Callisto's hydrogen corona is approximately two times larger when the leading hemisphere is observed. This asymmetry may originate from a different hydrogen abundance in both leading and trailing hemispheres. However, this hemispheric difference in Callisto's hydrogen corona brightness is likely to originate from the extinction of the signal in the Earth's geocorona, which is greater when the trailing hemisphere is observed.", "The partial differentiation of Callisto (inferred e.g. from moment of inertia measurements) means that it has never been heated enough to melt its ice component. Therefore, the most favorable model of its formation is a slow accretion in the low-density Jovian subnebula—a disk of the gas and dust that existed around Jupiter after its formation. Such a prolonged accretion stage would allow cooling to largely keep up with the heat accumulation caused by impacts, radioactive decay and contraction, thereby preventing melting and fast differentiation. The allowable timescale of formation of Callisto lies then in the range 0.1 million–10 million years. The further evolution of Callisto after accretion was determined by the balance of the radioactive heating, cooling through thermal conduction near the surface, and solid state or subsolidus convection in the interior. Details of the subsolidus convection in the ice is the main source of uncertainty in the models of all icy moons. It is known to develop when the temperature is sufficiently close to the melting point, due to the temperature dependence of ice viscosity. Subsolidus convection in icy bodies is a slow process with ice motions of the order of 1 centimeter per year, but is, in fact, a very effective cooling mechanism on long timescales. It is thought to proceed in the so-called stagnant lid regime, where a stiff, cold outer layer of Callisto conducts heat without convection, whereas the ice beneath it convects in the subsolidus regime. For Callisto, the outer conductive layer corresponds to the cold and rigid lithosphere with a thickness of about 100 km. Its presence would explain the lack of any signs of the endogenic activity on the Callistoan surface. The convection in the interior parts of Callisto may be layered, because under the high pressures found there, water ice exists in different crystalline phases beginning from the ice I on the surface to ice VII in the center. The early onset of subsolidus convection in the Callistoan interior could have prevented large-scale ice melting and any resulting differentiation that would have otherwise formed a large rocky core and icy mantle. Due to the convection process, however, very slow and partial separation and differentiation of rocks and ices inside Callisto has been proceeding on timescales of billions of years and may be continuing to this day. The current understanding of the evolution of Callisto allows for the existence of a layer or \"ocean\" of liquid water in its interior. This is connected with the anomalous behavior of ice I phase's melting temperature, which decreases with pressure, achieving temperatures as low as 251 K at 2,070 bar (207 MPa). In all realistic models of Callisto the temperature in the layer between 100 and 200 km in depth is very close to, or exceeds slightly, this anomalous melting temperature. The presence of even small amounts of ammonia—about 1–2% by weight—almost guarantees the liquid's existence because ammonia would lower the melting temperature even further. Although Callisto is very similar in bulk properties to Ganymede, it apparently had a much simpler geological history. The surface appears to have been shaped mainly by impacts and other exogenic forces. Unlike neighboring Ganymede with its grooved terrain, there is little evidence of tectonic activity. Explanations that have been proposed for the contrasts in internal heating and consequent differentiation and geologic activity between Callisto and Ganymede include differences in formation conditions, the greater tidal heating experienced by Ganymede, and the more numerous and energetic impacts that would have been suffered by Ganymede during the Late Heavy Bombardment. The relatively simple geological history of Callisto provides planetary scientists with a reference point for comparison with other more active and complex worlds.", "It is speculated that there could be life in Callisto's subsurface ocean. Like Europa and Ganymede, as well as Saturn's moons Enceladus, Dione and Titan and Neptune's moon Triton, a possible subsurface ocean might be composed of salt water. It is possible that halophiles could thrive in the ocean. As with Europa and Ganymede, the idea has been raised that habitable conditions and even extraterrestrial microbial life may exist in the salty ocean under the Callistoan surface. However, the environmental conditions necessary for life appear to be less favorable on Callisto than on Europa. The principal reasons are the lack of contact with rocky material and the lower heat flux from the interior of Callisto. Scientist Torrence Johnson said the following about comparing the odds of life on Callisto with the odds on other Galilean moons: The basic ingredients for life—what we call 'pre-biotic chemistry'—are abundant in many solar system objects, such as comets, asteroids and icy moons. Biologists believe liquid water and energy are then needed to actually support life, so it's exciting to find another place where we might have liquid water. But, energy is another matter, and currently, Callisto's ocean is only being heated by radioactive elements, whereas Europa has tidal energy as well, from its greater proximity to Jupiter. Based on the considerations mentioned above and on other scientific observations, it is thought that of all of Jupiter's moons, Europa has the greatest chance of supporting microbial life.", "The \"Pioneer 10\" and \"Pioneer 11\" Jupiter encounters in the early 1970s contributed little new information about Callisto in comparison with what was already known from Earth-based observations. The real breakthrough happened later with the \"Voyager 1\" and \"Voyager 2\" flybys in 1979. They imaged more than half of the Callistoan surface with a resolution of 1–2 km, and precisely measured its temperature, mass and shape. A second round of exploration lasted from 1994 to 2003, when the \"Galileo\" spacecraft had eight close encounters with Callisto, the last flyby during the C30 orbit in 2001 came as close as 138 km to the surface. The \"Galileo\" orbiter completed the global imaging of the surface and delivered a number of pictures with a resolution as high as 15 meters of selected areas of Callisto. In 2000, the \"Cassini\" spacecraft en route to Saturn acquired high-quality infrared spectra of the Galilean satellites including Callisto. In February–March 2007, the \"New Horizons\" probe on its way to Pluto obtained new images and spectra of Callisto. The next planned mission to the Jovian system is the European Space Agency's Jupiter Icy Moon Explorer (JUICE), due to launch in 2022. Several close flybys of Callisto are planned during the mission.", "Formerly proposed for a launch in 2020, the Europa Jupiter System Mission (EJSM) was a joint NASA/ESA proposal for exploration of Jupiter's moons. In February 2009 it was announced that ESA/NASA had given this mission priority ahead of the Titan Saturn System Mission. At the time ESA's contribution still faced funding competition from other ESA projects. EJSM consisted of the NASA-led Jupiter Europa Orbiter, the ESA-led Jupiter Ganymede Orbiter, and possibly a JAXA-led Jupiter Magnetospheric Orbiter.", "In 2003 NASA conducted a conceptual study called Human Outer Planets Exploration (HOPE) regarding the future human exploration of the outer Solar System. The target chosen to consider in detail was Callisto. The study proposed a possible surface base on Callisto that would produce rocket propellant for further exploration of the Solar System. Advantages of a base on Callisto include low radiation (due to its distance from Jupiter) and geological stability. Such a base could facilitate remote exploration of Europa, or be an ideal location for a Jovian system waystation servicing spacecraft heading farther into the outer Solar System, using a gravity assist from a close flyby of Jupiter after departing Callisto. In December 2003, NASA reported that a manned mission to Callisto might be possible in the 2040s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Navigation.", "Course.", "History.", "Postwar development.", "Along the Rhône." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"Rhone\" continues the name (Greek ) in Greco-Roman geography. The Gaulish name of the river was or (from a PIE root *\"ret-\" \"to run, roll\" frequently found in river names). The Greco-Roman as well as the reconstructed Gaulish name is masculine, as is French. This form survives in the Spanish/Portuguese and Italian namesakes, and, respectively. German has adopted the French name but given it the feminine gender,. The original German adoption of the Latin name was also masculine, ; it survives only in the Upper Valais (dialectal ). In French, the adjective derived from the river is, as in (literally \"the furrow of the Rhône\"), which is the name of the long, straight Saône and Rhône river valleys, a deep cleft running due south to the Mediterranean and separating the Alps from the Massif Central.", "Before railroads and highways were developed, the Rhône was an important inland trade and transportation route, connecting the cities of Arles, Avignon, Valence, Vienne and Lyon to the Mediterranean ports of Fos-sur-Mer, Marseille and Sète. Travelling down the Rhône by barge would take three weeks. By motorized vessel, the trip now takes only three days. The Rhône is classified as a Class V waterway for the 325 km long section from the mouth of the Saône at Lyon to the sea at Port-Saint-Louis-du-Rhône. Upstream from Lyon, a 149 km section of the Rhône was made navigable for small ships up to Seyssel., the part between Lyon and Sault-Brénaz is closed for navigation. The Saône, which is also canalized, connects the Rhône ports to the cities of Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon and Chalon-sur-Saône. Smaller vessels (up to CEMT class I) can travel further northwest, north and northeast via the Centre-Loire-Briare and Loing Canals to the Seine, via the Canal de la Marne à la Saône (recently often called the \"Canal entre Champagne et Bourgogne\") to the Marne, via the Canal des Vosges (formerly called the \"Canal de l'Est – Branche Sud\") to the Moselle and via the Canal du Rhône au Rhin to the Rhine. The Rhône is infamous for its strong current when the river carries large quantities of water: current speeds up to 10 kilometres per hour (6 mph) are sometimes reached, particularly in the stretch below the last lock at Vallabrègues and in the relatively narrow first diversion canal south of Lyon. The 12 locks are operated daily from 5:00 a.m. until 9:00 p.m. All operation is centrally controlled from one control centre at Châteauneuf. Commercial barges may navigate during the night hours by authorisation.", "The Rhône rises as the meltwater of the Rhône Glacier in the Valais, in the Swiss Alps, at an altitude of approximately. From there it flows south through Gletsch and the Goms, the uppermost, valley region of the Valais before Brig. Shortly before reaching Brig, it receives the waters of the Massa from the Aletsch Glacier. It flows onward through the valley which bears its name and runs initially in a westerly direction about thirty kilometers to Leuk, then southwest about fifty kilometers to Martigny. Down as far as Brig, the Rhône is a torrent; it then becomes a great mountain river running southwest through a glacier valley. Between Brig and Martigny, it collects waters mostly from the valleys of the Pennine Alps to the south, whose rivers originate from the large glaciers of the massifs of Monte Rosa, Dom, and Grand Combin. At Martigny, where it receives the waters of the Drance on its left bank, the Rhône makes a strong turn towards the north. Heading toward Lake Geneva, the valley narrows, a feature that has long given the Rhône valley strategic importance for the control of the Alpine passes. The Rhône then marks the boundary between the cantons of Valais (left bank) and Vaud (right bank), separating the Valais Chablais and Chablais Vaudois. It enters Lake Geneva near Le Bouveret. On a portion of its extent Lake Geneva marks the border between France and Switzerland. On the left bank of Lake Geneva the river receives the river Morge. This river marks the border between France (Haute-Savoie) and Switzerland (Valais). The Morge enters Lake Geneva at Saint-Gingolph, a village on both sides of the border. Then between Évian-les-Bains and Thonon-les-Bains the Dranse enters the lakewhere it left a quite large delta. On the right bank of the lake the Rhône receives the Veveyse, the Venoge, the Aubonne and the Morges besides others. Lake Geneva ends in Geneva, where the lake level is maintained by the Seujet dam. The average discharge from Lake Geneva is. In Geneva, the Rhône receives the waters of the Arve from the Mont Blanc. After a course of the Rhône leaves Switzerland and enters the southern Jura Mountains. It then turns toward the south past the Bourget Lake which it is connected by the Savières channel. At Lyon, which is the biggest city along its course, the Rhône meets its biggest tributary, the Saône. The Saône carries and the Rhône itself. From the confluence, the Rhône follows the southbound direction of the Saône. Along the Rhône Valley, it is joined on the right (western) bank by the rivers Eyrieux, Ardèche, Cèze, and Gardon coming from the Cévennes mountains; and on the left bank by the rivers Isère, with an average discharge of, Drôme, Ouvèze, and Durance at from the Alps. From Lyon, it flows south, between the Alps and the Massif Central. At Arles, the Rhône divides into two major arms forming the Camargue delta, both branches flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, the delta being termed the Rhône Fan. The larger arm is called the \"Grand Rhône\", the smaller the \"Petit Rhône\". The average annual discharge at Arles is.", "The Rhône has been an important highway since the times of the Greeks and Romans. It was the main trade route from the Mediterranean to east-central Gaul. As such, it helped convey Greek cultural influences to the western Hallstatt and the later La Tène cultures. Celtic tribes living near the Rhône included the Seduni, Sequani, Segobriges, Allobroges, Segusiavi, Helvetii, Vocontii and Volcae Arecomici. Navigation was difficult, as the river suffered from fierce currents, shallows, floods in spring and early summer when the ice was melting, and droughts in late summer. Until the 19th century, passengers travelled in \"coches d'eau\" (water coaches) drawn by men or horses, or under sail. Most travelled with a painted cross covered with religious symbols as protection against the hazards of the journey. Trade on the upper river used \"barques du Rhône\", sailing barges,, with a capacity. As many as 50 to 80 horses were employed to haul trains of five to seven craft upstream. Goods would be transshipped at Arles into sailing barges called \"allèges d'Arles\" for the final run down to the Mediterranean. The first experimental steam boat was built at Lyon by Jouffroy d'Abbans in 1783. Regular services were not started until 1829 and they continued until 1952. Steam passenger vessels long made up to and could do the downstream run from Lyon to Arles in a day. Cargo was hauled in \"bateau-anguilles\", boats with paddle wheels amidships, and \"bateaux crabes\", a huge toothed \"claw\"wheel across to grip the river bed in the shallows to supplement the paddle wheels. In the 20th century, powerful motor barges propelled by diesel engines were introduced, carrying. In 1933, the Compagnie Nationale du Rhône (CNR) was established to improve navigation and generate electricity, also to develop irrigated agriculture and to protect the riverside towns and land from flooding. Some progress was made in deepening the navigation channel and constructing scouring walls, but World War II brought such work to a halt. In 1942, following the collapse of Vichy France, Italian military forces occupied southeastern France up to the eastern banks of the Rhône, as part of the Italian Fascist regime's expansionist agenda.", "In 1948, the government started construction of a series of dams and diversion canals, with a navigation lock beside the hydroelectric power plant on each of these canals. The locks were up to deep. After building the Génissiat dam on the Upper Rhône (with no lock) in 1948, designed to meet the electricity needs of Paris, twelve hydroelectric plants and locks were built between 1964 and 1980. With a total head of 162 m, they produce 13 GWh of electricity annually, or 16% of the country's total hydroelectric production (20% if the Upper Rhône schemes are added). There have been significant benefits for agriculture throughout the Rhône valley. With the Lower Rhône project completed, CNR turned its attention to the Haut-Rhône (Upper Rhône), and built four hydropower dams in the 1980s: Sault-Brénaz, Brégnier-Cordon, Belley-Brens and Chautagne. It also drew up plans for the high-capacity Rhine-Rhône Waterway, along the route of the existing Canal du Rhône au Rhin, but this project was abandoned in 1997. In the period from 2005 to 2010, navigation locks of small barge dimensions (40 by 6 m) were built to bypass the last two, forming a navigable waterway network with Lake Bourget, through the Canal de Savières.", "Cities and towns along the Rhône include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Order of battle.", "United States Navy.", "Imperial Japanese Navy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "When the United States became aware of Japanese plans to send a supply convoy to their forces on the Aleutian Islands of Alaska, U.S. Navy ships commanded by Rear Admiral Charles McMorris were sent to prevent this. The fleet consisted of the heavy cruiser, the light cruiser and the destroyers,, and. American intelligence estimated that the Japanese escort consisted of one heavy cruiser, one light cruiser, and four destroyers. However, the Japanese 5th Fleet had been reinforced by two more cruisers, so that the Japanese escort force actually consisted of the heavy cruisers \"Nachi\" and \"Maya\", the light cruisers \"Tama\" and \"Abukuma\", and the destroyers \"Wakaba\", \"Hatsushimo\", \"Ikazuchi\", and \"Inazuma\", commanded by Vice Admiral Boshiro Hosogaya. On the early morning of 26 March, the Japanese convoy was intercepted by the American picket line some 100 miles south of the Komandorski islands and 180 miles west of Attu, just to the west of the International Date Line. Because of the remote location of the battle and chance encounter on open ocean, neither fleet had air or submarine assistance, making this one of the few engagements exclusively between surface ships in the Pacific Theater and one of the last pure gunnery duels between fleets of major surface combatants in naval history. Although the Japanese cruisers heavily outgunned the American force, the engagement was tactically inconclusive. Both fleets suffered damage, with the U.S. Navy warships escaping almost by luck. With the Japanese fleet on the edge of victory, Admiral Hosogaya — not realizing the heavy damage his ships had inflicted and fearing American war planes would appear — retired without destroying his enemy. This amounted to a strategic defeat, as it ended Japanese attempts to resupply the Aleutian garrisons by surface ship, leaving only submarines to conduct supply runs. Hosogaya was accordingly retired from active service after the battle and assigned to govern a group of South Pacific islands.", "As the range closed, \"Bailey\" opened fire on \"Nachi\" at a range of and then switched to a light cruiser. \"Coghlan\" opened fire on \"Nachi\" at a range of. \"Salt Lake City\" fired 806 armor-piercing projectiles and then 26 high-capacity (explosive) shells after the supply of armor-piercing ammunition was exhausted. Powder and shells were manhandled aft from the forward magazines to keep the after guns firing. \"Salt Lake City\"′s rudder stops were carried away, limiting her to 10° course changes.", "", "Task Group 16.6 - RADM Charles McMorris, Commander, Task Group 16.6 (a subordinate Task Group of Task Force 16) Destroyer Squadron 14 - CAPT Ralph Riggs", "Northern Force - VADM Boshiro Hosogaya, Commander, Fifth Fleet (Northern Force) Cruiser Division One: Destroyer Division 21: - CAPT Amano Shigetaka D Convoy - RADM Tomoichi Mori, Commander, Destroyer Squadron One Destroyer Division Six: - CAPT Takahashi Kameshiro 2nd Escort Force" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Roman.", "Anglo-Saxon and Norman.", "Middle Ages.", "16th to 19th centuries.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Geography.", "Economy.", "Retail.", "Dwelling types.", "Demography.", "Population.", "Ethnicity.", "Dialect.", "Health.", "Culture.", "Nightlife.", "Theatre.", "Literature and libraries.", "Festivals and fairs.", "Music.", "Concert venues.", "Cinema.", "Museums and galleries.", "In film.", "Sport.", "Government.", "Politics.", "Transport.", "Airport.", "Rail.", "Metro.", "Road.", "Bus.", "Cycle.", "Water.", "Education.", "Tertiary.", "Religious sites.", "Media.", "Notable people.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities.", "Other friendship agreements.", "Foreign consulates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The first recorded settlement in what is now Newcastle was Pons Aelius (\"Hadrian's bridge\"), a Roman fort and bridge across the River Tyne. It was given the family name of the Roman Emperor Hadrian, who founded it in the 2nd century AD. This rare honour suggests Hadrian may have visited the site and instituted the bridge on his tour of Britain. The population of Pons Aelius", "After the Roman departure from Britain, completed in 410, Newcastle became part of the powerful Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, and was known throughout this period as \"Munucceaster\" (sometimes modernised as \"Monkchester\"). Conflicts with the Danes in 876 left the settlements along the River Tyne in ruins. After the conflicts with the Danes, and following the 1088", "Throughout the Middle Ages, Newcastle was England's northern fortress. In 1400 Newcastle was separated from Northumberland and made a county of itself by Henry IV. Newcastle was given the title of the county of the town of Newcastle upon Tyne. The city had a new charter", "From 1530, a royal act restricted all shipments of coal from Tyneside to Newcastle Quayside, giving a monopoly in the coal trade to a cartel of Newcastle burgesses known as the Hostmen. This monopoly, which lasted for a considerable time, helped Newcastle prosper and develop into a major town. The phrase \"taking coals to Newcastle\" was first recorded contextually in 1538. The phrase itself means a pointless pursuit. In the 18th century, the American entrepreneur Timothy Dexter, regarded as an eccentric, defied this idiom. He was persuaded to sail a shipment of coal to Newcastle by merchants plotting to ruin him; however, his shipment arrived", "Newcastle's public transport system was modernised in 1901 when Newcastle Corporation Tramways electric trams were introduced to the city's streets, though these were replaced gradually by trolley buses from 1935, with the tram service finally coming to an end in 1950. The city acquired its first art gallery, the Laing Art Gallery in 1904, so named after its founder Alexander Laing, a Scottish wine and spirit merchant who wanted to give something back to the city in which he had made his fortune. Another art gallery, the Hatton Gallery (now part of Newcastle University), opened in 1925. With the advent of the motor car,", "Newcastle is situated in the North East of England, in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear and the historical and traditional county of Northumberland. The city is located on the northwestern bank of the River Tyne. It is from the Scottish border, south of Southdean. The ground beneath the city is formed from Carboniferous strata of the Middle Pennine Coal Measures Group—a suite of sandstones, mudstones and coal seams which generally dip moderately eastwards. To the west of the city are the Upper Pennine Coal Measures and further west again the sandstones and mudstones of the Stainmore Formation, the local equivalent of the Millstone Grit. In large parts, Newcastle still retains a medieval street layout. Narrow alleys or 'chares', most of which can only be traversed by foot, still exist in abundance, particularly around the riverside. Stairs from the riverside to higher parts of the city centre and the extant Castle Keep, originally recorded in the 14th century, remain intact in places. Close, Sandhill and Quayside contain modern buildings as well as structures dating from the 15th–18th centuries, including Bessie Surtees House, the Cooperage and Lloyds Quayside Bars, Derwentwater House and House of Tides, a restaurant situated at a Grade I-listed 16th century merchant's house at 28–30 Close. The city has an extensive neoclassical centre referred to as Tyneside Classical largely developed in the 1830s by Richard Grainger and John Dobson, and recently extensively restored. Broadcaster and writer Stuart Maconie described Newcastle as England's best-looking city and the German-born British scholar of architecture, Nikolaus Pevsner, describes Grey Street as one of the finest streets in England. In 1948 the poet John Betjeman said of Grey Street, “As for the curve of Grey Street, I shall never forget seeing it to perfection, traffic-less on a misty Sunday morning.” The street curves down from Grey's Monument towards the valley of the River Tyne and was voted England's finest street in 2005 in a survey of BBC Radio 4 listeners. In the Google Street View awards of 2010, Grey Street came 3rd in the British picturesque category. Osborne Road came 4th in the foodie street category. A portion of Grainger Town was demolished in the 1960s to make way for the Eldon Square Shopping Centre, including all but one side of the original Eldon Square itself. Immediately to the northwest of the city centre is Leazes Park, established in 1873 after a petition by 3,000 working men of the city for \"ready access to some open ground for the purpose of health and recreation\". Just outside one corner of this is St James' Park, the stadium home of Newcastle United FC which dominates the view of the city from all directions. Another green space in Newcastle is the Town Moor, lying immediately north of the city centre. It is larger than London's famous Hyde Park and Hampstead Heath put together and the freemen of the city have the right to graze cattle on it. The right extends to the pitch of St. James' Park, Newcastle United Football Club's ground; this is not exercised, although the Freemen do collect rent for the loss of privilege. Honorary freemen include Bob Geldof, King Harald V of Norway, Bobby Robson, Alan Shearer, the late Nelson Mandela and the Royal Shakespeare Company. The Hoppings funfair, said to be the largest travelling funfair in Europe, is held here annually in June. In the southeastern corner is Exhibition Park, which contains the only remaining pavilion from the North East Coast Exhibition of 1929. From 1970s until 2006 this housed the Newcastle Military Vehicle Museum; which closed in 2006. The pavilion is now being used as a microbrewery and concert venue for Wylam Brewery. The wooded gorge of the Ouseburn in the east of the city is known as Jesmond Dene and forms another recreation area, linked by Armstrong Park and Heaton Park to the Ouseburn Valley, where the river finally reaches the River Tyne. The springtime dawn chorus at 55 degrees latitude has been described as one of the best in the world. The dawn chorus of the Jesmond Dene green space has been professionally recorded and has been used in various workplace and hospital rehabilitation facilities. Significant Newcastle housing developments include Ralph Erskine's the Byker Wall designed in the 1960s, and now Grade II* listed. It is on UNESCO's list of outstanding 20th-century buildings. Newcastle's thriving Chinatown lies in the north-west of Grainger Town, centred on Stowell Street. A new Chinese arch, or \"paifang\", providing a landmark entrance, was handed over to the city with a ceremony in 2005. The UK's first biotechnology village, the Centre for Life is located in the city centre close to the Central railway station. The village is the first step in the City Council's plans to transform Newcastle into a \"science city\". Newcastle was voted as the Best City in the North in April 2007 by a readers' online poll organised by \"The Daily Telegraph\" newspaper—being placed ahead of Liverpool, Manchester, Sheffield and Leeds.", "Newcastle played a major role during the 19th-century Industrial Revolution, and was a leading centre for coal mining, shipbuilding, engineering, munitions and manufacturing. Heavy industries in Newcastle declined in the second half of the 20th century; with office, service and retail employment now becoming the city's staples. The city was recognised for its commitment to environmental issues, with a programme planned for Newcastle to become \"the first Carbon Neutral town\" however those plans have slipped considerably and they now hope to be carbon neutral by 2050. Newcastle is the commercial, educational and, in partnership with nearby Gateshead, the cultural focus for North East England. As part of Tyneside, Newcastle's economy contributes around £13 billion to the UK GVA. The Central Business District is in the centre of the city, bounded by Haymarket, Newcastle station and the Quayside areas.", "In 2010, Newcastle was positioned ninth in the retail centre expenditure league of the UK. There are several major shopping areas in Newcastle City Centre. The largest of these is the Eldon Square Shopping Centre, one of the largest city centre shopping complexes in the UK. It incorporates a Debenhams store as well as one of the largest John Lewis stores in the UK. This John Lewis branch was formerly known as Bainbridges. Newcastle store Bainbridge's, opened in 1838, is often cited as the world's first department store. Emerson Bainbridge (1817–1892), a pioneer and the founder of Bainbridges, sold goods via department, a new for merchant custom for that time. The Bainbridge's official ledgers reported revenue by department, giving birth to the name department store. Eldon Square is currently undergoing a full redevelopment. A new bus station, replacing the old underground bus station, was officially opened in March", "The Tyneside flat was the dominant housing form constructed at the time when the industrial centres on Tyneside were growing most rapidly. They can still be found in areas such as South Heaton in Newcastle but once dominated the streetscape on both sides of the Tyne. Tyneside flats were built as terraces, one of each pair of doors led to an upstairs flat while the other led into the ground-floor flat, each of two or three rooms. A new development in the Ouseburn valley has recreated them;", "", "According to the ONS in 2015 the city of Newcastle had a population of 293,000. The metropolitan boroughs of North Tyneside (population circa 202,000), South Tyneside (population circa 149,000) and Gateshead (population circa 201,000) are, along with Newcastle, all part of the Tyneside conurbation (population circa 880,000). The metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear, which consists of the four aforementioned boroughs as well as Sunderland (population circa 277,000), had a population of around 1,122,000 and the Tyne and Wear City Region which also includes North Durham, South East Northumberland and the Tyne Valley has a population of 1,650,000. Newcastle is also home to a large student population with Newcastle University and Northumbria University Newcastle, based in the City Centre. Areas of suburban", "According to 2011 figures, the city's ethnic make-up is as follows: White people are 84.3% of the population (81.3% White British, 3.0% White other), Asian people 9.7% of the population (2.4% Pakistani, 2.0% Bangladeshi, 2.0% Indian, 2.0% Chinese, 0.3% other), 2.2% Black British (1.9% Black African, 0.2% Black Caribbean, 0.1%", "The dialect of Newcastle is known as Geordie, and contains a large amount of vocabulary and distinctive words and pronunciations not used in other parts of the United Kingdom. The Geordie dialect has much of its origins in the language spoken by the Anglo-Saxon populations who migrated to and conquered much of England after the end of Roman Imperial rule. This language was the forerunner of Modern English; but while the dialects of other English regions have been heavily altered by the influences of other foreign languages—particularly Latin and Norman French—the Geordie dialect retains many elements of the old language. An example of this is the pronunciation of certain", "In 2011 the health of people in Newcastle upon Tyne was generally worse than the England average: Newcastle upon Tyne Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust has one of the lowest mortality rates in the country and is ranked seventh in the country for confidence in doctors. Newcastle has two large teaching hospitals: the Royal Victoria Infirmary and the Freeman Hospital, which is also a pioneering centre for transplant surgery. In a report, published in early February 2007 by the Ear Institute at the University College London, and Widex, a Danish hearing", "", "Newcastle was in the top ten of the country's top night spots, and \"The Rough Guide to Britain\" placed Newcastle upon Tyne's nightlife as Great Britain's no. 1 tourist attraction. In the Tripadvisor Travellers' Choice Destination Awards for European Nightlife destinations, four of the UK's nightspots finished in the top 10; Newcastle was awarded 3rd Place behind London, and Berlin. Newcastle also came in seventh for the World category, and is confirmed to have the most events per student population in the UK. There are concentrations of pubs, bars and nightclubs around the Bigg Market and the Quayside area of the city centre. There are many bars on the", "The city has a proud history of theatre. Stephen Kemble of the well-known Kemble family managed the original Theatre Royal, Newcastle for fifteen years (1791–1806). He brought members of his famous acting family such as Sarah Siddons and John Kemble out of London to Newcastle. Stephen Kemble guided the theatre through many celebrated seasons. The original Theatre Royal in Newcastle was opened on 21 January 1788 and was located on Mosley Street. It was demolished to make way for Grey Street, where its replacement was built.The", "Newcastle has a strong reputation as a poetry centre. The Morden Tower, run by poet Tom Pickard, is a major venue for poetry readings in the North East, being the place where Basil Bunting gave the first reading of \"Briggflatts\" in 1965. The Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne (popularly known as the 'Lit & Phil') is the largest independent library outside London, housing more than 150,000 books. Its music library contains 8,000", "In January or February, Newcastle's Chinatown is at the centre of a carnival of colour and noise as the city celebrates the Chinese New Year. In early March there is the NewcastleGateshead Comedy Festival. This event makes a return to the region since the last event in 2006. It is hoped it will now continue as an annual event. The Newcastle Science Festival, now called Newcastle ScienceFest, returns annually in early March. The Newcastle Beer Festival, organised by CAMRA, takes place in April. Evolution Festival, a music festival that attracted tens of thousands of attendees, took place in May from 2002 until 2013 and was described as \"the biggest festival Tyneside has ever staged\". The This Is Tomorrow festival now takes place over the spring bank holiday and is in the same location. The biennial AV Festival of international electronic art, featuring exhibitions, concerts, conferences and film screenings, is held in March. The North East Art Expo, a festival of art and design from the", "Newcastle's vernacular music was a mixture of Northumbrian folk music and nineteenth-century songs with dialect lyrics, by writers such as George \"Geordie\" Ridley, whose songs include one which became an unofficial Tyneside national anthem, Blaydon Races. The 1960s saw the internationally successful rock group The Animals, emerge from Newcastle night spots such as Club A-Go-Go on Percy Street. Other well-known acts with connections to the city include Sting, Bryan Ferry, Dire Straits and more recently Maxïmo Park. There is also a thriving underground music scene that encompasses a variety of styles, including drum and bass, doom metal and post-rock. Lindisfarne are a folk-rock group with a strong Tyneside connection. Their most famous song, \"Fog on the Tyne\" (1971), was covered by Geordie ex-footballer Paul Gascoigne in 1990. Venom, reckoned by many to be the originators of black metal and extremely influential to the extreme metal scene as a whole, formed in Newcastle", "The largest venue used for music concerts is St James Park, home of Newcastle United, which has also previously been used for Rugby League games and the Olympic Games. The second largest music venue in Newcastle is the 11,000-seat Metro Radio Arena, which opened in 1995 and hosts major pop and rock concerts. Newcastle City Hall is one of the oldest venues in the region and \"attracts big names who are often legends of the past\". Both of the city's universities have venues that mainly host indie and alternative bands. On 14 October 2005 the 2,000 capacity O2 Academy Newcastle opened in the city centre. It had previously been a music venue in the 1960s, hosting concerts by The Beatles and The Who. The new venue was", "Apart from the city centre chain-cinema, the Cineworld (formerly Empire) multiplex, the city has its own independent cinema, the Tyneside Cinema. The Tyneside Cinema, on Pilgrim Street, originally opened as the 'Bijou News-Reel Cinema' in 1937, and was designed and built by Dixon Scott, great-uncle of film directors Ridley", "There are several museums and galleries in Newcastle, including the Centre for Life with its Science Village; the Discovery Museum a museum highlighting life on Tyneside, including Tyneside's shipbuilding heritage, and inventions which changed the world; the Great North Museum; in 2009 the Newcastle on Tyne", "The earliest known movie featuring some exterior scenes filmed in the city is \"On the Night of the Fire\" (1939), though by and large the action is studio-bound. Later came \"The Clouded Yellow\" (1951) and \"Payroll\" (1961), both of which feature more extensive scenes filmed in the city. The gangster thriller \"Get Carter\" (1971) was shot on location in and around Newcastle and offers an opportunity to see what Newcastle looked like in the early 1970s. The city was also backdrop to another gangster film, the", "The city has a strong sporting tradition. Football club Newcastle United has been based at St James' Park since the club was established in 1892, although any traces of the original structure are now long gone as the stadium now holds more than 52,000 seated spectators, being England's seventh largest football stadium. The city also has non-League football clubs, Newcastle Benfield, West Allotment Celtic, Team Northumbria and Heaton Stannington. There is a women's football team, Newcastle United Women's Football Club, founded in 1989. Newcastle United WFC currently has 40 ladies aged between 16–29 years signed or associated with the club, and plays in the FA Women's Premier League (North). The Newcastle Falcons are the only rugby union team in north-east England to have played in the Aviva Premiership. They play at Kingston Park Stadium in the northern suburb of Kingston Park. 1996 Pilkington Shield winners Medicals RFC are also based in Newcastle. Newcastle Thunder (formerly Gateshead Thunder) are a professional rugby league club based in the city who now also play at Kingston Park Stadium. They currently play in", "Newcastle is governed using the leader and cabinet system, and the executive is Labour, as they have 55 councillors against the Liberal Democrats' 20. No other", "Newcastle upon Tyne is represented in the Parliament of the", "", "Newcastle Airport is located approximately from the city centre on the northern outskirts of the city near Ponteland and is the larger of the two main airports serving the North East. It is connected to the city via the", "Newcastle railway station, also known as Newcastle Central station, is a principal stop on the East Coast Main Line and Cross Country Route. Newcastle station is one of the busiest stations in Britain. In 2014, work was completed on the station's historic entrance. Glazing was placed over the historic arches and the Victorian architecture was enhanced; transforming the 19th century public portico. The station is one of only six Grade One listed railway stations in the UK. Opened in 1850 by Queen Victoria, it was the first covered railway station in the world and was", "The city is served by the Tyne & Wear Metro, a system of suburban and underground railways covering much of Tyne & Wear. It was opened in five phases between 1980 and 1984, and was Britain's first urban light rail transit system; two extensions were opened in 1991 and 2002. It was developed from a combination of existing and newly built tracks and stations, with deep-level tunnels constructed through Newcastle city centre. A bridge was built across the Tyne, between Newcastle and Gateshead, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1981. The network, operated directly by Nexus, carries over 37 million passengers a year, extending as far as Newcastle Airport, Tynemouth, South Shields and South Hylton in Sunderland. In 2004, the company Marconi designed and constructed the mobile radio system to the underground Metro system. The Metro system was", "Major roads in the area include the A1 (Gateshead Newcastle Western Bypass), stretching north to Edinburgh and south to London; the A19 heading south past Sunderland and Middlesbrough to York and Doncaster; the A69 heading west to Carlisle; the A696, which becomes the A68 heads past Newcastle Airport and up through central Northumberland and central Scottish Borders, the A167, the old \"Great North Road\", heading south", "There are three main bus companies providing services in the city; Arriva North East, Go North East and Stagecoach North East. There are two major bus stations in the city: Haymarket bus station and Eldon Square bus station. Arriva mainly operates from Haymarket bus station providing the majority of services to the north of Newcastle, Northumberland and North Tyneside. Go-Ahead operates from Eldon Square bus station, providing the majority of services south of the river in Gateshead, South Tyneside, Sunderland, and County Durham. Stagecoach is the primary operator in", "Newcastle is accessible by several mostly traffic-free cycle routes that lead to the edges of the city centre, where cyclists can continue into the city by road, using no car lanes. The traffic-free C2C cycle route runs along the north bank of the River Tyne, enabling cyclists to travel off-road to North Shields and Tynemouth in the east, and westwards towards Hexham. Suburban cycle routes exist, which use converted trackbeds of former industrial wagonways and industrial railways. A network on Tyneside's suburban Victorian waggonways is being developed. A network of signed on-road cycle routes is being established, including some designated on-road cycle lanes that will lead from the city centre to the suburbs of Gosforth, Heaton and Wallsend. Newcastle has a", "From Newcastle International Ferry Terminal, at North Shields, Danish DFDS Seaways runs a service to IJmuiden (near Amsterdam). The DFDS ferry service to Gothenburg, Sweden, ceased at the end of October 2006", "Newcastle has 74 primary schools and 20 secondary school around the city as a whole. There are 13 LEA-funded and 7 independent schools in Newcastle. There are a number of successful state schools, including Walker Technology College, Gosforth High School, Heaton Manor School, St Cuthbert's High School, St Mary's Catholic Comprehensive School, Kenton School, George Stephenson High School, Sacred Heart, Excelsior Academy, Walbottle Campus, Discovery School and Benfield School. The largest co-educational independent school is the Royal Grammar School. The largest girls' independent school is Newcastle High School for Girls. Both schools are located on the same street in Jesmond. Newcastle School for Boys is the only independent boys' only school in the city and is situated in Gosforth. Other independent schools include Dame Allan's School and Emmanuel College, Gateshead. Newcastle College is the largest general further education college in the North East and is a Beacon Status college; there are two smaller colleges in the Newcastle area. Newcastle Sixth Form College is also very well established and sends almost 300 students to university annually.", "The city has two universities – Newcastle University and Northumbria University. Newcastle University has its origins in the School of Medicine and Surgery, established in 1834 and became independent from Durham University on 1 August 1963 to form the University of Newcastle upon Tyne. Newcastle University is usually classed as a red", "Newcastle has three cathedrals, the Anglican St Nicholas‘, with its elegant lantern tower of 1474, the Roman Catholic St Mary's designed by Augustus Welby Pugin and the Coptic Orthodox Cathedral in Fenham. All three cathedrals began their lives as parish churches. St Mary's became a cathedral in 1850 and St Nicholas' in 1882. Another prominent church in the city centre is the Church of St Thomas the Martyr which is the only parish church in the Church of England without a parish and which is not a peculiar. One of the largest evangelical Anglican churches in the UK is Jesmond Parish Church, situated a little to the north of the city centre. Newcastle is home to the only Bahá'í Centre in North East England; the centre has served the local Bahá'í community for", "Local newspapers that are printed in Newcastle include Trinity Mirror's \"Evening Chronicle\" and \"The Journal\", the \"Sunday Sun\" as well as the \"Metro\" freesheet. \"The Crack\" is a monthly style and listings magazine similar to London's \"Time Out\". The adult comic \"Viz\" originated in Jesmond and includes many references to Newcastle, and \"The Mag\" is a fanzine for Newcastle United supporters. ITV Tyne Tees was based at City Road for over 40 years after its launch in January 1959. In 2005 it moved to a new facility on The Watermark business park next to the MetroCentre in Gateshead. The entrance to studio 5 at the City Road complex gave its name to the 1980s music television programme, \"The Tube\". BBC North East and Cumbria is located to the north of the city on Barrack Road, Spital Tongues, in a building", "Charles Avison, the leading British composer of concertos in the 18th century, was born in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1709 and died there in 1770. Basil Hume, Archbishop of Westminster, was born in the city in 1923. Vice Admiral Cuthbert Collingwood, 1st Baron Collingwood, was born in the city. Ironmaster, metallurgist, and member of parliament Isaac Lowthian Bell was born in the city in 1816. Other notable people born in or associated with Newcastle include: engineer and industrialist Lord Armstrong, engineer and father of the modern steam railways George Stephenson, his son, also an engineer, Robert Stephenson, engineer and inventor of the steam turbine Sir Charles Parsons, inventor of the incandescent light bulb Sir Joseph Swan, actor and comedian Rowan Atkinson, industrial designer Sir Jonathan Ive, who studied at Newcastle Polytechnic (now Northumbria University), modernist poet Basil Bunting, and Lord Chief Justice", "", "Newcastle upon", "Newcastle also has a \"friendship agreement\" with Little Rock, United States. And, since 2003, a", "The following countries have consular representation in" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Historical context.", "First human-to-human heart transplant.", "Additional heart transplants.", "Public life.", "Personal life.", "Retirement.", "Death.", "Books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Barnard grew up in Beaufort West, Cape Province, Union of South Africa. His father, Adam Barnard, was a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church. One of his four brothers, Abraham, was a \"blue baby\" who died of a heart problem at the age of three (Barnard would later guess that it was tetralogy of Fallot). The family also experienced the loss of a daughter who was stillborn and who had been the fraternal twin of Barnard's older brother Johannes, who was twelve years older than Chris. Barnard matriculated from the Beaufort West High School in 1940, and went to study medicine at the University of Cape Town Medical School, where he obtained his MB ChB in 1945. His father served as a missionary to mixed-race peoples. His mother, the former Maria Elisabeth de Swart, instilled in the surviving brothers the belief that they could do anything they set their minds to.", "Barnard did his internship and residency at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, after which he worked as a general practitioner in Ceres, a rural town in the Cape Province. In 1951, he returned to Cape Town where he worked at the City Hospital as a Senior Resident Medical Officer, and in the Department of Medicine at the Groote Schuur Hospital as a registrar. He completed his master's degree, receiving Master of Medicine in 1953 from the University of Cape Town. In the same year he obtained a doctorate in medicine (MD) from the same university for a dissertation titled \"The treatment of tuberculous meningitis\". Soon after qualifying as a doctor, Barnard performed experiments on dogs while investigating intestinal atresia, a birth defect which allows life-threatening gaps to develop in the intestines. He followed a medical hunch that this was caused by inadequate blood flow to the fetus. After nine months and forty-three attempts, Barnard was able to reproduce this condition in a fetus puppy by tying off some of the blood supply to a puppy's intestines and then placing the animal back in the womb, after which it was born some two weeks later, with the condition of intestinal atresia. He was also able to cure the condition by removing the piece of intestine with inadequate blood supply. The mistake of previous surgeons had been attempting to reconnect ends of intestine which themselves still had inadequate blood supply. To be successful, it was typically necessary to remove between 15 and 20 centimeters of intestine (6 to 8 inches). Jannie Louw used this innovation in a clinical setting, and Barnard's method saved the lives of ten babies in Cape Town. This technique was also adapted by surgeons in Britain and the US. In addition, Barnard analyzed 259 cases of tubercular meningitis. Owen Wangensteen in Minnesota had been impressed by the work of Alan Thal, a young South African doctor working in Minnesota. He asked Groote Schuur Head of Medicine John Brock if he might recommend any similarly talented South Africans and Brock recommended Barnard. In December 1955, Barnard travelled to the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, United States, to begin a two-year scholarship under Chief of Surgery Wangensteen, who assigned Barnard more work on the intestines, which Barnard accepted even though he wanted to move onto something new. Simply by luck, whenever Barnard needed a break from this work, he could wander across the hall and talk with Vince Gott who ran the lab for open-heart surgery pioneer Walt Lillehei. Gott had begun to develop a technique of running blood backwards through the veins of the heart so Lillehei could more easily operate on the aortic valve (McRae writes, \"It was the type of inspired thinking that entranced Barnard\"). In March 1956, Gott asked Barnard to help him run the heart-lung machine for an operation. Shortly thereafter, Wangensteen agreed to let Barnard switch to Lillehei's service. It was during this time that Barnard first became acquainted with fellow future heart transplantation surgeon Norman Shumway. Barnard also became friendly with Gil Campbell who had demonstrated that a dog's lung could be used to oxygenate blood during open-heart surgery. (The year before Barnard arrived, Lillehei and Campbell had used this procedure for twenty minutes during surgery on a 13-year-old boy with ventricular septal defect, and the boy had made a full recovery.) Barnard and Campbell met regularly for early breakfast. In 1958, Barnard received a Master of Science in Surgery for a thesis titled \"The aortic valve – problems in the fabrication and testing of a prosthetic valve\". The same year he was awarded a Ph.D. for his dissertation titled \"The aetiology of congenital intestinal atresia\". Barnard described the two years he spent in the United States as \"the most fascinating time in my life.\" Upon returning to South Africa in 1958, Barnard was appointed head of the Department of Experimental Surgery at Groote Schuur hospital, as well as holding a joint post at the University of Cape Town. He was promoted to full-time lecturer and Director of Surgical Research at the University of Cape Town. In 1960, he flew to Moscow in order to meet Vladimir Demikhov, a top expert on organ transplants (later he credited Demikhov's accomplishment saying that \"if there is a father of heart and lung transplantation then Demikhov certainly deserves this title.\") In 1961 he was appointed Head of the Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery at the teaching hospitals of the University of Cape Town. He rose to the position of Associate Professor in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1962. Barnard's younger brother Marius, who also studied medicine, eventually became Barnard's right-hand man at the department of Cardiac Surgery. Over time, Barnard became known as a brilliant surgeon with many contributions to the treatment of cardiac diseases, such as the Tetralogy of Fallot and Ebstein's anomaly. He was promoted to Professor of Surgical Science in the Department of Surgery at the University of Cape Town in 1972. In 1981, Barnard became a founding member of the World Cultural Council. Among the many awards he received over the years, he was named Professor Emeritus in 1984.", "Following the first successful kidney transplant in 1953, in the United States, Barnard performed the second kidney transplant in South Africa in October 1967, the first being done in Johannesburg the previous year. On 23 January 1964, James Hardy at the University of Mississippi Medical Center in Jackson, Mississippi, performed the world's first heart transplant and world's first cardiac xenotransplant by transplanting the heart of a chimpanzee into a desperately ill and dying man. This heart did beat in the patient's chest for approximately 60 to 90 minutes. The patient, Boyd Rush, died without ever regaining consciousness. Barnard had experimentally transplanted forty-eight hearts into dogs, which was about a fifth the number that Adrian Kantrowitz had performed at Maimonides Medical Center in New York and about a sixth the number Norman Shumway had performed at Stanford University in California. Barnard had no dogs which had survived longer than ten days, unlike Kantrowitz and Shumway who had had dogs survive for more than a year. With the availability of new breakthroughs introduced by several pioneers, also including Richard Lower at the Medical College of Virginia, several surgical teams were in a position to prepare for a human heart transplant. Barnard had a patient willing to undergo the procedure, but as with other surgeons, he needed a suitable donor. During the Apartheid era in South Africa, non-white persons and citizens were not given equal opportunities in the medical professions. At Groote Schuur Hospital, Hamilton Naki was an informally taught surgeon. He started out as a gardener and cleaner. One day he was asked to help out with an experiment on a giraffe. From this modest beginning, Naki became principal lab technician and taught hundreds of surgeons, and assisted with Barnard's organ transplant program. Barnard said, \"Hamilton Naki had better technical skills than I did. He was a better craftsman than me, especially when it came to stitching, and had very good hands in the theatre\". A popular myth, propagated principally by a widely discredited documentary film called \"Hidden Heart\" and an erroneous newspaper article, maintains incorrectly that Naki was present during the Washkansky transplant.", "Barnard performed the world's first human-to-human heart transplant operation in the early morning hours of Sunday 3 December 1967. Louis Washkansky, a 54-year-old grocer who was suffering from diabetes and incurable heart disease, was the patient. Barnard was assisted by his brother Marius Barnard, as well as a team of thirty staff members. The operation lasted approximately five hours. Barnard stated to Washkansky and his wife Ann Washkansky that the transplant had an 80% chance of success. This has been criticised by the ethicists Peter Singer and Helga Kuhse as making claims for chances of success to the patient and family which were \"unfounded\" and \"misleading\". Barnard later wrote, \"For a dying man it is not a difficult decision because he knows he is at the end. If a lion chases you to the bank of a river filled with crocodiles, you will leap into the water, convinced you have a chance to swim to the other side.\" The donor heart came from a young woman, Denise Darvall, who had been rendered brain dead in an accident on 2 December 1967, while crossing a street in Cape Town. On examination at Groote Schuur hospital, Darvall had two serious fractures in her skull, with no electrical activity in her brain detected, and no sign of pain when ice water was poured into her ear. Coert Venter and Bertie Bosman requested permission from Darvall's father for Denise's heart to be used in the transplant attempt. The afternoon before his first transplant, Barnard dozed at his home while listening to music. When he awoke, he decided to modify Shumway and Lower's technique. Instead of cutting straight across the back of the atrial chambers of the donor heart, he would avoid damage to the septum and instead cut two small holes for the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. Prior to the transplant, rather than wait for Darvall's heart to stop beating, at his brother Marius Barnard's urging, Christiaan had injected potassium into her heart to paralyse it and render her technically dead by the whole-body standard. Twenty years later, Marius Barnard recounted, \"Chris stood there for a few moments, watching, then stood back and said, 'It works.'\" Washkansky survived the operation and lived for 18 days, having succumbed to pneumonia as he was taking immunosuppressive drugs.", "Barnard and his patient received worldwide publicity. Worldwide, approximately 100 transplants were performed by various doctors during 1968. However, only a third of these patients lived longer than three months. Many medical centers stopped performing transplants. In fact, a U.S. National Institutes of Health publication states, \"Within several years, only Shumway's team at Stanford was attempting transplants.\" Barnard's second transplant operation was conducted on 2 January 1968, and the patient, Philip Blaiberg, survived for 19 months. Blaiberg's heart was donated by Clive Haupt, a 24-year-old black man who suffered a stroke, inciting controversy (especially in the African-American press) during the time of South African apartheid. Dirk van Zyl, who received a new heart in 1971, was the longest-lived recipient, surviving over 23 years. Between December 1967 and November 1974 at Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa, ten heart transplants were performed, as well as a heart and lung transplant in 1971. Of these ten patients, four lived longer than 18 months, with two of these four becoming long-term survivors. One patient lived for over thirteen years and another for over twenty-four years. Full recovery of donor heart function often takes place over hours or days, during which time considerable damage can occur. Other deaths to patients can occur from preexisting conditions. For example, in pulmonary hypertension the patient's right ventricle has often adapted to the higher pressure over time and, although diseased and hypertrophied, is often capable of maintaining circulation to the lungs. Barnard designed the idea of the heterotopic (or \"piggy back\" transplant) in which the patient's diseased heart is left in place while the donor heart is added, essentially forming a \"double heart\". Barnard performed the first such heterotopic heart transplant in 1974. From November 1974 through December 1983, 49 consecutive heterotopic heart transplants on 43 patients were performed at Groote Schuur. The survival rate for patients at one year was over 60%, as compared to less than 40% with standard transplants, and the survival rate at five years was over 36% as compared to less than 20% with standard transplants. Many surgeons gave up cardiac transplantation due to poor results, often due to rejection of the transplanted heart by the patient's immune system. Barnard persisted until the advent of cyclosporine, an effective immunosuppressive drug, which helped revive the operation throughout the world. He also attempted xenotransplantation in a human patient, while attempting to save the life of a girl who was unable to leave artificial life support after her second aortic valve replacement.", "Barnard was an outspoken opponent of South Africa's laws of apartheid, and was not afraid to criticise his nation's government, although he had to temper his remarks to some extent to travel abroad. Rather than leaving his homeland, he used his fame to campaign for a change in the law. Christiaan's brother, Marius Barnard, went into politics, and was elected to the legislature from Progressive Federal Party. Barnard later stated that the reason he never won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was probably because he was a \"white South African\". Shortly before his visit to Kenya in 1978, the following was written about his views regarding race relations in South Africa; \"While he believes in the participation of Africans in the political process of South Africa, he is opposed to a one-man-one-vote system in South Africa\". In answering a hypothetical question on how he would solve the race problem were he a \"benevolent dictator in South Africa\", Barnard stated the following in a long interview at the Weekly Review: The interview ended with the following summary from he himself; \"I often say that, like King Lear, South Africa is a country more sinned against than sinning.\"", "Barnard's first marriage was to Aletta Gertruida Louw, a nurse, whom he married in 1948 while practising medicine in Ceres. The couple had two children: Deirdre (born 1950) and Andre (1951–1984). International fame took a toll on his personal life, and in 1969, Barnard and his wife divorced. In 1970, he married heiress Barbara Zoellner when she was 19, the same age as his son, and they had two children: Frederick (born 1972) and Christiaan Jr. (born 1974). He divorced Zoellner in 1982. Barnard married for a third time in 1988 to Karin Setzkorn, a young model. They also had two children, Armin (born 1989) and Lara (born 1997), but this last marriage also ended in divorce in 2000. Barnard described in his autobiography \"The Second Life\" a one-night extramarital affair with Italian film star Gina Lollobrigida, that occurred in January 1968. During that visit to Rome he received an audience from Pope Paul VI. In October 2016, U.S. Congresswoman Ann McLane Kuster (D-NH) stated that Barnard sexually assaulted her when she was 23 years old. According to Kuster, he attempted to grope her under her skirt, while seated at a business luncheon with Rep. Pete McCloskey (R-CA), whom she worked for at the time.", "Barnard retired as Head of the Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery in Cape Town in 1983 after developing rheumatoid arthritis in his hands which ended his surgical career. He had struggled with arthritis since 1956, when it was diagnosed during his postgraduate work in the United States. After retirement, he spent two years as the Scientist-In-Residence at the Oklahoma Transplantation Institute in the United States and as an acting consultant for various institutions. He had by this time become very interested in anti-aging research, and his reputation suffered in 1986 when he promoted \"Glycel\", an expensive \"anti-aging\" skin cream, whose approval was withdrawn by the United States Food and Drug Administration soon thereafter. He also spent time as a research advisor to the Clinique la Prairie, in Switzerland, where the controversial \"rejuvenation therapy\" was practised. Barnard divided the remainder of his years between Austria, where he established the Christiaan Barnard Foundation, dedicated to helping underprivileged children throughout the world, and his game farm in Beaufort West, South Africa.", "Christiaan Barnard died on 2 September 2001, while on holiday in Paphos, Cyprus. Early reports stated that he had died of a heart attack, but an autopsy showed his death was caused by a severe asthma attack.", "Christiaan Barnard wrote two autobiographies. His first book, \"One Life\", was published in 1969 () and sold copies worldwide. Some of the proceeds were used to set up the Chris Barnard Fund for research into heart disease and heart transplants in Cape Town. His second autobiography, \"The Second Life\", was published in 1993, eight years before his death (). Apart from his autobiographies, Dr Barnard also wrote several other books including:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "General description.", "History.", "Theory on origin.", "Initiation.", "Modern-style subduction.", "Effects.", "Volcanic activity.", "Earthquakes and tsunamis.", "Orogeny.", "Subduction angle.", "Importance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Subduction zones are sites of gravitational sinking of Earth's lithosphere (the crust plus the top non-convecting portion of the upper mantle). Subduction zones exist at convergent plate boundaries where one plate of oceanic lithosphere converges with another plate. The descending slab, the subducting plate, is over-ridden by the leading edge of the other plate. The slab sinks at an angle of approximately twenty-five to forty-five degrees to Earth's surface. This sinking is driven by the temperature difference between the subducting oceanic lithosphere and the surrounding mantle asthenosphere, as the colder oceanic lithosphere has, on average, a greater density. At a depth of greater than 60 kilometers, the basalt of the oceanic crust is converted to a metamorphic rock called eclogite. At that point, the density of the oceanic crust increases and provides additional negative buoyancy (downwards force). It is at subduction zones that Earth's lithosphere, oceanic crust and continental crust, sedimentary layers and some trapped water are recycled into the deep mantle. Earth is so far the only planet where subduction is known to occur. Subduction is the driving force behind plate tectonics, and without it, plate tectonics could not occur. Oceanic subduction zones dive down into the mantle beneath of convergent plate margins (Lallemand, 1999), almost equal to the cumulative of mid-ocean ridges. Subduction zones burrow deeply but are imperfectly camouflaged, and geophysics and geochemistry can be used to study them. Not surprisingly, the shallowest portions of subduction zones are known best. Subduction zones are strongly asymmetric for the first several hundred kilometers of their descent. They start to go down at oceanic trenches. Their descents are marked by inclined zones of earthquakes that dip away from the trench beneath the volcanoes and extend down to the 660-kilometer discontinuity. Subduction zones are defined by the inclined array of earthquakes known as the Wadati–Benioff zone after the two scientists who first identified this distinctive aspect. Subduction zone earthquakes occur at greater depths (up to ) than elsewhere on Earth (typically less than depth); such deep earthquakes may be driven by deep phase transformations, thermal runaway, or dehydration embrittlement. The subducting basalt and sediment are normally rich in hydrous minerals and clays. Additionally, large quantities of water are introduced into cracks and fractures created as the subducting slab bends downward. During the transition from basalt to eclogite, these hydrous materials break down, producing copious quantities of water, which at such great pressure and temperature exists as a supercritical fluid. The supercritical water, which is hot and more buoyant than the surrounding rock, rises into the overlying mantle where it lowers the pressure in (and thus the melting temperature of) the mantle rock to the point of actual melting, generating magma. The magmas, in turn, rise (and become labeled diapirs) because they are less dense than the rocks of the mantle. The mantle-derived magmas (which are basaltic in composition) can continue to rise, ultimately to Earth's surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption. The chemical composition of the erupting lava depends upon the degree to which the mantle-derived basalt interacts with (melts) Earth's crust and/or undergoes fractional crystallization. Above subduction zones, volcanoes exist in long chains called volcanic arcs. Volcanoes that exist along arcs tend to produce dangerous eruptions because they are rich in water (from the slab and sediments) and tend to be extremely explosive. Krakatoa, Nevado del Ruiz, and Mount Vesuvius are all examples of arc volcanoes. Arcs are also known to be associated with precious metals such as gold, silver and copper believed to be carried by water and concentrated in and around their host volcanoes in rock called \"ore\".", "Harry Hammond Hess, who during World War II serving as part of the United States Navy Reserve became fascinated in the ocean floor, studied the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and proposed that hot molten rock was added to the crust at the ridge and expanded the seafloor outward. This theory was to become known as seafloor spreading. However, considering that throughout the geological history of the Earth there was never a change in its circumference, Hess supposed that somehow older seafloor had to be consumed somewhere else, and theorized this hypothetical process would take place at oceanic trenches, where the crust would be melted and recycled in the Earth's mantle. In 1964, George Plafker conducted research on the Good Friday earthquake in Alaska. He concluded that the cause of the earthquake was a megathrust reaction in the Aleutian Trench, a result of the Alaskan continental crust overlapping the Pacific oceanic crust. This meant that the Pacific crust was being forced downward, or \"subducted\", beneath the Alaskan crust. The concept of subduction would play a role in the development of the plate tectonics theory.", "", "Although the process of subduction as it occurs today is fairly well understood, its origin remains a matter of discussion and continuing study. Subduction initiation can occur \"spontaneously\" if denser oceanic lithosphere is able to founder and sink beneath adjacent oceanic or continental lithosphere; alternatively, existing plate motions can \"induce\" new subduction zones by forcing oceanic lithosphere to rupture and sink into the asthenosphere. Both models can eventually yield self-sustaining subduction zones, as oceanic crust is metamorphosed at great depth and becomes denser than the surrounding mantle rocks. Results from numerical models generally favor induced subduction initiation for most modern subduction zones, which is supported by geologic studies, but other analogue modeling shows the possibility of spontaneous subduction from inherent density differences between two plates at passive margins, and observations from the Izu-Bonin-Mariana subduction system are compatible with spontaneous subduction nucleation. Furthermore, subduction is likely to have spontaneously initiated at some point in Earth's history, as induced subduction nucleation requires existing plate motions, though an unorthodox proposal by A. Yin suggests that meteorite impacts may have contributed to subduction initiation on early Earth. Geophysicist Don L. Anderson has hypothesized that plate tectonics could not happen without the calcium carbonate laid down by bioforms at the edges of subduction zones. The massive weight of these sediments could be softening the underlying rocks, making them pliable enough to plunge.", "Modern-style subduction is characterized by low geothermal gradients and the associated formation of high-pressure low temperature rocks such as eclogite and blueschist. Likewise, rock assemblages called ophiolites, associated to modern-style subduction, also indicate such conditions. Eclogite xenoliths found in the North China Craton provide evidence that modern-style subduction occurred at least as early as 1.8 Ga ago in the Paleoproterozoic Era. Nevertheless, the eclogite itself was produced by oceanic subduction during the assembly of supercontinents at about 1.9–2.0 Ga. Blueschist is a rock typical for present-day subduction settings. Absence of blueschist older than Neoproterozoic reflect more magnesium-rich compositions of Earth's oceanic crust during that period. These more magnesium-rich rocks metamorphose into greenschist at conditions when modern oceanic crust rocks metamorphose into blueschist. The ancient magnesium-rich rocks means that Earth's mantle was once hotter, but not that subduction conditions were hotter. Previously, lack of pre-Neoproterozoic blueschist was thought to indicate a different type of subduction. Both lines of evidence refute previous conceptions of modern-style subduction having been initiated in the Neoproterozoic Era 1.0 Ga ago.", "", "Volcanoes that occur above subduction zones, such as Mount St. Helens, Mount Etna and Mount Fuji, lie at approximately one hundred kilometers from the trench in arcuate chains, hence the term volcanic arc. Two kinds of arcs are generally observed on Earth: island arcs that form on oceanic lithosphere (for example, the Mariana and the Tonga island arcs), and continental arcs such as the Cascade Volcanic Arc, that form along the coast of continents. Island arcs are produced by the subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath another oceanic lithosphere (ocean-ocean subduction) while continental arcs formed during subduction of oceanic lithosphere beneath a continental lithosphere (ocean-continent subduction). An example of a volcanic arc having both island and continental arc sections is found behind the Aleutian Trench subduction zone in Alaska. The arc magmatism occurs one hundred to two hundred kilometers from the trench and approximately one hundred kilometers above the subducting slab. This depth of arc magma generation is the consequence of the interaction between hydrous fluids, released from the subducting slab, and the arc mantle wedge that is hot enough to melt with the addition of water. It has also been suggested that the mixing of fluids from a subducted tectonic plate and melted sediment is already occurring at the top of the slab before any mixing with the mantle takes place. Arcs produce about 25% of the total volume of magma produced each year on Earth (approximately thirty to thirty-five cubic kilometers), much less than the volume produced at mid-ocean ridges, and they contribute to the formation of new continental crust. Arc volcanism has the greatest impact on humans because many arc volcanoes lie above sea level and erupt violently. Aerosols injected into the stratosphere during violent eruptions can cause rapid cooling of Earth's climate and affect air travel.", "The strains caused by plate convergence in subduction zones cause at least three types of earthquakes. Earthquakes mainly propagate in the cold subducting slab and define the Wadati–Benioff zone. Seismicity shows that the slab can be tracked down to the upper mantle/lower mantle boundary (approximately six hundred kilometer depth). Nine of the ten largest earthquakes of the last 100 years were subduction zone events, which included the 1960 Great Chilean earthquake, which, at M 9.5, was the largest earthquake ever recorded; the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami; and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. The subduction of cold oceanic crust into the mantle depresses the local geothermal gradient and causes a larger portion of Earth to deform in a more brittle fashion than it would in a normal geothermal gradient setting. Because earthquakes can occur only when a rock is deforming in a brittle fashion, subduction zones can cause large earthquakes. If such a quake causes rapid deformation of the sea floor, there is potential for tsunamis, such as the earthquake caused by subduction of the Indo-Australian Plate under the Euro-Asian Plate on December 26, 2004 that devastated the areas around the Indian Ocean. Small tremors which cause small, nondamaging tsunamis, also occur frequently. A study published in 2016 suggested a new parameter to determine a subduction zone's ability to generate mega-earthquakes. By examining subduction zone geometry and comparing the degree of curvature of the subducting plates in great historical earthquakes such as the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, it was determined that the magnitude of earthquakes in subduction zones is inversely proportional to the degree of the fault's curvature, meaning that \"the flatter the contact between the two plates, the more likely it is that mega-earthquakes will occur.\" Outer rise earthquakes occur when normal faults oceanward of the subduction zone are activated by flexure of the plate as it bends into the subduction zone. The 2009 Samoa earthquake is an example of this type of event. Displacement of the sea floor caused by this event generated a six-meter tsunami in nearby Samoa. Anomalously deep events are a characteristic of subduction zones, which produce the deepest quakes on the planet. Earthquakes are generally restricted to the shallow, brittle parts of the crust, generally at depths of less than twenty kilometers. However, in subduction zones, quakes occur at depths as great as. These quakes define inclined zones of seismicity known as Wadati–Benioff zones which trace the descending lithosphere. Seismic tomography has helped detect subducted lithosphere, slabs, deep in the mantle where there are no earthquakes. About one hundred slabs have been described in terms of depth and their timing and location of subduction. The great seismic discontinuities in the mantle, at depth and, are disrupted by the descent of cold slabs in deep subduction zones. Some subducted slabs seem to have difficulty penetrating the major discontinuity that marks the boundary between upper mantle and lower mantle at a depth of about 670 kilometers. Other subducted oceanic plates have sunk all the way to the core-mantle boundary at 2890 km depth. Generally slabs decelerate during their descent into the mantle, from typically several cm/yr (up to ~10 cm/yr in some cases) at the subduction zone and in the uppermost mantle, to ~1 cm/yr in the lower mantle. This leads to either folding or stacking of slabs at those depths, visible as thickened slabs in Seismic tomography. Below ~1700 km, there might be a limited acceleration of slabs due to lower viscosity as a result of inferred mineral phase changes until they approach and finally stall at the core-mantle boundary. Here the slabs are heated up by the ambient heat and are not detected anymore ~300 Myr after subduction.", "Orogeny is the process of mountain building. Subducting plates can lead to orogeny by bringing oceanic islands, oceanic plateaus, and sediments to convergent margins. The material often does not subduct with the rest of the plate but instead is accreted (scraped off) to the continent, resulting in exotic terranes. The collision of this oceanic material causes crustal thickening and mountain-building. The accreted material is often referred to as an accretionary wedge, or prism. These accretionary wedges can be identified by ophiolites (uplifted ocean crust consisting of sediments, pillow basalts, sheeted dykes, gabbro, and peridotite). Subduction may also cause orogeny without bringing in oceanic material that collides with the overriding continent. When the subducting plate subducts at a shallow angle underneath a continent (something called \"flat-slab subduction\"), the subducting plate may have enough traction on the bottom of the continental plate to cause the upper plate to contract leading to folding, faulting, crustal thickening and mountain building. Flat-slab subduction causes mountain building and volcanism moving into the continent, away from the trench, and has been described in North America (i.e. Laramide orogeny), South America and East Asia. The processes described above allow subduction to continue while mountain building happens progressively, which is in contrast to continent-continent collision orogeny, which often leads to the termination of subduction.", "Subduction typically occurs at a moderately steep angle right at the point of the convergent plate boundary. However, anomalous shallower angles of subduction are known to exist as well some that are extremely steep.", "Subduction zones are important for several reasons: Subduction zones have also been considered as possible disposal sites for nuclear waste in which the action of subduction itself would carry the material into the planetary mantle, safely away from any possible influence on humanity or the surface environment. However, that method of disposal is currently banned by international agreement. Furthermore, plate subduction zones are associated with very large megathrust earthquakes, making the effects on using any specific site for disposal unpredictable and possibly adverse to the safety of longterm disposal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin.", "Historical distribution.", "Contact with Russians.", "Traditional life.", "Clothing.", "Hunting.", "Evenks of Russia.", "Russian Federation.", "Evenks of China.", "Evenks of Ukraine.", "Religion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Evenks or Ewenki are sometimes conjectured to be connected to the Shiwei people who inhabited the Greater Khingan Range in the 5th to 9th centuries, although the native land of the majority of Evenki people is in the vast regions of Siberia between Lake Baikal and the Amur River. The Ewenki language forms the northern branch of the Manchu-Tungusic language group and is closely related to Even and Negidal in Siberia. By 1600 the Evenks or Ewenki of the Lena and Yenisey river valleys were successful reindeer herders. By contrast the Solons (ancestors of the Evenkis in China) and the Khamnigans (Ewenkis of Transbaikalia) had picked up horse breeding and the Mongolian deel from the Mongols. The Solons nomadized along the Amur River. They were closely related to the Daur people. To the west the Khamnigan were another group of horse-breeding Evenks in the Transbaikalia area. Also in the Amur valley a body of Siberian Evenki-speaking people were called Orochen by the Manchus.", "The ancestors of the south-eastern Evenks have most likely been in the Baikal region of Southern Siberia (near the modern-day Mongolian border) since the Neolithic era. Considering the north-western Evenks Vasilevich claims: \"The origin of the Evenks is the result of complex processes, different in time, involving the mixing of different ancient aboriginal tribes from the north of Siberia with tribes related in language to the Turks and Mongols. The language of these tribes took precedence over the languages of the aboriginal population\". Elements of more modern Evenk culture, including conical tent dwellings, bone fish-lures, and birch-bark boats, were all present in sites that are believed to be Neolithic. From Lake Baikal, “they spread to the Amur and Okhotsk Sea...the Lena Basin...and the Yenisey Basin”.", "In the 17th century, the Russian empire made contact with the Evenks. Cossacks, who served as a kind of “border-guard” for the tsarist government, imposed a fur tax on the Siberian tribes. The Cossacks exploited the Evenk clan hierarchy and took hostages from the highest members in order to ensure payment of the tax. Although there was some rebellion against local officials, the Evenks generally recognized the need for peaceful cultural relations with the Russians (Vasilevich, 624). Contact with the Russians and constant demand for fur taxes pushed the Evenks east all the way to Sakhalin island, where some still live today (Cassells). In the 19th century some groups migrated south and east into Mongolia and Manchuria (Vasilevich, 625). Today there are still Evenk populations in Sakhalin, Mongolia, and Manchuria (Ethnologue), and to a lesser extent, their traditional Baikal region (Janhunen). Russian invasion of the Evenks (and other indigenous peoples) resulted in language erosion, traditional decline, identity loss, among others, of thereof. This was especially the case during the Soviet regime. Soviet policies of collectivization, forced sedentarization (or sometimes refer to as Sedentism), \"unpromising villages\", and Russification of the education system compromised social, cultural, and mental well-being of the Evenks. Today, few people can speak the Evenki language, reindeer herding is in significant decline, the suicide rate is extremely high, and alcoholism is a serious issue.", "Traditionally they were a mixture of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers—they relied on their domesticated reindeer for milk and transport and hunted other large game for meat (Vasilevich, 620-1). Today “[t]he Evenks are divided into two large groups...engaging in different types of economy. These are the hunting and reindeer-breeding Evenks...and the horse and cattle pastoral Evenks as well as some farming Evenks” (620). The Evenks lived mostly in areas of what is called a taiga, or boreal forest. They lived in conical tents made from birch bark or reindeer skin tied to birch poles. When they moved camp, the Evenks would leave these frameworks and carry only the more portable coverings. During winter, the hunting season, most camps consisted of one or two tents while the spring encampments had up to 10 households (Vasilevich, 637). Their skill of riding the domesticated reindeer allowed the Evenks to “colonize vast areas of the eastern taiga which had previously been impenetrable” (Vitebsky, 31). The Evenks used a saddle unique to their culture which is placed on the shoulders of the reindeer so as to lessen the strain on the animal, and used not stirrups but a stick to balance (31-32). Evenks did not develop reindeer sledges until comparatively recent times (32). They instead used their reindeer as pack animals and often traversed great distances on foot, using snowshoes or skis (Vasilevich, 627). The Evenki people did not eat their domesticated reindeer (although they did hunt and eat wild reindeer) but kept them for milk. (Forsyth, 49-50). Large herds of reindeer were very uncommon. Most Evenks had around 25 head of reindeer because they were generally bred for transportation. Unlike in several other neighboring tribes Evenk reindeer-breeding did not include “herding of reindeer by dogs nor any other specific features” (Vasilevich, 629). Very early in the spring season, the winter camps broke up and moved to places suitable for calving. Several households pastured their animals together throughout the summer, being careful to keep “[s]pecial areas...fenced off...to guard the newborn calves against being trampled on in a large herd” (629).", "The Evenks wore a characteristic garb “adapted to the cold but rather dry climate of Central Siberia and to a life of mobility...they wore brief garments of soft reindeer or elk skin around their hips, along with leggings and moccasins, or else long supple boots reaching to the thigh” (49). They also wore a deerskin coat that did not close in front but was instead covered with an apron-like cloth. Some Evenkis decorated their clothing with fringes or embroidery (50). The Evenki traditional costume always consisted of these elements: the loincloth made of animal hide, leggings, and boots of varying lengths (Vasilevich, 641). Facial tattooing was also very common.", "The traditional Evenk economy was a mix of pastoralism (of horses or reindeer), fishing, and hunting. The Evenk who lived near the Okhotsk Sea hunted seal, but for most of the taiga-dwellers, elk, wild reindeer, and fowl were the most important game animals. Other animals included “roe deer, bear, wolverine, lynx, wolf, Siberian marmot, fox, and sable” (Vasilevich, 626). Trapping did not become important until the imposition of the fur tax by the tsarist government. Before acquiring guns in the 18th century, Evenks used steel bows and arrows. Along with their main hunting implements, hunters always carried a “pike”—“which was a large knife on a long handle used instead of an axe when passing through the thick taiga or as a spear when hunting bear” (626). The Evenks have deep respect for animals and all elements of nature: \"It is forbidden to torment an animal, bird, or insect, and a wounded animal must be finished off immediately. It is forbidden to spill the blood of a killed animal or defile it. It is forbidden to kill animals or birds that were saved from pursuit by predators or came to a person for help in a natural disaster.\" (Sirina, 24).", "The Evenks were formerly known as \"tungus\". This designation was spread by the Russians, who acquired it from the Yakuts and the Siberian Tatars (in the Yakut language \"tongus\") in the 17th century. The Evenks have several self-designations, of which the best known is \"evenk\". This became the official designation for the people in 1931. Some groups call themselves \"orochen\" ('an inhabitant of the River Oro'), \"orochon\" ('a rearer of reindeer'), \"ile\" ('a human being'), etc. At one time or another tribal designations and place names have also been used as self-designations, for instance \"manjagir\", \"birachen\", \"solon\", etc. Several of these have even been taken for separate ethnic entities. There is also a similarly named Siberian group called the Evens (formerly known as \"Lamuts\"). Although related to the Evenks, the Evens are now considered to be a separate ethnic group. The Evenks are spread over a huge territory of the Siberian taiga from the River Ob in the west to the Okhotsk Sea in the east, and from the Arctic Ocean in the north to Manchuria and Sakhalin in the south. The total area of their habitat is about 2,500,000 km2. In all of Russia only the Russians inhabit a larger territory. According to the administrative structure, the Evenks live, from west to east, in Tyumen and Tomsk Oblasts, Krasnoyarsk Krai with Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Irkutsk, Chita, and Amur Oblasts, the Buryat and the Sakha Republics, Khabarovsk Krai, and Sakhalin Oblast. However, the territory where they are a titular nation is confined solely to Evenk Autonomous Okrug, where 3,802 of the 35,527 Evenks live (according to the 2002 Census). More than 18,200 Evenks live in the Sakha Republic. Evenki is the largest of the northern group of the Manchu-Tungus languages, a group which also includes Even and Negidal. Many Evenks in Russia still engage in a traditional lifestyle of raising reindeer, fishing, and hunting.", "According to the 2002 census 35,527 Evenki lived in Russia.", "According to the 2000 Census, there are 30,505 Evenks in China mainly made up of the Solons and the Khamnigans. 88.8% of China's Evenks live in the Hulunbuir region in the north of the Inner Mongolia Province, near the city of Hailar. The Evenk Autonomous Banner is also located near Hulunbuir. There are also around 3,000 Evenks in neighbouring Heilongjiang Province. The Manchu Emperor Hong Taiji conquered the Evenks in 1640, and executed their leader Bombogor. After the Manchu conquest, the Evenks were incorporated into the Eight Banners. In 1763, the Qing government moved 500 Solon Evenk and 500 Daur families to the Tacheng and Ghulja areas of Xinjiang, in order to strengthen the empire's western border. 1020 Xibe families (some 4000 persons) followed the next year. Since then, however, the Solons of Xinjiang have assimilated into other ethnic groups, and are not identified as such anymore. Some Evenkis fled to Soviet Siberia across the Amur river after murdering a Japanese officer to avoid punishment from the Japanese. The Japanese occuation led to many murders of Evenkis and Evenki men were conscripted as scouts and rangers by the Japanese secret service in 1942. The Evenks of China today tend to be settled pastoralists and farmers.", "According to the 2001 census, there were 48 Evenks living in Ukraine. The majority (35) stated that their native language was Russian; four indicated Evenk as their native language, and three that it was Ukrainian.", "Prior to contact with the Russians, the belief system of the Evenks was animistic. Many have adopted Tibetan Buddhism. The Evenki, like most nomadic, pastoral, and subsistence agrarian peoples, spend most of their lives in very close contact with nature. Because of this, they develop what A. A. Sirina calls an \"ecological ethic\". By this she means \"a system of responsibility of people to nature and her spirit masters, and of nature to people\"(9). Sirina interviewed many Evenks who until very recently spent much of their time as reindeer herders in the taiga, just like their ancestors. The Evenki people also spoke along the same lines: their respect for nature and their belief that nature is a living being. This idea, \"[t]he embodiment, animation, and personification of nature—what is still called the animistic worldview—is the key component of the traditional worldview of hunter-gatherers\" (Sirina, 13). Although most of the Evenkis have been \"sedentarized\"—that is, made to live in settled communities instead of following their traditional nomadic way of life (Fondahl, 5)—\"[m]any scholars think that the worldview characteristic of hunter-gatherer societies is preserved, even if they make the transition to new economic models (Sirina, 30, quoting Barnard 1998, Lee 1999, Peterson 1999). Although nominally Christianized in the 18th century, the Evenki people maintain many of their historical beliefs—especially shamanism (Vasilevich, 624). The Christian traditions were \"confined to the formal performance of Orthodox rites which were usually timed for the arrival of the priest in the taiga\" (647). The religious beliefs and practices of the Evenks are of great historical interest since these retain some archaic forms of belief. Among the most ancient ideas are spiritualization and personification of all natural phenomena, belief in an upper, middle, and lower world, belief in the soul (\"omi\") and certain totemistic concepts. There were also various magical rituals associated with hunting and guarding herds. Later on, these rituals were conducted by shamans. Shamanism brought about the development of the views of spirit-masters (Vasilevich 647). There are few sources on the shamanism of the Evenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted by Richard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Evenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name). She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in the Evenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim were evident. She hid her prize possession—an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among the Mongols and Dauer peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online. Olga Kudrina (c. 1890–1944) was a shaman among the Reindeer Evenki of northern Inner Mongolia along the Amur River's Great Bend (today under the jurisdiction of Genhe, Hulunbuir)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "International styles.", "Pilsner glass.", "Pint glass.", "Connoisseur's glassware.", "Snifters.", "Taster glasses.", "Plastic.", "German, Austrian, and Swiss styles.", "glasses.", "Beer stein.", "Maßkrug.", "Willi Becher.", "Beer boot.", "Pilstulpe.", "Belgian and Dutch styles.", "Flute glass.", "Goblet or Chalice.", "Tulip glass.", "British and Irish styles.", "Tankard.", "Yard of ale.", "Australian measures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A pilsner glass is used for many types of light beers, including pale lager or pilsner. Pilsner glasses are generally smaller than a pint glass, usually in,,, or sizes. In Europe, glasses are common. They are tall, slender and tapered. The slender glass reveals the colour, and carbonation of the beer, and the broad top helps maintain a beer head. Weizen glasses are sometimes mistakenly called pilsner glasses because they are somewhat similar in appearance, but true pilsner glasses have an even taper without any amount of curvature.", "The definition of a pint differs by country, thus a pint glass will reflect the regular measure of beer in that country. In the UK, law stipulates that a servings of beer be fixed at the imperial pint (568 ml ≈ 1.2 US pints). Half-pint glasses of are generally smaller versions of pint glasses. Quarter-pint glasses of also exist, and are popular in Australia (now 140 ml from metrication), where they are known as a \"pony\". These may simply be smaller pint glasses, or may be a special pony glass. In the US, a pint is, but the volume is not strictly regulated and glasses may vary somewhat. Glasses of 500 ml are usually called pints in American parlance. The common shapes of pint glass are:", "Beer connoisseurs sometimes invest in special, non-traditional glassware to enhance their appreciation. An example was the range marketed by Michael \"Beer Hunter\" Jackson.", "Typically used for serving brandy and cognac, a snifter is ideal for capturing the volatiles of aromatic beers such as Double/Imperial IPAs, Belgian ales, barley wines and wheat wines. The shape helps trap the volatiles, while allowing swirling to agitate them and produce an intense aroma.", "Glasses holding 1/3 of a pint or less may be used to:", "Plastic beer vessels are usually shaped in imitation of whichever glasses are usual in the locality. They are mainly used as a substitute for glass vessels where breakages would be particularly problematic or likely, for instance at outdoor events.", "", "A glass is used to serve wheat beer. Originating in Germany, the glass is narrow at the bottom and slightly wider at the top; the width both releasing aroma, and providing room for the often thick, fluffy heads produced by wheat beer. It tends to be taller than a pint glass, and generally holds with room for foam or \"head\". In some countries, such as Belgium, the glass may be or. Wheat beers tend to foam a lot, especially if poured quickly. In pubs, if the bottle is handed to the patron for self pouring, it is customary for the glass to be taken to the patron wet or with a bit of water in the bottom to be swirled around to wet the entire glass to keep the beer from foaming excessively.", "Beer stein or simply'stein' ( ) has been for over a century an English expression for a traditional German beer mug made out of stoneware, whether simple and serviceably sturdy, or elaborately ornamental with either a traditionally cultural theme, or so embellished as to be sold as a souvenir or a collectible. The former may be made out of stoneware, but rarely the inferior earthenware or wood, while the latter is usually of glazed pottery, but often porcelain or pewter, or even silver or crystal. It may have either an uncovered mouth or a hinged pewter lid with a thumb-lever. The capacity of a German \"stein\" indicated by its fill line on its side ranged from \"0.4l\" (4 deci-litre), through \"0.5l\" (half a litre) or a full litre (or comparable historic sizes). Like decorative tankards, steins are often decorated in a culturally nostalgic, often German or Bavarian, theme. Some believe the lid that excludes flies from the beer today was originally intended for those so diseased in the age of the Black Plague.", "The \"Maß\" () is a quantity of beer, most commonly used in Bavaria and Austria. It is served in a \"Maßkrug\" (pl. \"Maßkrüge\"), which is sometimes simply referred to as a \"Maß\". As a feminine noun, it is, though commonly confused with the grammatically neuter noun, meaning \"measure\". The unit of volume is typically used only for measuring beer sold for immediate on-site consumption. Because the \"Maß\" is a unit of measure, it can come in the form of a glass or stoneware mug. The endurance sport of \"Maßkrugstemmen\" involves holding a filled, \"Maß\" at arm's length. The world record is 45minutes and 2seconds. The high, narrow and cylindrical (German for \"stick\" or \"rod\") is traditionally used for. A, traditionally used for, is similar, though slightly shorter and fatter. The usually holds between and, though larger ones are now sometimes used to reduce serving work. are carried by slotting them into holes in a special tray called a (\"wreath\").", "The Willie Becher glass is common in Germany. It is characterized by its shape: conical to the top portion where it curves inward to converge back to the top of a smaller diameter opening. The Willi Becher is produced in sizes of,,,, and.", "Boot- and shoe-shaped drinking vessels have been found at archaeological sites dating back to the bronze-age Urnfield cultures. Modern beer boots (or \"\") have over a century of history and culture behind them. It is commonly believed that a general somewhere promised his troops to drink beer from his boot if they were successful in battle. When the troops prevailed, the general had a glassmaker fashion a boot from glass to fulfill his promise without tasting his own feet and to avoid spoiling the beer in his leather boot. Since then, soldiers have enjoyed toasting to their victories with a beer boot. At gatherings in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, beer boots are often passed among the guests for a festive drinking challenge. Since the movie \"Beerfest\" premiered in 2006, beer boots have become increasingly popular in the United States. It is an old joke to hand the boot to a young novice drinker with the toe pointing away from his person, which will result in beer pouring over the drinker's face uncontrollably when air enters the toe; seasoned drinkers always point the toe towards their body until the glass is sufficiently drained.", "The \"Pilstulpe\" (\"Pilsner Tulip\") or \"Biertulpe\" (\"Beer tulip\") is the traditional glass used for German pilsner beers. Sizes are typically around, but can be as large as. When used in restaurant settings, a small piece of absorbent paper is placed around the base to absorb any drips from spilling or condensation.", "Stronger or bottled beers are frequently served in specially-made, elaborately-branded glassware. In addition to the profusion of glasses provided by brewers, some Belgian beer cafés serve beer in their own \"house\" glassware.", "A vessel similar to a champagne flute is the preferred serving vessel for Belgian lambics and fruit beers. The narrow shape helps maintain carbonation, while providing a strong aromatic front. Flute glasses display the lively carbonation, sparkling color, and soft lacing of this distinct style.", "Chalices and goblets are large, stemmed, bowl-shaped glasses adequate for serving heavy Belgian ales, German bocks, and other big sipping beers. The distinction between goblet and chalice is typically in the glass thickness. Goblets tend to be thick, while the chalice is thin walled. Some chalices are even etched on the bottom to nucleate a stream of bubbles for maintaining a nice head.", "A tulip glass has a shape similar to a brandy snifter. The body is bulbous, like a snifter, but the top flares out to form a lip which helps head retention. It is recommended for serving Scottish ales, American double/imperial IPAs, barley wines, Belgian ales and other aromatic beers. Some pint glasses that taper outwards towards the top are also called tulip glasses, despite having noticeably less curvature.", "", "A tankard is a form of drinkware consisting of a large, roughly cylindrical, drinking cup with a single handle. Tankards are usually made of silver, pewter, or glass, but can be made of other materials, for example wood, ceramic or leather. A tankard may have a hinged lid, and tankards featuring glass bottoms are also fairly common. Tankards are shaped and used similarly to beer steins. Metal tankards were popular in 18th and early 19th century Britain and Ireland, but were largely superseded by glass vessels. They are now seen as collector's items, or may be engraved and presented as a gift. Wooden and leather tankards were popular before the 17th century, but being made of organic materials have rarely survived intact to the present day.", "A yard of ale or yard glass is a very tall glass used for drinking around of beer, depending upon the diameter. The glass is approximately long, shaped with a bulb at the bottom, and a widening shaft which constitutes most of the height. The glass most likely originated in 17th-century England where the glass was known also as a \"Long Glass\", a \"Cambridge Yard (Glass)\" and an \"Ell Glass\". It is associated by legend with stagecoach drivers, though was mainly used for drinking feats and special toasts. (Compare with the Pauwel Kwak glass). Drinking a yard glass full of beer is a traditional pub game. The fastest drinking of a yard of ale in the \"Guinness Book of Records\" is 5 seconds.", "Prior to metrication in Australia, one could buy beer in glasses of size 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 15 or 20 (imperial) fluid ounces. Each sized glass had a different name in each Australian state. These were replaced by glasses of size 115, 140, 170, 200, 285, 425 and 570 ml. Progressively, the differences are decreasing. In the 21st century, most pubs no longer have a glass smaller than 200 ml (7 imp fl oz); typically available are 200ml, 285ml and 425ml, and increasingly many pubs also have pints available." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Winning streaks.", "The arena.", "Players of note.", "Basketball Hall of Fame.", "Season-by-season records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The team was founded in 1946 as a charter BAA team; it became a charter NBA team in 1949. It folded on January 9, 1951 (with a 10–25 record). The Capitols were one of seven teams that quickly left the NBA: The NBA contracted after the 1949-1950 season, losing six teams: The Anderson Packers, Sheboygan Red Skins and Waterloo Hawks jumped to the NPBL, while the Chicago Stags, Denver Nuggets and St. Louis Bombers folded. The league went from 17 teams to 11 before the 1950-1951 season started. Midway through the 1950-1951 season, the Washington Capitols folded as well, bringing the number of teams in the league down to ten. Earl Lloyd, the first African American athlete to play for an NBA team, debuted for the Capitols at Uline Arena on October 31, 1950. The franchise played the 1951–52 season in the American Basketball League, but the team folded again in January, 1952. The teams wore green and white. The NBA returned to the Washington, D.C. area in 1973, when the Baltimore Bullets became the Capital Bullets, now known as the Washington Wizards. The Capitols' 81.7 win percentage in the BAA's inaugural season was the highest in the NBA until surpassed by the Philadelphia 76ers in 1966–67. The Capitols captured two Divisional Championships: (1946–47 and 1948–49) and made the playoffs in (1947, 1948 tie-breaker, 1949 and 1950).", "The Washington Capitols are also noteworthy for two long win streaks during their short history. In 1946, the Capitols won 17 straight games — a single season streak that remained the NBA's longest until 1969. The 15–0 start of the 1948–49 team was the best in NBA history until the Golden State Warriors broke it in 2015–16 by starting 24-0, though the Houston Rockets had previously tied the Capitols' record in 1993–94.", "The Capitols played in historic Uline Arena, located at 1132, 1140, and 1146 3rd St. NE, Washington, District of Columbia. The capacity was 7,500. The facility still exists and has been repurposed into retail and office space.", "", "Notes:", "The inaugural 1947 BAA Playoffs did not establish Eastern and Western champions and generated one finalist from the East, one from the West, only by coincidence. Washington and Chicago won the Eastern and Western Divisions and met in a best-of-seven series to determine one league championship finalist. (Washington lost the first two games, both at home, by 16 points each and lost the series four games to two; every game but the last was decided by at least 10 points.) Meanwhile, four runners-up played best-of-three matches to determine the other finalist. Philadelphia, second in the East, won that runners-up bracket and defeated Chicago in a best-of-seven series to win the BAA championship." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Personal life.", "Equipment.", "Yngwie Malmsteen Signature Stratocaster.", "Other guitars.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Malmsteen was born Lars Johan Yngve Lannerbäck in Stockholm, Sweden, the third child of a musical family. At the age of ten Malmsteen created his first band, Track on Earth, consisting of himself and a friend from school playing the drums. At the age of twelve he took his mother's maiden name Malmsten as his surname, then slightly changed it to Malmsteen and altered his third given name Yngve to \"Yngwie\". As a teenager he was heavily influenced by classical music, particularly 19th century Italian virtuoso violinist and composer Niccolò Paganini, as well as Johann Sebastian Bach, a German multi-instrumentalist and composer of the 18th century. During this time, he also discovered his most important guitar influence, Ritchie Blackmore. Malmsteen has stated that Jimi Hendrix had no musical impact on him and did not contribute to his style, but watching on 18 September 1970 TV news reporting on his death, where footage was shown of Hendrix smashing and burning his guitar At the Monterey Pop Festival of 1967, made Malmsteen think, \"This is really cool.\"", "", "In early 1982 (when Malmsteen was 18), Mike Varney of Shrapnel Records, who had heard a demo tape of Malmsteen's playing from the 1978 titled Demo Powerhouse, brought Malmsteen to the United States. He played briefly with the band Steeler on part of its 1983 self-titled album. He then appeared with Graham Bonnet in the band Alcatrazz, playing on its 1983 debut \"No Parole from Rock 'n' Roll\" and the 1984 live album \"Live Sentence\". In 1984, Malmsteen released his first solo album \"Rising Force\", which featured Barrie Barlow of Jethro Tull on drums and keyboard player Jens Johansson. His album was meant to be an instrumental side-project of Alcatrazz, but it ended up featuring vocals by Jeff Scott Soto and Malmsteen left Alcatrazz soon after the release of \"Rising Force\". \"Rising Force\" won the Guitar Player Magazine's award for Best Rock Album and was nominated for a Grammy for 'Best Rock Instrumental', reaching no. 60 on the Billboard album chart. Yngwie J. Malmsteen's Rising Force (as his band was thereafter known) next released \"Marching Out\" (1985). The band recruited Jens Johansson's brother Anders to play drums and bassist Marcel Jacob to record and tour with the band. Jacob left in the middle of a tour and was replaced by Wally Voss. Malmsteen's third album, \"Trilogy\", featuring the vocals of Mark Boals (and Malmsteen on both guitar and bass), was released in 1986. In 1987, former Rainbow vocalist Joe Lynn Turner and bassist Bob Daisley joined the band. That year, Malmsteen was in a serious car accident, smashing his V12 Jaguar E-Type into a tree, which put him in a coma for a week. Nerve damage to his right hand was reported. During this time, Malmsteen's mother died from cancer. In April 1988, he released his fourth album \"Odyssey\". \"Odyssey\" was his most successful album, in part due to the success of its first single \"Heaven Tonight\". Shows in the Soviet Union during the Odyssey tour were recorded and released in 1989 as a fifth album \"\". The classic Rising Force lineup with Malmsteen and the Johansson brothers was dissolved in 1989 when Jens Johansson joined Dio and Anders joined Blue Murder. Malmsteen's neoclassical style of metal became popular among some guitarists during the mid-1980s, with contemporaries, such as Jason Becker, Paul Gilbert and Vinnie Moore becoming prominent. In late 1988, Malmsteen's signature Fender Stratocaster guitar was released, making him and Eric Clapton the first artists to be honored by Fender.", "In the early 1990s, Malmsteen released the albums \"Eclipse\" (1990), \"The Yngwie Malmsteen Collection\" (1991), \"Fire & Ice\" (1992) and \"The Seventh Sign\" (1994). Despite his early and continuous success in Europe and Asia, by the early 1990s heavy metal styles, such as neoclassical metal and shredding had gone out of fashion in the US. In 1993, Malmsteen's future mother-in-law – who opposed his engagement to her daughter – had him arrested for allegedly holding her daughter hostage with a gun. The charges were later dropped. Malmsteen continued to record and release albums under the Japanese record label Pony Canyon and maintained a devoted following with fans in Europe and Japan and to a lesser extent in the US. In 2000, he signed a contract with the US record label Spitfire and released his 1990s catalog on the US market for the first time, including what he regards as his masterpiece, \"Concerto Suite for Electric Guitar and Orchestra\", recorded with the Czech Philharmonic in Prague. In the latter half of the '90s, Malmsteen released the albums \"Magnum Opus\" (1995), \"Inspiration\" (1996), \"Facing the Animal\" (1997), \"Double Live!\" (1998) and \"Alchemy\" (1999). In 1996, Malmsteen joined forces with former band members Jeff Scott Soto and Marcel Jacob on the Human Clay album where he played lead guitar on the track \"Jealousy\". He guested with Saxon on the song Denim And Leather on their live album \"The Eagle Has Landed – Part II\". Yngwie recorded the tracks \"Enigma suite\" and \"All opposable thumbs\" with his former band members Jens Johansson and Anders Johansson on their album \"Johansson/Sonic Winter\".", "After the release of \"War to End All Wars\" in 2000, singer Mark Boals left the band. He was replaced by former Rainbow vocalist Doogie White, whose vocals were well received by fans. In 2003, Malmsteen joined Joe Satriani and Steve Vai as part of the G3 supergroup, a tour showcasing guitar performances. Malmsteen made two guest appearances on keyboardist Derek Sherinian's albums \"Black Utopia\" (2003), and \"Blood of the Snake\" (2006) where Malmsteen plays on the same tracks as Al Di Meola and Zakk Wylde. In 2004, Malmsteen made two cameo appearances on Harvey Birdman, Attorney at Law. In 2005 \"Unleash the Fury\" was released through Spitfire Records. As stated in an issue of \"Guitar World\" magazine, he titled this album after an infamous 'airline incident', which occurred on a flight to Japan during a 1988 tour. He was drunk and behaving obnoxiously, until he fell asleep and was roused by a woman pouring a jug of iced water on him. Enraged, he shouted, \"You've released the fucking fury!\" The audio from this incident was caught on tape by a fellow band member. Malmsteen says that the name of the album refers to both the energy of the album and the incident. The release of \"Unleash the Fury\" was followed by a DVD release of \"Concerto Suite For Electric Guitar And Orchestra in E Flat Minor, Op. 1 – With The New Japan Philharmonic Live\". The DVD chronicles Malmsteen's first time playing in front of a live audience with an orchestra, an experience that he describes as \"fun but also extremely scary\". In 2007, Malmsteen was honored in the Xbox 360 version of \"Guitar Hero II\". Players can receive the \"Yngwie Malmsteen\" award by hitting 1000 or more notes in succession. February 2008 saw the replacement of singer Doogie White with former Iced Earth and Judas Priest and current Beyond Fear singer Tim \"Ripper\" Owens, with whom Malmsteen had once recorded a cover of Ozzy Osbourne's song \"Mr. Crowley\", for the 2000 Osbourne tribute album \"Bat Head Soup: A Tribute to Ozzy\". The first Malmsteen album to feature Owens is titled \"Perpetual Flame\" and was released on 4 October. On 25 November 2008, Malmsteen had three of his songs (\"Caprici Di Diablo\", \"Damnation Game\", and \"Red Devil\") released as downloadable content for the video games \"Rock Band Rock Band 2 and later Rock Band 3\". In 2008, Malmsteen was a special guest on the VH1 Classic show \"That Metal Show\". On 10 March 2009, Malmsteen's label Rising Force had launched his new release \"Angels of Love\", an instrumental album, which features acoustic arrangements of some of his best-known ballads. In August 2009, \"Time\" magazine named Malmsteen No. 9 on its list of the 10 best electric guitar players of all-time. Malmsteen recently released another album compilation entitled \"High Impact\" on 8 December 2009.", "On 23 November 2010 \"Relentless\" was released, the second album to feature Tim \"Ripper\" Owens on vocals. The US version featured a remake of \"Arpeggios From Hell\" as a bonus track. Yngwie appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon on 3 February 2011 to promote his album. On 6 August 2011, Malmsteen made another appearance in the United States, playing a rendition of The Star-Spangled Banner before a game between the St. Louis Cardinals and Florida Marlins at Sun Life Stadium. Although rarely seen in his native country of Sweden, Malmsteen played one gig there in 2012. On 7 July, he ended the Getaway Rock Festival in Gävle, which he was headlining with Nightwish and Manowar. On 5 December 2012, Malmsteen released the album \"Spellbound\". On 12 June 2014, Malmsteen kicked off his \"Guitar Gods 2014 Tour\" at the F.M. Kirby Center in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania alongside ex-Guns N' Roses guitarist Bumblefoot and guitarist Gary Hoey. In February 2015, it was announced that Malmsteen was in the studio working on a new album. In April and May 2016, Malmsteen was one of five guitarists featured on the Generation Axe tour. In 2018, it was announced that Malmsteen had signed with Mascot Records, with a new studio album expected the following year.", "Malmsteen was married to Swedish singer Erika Norberg (1991-1992) and was subsequently married to Amber Dawn Landin (1993-1998). Since 1999 he has been married to April Malmsteen, with whom he has a son named Antonio, after Antonio Vivaldi. The family now resides in Miami Shores, Florida. A Ferrari enthusiast, Malmsteen owned a black 1983 308 GTS for 24 years before selling it on eBay, and a red 1962 250 GTO. In a 2005 issue of \"Guitar Player\" magazine, Malmsteen discussed his often-ridiculed behaviour, saying that, \"I've probably made more mistakes than anybody. But I don't dwell on them. I don't expect people to understand me, because I'm pretty complex, and I think outside the box with everything I do. I've always taken the untraveled path. Obviously, people have their opinions, but I can't get too wrapped up in that, because I know what I can do and I know what kind of person I am. And I have no control over what anybody says about me. Back in Sweden I'm 'Mr Personality' in the tabloids, but obviously I can't take that seriously. I know in my heart that if I do the absolute best I can do, maybe ten years from now people may turn around and say 'he wasn't that bad'.\"", "", "Malmsteen has been a longtime user of Fender Stratocasters with DiMarzio HS3 single-coil pickups \"for playing at blistering volume with no hum or screechiness\". His most famous Stratocaster is his 1972 blonde Stratocaster, nicknamed \"The Duck\" because of its yellow finish and the Donald Duck stickers on the headstock. An alternative nickname for this guitar is \"Play Loud\" due to a sticker that Anders Johansson put on the upper horn of the guitar in Rockshire studios in 1984. Fender made 100 replica copies of this guitar and marketed it as the \"Play Loud Guitar\". He also has a Fender Yngwie Malmsteen Signature Stratocaster since 1986. It comes in a Vintage White finish with a maple neck, either a maple or rosewood fretboard with scalloped frets and, from 2010, Seymour Duncan STK-S10 YJM \"Fury\" Model pickups. There is also a signature YJM100 Marshall amplifier, based on the \"1959\" amplifier range. Even though his signature amplifier is based on the 100 watt \"1959\" model, Malmsteen is most noted for preferring 50 watt \"1987\" model metal-faced Marshall amplifiers manufactured between 1972 and 1973. His speaker cabinets are always loaded with Celestion G12T-75 speakers. Another big part of his sound is his overdrive pedal, which he uses to push the front-end of the Marshalls. Most recently he is using a Fender Yngwie Malmsteen Overdrive, which is largely based on a vintage DOD Overdrive/Preamp 250 pedal which he used for many years. DOD made a (now discontinued) signature version of the DOD-250 for Malmsteen called the YJM-308 (named after a combination of his initials and the model number of one of his favorite Ferrari's). He has been known to use his overdrive pedals in the loop of a Boss NS-2 Noise Suppressor. For clean tones he employs the use of a Boss CE-5 Chorus Ensemble, and uses a Korg DL8000R in his rack for delays. He often has a Dunlop JH-F1 Hendrix Fuzz Face on the stage-floor, but doesn't use it. Malmsteen claims that he likes seeing the Fuzz Face because it \"looks like a land-mine\". Malmsteen has stated that he prefers the Stratocaster (from the period of 1968–1972); he claims that the bigger headstock on these generates more sustain. Malmsteen customizes his guitars by fitting a brass nut, removing the middle string tree, scalloping the fretboard, converting the neck from 3 to 4 bolt configuration (when necessary), installing Wilkinson springs on the tremolo, and refretting the neck with Dunlop 6000 fret wire. He previously disconnected the tone controls on his guitars but since Fender initiated the use of the \"no load\" potentiometer no longer does this. Malmsteen now uses his signature Seymour Duncan YJM Fury pickups. Before using the YJM's, he used DiMarzio pickups – most notably the HS3 model and the YJM (now known as HS4) model. Malmsteen would use an HS3 in the bridge and two YJMs in the middle and neck positions. The YJM/HS4 is simply a staggered magnet version of the HS3. In some early recordings, Malmsteen instead used the HS3 model in the neck and bridge positions and a disconnected stock Fender single-coil pickup in the middle. In even earlier recordings, Malmsteen was using DiMarzio FS-1 pickups.", "Besides Stratocasters, Malmsteen has played and appeared in ads for non-Fender guitars (like Aria Pro II and Schecter in the early 1980s) and played non-Strat-shaped guitars (like Gibson Flying Vs), early in his career. Today, for acoustic and nylon string guitars, Malmsteen uses his signature Ovation YM68s.", "Current members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Launch.", "Landing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The lander was designed to be able to survive pressure of up to and temperatures of. This was significantly greater than what was expected to be encountered but significant uncertainties as to the surface temperatures and pressure of Venus resulted in the designers’ opting for a large margin of error. The degree of hardening added mass to the probe which limited the amount of mass available for scientific instruments both on the probe itself and the interplanetary bus. The interplanetary bus carried a solar wind charged particle detector and a cosmic ray detector. On the lander there were temperature and pressure sensors as well as an accelerometer to measure atmospheric density. The probe also carried a radar altimeter.", "The probe was launched from Earth on 17 August 1970, at 05:38 UTC. It consisted of an interplanetary bus, based on the 3MV system, and a lander. During the flight to Venus, two in-course corrections were made using the bus' on-board KDU-414 engine.", "Venera 7 entered the atmosphere of Venus on 15 December 1970. The lander remained attached to the interplanetary bus during the initial stages of atmospheric entry, to allow the bus to cool the lander to −8 °C for as long as possible. The lander was ejected once atmospheric buffeting broke the interplanetary bus's lock-on with Earth. The parachute opened at a height of 60 km, and atmospheric testing began with results showing the atmosphere to be 97% carbon dioxide. The parachute was initially reefed down to 1.8 square meters, opening to 2.5 square meters 13 minutes later, when the reefing line melted as designed. Six minutes after the unreefing, the parachute started to fail, resulting in a descent more rapid than planned. The parachute eventually failed completely, and the probe entered a period of freefall. As a result, the lander struck the surface of Venus at about 16.5 m/s (37 mph) at 05:37:10 UTC. The landing coordinates are. The probe appeared to go silent on impact, but recording tapes kept rolling. A few weeks later, upon a review of the tapes by the radio astronomer Oleg Rzhiga, another 23 minutes of very weak signals were found on them. The spacecraft had landed on Venus, and probably bounced onto its side, leaving the medium gain antenna not aimed correctly for strong signal transmission to Earth. The probe transmitted information to Earth for 53 minutes, which included about 20 minutes from the surface. It was found that the temperature at the surface of Venus was ± 20 °C. Using the temperature, and models of the atmosphere, a pressure of 9.0 MPa ± 1.5 MPa was calculated. From the spacecraft's rapid halt (from falling to stationary inside 0.2 seconds), it was possible to conclude that the craft had hit a solid surface with low levels of dust. The probe provided information about the surface of Venus, which could not be seen through a thick veil of atmosphere. The spacecraft definitively confirmed that humans cannot survive on the surface of Venus, and excluded the possibility that there is any liquid water on Venus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Navigation.", "South Pole.", "Geography.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"south\" comes from Old English \"sūþ\", from earlier Proto-Germanic \"*sunþaz\" (\"south\"), possibly related to the same Proto-Indo-European root that the word \"sun\" derived from.", "By convention, the bottom side of a map is south, although reversed maps exist that defy this convention. To go south using a compass for navigation, set a bearing or azimuth of 180°. Alternatively, in the Northern Hemisphere outside the tropics, the Sun will be roughly in the south at midday.", "True south is the direction towards the sun end of the axis about which the Earth rotates, called the South Pole. The South Pole is located in Antarctica. Magnetic south is the direction towards the south magnetic pole, some distance away from the south geographic pole. Roald Amundsen, from Norway, was the first person to reach the South Pole, on 14 December 1911, after Ernest Shackleton from the UK was forced to turn back some distance short.", "The Global South refers to the socially and economically less-developed southern half of the globe. 95% of the Global North has enough food and shelter, and a functioning education system. In the South, on the other hand, only 5% of the population has enough food and shelter. It \"lacks appropriate technology, it has no political stability, the economies are disarticulated, and their foreign exchange earnings depend on primary product exports\". Use of the term \"South\" may also be country-relative, particularly in cases of noticeable economic or cultural divide. For example, the Southern United States, separated from the Northeastern United States by the Mason–Dixon line, or the South of England, which is politically and economically unmatched with all of the North of England. Southern Cone is the name that is often referred to as the southernmost area of South America that, in the form of an inverted \"cone\", almost like a large peninsula, encompasses Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, Uruguay and the entire South of Brazil (Brazilian states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina, Paraná and São Paulo). Rarely does the meaning broaden to Bolivia, and in the most restricted sense it only covers Chile, Argentina and Uruguay. The country of South Africa is so named because of its location at the southern tip of Africa. Upon formation the country was named the Union of South Africa in English, reflecting its origin from the unification of four formerly separate British colonies. Australia derives its name from the Latin Terra Australis (\"Southern Land\"), a name used for a hypothetical continent in the Southern Hemisphere since ancient times.", "In the card game bridge, one of the players is known for scoring purposes as South. South partners with North and plays against East and West. In Greek religion, Notos, was the south wind and bringer of the storms of late summer and autumn." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Topography.", "Coast and islands.", "Flora and fauna.", "History.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Natural resources.", "Coal.", "Tin.", "Tungsten.", "Lead and zinc.", "Silver.", "Gold.", "Fluorspar.", "Boron.", "Limestone.", "Ashlar stones.", "Brick earth.", "Porcelain stones.", "Feldspar rhyolites.", "Demographics.", "Demographics in the past.", "Contemporary demographics.", "Settlements.", "Religion.", "Meteorite." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Primorsky Krai, bordered by China (Jilin and Heilongjiang), North Korea (Rason), and the relatively warm—although freezing in winter—waters of the Sea of Japan, is the southeasternmost region of Russia, located between the 42° and 48° north latitude and 130° and 139° east longitude. It is stretched in the meridianal direction, the distance from its extreme northern point to its most southerly point being about.", "Highlands dominate the territory of the krai. Most of the territory is mountainous, and almost 80% of it is forested. The average elevation is about. Sikhote-Alin is a mountainous formation, extending for the most part of the Krai. It consists of a number of parallel ranges: the Partizansky (Partisan), the Siny (Blue), the Kholodny (Cold), and others. There are many karst caves in the South of Primorye. The relatively accessible Spyashchaya Krasavitsa cave (the Sleeping Beauty) in the Ussuriysky Nature Preserve could be recommended for tourists. There are comparatively well-preserved fragments of the ancient volcanoes in the area. The ranges are cut by the picturesque narrow and deep valleys of the rivers and by large brooks, such as the Partizanskaya, the Kiyevka, the Zerkalnaya, the Cheryomukhovaya, the Yedinka, the Samarga, the Bikin, and the Bolshaya Ussurka. Most rivers in the Krai have rocky bottoms and limpid water. The largest among them is the Ussuri, with a length of. The head of the Ussuri River originates to the East of Oblachnaya Mountain. The vast Khanka Lowlands extends into the West and the South-West of Primorye, carpeted by coniferous-deciduous forest. A part of the Lowland surrounding the largest lake in the Russian Far East, Khanka Lake, is occupied by a forest-steppe.", "The krai's coastline is fairly straight, except for the southern-most section around Vladivostok which contains the Muravyov-Amursky Peninsula. There are numerous islands in this area, the main ones being Lisy Island, Askold Island, Putyatin Island, Skrebtsov island, Sibiryakov Island, the Eugénie Archipelago (the largest island of which being Russky Island), the Rimsky-Korsakov Archipelago and Furugelm Island.", "The geographic location of Primorye accounts for the variety of its flora. The territory of Primorye has not been subjected to the ice cover in the past in contrast to the rest of Siberia during the ice ages. This circumstance, as well as the specifics of the geographical situation and the specific features of climate, determine the unique, diversity of the plant world at species and cenotic levels and the richness of plant resources. In the flora of Primorye there are more than two thousand species of higher plants, of which are about 250 species of trees, bushes and ligneous lianas. Flora of mosses and lichens are very diverse. As part of the coastal flora, there are many valuable medicinal, technical and food plants, many relict and endemic species. About 200 species are listed in the IUCN Red List as rare and threatened extermination. There are mountainous tundra areas, conifers and coniferous-deciduous forests, and forest-steppe, which is sometimes called the Far Eastern Prairie, where many ancient plant species have been preserved, including ferns, lotus, and the \"Chosenia\" willow. The flora of the territory contains such plants as \"Taxus cuspidata\", \"Juniperus rigida\", \"Phellodendron amurense\", \"Kalopanax\", \"Aralia elata\", \"Maackia amurensis\", \"Alnus japonica\", \"Actinidia kolomikta\", \"Schisandra chinensis\", \"Celastrus orbiculatus\", \"Thladiantha dubia\", \"Weigela\", \"Eleutherococcus\", \"Flueggea suffruticosa\", \"Deutzia\", \"Nelumbo nucifera\", \"Betula schmidtii\", \"Carpinus cordata\", \"Acer mandshuricum\", \"Parthenocissus tricuspidata\", \"Vitis amurensis\", \"Panax ginseng\" and many others. The fauna of Primorye is also diverse. The following animals are found in the Krai: Ussuri black bear (\"Ursus thibetanus\"), Amur tiger, Amur leopard (\"Panthera pardus orientalis\"), Eurasian lynx (\"Lynx lynx\"), wild boar (\"Sus scrofa\"), Manchurian deer (\"Cervus elaphus xanthopygos\"), Siberian roe deer (\"Capreolus pygargus\"), musk deer (\"Moschus moschiferus\"), long-tailed goral (\"Naemorhedus caudatus\"), sika deer (\"Cervus nippon\"), sable (\"Martes zibellina\"), Blakiston's fish owl (\"Bubo blakistoni\"), mandarinka duck (\"Aix galericulata\"), black stork (\"Ciconia nigra\"), scaly goosander (\"Mergus squamatus\"), chestnut-cheeked starling (\"Sturnia philippensis\"), black griffon (\"Aegypius monachus\"), large-winged cuckoo (family Cuculidae), and others. Among 690 species of birds inhabiting the territory of the former USSR, 350 are found in Primorye. Rich fisheries of salmon, Hucho taimen, lenok and marine fisheries of crab, pollock and other species make the aquatic and maritime environment a valuable resource for the region. However, the rich diversity of wildlife in Primorye is threatened by poaching and the illegal wildlife trade. Wildlife Conservation Society, World Wildlife Fund, Wild Salmon Center, and Russian NGOs including Phoenix Fund are active in the region's wildlife and habitat conservation.", "The area was settled by several Tungusic and Turkic tribes, such as the Sushen, the proto-Mongol Shiwei and the Mohe. The Udege people are said to have traditionally settled in territories along the Bikin River long ago, however, they are possibly of Jianzhou Jurchen origin. During the Balhae Kingdom, most of the krai were within boundaries of the provinces of Dingli, Anbian and Anyuan. After Balhae was conquered by the Khitans, the territory became part of Liao Dynasty's Eastern Circuit and Jin Dynasty's Supin Circuit. It then came under the Mongol and Manchu rule. The acquisition of Siberia by the Tsardom of Russia and the subsequent Russian expansion to the Far East brought the Russians into direct contact with China. The Nerchinsk Treaty of 1689 demarcating the borders of the two states gave all lands lying south of the Stanovoy Mountains, including Primorye, to the Qing Empire. However, with the weakening of the Qing Empire in the second half of the 19th century, Russia began its expansion into the area. In 1858, the towns of Khabarovsk and Blagoveshchensk were founded. In 1858, Nikolay Muravyov-Amursky signed the Aigun Treaty with China, followed by the Beijing Treaty two years later. As a result of the two treaties, the Sino–Russian border shifted south to the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, granting Russia full control of Primorye. Primorskaya Oblast was established as the easternmost division of the Russian Empire in 1856. It included the territory of modern Primorsky Krai as well as the territories of modern Khabarovsk Krai and Magadan Oblast, stretching from Vladivostok to the Chukchi Peninsula in the far north. In the period from 1859 to 1882, ninety-five settlements were established in the Primorye region, including Vladivostok, Ussuriysk, Razdolnoye, Vladimiro-Aleksandrovskoye, Shkotovo, Pokrovka, Tury Rog, and Kamen-Rybolov. The population was primarily engaged in hunting, fishing and cultivation. More than two-thirds of the territory's inhabitants followed these occupations. During the latter part of the 19th century, there was significant resource, industrial and resulting economic development in Primorye. Coal mining became a prominent industry, as did the export of sea-kale, velvet antlers, timber, crab, dried fish, and trepangs. The rapid economic expansion of Primorye was financed in large measure by Russian and foreign capital investment. After the Russian Revolution and the victory of the communists, the new government renamed Primorskaya Oblast as the Zemstvo of Maritime Territory. It was defined as the Far-Eastern Republic (1920–1922). Within the Russian SFSR, this became Far-Eastern Oblast (1922–1926) and then Far-Eastern Krai (1926–1938). The area became a battleground for allied and Bolshevik troops during the Siberian Intervention. In 1922, shortly before the end of the Civil War, Primorye came under Bolshevik control. The new government directed the economic, scientific, and cultural development of the territory. The Soviet Government spent the following ten years combating \"bourgeois ideology\" in many areas of life and culture. As a result, the music, theater, literature, and the fine arts of Primorye were censored. Primorsky was the center of the ethnic Korean minority of Russia. The Pos'et Korean National Raion was created under the policy of korenizatsiya. The Krai had 105 both fully and mixed Korean towns where residents used the Korean language as an official language. Nearly 200,000 ethnic Koreans were living in the Krai by the time of their deportation in 1938. The Soviet Union had earlier deported ethnic Chinese from western Siberia. During this period, the Soviet government emphasized centralized planning of the economy. As in the rest of the Soviet Union, priority was given to heavy industry, with a special emphasis on mining and commercial fishing. There was widespread investment in construction of rail and sea transit, and new port facilities were constructed. Primorsky Krai was formed by further subdivision of Far-Eastern Krai in 1938, as part of the Stalin-era policy of \"unbundling\". Primorsky Krai, as defined in 1938, corresponds to the northeastern part of the historical region of Outer Manchuria. On April 18, 1942, the region became accidentally involved in World War II, which the United States had entered after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941. Primorsky Krai was the location where one of 16 United States Army Air Corps B-25 Mitchell medium bombers landed. The group had been launched from USS \"Hornet\" to carry out the Doolittle Raid on Japan. Japan and the Soviet Union were not then at war. The landing occurred 40 miles (65 km) west of Vladivostok; the bomber's crew could not return to their base, the aircraft carrier \"Hornet,\" by the mission plan. The crew later returned home via Iran. During the 1970s, the Soviet Union expanded scientific institutions in Primorye, especially in the city of Vladivostok. Several large research institutions are located here, such as the Institute of Biology and Agriculture, the Pacific Institute of Bio-organic Chemistry, the Institute of Marine Biology, the Pacific Institute of Geography, the Pacific Oceanological Institute, as well as several Institutes affiliated with the Far Eastern Division of the Russian Academy of Science. By the early 1990s, once-small enterprises in the city had developed into large companies. Some of the most prominent include the DVMP (FESCO) shipping company, the Dalmoreprodukt, Progress Arsenyev Aircraft Works, and Vostok Mining. Commercial fishing plays an important part in the economy of the Primorye and includes firms like Vladivostok Trawling and Refrigerating Fleet (VBTRF), the Active Marine Fisheries Base of Nakhodka, and the Fishing and Marine Transport Fleet of Primorye. Numerous enterprises of the Russian military industrial complex were also established in Primorye. The Udege people, led by Pavel Sulyandziga trying to gain control over their traditional territories along the Bikin River and in particular a Territory of Traditional Natural Resource Use of federal status.", "During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Primorsky CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). After 1991, the head of the Oblast administration and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Primorsky Krai is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Primorsky Krai is the province's regional standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the krai Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.", "Primorsky Krai's economy, the most balanced in the Russian Far East, is also the largest in absolute terms. Food production is the most important sector, represented mainly by fish processing. Annual catch exceeds two million tonnes, or one half of the Russian Far East total. Second is machine building, where half of the output is geared toward the fishing industry and shipyards. Defense is another important sector, producing naval vessels and military aircraft. The construction materials industry here provides for the whole Russian Far East. Lead smelting is conducted in Rudnaya Pristan on the coast. The timber industry, though in recession, is still second only to Khabarovsk Krai's with an annual yield of about 3 million cubic meters of timber. Primorsky Krai is the largest coal producer in the Russian Far East and generates more electricity than any other Russian Far East administrative division, but power shortages are common. Agriculture is also important; the krai produces rice, milk, eggs, and vegetables. Primorsky Krai is the Russian Far East's banking and finance center. It has more than 100 banks and affiliates and well-developed futures and stock exchanges. The krai's proximity to Pacific Rim markets gives it an edge over most other Russian Far East administrative divisions in developing foreign trade. Major trade items are seafood products, timber products, and ferrous metals. Major trading partners are Japan, China, and South Korea.The economy will be further diversified with the addition of as many as 8 government sanctioned casinos to be built in the Primorye Gambling Zone, which encompasses the entire Primorsky Krai. Primorsky Entertainment Resort City, under development by NagaCorp Ltd. of Phnom Penh, Kingdom of Cambodia, will be the largest. The development is expected to cost in the region of RUB11.6 billion (approximately HK$2.7 billion, US$350 million) and have a total footprint of 214.89 hectares. Primorsky Krai's compact territory is well endowed with infrastructure. Its railway density is twice the Russian average. Railroads connect it with China and North Korea. Vladivostok, the eastern terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway, was surpassed as a port by the nearby Nakhodka-Vostochny Port container, coal and timber terminals. Primorsky Krai-based shipping companies provide 80% of marine shipping services in the Russian Far East. All the krai's significant ports are now open to international shipping. The largest companies in the region include Far-Eastern Energy Company, NNK-Bunker, Mazda Sollers, Vostochny Port.", "", "More than 100 deposits of coal are known in Primorsky Krai. The commercial deposits of coal are connected to the Partizansky and Razdolnensky coal basins, the Podgorodnensky deposit, the Uglovsky basin, and the Shkotovsky, Pavlovsky, Bikinsky, Rettikhovsky, and Suputinsky deposits. Partizansky Basin: The city of Partizansk is located in the southern part of the basin. The total area of the basin is. The basin has been known since the 19th century and has been explored since 1902. Five coal-bearing regions—Staropartizansky, Melnikovsky, Belopadinsky, Molchanovsky, and Sergeyevsky—are within the limits of the basin. The coal is hard coal. By the output of volatile substances and caking ability, rich coals prevail. The reserves of coal in the basin total 193.6 million tonnes. The deposits are maintained by the mines of the Partizanskugol Association. A coal-mining factory also operates in this area. Razdolnensky Basin: The total area of this basin is about. The basin is located to the north and the west of the city of Ussuriysk. The basin includes the following deposits: Ussuriysky, Lipovetsky, Verkhne-Razdolnensky, Konstantinovsky, and Alekseye-Nikolsky. The deposits were prospected as early as 1868. The mining of coal has been conducted since 1909. The coal is hard coal. By the output of volatile substances and coking ability, long-flame coals prevail. The reserves of coal in the basin total 66.7 million tons. The deposits are maintained by the mines and the open-pit coal mines of the Lipovetskoye Mine Administration. Uglovsky Basin: Located northeast of Vladivostok, the basin's band extends about to the northeast of Amursky Bay and ranges from in width. Coals in the basin have been known since 1859. The mining of coal has been executed since 1867 in the Tavrichansky deposit, and since 1911 in the Artyomovsky deposit. The coal is brown coal, which is used as a power fuel. In the long years of operation the stocks of coal in the basin have been considerably depleted. The reserves of coal in the basin total 233.7 million tons. The mines of the Tavrichansky Mine Administration and the Artyomugol Association operate on the basis of the deposits. Podgrodnensko-Surazhevsky: This coal-bearing region is located close to Vladivostok. The stocks of the Podgrodnensky deposit are estimated to be a total of 19.6 million tons. The coal is hard coal. By the output of volatile substances and caking ability, the coal is hard (non-bituminous). The deposits are maintained by the Podgorodenka mine of the Artyomugol Association. The Paleogene-Neogene deposits of Primorsky Krai are the Bikinsky, Pavlovsky, Shkotovsky, Rettikhovsky, Rakovsky, and Khasansky deposits. The deposits are the major sources of fuel for the largest heat and power stations of Primorye: Luchegorskaya and Vladivostokskaya. The coal is brown coal. The Bikinsky Deposit is the largest brown coal deposit in Primorsky Krai. Its total area is. The reserves total 1,113.9 million tons. The coal-bearing thickness is. The Luchegorsky Open-Pit Coal Mine maintains the mine and provides fuel to the largest power station in the krai, the Luchegorsky Hydro-Electric Power Station. Pavlovsky Deposit: The total area is. The reserves total 400 million tons. The coal-bearing thickness is up to. The mining is maintained by the Pavlovsky-1 and Pavlovsky-2 Open-Pit Coal Mines. The coal is used as fuel for the Vladivostok Heat and Power Plant-2. Skotovsky Deposit: The total area is. The reserves total 251.6 million tons. The coal-bearing thickness ranges from. Maintenance is by the open-pit mine of the Artyomugol Association. The coal of the Pavlovsky, Skotovsky, and Bikinsky deposits contains germanium and non-ferrous metals.", "The major areas of occurrence of commercial tin stocks are Kavalerovsky, Krasnoarmeysky, and Dalnegorsky Districts. There are more than 30 deposits of tin in Primorsky Krai. The extraction of tin ore is maintained by Khrustalnenskaya Tin Extracting Company, Dalpolimetal Stock Company, and Vostok Mining Company. All tin-extracting enterprises of the krai have a 30-year supply of ore.", "There are four major commercial deposits of tungsten in Krasnoarmeysky and Pozharsky Districts. The mining of only two of them is currently maintained, at Vostok-2 and Lermontovskoye by the Primorsky Mining Group and Lermontovskoye Mining Company. The enterprises have a 10-year reserve supply. The ores are complex, containing copper, gold, silver, bismuth, and other metals besides tungsten.", "There are more than 10 commercial deposits of lead and zinc in the territories of Dalnegorsky, Kavalerovsky, and Krasnoarmeysky Districts. The mining of the deposits of lead and zinc is maintained by Dalpolimetal Stock Company. The enterprise has a 40-year supply of ore.", "Among the deposits of precious metals in Primorsky Krai, silver and gold-silver deposits predominate. Ten deposits of silver are found in the Krai. The majority of silver-polymetal ore deposits are located in Dalnegorsky District and are maintained by Dalpolimetal Stock Company. Silver is extracted simultaneously with tungsten from tungsten ores deposits in Krasnoarmeysky and Pozharsky Districts.", "More than 60 deposits of gold are found in the territory of the krai. Most of them are placer deposits. The southern part of the krai is the richest in placer deposits. Significant gold placer sites are at Kommisarovsky (the Pogranichnaya river), Fadeyevsky (the Fadeyevka river), Krinichny (the Bolshaya Rudnevka river), Nakhodkinsky (the Korobkovka river), and Soboliny (the Sobolinaya river). Okean Artel and Primorsky Mine are engaged in gold extraction. Gold is also extracted from complex deposits of tungsten ores.", "The Voznesenovsky and Pogranichny deposits of rare-metal-fluorspar ore are located in Khorolsky District. The Voznesenovskoye deposit was prospected in 1948. It is maintained by the Yaroslavsky Mining Group Stock Company and there is a 20-year supply of ore. The ore is a complex ore. Fluorspar totals 10 percent of the mineral content of the ore. The ore contains such rare metals as beryllium, lithium, tantalum, and niobium. The Usuglinskoye mine is one of the largest fluorite mines in Russia, having estimated reserves of 2.9 million tonnes of ore.", "Russia's largest deposit of boron-containing ore (boron silicates) is located in Dalnegorsky District. The deposit is operated by \"Bor Stock Company\". The enterprise has 50 years' supply of borosilicates stocks.", "There are more than 100 large deposits of various construction materials. The Spasskaya group includes the Spasskoye and Dlinnogorskoye limestone deposits. The stocks total more than 100 million tons and are maintained by Spassktsement Stock Company. The Suchanskaya group includes the Novitskoye and Chandolazskoye limestone deposits, which are located in Partizansky District. These deposits are suitable for the production of Portland cement of 400 and 500 types. The stocks total approximately more than 1 billion tons. The Maikhinskaya group includes the Maikhinskoye and Glubinnogorskoye deposits located in Shkotovsky District. The estimated stocks of limestone in both deposits total about 60 million tons.", "There are numerous deposits of granites, porphyrites, and marbles which, when polished, acquire a smooth surface of beautiful color. These deposits are located in Lesozavodsky, Khorolsky, Khasansky, Spassky, Chernigovsky, Partizansky, and other districts. The Ambinskoye deposit of marble is located in Khasanky District. This marble is highly decorative and is easily polished. The estimated stocks total more than 2 million m3 (70.6 million ft3). The Knorringskoye deposit of ashlar stones is located in Chernigovsky District. The estimated stocks total about 10 million m3 (35.3 million ft3). They are similar in color to the famous American ashlar stones.", "There are more than 100 deposits of fusible clay which is used in brick production in the krai. Fusible clay deposits are found almost everywhere in the krai, except its northeastern parts. The Uglovskaya, Ussuriyskaya, and Spasskaya group of fusible clay deposits are noteworthy in this area. The krai's largest stocks, a total of more than fifteen million tons, is the Uglovskaya group of deposits located in Uglovoye settlement. The deposits provide raw material to the brick factories in Vladivostok and Artyom. There are more than twenty deposits of refractory clay and fireclay. The clay is suitable for manufacture of bricks and ceramics. The largest deposits are located in Oktyabrsky and Chernigovsky District, and in Artyom. The Lipovetskoye Deposit of refractory clay is located in Oktyabrsky District. The estimated stocks total about 1.5 million tons and are maintained by the Lipovetsky Brick Factory. The Ozernovskoye deposit of fireclay is located in Uglovoye settlement. The estimated stocks total about 2 million tons and have been used for manufacture of bricks since 1964.", "Primorsky krai's best-known Gusevskoye deposit of porcelain stone is located in Khasansky District. The material is used by the Vladivostok and Artyom Porcelain Factories. The estimated stocks total about 3 million tons.", "The Sergeyevskoye deposit of ceramic rhyolites is located in Partizansky District. It may be used for the manufacture of porcelain.", "", "Several Tungusic and Paleosiberian peoples lived here before Russian colonization: Udeges, Nanais, Nivkhs, Orochs, Ulchs, Oroks, and Manchus.", "\"Population\": According to the 2010 Census, the population of the krai was 1,956,497, down from 2,071,210 recorded in the 2002 Census, and further down from 2,258,391 recorded in the 1989 Census. Due to its geographical location, the krai boasts a mixture of not only ethnic Russians, but also Koreans, Volga Germans, Buriats, Nanais, Japanese, Chinese and Orochs. The indigenous Udege and their sub-minority, the Taz, are the region's aboriginals.", "In the 2010 Census, the following ethnic groups were listed: Total fertility rate: 2009 - 1.51 | 2010 - 1.49 | 2011 - 1.53 | 2012 - 1.65 | 2013 - 1.68 | 2014 - 1.73 | 2015 - 1.76 | 2016 - 1.73(e) Average life expectancy in 1994 — 62.5 years (male — 56.8, female — 69.4).", "According to a 2012 survey 26.6% of the population of Primorsky Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% adheres to other Eastern Orthodox churches or is an Eastern Orthodox believer without belonging to any church, and 1% of the population adheres to the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery) or to local Siberian native faiths. In addition, 24% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious, 35% is atheist, and 6.4% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.", "The krai is the location of the massive Sikhote-Alin meteorite, which fell February 12, 1947, in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, near the village of Paseka (approximately 440 km northeast of Vladivostok)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Statement.", "Examples.", "Generalizations.", "Single function of single variable with higher derivatives.", "Several functions of single variable with single derivative.", "Single function of several variables with single derivative.", "Several functions of several variables with single derivative.", "Single function of two variables with higher derivatives.", "Several functions of several variables with higher derivatives.", "Generalization to manifolds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Euler–Lagrange equation was developed in the 1750s by Euler and Lagrange in connection with their studies of the tautochrone problem. This is the problem of determining a curve on which a weighted particle will fall to a fixed point in a fixed amount of time, independent of the starting point. Lagrange solved this problem in 1755 and sent the solution to Euler. Both further developed Lagrange's method and applied it to mechanics, which led to the formulation of Lagrangian mechanics. Their correspondence ultimately led to the calculus of variations, a term coined by Euler himself in 1766.", "The Euler–Lagrange equation is an equation satisfied by a function q of a real argument \"t\", which is a stationary point of the functional where: The Euler–Lagrange equation, then, is given by Here formula_22 and formula_23 denote the partial derivatives of formula_17 with respect to the second and third arguments, respectively. If the dimension of the space formula_11 is greater than 1, this is a system of differential equations, one for each component:", "A standard example is finding the real-valued function \"y\"(\"x\") on the interval [\"a\", \"b\"], such that \"y\"(\"a\") = \"c\" and \"y\"(\"b\") = \"d\", for which the path length along the curve traced by \"y\" is as short as possible. the integrand function being. The partial derivatives of \"L\" are: By substituting these into the Euler–Lagrange equation, we obtain that is, the function must have a constant first derivative, and thus its graph is a straight line.", "", "The stationary values of the functional can be obtained from the Euler–Lagrange equation under fixed boundary conditions for the function itself as well as for the first formula_32 derivatives (i.e. for all formula_33). The endpoint values of the highest derivative formula_34 remain flexible.", "If the problem involves finding several functions (formula_35) of a single independent variable (formula_36) that define an extremum of the functional then the corresponding Euler–Lagrange equations are", "A multi-dimensional generalization comes from considering a function on n variables. If formula_39 is some surface, then is extremized only if \"f\" satisfies the partial differential equation When \"n\" = 2 and functional formula_42 is the energy functional, this leads to the soap-film minimal surface problem.", "If there are several unknown functions to be determined and several variables such that the system of Euler–Lagrange equations is", "If there is a single unknown function \"f\" to be determined that is dependent on two variables \"x\" and \"x\" and if the functional depends on higher derivatives of \"f\" up to \"n\"-th order such that then the Euler–Lagrange equation is which can be represented shortly as: wherein formula_48 are indices that span the number of variables, that is, here they go from 1 to 2. Here summation over the formula_48 indices is only over formula_50 in order to avoid counting the same partial derivative multiple times, for example formula_51 appears only once in the previous equation.", "If there are \"p\" unknown functions \"f\" to be determined that are dependent on \"m\" variables \"x\"... \"x\" and if the functional depends on higher derivatives of the \"f\" up to \"n\"-th order such that where formula_48 are indices that span the number of variables, that is they go from 1 to m. Then the Euler–Lagrange equation is where the summation over the formula_48 is avoiding counting the same derivative formula_56 several times, just as in the previous subsection. This can be expressed more compactly as", "Let formula_58 be a smooth manifold, and let formula_59 denote the space of smooth functions formula_60. Then, for functionals formula_61 of the form where formula_63 is the Lagrangian, the statement formula_64 is equivalent to the statement that, for all formula_65, each coordinate frame trivialization formula_66 of a neighborhood of formula_67 yields the following formula_68 equations:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Appearance.", "Use.", "Associations.", "Acquisition.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An athame can take many forms. Contrary to popular belief, athames are not required to have double-edged blades. Contemporary magical practitioners often choose a double-edged blade since this carries symbolic meaning. Some witches will choose a single blade athame and use the straight edge to ring the bell for rituals. The handle of the athame is usually black and is required in most covens which practice some variant of British Traditional Wicca, including Gardnerian and Alexandrian. The handle may be inscribed with particular symbols dictated by the tradition. Janet and Stewart Farrar in \"A Witches' Bible\" suggest that the point of an athame be dulled so as to prevent un-intended physical harm during ritual use. In eclectic forms of Witchcraft the handle decorations range from astrological glyphs to runes, the symbols being chosen by the owner. Many fantasy-themed athames are also available from medieval and neopagan supply shops. Ceremonial witches, on the other hand, use the symbolic colours purple and yellow, representing the alchemical element of Air, to colour the Athame, and it is then inscribed with specific sigils. This is to invoke the powers it corresponds to, and make a proper impression upon the subconscious.", "The athame's primary use is to channel and direct psychic energy, generally conceived as etheric fire. They are usually not supposed to harm or draw blood. Some modern day magical practitioners believe that if things such as herbs or cords need to be cut, another knife called a \"boline\" is used. The boline is often confused or mislabelled the \"white-handled knife\", a completely different magical blade. In fact, a boline was more similar to a sickle than a knife and thus would have made chopping herbs very difficult (the boline was, however, handy for harvesting herbs). In the \"kitchen witchcraft\" witches are encouraged to use magical tools for mundane purposes to increase the witch's familiarity with them. The ritual drawing of the boundary of the magic circle – also known as \"casting the circle\" – is usually done with either a ritual sword or an athame, in traditional coven practice. For open rituals in public places, this is sometimes done with a ritual wand or staff instead, since there may be legal complications involved with swords and daggers in public places, even when the edges have been dulled. In most traditional covens, the athame is associated with the magical element of fire, so the circle is considered to be cast in etheric fire. This fire is traditionally envisioned as blue, indigo or violet; although it may equally well be envisioned as other colors. When the circle is ritually purified after being cast, that is traditionally done with the remaining three elements—air (incense), water (salt-water), and earth (salt) – because the element of fire has already been imbued into the circle during the casting, by the use of the athame. After the casting, the athame is the tool traditionally used to invoke the elemental guardians of the four directions (also termed \"calling the quarters\"), typically by drawing invoking pentagrams at each quarter. This important traditional practice is one of the reasons often given for the false requirement that the athame must be double-edged; because attempting to trace a pentagram in the air with a single-edged blade will require some awkward twisting of the hand and wrist, in order to keep the single cutting edge in the direction of motion. Practitioners unfortunately get caught up on this logistic and may be unaware that the elementals are more concerned with the threat the magical blade represents than how one twists their wrist. As a masculine principle, the black-handled athame is often used in combination with the chalice, as feminine principle, evoking the act of procreation, as a symbol of universal creativity. The athame represents the magical element of fire, associated with the Sun and the Horned God; while the chalice represents the magical element of water, associated with the Moon and the Goddess. The union of the two then represents the union of God and Goddess, male and female, sun and moon, fire and water. The marriage of the Sun and Moon—the union of opposites—is an ancient idea in alchemy; and the hieros gamos or sacred marriage of god and goddess is an even more ancient idea in pagan religions. (For example, in ancient Greece—from whence the term \"hieros gamos\" comes.) This rite is done by dipping the athame into the chalice to bless the wine. This is a symbol of the Great Rite in Wiccan rituals. Some modern witchcraft traditions may prefer not to use iron blades, instead preferring alternatives such as copper, bronze or stone, such as obsidian. This is most common amongst traditions that have a particular fondness of the Sidhe, to whom iron is supposedly baneful.", "Some Wiccan traditions associate the black-handled athame with the masculine principle and with the element of fire, as did Gerald Gardner; while the wand is associated with air. Other traditions may reverse these elemental associations, and use the athame to represent air and the wand to represent fire. Janet and Stewart Farrar suggested this difference is due to the Golden Dawn releasing false information in the hopes of preventing its rituals being used in the correct way. They add that a witch should always choose the association which seems the most correct to them. Fire and water are considered to be polar opposite elements, classically and in alchemy and traditional magical practice. They are sometimes considered to be the two primordial elements, the combination of which gave rise to the other two elements of earth and air. Fire and water are also the elements most associated with Sun and Moon, and thus the Horned God and the Goddess within Wicca. For this reason, covens that associate the athame with air (and the wand with fire) may decide to use the wand to bless the wine chalice, instead of using the athame. A union of air and water does not carry the same symbolic significance of the \"conjunctio oppositorum\" (union of opposites) that the union of fire and water does. Also, covens that regard the athame as air and the wand as fire may choose to cast the ritual circle with the wand or staff, instead of the sword or athame—if they conceive of this casting in the traditional way, as a casting of etheric fire via a projection of psychic energy. If they conceive of the circle casting as cutting a line in the air with the tool of air, then they may choose to purify the circle with the remaining three elements of fire, water, and earth; this would involve using a candle to purify the circle, and omitting the incense, since the circle has already been imbued with the element of air. The athame is the most important ritual tool in Wicca, and like other ritual tools it is generally purified and consecrated to the gods before being used for ritual and magical purposes. There are various ways of accomplishing ritual purification and consecration, depending on the specific tradition of Wicca being followed, and also whether the individual Wiccan is practicing with a coven or as a solitary witch. One common way to do this is by using the four magical elements of fire (candle), air (incense), water and salt; and perhaps anointing the blade with an oil infused with magical herbs. Touching another person's athame without permission is considered a ritual faux pas in almost all traditions of Wicca. It is an intrusion of the owner's personal space; and more importantly, it is an act that violates the magical bond between the athame and its owner. Some witches will go to great lengths to ritually purify, reconsecrate, and rededicate an athame after it has been touched by another person.", "There are rituals of consecration for a newly acquired athame, be it new, or acquired from another person.", "The term athame derives, via a series of corruptions, from the late Latin \"artavus\" (\"quill knife\"), which is well attested in the oldest mansucripts of the Key of Solomon. It means \"a small knife used for sharpening the pens of scribes\" (\"Cultellus acuendis calamis scriptorii\"). \"Artavus\" is well-attested in medieval Latin, although it is not a common word. This explains why it was left untranslated in some French and Italian manuscripts, and ultimately became garbled in various manuscripts as \"artavo\", \"artavus\", \"arthana\", \"artanus\", \"arthany\" or \"arthame\". R. E. Latham described the etymology of artavus as being dubious, but Johannes Balbus de Janua (Catholicon, 1497) derives it from \"arto\", \"artas\", etc. (to narrow). An alternate etymology is given by John de Garlande, (ca 1225): \"Artavus, called 'kenivet' in French, namely a small knife which stretches in length, is named after 'ars' (art or craft), because it is used by artisans.\" (as opposed to either a table knife \"cultellos ad mensam, mensaculos\", or a weapon) (Artavus dicitur Gallice 'kenivet,' scilicet cultellus qui tendit in altum; vel dicitur ab arte, quia eo artifices utuntur.) Idries Shah, who was personal secretary and close friend of Gerald Gardner, provides yet another etymology from an alleged Arabic \"al-dhammé\" \"blood-letter\", which was supposed to be the ritual knife of a medieval magical cult of Morocco and Andalusia. This etymology is controversial, however. It appears in his book \"The Sufis\" as a quotation from \"A History of Secret Societies\" by Arkon Daraul (a probable pseudonym of Shah). Robert Graves (an acquaintance of Shah) suggests an Arabic derivation from \"al thame\" (or \"adh-dhame\"), which he translates as \"the arrow\". A Latin manuscript version of the Key of Solomon has a drawing that looks like a sickle, labeled \"Artavo\". Gerald Gardner's use of 'athame' probably came from modern French versions of the Key of Solomon, probably via Grillot de Givry's \"Witchcraft, Magic and Alchemy\" (1931), who misinterpreted the term as applying to the main ritual knife, as shown by his index entries \"arthane\" or \"arthame\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Related component speeds.", "CPU.", "Memory.", "Peripheral buses.", "Overclocking.", "Evolution.", "Transfer rates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term came into use by Intel Corporation about the time the Pentium Pro and Pentium II products were announced, in the 1990s. \"Front side\" refers to the external interface from the processor to the rest of the computer system, as opposed to the back side, where the back-side bus connects the cache (and potentially other CPUs). A front-side bus (FSB) is mostly used on PC-related motherboards (including personal computers and servers). They are seldom used in embedded systems or similar small computers. The FSB design was a performance improvement over the single system bus designs of the previous decades, but these front-side buses are sometimes referred to as the \"system bus.\" Front-side buses usually connect the CPU and the rest of the hardware via a chipset, which Intel implemented as a northbridge and a southbridge. Other buses like the Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP), and memory buses all connect to the chipset in order for data to flow between the connected devices. These secondary system buses usually run at speeds derived from the front-side bus clock, but are not necessarily synchronized to it. In response to AMD's Torrenza initiative, Intel opened its FSB CPU socket to third party devices. Prior to this announcement, made in Spring 2007 at Intel Developer Forum in Beijing, Intel had very closely guarded who had access to the FSB, only allowing Intel processors in the CPU socket. The first example was field-programmable gate array (FPGA) co-processors, a result of collaboration between Intel-Xilinx-Nallatech and Intel-Altera-XtremeData (which shipped in 2008).", "", "The frequency at which a processor (CPU) operates is determined by applying a clock multiplier to the front-side bus (FSB) speed in some cases. For example, a processor running at 3200 MHz might be using a 400 MHz FSB. This means there is an internal clock multiplier setting (also called bus/core ratio) of 8. That is, the CPU is set to run at 8 times the frequency of the front-side bus: 400 MHz × 8 = 3200 MHz. Different CPU speeds are achieved by varying either the FSB frequency or the CPU multiplier, this is referred to as Overclocking or Underclocking.", "Setting an FSB speed is related directly to the speed grade of memory a system must use. The memory bus connects the northbridge and RAM, just as the front-side bus connects the CPU and northbridge. Often, these two buses must operate at the same frequency. Increasing the front-side bus to 450 MHz in most cases also means running the memory at 450 MHz. In newer systems, it is possible to see memory ratios of \"4:5\" and the like. The memory will run 5/4 times as fast as the FSB in this situation, meaning a 400 MHz bus can run with the memory at 500 MHz. This is often referred to as an 'asynchronous' system. Due to differences in CPU and system architecture, overall system performance can vary in unexpected ways with different FSB-to-memory ratios. In image, audio, video, gaming, FPGA synthesis and scientific applications that perform a small amount of work on each element of a large data set, FSB speed becomes a major performance issue. A slow FSB will cause the CPU to spend significant amounts of time waiting for data to arrive from system memory. However, if the computations involving each element are more complex, the processor will spend longer performing these; therefore, the FSB will be able to keep pace because the rate at which the memory is accessed is reduced.", "Similar to the memory bus, the PCI and AGP buses can also be run asynchronously from the front-side bus. In older systems, these buses are operated at a set fraction of the front-side bus frequency. This fraction was set by the BIOS. In newer systems, the PCI, AGP, and PCI Express peripheral buses often receive their own clock signals, which eliminates their dependence on the front-side bus for timing.", "Overclocking is the practice of making computer components operate beyond their stock performance levels by manipulating the frequencies at which the component is set to run, and, when necessary, modifying the voltage sent to the component to allow it to operate at these higher frequencies more stably. Many motherboards allow the user to manually set the clock multiplier and FSB settings by changing jumpers or BIOS settings. Almost all CPU manufacturers now \"lock\" a preset multiplier setting into the chip. It is possible to unlock some locked CPUs; for instance, some AMD Athlon processors can be unlocked by connecting electrical contacts across points on the CPU's surface. Some other processors from AMD and Intel are unlocked from the factory and labeled as an \"enthusiast-grade\" processors by end users and retailers because of this feature. For all processors, increasing the FSB speed can be done to boost processing speed by reducing latency between CPU and the northbridge. This practice pushes components beyond their specifications and may cause erratic behavior, overheating or premature failure. Even if the computer appears to run normally, problems may appear under a heavy load. Most PCs purchased from retailers or manufacturers, such as Hewlett-Packard or Dell, do not allow the user to change the multiplier or FSB settings due to the probability of erratic behavior or failure. Motherboards purchased separately to build a custom machine are more likely to allow the user to edit the multiplier and FSB settings in the PC's BIOS.", "The front-side bus had the advantage of high flexibility and low cost when it was first designed. Simple symmetric multiprocessors place a number of CPUs on a shared FSB, though performance could not scale linearly due to bandwidth bottlenecks. The front-side bus was used in all Intel Atom, Celeron, Pentium, Core 2, and Xeon processor models through about 2008. Originally, this bus was a central connecting point for all system devices and the CPU. The potential of a faster CPU is wasted if it cannot fetch instructions and data as quickly as it can execute them. The CPU may spend significant time idle while waiting to read or write data in main memory, and high-performance processors therefore require high bandwidth and low latency access to memory. The front-side bus was criticized by AMD as being an old and slow technology that limits system performance. More modern designs use point-to-point connections like AMD's HyperTransport and Intel's DMI 2.0 or QuickPath Interconnect (QPI). These implementations remove the traditional northbridge in favor of a direct link from the CPU to the Platform Controller Hub, southbridge or I/O controller. In a traditional architecture, the front-side bus served as the immediate data link between the CPU and all other devices in the system, including main memory. In HyperTransport- and QPI-based systems, system memory is accessed independently by means of a memory controller integrated into the CPU, leaving the bandwidth on the HyperTransport or QPI link for other uses. This increases the complexity of the CPU design but offers greater throughput as well as superior scaling in multiprocessor systems.", "The bandwidth or maximum theoretical throughput of the front-side bus is determined by the product of the width of its data path, its clock frequency (cycles per second) and the number of data transfers it performs per clock cycle. For example, a 64-bit (8-byte) wide FSB operating at a frequency of 100 MHz that performs 4 transfers per cycle has a bandwidth of 3200 megabytes per second (MB/s): The number of transfers per clock cycle depends on the technology used. For example, GTL+ performs 1 transfer/cycle, EV6 2 transfers/cycle, and AGTL+ 4 transfers/cycle. Intel calls the technique of four transfers per cycle Quad Pumping. Many manufacturers publish the frequency of the front-side bus in MHz, but marketing materials often list the theoretical effective signaling rate (which is commonly called megatransfers per second or MT/s). For example, if a motherboard (or processor) has its bus set at 200 MHz and performs 4 transfers per clock cycle, the FSB is rated at 800 MT/s. The specifications of several generations of popular processors are indicated below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "Evolution.", "Morphology.", "Fighting with the longsword.", "History.", "German school of fencing.", "Harnischfechten." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "The term \"longsword\" is ambiguous, and refers to the \"bastard sword\" only where the late medieval to Renaissance context is implied. \"Longsword\" in other contexts has been used to refer to Bronze Age swords, Migration period and Viking swords as well as the early modern dueling sword. Historical (15th to 16th century) terms for this type of sword included Spanish ', ', or ', Italian'or ', Portuguese'and Middle French '. The Scottish Gaelic'means \"great sword\"; anglicised as \"claymore,\" it came to refer to the Scottish type of longsword with v-shaped crossguard. Historical terminology overlaps with that applied to the Zweihänder sword in the 16th century: French ', Spanish ', or Portuguese'may also be used more narrowly to refer to these large swords. The French'may also refer to a medieval single-handed sword optimized for thrusting. The French \"\" and the English \"bastard sword\" originate in the 15th or 16th century, originally in the general sense of \"irregular sword, sword of uncertain origin\", but by the mid-16th century could refer to exceptionally large swords. The \"Masters of Defence\" competition organised by Henry VIII in July 1540 listed \"two hande sworde\" and \"bastard sword\" as two separate items. It is uncertain whether the same term could still be used to other types of smaller swords, but antiquarian usage in the 19th century established the use of \"bastard sword\" as referring unambiguously to these large swords. The German'(\"long sword\") in 15th and 16th-century manuals does not denote a type of weapon, but the technique of fencing with both hands at the hilt, contrasting with'(\"short sword\") used of fencing with the same weapon, but with one hand gripping the blade (also known as a half-sword). Contemporary use of \"long-sword\" or \"longsword\" only resurfaced in the 2000s in the context of reconstruction of the German school of fencing, translating the German \"\". Prior to this the term \"long sword\" merely referred to any sword with a long blade; 'long' being simply an adjective rather than a classification. The term \"hand-and-a-half sword\" is relatively modern (from the late 19th century). This name was given because the balance of the sword made it usable in one hand, as well as two. During the first half of the 20th century, the term \"bastard sword\" was used regularly to refer to this type of sword, while \"long sword\" (or \"long-sword\"), if used at all, referred to the rapier (in the context of Renaissance or Early Modern fencing).", "The longsword is characterized not so much by a longer blade, but by a longer grip, which indicates a weapon designed for two-handed use. Swords with exceptionally long hilts are found throughout the High Middle Ages, but these remain rare, and are not representative of an identifiable trend before the late 13th or early 14th century. The longsword as a late medieval type of sword emerges in the 14th century, as a military steel weapon of the earlier phase of the Hundred Years' War. It remains identifiable as a type during the period of about 1350 to 1550. It remained in use as a weapon of war intended for wielders wearing full plate armour either on foot or on horseback, throughout the late medieval period. From the late 15th century, however, it is also attested as being worn and used by unarmoured soldiers or mercenaries. Use of the two-handed Great Sword or \"Schlachtschwert\" by infantry (as opposed to their use as a weapon of mounted and fully armoured knights) seems to have originated with the Swiss in the 14th century. By the 16th century, its military use was mostly obsolete, culminating in the brief period where the oversized Zweihänder were wielded by the German \"Landsknechte\" during the early to mid 16th century. By the second half of the 16th century, it persisted mostly as a weapon for sportive competition (\"Schulfechten\"), and possibly in knightly duels. Distinct \"bastard sword\" hilt types developed during the first half of the 16th century. Ewart Oakeshott distinguishes twelve different types. These all seem to have originated in Bavaria and in Switzerland. By the late 16th century, early forms of the developed-hilt appear on this type of sword. Beginning about 1520, the Swiss sabre (\"schnepf\") in Switzerland began to replace the straight longsword, inheriting its hilt types, and the longsword had fallen out of use in Switzerland by 1550. In southern Germany, it persisted into the 1560s, but its use also declined during the second half of the 16th century. There are two late examples of longswords kept in the Swiss National Museum, both with vertically grooved pommels and elaborately decorated with silver inlay, and both belonging to Swiss noblemen in French service during the late 16th and early 17th century, Gugelberg von Moos and Rudolf von Schauenstein. The longsword, greatsword and bastard-sword were also made in Spain, appearing relatively late, known as the ', the'and'or'respectively.", "The swords grouped as \"longswords\" for the purposes of this article are united by their being intended for two-handed use. In terms of blade typology, they do not form a single category. In the Oakeshott typology of blade morphology, \"longswords\" figure as a range of sub-types of the corresponding single-handed sword types.", "The expression'(\"fighting with the long sword\") in the German school of fencing denotes the style of fencing which uses both hands at the hilt;'(\"fighting with the short sword\") is used in half-sword fighting, with one hand gripping the blade. The two terms are largely equivalent to \"unarmoured fighting\" (') and \"armoured fencing\" (').", "Codified systems of fighting with the longsword existed from the later 14th century, with a variety of styles and teachers each providing a slightly different take on the art. Hans Talhoffer, a mid-15th-century German fightmaster, is probably the most prominent, using a wide variety of moves, most resulting in wrestling. The longsword was a quick, effective, and versatile weapon capable of deadly thrusts, slices, and cuts. The blade was generally used with both hands on the hilt, one resting close to or on the pommel. The weapon may be held with one hand during disarmament or grappling techniques. In a depiction of a duel, individuals may be seen wielding sharply pointed longswords in one hand, leaving the other hand open to manipulate the large dueling shield. Another variation of use comes from the use of armour. Half-swording was a manner of using both hands, one on the hilt and one on the blade, to better control the weapon in thrusts and jabs. This versatility was unique, as multiple works hold that the longsword provided the foundations for learning a variety of other weapons including spears, staves, and polearms. Use of the longsword in attack was not limited only to use of the blade, however, as several Fechtbücher explain and depict use of the pommel and cross as offensive weapons. The cross has been shown to be used as a hook for tripping or knocking an opponent off balance. Some manuals even depict the cross as a hammer. What is known of combat with the longsword comes from artistic depictions of battle from manuscripts and the Fechtbücher of Medieval and Renaissance Masters. Therein the basics of combat were described and, in some cases, depicted. The German school of swordsmanship includes the earliest known longsword Fechtbuch, a manual from approximately 1389, known as GNM 3227a. This manual, unfortunately for modern scholars, was written in obscure verse. It was through students of Liechtenauer, like Sigmund Ringeck, who transcribed the work into more understandable prose that the system became notably more codified and understandable. Others provided similar work, some with a wide array of images to accompany the text. The Italian school of swordsmanship was the other primary school of longsword use. The 1410 manuscript by Fiore dei Liberi presents a variety of uses for the longsword. Like the German manuals, the weapon is most commonly depicted and taught with both hands on the hilt. However, a section on one-handed use is among the volume and demonstrates the techniques and advantages, such as sudden additional reach, of single-handed longsword play. The manual also presents half-sword techniques as an integral part of armoured combat. Both schools declined in the late 16th century, with the later Italian masters forgoing the longsword and focusing primarily on rapier fencing. The last known German manual to include longsword teaching was that of Jakob Sutor, published in 1612. In Italy, \"\", or longsword, instruction lingered on despite the popularity of the rapier, at least into the mid-17th century (Alfieri's \"Lo Spadone\" of 1653), with a late treatise of the \"two handed sword\" by one Giuseppe Colombani, a dentist in Venice dating to 1711. A tradition of teaching based on this has survived in contemporary French and Italian stick fighting.", "\"\" (\"blosz fechten\") or \"bare fighting\" is the technique of fighting without significant protective armour such as plate or mail. The lack of significant torso and limb protection leads to the use of a large amount of cutting and slicing techniques in addition to thrusts. These techniques could be nearly instantly fatal or incapacitating, as a thrust to the skull, heart, or major blood vessel would cause massive trauma. Similarly, strong strikes could cut through skin and bone, effectively amputating limbs. The hands and forearms are a frequent target of some cuts and slices in a defensive or offensive manoeuvre, serving both to disable an opponent and align the swordsman and his weapon for the next attack.", "', or \"armoured fighting\" (German ', or \", literally \"fighting in armour on foot\"), depicts fighting in full plate armour. The increased defensive capability of a man clad in full plate armour caused the use of the sword to be drastically changed. While slashing attacks were still moderately effective against infantry wearing half-plate armour, cutting and slicing attacks against an opponent wearing plate armour were almost entirely ineffective in providing any sort of slashing wound as the sword simply could not cut through the steel, although a combatant could aim for the chinks in a suit of armour, sometimes to great effect. Instead, the energy of the cut becomes essentially pure concussive energy. The later hardened plate armours, complete with ridges and roping, posed a threat against the careless attacker. It is considered possible for strong blows of the sword against plate armour to damage the blade of the sword, potentially rendering it much less effective at cutting and producing only a concussive effect against the armoured opponent. To overcome this problem, swords began to be used primarily for thrusting. The weapon was used in the half-sword, with one or both hands on the blade. This increased the accuracy and strength of thrusts and provided more leverage for \" or \"wrestling at/with the sword\". Also, the hand on the blade increases its rigidity which is advantageous when thrusting. This technique combines the use of the sword with wrestling, providing opportunities to trip, disarm, break, or throw an opponent and place them in a less offensively and defensively capable position. During half-swording, the entirety of the sword works as a weapon, including the pommel and crossguard. One example how a sword can be used this way is to thrust the tip of the crossguard at the opponent's head right after parrying a stroke. Another technique would be the Mordstreich (lit. \"murder stroke\"), where the weapon is held by the blade (hilt, pommel and crossguard serving as an improvised hammer head) and swung, taking advantage of the balance being close to the hilt to increase the concussive effect (see the fighter on the right of the Codex Wallerstein picture)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Medieval China.", "Ming and Qing dynasties.", "After Qing dynasty.", "Second World War.", "After World War II.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Natural resources.", "Environment and horticulture.", "Demographics.", "Cityscape.", "Administrative divisions.", "Society and culture.", "Leisure and entertainment.", "Language.", "Tourism.", "Sports.", "Golf.", "Sport facilities.", "Economy.", "Development zones.", "Industrial parks.", "Companies.", "Flower industry.", "Logistics.", "Solar energy.", "Transport.", "Air transport.", "Highway.", "Rail.", "Urban rail plan.", "High-speed rail plan.", "Road and transit.", "Local transit.", "Central Kunming.", "Education and research.", "Colleges and universities.", "Yunnan University.", "Yunnan Normal University.", "Kunming University of Science and Technology.", "Yunnan Nationalities University.", "Huayang Academy.", "Management training.", "Research institutes.", "Chinese Academy of Sciences.", "Twin towns and sister cities.", "Health.", "HIV/AIDS.", "Military.", "Public security and crime.", "Drug trafficking.", "International relations.", "Notable residents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kunming long profited from its position on the caravan roads through to South-East Asia, India and Tibet. Early townships in the southern edge of Lake Dian (outside the contemporary city perimeter) can be dated back to 279 BC, although they have been long lost to history. Early settlements in the area around Lake Dian date back to Neolithic times. The Dian Kingdom, whose original language was likely related to Tibeto-Burman languages was also established", "Founded in 765, Kunming was known to the Chinese as \"Tuodong\" () city in the Kingdom of Nanzhao (737–902) during the 8th and 9th centuries. Tuodong later became part of the successor Kingdom of Dali (937–1253). The possession of Tuodong changed hands when the city came under the control of the Yuan dynasty invasion of the southwest in 1252–1253. During the reign of provincial governor Ajall Shams al-Din Omar, a \"Chinese Style\" city named Zhongjing Chen was founded", "In the 14th century, Kunming was retaken from Mongolian control when the Ming dynasty defeated the Yuan Dynasty, later building a wall surrounding present-day Kunming. 300 years later, Ming General Wu Sangui defected to Manchu invaders and held the city until his death in 1678, long after the rest of China had fallen under Manchu rule. During the beginning of Qing rule, the entirety of Yunnan and Guizhou were ruled from Kunming and Wu. During the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, the seat of Wu's newly declared Zhou dynasty was moved to Hengzhou, Hunan. Later in 1678 when Wu died, his grandson Wu Shifan resisted the Qing for two more months before committing suicide, thereby reverting control of the city back into Qing hands. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it was the seat of the superior prefecture of Yunnan. The area was first dubbed Kunming in the period towards the decline of the Yuan dynasty and later still in 1832, the beginnings of a real city were acknowledged within the city walls and", "\"In the late 1800s, the French started to build the Kunming-Haiphong railway for trade and shipping of weapons\". Kunming reverted to county status in 1912, under the name Kunming, and became a municipality in 1935. The opening of the Kunming area began in", "Kunming was transformed into a modern city as a result of the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 when the invading Japanese forces caused a great number of east-coast Chinese refugees, some of whom were wealthy, to flood into the southwest of China. They brought with them dismantled industrial plants, which were then re-erected beyond the range of Japanese bombers. In addition, a number of universities and institutes of higher education were evacuated there. The increased trade and expertise quickly established Kunming as an industrial and manufacturing base for the wartime government in Chongqing. As China's military forces and civilians retreated outside the reach of the Japanese military forces a year prior to the outbreak of the Second World War in Europe, Kunming became a new training hub for the battered but regrouped Chinese Air Force in which Lieutenant General Claire Lee Chennault took command of cadet training duties in the summer of 1938. During the Second World War the city of Kunming was prepared as a National Redoubt in case the temporary capital in Chongqing fell, an elaborate system", "Until 1952, Kunming was a walled city. The city government in 1952 ordered hundreds of young people to tear down the wall and use its bricks to make a new road running north–south. To show its appreciation for the young people that demolished the east wall, the city government named the new street after them. Their existence still echoes today in place names like Xiao Ximen () and Beimen Jie (). There are also less obvious connections to the wall, such as Qingnian Lu (), which was once Kunming's east wall. After 1949, Kunming developed rapidly", "Kunming is located in east-central Yunnan province. It is located between north latitude 24°23' and 26°22' N, and east longitude 102°10' and 103°40' E, with a total area of. Its widest stretch from the east to the west amounts to and its largest expansion from the north to the south amounts to. Situated in a fertile lake basin on the northern shore of the Lake Dian and surrounded by mountains to the north, west, and east, Kunming has always played a pivotal role in the communications of southwestern China. Lake Dian, titled as \"the Pearl of the Plateau\", is the sixth largest fresh water lake in China, is the largest lake in Yunnan and has an area of approximately. Kunming's highest point is Mazong Ridge of the Jiaozi Mountain in Luquan with an elevation of, and its lowest point is the joint of the Xiao River and the Jinsha River in Dongchuan District, with an elevation of. Its downtown area is above sea level. About southeast of the city centre is the Stone Forest in Shilin County, a karst formation developed as a tourist attraction consisting of rock caves, arches, and pavilions. It is part of the larger karst-based landscape of the area.", "Located at an elevation of on the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau with low latitude and high elevation, Kunming has one of the mildest climates in China, characterized by short, cool dry winters with mild days and crisp nights, and long, balmy and humid summers. With its perpetual spring-like weather which provides the ideal climate for plants and flowers, Kunming is known as the \"City of Eternal Spring\". The weather has seldom reached high temperatures in summer, only exceeding on a handful of occasions. However, freak snowfalls occur", "Mineral resources include phosphorus, salt, magnesium, titanium, coal, quartz sand, clay, silica, copper. Phosphorus and salt mines are the most plentiful. Kunyang Phosphorus Mine is one of the", "Kunming has of lawns, trees and flowers, averaging per capita and a green space rate of 21.7 percent. The city's smoke control area is and noise control area. Kunming is a significant horticultural center in China, providing products such as grain, wheat, horsebeans, corn, potato and fruit such as peaches, apples, oranges, grapes and chestnuts. Kunming is world-famous for its flowers and flower-growing", "Of the more than five million people registered as residents in Kunming in 2006, around four million are Han. The Yi people are", "The city center has three major squares and five major streets: Jinma Biji Square, Nanping Square and Dongfeng Square along with Nanping Jie, Jinbi Lu, Renmin Lu, Zhengyi Lu and Jingxin Jie. Qingnian Lu, Zhengyi Lu, and Renmin Lu are the main commercial areas in Kunming; the most popular pedestrian streets are Nanping Jie, Jingxing Birds-Flowers' Market, and Jinma Biji Fang. Kunming's public focus is the huge square outside the now-demolished Workers' Cultural Hall at the Beijing Lu-Dongfeng Lu intersection, where in the mornings there are crowds doing taijiquan and playing badminton. Weekend amateur theatre are also performed in the square. Rapidly being modernized, the city's true center is west of the square across the adjacent Panlong River (now more of a canal), outside the Kunming Department Store at the Nanping Lu/Zhengyi Lu crossroads, a densely crowded shopping precinct packed with clothing and electronics stores. The river receives sewage and wastewater from surrounding pipes. Surrounding the area are plenty of new high-rises. The center is an area of importance to Kunming's Hui population, with Shuncheng Jie, one of the last old streets in the center of the city, previously forming a Muslim quarter. Until shortly before 2005, this street was full of wind-dried beef and mutton carcasses, pitta bread and raisin sellers, and huge woks of roasting coffee beans being stirred with shovels. Under Kunming's rapid modernisation, however, the street has been demolished to make way for apartments and shopping centers. Rising behind a supermarket one block north off Zhengyi Lu, Nancheng Qingzhen Si is the city's new mosque, its green dome and chevron-patterned minaret visible from afar and built on the site of an earlier Qing edifice. Running west off Zhengyi Jie just past the mosque, Jingxing Jie leads into one of the more bizarre corners of the city, with Kunming's huge Bird and Flower Market convening daily in the streets connecting it with the northerly, parallel Guanghua Jie. The market offers many plants such as orchids that have been collected and farmed across the province. In the small grounds of Wen Miao, a now vanished Confucian temple off the western end of Changchun Lu, there is an avenue of pines, an ancient pond and pavilion, and beds of bamboo, azaleas and potted palms. Jinbi Lu runs roughly parallel to and south of Dongfeng Lu, reached from Beijing Lu. Two large Chinese pagodas rise in the vicinity, each a solid thirteen stories of whitewashed brick crowned with four iron cockerels. The West Pagoda was built between 824 and 859, during the Tang dynasty; its original counterpart, the East Pagoda, was built at the same time, but was destroyed by an earthquake in 1833 and rebuilt in the same Tang style in 1882. South down Dongsi Jie, past another mosque, the entrance to the West Pagoda is along a narrow lane on the right. In the tiny surrounding courtyard, sociable idlers while away sunny afternoons playing cards and sipping tea in the peaceful, ramshackle surroundings. The East Pagoda is a more cosmetic, slightly tilted duplicate standing in an ornamental garden a few minutes' walk east on Shulin Jie. The temples associated with both pagodas are closed to the public.", "The prefecture-level city of Kunming has jurisdiction over 14 subdivisions; seven districts, one county-level city, three counties and three autonomous counties. Kunming is bounded by Qujing City to the east, Honghe Hani and Yi Autonomous Prefecture to the", "", "Within Kunming, the entertainment district has its focus around Kundu Square, with many cinemas, bars, clubs and restaurants. Food aside, one feature of less formal Yunnanese restaurants is that they often have a communal bamboo water pipe and tobacco for their customers. There are plenty of student bars and clubs. The city", "The Kunming dialect is very similar to that of Sichuan and Guizhou but uses the third tone much less than standard Chinese. Many terms are used only in Kunming dialect, such as \"\" meaning 'terrific'. The pronunciations of certain Chinese", "Kunming attracts domestic and foreign tourists year round. At the center of Yunnan and as its capital, Kunming is also a transport hub for tourists heading to other parts of Yunnan such as Dali, Lijiang and", "Every year, many Chinese and international athletes come to Kunming for high-altitude training. The city has been China's national high-elevation training base for more than 30 years. There are two major training complexes, Hongta Sports Center and Haigeng National Training Center. Hongta Sports Center was built in 2000 by Hongta (Red Pagoda) cigarette company, at a cost of US$58 million. Located near Haigeng Park, the complex is mostly used by professional athletes, but also acts as a sports club for the general public. Every weekend, it hosts amateur football matches. Aside from about 10 football pitches, including one surrounded by a running track, Hongta also has a swimming pool, a badminton gymnasium, tennis courts and a basketball court. It also has one of China's few ice hockey rinks, and a workout room with treadmills and weightlifting machines. There are also game rooms for air hockey; also pool tables and a basement bowling alley. The complex comes complete with a 101-room hotel and restaurant. Haigeng National Training Center is located ten minutes away from Hongta on Dianchi (Lake Dian) near Kunming's award-winning Lakeview Golf Club and new condominium developments. This complex dates from the late 1970s and was built by the government specifically to specialize in high-altitude training.", "Golf is a major attraction in Kunming. There are four golf courses within an hour's drive of downtown. For the last six years, Spring City Golf and Lake Resort in nearby Yiliang County has reigned as the best golf course in China and Hong Kong according to", "Major sports", "Kunming has three economic advantages over other cities in southwest China: significant natural resources, a large consumer market and a mild climate. Due to its position at the center of Yunnan, one of China's largest producers of agricultural products, minerals and hydroelectricity, Kunming is the main commercial hub for most of the province's resources. Kunming's chief industries are copper, lead and zinc production. Its iron and steel industry has been expanded. Salt and phosphate mines around Kunming are some of the largest in China. Yunnan Copper Company Limited, based in Kunming, is one of Yunnan's largest mining corporations. From the late 1970s, Kunming's main industries also came to include food and tobacco processing and the manufacture of construction equipment and machines. In May 1995, the State Council approved Kunming as an Open City. By the end of 1995, the city had approved 929 overseas-funded enterprises with a total investment of $2.3 billion including $1.1 billion of foreign capital. More than 40 projects each had an investment of more than $9 million. Kunming is a center of engineering and the manufacture of machine tools, electrical machinery, equipment and automobiles (including heavy goods vehicles). It has a chemical industry, and plastics, cement works and textile factories. Its processing plants, which include tanneries, woodworking and papermaking factories, use local agricultural products. In 1997, Yunnan Tire Co. opened a tire plant in Kunming, with a capacity to produce two million tires per year.", "Kunming has two major development zones, Kunming High-tech Industrial Development Zone (biological medicine, new materials,", "There are 30 key industrial parks promulgated and recognized", ", Kunming is home to 65 of the Top 100 Enterprises in Yunnan Province. The top 100 enterprises were", "Yunnan has developed into the largest flower export base in Asia, with many Dutch experts having transferred technology to the area. The Dounan Flower", "Kunming East Station is at present Yunnan province's only container handling depot, with direct links to only three provinces; Guangdong, Guizhou and Sichuan. It also has direct access to the metropolitan district of Chongqing. The Jiaying Depot is", "In July 2008, Kunming began to implement a program to transform the city's solar energy industry into a US$8.8 billion industrial base in China by 2013. Kunming receives an annual average sunshine of more than 2,400 hours. Each 1 kW PV system has the potential to generate 1500 kilowatt-hours of electricity a year from solar energy. , the Kunming Economic Committee listed about 130 solar energy enterprises in the city. Of these, 118", "Kunming is situated on the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Rail and air are the main two methods to travel to or from Kunming from outside Yunnan.", "Kunming has air connections with several Chinese and Southeast Asian cities. Kunming is served by Kunming Changshui International Airport (KMG), which opened at 08:00 on 28 June 2012, replacing the older international airport, which was located southeast of central Kunming. The now defunct Yunnan Airlines was headquartered in Kunming", "China National Highways 108, 213 and 320 intersect in Kunming. Highways", "Kunming is the main rail hub of Yunnan province. The Chengdu–Kunming railway from Sichuan, Shanghai–Kunming railway from Guizhou, and Nanning–Kunming railway from Guangxi converge in Kunming from the north, northeast and east. The Yunnan–Vietnam Railway runs from Kunming southeast to Hekou and Lao Cai on the Sino-Vietnamese border and then on to Haiphong The Kunming–Yuxi railway runs south to Yuxi, where a second rail line to Vietnam is being planned and built. To the west of Kunming, the Guangtong–Dali railway extends off the Chengdu–Kunming Line to Dali (Xiaguan Town). Kunming has three major railway stations: As of 2017, railway development projects continue to proceed in the Kunming metropolitan area. In February 2017, the railway authorities announced that a connector between the new Kunming South railway station and the old Kunming railway station (also known as the Nanyao Station; ) will open by the end of 2017, making it possible for some high-speed train to serve Kunming railway station as well.", "In May 2010, Kunming began construction on its first urban rail lines, line 1 and 2 of the Kunming Metro. An elevated test section had been under construction since 2009.", "Kunming will be the hub and terminus for the \"Pan Asia High Speed Network\" using high-speed trains to connect China, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Singapore. Completed but under trial high-speed railways: Construction is underway for the following high-speed railways: Study or planning is being done for the following railways:", "Yunnan has built a comprehensive highway system with roads reaching almost all the major cities or towns in the region. Bus travel across the region is extensive. Buses head from Kunming to destinations such as Dali and Lijiang several times a day. There are four major long-distance bus stations in Kunming with the South Bus Station and Railway Square Bus Station being the most primary. Leaving China by road into Vietnam and Laos is also possible through the respective crossings at Hekou in southeastern Yunnan or Bian Mao Zhan in", "Public buses and taxis are the two main means of transport within the city. A metro system is currently under construction (see Kunming Metro). Nearly two hundred", "The city hangs off two main thoroughfares: Beijing Lu forms the north–south axis, passing just east of the center as it runs for between the city's two trains stations; while Dongfeng Lu crosses it halfway along, divided into east (Dongfeng Dong Lu), middle (Dongfeng Zhong Lu) and west (Dongfeng Xi Lu) sections as it cuts right through the business center. The far end runs out of the city as Renmin Xi Lu, the first leg of the Burma Road. Most of the city's famous hotels and foreign consulates lies along Dongfeng Dong Lu and the southern half of Beijing Lu, while the majority of specific landmarks and shopping district are north and west of the center around Dongfeng Xi Lu and Cuihu Park (Green Lake Park). Circling most of this is the city's first highway ring road, Huancheng Lu, though others are planned.", "Kunming remains a major educational and cultural center in the southwest region of China, with universities, medical and teacher-training colleges, technical schools, and scientific research institutes.", "", "Yunnan university (), located in Kunming, is one of the largest and the most prestigious universities in China and is the only university in Yunnan province which has been developed into a \"National", "Yunnan Normal University () was founded in 1938 as the National Normal College of Southwestern Union University. In 1946, when some faculties returned to", "Kunming University of Science and Technology () was established in 1954 and was given", "Yunnan Nationalities University was founded in 1951 as Yunnan Nationalities College. It is now one of six \"key\" universities in the province. It has established cooperative relations with", "Huayang Academy is a specialist Chinese language training centre considered unique for offering training Kunming dialect as well as standard Mandarin. Its locality is a popular centre of Western culture in Kunming, attracting numerous foreign-owned businesses.", "The Shanghai-based China Europe International Business School, aka CEIBS, will launch in 2009 its Business Development Certificate Programme in Kunming. With the Business Development Certificate Programme, CEIBS and program partner Frankfurt School of Finance & Management aim to train approximately 500 Chinese managers", "", "The Kunming Branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) was established in 1957. It was formerly known as Kunming Office of CAS and was promoted and renamed into a branch in 1958. In 1962, Yunnan Branch combined with Sichuan Branch and Guizhou Branch to establish Southwest China Branch of CAS in Chengdu. In October 1978, Kunming Branch was reestablished at the approval of the State Council. As a working department of CAS, Kunming Branch now administers five research institutes: At present, it has a total staff of 1,160, of whom 808 are professional researchers, seven are academicians and 343 are senior researchers. There are also 447 PhD degree students and 530 master's degree students. The retired staff is 1,090. The Branch has set up three national key open labs, two CAS key open labs, five key labs set up by CAS and local province, three engineering centers, five doctoral sites, five post doctoral stations and national famous plant herbariums and halls of wildlife specimens and has a series of up-to-date research instruments and apparatus, computer networks and biodiversity information systems. The Branch has become an advanced comprehensive science research base in astronomy, geology and biology.", "Kunming currently maintains sister", "Currently, there are 2,774 medical institutes of various kinds and 33,600 medical professionals in the City. The 170 medical service institutes based on communities cover a population of 1.86 million. China Health Management Corp (CNHC) is the main private healthcare provider in the city. It has been predicted that private hospitals will provide 70 percent of total medical health care services by 2012 within Kunming City. Hospitals in Kunming include:", "In late 2006, China's first provincial-level HIV/AIDS treatment center was built. The US$17.5 million center is located from downtown Kunming. The center has six main departments: clinical treatment, technical consulting, research and development, international exchange and cooperation, clinical treatment training", "Kunming is headquarters of the 14th Group Army of the People's Liberation Army, one of the two", "The headquarters of the Kunming Municipal Public Security Bureau is on Beijing Lu. Its foreign affairs department, located on Jinxing Huayuan, Jinxing Xiao Lu in the northeast of the city, handles immigration and travel visas.", "Kunming has a pivotal role as a major conduit point in international drug trafficking as it is the closest major Chinese city to the Golden Triangle in Southeast Asia. The Kunming Municipal Public Security Bureau Narcotics Squad is the specialist counter-narcotics police service. Police confiscated at least three tons of drugs in Yunnan in 2005. Yunnan province seized 10 tons of illegal drugs in 2006, accounting for 80 percent of the total drugs confiscated nationwide during the period, according to Sun Dahong, then deputy director of Yunnan's provincial Public Security Bureau. The total is more than", "The following countries have", "Notable people from Kunming include: Diplomats: National Southwestern Associated University:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Politics.", "Economy.", "Heavy industry.", "Mining.", "Demographics.", "Settlements.", "Religion.", "Education.", "Sport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Khabarovsk Krai shares its borders with Magadan Oblast in the north, with the Sakha Republic and Amur Oblast in the west, with the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, China (Heilongjiang), and Primorsky Krai in the south, and is limited by the Sea of Okhotsk in the east. In terms of area, it is the fourth-largest federal subject within Russia. Major islands include Shantar Islands. Taiga and tundra in the north, swampy forest in the central depression, and deciduous forest in the south are the natural vegetation in the area. Khabarovsk Krai has a severely continental climate with its northern areas being subarctic with stronger maritime summer moderation in the north. In its southerly areas, especially inland, annual swings are extremely strong, with Khabarovsk itself having hot, wet and humid summers which rapidly transforms into severely cold and long winters, where temperatures hardly ever go above freezing. This is because of the influence of the East Asian monsoon in summer and the bitterly cold Siberian High in winter. The second largest city of Komsomolsk-on-Amur has even more violent temperature swings than Khabarovsk with winter average lows below but in spite of this avoiding being subarctic because of the significant heat in summer. There are a number of peninsulas along the krai's extensive coast, the main ones being (north to south) the Lisyansky Peninsula, Nurki Peninsula, Tugurskiy Peninsula and the Tokhareu Peninsula. The main islands of Khabarovsk Krai (north to south) are Malminskiye Island, the Shantar Islands, Menshikov Island, Reyneke Island (Sea of Okhotsk), Chkalov Island, Baydukov Island and the Chastye Islands. The island of Sakhalin (Russia's largest) is administered separately as Sakhalin Oblast, along with the Kuril Islands.", "According to various Chinese and Korean records, the southern part of Khabarovsk Krai was originally occupied by one of the five semi-nomadic Shiwei, the Bo Shiwei tribes and the Black Water Mohe tribes living respectively on the west and the east of the Bureya and the Lesser Khingan ranges. In 1643, Vassili Poyarkov's boats descended the Amur, returning to Yakutsk by the Sea of Okhotsk and the Aldan River, and in 1649–1650 Yerofey Khabarov occupied the banks of the Amur. The resistance of the Chinese, however, obliged the Cossacks to quit their forts, and by the Treaty of Nerchinsk (1689) Russia abandoned her advance into the basin of the river. Although the Russians were thus deprived of the right to navigate the Amur River, the territorial claim over the lower courses of the river was not settled in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689. The area between Uda River and Greater Khingan mountain range (i.e. most of Lower Amuria) was left undemarcated and the Sino-Russian border was allowed to fluctuate. Later in the nineteenth century, Nikolay Muravyov would conduct an aggressive policy with China by claiming that the lower reaches of the Amur River belonged to Russia. In 1852, a Russian military expedition under Muravyov explored the Amur, and by 1857 a chain of Russian Cossacks and peasants had been settled along the whole course of the river. In 1858, in the Treaty of Aigun, China recognized the Amur River downstream as far as the Ussuri River as the boundary between Russia and the Qing Empire, and granted Russia free access to the Pacific Ocean. The Sino-Russian border was later further delineated in the Treaty of Peking of 1860 when the Ussuri Territory (the Maritime Territory), which was previously a joint possession, became Russian. Modern Khabarovsk Krai was established on 20 October 1938, when the Far Eastern Krai was split into the Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais. On 24 April 1996 Khabarovsk signed a power-sharing agreement with the federal government, granting it autonomy. This agreement would be abolished on 12 August 2002.", "During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Khabarovsk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Khabarovsk Krai is the fundamental law of the krai. The Legislative Duma of Khabarovsk Krai is the regional standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Duma exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Krai Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Krai Administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.", "Khabarovsk Krai is the most industrialized territory of the Far East of Russia, producing 30% of the total industrial products in the Far Eastern Economic Region.", "The machine construction industry consists primarily of a highly developed military-industrial complex of large-scale aircraft- and shipbuilding enterprises. The Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association is currently among the krai's most successful enterprises, and for years has been the largest taxpayer of the territory. Other major industries include timber-working and fishing, along with metallurgy in the main cities. Komsomolsk-on-Amur is the iron and steel centre of the Far East; a pipeline from northern Sakhalin supplies the petroleum-refining industry in the city of Khabarovsk. In the Amur basin, there is also some cultivation of wheat and soybeans. The administrative centre, Khabarovsk, is at the junction of the Amur River and the Trans-Siberian Railway.", "The region's own mineral resources are underdeveloped. The region hosts large Gold mining operations (Highland Gold, Polus Gold), a major but low-grade Copper deposit being explored by IG Integro Group and a world-class tin district which was a major contributor to the Soviet Industrial complex and is currently being revitalised by Far Eastern Tin (Festivalnoye mine) and by Sable Tin Resources which is developing the Sable Tin Deposit (Sobolinoye) large high grade deposit, 25 km from Solnechny town.", "Population: According to the 2010 Census, 91.8% of the population are Russians, 2.1% Ukrainians, 0.8% Nanais, 0.6% Tatars, 0.6% Koreans, and 0.4% Belarusians. 55,038 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group. In addition to the Nanai, other indigenous groups include the Evenks and Evens in the northern part of the province, and Ulchs in the lower Amur river (Ulchsky District). Some Nivkhs (Gilyak), an indigenous fishing people speaking an isolate language, live around the Amur river delta as well. Smaller groups indigenous to the area are Negidals (567), Orochs (686), and Udege (1,657) and Taz people (3) according to the 2002 census. The birth rate for 2008 is 5.2% higher than that in 2007, and the death rate is 1.4% lower. Birth rate was recorded at 11.6 for 2007 (11.1 for Urban areas and 13.8 for Rural areas) per 1000 people. The death rate was 14.2 in 2007 (14.3 for Urban areas and 14.0 for Rural areas). Rural locations of Khabarovsk Krai had a positive natural growth of population in 2008 (for the first time in the last 16 years).", "Total fertility rate: 2009 – 1.59 | 2010 – 1.56 | 2011 – 1.57 | 2012 – 1.70 | 2013 – 1.74 | 2014 – 1.79 | 2015 – 1.85 | 2016 – 1.79(e)", "According to a 2012 survey, 26.2% of the population of Khabarovsk Krai adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 4% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% adheres to other Orthodox churches or is a believer in Orthodox Christianity who doesn't belong to any church, 1% is an adherent of Islam. In addition, 28% of the population declares to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 23% is atheist, and 16.8% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.", "There are the following institutions of higher education in Khabarovsk Krai.", "The city was a host to the 1981 Bandy World Championship as well as to the 2015 Bandy World Championship. For the 2015 games, twenty-one teams originally were expected, which would have been four more than the record-making seventeen from the 2014 tournament, but eventually only sixteen teams came. The A Division of 2018 Bandy World Championship will again be played in Khabarovsk." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and early years.", "Naval career.", "Early years.", "Merchant trading.", "Return to the Navy.", "With the bomb flotillas.", "Rise to admiral.", "Public and private reception.", "Appointment to the West Indies.", "Spanish treasure fleet, West Indies, the Action of 1702.", "Trial of the captains.", "Death and burial.", "Personal life and legacy.", "Unruly behaviour.", "\"Brave Benbow\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Benbow was born the son of William and Martha Benbow. The astrologer John Partridge recorded the exact time and date of his birth as being at noon on 10 March 1653, and this is the date used by the National Museum of the Royal Navy, the \"Encyclopædia Britannica\", and the local historical accounts of Joseph Nightingale published in 1818. A biography within an 1819 publication of \"The Gentleman's Magazine\", however, records in a short biography entitled \"Life and Exploits of Admiral Benbow\" by D. Parkes that he was born in 1650, as does the 1861 \"Sea kings and naval heroes\" by John George Edgar. Edgar records that Benbow's father died when Benbow was very young, while Parkes' account describes his father as being in the service of the Army under Charles I and not dying until Benbow was in his teens. \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" writes that Benbow's father was in fact a tanner. Meanwhile, his uncle, Thomas, was executed by Charles I. Both Parkes and the National Museum of the Royal Navy concur that Benbow was born in Coton Hill in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, and Nightingale asserts that the death of both uncle and father, and the family's association with Charles I in the years following his execution, ensured that the \"family were brought very low.\" Benbow's lack of possessions, Nightingale writes, turned him to a career at sea.", "", "Benbow entered the Royal Navy on 30 April 1678, aged 25 years. He became master's mate aboard the 64-gun under the command of Captain Arthur Herbert, whilst she was fitting out at Portsmouth. He sailed with her to the Mediterranean, where Herbert was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral whilst serving under the commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean, Admiral Sir John Narborough. During this period the English fleet was often in action against the Barbary pirates of North Africa that were actively preying upon European shipping. \"Rupert\" herself captured an Algerine warship in 1678, which was later commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS \"Tiger Prize\". Benbow distinguished himself well in a number of actions against the Algerine vessels, and won Herbert's approval. On Narborough's return to England, Herbert was appointed acting commander-in-chief, and made Benbow master aboard on 15 June 1679. \"Nonsuch\" would remain at Tangiers and off the African coast and had a number of successive captains who would go on to achieve flag rank, including George Rooke, Cloudesley Shovell and Francis Wheler. All were impressed by Benbow, and would afterwards help to advance his career. \"Nonsuch\" was next in action on 8 August 1681, this time against the Algerine warship \"Golden Horse\". \"Golden Horse\" had been engaged by, under the command of Captain William Booth, and when \"Nonsuch\" arrived on the scene \"Golden Horse\" surrendered. A dispute then arose over the question of the prize money and how it should be shared out, and comments were made amongst \"Nonsuch\"s crew against those of \"Adventure\". Benbow's repetition of these eventually came to Booth's knowledge, and the captain brought a court-martial against Benbow, however this revealed that Benbow had only been repeating these words rather than being their originator. Benbow was ordered to forfeit three months' pay, amounting to £12 15s., to \"Adventure\"s crew, and to \"ask Captain Booth's pardon on board His Majesty's ship \"Bristol\", declaring that he had no malicious intent in speaking those words; all the commanders being present, and a boat's crew of each ship's company\".", "\"Nonsuch\" then returned to England and was paid off on 9 November 1681. Benbow left the Royal Navy and entered the merchant service, sailing a merchant vessel from London and Bristol to ports in Italy and Spain. By 1686 he was a \"tough merchant seaman\" and the owner and commander of a frigate named \"Benbow\", trading with the Levant. In May 1687 he commanded a merchant vessel, \"Malaga Merchant\", and was aboard her when she was attacked by a Salé pirate. He mounted a successful defence and beat off the attack. It was claimed afterwards that he cut off and salted the heads of thirteen Moors who were slain aboard his ship, and then took them into Cadiz to claim a reward from the magistrates. A Moorish skull-cap, \"coated with varnish and set in silver\" and bearing the inscription \"First adventure of Captain John Benbow, and gift to Richard Ridley, 1687\" is referred to in 1844 by Charles Dickens in \"Bentley's Miscellany\" where he speaks of Shrewsbury's history, and the 1885 \"Dictionary of National Biography\" also relates the story.", "Benbow only returned to the Royal Navy after the Glorious Revolution in 1688. His first recorded commission was to the post of third lieutenant of on 1 June 1689, under the command of Captain David Mitchell. His first command came on 20 September of that year, when he was appointed captain of. He was transferred to on 26 October and then to on 12 November. Benbow's next post was as Master Attendant of Chatham Dockyard. He then moved to become Master Attendant at Deptford Dockyard in early March 1690, a post he intermittently held for the next six years. He was master of HMS \"Sovereign\" in summer 1690, under his old commander Arthur Herbert, now Lord Torrington. He was assigned to act as master of the fleet, and took part in the English defeat in the Battle of Beachy Head. After the defeat, a Royal Commission was held into the circumstances that led to it. Benbow was highly regarded as a specialist in both navigation and pilotage, and his evidence given in July 1690 to the preliminary investigation strongly favoured his old patron, Torrington. He did not however testify during Torrington's court-martial in December that year. Benbow continued aboard \"Sovereign\" throughout 1691, and by the summer of 1692, was again master of the fleet, this time under Admiral Edward Russell, then aboard \"Britannia\". Benbow worked closely with his old colleague David Mitchell, then serving as Russell's first captain, and Josiah Burchett, Russell's clerk. Benbow may have advised Russell to take the Gull Passage inside the Goodwin Sands to the Downs, where they linked up with the Dutch forces. Benbow served as master of the fleet during the Battles of Barfleur and La Hogue. After the battles, Benbow returned to Deptford to resume his duties as master attendant, spending a brief period at Portsmouth Dockyard helping to oversee repairs to the fleet. He had already had his pay upgraded to that of a master attendant, he was now to be paid as a master, in addition to his master attendant's wage, presumably as an acknowledgement of his special services.", "Benbow returned to active naval service in September 1693, joining Thomas Phillips, the second engineer of the ordnance, in jointly commanding a flotilla of bomb vessels to attack Saint-Malo. Benbow went aboard the 48-gun and began the bombardment on 16 November. It continued intermittently until 19 November when a large fireship was sent into the harbour. An attempt was made to bring her alongside the town walls, but she ran aground, was set on fire, and exploded. Despite the failure of the initial plan, considerable damage was done, and Benbow's forces were able to take the fort on Quince Rock and disabled it, carrying artillery and prisoners away and bringing them to Guernsey. Benbow was still dissatisfied with the overall result and initiated a court-martial against Captain Henry Tourville, accusing him of cowardice for not bringing his ship in closer. There was no conviction though, as the mortars were proved to be defective. Benbow's experience led to him being promoted to a similar flotilla, this time to be deployed against Dunkirk under the command of Vice-Admiral Shovell. A number of converted merchant vessels, rigged like fireships but designed to explode rather than burn, were assigned to support the expedition. Benbow had a hand in preparing these vessels for the operation throughout 1694, and worked closely with the principal storekeeper of the ordnance, Willem Meesters. Benbow's attacking fleet was covered by Shovell's fleet on the Downs and the attack was planned for 12 and 13 September. However, the French were able to block the entrance to the port, preventing Benbow's squadron from entering, and a storm further disrupted operations. Benbow drew back from Dunkirk, and instead sailed around to Calais, where he carried out a further bombardment on 27 September. He returned to the Downs and then resumed his duties at Deptford Dockyard. He spent December organising a convoy for a fleet of merchant vessels due to sail to Cadiz.", "Benbow was soon at sea again in March 1695, being appointed commander-in-chief of His Majesty's ships which were then off the coast of France. His squadron was highly successful, taking a number of French merchants in early April and bringing them to England as prizes. Benbow was recommended by Lord Berkeley, who had served with Benbow at Saint-Malo, to be promoted to rear-admiral at the next opportunity, and in the meantime he was appointed to the command of the 70-gun. He was soon joined by a volunteer – his then fourteen-year-old son – also named John Benbow. Benbow then sailed with Berkeley and the Dutch lieutenant-admiral Philips van Almonde to Saint-Malo, intending to operate against privateering operations being conducted from the area. Benbow moved to command, to direct the inshore operations of ten English and Dutch warships, nine English bomb vessels, and seventeen small boats and vessels. They began operations on their arrival off Saint-Malo on 4 July, remaining in action until evening the next day when they withdrew, without having achieved any decisive result. Several houses had been destroyed for the damage and loss of a few of the bomb vessels. Benbow was given eight bomb vessels and seven or eight frigates and was dispatched down the coast. He attacked Granville on 8 July, shelling it with over 900 bombs over several hours, and departed having set the town ablaze.", "The outcome of the operations had left Benbow in a tense relationship with his immediate superiors. Berkeley had been accused of excessive timidity in his actions, which it was believed had led to the failure of the attack on Dunkirk. Benbow on the other hand was widely lauded for his fearless inshore attacks with his bomb vessels. Berkeley wrote on 28 July: As to Captain Benbow, I know of no difference between him and me, nor have we had any. He has no small obligation to me, but being called in some of the foolish printed papers ‘the famous Captain Benbow’, I suppose has put him a little out of himself, and has made him play the fool, as I guess, in some of his letters. I will not farther now particularize this business, but time will show I have not been in the wrong, unless being too kind to an ungrateful man. However the Admiralty approved of Benbow's conduct and ordered him \"to be paid as Rear-Admiral during the time he has been employed this summer on the coast of France... as a reward for his good service.\" Benbow was then appointed to the grand committee of sixty men to oversee the plans for Greenwich Hospital in December 1695, but the issue dragged on until 1 May 1696. The Admiralty again stepped in and Benbow was finally promoted and appointed commander-in-chief of the squadron before Dunkirk as \"Rear-Admiral of the Blue for the duration of this present expedition\" and moved aboard the 70-gun. His orders were to protect English and Dutch shipping, especially from the squadron of the privateer Jean Bart. Bart was mostly successful in evading pursuit however, usually escaping into Dunkirk when Benbow's force drew near. Benbow was appointed to command a squadron in the Soundings in December 1696. He carried out a number of cruises between March and August 1697, protecting allied trade and escorting the West Indian and Virginian merchant fleets into port. These activities marked the last English naval expedition of the war. He also carried out reconnaissance activities on the French fleet in port in Brest in July, before resuming patrol operations off Dunkirk, this time in concert with a number of Dutch ships under Rear-Admiral Philips van der Goes, until the end of the war in September 1697.", "Benbow was made commander-in-chief of the King's ships in the West Indies on 9 March 1698 and instructed to tackle the issue of piracy. He sailed in November, the first leg taking him from Portsmouth to Madeira. Sailing under his protection from the Salé pirates was \"Paramore\", under Edmond Halley, then sailing to the North Atlantic to carry out experiments to observe magnetic variations. Benbow finally reached Barbados in February 1699, and moved to the Spanish Main aboard his flagship, the 60-gun. He threatened the governor of Cartagena with a blockade, and so compelled him to restore two English merchant ships that he had detained. These ships had been intended to take part in an expedition against the Scottish Darién scheme. Without the ships, this became impossible and the colonists were saved for the time being. This was counter to the English government's desire to see the end of the Scottish colonising efforts, and in June Benbow and the other West Indies governors received orders \"not to assist the Scotch colony in Darien.\" Benbow then sailed as far north as Newfoundland in order to drive the pirates away, but they evaded capture. Benbow returned to England in the summer of 1700, and was appointed to the command of a fleet in the Downs. Benbow served there until summer 1701, under the command of Admiral Sir George Rooke. He was promoted to rear-admiral of the red on 14 April, followed by vice-admiral of the blue on 30 June. He then flew his flag in the 70-gun.", "With the peace becoming increasingly uneasy, the English government became concerned over the possible fate of the Spanish silver fleet, due to arrive in European waters from America. They were worried that the French would intercept the ships and use the treasure for war preparations. Benbow was issued secret instructions to find the fleet, and then \"to seize and bring them to England, taking care that no embezzlement be made\". Benbow's squadron was detached on 2 September and sailed for the West Indies, arriving on 14 November, and was at the Jamaica Station in mid-December. He remained there for several months, being joined on 8 May 1702 by several vessels under Captain William Whetstone. Whetstone was made Rear-Admiral under Benbow, who had been promoted to Vice-Admiral of the White on 19 January 1702 By now, the War of the Spanish Succession had broken out, and news of its declaration reached Benbow on 7 July. He detached Whetstone and six ships to search off Port St Louis in Hispaniola for a French squadron under Admiral Jean du Casse, which he believed would call at the port on his voyage to Cartagena, and from there he might raid English and Dutch shipping. After Whetstone had left, Benbow took his squadron and sailed for Cartagena, anticipating that either he or Whetstone would find Du Casse and bring him to battle. By the time that Whetstone had reached Hispaniola, Du Casse had already departed. Benbow's force subsequently sighted the French on 19 August, sailing off Cape Santa Marta. The French had three transports and four warships carrying between 68 and 70 guns, while Benbow commanded seven ships carrying between 50 and 70 guns. The English forces were heavily scattered, and the light winds meant that they were slow to regroup. They did not achieve a form of collective order until four in the afternoon, after which a partial engagement was fought, lasting about two hours, until nightfall caused the fleets to temporarily break off. The action quickly revealed a breakdown in discipline amongst Benbow's captains. He had intended that the 64-gun under Captain Richard Kirkby would lead the line of battle, but Kirkby was not maintaining his station. Benbow decided to take the lead himself, and \"Breda\" pulled ahead, followed by the 50-gun under Captain George Walton. The two maintained contact with the French throughout the night, but the other five ships refused to close. The chase ensued until 24 August, with only Benbow, Walton, and Samuel Vincent aboard making active efforts to bring the French to battle. At times, they bore the brunt of the fire of the entire squadron. \"Ruby\" was disabled on 23 August, and Benbow ordered her to retire to Port Royal. The French resumed the action at two in the morning on 24 August, the entire squadron closing on \"Breda\" from astern and pounding her. Benbow himself was hit by a chain-shot that broke his leg and he was carried below. Benbow was determined to continue the pursuit, despite his wounds and despite Captain Kirkby's arrival on board, attempting to persuade Benbow to abandon the pursuit. Benbow summoned a council of war, and the other captains agreed, signing a paper drafted by Kirkby which declared that they believed \"that after six days of battle the squadron lacked enough men to continue and that there was little chance of a decisive action, since the men were exhausted, there was a general lack of ammunition, the ships' rigging and masts were badly damaged, and the winds were generally variable and undependable.\" They recommended breaking off the action and following the French to see if the situation improved. Benbow had \"seen the cowardly behaviour of some of them before, [and] had reason to believe that they either had a design against him or to be traitors to their country if an opportunity happened that the French could have destroyed the Admiral\". He, therefore, ordered the squadron to return to Jamaica. On their arrival, he ordered the captains to be imprisoned, awaiting a trial by court-martial. Benbow received a letter from du Casse after the engagement: Sir,<br> I had little hopes on Monday last but to have supped in your cabin: but it pleased God to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As for those cowardly captains who deserted you, hang them up, for by God they deserve it.<br> Yours,<br> Du Casse.", "Acting Rear-Admiral Whetstone returned to Port Royal, having spent 62 days cruising off Hispaniola, and preparations were made for the trial. Before it could begin, Captain Thomas Hudson died, who had commanded. The remaining captains appeared at the court-martial which convened on \"Breda\", held between 19 and 23 October. Due to his injuries, Benbow passed to Whetstone the role of presiding over the court, but he was present at the trial. The court found Captain Kirkby of and Cooper Wade of guilty of breach of orders, neglect of duty, and the \"ill signed paper and consultation... which obliged the Admiral... to give over the chase and fight\", and condemned them to be shot. John Constable of was found guilty of breach of orders and drunkenness and was cashiered. Samuel Vincent of \"Falmouth\" and Christopher Fogg of \"Breda\" were initially sentenced to be cashiered for signing the six captains' resolution, but Benbow personally declared that they had fought bravely, and their sentences were remitted by the Lord High Admiral. The sentences were deferred so that Queen Anne could have a chance to examine the proceedings. After her consideration in January 1703, she allowed the sentences to proceed and Constable, Kirkby, and Wade were returned to England as prisoners. Constable was imprisoned until 1704, when the Queen pardoned him. Kirkby and Wade were shot aboard on 16 April 1703 while she was anchored in Plymouth Sound under Captain Edward Acton. Controversy slowly began to develop over the events of August 1702. Supporters of the disgraced Kirkby and Wade sought to discredit Benbow by publishing their own account of the action.", "Benbow died at Port Royal, Kingston, Jamaica on 4 November 1702. Whetstone reported that the cause of death was \"the wound of his leg which he received in battle with Monsieur Du Casse, it never being set to perfection, which malady being aggravated by the discontent of his mind, threw him into a sort of melancholy which ended his life as before.\" He was buried on 16 November in the chancel of St Andrew's Church, Kingston. A marble slab was later laid over the grave, emblazoned with a coat of arms and inscribed: Here lyeth the Body of John Benbow, Esq., Admiral of the White, a true pattern of English Courage, who lost his life in Defence of his Queene & Country, November the 4th, 1702, In the 52nd year of his age, by a wound in his Legg. Received in an Engagement with Monsr. Du Casse; being Much Lamented. Secretary of State Lord Nottingham wrote to Benbow in January 1703, before news of his death had reached London, to inform him that the queen was \"extremely well pleased with your conduct and much offended with the baseness of those officers who deserted and betrayed you.\" Meanwhile, the cabinet was preparing to promote him to vice-admiral of the white and to dispatch him to transport troops to Newfoundland.", "Benbow married a woman named Martha (died 1722) after his return to England in 1681. The couple had at least seven children, including daughter Martha and sons Richard and John. Another son Solomon was baptised in 1686 but died in infancy. There are also records of two more sons named Richard who were born in Kent, and another daughter named Katherine. Son John went on to serve in the Royal Navy. The family lived in the parish of St Dunstan and All Saints, Stepney. In 1709, Katherine married Paul Calton of Milton, Berkshire, where Benbow is said to have stayed in the 1690s. According to Parish Records William Benbow son of Admiral John Benbow was buried at St Nicholas Parish Church, Deptford, Kent (now SE London) on 7 April 1729. One of the admiral's granddaughters married the Rev. John Simpson, who commissioned the current Stoke Hall, Derbyshire, following his acquisition of the estate upon their marriage.", "Benbow signed a three-year lease on Sayes Court in June 1696, a house belonging to diarist John Evelyn. Six months later, Evelyn wrote to a friend complaining, \"I have let my house to Captain Benbow, and have the mortification of seeing everyday much of my former labours and expenses there impairing for want of a more polite tenant.\" In January 1698, Tsar Peter of Russia arrived in London to study British shipbuilding and seamanship. He and his entourage were provided with Sayes Court to reside in during their stay by William III. The Russians spent three months in London before leaving to tour the country. Benbow promptly asked for reparations from the Treasury, in order to be able to reimburse Evelyn and recover his own losses. He complained that the Russians had caused considerable damage to his house, with \"much of the furniture broke, lost or destroyed\". Christopher Wren was instructed to survey the property and declared it \"entirely ruined\". Benbow lost \"twenty fine paintings\" and \"several fine draughts and other designs relating to the Sea\" from his personal property. The Treasury eventually allowed payment of £350 9s. 6d. in compensation.", "Benbow's fame led to his name entering popular culture. A monument by sculptor John Evan Thomas was erected in 1843 by public subscription in St Mary's Church, Shrewsbury commemorating Benbow as \"a skillful and daring seaman whose heroic exploits long rendered him the boast of the British Navy and still point him out as the Nelson of his times.\" A 74-gun ship of the line and two battleships were named. Robert Louis Stevenson named a tavern the \"Admiral Benbow\", where Jim Hawkins and his mother live, in his romantic adventure novel \"Treasure Island\". He also titled the first chapter \"The Old Sea Dog at the Admiral Benbow\". There are a number of real life Admiral Benbow public houses around the world, and other institutions have also borne his name. The incident of August 1702 also took hold on the popular imagination, and was celebrated in an alehouse song: <poem> Come all you seamen bold and draw near, and draw near, Come all you seamen bold and draw near. It's of an Admiral's fame, O brave Benbow was his name, How he fought all on the main, you shall hear, you shall hear. Brave Benbow he set sail For to fight, for to fight Brave Benbow he set sail for to fight. Brave Benbow he set sail with a fine and pleasant gale But his captains they turn'd tail in a fright, in a fright. Says Kirby unto Wade: We will run, we will run Says Kirby unto Wade, we will run. For I value no disgrace, nor the losing of my place, But the enemy I won't face, nor his guns, nor his guns. The Ruby and Benbow fought the French, fought the French The Ruby and Benbow fought the French. They fought them up and down, till the blood came trickling down, Till the blood came trickling down where they lay, where they lay. Brave Benbow lost his legs by chain shot, by chain shot Brave Benbow lost his legs by chain shot. Brave Benbow lost his legs, And all on his stumps he begs, Fight on my English lads, 'Tis our lot, 'tis our lot. The surgeon dress'd his wounds, Cries Benbow, cries Benbow The surgeon dress'd his wounds, cries Benbow. Let a cradle now in haste, on the quarterdeck be placed That the enemy I may face 'Til I die, 'Til I die. </poem> Its musical theme forms one of the three arrangements on which English composer Ralph Vaughan Williams based his \"Sea Songs\", originally arranged for military band in 1923 as the second movement of his \"English Folk Song Suite\", and subsequently re-arranged for full orchestra in 1942 by the composer. Another song has survived from the period with different air and rhythm but also known as \"Admiral Benbow\", and it is often sung by folksingers. It begins \"We sailed from Virginia and thence to Fayal\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Medical career and accomplishments.", "Imperial physician and death.", "Publications.", "\"De Humani Corporis Fabrica\".", "Excerpts.", "Other publications.", "Scientific and historical impact." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Vesalius was born as Andries van Wesel to his father Andries van Wesel and mother Isabel Crabbe on 31 December 1514 in Brussels, which was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. His great grandfather, Jan van Wesel, probably born in Wesel, received a medical degree from the University of Pavia and taught medicine at the University of Leuven. His grandfather, Everard van Wesel, was the Royal Physician of Emperor Maximilian, while his father, Anders van Wesel, served as apothecary to Maximilian, and later valet de chambre to his successor Charles V. Anders encouraged his son to continue in the family tradition and enrolled him in the Brethren of the Common Life in Brussels to learn Greek and Latin prior to learning medicine, according to standards of the era. In 1528 Vesalius entered the University of Leuven (\"Pedagogium Castrense\") taking arts, but when his father was appointed as the Valet de Chambre in 1532, he decided instead to pursue a career in the military at the University of Paris, where he relocated in 1533. There he studied the theories of Galen under the auspices of Jacques Dubois (Jacobus Sylvius) and Jean Fernel. It was during this time that he developed an interest in anatomy, and he was often found examining excavated bones in the charnel houses at the Cemetery of the Innocents. Vesalius was forced to leave Paris in 1536 owing to the opening of hostilities between the Holy Roman Empire and France and returned to Leuven. He completed his studies there under Johann Winter von Andernach and graduated the following year. His thesis, \"Paraphrasis in nonum librum Rhazae medici arabis clariss. ad regem Almansorum de affectuum singularum corporis partium curatione\", was a commentary on the ninth book of Rhazes. He remained at Leuven for a while, before leaving after a dispute with his professor. After settling briefly in Venice in 1536, he moved to the University of Padua (\"Universitas artistarum\") to study for his medical doctorate, which he received in 1537.", "On the day of his graduation he was immediately offered the chair of surgery and anatomy (\"explicator chirurgiae\") at Padua. He also guest-lectured at the University of Bologna and the University of Pisa. Prior to taking up his position in Padua, Vesalius traveled through Italy, and assisted the future Pope Paul IV and Ignatius of Loyola to heal those afflicted by leprosy. In Venice, he met the illustrator Johan van Calcar, a student of Titian. It was with van Calcar that Vesalius published his first anatomical text, \"Tabulae Anatomicae Sex\", in 1538. Previously these topics had been taught primarily from reading classical texts, mainly Galen, followed by an animal dissection by a barber–surgeon whose work was directed by the lecturer. No attempt was made to confirm Galen's claims, which were considered unassailable. Vesalius, in contrast, performed dissection as the primary teaching tool, handling the actual work himself and urging students to perform dissection themselves. He considered hands-on direct observation to be the only reliable resource. Vesalius created detailed illustrations of anatomy for students in the form of six large woodcut posters. When he found that some of them were being widely copied, he published them all in 1538 under the title \"Tabulae anatomicae sex\". He followed this in 1539 with an updated version of Winter's anatomical handbook, \"Institutiones anatomicae.\" In 1539 he also published his Venesection letter on bloodletting. This was a popular treatment for almost any illness, but there was some debate about where to take the blood from. The classical Greek procedure, advocated by Galen, was to collect blood from a site near the location of the illness. However, the Muslim and medieval practice was to draw a smaller amount of blood from a distant location. Vesalius' pamphlet generally supported Galen's view, but with qualifications that rejected the infiltration of Galen. In 1541 while in Bologna, Vesalius discovered that all of Galen's research had to be restricted to animals; since dissection had been banned in ancient Rome. Galen had dissected Barbary macaques instead, which he considered structurally closest to man. Even though Galen produced many errors due to the anatomical material available to him, he was a qualified examiner, but his research was weakened by stating his findings philosophically, so his findings were based on religious precepts rather than science. Vesalius contributed to the new Giunta edition of Galen's collected works and began to write his own anatomical text based on his own research. Until Vesalius pointed out Galen's substitution of animal for human anatomy, it had gone unnoticed and had long been the basis of studying human anatomy. However, some people still chose to follow Galen and resented Vesalius for calling attention to the difference. Galen had assumed that arteries carried the purest blood to higher organs such as the brain and lungs from the left ventricle of the heart, while veins carried blood to the lesser organs such as the stomach from the right ventricle. In order for this theory to be correct, some kind of opening was needed to interconnect the ventricles, and Galen claimed to have found them. So paramount was Galen's authority that for 1400 years a succession of anatomists had claimed to find these holes, until Vesalius admitted he could not find them. Nonetheless, he did not venture to dispute Galen on the distribution of blood, being unable to offer any other solution, and so supposed that it diffused through the unbroken partition between the ventricles. Other famous examples of Vesalius disproving Galen's assertions were his discoveries that the lower jaw (mandible) was composed of only one bone, not two (which Galen had assumed based on animal dissection) and that humans lack the rete mirabile, a network of blood vessels at the base of the brain that is found in sheep and other ungulates. In 1543, Vesalius conducted a public dissection of the body of Jakob Karrer von Gebweiler, a notorious felon from the city of Basel, Switzerland. He assembled and articulated the bones, finally donating the skeleton to the University of Basel. This preparation (\"The Basel Skeleton\") is Vesalius' only well-preserved skeletal preparation, and also the world's oldest surviving anatomical preparation. It is still displayed at the Anatomical Museum of the University of Basel. In the same year Vesalius took residence in Basel to help Johannes Oporinus publish the seven-volume \"De humani corporis fabrica\" (\"On the fabric of the human body\"), a groundbreaking work of human anatomy that he dedicated to Charles V. Many believe it was illustrated by Titian's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar, but evidence is lacking, and it is unlikely that a single artist created all 273 illustrations in a period of time so short. At about the same time he published an abridged edition for students, \"Andrea Vesalii suorum de humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome\", and dedicated it to Philip II of Spain, the son of the Emperor. That work, now collectively referred to as the Fabrica of Vesalius, was groundbreaking in the history of medical publishing and is considered to be a major step in the development of scientific medicine. Because of this, it marks the establishment of anatomy as a modern descriptive science. Though Vesalius' work was not the first such work based on actual dissection, nor even the first work of this era, the production quality, highly detailed and intricate plates, and the likelihood that the artists who produced it were clearly present in person at the dissections made it an instant classic. Pirated editions were available almost immediately, an event Vesalius acknowledged in a printer's note would happen. Vesalius was 28 years old when the first edition of \"Fabrica\" was published.", "Soon after publication, Vesalius was invited to become imperial physician to the court of Emperor Charles V. He informed the Venetian Senate that he would leave his post in Padua, which prompted Duke Cosimo I de' Medici to invite him to move to the expanding university in Pisa, which he declined. Vesalius took up the offered position in the imperial court, where he had to deal with other physicians who mocked him for being a mere barber surgeon instead of an academic working on the respected basis of theory. In the 1540s, shortly after entering in service of the emperor, Vesalius married Anne van Hamme, from Vilvorde, Belgium. They had one daughter, named Anne, who died in 1588. Over the next eleven years Vesalius traveled with the court, treating injuries caused in battle or tournaments, performing postmortems, administering medication, and writing private letters addressing specific medical questions. During these years he also wrote \"the Epistle on the China root\", a short text on the properties of a medical plant whose efficacy he doubted, as well as a defense of his anatomical findings. This elicited a new round of attacks on his work that called for him to be punished by the emperor. In 1551, Charles V commissioned an inquiry in Salamanca to investigate the religious implications of his methods. Although Vesalius' work was cleared by the board, the attacks continued. Four years later one of his main detractors and one-time professors, Jacobus Sylvius, published an article that claimed that the human body itself had changed since Galen had studied it. After the abdication of Emperor Charles V, Vesalius continued at court in great favor with his son Philip II, who rewarded him with a pension for life by making him a count palatine. In 1555 he published a revised edition of \"De humani corporis fabrica\". In 1564 Vesalius went on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, some said, in penance after being accused of dissecting a living body. He sailed with the Venetian fleet under via Cyprus. When he reached Jerusalem he received a message from the Venetian senate requesting him again to accept the Paduan professorship, which had become vacant on the death of his friend and pupil Fallopius. After struggling for many days with adverse winds in the Ionian Sea, he was shipwrecked on the island of Zakynthos. Here he soon died, in such debt that a benefactor kindly paid for his funeral. At the time of his death he was 49 years of age. He was buried somewhere on the island of Zakynthos (Zante). For some time, it was assumed that Vesalius's pilgrimage was due to the pressures imposed on him by the Inquisition. Today, this assumption is generally considered to be without foundation and is dismissed by modern biographers. It appears the story was spread by Hubert Languet, a diplomat under Emperor Charles V and then under the Prince of Orange, who claimed in 1565 that Vesalius had performed an autopsy on an aristocrat in Spain while the heart was still beating, leading to the Inquisition's condemning him to death. The story went on to claim that Philip II had the sentence commuted to a pilgrimage. That story re-surfaced several times, until it was more recently revised.", "", "In 1543, Vesalius asked Johannes Oporinus to publish the book \"De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem\" (\"On the fabric of the human body\"), a groundbreaking work of human anatomy he dedicated to Charles V and which many believe was illustrated by Titian's pupil Jan Stephen van Calcar. About the same time he published another version of his great work, entitled \"De humani corporis fabrica librorum epitome\" (\"Abridgement of the Structure of the Human Body\") more commonly known as the \"Epitome\", with a stronger focus on illustrations than on text, so as to help readers, including medical students, to easily understand his findings. The actual text of the \"Epitome\" was an abridged form of his work in the \"Fabrica\", and the organization of the two books was quite varied. He dedicated it to Philip II of Spain, son of the Emperor. The \"Fabrica\" emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the \"anatomical\" view of the body, seeing human internal functioning as a result of an essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional space. His book contains drawings of several organs on two leaves. This allows for the creation of three-dimensional diagrams by cutting out the organs and pasting them on flayed figures. This was in stark contrast to many of the anatomical models used previously, which had strong Galenic/Aristotelean elements, as well as elements of astrology. Although modern anatomical texts had been published by Mondino and Berenger, much of their work was clouded by reverence for Galen and Arabian doctrines. Besides the first good description of the sphenoid bone, he showed that the sternum consists of three portions and the sacrum of five or six, and described accurately the vestibule in the interior of the temporal bone. He not only verified Estienne's observations on the valves of the hepatic veins, but also described the vena azygos, and discovered the canal which passes in the fetus between the umbilical vein and the vena cava, since named the ductus venosus. He described the omentum and its connections with the stomach, the spleen and the colon; gave the first correct views of the structure of the pylorus; observed the small size of the caecal appendix in man; gave the first good account of the mediastinum and pleura and the fullest description of the anatomy of the brain up to that time. He did not understand the inferior recesses, and his account of the nerves is confused by regarding the optic as the first pair, the third as the fifth, and the fifth as the seventh. In this work, Vesalius also becomes the first person to describe mechanical ventilation. It is largely this achievement that has resulted in Vesalius being incorporated into the Australian and New Zealand College of Anaesthetists college arms and crest.", "When I undertake the dissection of a human pelvis I pass a stout rope tied like a noose beneath the lower jaw and through the zygomas up to the top of the head... The lower end of the noose I run through a pulley fixed to a beam in the room so that I may raise or lower the cadaver as it hangs there or turn around in any direction to suit my purpose;... You must take care not to put the noose around the neck, unless some of the muscles connected to the occipital bone have already been cut away.", "In 1538, Vesalius wrote \"Epistola, docens venam axillarem dextri cubiti in dolore laterali secandam\" (A letter, teaching that in cases of pain in the side, the axillary vein of the right elbow be cut), commonly known as the Venesection Letter, which demonstrated a revived venesection, a classical procedure in which blood was drawn near the site of the ailment. He sought to locate the precise site for venesection in pleurisy within the framework of the classical method. The real significance of the book is his attempt to support his arguments by the location and continuity of the venous system from his observations rather than appeal to earlier published works. With this novel approach to the problem of venesection, Vesalius posed the then striking hypothesis that anatomical dissection might be used to test speculation. In 1546, three years after the \"Fabrica\", he wrote his \"Epistola rationem modumque propinandi radicis Chynae decocti\", commonly known as the Epistle on the China Root. Ostensibly an appraisal of a popular but ineffective treatment for gout, syphilis, and stone, this work is especially important as a continued polemic against Galenism and a reply to critics in the camp of his former professor Jacobus Sylvius, now an obsessive detractor. In February 1561, Vesalius was given a copy of Gabriele Fallopio's \"Observationes anatomicae\", friendly additions and corrections to the Fabrica. Before the end of the year Vesalius composed a cordial reply, \"Anatomicarum Gabrielis Fallopii observationum examen\", generally referred to as the \"Examen\". In this work he recognizes in Fallopio a true equal in the science of dissection he had done so much to create. Vesalius' reply to Fallopio was published in May 1564, a month after Vesalius' death on the Greek island of Zante (now called Zakynthos).", "The influence of Vesalius' plates representing the partial dissections of the human figure posing in a landscape setting is apparent in the anatomical plates prepared by the Baroque painter Pietro da Cortona (1596–1669), who executed anatomical plates with figures in dramatic poses, most of them with architectural or landscape backdrops. During the 20th century, the American artist, Jacob Lawrence created his \"Vesalius Suite\" based on the anatomical drawings of Andreas Vesalius. \"\"De Fabrica\" received a mixed reception when it first appeared; strict Galenists deplored its attacks on their master, while other anatomists, particularly in Italy, praised it as an important contribution—the reaction that was ultimately to carry the day,\" concludes Katharine Park her Commentary in the 1998 De Fabrica. Vesalius was going up against the towering authority of a tradition stretching back to the ancients—here specifically the work of Galen – with only his experience on his side. He knew what his eyes saw and his hands felt, and concluded that traditional belief was wrong. In his publications we see Vesalius doing everything he can think of to bolster his authoritative image: publishing a huge monument to himself, but presenting the work using Galen's own flowchart; presenting himself as personal physician to the emperor and having himself depicted in a commanding position on the title page of the book; augmenting his words with illustration after illustration and recommending the experiential road to all his students far and wide. His guarantee: if you doubt what I say and show here, do your own anatomy, see for yourself. Simultaneously, Vesalius's work was part of one of the earliest known public health programs. The Council of Doges in Venice responded to the Bubonic Plague in the mid-14th century by directing the University of Padua Medical School to devote itself to discovering the causes of plague, how it spreads, how it develops in the individual, and if possible how victims might be cured. It ultimately took three centuries to find the solution, but with Venice leading the way plague was eventually eliminated as a major killer across Europe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Poetic language." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Quasimodo was born in Modica, Sicily, to Gaetano Quasimodo and Clotilde Ragusa. He spent his childhood in Roccalumera. In 1908 his family moved to Messina, as his father had been sent there to help the local population struck by a devastating earthquake. The impressions of the effects of natural forces would have a great impact on the young Quasimodo. In 1919 he graduated from the local Technical College. In Messina he also made friends with Giorgio La Pira, future mayor of Florence. Salvatore Quasimodo was introduced to the Scottish Rite Freemasonry by his father, who was a member of the Masonic Lodge “Arnaldo da Brescia” in Licata. Quasimodo's brother, the Nobel Prize for Literature, was introduced on March 31 1922, at the age of 21, and still remain closely friend with the Italian politician Giorgio La Pira of the York Rite. In 1917 Quasimodo founded the short-lived \"Nuovo giornale letterario\" (\"New Literary Journal\"), in which he published his first poems. In 1919 he moved to Rome to finish his engineering studies, but poor economic conditions forced him to find a work as a technical draughtsman. In the meantime he collaborated with several reviews and studied Greek and Latin. In 1929, invited by Elio Vittorini, who had married Quasimodo's sister, he moved to Florence. Here he met poets such as Alessandro Bonsanti and Eugenio Montale. In 1930 he took a job with Italy's Civil Engineering Corps in Reggio Calabria. Here he met the Misefari brothers, who encouraged him to continue writing. Developing his nearness to the hermetic movement, Quasimodo published his first collection, \"Acque e terre\" (\"Waters and Earths\") in that year. In 1931 he was transferred to Imperia and then to Genoa, where he got acquainted with Camillo Sbarbaro and other personalities of the \"Circoli\" magazine, with which Quasimodo started a fruitful collaboration. In 1932 he published with them a new collection, \"Oboe sommerso\", including all his lyrics from 1930–1932. In 1934 Quasimodo moved to Milan. Starting from 1938 he devoted himself entirely to writing, working with Cesare Zavattini and for \"Letteratura\", the official review of the Hermetic movement. In 1938 he published \"Poesie\", followed by the translations of \"Lirici Greci\" (\"Greek Poets\") published by \"Corrente di Vita\" in 1939. Though an outspoken anti-Fascist, during World War II Quasimodo did not take part in the Italian resistance against the German occupation. In that period he devoted himself to the translation of the Gospel of John, of some of Catullus's cantos, and several episodes of the \"Odyssey\". In 1945 he became a member of the Italian Communist Party. In 1946 he published another collection, \"Giorno dopo giorno\" (\"Day After Day\"), which made clear the increasing moral engagement and the epic tone of the social criticism of the author. The same theme characterized his next works, \"La vita non è sogno\" (\"Life Is Not a Dream\"), \"Il falso e il vero verde\" (\"The False and True Green\") and \"La terra impareggiabile\" (\"The Incomparable Land\"). In all this period Quasimodo did not stop producing translations of classic authors and collaborating as a journalist for some of the most prestigious Italian publications (mostly with articles about the theatre). In the 1950s Quasimodo won the following literary awards: Premio San Babila (1950), Premio Etna-Taormina (1953), Premio Viareggio (1958) and, finally, the Nobel Prize for Literature (1959). In 1960 and 1967 he received \"honoris causa\" degrees from the Universities of Messina and Oxford, respectively. In his last years the poet made numerous voyages to Europe and America, giving public speeches and public lectures of his poems, which had been translated in several foreign languages. In June 1968, when he was in Amalfi for a discourse, Quasimodo was struck by a cerebral hemorrhage. He died a few days later in the hospital in Naples. He was interred in the Cimitero Monumentale in Milan.", "Traditional literary critique divides Quasimodo's work into two major periods: the hermetic period until World War II and the post-hermetic era until his death. Although these periods are distinct, they are to be seen as a single poetical quest. This quest or exploration for a unique language took him through various stages and various modalities of expression. As an intelligent and clever poet, Quasimodo used a hermetical, \"closed\" language to sketch recurring motifs like Sicily, religion and death. Subsequently, the translation of authors from Roman and Greek Antiquity enabled him to extend his linguistic toolkit. The disgust and sense of absurdity of World War II also had its impact on the poet's language. This bitterness, however, faded in his late writings, and was replaced by the mature voice of an old poet reflecting upon his world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Classical theorems.", "Geometry in large." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Riemannian geometry was first put forward in generality by Bernhard Riemann in the 19th century. It deals with a broad range of geometries whose metric properties vary from point to point, including the standard types of non-Euclidean geometry. Every smooth manifold admits a Riemannian metric, which often helps to solve problems of differential topology. It also serves as an entry level for the more complicated structure of pseudo-Riemannian manifolds, which (in four dimensions) are the main objects of the theory of general relativity. Other generalizations of Riemannian geometry include Finsler geometry. There exists a close analogy of differential geometry with the mathematical structure of defects in regular crystals. Dislocations and disclinations produce torsions and curvature. The following articles provide some useful introductory material:", "What follows is an incomplete list of the most classical theorems in Riemannian geometry. The choice is made depending on its importance and elegance of formulation. Most of the results can be found in the classic monograph by Jeff Cheeger and D. Ebin (see below). The formulations given are far from being very exact or the most general. This list is oriented to those who already know the basic definitions and want to know what these definitions are about.", "In all of the following theorems we assume some local behavior of the space (usually formulated using curvature assumption) to derive some information about the global structure of the space, including either some information on the topological type of the manifold or on the behavior of points at \"sufficiently large\" distances." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The \"dhimma contract\".", "The dhimma contract and sharia law.", "The end of the dhimma contract.", "Dhimmi communities.", "Christians.", "Jews.", "Hindus and Buddhists.", "Restrictions.", "Jizya tax.", "Administration of law.", "Relevant texts.", "Quranic verses as a basis for Islamic policies toward dhimmis.", "Hadith.", "Constitution of Medina.", "Khaybar agreement.", "Pact of Umar.", "Cultural interactions and cultural differences.", "In modern times." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Based on Quranic verses and Islamic traditions, classical sharia distinguishes between Muslims, followers of other Abrahamic religions, and pagans or people belonging to other polytheistic religions. As monotheists, Jews and Christians have traditionally been considered \"People of the Book,\" and afforded a special status known as \"dhimmi\" derived from a theoretical contract—\"dhimma\" or \"residence in return for taxes\". In Yemenite Jewish sources, a treaty was drafted between Muhammad and his Jewish subjects, known as \"kitāb ḏimmat al-nabi\", written in the 17th year of the Hijra (638 CE), which gave express liberty to Jews living in Arabia to observe the Sabbath and to grow-out their side-locks, but required them to pay the jizya (poll-tax) annually for their protection. There are parallels for this in Roman and Jewish law. Muslim governments in the Indus basin readily extended the dhimmi status to the Hindus and Buddhists of India. Eventually, the largest school of Islamic scholarship applied this term to all non-Muslims living in Islamic lands outside the sacred area surrounding Mecca, Arabia. Classical sharia incorporated the religious laws and courts of Christians, Jews and Hindus, as seen in the early caliphate, Al-Andalus, Indian subcontinent, and the Ottoman Millet system. Quoting the Qur'anic statement, \"Let Christians judge according to what We have revealed in the Gospel\", Muhammad Hamidullah writes that Islam has decentralized and \"communalized\" law and justice. In medieval Islamic societies, the \"qadi\" (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law, thus the dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the sharia law, as with the Jews who would have their own rabbinical courts. These courts did not cover cases that involved other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. By the 18th century, however, dhimmis frequently attended the Ottoman Muslim courts, where cases were taken against them by Muslims, or they took cases against Muslims or other dhimmis. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in these courts were tailored to their beliefs. Non-Muslims were allowed to engage in certain practices (such as the consumption of alcohol and pork) that were usually forbidden by Islamic law, in point of fact, any Muslim who pours away their wine or forcibly appropriates it is liable to pay compensation. Some Islamic theologians held that Zoroastrian \"self-marriages\", considered incestuous under sharia, should also tolerated. Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350) opined that most scholars of the Hanbali school held that non-Muslims were entitled to such practices, as long as they were not presented to sharia courts and the religious minorities in question held them to be permissible. This ruling was based on the precedent that there were no records of the Islamic prophet Muhammad forbidding such self-marriages among Zoroastrians, despite coming into contact with Zoroastrians and knowing about this practice. Religious minorities were also free to do as they wished in their own homes, provided they did not publicly engage in illicit sexual activity in ways that could threaten public morals. However, the classical dhimma contract is no longer enforced. Western influence has been instrumental in eliminating the restrictions and protections of the dhimma contract. According to law professor H. Patrick Glenn of McGill University, \"[t]oday it is said that the dhimmi are 'excluded from the specifically Muslim privileges, but on the other hand they are excluded from the specifically Muslim duties' while (and here there are clear parallels with western public and private law treatment of aliens—Fremdenrecht, la condition de estrangers), '[f]or the rest, the Muslim and the dhimmi are equal in practically the whole of the law of property and of contracts and obligations'.\"", "The dhimma contract is an integral part of traditional Islamic sharia. From the 9th century AD, the power to interpret and refine law in traditional Islamic societies was in the hands of the scholars (\"ulama\"). This separation of powers served to limit the range of actions available to the ruler, who could not easily decree or reinterpret law independently and expect the continued support of the community. Through succeeding centuries and empires, the balance between the ulema and the rulers shifted and reformed, but the balance of power was never decisively changed. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Industrial Revolution and the French Revolution introduced an era of European world hegemony that included the domination of most of the lands of Islam. At the end of the Second World War, the European powers found themselves too weakened to maintain their empires. The wide variety in forms of government, systems of law, attitudes toward modernity and interpretations of sharia are a result of the ensuing drives for independence and modernity in the Muslim world. Muslim states, sects, schools of thought and individuals differ as to exactly what sharia law entails. In addition, Muslim states today utilize a spectrum of legal systems. Most states have a mixed system that implements certain aspects of sharia while acknowledging the supremacy of a constitution. A few, such as Turkey, have declared themselves secular. Local and customary laws may take precedence in certain matters, as well. Islamic law is therefore polynormative, and despite several cases of regression in recent years, the trend is towards modernization and liberalization. Questions of human rights and the status of minorities cannot be generalized with regards to the Muslim world. They must instead be examined on a case-by-case basis, within specific political and cultural contexts, using perspectives drawn from the historical framework.", "The status of the dhimmi \"was for long accepted with resignation by the Christians and with gratitude by the Jews\" but the rising power of Christendom and the radical ideas of the French Revolution caused a wave of discontent among Christian dhimmis. The continuing and growing pressure from the European powers combined with pressure from Muslim reformers gradually relaxed the inequalities between Muslims and non-Muslims. On 18 February 1856, the Ottoman Reform Edict of 1856 (Hatt-i Humayan) was issued, building upon the 1839 edict. It came about partly as a result of pressure from and the efforts of the ambassadors of Great Britain, France, and Austria, whose respective countries were needed as allies in the Crimean War. It again proclaimed the principle of equality between Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced many specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army.", "Jews and Christians living under early Muslim rule were considered dhimmis, a status that was later also extended to other non-Muslims like Hindus and Buddhists. They were allowed to \"practise their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy\" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute and acknowledging Muslim rule. Islamic law and custom prohibited the enslavement of free dhimmis within lands under Islamic rule. Taxation from the perspective of dhimmis who came under the Muslim rule, was \"a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes\" (but lower under the Muslim rule). They were also exempted from the zakat tax paid by Muslims. The dhimmi communities living in Islamic states had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who had their own Halakhic courts. The dhimmi communities had their own leaders, courts, personal and religious laws, and \"generally speaking, Muslim tolerance of unbelievers was far better than anything available in Christendom, until the rise of secularism in the 17th century\". \"Muslims guaranteed freedom of worship and livelihood, provided that they remained loyal to the Muslim state and paid a poll tax\". \"Muslim governments appointed Christian and Jewish professionals to their bureaucracies\", and thus, Christians and Jews \"contributed to the making of the Islamic civilization\". However, dhimmis faced social and symbolic restrictions, and a pattern of stricter, then more lax, enforcement developed over time. Marshall Hodgson, a historian of Islam, writes that during the era of the High Caliphate (7th–13th Centuries), zealous Shariah-minded Muslims gladly elaborated their code of symbolic restrictions on the dhimmis. From an Islamic legal perspective, the pledge of protection granted dhimmis the freedom to practice their religion and spared them forced conversions. The dhimmis also served a variety of useful purposes, mostly economic, which was another point of concern to jurists. Religious minorities were free to do whatever they wished in their own homes, but could not \"publicly engage in illicit sex in ways that threaten public morals\". In some cases, religious practices that Muslims found repugnant were allowed. One example was the Zoroastrian practice of incestuous \"self-marriage\" where a man could marry his mother, sister or daughter. According to the famous Islamic legal scholar Ibn Qayyim Al-Jawziyya (1292–1350), non-Muslims had the right to engage in such religious practices even if it offended Muslims, under the conditions that such cases not be presented to Islamic Sharia courts and that these religious minorities believed that the practice in question is permissible according to their religion. This ruling was based on the precedent that Muhammad did not forbid such self-marriages among Zoroastrians despite coming in contact with them and having knowledge of their practices. The Arabs generally established garrisons outside towns in the conquered territories, and had little interaction with the local dhimmi populations for purposes other than the collection of taxes. The conquered Christian, Jewish, Mazdean and Buddhist communities were otherwise left to lead their lives as before.", "According to historians Lewis and Stillman, local Christians in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt were non-Chalcedonians and many may have felt better off under early Muslim rule than under that of the Byzantine Orthodox of Constantinople. In 1095, Pope Urban II urged western European Christians to come to the aid of the Christians of Palestine. The subsequent Crusades brought Roman Catholic Christians into contact with Orthodox Christians whose beliefs they discovered to differ from their own perhaps more than they had realized, and whose position under the rule of the Muslim Fatimid Caliphate was less uncomfortable than had been supposed. Consequently, the Eastern Christians provided perhaps less support to the Crusaders than had been expected. When the Arab East came under Ottoman rule in the 16th century, Christian populations and fortunes rebounded significantly. The Ottomans had long experience dealing with Christian and Jewish minorities, and were more tolerant towards religious minorities than the former Muslim rulers, the Mamluks of Egypt. However, Christians living under Islamic rule have suffered certain legal disadvantages and at times persecution. In the Ottoman Empire, in accordance with the \"dhimmi\" system implemented in Muslim countries, they, like all other Christians and also Jews, were accorded certain freedoms. The dhimmi system in the Ottoman Empire was largely based upon the Pact of Umar. The client status established the rights of the non-Muslims to property, livelihood and freedom of worship but they were in essence treated as second-class citizens in the empire and referred to in Turkish as \"gavours\", a pejorative word meaning \"infidel\" or \"unbeliever\". The clause of the Pact of Umar which prohibited non-Muslims from building new places of worship was historically imposed on some communities of the Ottoman Empire and ignored in other cases, at discretion of the local authorities. Although there were no laws mandating religious ghettos, this led to non-Muslim communities being clustered around existing houses of worship. In addition to other legal limitations, Christians were not considered equals to Muslims and several prohibitions were placed on them. Their testimony against Muslims by Christians and Jews was inadmissible in courts of law wherein a Muslim could be punished; this meant that their testimony could only be considered in commercial cases. They were forbidden to carry weapons or ride atop horses and camels. Their houses could not overlook those of Muslims; and their religious practices were severely circumscribed (e.g., the ringing of church bells was strictly forbidden).", "Because the early Islamic conquests initially preserved much of the existing administrative machinery and culture, in many territories they amounted to little more than a change of rulers for the subject populations, which \"brought peace to peoples demoralized and disaffected by the casualties and heavy taxation that resulted from the years of Byzantine-Persian warfare\". María Rosa Menocal, argues that the Jewish dhimmis living under the caliphate, while allowed fewer rights than Muslims, were still better off than in the Christian parts of Europe. Jews from other parts of Europe made their way to al-Andalus, where in parallel to Christian sects regarded as heretical by Catholic Europe, they were not just tolerated, but where opportunities to practice faith and trade were open without restriction save for the prohibitions on proselytization. Bernard Lewis states: Professor of Jewish medieval history at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Hayim Hillel Ben-Sasson, notes: According to the French historian Claude Cahen, Islam has \"shown more toleration than Europe towards the Jews who remained in Muslim lands.\" Comparing the treatment of Jews in the medieval Islamic world and medieval Christian Europe, Mark R. Cohen notes that, in contrast to Jews in Christian Europe, the \"Jews in Islam were well integrated into the economic life of the larger society\", and that they were allowed to practice their religion more freely than they could do in Christian Europe. According to the scholar Mordechai Zaken, tribal chieftains (also known as aghas) in tribal Muslim societies such as the Kurdish society in Kurdistan would tax their Jewish subjects. The Jews were in fact civilians protected by their chieftains in and around their communities; in return they paid part of their harvest as dues, and contributed their skills and services to their patron chieftain.", "By the 10th century, the Turks of Central Asia had invaded the Indic plains, and brought Islam to Northwestern parts of India. At the end of the 12th century, the Muslims advanced quickly into the Ganges Plain. In one decade, a Muslim army led by Turkic slaves consolidated resistance around Lahore and brought northern India, as far as Bengal, under Muslim rule. From these Turkic slaves would come sultans, including the founder of the sultanate of Delhi. By the 15th century, major parts of Northern India was ruled by Muslim rulers, mostly descended from invaders. In the 16th century, India came under the influence of the Mughals. Babur, the first ruler of the Mughal empire, established a foothold in the north which paved the way for further expansion by his successors. Although the Mughal emperor Akbar has been described as a universalist, most Mughal emperors were oppressive of native Hindu, Buddhist and later Sikh populations. Aurangzeb specifically was inclined towards a highly fundamentalist approach. The Muslim rulers from Turks to Mughals retained their Islamic identities, and made various attempts at conversion and subjugation of native Hindu populations. Under Muslim rule, vandalism, and outright destruction of temples became a widespread phenomenon. In fact, such was the extent of persecution and genocide that there was a decline in population of India during the years of Muslim conquest. Historian K. S. Lal in his book \"Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India\" claims that between the years 1000 AD and 1500 AD, the population of the Indian subcontinent decreased from 200 to 170 million. In \"Growth of Muslim Population in Medieval India\" meanwhile he claimed that it fell from 200 million to 120 million by establishment of the Mughal Empire because of killings, deportations, dissemination, wars, and famines. He stated that his estimates were tentative and did not claim any finality. Will Durant called the Muslim conquest of India \"probably the bloodiest story in history\".", "There were a number of restrictions on dhimmis. In a modern sense the dhimmis would be described as second-class citizens. Although \"dhimmis\" were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims. Loud prayers were forbidden, as were the ringing of church bells and the blowing of the shofar. They were also not allowed to build or repair churches without Muslim consent. Moreover, dhimmis were not allowed to seek converts among Muslims. In the Mamluk Egypt, where non-Mamluk Muslims were not allowed to ride horses and camels, dhimmis were prohibited even from riding donkeys inside cities. Sometimes, Muslim rulers issued regulations requiring dhimmis to attach distinctive signs to their houses. Most of the restrictions were social and symbolic in nature, and a pattern of stricter, then more lax, enforcement developed over time. The major financial disabilities of the dhimmi were the jizya poll tax and the fact dhimmis and Muslims could not inherit from each other. That would create an incentive to convert if someone from the family had already converted. Ira M. Lapidus states that the \"payment of the poll tax seems to have been regular, but other obligations were inconsistently enforced and did not prevent many non-Muslims from being important political, business, and scholarly figures. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, Jewish bankers and financiers were important at the 'Abbasid court.\" The jurists and scholars of Islamic sharia law called for humane treatment of the dhimmis.", "Payment of the \"jizya\" obligated Muslim authorities to protect dhimmis in civil and military matters. Sura 9 (At-Tawba), verse 29 stipulates that \"jizya\" be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease. Failure to pay the \"jizya\" could result in the pledge of protection of a dhimmi's life and property becoming void, with the dhimmi facing the alternatives of conversion, enslavement, death or imprisonment, as advocated by Abu Yusuf, the chief qadi (Islamic judge) of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid who ruled over much of modern-day Iraq. Lewis states there are varying opinions among scholars as to how much of a burden jizya was. According to Norman Stillman: \"\"jizya\" and \"kharaj\" were a \"crushing burden for the non-Muslim peasantry who eked out a bare living in a subsistence economy.\" Both agree that ultimately, the additional taxation on non-Muslims was a critical factor that drove many dhimmis to leave their religion and accept Islam. However, in some regions the jizya on populations was significantly lower than the zakat, meaning dhimmi populations maintained an economic advantage. According to Cohen, taxation, from the perspective of dhimmis who came under Muslim rule, was \"a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes\". Lewis observes that the change from Byzantine to Arab rule was welcomed by many among the dhimmis who found the new yoke far lighter than the old, both in taxation and in other matters, and that some, even among the Christians of Syria and Egypt, preferred the rule of Islam to that of Byzantines. Montgomery Watt states, \"the Christians were probably better off as dhimmis under Muslim-Arab rulers than they had been under the Byzantine Greeks.\" In some places, for example Egypt, the jizya was a tax incentive for Christians to convert to Islam. The importance of dhimmis as a source of revenue for the Rashidun Caliphate is illustrated in a letter ascribed to Umar I and cited by Abu Yusuf: \"if we take dhimmis and share them out, what will be left for the Muslims who come after us? By God, Muslims would not find a man to talk to and profit from his labors.\" Islamic jurists required adult, free, healthy males among the dhimma community to pay the jizya, while exempting women, children, the elderly, slaves, those affected by mental or physical handicaps, and travelers who did not settle in Muslim lands. The early Islamic scholars took a relatively humane and practical attitude towards the collection of \"jizya\", compared to the 11th century commentators writing when Islam was under threat both at home and abroad. The jurist Abu Yusuf, the chief judge of the caliph Harun al-Rashid, rules as follows regarding the manner of collecting the jizya In the border provinces, dhimmis were sometimes recruited for military operations. In such cases, they were exempted from jizya for the year of service.", "Religious pluralism existed in medieval Islamic law and ethics. The religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as exemplified in the Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Ottoman Empire and Indian subcontinent. In medieval Islamic societies, the qadi (Islamic judge) usually could not interfere in the matters of non-Muslims unless the parties voluntarily chose to be judged according to Islamic law. The dhimmi communities living in Islamic states usually had their own laws independent from the Sharia law, such as the Jews who had their own Halakha courts. Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems. However, dhimmis frequently attended the Muslim courts in order to record property and business transactions within their own communities. Cases were taken out against Muslims, against other dhimmis and even against members of the dhimmi's own family. Dhimmis often took cases relating to marriage, divorce or inheritance to the Muslim courts so these cases would be decided under sharia law. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis' beliefs. Muslim men could generally marry dhimmi women who are considered People of the Book, however Islamic jurists rejected the possibility any non-Muslim man might marry a Muslim woman. Bernard Lewis notes that \"similar position existed under the laws of Byzantine Empire, according to which a Christian could marry a Jewish woman, but a Jew could not marry a Christian woman under pain of death\".", "", "Lewis states", "A hadith by Muhammad, \"Whoever killed a \"Mu'ahid\" (a person who is granted the pledge of protection by the Muslims) shall not smell the fragrance of Paradise though its fragrance can be smelt at a distance of forty years (of traveling).\", is considered to be a foundation for the protection of the People of the Book in Muslim ruled countries. Anwar Shah Kashmiri writes in his commentary on Sahih al-Bukhari \"Fayd al-Bari\" on this hadith: \"You know the gravity of sin for killing a Muslim, for its odiousness has reached the point of disbelief, and it necessitates that [the killer abides in Hell] forever. As for killing a non-Muslim citizen [mu'ahid], it is similarly no small matter, for the one who does it will not smell the fragrance of Paradise.\" A similar hadith in regard to the status of the dhimmis: \"Whoever wrongs one with whom a compact (treaty) has been made \"[i.e., a dhimmi]\" and lays on him a burden beyond his strength, I will be his accuser.\"", "The Constitution of Medina, a formal agreement between Muhammad and all the significant tribes and families of Medina (including Muslims, Jews and pagans), declared that non-Muslims in the Ummah had the following rights:", "A precedent for the dhimma contract was established with the agreement between Muhammad and the Jews after the Battle of Khaybar, an oasis near Medina. Khaybar was the first territory attacked and conquered by Muslims. When the Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a siege, Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to the Muslims one half their annual produce.", "The Pact of Umar, traditionally believed to be between caliph Umar and the conquered Jerusalem Christians in the seventh century, was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis. However, Western orientalists doubt the authenticity of the pact, arguing it is usually the victors and not the vanquished who impose rather than propose, the terms of peace, and that it is highly unlikely that the people who spoke no Arabic and knew nothing of Islam could draft such a document. Academic historians believe the Pact of Umar in the form it is known today was a product of later jurists who attributed it to Umar in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions. The similarities between the Pact of Umar and the Theodosian and Justinian Codes of the Eastern Roman Empire suggest that perhaps much of the Pact of Umar was borrowed from these earlier codes by later Islamic jurists. At least some of the clauses of the pact mirror the measures first introduced by the Umayyad caliph Umar II or by the early Abbasid caliphs.", "During the Middle Ages, local associations known as \"futuwwa\" clubs developed across the Islamic lands. There were usually several futuwwah in each town. These clubs catered to varying interests, primarily sports, and might involve distinctive manners of dress and custom. They were known for their hospitality, idealism and loyalty to the group. They often had a militaristic aspect, purportedly for the mutual protection of the membership. These clubs commonly crossed social strata, including among their membership local notables, dhimmi and slaves – to the exclusion of those associated with the local ruler, or amir. Muslims and Jews were sometimes partners in trade, with the Muslim taking days off on Fridays and Jews taking off on Saturdays. Andrew Wheatcroft describes how some social customs such as different conceptions of dirt and cleanliness made it difficult for the religious communities to live close to each other, either under Muslim or under Christian rule.", "The dhimma and the jizya poll tax are no longer imposed in Muslim majority countries. In the 21st century, jizya is widely regarded as being at odds with contemporary secular conceptions of citizens' civil rights and equality before the law, although there have been occasional reports of religious minorities in conflict zones and areas subject to political instability being forced to pay jizya. In 2009 it was claimed that a group of militants that referred to themselves as the Taliban imposed the \"jizya\" on Pakistan's minority Sikh community after occupying some of their homes and kidnapping a Sikh leader. As late as 2013, in Egypt \"jizya\" was reportedly being imposed by the Muslim Brotherhood on 15,000 Christian Copts of Dalga village. In February 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) announced that it intended to extract jizya from Christians in the city of Raqqa, Syria, which it controlled at the time. Christians who refused to accept the dhimma contract and pay the tax were to have to either convert to Islam, leave or be executed. Wealthy Christians would have to pay half an ounce of gold, the equivalent of $664 twice a year; middle-class Christians were to have to pay half that amount and poorer ones were to be charged one-fourth that amount. In June, 2014 the Institute for the Study of War reported that ISIL claims to have collected jizya and fay. On 18 July 2014 ISIL ordered the Christians in Mosul to accept the dhimma contract and pay the jizya or convert to Islam. If they refused to accept either of the options they would be killed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Definition.", "Isometries.", "Regularity of a Riemannian metric.", "Overview.", "Examples.", "Euclidean space.", "Embedded submanifolds.", "Immersions.", "Product metrics.", "Convex combinations of metrics.", "Every smooth manifold has a Riemannian metric.", "The metric space structure of continuous connected Riemannian manifolds.", "The length of piecewise continuously-differentiable curves.", "The metric space structure.", "Geodesics.", "The Hopf-Rinow theorem.", "The diameter.", "Riemannian metrics.", "Geodesic completeness." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1828, Carl Friedrich Gauss proved his Theorema Egregium (\"remarkable theorem\" in Latin), establishing an important property of surfaces. Informally, the theorem says that the curvature of a surface can be determined entirely by measuring distances along paths on the surface. That is, curvature does not depend on how the surface might be embedded in 3-dimensional space. \"See Differential geometry of surfaces\". Bernhard Riemann extended Gauss's theory to higher-dimensional spaces called manifolds in a way that also allows distances and angles to be measured and the notion of curvature to be defined, again in a way that is intrinsic to the manifold and not dependent upon its embedding in higher-dimensional spaces. Albert Einstein used the theory of pseudo-Riemannian manifolds (a generalization of Riemannian manifolds) to develop his general theory of relativity. In particular, his equations for gravitation are constraints on the curvature of spacetime.", "The tangent bundle of a smooth manifold formula_2 assigns to each point formula_3 of formula_2 a vector space formula_5 called the tangent space of formula_2 at formula_7 A Riemannian metric (by its definition) assigns to each formula_3 a positive-definite inner product formula_9 along with which comes a norm formula_10 defined by formula_11 The smooth manifold formula_2 endowed with this metric formula_13 is a Riemannian manifold, denoted formula_14. When given a system of smooth local coordinates on formula_15 given by formula_16 real-valued functions formula_17 the vectors form a basis of the vector space formula_19 for any formula_20 Relative to this basis, one can define metric tensor \"components\" at each point formula_3 by One could consider these as formula_23 individual functions formula_24 or as a single formula_25 matrix-valued function on formula_26 note that the \"Riemannian\" assumption says that it is valued in the subset consisting of symmetric positive-definite matrices. In terms of tensor algebra, the metric tensor can be written in terms of the dual basis {d\"x\",..., d\"x\"} of the cotangent bundle as", "If formula_14 and formula_29 are two Riemannian manifolds, with formula_30 a diffeomorphism, then formula_31 is called an isometry if formula_32 i.e. if for all formula_34 and formula_35 One says that a map formula_36 not assumed to be a diffeomorphism, is a local isometry if every formula_34 has an open neighborhood formula_38 such that formula_39 is a diffeomorphism and isometry.", "One says that the Riemannian metric formula_13 is continuous if formula_24 are continuous when given any smooth coordinate chart formula_42 One says that formula_13 is smooth if these functions are smooth when given any smooth coordinate chart. One could also consider many other types of Riemannian metrics in this spirit. In most expository accounts of Riemannian geometry, the metrics are always taken to be smooth. However, there can be important reasons to consider metrics which are less smooth. Riemannian metrics produced by methods of geometric analysis, in particular, can be less than smooth. See for instance (Gromov 1999) and (Shi and Tam 2002).", "Examples of Riemannian manifolds will be discussed below. A famous theorem of John Nash states that, given any smooth Riemannian manifold formula_44 there is a (usually large) number formula_45 and an embedding formula_46 such that the pullback by formula_47 of the standard Riemannian metric on formula_48 is formula_49 Informally, the entire structure of a smooth Riemannian manifold can be encoded by a diffeomorphism to a certain embedded submanifold of some Euclidean space. In this sense, it is arguable that nothing can be gained from the consideration of abstract smooth manifolds and their Riemannian metrics. However, there are many natural smooth Riemannian manifolds, such as the set of rotations of three-dimensional space and the hyperbolic space, of which any representation as a submanifold of Euclidean space will fail to represent their remarkable symmetries and properties as clearly as their abstract presentations do.", "", "Let formula_50 denote the standard coordinates on formula_51 Then define formula_52 by Phrased differently: relative to the standard coordinates, the local representation formula_24 is given by the constant value formula_55 This is clearly a Riemannian metric, and is called the standard Riemannian structure on formula_51 It is also referred to as Euclidean space of dimension \"n\" and \"g\" is also called the (canonical) Euclidean metric.", "Let formula_14 be a Riemannian manifold and let formula_58 be a embedded submanifold of formula_15 which is at least formula_60 Then the restriction of \"g\" to vectors tangent along \"N\" defines a Riemannian metric over \"N\".", "Let formula_14 be a Riemannian manifold and let formula_67 be a differentiable map. Then one may consider the pullback of formula_13 via formula_31, which is a symmetric 2-tensor on formula_70 defined by where formula_72 is the pushforward of formula_73 by formula_74 In this setting, generally formula_75 will not be a Riemannian metric on formula_76 since it is not positive-definite. For instance, if formula_31 is constant, then formula_75 is zero. In fact, formula_75 is a Riemannian metric if and only if formula_31 is an immersion, meaning that the linear map formula_81 is injective for each formula_82", "Let formula_14 and formula_29 be two Riemannian manifolds, and consider the cartesian product formula_87 with the usual product smooth structure. The Riemannian metrics formula_13 and formula_89 naturally put a Riemannian metric formula_90 on formula_91 which can be described in a few ways. A standard example is to consider the n-torus formula_112 define as the n-fold product formula_113 If one gives each copy of formula_114 its standard Riemannian metric, considering formula_115 as an embedded submanifold (as above), then one can consider the product Riemannian metric on formula_116 It is called a flat torus.", "Let formula_117 and formula_118 be two Riemannian metrics on formula_119 Then, for any number formula_120 is also a Riemannian metric on formula_119 More generally, if formula_123 and formula_124 are any two positive numbers, then formula_125 is another Riemannian metric.", "This is a fundamental result. Although much of the basic theory of Riemannian metrics can be developed by only using that a smooth manifold is locally Euclidean, for this result it is necessary to include in the definition of \"smooth manifold\" that it is Hausdorff and paracompact. The reason is that the proof makes use of a partition of unity. where \"g\" is the Euclidean metric on R and formula_126 is its pullback along \"φ\".", "", "If formula_127 is differentiable, then it assigns to each formula_128 a vector formula_129 in the vector space formula_130 the size of which can be measured by the norm formula_131 So formula_132 defines a nonnegative function on the interval formula_133 The length is defined as the integral of this function; however, as presented here, there is no reason to expect this function to be integrable. It is typical to suppose \"g\" to be continuous and formula_134 to be continuously differentiable, so that the function to be integrated is nonnegative and continuous, and hence the length of formula_135 is well-defined. This definition can easily be extended to define the length of any piecewise-continuously differentiable curve. In many instances, such as in defining the Riemann curvature tensor, it is necessary to require that \"g\" has more regularity than mere continuity; this will be discussed elsewhere. For now, continuity of \"g\" will be enough to use the length defined above in order to endow \"M\" with the structure of a metric space, provided that it is connected.", "Precisely, define formula_137 by It is mostly straightforward to check the well-definedness of the function formula_139 its symmetry property formula_140 its reflexivity property formula_141 and the triangle inequality formula_142 although there are some minor technical complications (such as verifying that any two points can be connected by a piecewise-differentiable path). It is more fundamental to understand that formula_143 ensures formula_144 and hence that formula_145 satisfies all of the axioms of a metric. The observation that underlies the above proof, about comparison between lengths measured by \"g\" and Euclidean lengths measured in a smooth coordinate chart, also verifies that the metric space topology of formula_146 coincides with the original topological space structure of formula_119 Although the length of a curve is given by an explicit formula, it is generally impossible to write out the distance function formula_145 by any explicit means. In fact, if formula_2 is compact then, even when \"g\" is smooth, there always exist points where formula_150 is non-differentiable, and it can be remarkably difficult to even determine the location or nature of these points, even in seemingly simple cases such as when formula_14 is an ellipsoid.", "As in the previous section, let formula_14 be a connected and continuous Riemannian manifold; consider the associated metric space formula_153 Relative to this metric space structure, one says that a path formula_154 is a unit-speed geodesic if for every formula_155 there exists an interval formula_156 which contains formula_157 and such that Informally, one may say that one is asking for formula_159 to locally'stretch itself out' as much as it can, subject to the (informally considered) unit-speed constraint. The idea is that if formula_154 is (piecewise) continuously differentiable and formula_161 for all formula_162 then one automatically has formula_163 by applying the triangle inequality to a Riemann sum approximation of the integral defining the length of formula_164 So the unit-speed geodesic condition as given above is requiring formula_165 and formula_166 to be as far from one another as possible. The fact that we are only looking for curves to \"locally\" stretch themselves out is reflected by the first two examples given below; the global shape of formula_14 may force even the most innocuous geodesics to bend back and intersect themselves. Note that unit-speed geodesics, as defined here, are by necessity continuous, and in fact Lipschitz, but they are not necessarily differentiable or piecewise differentiable.", "As above, let formula_14 be a connected and continuous Riemannian manifold. The Hopf-Rinow theorem, in this setting, says that (Gromov 1999) The essence of the proof is that once the first half is established, one may directly apply the Arzelà-Ascoli theorem, in the context of the compact metric space formula_192 to a sequence of piecewise continuously-differentiable unit-speed curves from formula_3 to formula_189 whose lengths approximate formula_195 The resulting subsequential limit is the desired geodesic. The assumed completeness of formula_146 is important. For example, consider the case that formula_14 is the punctured plane formula_198 with its standard Riemannian metric, and one takes formula_199 and formula_200 There is no unit-speed geodesic from one to the other.", "Let formula_14 be a connected and continuous Riemannian manifold. As with any metric space, one can define the diameter of formula_146 to be The Hopf-Rinow theorem shows that if formula_146 is complete and has finite diameter, then it must be compact. Conversely, if formula_146 is compact, then the function formula_150 must have a maximum, since it is a continuous function on a compact metric space. This proves the following statement: This is not the case without the completeness assumption; for counterexamples one could consider any open bounded subset of a Euclidean space with the standard Riemannian metric. Note that, more generally, and with the same one-line proof, every compact metric space has finite diameter. However the following statement is \"false\": \"If a metric space is complete and has finite diameter, then it is compact.\" For an example of a complete and non-compact metric space of finite diameter, consider with the uniform metric So, although all of the terms in the above corollary of the Hopf-Rinow theorem involve only the metric space structure of formula_44 it is important that the metric is induced from a Riemannian structure.", "", "A Riemannian manifold \"M\" is geodesically complete if for all, the exponential map exp is defined for all, i.e. if any geodesic \"γ\"(\"t\") starting from \"p\" is defined for all values of the parameter. The Hopf–Rinow theorem asserts that \"M\" is geodesically complete if and only if it is complete as a metric space. If \"M\" is complete, then \"M\" is non-extendable in the sense that it is not isometric to an open proper submanifold of any other Riemannian manifold. The converse is not true, however: there exist non-extendable manifolds that are not complete." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "\"Fascism in Its Epoch\".", "Methodology.", "The \"Historikerstreit\".", "Nolte's thesis.", "The ensuing controversy.", "Habermas' attack.", "War of words in the German press.", "\"Der europäische Bürgerkrieg\".", "International reaction.", "Conclusion of dispute.", "Later work.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nolte was born in Witten, Westphalia, Germany to a Roman Catholic family. Nolte's parents were Heinrich Nolte, a school rector, and Anna (née Bruns) Nolte. According to Nolte in a March 28, 2003 interview with a French newspaper \"Eurozine\", his first encounter with communism occurred when he was 7 years old in 1930, when he read in a doctor's office a German translation of a Soviet children's book attacking the Catholic Church, which angered him. In 1941, Nolte was excused from military service because of a deformed hand, and he studied Philosophy, Philology and Greek at the Universities of Münster, Berlin, and Freiburg. At Freiburg, Nolte was a student of Martin Heidegger, whom he acknowledges", "Nolte came to notice with his 1963 book \"Der Faschismus in seiner Epoche\" (\"Fascism in Its Epoch\"; translated into English in 1965 as \"The Three Faces of Fascism\"), in which he argued that fascism arose as a form of resistance to and a reaction against modernity. Nolte's basic hypothesis and methodology were deeply rooted in the German \"philosophy of history\" tradition, a form of intellectual history which seeks to discover the \"metapolitical dimension\" of history. The \"metapolitical dimension\" is considered to be the history of grand ideas functioning as profound spiritual powers, which infuse all levels of society with their force. In Nolte's opinion, only those with training in philosophy can discover the \"metapolitical dimension\", and those who use normal historical methods miss this dimension of time. Using the methods of phenomenology, Nolte subjected German Nazism, Italian Fascism, and the French \"Action Française\" movements to a comparative analysis. Nolte's conclusion was that fascism was the great anti-movement: it was anti-liberal, anti-communist, anti-capitalist, and anti-bourgeois. In Nolte's view, fascism was the rejection of everything the modern world had to offer and was an essentially negative phenomenon. In a Hegelian dialectic, Nolte argued that the \"Action Française\" was the thesis, Italian Fascism was the antithesis, and German National Socialism the synthesis of the two earlier fascist movements. Nolte argued that fascism functioned at three levels, namely in the world of politics as a form of opposition to Marxism, at the sociological level in opposition to bourgeois values, and in the \"metapolitical\" world as \"resistance to transcendence\" (\"transcendence\" in German can be translated as the \"spirit of modernity\"). Nolte defined the relationship between fascism and Marxism as such: Nolte defined \"transcendence\" as a \"metapolitical\" force comprising two types of change. The first type, \"practical transcendence\", manifesting in material progress, technological change, political equality, and social advancement, comprises the process by which humanity liberates itself from traditional, hierarchical societies in favor of societies where all men and women are equal. The second type is \"theoretical transcendence\", the striving to go beyond what exists in the world towards a new future, eliminating traditional fetters imposed on the human mind by poverty, backwardness,", "All of Nolte's historical work has been heavily influenced by German traditions of philosophy. In particular, Nolte seeks to find the essences of the \"metapolitical phenomenon\" of history, to discover the grand ideas which motivated all of history. As such, Nolte's work has been oriented towards the general as opposed to the specific attributes of a particular period of time. In his 1974 book \"Deutschland und der kalte Krieg\" (\"Germany and the Cold War\"), Nolte examined the partition of Germany after 1945, not by looking at the specific history of the Cold War and Germany, but rather by examining other divided states throughout history, treating the German partition as the supreme culmination of the \"metapolitical\" idea of partition caused by rival ideologies. In Nolte's view, the division of Germany made that nation the world's central battlefield between Soviet communism and American democracy, both of which were rival streams of the \"transcendence\" that had vanquished the Third Reich, the ultimate enemy of \"transcendence\". Nolte called the Cold War the ideological and political conflict for the future structure of a united world, carried on for an indefinite period since 1917 (indeed anticipated as early as 1776) by several militant universalisms, each of which possesses at least one major state. Nolte ended \"Deutschland und der kalte Krieg\" with a call for Germans to escape their fate as the world's foremost battleground for the rival ideologies of American democracy and Soviet communism by returning to the values of", "", "Nolte is best known for his role in launching the \"Historikerstreit\" (\"Historians' Dispute\") of 1986 and 1987. On 6 June 1986 Nolte published a \" feuilleton\" opinion piece entitled \"Vergangenheit, die nicht vergehen will: Eine Rede, die geschrieben, aber nicht mehr gehalten werden konnte\" (\"The Past That Will Not Pass: A Speech That Could Be Written but Not Delivered\") in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\". His \"feuilleton\" was a distillation of ideas he had first introduced in lectures delivered in 1976 and in 1980. Earlier in 1986, Nolte had planned to deliver a speech before the Frankfurt Römerberg Conversations (an annual gathering of intellectuals), but he had claimed that the organizers of the event withdrew their invitation. In response, an editor and co-publisher of the", "These views ignited a firestorm of controversy. Most historians in West Germany and virtually all historians outside Germany condemned Nolte's interpretation as factually incorrect, and as coming dangerously close to justifying the Holocaust. Many historians, such as Steven T. Katz, claimed that Nolte's “Age of Genocide” concept “trivialized” the Holocaust by reducing it to one of just many 20th century genocides. A common line of criticism was that Nazi crimes, above all the Holocaust, were singular and unique in their nature, and should not be loosely analogized to the crimes of others. Some historians such as Hans-Ulrich Wehler were most forceful in", "The philosopher Jürgen Habermas in an article in the \"Die Zeit\" of 11 July 1986 strongly criticized Nolte, along with Andreas Hillgruber and Michael Stürmer, for engaging in what Habermas called “apologetic” history writing in regards to the Nazi era, and for", "In response to Habermas's essay, Klaus Hildebrand came to Nolte's defence. In an essay entitled \"The Age of Tyrants\", first published in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" on July 31, 1986, he went on to praise Nolte for daring to open up new questions for research. Nolte, for his part, started to write a series of letters to newspapers such as \"Die Zeit\" and \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" attacking his critics; for example, in a letter to \"Die Zeit\" on 1 August 1986, Nolte complained that his critic Jürgen Habermas was attempting to censor him for expressing his views, and accused Habermas of being the person responsible for blocking him from attending the Römerberg Conversations. In the same letter, Nolte described himself as the unnamed historian whose views on the reasons for the Holocaust had caused Saul Friedländer to walk out in disgust from a dinner party hosted by Nolte in Berlin in February or March 1986 that Habermas had alluded to an earlier letter Responding to the essay \"The Age of Tyrants: History and Politics\" by Klaus Hildebrand that defended Nolte, Habermas", "Another area of controversy was Nolte's 1987 book \"Der europäische Bürgerkrieg\" (\"The European Civil War\") and some accompanying statements, by which Nolte appeared to flirt with Holocaust denial as a serious historical argument. In a letter to Otto Dov Kulka of 8 December 1986 Nolte criticized the work of French Holocaust denier Robert Faurisson on the ground that the Holocaust did in fact occur, but he went on to argue that Faurisson's work had admirable motives in the form of sympathy for Palestinians and opposition to Israel. In \"Der europäische Bürgerkrieg\", Nolte claimed that the intentions of Holocaust deniers are \"often honorable\", and that some of their claims are \"not evidently without foundation\". Kershaw has argued that Nolte was operating on the borderlines of Holocaust denial with his implied claim that the \"negative", "Criticism from abroad came from Ian Kershaw, Gordon A. Craig, Richard J. Evans, Saul Friedländer, John Lukacs, Michael Marrus, and Timothy Mason. Mason wrote against Nolte, calling for the sort of theories of generic fascism that Nolte himself had once championed: Anson Rabinbach accused Nolte of attempting to erase German guilt for the Holocaust. Ian Kershaw wrote that Nolte was claiming that the Jews had essentially brought the Holocaust down on themselves, and were the authors of their own misfortunes in the \"Shoah\". Elie Wiesel called Nolte, together with Klaus Hildebrand, Andreas Hillgruber, and Michael Stürmer, one of the “four bandits” of German historiography. The American historian Charles Maier rejected Nolte's claims regarding the moral equivalence of the Holocaust and Soviet terror", "Writing in 1989, the British historian Richard J. Evans declared that: Citing \"Mein Kampf\", Evans argued that Hitler was an anti-Semite long before 1914 and that it was the SPD (the moderate left), not the Bolsheviks, whom Hitler regarded as his main enemies. Nolte's opponents have expressed intense disagreement with his evidence for a Jewish \"war\" on Germany. They argue that Weizmann's letter to Chamberlain was written in his capacity as head of the World Zionist Organization, not on behalf of the entire Jewish people of the world, and that Nolte's views are based on the spurious idea that all Jews comprised a distinct \"nationality\" who took their marching orders from Jewish organizations. Because of the views that he expressed during the \"Historikerstreit\", Nolte has often been accused of being a Nazi apologist and an anti-Semite. Nolte has", "In his 1991 book \"Geschichtsdenken im 20. Jahrhundert\" (\"Historical Thinking in the 20th Century\"), Nolte asserted that the 20th century had produced three “extraordinary states”, namely Germany, the Soviet Union, and Israel. He claimed that all three were “abnormal once”, but whereas the Soviet Union and Germany were now “normal” states, Israel was still “abnormal” and, in Nolte's view, in danger of becoming a fascist state that might commit genocide against the Palestinians. Between 1995–97, Nolte debated with French historian François Furet in an exchange of letters on the relationship between fascism and communism. The debate had started with a footnote in Furet's book, \"Le Passé d'une illusion\" (\"The Passing of an Illusion\"), in which Furet acknowledged Nolte's merit of comparatively studying communism and Nazism, an almost forbidden practice in continental Europe. Both ideologies typify in a radical way the contradictions of liberalism. They follow a chronological sequence: Lenin predates Mussolini who in turn precedes Hitler. Furet noted that Nolte's theses went against the established notions of culpability and apprehension to criticize the idea of anti-fascism common in the West. This prompted an epistolary exchange between the two of them in which Furet argued that both ideologies were Totalitarian twins that shared the same origins, while Nolte maintained his views of a \"kausale Nexus\" (causal nexus) between fascism and communism, to which the former had been a response. After Furet's death, their correspondence was published as a book in France in 1998, entitled \"Fascisme et Communisme: échange épistolaire avec l'historien allemand Ernst Nolte prolongeant la Historikerstreit\" (\"Fascism and Communism: Epistolary Exchanges with the German Historian Ernst Nolte Extending the Historikerstreit\"). This was translated into English as \"Fascism and Communism\" in 2001. While pronouncing Stalin guilty of great crimes, Furet contended that, although the histories of fascism and communism were essential to European history, there were singular events associated with each movement which differentiated them; i.e., he did not feel there was a precise parallel, as Nolte suggested, between the Holocaust and the expulsions of the Kulaks. Nolte often contributed \"Feuilleton\" (opinion pieces) to German newspapers such as \"Die Welt\" and the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\". He has often been described as one of the \"most brooding, German thinkers about history\". The historical consciousness and self-understanding of the Germans form a major theme of his essays. Nolte called the Federal Republic \"a state born of contemporary history, a product of catastrophe erected to overcome catastrophe\" In a \"Feuilleton\" piece published in \"Die Welt\" entitled “\"Auschwitz als Argument in der Geschichtstheorie\"” (\"Auschwitz as An Argument in Historical Theory\") on 2 January 1999, Nolte criticized his old enemy Richard J. Evans’s book \"In The Defence of History\", on the grounds that aspects of the Holocaust are open to revision, and that therefore Evans’s attacks on Nolte during the", "Czech French English German Italian Russian Slovene Bosnian" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Qing Dynasty.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Administrative divisions.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the Dutch era, the current location of Fongshan was called \"Pongsoya\" (see Linbian, Pingtung), a group of eight Makatao villages and one of the most populous areas of Taiwan.", "During Qing rule, included areas south of Tainan (then called \"Taiwan-fu\") and west of the mountains. In 1875, the southern part of Fongshan County was separated into.", "In 1901, during Japanese rule, was one of twenty local administrative offices established. According to the 1904 census, Hozan town had a population of 5,750, whereas Hozan District had a population 173,016. In 1909, this unit was merged into. From 1920 to 1945, under the prefecture system, was administered under Hōzan District, Takao Prefecture. After the colonial government started to develop Takao Harbor in the early 20th century, the importance of Fongshan was declining.", "Fongshan was the capital of Kaohsiung County, established in 1945 as an urban township. It was upgraded to a county-controlled city on 1 July 1972, and has been a city seat of Kaohsiung City since 25 December 2010 along with Lingya District.", "The district consists of Xiankou, Chenggong, Guangming, Xingzhong, Nanxing, Hede, Fenggang, Zhonghe, Zhenbei, Xianya, Wenying, Zhenxi, Zhentung, Beiding, Zhongzheng, Zhennan, Laoye, Ruizhu, Zhongyi, Chengyi, Xinxing, Haiguang, Zhongcheng, Xinjia, Wuhan, Zhengyi, Yijia, Fuxing, Tungmen, Ruixing, Tianxing, Xinjiang, Guotai, Fengtung, Xinfu, Guoguang, Guolong, Wende, Guobei, Caogong, Xingren, Wufu, Zhongxiao, Shengming, Hexing, Xiehe, Wenshan, Fucheng, Chengde, Sanmin, Beimen, Fujia, Nancheng, Wenhua, Dade, Wusong, Wenheng, Wenfu, Chengxin, Chengzhi, Guofu, Wuqing, Haiyang, Xinwu, Xinle, Xintai, Zhonglun, Zhongrong, Zhongmin, Erjia, Longcheng, Furong, Shanmei, Nanhe, Fuxiang and Baoan Village.", "Fongshan is in the tropical zone. Average temperature is 23 °C. Average precipitation is 1,500 to 2,000 millimeters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Observing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Owl Nebula was discovered by French astronomer Pierre Méchain on February 16, 1781. Pierre Méchain was Charles Messier's observing colleague, and the nebula was observed by Messier himself a few weeks following the initial sighting. Thus, the object was named Messier 97, and included in his catalog on March 24, 1781. Of the object, he noted \"Nebula in the great Bear, near Beta: It is difficult to see, reports M. Méchain, especially when one illuminates the micrometer wires: its light is faint, without a star. M. Méchain saw it the first time on Feb 16, 1781, & the position is that given by him. Near this nebula he has seen another one, [the position of] which has not yet been determined [Messier 108], and also a third which is near Gamma of the Great Bear [Messier 109]. (diam. 2′).\" In 1844, Admiral William H. Smyth classified the object as a planetary nebula. When William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse, observed the nebula in Ireland in 1848, his hand-drawn illustration resembled an owl's head. In his notes, the object was described as “Two stars considerably apart in the central region, dark penumbra round each spiral arrangement, with stars as apparent centres of attraction. Stars sparkling in it; resolvable.” It has been known as the Owl Nebula ever since. More recent developments in the late 1900s include the discovery of a giant red halo of wind extended around its inner shells, and the mapping of the nebula's structure.", "Although the Owl Nebula can not be seen with the naked eye, a faint image of it can be observed under remarkably good conditions with a small telescope or 20×80 binoculars. To make out the nebula's more distinctive owl like eye features, a telescope with an aperture 10\" or better is required. To locate the nebula in the night sky, look to the southwest corner of the Big Dippers bowl, marked by the star Beta Ursae Majoris. From there, M97 lies just over 2.5 degrees in the southeast direction towards the star positioned opposite Beta Ursae Majoris in the other bottom corner of the Big Dippers Bowl, Gamma Ursae Majoris; which marks the constellations southwest corner. M97, together with Alpha Ursae Majoris, point the way to Polaris." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operational service.", "Finnish Air Force.", "Variants." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Pe-2 was designed in a prison design bureau (\"sharashka\"); Vladimir Petlyakov had been arrested and imprisoned in 1937 for allegedly delaying design work on the Tupolev ANT-42 bomber. In the sharashka, Petlyakov was put in charge of a team to develop a high-altitude fighter escort for the ANT-42 under the designation VI-100. The first of two prototypes flew on 22 December 1939 and was a sophisticated aircraft for its time, featuring a pressurised cabin, all-metal construction, superchargers and many electrically actuated systems. It is said that Petlyakov and his team could see the VI-100 prototype from their prison as it was put through its paces for the crowds watching the annual May Day parade in 1940. Just as production was ready to begin, the air force ordered a re-design of the aircraft. The value of tactical bombing had just been displayed by the \"Luftwaffe\" in the Blitzkrieg, and the need for such an aircraft suddenly became much more important than the need for a high-altitude escort fighter. Petlyakov's team was given 45 days to redesign their aircraft as a dive bomber. Cabin pressurization and superchargers were deleted, dive brakes, a bombardier's position and other aerodynamic refinements were added. A fuselage bomb-bay was added, along with smaller bays in each engine nacelle. The aircraft was initially designated PB-100, but Joseph Stalin was impressed enough with Petlyakov to free him, and his name was permitted to be used in the aircraft's designation. The first aircraft flew on 15 December 1940, rushed through production without a prototype under severe threats from Stalin. Deliveries to combat units began the following spring. While the Pe-2's flying characteristics were generally favorable once it was airborne, it took a good amount of force to pull the elevators up to rotate the plane for takeoff. Russian night bombing missions often flew with female pilots and some of the women were not strong enough to get the airplane airborne by themselves. When such a situation occurred, the procedure was to have the navigator get behind the pilot's seat and wrap her arms around the control wheel and help the pilot pull the wheel back. Once the aircraft was airborne, the navigator returned to her duties and the pilot continued to fly the plane without assistance. Its armament was clearly insufficient, however. The dorsal ShKAS machine gun had a very high rate of fire; however, its 7.62 mm rounds proved inadequate against the armor protection of modern fighters as the war progressed. In addition, it often jammed. The mounting for the ventral Berezin UB had a very limited field of view and the gun was initially unreliable. To give more protection, another ShKAS was added that could be moved between sockets on both sides of the fuselage and, in an emergency, the gunner could fire upwards, but in this case they had to be quite strong to keep it in their arms. To improve the bomber's defences, a dorsal Berezin UBT 12,7 mm was mounted. This modification was reported to increase the life expectancy of a Pe-2 from 20 sorties to 54.", "The aircraft did not show its true potential until the end of 1941, after the Soviet Air Force had a chance to regroup after the German onslaught, during the Winter. The Pe-2 quickly proved itself to be a highly capable aircraft, able to elude the Luftwaffe's interceptors and allowing their crews to develop great accuracy with their bombing. It could give German fighers fits when it could outrun them, at time reaching over 400 mph. The records of the 16th and 39th BAPs of the Western Front Air Force note that the Pe-2's crews had the greatest success in repelling the attacks of enemy fighters in June and July 1941. On 1 July, for example, six Pe-2s fended off attacks by four Messerschmitt Bf 109s, shooting down two of them. A week later a group of Pe-2s was attacked by four Bf 109 and again brought down two of the attackers. On both occasions the Petlyakovs suffered no losses. On the southern front, a bombing mission against Ploiesti, in Romania, by six Pe-2s, led by Capt. A. Tsurtsulin, was a great success: 552,150 lbs of petroleum were burnt in the raid. The Romanian information agency claimed that at least 100 Soviet planes had bombed Ploiesti. The Pe-2 regiments' operations were not always successful and the service pilots complained about insufficient defensive armament and survivability: there was a great risk of fire and insufficient armour protection, especially for the navigators and gunners. German pilots soon discovered the limited sighting angles of the ventral gun mounting and its poor reliability. The Ammunition belt of the UBT machine-gun often jammed after the first burst of fire when shooting in extreme positions. The navigator and the radio operator were poorly protected. On average, ten Pe-2 gunners were wounded for every pilot, and two or three were killed for the loss of one pilot. Throughout 1942 the design was steadily refined and improved, in direct consultation with pilots who were actually flying them in combat. Improved armour protection and a fifth ShKAS machine-gun was installed and fuel tanks modified. Despite anecdotal reports by Soviet fliers, Pe-2s were a daylight bomber, often crewed by comparative novices in the early years of the war, and took significant losses, even when well protected by fighters. In December 1942 General Turkel of the Soviet Air Force estimated the life expectancy of a Pe-2 was 30 combat flights. An example of loss rates after the Soviets gained the upper hand can be gained by the losses suffered by the 1st and 2nd BAK. The former started the month of July 1943 with 179 machines, and lost 52 that month, and 59 the next, ending August with 156 bombers after receiving replacements. The 2nd BAK started July with 122 Pe-2s, with monthly losses of 30 and 20, ending August 1943 with 114 Pe-2s after replacements arrived. Most of these losses were at the hands of the thinly stretched German fighter groups, which continued to inflict significant losses when present in strength, even in the closing months of the war. For example, in the Baltic where JG54 Grünherz were the main opposition, and greatly outnumbered, the Soviet 1st Gv BAK lost 86 Pe-2s shot down (another 12 to other causes), mostly to German fighters between 23 July 1944 and 8 February 1945. Western sources use mark Pe-2FT for production series after 83 (where FT stands for Frontovoe Trebovanie (Frontline Request)), although Soviet documents do not use this identification. Final versions Pe-2K (transitional version of Pe-2I) and Pe-2I were produced in small numbers, due to the unwillingness of Soviet industry to decelerate production numbers.", "In 1941, after the outbreak of the Continuation War, Finland purchased six war booty Pe-2 aircraft from Germany. These arrived at State Aircraft Factory facilities at Härmälä in January 1942, where the airframes were overhauled and given Finnish serial numbers. The seventh Pe-2 was bought from the Germans in January 1944, and it was flown to Finland at the end of the month. It was initially planned to use these planes as dive bombers in the 1st flight of LeLv 48, which began to receive its aircraft in July 1942, but during the training it was found out that this caused too much strain for the engines. Thus, the role of Pe-2s was changed to fly long-range photographic and visual reconnaissance missions for the Army General Headquarters. These sorties began in late 1942, and were often flown with two 250 kg (551 lb) bombs for harassment bombing and in order to cover the true purpose of missions. By the time the Soviet Fourth strategic offensive started in June 1944, the secondary bombing role had already ended and the surviving Pe-2s began to be used solely at Karelian Isthmus in escorted (normally by four FiAF Bf 109 Gs) photographic reconnaissance flights in order to find out enemy troop concentrations. These vital missions were flown successfully, allowing artillery and Finnish Air Force and \"Luftwaffe\"s Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey's bombers to make their strikes against the formations preparing for attack, which had an important impact on the outcome of the Battle of Tali-Ihantala, where the Soviet advance was halted. During the Continuation War, three Pe-2s were lost in accidents or technical failures, one was destroyed in bombing of Lappeenranta airfield, one was shot down by Soviet fighters and one went missing in action. In the Lapland War the only remaining machine flew a single reconnaissance sortie in October 1944. On average, the aircraft flew some 94 hours per plane during the war. The Finnish Air Force also operated one Petlyakov Pe-3 (PE-301) that had been captured in 1943. PE-301 and PE-215 were destroyed when Soviet aircraft bombed the Lappeenranta airfield on 2 July 1944. PE-212 went down in 1943, PE-213 was destroyed in an emergency landing in 1942. PE-214 was destroyed in a failed take-off attempt at Härmälä on 21 May 1942: as Härmälä airfield was quite short, the pilot had to try to lift off with too little speed, which caused the aircraft to stall and crash, killing the crew. PE-217 managed to shoot down a Soviet fighter in 1944. PE-216 was destroyed in a forced landing in 1944. PE-211 survived the war and was removed from FAF lists in 1946. It was still standing beside the Kauhava airfield in 1952, but further information on its fate is unknown.", "In total, around 11,400 Pe-2s were built; a large number of minor variants were also developed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ádám Politzer was born in Alberti (now part of Albertirsa), near the city of Budapest, to a well-to-do Jewish family. He studied medicine in the University of Vienna. Some of his teachers belonged to the famous Second \"Vienna School\", such as Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky (1804–1878) and Josef Skoda (1805–1881) (its founders), as well as Joseph Hyrtl (1810–1894), Johann Ritter von Oppolzer (1808–1871), and the famous physiologist Carl Ludwig (1816–1895). The last two took interest in Politzer and were influential in his subsequent career. Politzer received his M.D. in 1859 and started to work in Carl Ludwig's laboratory. His interest since that time was mainly the physics of the auditory system. There, he was the first to demonstrate physiologically that the innervation of the tensor tympani muscle was by the trigeminal nerve and that the innervation of the stapedial muscle was by the facial nerve. In another series of experiments, Politzer connected two manometers, one placed in the external auditory canal meatus and another in the pharynx, in order to study air movements through the Eustachian tube. In 1861, he published his first results on a new technique based on this knowledge, to treat internal ear diseases by insufflating the middle ear through the Eustachian tube, which obviated the need of its catheterization. This came to be known as politzerisation. In the subsequent decades, the technique was widely adopted throughout the world, bringing fame to Politzer. In the following year, Politzer travelled to other centers and countries, seeking to increase the depth of his practical training. Thus, he worked consecutively with Anton Friedrich Freiherr von Troeltsch (1829–1890) and physiologist Heinrich Müller, in Würzburg; Hermann Helmholtz (1821–1894) in Heidelberg. He also went to Paris, France, to study with Rudolf Körni, Prosper Ménière, the \"father of physiology\", Claude Bernard (1813–1878) and with physicist Karl Rudolf König (1832–1901). He also studied microscopic anatomy of the labyrinth with Albert von Kölliker (1817–1905) in Würzburg, and ear surgery with Joseph Toynbee (1815–1866) in London, England. Returning to Vienna in 1861, Adam Politzer became a professor of otology at the University of Vienna with the support of von Oppolzer. Two years later, in 1863, he opened a private otological clinic with Josef Gruber (1827–1900), which soon began to attract patients from all over the world. In 1864 Politzer was allowed by the government to treat indigent patients at the charity hospital as well as in the homes for elderly. He and Gruber received the title of professor extraordinarius in 1870 and were appointed to the rank of a joint directorship to a new clinic in the Vienna General Hospital, in the next year (the first of its kind in the world). In 1895 Politzer won a full professorship and became the sole director of the clinic in 1889, until 1907. He died 13 years later, in 1920, at the age of 85, celebrated as one of the pioneers of modern otology in the history of medicine, but unfortunately in a poor financial condition, due to the economic crisis in Austria after the country was defeated in the First World War.", "Politzer was a prolific inventor of new medical devices for the diagnosis and treatment of ear diseases. He developed several surgical instruments which bear his name for the operation of the outer and the inner ear structures, such as an ear perforator, a surgical knife, a grommet for the ventilation of the inner ear after paracentesis, as well as a method to restore permeability to the Eustachian tube by using an insufflator made out of a pear-shaped rubber bag (\"politzerisation\" or Politzer's method). He also devised methods and apparatuses to examine the outer ear canal and tympanic membrane (Politzer's otoscope), a speculum and a qualitative test for the function of the Eustachian tube. In the field of hearing, Politzer devised an acoumeter for measuring hearing acuity and at least two early acoustical hearing aids. Furthermore, he revolutionized the clinical diagnosis of aural diseases by the inspection of the illuminated tympanic membrane (which led to the current otoscope), and developed the first illustrated atlas of the tympanic membrane in health and disease, with color drawings made by himself. Politzer also wrote one of the most outstanding and authoritative textbooks on otology of the century, the \"Lehrbuch der Ohrenheilkunde\", in 1878. With von Troeltsch and Hermann Schwartze, he founded \"Archiv für Ohrenheilkunde\", the first journal dedicated to ear disorders. A great anatomist of the auditory system, Politzer wrote and illustrated extensively on it, and left a remarkable collection of anatomic and pathological specimens in Vienna, which were donated to the Anatomy and Pathology Museum. The luminous cone of the tympanic membrane is named after him, as well as the Unna-Politzer naevus, a typical birthmark found on the nape of the neck in 25 to 50% of normal persons. In addition, in 1893 Politzer was the first to describe otosclerosis as a separate clinical entity. He also studied the pathology of cholesteatoma, serous otitis media, labyrinthitis, congenital deafness and intracranial complications of otitis media. One of his biographers, Albert Mudry, stated that Politzer was \"the greatest otologist of the 19th century and one of the greatest of all time (...) he covered all fields of otology\". He influenced and trained thousands of otologists from over the world, and his most famous successor was Robert Bárány, who received the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1914." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of editors.", "Text editors.", "WYSIWYG HTML editors.", "Difficulties in achieving WYSIWYG.", "Valid HTML markup." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "There are two main varieties of HTML editors: text and WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get) editors.", "Text editors intended for use with HTML usually provide at least syntax highlighting. Some editors additionally feature templates, toolbars and keyboard shortcuts to quickly insert common HTML elements and structures. Wizards, tooltip prompts and autocompletion may help with common tasks. Text editors commonly used for HTML typically include either built-in functions or integration with external tools for such tasks as version control, link-checking and validation, code cleanup and formatting, spell-checking, uploading by FTP or WebDAV, and structuring as a project. Some functions, such as link checking or validation may use online tools, requiring a network connection. Text editors require user understanding of HTML and any other web technologies the designer wishes to use like CSS, JavaScript and server-side scripting languages. To ease this requirement, some editors allow editing of the markup in more visually organized modes than simple color highlighting, but in modes not considered WYSIWYG. These editors typically include the option of using palette windows or dialog boxes to edit the text-based parameters of selected objects. These palettes allow editing parameters in individual fields, or inserting new tags by filling out an onscreen form, and may include additional widgets to present and select options when editing parameters (such as previewing an image or text styles) or an outline editor to expand and collapse HTML objects and properties.", "WYSIWYG HTML editors provide an editing interface which resembles how the page will be displayed in a web browser. Because using a WYSIWYG editor may not require any HTML knowledge, they are often easier for an inexperienced computer user to get started with. The WYSIWYG view is achieved by embedding a layout engine. This may be custom-written or based upon one used in a web browser. The goal is that, at all times during editing, the rendered result should represent what will be seen later in a typical web browser. WYSIWYM (what you see is what you \"mean\") is an alternative paradigm to WYSIWYG editors. Instead of focusing on the format or presentation of the document, it preserves the intended meaning of each element. For example, page headers, sections, paragraphs, etc. are labeled as such in the editing program, and displayed appropriately in the browser.", "A given HTML document will have an inconsistent appearance on various platforms and computers for several reasons:", "HTML is a structured markup language. There are certain rules on how HTML must be written if it is to conform to W3C standards for the World Wide Web. Following these rules means that web sites are accessible on all types and makes of computer, to able-bodied and people with disabilities, and also on wireless devices like mobile phones and PDAs, with their limited bandwidths and screen sizes. However, most HTML documents on the web do not meet the requirements of W3C standards. In a study conducted in 2011 on the 350 most popular web sites (selected by the Alexa index), 94 percent of websites fail the web standards markup and style sheet validation tests, or apply character encoding improperly. Even those syntactically correct documents may be inefficient due to an unnecessary use of repetition, or based upon rules that have been deprecated for some years. Current W3C recommendations on the use of CSS with HTML were first formalised by W3C in 1996 and have been revised and refined since then. See CSS, XHTML, W3C's current CSS recommendation and W3C's current HTML recommendation. These guidelines emphasise the separation of content (HTML or XHTML) from style (CSS). This has the benefit of delivering the style information once for a whole site, not repeated in each page, let alone in each HTML element. WYSIWYG editor designers have been struggling ever since with how best to present these concepts to their users without confusing them by exposing the underlying reality. Modern WYSIWYG editors all succeed in this to some extent, but none of them has succeeded entirely. However a web page was created or edited, WYSIWYG or by hand, in order to be successful among the greatest possible number of readers and viewers, as well as to maintain the 'worldwide' value of the Web itself, first and foremost it should consist of valid markup and code. It should not be considered ready for the World Wide Web, until its HTML and CSS syntax have been successfully validated using either the free W3C validator services (W3C HTML Validator and W3C CSS Validator) or some other trustworthy alternatives. Accessibility of web pages by those with physical, eyesight or other disabilities is not only a good idea considering the ubiquity and importance of the web in modern society, but is also mandated by law. In the U.S., the Americans with Disabilities Act and in the UK, the Disability Discrimination Act place requirement on web sites operated by publicly funded organizations. In many other countries similar laws either already exist or soon will. Making pages accessible is more complex than just making them valid; that is a prerequisite but there are many other factors to be considered. Good web design, whether done using a WYSIWYG tool or not needs to take account of these too. Whatever software tools are used to design, create and maintain web pages, the quality of the underlying HTML is dependent on the skill of the person who works on the page. Some knowledge of HTML, CSS and other scripting languages as well as a familiarity with the current W3C recommendations in these areas will help any designer produce better web pages, with a WYSIWYG HTML editor and without." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre–1989.", "1989–1995.", "1995–2000.", "2000–2005.", "2005–2010.", "2010–2015.", "2015–present.", "European Union.", "Public policy.", "Energy.", "Statistical indicators.", "Development of main indicators.", "Background.", "Trade and finance.", "IT and Telecommunications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Czech lands were among the first industrialized countries in continental Europe during the German Confederation era. The Czech industrial tradition dates back to the 19th century, when the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were the economic and industrial heartland of the Austrian Empire and later the Austrian side of Austria-Hungary. The Czech lands produced a majority (about 70%) of all industrial goods in the Empire, some of which were almost monopolistic. The Czechoslovak crown was introduced in April 1919. Introduced at a 1:1 ratio to the Austro-Hungarian currency, it became one of the most stable currencies in Europe. The First Republic became one of the 10 most developed countries of the world (behind the U.S., Canada, Australia, Switzerland, Argentina, Britain, France, Sweden and Belgium). The consequences of the 1938 Munich Agreement and subsequent occupation were disastrous for the economy. After the occupation and forced subordination of the economy to German economic interests, the crown was officially pegged to the mark at a ratio of 1:10, even though the unofficial exchange rate was 1 to 6-7 and Germans immediately started buying Czech goods in large quantities. In accordance with Stalin's development policy of planned interdependence, all the economies of the socialist countries were tightly linked to that of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovakia was the most prosperous country in the Eastern Bloc, however it continued to lag further behind the rest of the developed world. With the disintegration of the communist economic alliance in 1991, Czech manufacturers lost their traditional markets among former communist countries in the east. Today, this heritage is both an asset and a liability. The Czech Republic has a well-educated population and a densely developed infrastructure.", "The \"Velvet Revolution\" in 1989, offered a chance for profound and sustained political and economic reform. Signs of economic resurgence began to appear in the wake of the shock therapy that the International Monetary Fund (IMF) labelled the \"\"big bang\"\" of January 1991. Since then, consistent liberalization and astute economic management has led to the removal of 95% of all price controls, low unemployment, a positive balance of payments position, a stable exchange rate, a shift of exports from former communist economic bloc markets to Western Europe, and relatively low foreign debt. Inflation has been higher than in some other countries – mostly in the 10% range – and the government has run consistent modest budget deficits. Two government priorities have been strict fiscal policies and creating a good climate for incoming investment in the republic. Following a series of currency devaluations, the crown has remained stable in relation to the US dollar. The Czech crown became fully convertible for most business purposes in late 1995. In order to stimulate the economy and attract foreign partners, the government has revamped the legal and administrative structure governing investment. With the breakup of the Soviet Union, the country, till that point highly dependent on exports to the USSR, had to make a radical shift in economic outlook: away from the East, and towards the West. This necessitated the restructuring of existing banking and telecommunications facilities, as well as adjusting commercial laws and practices to fit Western standards. Further minimizing reliance on a single major partner, successive Czech governments have welcomed U.S. investment (amongst others) as a counterbalance to the strong economic influence of Western European partners, especially of their powerful neighbour, Germany. Although foreign direct investment (FDI) runs in uneven cycles, with a 12.9% share of total FDI between 1990 and March 1998, the U.S. was the third-largest foreign investor in the Czech economy, behind Germany and the Netherlands. Progress toward creating a stable investment climate was recognized when the Czech Republic became the first post-communist country to receive an investment-grade credit rating by international credit institutions. The country boasts a flourishing consumer production sector and has privatized most state-owned heavy industries through the voucher privatization system. Under the system, every citizen was given the opportunity to buy, for a moderate price, a book of vouchers that represents potential shares in any state-owned company. The voucher holders could then invest their vouchers, increasing the capital base of the chosen company, and creating a nation of citizen share-holders. This is in contrast to Russian privatization, which consisted of sales of communal assets to private companies rather than share-transfer to citizens. The effect of this policy has been dramatic. Under communism, state ownership of businesses was estimated to be 97%. Privatization through restitution of real estate to the former owners was largely completed in 1992. By 1998, more than 80% of enterprises were in private hands. Now completed, the program has made Czechs, who own shares of each of the Czech companies, one of the highest per-capita share owners in the world.", "The country's economic transformation was far from complete. Political and financial crises in 1997, shattered the Czech Republic's image as one of the most stable and prosperous of post-Communist states. Delays in enterprise restructuring and failure to develop a well-functioning capital market played major roles in Czech economic troubles, which culminated in a currency crisis in May. The formerly pegged currency was forced into a floating system as investors sold their Korunas faster than the government could buy them. This followed a worldwide trend to divest from developing countries that year. Investors also worried the republic's economic transformation was far from complete. Another complicating factor was the current account deficit, which reached nearly 8% of GDP. In response to the crisis, two austerity packages were introduced later in the spring (called vernacularly \"The Packages\"), which cut government spending by 2.5% of GDP. Growth dropped to 0.3% in 1997, −2.3% in 1998, and −0.5% in 1999. The government established a restructuring agency in 1999 and launched a revitalization program – to spur the sale of firms to foreign companies. Key priorities included accelerating legislative convergence with EU norms, restructuring enterprises, and privatising banks and utilities. The economy, fueled by increased export growth and investment, was expected to recover by 2000.", "Growth in 2000–05 was supported by exports to the EU, primarily to Germany, and a strong recovery of foreign and domestic investment. Domestic demand is playing an ever more important role in underpinning growth as interest rates drop and the availability of credit cards and mortgages increases. Current account deficits of around 5% of GDP are beginning to decline as demand for Czech products in the European Union increases. Inflation is under control. Recent accession to the EU gives further impetus and direction to structural reform. In early 2004 the government passed increases in the Value Added Tax (VAT) and tightened eligibility for social benefits with the intention to bring the public finance gap down to 4% of GDP by 2006, but more difficult pension and healthcare reforms will have to wait until after the next elections. Privatization of the state-owned telecommunications firm Český Telecom took place in 2005. Intensified restructuring among large enterprises, improvements in the financial sector, and effective use of available EU funds should strengthen output growth.", "Growth continued in the first years of the EU membership. The credit portion of the Financial crisis of 2007–2010 did not affect the Czech Republic much, mostly due to its stable banking sector which has learned its lessons during a smaller crisis in the late 1990s and became much more cautious. As a fraction of the GDP, the Czech public debt is among the smallest ones in Central and Eastern Europe. Moreover, unlike many other post-communist countries, an overwhelming majority of the household debt – over 99% – is denominated in the local Czech currency. That's why the country wasn't affected by the shrunken money supply in the U.S. dollars. However, as a large exporter, the economy was sensitive to the decrease of the demand in Germany and other trading partners. In the middle of 2009, the annual drop of the GDP for 2009 was estimated around 3% or 4.3%, a relatively modest decrease. The impact of the economic crisis may have been limited by the existence of the national currency that temporarily weakened in H1 of 2009, simplifying the life of the exporters.", "From the financial crisis of 2007–2010, Czech Republic is in stagnation or decreasing of GDP. Some commenters and economists criticising fiscally conservative policy of Petr Nečas' right-wing government, especially criticising ex-minister of finance, Miroslav Kalousek. Miroslav Kalousek in a 2008 interview, as minister of finance in the center-right government of Mirek Topolánek, said \"Czech Republic will not suffer by financial crisis\". In September 2008, Miroslav Kalousek formed state budget with projection of 5% GDP increase in 2009. In 2009 and 2010, Czech Republic suffered strong economical crisis and GDP decreased by 4,5%. From 2009 to 2012, Czech Republic suffered highest state budget deficits in history of independent Czech Republic. From 2008 to 2012, the public debt of Czech Republic increased by 18,9%. Most decrease of industrial output was in construction industry (-25% in 2009, -15,5% in 2013). From 4Q 2009 to 1Q 2013, GDP decreased by 7,8%. In 2012, Czech government increased VAT. Basic VAT was increased from 20% in 2012 to 21% in 2013 and reduced VAT increased from 14% to 15% in 2013. Small enterprises sales decreased by 21% from 2012 to 2013 as result of increasing VAT. Patria.cz predicting sales stagnation and mild increase in 2013. Another problem is foreign trade. The Czech Republic is considered an export economy (the Czech Republic has strong machinery and automobile industries), however in 2013, foreign trade rapidly decreased which led to many other problems and increase of state budget deficit. In 2013, Czech National Bank, central bank, implemented controversial monetary step. To increase export and employment, CNB wilfully deflated Czech Crown (CZK), which inflation increased from 0.2% in November 2013, to 1.3% in 1Q 2014. In 2014, GDP in the Czech Republic increased by 2% and is predicted to increase by 2.7% in 2015. In 2015, Czech Republic's economy grew by 4,2% and it's the fastest growing economy in the European Union. On 29 May 2015, it was announced that growth of the Czech economy has increased from calculated 3,9% to 4,2%.", "In August 2015, Czech GDP growth was 4.4%, making the Czech economy the highest growing in Europe. On 9 November 2015, unemployment in the Czech Republic was at 5.9%, the lowest number since February 2009. Dividends worth CZK 289 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in 2016.", "Since its accession to the European Union in 2004, the Czech Republic has adopted the Economic and Monetary Union of the European Union and it is bound by the Treaty of Accession 2003 to adopt the Euro currency in the future. The Czech Republic also receives €24.2bn between 2014–20 from the European Structural and Investment Funds, however, this sum does not outweigh the amount of capital outflow of profits of foreign owned firms from the Czech Republic into other EU members, at which the funds are aimed to compensate for.", "As of 2016, the Czech Republic has the second lowest poverty rate of OECD members only behind Denmark. The Czech healthcare system ranks 13th in the 2016 Euro health consumer index.", "The Czech Republic is a long-term net-exporter of electricity. 97% -98% of oil used in the Czech Republic is imported. The government's 2015 energy policy designates nuclear power as main source of energy and its share is projected to rise to between 46% and 58% by 2040. Coal-powered energy is planned to fall to 21%, while renewables would rise to 25% and gas range from 5 to 15%. The updated energy strategy of 2019 envisions a gradual phase out of coal power share in total electricity generation from 2015's 46.2% down to 15.5% by 2040. The strategy sees nuclear energy as a non-carbon source of energy to be used during a slow transition to renewables in order to minimize the use of carbon-emitting fossil fuels that cause climate change. The increase in the share of nuclear, renewables and natural gas is to fill in the energy demand created by the impending gradual shutdowns of coal power stations. This 2015-approved energy strategy expects construction of an additional nuclear reactor in the Temelín Nuclear Power Station and another one in the Dukovany Nuclear Power Station with the possibility of further expansion to two reactors in each power station. The older station of the two, Dukovany, is to be expanded before Temelín. As of 2019, the financing models and contractor selection for the planned reactors are being negotiated by the government.", "", "The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017. Inflation under 2% is in green.", "\"From the CIA World Factbook 2017\" GDP (pp.): $353.9 billion (2016) GDP (nom.): $195.3 billion (2016) GDP Growth: 2.6% (2016) GDP per capita (pp.): $33,500 (2016) GDP per capita (nom.): $18,487 (2016) GDP by sector: \"Agriculture:\" 2.5% \"Industry:\" 37.5% \"Services:\" 60% (2016) Inflation: 0.7% (2016) Labour Force: 5.427 million (2017) Unemployment: 2,3% (September 2018) Industrial production growth rate: 3.5% (2016) Household income or consumption by percentage share: (2015) Public Debt: 34.2% GDP (2018)", "Exports: $136.1 billion \"Export goods:\" machinery and transport equipment, raw materials, fuel, chemicals (2018) Imports: $122.8 billion \"Import goods:\" machinery and transport equipment, raw materials and fuels, chemicals (2018) Current Account balance: $2.216 billion (2018) Export partners: Germany 32.4%, Slovakia 8.4%, Poland 5.8%, UK 5.2%, France 5.2%, Italy 4.3%, Austria 4.2% (2016) Import partners: Germany 30.6%, Poland 9.6%, China 7.5%, Slovakia 6.3%, Netherlands 5.3%, Italy 4.1% (2016) Reserves: $85.73 billion (31 December 2016) Foreign Direct Investment: $139.6 billion (31 December 2016) Czech Investment Abroad: $43.09 billion (31 December 2016) External debt: $138 billion (31 December 2016) Value of Publicly Traded Shares: $44.5 billion (31 December 2016) Exchange rates:", "Households with access to fixed and mobile telephone access Individuals with mobile telephone access Broadband penetration rate Individuals using computer and internet" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Acting career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Simon was born in Johannesburg, South Africa, the fourth child of Emmanuelle and Phylis Simon. Both of his parents are of Jewish ancestry from Poland and Lithuania. From a very young age, Cliff aspired to be the first South African swimmer to win an Olympic Gold medal. His mother, a swimming teacher, taught him from a very young age, and at age 6 he began to show talent as a gymnast. By age 15, Cliff had reached a national level in South Africa in both swimming and gymnastics, but he decided to discontinue training in gymnastics to better focus on swimming. In 1975, his parents decided to emigrate to the United Kingdom, due to the then-current turmoil in Africa. It was there that Simon completed his schooling and was chosen to swim in the British International squad. He competed in Olympic trials and qualified for the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles. The University of Houston and Southern Methodist University in Texas offered him scholarships, where he trained with the United States swimming team, the Mustangs. This would have culminated in him competing in the 1984 Olympic Games. However, after three years of intense training, he decided to quit and return to South Africa, due to his concerns that he was missing out on his social life. Back in South Africa, Simon entered the air force where he continued his swimming and achieved the highest athletic award given in the air force, the Victor Ludorum.", "In 1982, after serving his two-year term in the air force, he landed a job teaching windsurfing and waterskiing at a resort hotel. As fate would have it, a stage show was in production at the resort and Simon was informed by one of the performers that the choreographer was looking for a gymnast. Simon somehow knew that this was going to be the first step towards a career on stage. Simon subsequently performed all over the world in various stage productions as a dancer/acrobat, culminating in his dream role as a performer at the world famous Moulin Rouge, Paris, in 1989. On his return to South Africa, Simon pursued his stage career as an actor. Whilst studying drama, Simon secured himself a modelling agent and enjoyed success in ramp, print and television commercials. Simon received recognition as a model in South Africa and was asked to enter the Mr. South Africa talent and action man competition. On winning this competition in 1992, Simon was offered an audition on a successful television series, \"\". After guest starring on the show for three months, he accepted a permanent contract for a lead role in the show, which he continued for six years. In 1997, he married his girlfriend in a game lodge in South Africa. After being personally affected by the high levels of crime in Johannesburg, he decided to immigrate to the USA, hoping for a better quality of life. This also gave him the opportunity to further his acting career. Arriving in 2000 in Los Angeles, Simon secured an agent, and landed a guest star role with Don Johnson on the hit TV series, \"Nash Bridges\". A short time after that, he acquired the guest star role of Ba'al on \"Stargate SG-1\". Cliff's combination of charming bad guy charisma and wicked sense of humor made him a viewer favorite antagonist, keeping his character recurring for six seasons. In 2008, Simon was brought back to play Ba'al in the Stargate movie \"\". In 2015, Simon appeared in a video as Ba'al for the conservation group, Sea Shepherd In July 2015, Cliff was confirmed for a supporting role in the sci-fi/thriller \"Project Eden\". In 2019, Cliff presented the travelogue documentary Uncharted Mysteries (Into the Unknown) which premiered on The History Channel in the U.K. on the 24th February 2020. Part survival, part mystery, part travel documentary, Cliff travelled solo across the globe, into some of the most extreme and forbidding landscapes searching for hidden clues to some of the most nightmarish myths of all time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Kassel, Germany, Stürmer received his education in history, philosophy and languages at the University of Marburg, at the Free University of Berlin and at the London School of Economics. From 1973 to 2003 he held a professorship at the University of Erlangen-Nürnberg and at various times has served as a guest lecturer at the Sorbonne, Harvard University, and the Institute for Advanced Study. Also, he is on the advisory board of OMFIF where he regularly participates in various meetings regarding the financial and monetary system. In the 1980s Stürmer worked as an advisor and speech-writer to the West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Stürmer works as chief correspondent for the newspaper \"Die Welt\", published by the Axel Springer AG publishing group. Stürmer specializes in the history of the Second Reich of 1871–1918. He began his career on the political left in the 1960s, but moved to the right during the course of the 1970s. The turning point occurred in 1974 when the Social Democratic Party of Germany \"Land\" government of Hesse attempted to abolish history as a subject in the Hesse educational system and to replace it with \"social studies\". Stürmer played a major role in campaigning for the defeat of the SPD government in the 1974 elections. Starting in the early 1980s Stürmer became a well-known figure in the Federal Republic, with frequent contributions to the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" newspaper, his editorship of a number of popular book series entitled \"The Germans and their Nation\" and holding a series of lectures for the general public. Stürmer argues that \"the future is won by those who coin concepts and interpret the past\". In a series of his essays published in book form in 1986 as \"Dissonanzen des Fortschritts\" (\"Dissonances of Progress\"), he claimed that democracy in West Germany cannot be taken for granted; that though Germany does have a democratic past, the present system of the Federal Republic developed in response to past totalitarian experiences of both left and right; that geography has played a key role in limiting the options of German governments; and that given the Cold War, the ideas of neutrality for the Federal Republic or reunification with East Germany were not realistic. Stürmer is arguably best known for his advocacy of a geographical interpretation of German history. In a geographical variant of the \"Sonderweg\" theory, he has argued that what he regards as Germany's precarious geographical situation in Central Europe has played the deciding role in the course of German history, and that coping with this has left successive German rulers no other choice but to engage in authoritarian government. In Stürmer's opinion, the \"belligerence\" of the \"Reich\" came about through a complex interplay of Germany's location in the \"middle of Europe\" surrounded by enemies and of \"democratic\" forces in the domestic sphere. Stürmer has asserted that Germany - confronted with dangers from a revanchist France and an aggressive Russia, and as the \"country in the middle\" - could not afford the luxury of democracy. He regards Imperial Germany as more democratic and less \"Bonapartist\" than historians such as Hans-Ulrich Wehler have claimed, and that these democratic tendencies came to the fore during the Revolution of 1918–1919. In Stürmer's view, it was too much democracy rather than too little that led to the end of the \"Kaiserreich\" as the \"restless \"Reich\"\" collapsed because of its internal contradictions under the pressures of World War I. In the mid-1980s Stürmer sat on a committee - together with Thomas Nipperdey and Klaus Hildebrand - in charge of vetting the publications issued by the Research Office of the West German Ministry of Defense. The committee attracted some controversy when it refused to publish a hostile biography of Gustav Noske. During the late 1980s, Stürmer played a prominent role in the \"Historikerstreit\". Left-wing historians criticized him for an essay he wrote entitled \"Land Without History\" published in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" on April 25, 1986, in which he had claimed that Germans lacked a history to be proud of, and called for a positive evaluation of German history as a way of building national pride. He argued that Germans were suffering from a \"loss of orientation\" caused by the lack of a positive view of their history. In his view, the fall of the Weimar Republic was caused by \"loss of orientation\" due to the secularization of a previously religious country. Stürmer argued that West Germany had an important role in the world to play, could not play that role because the lack of a past to be proud of was \"seriously damaging the political culture of the country\" and wrote that it was \"morally legitimate and politically necessary\" for Germans to have a positive view of their history. In his view, what was needed was a campaign by the government, the media and historians to create a \"positive view\" of German history. In Stürmer's opinion, the Third Reich was a major block towards a positive view of the German past, and what was needed was a focus on the broad sweep of German history as opposed to the 12 years of Nazi Germany as a way of creating a national identity that all Germans could take pride in. He wrote that the \"loss of orientation\" caused by the absence of a German national identity led to a \"search for identity\". In his opinion this search was crucial because West Germany was \"now once more a focal point in the global civil war waged against democracy by the Soviet Union\". Because of the \"loss of orientation\", he argued that West Germans were not standing up well to the \"campaign of fear and hate carried into the Federal Republic from the East and welcomed within like a drug\". He claimed that Konrad Adenauer's policy in the 1950s of not prosecuting those responsible for crimes against humanity and war crimes during the Third Reich was a wise one and that it was a huge mistake to begin prosecutions in the 1970s as it destroyed any prospect of positive feelings about the German past. Writing in 1986, Stürmer complained that recent opinion polls showed 80% of Americans were proud of being American, that 50% of the British were proud of being British, and 20% of West Germans were proud of being German, and argued until national pride could be restored, West Germany could not play an effective part in the Cold War. At the 1986 Römerberg Colloquia (a gathering of intellectuals held annually in Frankfurt), Stürmer argued that Germans had a destructive \"obsession with their guilt\", which he complained led to a lack of a positive sense of German national identity. Likewise, he argued that the legacy of 1960s radicalism was an over-emphasis on the Nazi period in German history. He called for \"Sinnstiftung\", to give German history a meaning that would allow for a positive national identity. At the colloquia, Stürmer stated: \"We cannot live by making our past...into a permanent source of endless guilt feelings\". At the same gathering, he spoke of \"the deadly idiocies of the victors of 1918\", which led to a loss of a German national identity, and to the collapse of the Weimar Republic as Germans, confronted with the crises of modernity without a positive national identity, opted for the Nazi solution. At the same time he complained that the Allies had made the same mistake after 1945 as they had in 1918, laying a burden of guilt on Germans that prevented them from having positive feelings about their past. He complained that, \"as Stalin's men sat in judgment in Nuremberg\" proved, that what he regards as the self-destructive German obsession with Nazi guilt was the work of outsiders serving their own aims. During the same session, Stürmer attacked those historians who argued that Germany started World War I in 1914, and instead blamed France and Russia for the First World War. Moreover, he argued that whatever Germany did to start the First World War was only a defensive reaction imposed by geography. The sessions of the 1986 Römerberg Colloquia involving Stürmer were stormy When it became time to print the proceedings of the Colloquia, he refused to allow his contributions to be published, complaining of the \"defamations and denunciations\" he alleged to have been subjected to. When his contribution, the essay \"Weder verdrängen noch bewältigen: Geschichte und Gegenwartsbewusstein der Deutschen\" was published in the Swiss journal \"Schweizer Monatshefte\", he edited it heavily to remove many of his more controversial statements about the need for Germans to forget about Nazi crimes in order to feel good about their past. Despite his editing of his essay, he refused to allow it to be published in an anthology about the \"Historikerstreit\" out of the concern it might damage his reputation as a historian. Stürmer's critic, the British historian Richard J. Evans stated that the remarks he quoted Stürmer as making at the 1986 Römerberg Colloquia came from a tape-recorded record at the Colloquia, and not from the edited version provided by Stürmer Jürgen Habermas began his article “A Kind of Settlement of Damages” in the \"Die Zeit\" newspaper on July 11, 1986 with an attack on Stürmer. He took Stürmer to task for his statement that history served the purpose of integrating the individual into the wider community, and as such history had the need to provide a “higher meaning” to create the proper national consciousness in the individual, who otherwise would lack this national consciousness. Habermas accused Stürmer on marching to a “geopolitical drumbeat” with his depiction of German history determined by geographical factors requiring authoritarian government. He wrote Stürmer was trying to create a \"vicarious religion\" in German history intended to serve as a \"...kind of NATO philosophy colored with German nationalism\". In response to Habermas’s essay, Stürmer in a letter to the editor of the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" published on August 16, 1986 wrote that Habermas was confusing the “national question” with the “German question”, and argued that the German predicament was due to Germany’s geographical situation in the heart of Europe. He denied seeking to “endow” history with a “higher meaning”, accusing Habermas of seeking to do that. Stürmer charged that Habermas had created an “indictment that even fabricates its own sources”, and ended his letter with the remark about Habermas \"It's a shame about this man who once had something to say\". Replying to Stürmer, Habermas in his \"Note\" of February 23, 1987 accused Stürmer of having the \"chutzpah\" to deny his own views when he wrote that he was not seeking to \"endow\" history with a \"higher meaning\", and quoted from Stürmer's book \"Dissonanzen des Fortschritts\" to support his contention. In response to Habermas, Stürmer in his \"Postscript\" of April 25, 1987 accused Habermas of being a Marxist who was responsible for \"the invention of fact-free scholarship\". Stürmer claimed that Habermas had played an \"obscene role\" in the West German election of 1987 by labeling anyone he disliked as a Nazi, and that the reasons for Habermas's attack on him were to help the SPD in the election. Stürmer charged that Habermas was guilty of misquotation, and of making confusing statements such as his claim that he was working to create a \"NATO philosophy\" while seeking to bring Germany closer to the West. Many of Stürmer's critics in the \"Historikerstreit\" such as Hans-Ulrich Wehler and Jürgen Kocka, accused Stürmer of attempting to white-wash the Nazi past, a charge Stürmer vehemently rejected. In response to Stürmer's geographical theories about how Germany's \"land in the middle\" status had forced authoritarianism on the Germans, Kocka argued in an essay entitled \"Hitler Should Not Be Repressed by Stalin and Pol Pot\" published in the \"Frankfurter Rundschau\" on September 23, 1986 that “Geography is not destiny” Kocka wrote that both Switzerland and Poland were also \"lands in the middle\", and yet neither country went in the same authoritarian direction as Germany. Martin Broszat accused Stürmer of attempting to create an \"ersatz religion\" in German history that Broszat argued was more appropriate for the pre-modern era then 1986. Hans Mommsen wrote Stürmer's attempts to create a national consensus on a version of German history that all Germans could take pride in was a reflection that the German rightists could not stomach modern German history, and were now looking to create a version of the German past that German rightists could enjoy. Mommsen charged that to find the \"lost history\", Stürmer was working towards \"relativizing\" Nazi crimes to give Germans a history they could be proud of. However, Mommsen argued that even modern right-wing German historians might have difficulty with Stürmer's \"technocratic instrumentalization\" of German history, which Mommsen claimed was Stürmer's way of \"relativizing\" Nazi crimes. In another essay, Mommsen argued that Stürmer's assertion that he who controls the past also controls the future, his work as a co-editor with the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" newspaper which had been publishing articles by Ernst Nolte and Joachim Fest denying the “singularity” of the Holocaust, and his work as an advisor to Chancellor Kohl should cause \"concern\" with historians. Stürmer was attacked by Habermas and Wehler for writing the following: Habermas accused Stürmer of believing that \"a pluralism of values and interests leads, when there is no longer any common ground...sooner or later to social civil war\". Hans-Ulrich Wehler called Stürmer's work \"a strident declaration of war against a key element of the consensus upon which the socio-political life of this second republic has rested heretofore\". Stürmer's defenders such as the American historian Jerry Muller argued that Wehler and Habermas were guilty of misquoting Stürmer, and of unjustly linking him with Ernst Nolte as a sort of guilt by association argument. In response to his critics, Stürmer in an essay entitled \"How Much History Weights\" published in the \"Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung\" on November 26, 1986 wrote that France was a major power in the world because the French had a history to be proud of, and claimed that West Germany could only play the same role in the world if only they had the same national consensus about pride in their history as did the French. As the example of the sort of history that he wanted to see written in Germany, Stürmer used Fernand Braudel's \"The Identity of France\" volumes. Stürmer wrote that Braudel and the other historians of the Annales School had made geography the centre of their studies of French and European history while at the same time promoting a sense of French identity that gave the French a history to be proud of. Stürmer went on to argue that the German people had not had a really positive view of their past since the end of the First Reich, and this lack of a German identity to be proud of was responsible for all of the disasters of German history since then. Stürmer asserted \"All of our interpretations of Germany had collapsed\". As a result, he claimed that at present, the German people were living in historical \"rubble\", and that the Federal Republic was doomed unless the Germans once again had a sense of history that provided the necessary sense of national identity and pride The classicist Christian Meier, who was president of the German Historical Association in 1986 wrote that Stürmer was seeking to make history serve his conservative politics by arguing that Germans needed a history capable of creating a national identity that would allow Germans to face the challenge of the Cold War with pride and confidence in their future. Meier argued that Habermas was correct in expressing his concerns about Stürmer’s work, but asserted that Habermas had wrongly accused the Atlanticist Stürmer of seeking to revive the original concept of the \"Sonderweg\", that of Germany as a great Central European power that was neither of the West nor of the East. That aside, Meier felt that Stürmer’s claim that the future belonged to those who controlled the past, and that it was the duty of German historians to ensure the right sort of future by writing the right sort of history was troubling. Imanuel Geiss wrote that Stürmer was acting within his rights in expressing his right-wing views, and arguing against Habermas claimed there was nothing wrong in claiming that geography was a factor in German history The British historian Richard J. Evans who was one of Stürmer's fiercer critics accused Stürmer in his 1989 book \"In Hitler's Shadow\" of being an apparent believer that: Along the same lines, Evans criticized Stürmer for his emphasis on the modernity and totalitarianism of National Socialism, the role of Hitler, and the discontinuities between the Imperial, Weimar and Nazi periods. In Evans's view, the exact opposite was the case with National Socialism as a badly disorganized, anti-modern movement with deep roots in the German past, and the role of Hitler much smaller than the one Stürmer credited him with. Evans accused Stürmer of having no real interest in the collapse of Weimar, and only using the Nazi \"Machtergreifung\" as a way of making contemporary political points. Evans denounced Stürmer for writing a laudatory biography of Otto von Bismarck, which he felt marked a regression to the Great man theory of history and an excessive focus on political history. In Evans's opinion, a social historical approach with the emphasis on society was a better way of understanding the German past. In his 1989 book about the \"Historikerstreit\", \"In Hitler's Shadow\", Evans stated that he believed that the exchanges during the \"Historikerstreit\" had destroyed Stürmer's reputation as a serious historian. Much of Stürmer's work since the \"Historikerstreit\" has been concerned with creating the sense of national identity he feels Germans are missing. In his 1992 book, \"Die Grenzen der Macht\", Stürmer suggested that German history be viewed in the long-term starting from the 17th century to the 20th century to find the \"national and trans-national traditions and patterns worth cherishing\". Stürmer argued that traditions were tolerance for religious minorities, civic values, federalism and striking the fine balance between the peripheries and the center. In a July 1992 interview, Stürmer called his historical work a \"bid to prevent Hitler remaining the final, unavoidable object of German history, or indeed its one and only starting point\". In 2004 Stürmer became a founding member of the Valdai Discussion Club. Stürmer's latest book, a biography of the Russian Prime Minister and former President Vladimir Putin, appeared in 2008. A British reviewer praised Stürmer for his refusal to hold Putin's KGB background against him and for his willingness to accept Putin for who he was. Much of Stürmer's biography was based upon his interviews with Putin during the annual meetings of the Valdai group." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Corporate affairs.", "Ownership and structure.", "Business trends.", "Headquarters and other facilities.", "Corporate identity.", "Brand image.", "Marketing themes.", "Environmental initiatives.", "Worker relations.", "Destinations.", "Hubs.", "Alliance and codeshare agreements.", "Joint ventures.", "Fleet.", "Current fleet.", "Fleet strategy.", "Cabin.", "United Polaris Business.", "United Premium Plus.", "United premium transcontinental service.", "United First and United Business.", "Economy Plus.", "Economy.", "Basic Economy.", "Reward services.", "Concerns and conflicts.", "Animal transport.", "Cyber security issues.", "Privacy concerns.", "COVID-19.", "Accidents and incidents.", "United 3411." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "United traces its roots to Varney Air Lines (VAL), which Walter Varney founded in 1926 in Boise, Idaho. Continental Airlines is the successor to Speed Lanes, which Varney had founded by 1932 and whose name changed to Varney Speed Lines in 1934. VAL flew the first privately contracted air mail flight in the U.S. on April 6, 1926. In 1927, William Boeing founded Boeing Air Transport to operate air mail routes under contract with the United States Post Office Department. In 1929, Boeing merged his company with Pratt & Whitney to form the United Aircraft and Transport Corporation (UATC) which then set about buying, in the space of just 28 months, Pacific Air Transport, Stout Air Services, VAL, and National Air Transport, as well as numerous equipment manufacturers at the same time. On March 28, 1931, UATC formed United Air Lines, Inc. as a holding company for its airline subsidiaries. In late 2006, Continental Airlines and United had preliminary merger discussions. On April 16, 2010, those discussions resumed. The board of directors of Continental and UAL Corporation agreed on May 2, 2010, to combine operations, contingent upon shareholder and regulatory approval. On October 1, 2010, the UAL Corporation changed its name to United Continental Holdings, Inc. The carriers planned to begin merging their operations in 2011. The merged airline began operating under a single air operator's certificate from the Federal Aviation Administration on November 30, 2011. On March 3, 2012, United and Continental merged their passenger service systems, frequent-flier programs, and websites, which virtually eliminated the Continental brand with the exception of its logo. On June 27, 2019, the parent company's name changed from United Continental Holdings to United Airlines Holdings.", "", "United Airlines, Inc. is publicly traded through its parent company, United Airlines Holdings. Inc, which is a Delaware corporation, on the New York Stock Exchange, with a market capitalization of over US$21 billion as of January 2018. United's operating revenues and operating expenses comprise nearly 100% of the holding company's revenues and operating expenses.", "The key trends for the United Airlines Holdings, Inc. group (formerly the United Continental Holdings, Inc. group), including its consolidated subsidiaries, are (years ending December 31):", "United Airlines headquarters are located at the Willis Tower, 233 South Wacker Drive, Chicago, Illinois. In 2007, United had moved its headquarters from Elk Grove Township, a suburb of Chicago, to 77 West Wacker Drive in the Chicago Loop after receiving US$5.5 million in incentives from the City of Chicago. Then in 2010, United accepted the City of Chicago's offer of US$35 million in incentives, including a US$10 million grant, for United to move its remaining 2,500 employees out of Elk Grove Township to the Willis Tower (formerly the Sears Tower) in the Chicago Loop. On May 31, 2012, United opened its operations center, which occupied twelve floors there. In 2019 United renewed its lease at Willis Tower, originally ending in 2028 and now set to expire in 2033, and plans to construct a roof deck and a dining hall on the fourth floor. The former headquarters campus at Elk Grove Township was gradually annexed into the Village of Mount Prospect, and serves as an IT operations facility, with a new data center constructed in 2013. United maintains a large presence in downtown Houston, having leased of space (seven floors) for occupancy in 2017. United has training facilities for its flight crews in Denver and Houston, a major aircraft maintenance center in San Francisco, and call centers in Houston and Chicago.", "", "The pre-merger United logo, commonly nicknamed the \"tulip\", was developed in the early 1970s by the designer Saul Bass as part of a new brand image. The logo represented the airline's monogram as well as a modernized version of the airline's shield logo which had been adopted in the 1930s, but fell out of use by the late 1960s. The ribbon-like rendering has also been said to symbolize the motion of flight.", "United's earliest slogan, \"The Main Line Airway\", emphasized its signature New York-Chicago-San Francisco route, and was replaced in 1965 with \"Fly the Friendly Skies\", which was in use until 1996 in its first iteration. The \"It's time to fly\" slogan was created in 2004. After the merger of United and Continental in October 2010, the slogan changed to \"Let's fly together\" until September 2013, when United announced a return of the \"Fly the Friendly Skies\" slogan in an ad campaign to start the following day. The resurrected slogan would be accompanied by the 1924 George Gershwin song \"Rhapsody in Blue\" as its theme song, and a voiceover provided by Matt Damon. United had licensed its theme song, \"Rhapsody in Blue\", from Gershwin's estate for in 1976. \"Rhapsody\" would have entered the public domain in 2000, but the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 extended its copyright another 20 years until January 1, 2020 when it officially entered on the Public Domain. United announced that it would continue to use \"Rhapsody in Blue\" as its theme song following the merger with Continental.", "Because over 98 percent of United's greenhouse gas emissions are from jet fuel, its environmental strategy has focused on operational fuel efficiency initiatives and investments in sustainably produced, low-carbon alternative fuels. On August 23, 2011, United Continental Holdings, Inc. announced a conversion to paperless flight decks, and projected that by the end of the year, 11,000 iPads will have been deployed to all United and Continental pilots. Each iPad, which weighs less than, will replace approximately of paper operating manuals, navigation charts, reference handbooks, flight checklists, logbooks, and weather information. The green benefits include reductions in paper use, printing, and fuel consumption. On November 7, 2011, United flew the world's first commercial aviation flight on a microbially-derived biofuel. The aircraft was fueled with 40 percent Solajet, which is Solazyme's algae-derived renewable jet fuel, and 60 percent petroleum-derived jet fuel. This flight was operated by the Eco-Skies Boeing 737-800 aircraft from Houston to Chicago-O'Hare. On January 15, 2013, Aviation Partners Boeing (APB), a joint venture between Aviation Partners Inc. and Boeing, announced that United had agreed to replace the Blended Winglets on its Boeing Next Generation 737 aircraft with APB's Split Scimitar Winglet (SSW), significantly reducing drag. Once the SSWs are installed, it is estimated that APB's winglet technology will save United more than $250 million annually in fuel costs. On June 30, 2015, United invested US$30 million in Fulcrum BioEnergy, an alternative fuel company. Fulcrum's alternative fuel is produced through a clean and efficient thermochemical process and reduces lifecycle carbon emissions by more than 80 percent. As part of its investment, United will work with Fulcrum to develop up to five alternative fuel refineries near its U.S. hubs. These refineries will produce up to 180 million gallons of sustainable aviation alternative fuel per year, and United will have the opportunity to purchase at least 90 million gallons per year for a minimum of 10 years, making it the largest aviation alternative fuel commitment to date. On March 11, 2016, United became the first airline in the world to fly on commercial-scale quantities of such fuels on a continuous basis, which were procured from AltAir Fuels. This fuel was produced from sustainable feedstocks such as non-edible natural oils and agricultural wastes, and is expected to provide a greater than 60 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions on a lifecycle basis when compared to traditional jet fuel. United has agreed to purchase up to 15 million gallons of sustainable alternative fuel from AltAir Fuels for use in Los Angeles over a three-year period. In 2016, United began partnering with Clean the World to repurpose items from the airline's international premium class amenity kits and donate the hygiene products to those in critical need. Clean the World provides hygiene education and soap to promote handwashing, which helps prevent hygiene-related deaths. During the first year of this partnership, United expected to divert of material that otherwise would have gone to landfills. In 2017 United started a partnership with Audubon International to protect raptors—including hawks, ospreys and owls—in and around New York-area airports and resettle the birds-of-prey at suitable golf course habitats where the species are more likely to thrive.", "All United Airlines pilots are represented by the Air Line Pilots Association. A new Joint Collective Bargaining Agreement was ratified by a majority of the United/Continental pilots on December 15, 2012, which struck down a scope clause that disallowed Continental from outsourcing the flying of regional jets with 70 or more passenger seats.", "United operates to 238 domestic destinations and 118 international destinations in 48 countries or regions across five continents.", "As part of its hub-and-spoke business model, United currently operates eight hubs within the United States and its territories.", "United Airlines has been a member of the Star Alliance since the company was a co-founder in 1997. It also has codeshare agreements with the following airlines:", "In addition to the above codeshares, United has also entered into joint ventures with the following airlines:", "", "As of October 2019, United Airlines operated a fleet of 790 aircraft; all Boeing and Airbus.", "On July 20, 2011, American Airlines announced an order for 460 narrowbody jets, including 260 Airbus A320s. The order broke Boeing's monopoly with the airline and forced Boeing to proceed with plans for the re-engined 737 MAX. The contract with American included a Most-Favoured-Customer Clause, which requires Airbus to refund to American any difference between the price paid by American and the price paid by United or another airline, if lower. The clause acts to perpetuate United having a Boeing-skewed fleet. On September 22, 2012, United became the first American airline to take delivery of Boeing 787 aircraft. United is also the North American launch customer for the Boeing 787-9 and 787-10 aircraft, which are stretched versions of the base 787-8 model, delivered at launch. In May 2018, United planned to replace its 51 Boeing 767s in a deal potentially worth $14 billion at list prices, and was in talks with both Airbus and Boeing, for their A330neo and 787. United operates 128 757s and 767s ( B757s and 51 B767s), the second-largest combined fleet after Delta Air Lines with 206 ( 757s and 767s). Both have to replace them; they could be replaced by 737 MAX 10s, A321neos, Boeing NMAs, 787-8s or A330-800neos.", "", "On June 2, 2016, United introduced its new, redesigned international business class seat that will replace current business class seats. The Polaris seat converts into a 6' 6\" flat bed in a 1-2-1 configuration or a 1-1-1 configuration, providing all-aisle access for every seat. The seat boasts multiple storage areas, mood lighting, multiple charging ports, lumbar support, and improved dining and amenity services. These seats can be found on select Boeing 787 aircraft, Boeing 767 aircraft, and Boeing 777 aircraft. United Polaris Business passengers check in at separate counters and can use priority security screening where available. On international flights, in-flight services include pre-departure beverages, table linens and multi course meals designed in partnership with Charlie Trotter-affiliated chefs via the airline's partnership with the Trotter Project. Passengers are also given priority with boarding and baggage handling and access to the United Polaris Lounge where available, as well as the United Club and partner airline lounges when traveling on international routes. All Polaris Business seats recline 180 degrees into a full, flat bed. On select Boeing 777-200ER and Boeing 767-300ER aircraft, the seats alternate facing forward and backwards. On the Boeing 787, Boeing 767-400, Boeing 757-200 and select Boeing 767-300ER and Boeing 777-200ER aircraft, all seats face forward. Other domestic routes, especially hub-to-hub service and certain non \"United p.s.\" transcontinental flights, regularly see internationally configured aircraft with United Polaris Business seating for operational reasons (such as transferring international aircraft from one hub to another). While the physical seats and entertainment are the same as on international flights, the service, catering and other amenities are the same as in domestic first class. Unlike routes marketed as United p.s., these flights are eligible for complimentary premier upgrades.", "United Premium Plus is United's premium economy product, that is being retrofitted on wide-body international aircraft. United Premium Plus seating offers more space, comfort and amenities compared to United Economy or Economy Plus, and offers upgraded dining on china dinnerware, free alcoholic beverages, a Saks Fifth Avenue blanket and pillow, an amenity kit and more. The first aircraft with these seats was flying at mid-2018, and the full service launched in 2019. During the interim period, these seats were sold as part of Economy Plus.", "United premium transcontinental service is offered on transcontinental flights between Newark and Los Angeles or San Francisco and between Boston and San Francisco. Previously branded as p.s. (short for \"Premium Service\") when initially launched in 2004, through 2017, these flights utilize primarily Boeing 757-200s, with 180-degrees-flat Business class seats. The premium cabin also features international style catering, while all seats have access to inflight wi-fi, on demand entertainment, and power outlets. Business class passengers also have access to the United Club at Newark, Boston, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. All premium transcontinental flights were moved from New York JFK to Newark Liberty Airport on October 25, 2015. These routes are not eligible for Complimentary Premier upgrades, although MileagePlus members can upgrade using Regional Premier Upgrades, Global Premier Upgrades, or MileagePlus award miles. Since July 2017, passengers in this class get a complimentary hot entree, dessert, fruit, pre-arrival snack, and alcoholic beverages.", "United First is offered on all domestically configured aircraft. When such aircraft are used on international services such as services to Canada, Central America and the Caribbean destinations, this cabin is branded as United Business. United First seats on narrowbody aircraft have a seat pitch, while United First seats on re-configured domestic Boeing 777-200 aircraft feature fully flat bed seats. Passengers receive priority boarding and baggage handling, pre-departure beverages, complimentary meals and separate check-in desks. In 2015, United released its new domestic first class seat design. The new leather seats feature cradling headrests, granite cocktail tables, and a tablet stand. These seats will debut on Airbus A319 and Airbus A320 aircraft, and will eventually be installed on all domestic aircraft. In 2019, It was announced that United is increasing first and business class seats \"by 1,600\" across all their aircraft in their fleet, to include the Bombardier CRJ550 for which United is the \"launch customer\" of.", "United Economy Plus is available on all aircraft. Economy Plus seats are located in the front few rows and exit rows of the economy cabin and have more recline and at least of additional seat pitch totaling of recline (aircraft dependent) and of pitch. Economy Plus is complimentary for all MileagePlus Premier members. Premier 1K, Platinum and Gold members may select an Economy Plus seat when booking, while silver members can select an Economy Plus seat at check-in. It can also be purchased depending upon availability by other passengers. Prior to the merger between United and Continental, United Airlines aircraft offered Economy Plus, while Continental did not. Following the merger, Economy Plus was rolled out across the combined fleet.", "United Economy is available on all aircraft, and usually have a pitch of 31 inches (30 inches on aircraft refurbished with Slimline seats, and 32 inches on Boeing 787s) and a recline of 2–5 inches. All economy seats feature an adjustable headrest and some form of entertainment, ranging from AVOD, inflight wi-fi, personal device entertainment, or DirecTV. Economy seats on Boeing 767, Boeing 777 (except domestic 777-200s), Boeing 787, and 757-200 aircraft feature a personal touchscreen television at the back of each seat with United Private Screening. On Airbus A319, A320, Boeing 737, Boeing 757-300, and domestically configured Boeing 777 aircraft feature personal device entertainment and WiFi. Some Boeing 737 aircraft feature DirecTV. In April 2018, United upgraded all aircraft with over 70 seats to include Wi-Fi and personal device entertainment even with DirecTV equipped. Food and snacks are available for purchase on domestic, Caribbean, and some Latin America flights. These include snacks, fresh meals, and snack boxes, depending on flight time and distance. Meals are complimentary on all other international flights. Only beverages are complimentary in economy on North America flights. Alcoholic beverages are available for purchase on North America flights, but are complimentary on long-haul international flights. On flights where meals are served, a cocktail snack with a beverage is served shortly after takeoff, followed by a main course, then dessert. Longer international flights feature a pre-arrival meal, which usually consists of a light breakfast or snack. United announced that it would offer free snacks on domestic, Caribbean, and Latin America flights, which began in February 2016.", "Basic Economy is available on select routes and in addition to standard fares. Intended to be United's lowest fare, Basic Economy fares provide most of the same inflight services and amenities with standard United Economy Class. With Basic Economy, group/family seating, seat selection/upgrades and bringing full-sized carry-on bags are not allowed. When booking online, it is clearly marked - with a user prompt to confirm the user is booking a Basic Economy fare. Users also have the option to pay a small fee to upgrade their booking to regular Economy. Also, certain MileagePlus and Premier member benefits are not available.", "MileagePlus is the frequent flyer program for United Airlines. United Club is the airline lounge associated with United Airlines and United Express carriers. The United Club replaced the former United Red Carpet Club and Continental Airlines Presidents Club prior to United Airlines' merger with Continental.", "", "In 2013, after pressure from PETA, United announced that it would no longer transport monkeys to laboratories. United was the last North American passenger airline to transport these animals to laboratories. United flies more animals and has longer flight stage length than any other US airline, and accounted for one third of animal deaths of US airlines between 2012 and 2017. Effective March 20, 2018, the PetSafe program was suspended with no new reservations for cargo transport of pets accepted. This came after United announced plans to mark pet carriers in the passenger cabin with bright tags and legislation was introduced in the United States House of Representatives and United States Senate banning the placement of pets in overhead compartments. This was in response to a dog death after a passenger placed it in the overhead compartment following flight attendant instructions, but the flight attendant denied knowing that the luggage contained a dog.", "United awarded airline miles as \"bug bounties\" to hackers who could identify gaps in the carrier's web security. Two hackers have each been rewarded with 1 million miles of air travel as of July 15, 2015. This cyber security program was announced a few weeks after the company experienced two software glitches. The first incident delayed 150 United flights on June 2 due to a problem with its flight dispatching system. Six days later, United's reservation system delayed flights by not allowing passengers to check in. In addition to the \"bug bounty\" program, United said it tests systems internally and engages cybersecurity firms.", "In February 2019, privacy concerns arose after it emerged that United had installed cameras in some seat backs. United said that the cameras were \"not activated\", but journalists reported that malicious hackers could still potentially enable the cameras to spy on passengers.", "As a part of their response to COVID-19, United added touchless kiosks in over 200 locations.", "", "On the evening of April 9, 2017, a revenue passenger was forcibly removed by law enforcement from United Airlines flight 3411 at Chicago-O'Hare, bound for Louisville. United announced that it needed four seats for airline staff on the sold-out flight. When no passengers volunteered after being offered vouchers worth $800, United staff selected four passengers to leave. Three of them did so, but the fourth, a doctor named David Dao, declined as he said that he had patients to treat the following morning. He was pulled from his seat by Chicago Department of Aviation security officers and dragged by his arms down the aisle. Dao sustained a concussion, broken teeth, a broken nose, and other injuries. The incident was captured on smartphone cameras and posted on social media, triggering an angry public backlash. Afterwards, United's then chief executive officer, Oscar Munoz, described Dao as \"disruptive and belligerent\", apologized for \"re-accommodating\" the paying customers, and defended and praised staff for \"following established procedures\". He was widely criticized as \"tone-deaf\". Munoz later issued a second statement calling what happened a \"truly horrific event\" and accepting \"full responsibility\" for it. After a lawsuit, Dao reached an undisclosed settlement with United and airport police. In the aftermath, United's board of directors decided that Munoz would not become its chairman and that executive compensation would be tied to customer satisfaction. Following this incident, passenger complaints increased by 70 percent." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "History.", "Illuminating oil from coal and oil shale.", "Kerosene from petroleum.", "Use.", "As fuel.", "Heating and lighting.", "Cooking.", "Engines.", "In chemistry.", "In entertainment.", "In industry.", "Others.", "Toxicity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Kerosene is a low viscosity, clear liquid formed from hydrocarbons obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum between, resulting in a mixture with a density of composed of carbon chains that typically contain between 10 and 16 carbon atoms per molecule. It is miscible in petroleum solvents but immiscible in water. The distribution of hydrocarbon length in the mixture making up kerosene ranges from a number of carbon atoms of C6 to C20, although typically kerosene predominantly contains C9 to C16 range hydrocarbons. The ASTM International standard specification D-3699-78 recognizes two grades of kerosene: grades 1-K (less than 0.04% sulfur by weight) and 2-K (0.3% sulfur by weight). 1-K grade kerosene burns cleaner with fewer deposits, fewer toxins, and less frequent maintenance than 2-K grade kerosene, and is the preferred grade of kerosene for indoor kerosene heaters and stoves. Regardless of crude oil source or processing history, kerosene's major components are branched and straight chain alkanes and naphthenes (cycloalkanes), which normally account for at least 70% by volume. Aromatic hydrocarbons in this boiling range, such as alkylbenzenes (single ring) and alkylnaphthalenes (double ring), do not normally exceed 25% by volume of kerosene streams. Olefins are usually not present at more than 5% by volume. The flash point of kerosene is between 37 and 65 °C (100 and 150 °F), and its autoignition temperature is. The freeze point of kerosene depends on grade, with commercial aviation fuel standardized at. 1-K grade kerosene freezes around −40 °C (−40 °F, 233 K). Heat of combustion of kerosene is similar to that of diesel fuel; its lower heating value is 43.1 MJ/kg (around 18,500 Btu/lb), and its higher heating value is. In the United Kingdom, two grades of heating oil are defined. BS 2869 Class C1 is the lightest grade used for lanterns, camping stoves, wick heaters, and mixed with gasoline in some vintage combustion engines as a substitute for tractor vaporising oil. BS 2869 Class C2 is a heavier distillate, which is used as domestic heating oil. Premium kerosene is usually sold in containers from hardware, camping and garden stores and is often dyed purple. Standard kerosene is usually dispensed in bulk by a tanker and is undyed. National and international standards define the properties of several grades of kerosene used for jet fuel. Flash point and freezing point properties are of particular interest for operation and safety; the standards also define additives for control of static electricity and other purposes.", "The process of distilling crude oil/petroleum into kerosene, as well as other hydrocarbon compounds, was first written about in the 9th century by the Persian scholar Rāzi (or Rhazes). In his \"Kitab al-Asrar\" (\"Book of Secrets\"), the physician and chemist Razi described two methods for the production of kerosene, termed \"naft abyad\" (نفط ابيض\"white naphtha\"), using an apparatus called an alembic. One method used clay as an absorbent, whereas the other method used ammonium chloride (\"sal ammoniac\"). The distillation process was repeated until most of the volatile hydrocarbon fractions had been removed and the final product was perfectly clear and safe to burn. Kerosene was also produced during the same period from oil shale and bitumen by heating the rock to extract the oil, which was then distilled. During the Chinese Ming Dynasty, the Chinese made use of kerosene through extracting and purifying petroleum and then converted it into lamp fuel. The Chinese made use of petroleum for lighting lamps and heating homes as early as 1500 BC.", "Although \"coal oil\" was well known by industrial chemists at least as early as the 1700s as a byproduct of making coal gas and coal tar, it burned with a smoky flame that prevented its use for indoor illumination. In cities, much indoor illumination was provided by piped-in coal gas, but outside the cities, and for spot lighting within the cities, the lucrative market for fueling indoor lamps was supplied by whale oil, specifically that from sperm whales, which burned brighter and cleaner. Canadian geologist Abraham Pineo Gesner claimed that in 1846, he had given a public demonstration in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island of a new process he had discovered. He heated coal in a retort, and distilled from it a clear, thin fluid that he showed made an excellent lamp fuel. He coined the name \"kerosene\" for his fuel, a contraction of \"keroselaion\", meaning \"wax-oil\". The cost of extracting kerosene from coal was high. Gesner recalled from his extensive knowledge of New Brunswick's geology a naturally occurring asphaltum called albertite. He was blocked from using it by the New Brunswick coal conglomerate because they had coal extraction rights for the province, and he lost a court case when their experts claimed albertite was a form of coal. In 1854, Gesner moved to Newtown Creek, Long Island, New York. There, he secured backing from a group of businessmen. They formed the North American Gas Light Company, to which he assigned his patents. Despite clear priority of discovery, Gesner did not obtain his first kerosene patent until 1854, two years after James Young's United States patent. Gesner's method of purifying the distillation products appears to have been superior to Young's, resulting in a cleaner and better-smelling fuel. Manufacture of kerosene under the Gesner patents began in New York in 1854 and later in Boston—being distilled from bituminous coal and oil shale. Gesner registered the word \"Kerosene\" as a trademark in 1854, and for several years, only the North American Gas Light Company and the Downer Company (to which Gesner had granted the right) were allowed to call their lamp oil \"Kerosene\" in the United States. In 1848, Scottish chemist James Young experimented with oil discovered seeping in a coal mine as a source of lubricating oil and illuminating fuel. When the seep became exhausted, he experimented with the dry distillation of coal, especially the resinous \"boghead coal\" (torbanite). He extracted a number of useful liquids from it, one of which he named \"paraffine oil\" because at low temperatures, it congealed into a substance that resembled paraffin wax. Young took out a patent on his process and the resulting products in 1850, and built the first truly commercial oil-works in the world at Bathgate in 1851, using oil extracted from locally mined torbanite, shale, and bituminous coal. In 1852, he took out a United States patent for the same invention. These patents were subsequently upheld in both countries in a series of lawsuits, and other producers were obliged to pay him royalties.", "In 1851, Samuel Martin Kier began selling lamp oil to local miners, under the name \"Carbon Oil\". He distilled this by a process of his own invention from crude oil. He also invented a new lamp to burn his product. He has been dubbed the \"Grandfather of the American Oil Industry\" by historians. Since the 1840s, Kier's salt wells were becoming fouled with petroleum. At first, Kier simply dumped the useless oil into the nearby Pennsylvania Main Line Canal, but later he began experimenting with several distillates of the crude oil, along with a chemist from eastern Pennsylvania. Ignacy Łukasiewicz, a Polish pharmacist residing in Lviv, and his Hungarian partner had been experimenting with different distillation techniques, trying to improve on Gesner's kerosene process, but using oil from a local petroleum seep. Many people knew of his work, but paid little attention to it. On the night of 31 July 1853, doctors at the local hospital needed to perform an emergency operation, virtually impossible by candlelight. They therefore sent a messenger for Łukasiewicz and his new lamps. The lamp burned so brightly and cleanly that the hospital officials ordered several lamps plus a large supply of fuel. Łukasiewicz realized the potential of his work and quit the pharmacy to find a business partner, and then travelled to Vienna to register his technique with the government. Łukasiewicz moved to the Gorlice region of Poland in 1854, and sank several wells across southern Poland over the following decade, setting up a refinery near Jasło in 1859. The petroleum discovery at the Drake Well in western Pennsylvania in 1859 caused a great deal of public excitement and investment drilling in new wells, not only in Pennsylvania, but also in Canada, where petroleum had been discovered at Oil Springs, Ontario in 1858, and southern Poland, where Ignacy Łukasiewicz had been distilling lamp oil from petroleum seeps since 1852. The increased supply of petroleum allowed oil refiners to entirely side-step the oil-from-coal patents of both Young and Gesner, and produce illuminating oil from petroleum without paying royalties to anyone. As a result, the illuminating oil industry in the United States completely switched over to petroleum in the 1860s. The petroleum-based illuminating oil was widely sold as Kerosene, and the trade name soon lost its proprietary status, and became the lower-case generic product \"kerosene\". Because Gesner's original Kerosene had been also known as \"coal oil,\" generic kerosene from petroleum was commonly called \"coal oil\" in some parts of the United States well into the 20th century. In the United Kingdom, manufacturing oil from coal (or oil shale) continued into the early 20th century, although increasingly overshadowed by petroleum oils. As kerosene production increased, whaling declined. The American whaling fleet, which had been steadily growing for 50 years, reached its all-time peak of 199 ships in 1858. By 1860, just two years later, the fleet had dropped to 167 ships. The Civil War cut into American whaling temporarily, but only 105 whaling ships returned to sea in 1866, the first full year of peace, and that number dwindled until only 39 American ships set out to hunt whales in 1876. Kerosene, made first from coal and oil shale, then from petroleum, had largely taken over whaling's lucrative market in lamp oil. Electric lighting started displacing kerosene as an illuminant in the late 19th century, especially in urban areas. However, kerosene remained the predominant commercial end-use for petroleum refined in the United States until 1909, when it was exceeded by motor fuels. The rise of the gasoline-powered automobile in the early 20th century created a demand for the lighter hydrocarbon fractions, and refiners invented methods to increase the output of gasoline, while decreasing the output of kerosene. In addition, some of the heavier hydrocarbons that previously went into kerosene were incorporated into diesel fuel. Kerosene kept some market share by being increasingly used in stoves and portable heaters. In 2013, kerosene made up about 0.1 percent by volume of petroleum refinery output in the United States.", "", "", "The fuel, also known as heating oil in the UK and Ireland, remains widely used in kerosene lamps and lanterns in the developing world. Although it replaced whale oil, the 1873 edition of \"Elements of Chemistry\" said, \"The vapor of this substance [kerosene] mixed with air is as explosive as gunpowder.\" This may have been due to the common practice of adulterating kerosene with cheaper but more volatile hydrocarbon mixtures, such as naphtha. Kerosene was a significant fire risk; in 1880, nearly two of every five New York City fires were caused by defective kerosene lamps. In less-developed countries kerosene is an important source of energy for cooking and lighting. It is used as a cooking fuel in portable stoves for backpackers. As a heating fuel, it is often used in portable stoves, and is sold in some filling stations. It is sometimes used as a heat source during power failures. Kerosene is widely used in Japan as a home heating fuel for portable and installed kerosene heaters. In Japan, kerosene can be readily bought at any filling station or be delivered to homes. In the United Kingdom and Ireland, kerosene is often used as a heating fuel in areas not connected to a gas pipeline network. It is used less for cooking, with LPG being preferred because it is easier to light. Kerosene is often the fuel of choice for range cookers such as Rayburn. Additives such as RangeKlene can be put into kerosene to ensure that it burns cleaner and produces less soot when used in range cookers. The Amish, who generally abstain from the use of electricity, rely on kerosene for lighting at night. More ubiquitous in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, kerosene space heaters were often built into kitchen ranges, and kept many farm and fishing families warm and dry through the winter. At one time, citrus growers used a smudge pot fueled by kerosene to create a pall of thick smoke over a grove in an effort to prevent freezing temperatures from damaging crops. \"Salamanders\" are kerosene space heaters used on construction sites to dry out building materials and to warm workers. Before the days of electrically lighted road barriers, highway construction zones were marked at night by kerosene fired, pot-bellied torches. Most of these uses of kerosene created thick black smoke because of the low temperature of combustion. A notable exception, discovered in the early 19th century, is the use of a gas mantle mounted above the wick on a kerosene lamp. Looking like a delicate woven bag above the woven cotton wick, the mantle is a residue of mineral materials (mostly thorium dioxide), heated to incandescence by the flame from the wick. The thorium and cerium oxide combination produces both a whiter light and a greater fraction of the energy in the form of visible light than a black body at the same temperature would. These types of lamps are still in use today in areas of the world without electricity, because they give a much better light than a simple wick-type lamp does. Recently, a multipurpose lantern that doubles as a cook stove has been introduced in India in areas with no electricity.", "In countries such as India and Nigeria, kerosene is the main fuel used for cooking, especially by the poor, and kerosene stoves have replaced traditional wood-based cooking appliances. As such, increase in the price of kerosene can have a major political and environmental consequence. The Indian government subsidizes the fuel to keep the price very low, to around 15 U.S. cents per liter as of February 2007, as lower prices discourage dismantling of forests for cooking fuel. In Nigeria an attempt by the government to remove a fuel subsidy that includes kerosene met with strong opposition. Kerosene is used as a fuel in portable stoves, especially in Primus stoves invented in 1892. Portable kerosene stoves earn a reputation of reliable and durable stove in everyday use, and perform especially well under adverse conditions. In outdoor activities and mountaineering, a decisive advantage of pressurized kerosene stoves over gas cartridge stoves is their particularly high thermal output and their ability to operate at very low temperature in winter or at high altitude. Wick stoves like Perfection's or wickless like Boss continue to be used by the Amish and off grid living and in natural disasters where there is no power available.", "In the early to mid-20th century, kerosene or tractor vaporising oil (TVO) was used as a cheap fuel for tractors and hit 'n miss engines The engine would start on gasoline, then switch over to kerosene once the engine warmed up. On some engines a heat valve on the manifold would route the exhaust gases around the intake pipe, heating the kerosene to the point where it was vaporized and could be ignited by an electric spark. In Europe following the Second World War, automobiles were similarly modified to run on kerosene rather than gasoline, which they would have to import and pay heavy taxes on. Besides additional piping and the switch between fuels, the head gasket was replaced by a much thicker one to diminish the compression ratio (making the engine less powerful and less efficient, but able to run on kerosene). The necessary equipment was sold under the trademark \"Econom\". During the fuel crisis of the 1970s, Saab-Valmet developed and series-produced the Saab 99 Petro that ran on kerosene, turpentine or gasoline. The project, codenamed \"Project Lapponia\", was headed by Simo Vuorio, and towards the end of the 1970s, a working prototype was produced based on the Saab 99 GL. The car was designed to run on two fuels. Gasoline was used for cold starts and when extra power was needed, but normally it ran on kerosene or turpentine. The idea was that the gasoline could be made from peat using the Fischer–Tropsch process. Between 1980 and 1984, 3,756 Saab 99 Petros and 2,385 Talbot Horizons (a version of the Chrysler Horizon that integrated many Saab components) were made. One reason to manufacture kerosene-fueled cars was that in Finland kerosene was less heavily taxed than gasoline. Kerosene is used to fuel smaller-horsepower outboard motors built by Yamaha, Suzuki, and Tohatsu. Primarily used on small fishing craft, these are dual-fuel engines that start on gasoline and then transition to kerosene once the engine reaches optimum operating temperature. Multiple fuel Evinrude and Mercury Racing engines also burn kerosene, as well as jet fuel. Today, kerosene is mainly used in fuel for jet engines in several grades. One highly refined form of the fuel is known as RP-1, and is often burned with liquid oxygen as rocket fuel. These fuel grade kerosenes meet specifications for smoke points and freeze points. The combustion reaction can be approximated as follows, with the molecular formula CH (dodecane): 2 CH(\"l\") + 37 O(\"g\") → 24 CO(\"g\") + 26 HO(\"g\"); ∆\"H\" ̊ = -7513 kJ In the initial phase of liftoff, the Saturn V launch vehicle was powered by the reaction of liquid oxygen with RP-1. For the five 6.4 meganewton sea-level thrust F-1 rocket engines of the Saturn V, burning together, the reaction generated roughly 1.62 × 10 watts (J/s) (162 gigawatt) or 217 million horsepower. Kerosene is sometimes used as an additive in diesel fuel to prevent gelling or waxing in cold temperatures. \"Ultra-low sulfur kerosene\" is a custom-blended fuel used by the New York City Transit Authority to power its bus fleet. The transit agency started using this fuel in 2004, prior to the widespread adoption of ultra-low-sulfur diesel, which has since become the standard. In 2008, the suppliers of the custom fuel failed to tender for a renewal of the transit agency's contract, leading to a negotiated contract at a significantly increased cost. JP-8, (for \"Jet Propellant 8\") a kerosene-based fuel, is used by the United States military as a replacement in diesel fueled vehicles and for powering aircraft. JP-8 is also used by the U.S. military and its NATO allies as a fuel for heaters, stoves, tanks and as a replacement for diesel fuel in the engines of nearly all tactical ground vehicles and electrical generators.", "Kerosene is used as a diluent in the PUREX extraction process, but it is increasingly being supplanted by dodecane. In X-ray crystallography, kerosene can be used to store crystals. When a hydrated crystal is left in air, dehydration may occur slowly. This makes the color of the crystal become dull. Kerosene can keep air from the crystal. It can be also used to prevent air from re-dissolving in a boiled liquid, and to store alkali metals such as potassium, sodium, and rubidium (with the exception of lithium, which is less dense than kerosene, causing it to float). Kerosene vapor diffused in air (as from a lamp wick) will burn at a maximum flame temperature of 990 °C (1814 °F). In a stochiometric mixture with oxygen the flame temperature of kerosene can reach 2393 °C (3801 °F).", "Kerosene is often used in the entertainment industry for fire performances, such as fire breathing, fire juggling or poi, and fire dancing. Because of its low flame temperature when burnt in free air, the risk is lower should the performer come in contact with the flame. Kerosene is generally not recommended as fuel for indoor fire dancing, as it produces an unpleasant (to some) odor, which becomes poisonous in sufficient concentration. Ethanol was sometimes used instead, but the flames it produces look less impressive, and its lower flash point poses a high risk.", "As a petroleum product miscible with many industrial liquids, kerosene can be used as both a solvent, able to remove other petroleum products, such as chain grease, and as a lubricant, with less risk of combustion when compared to using gasoline. It can also be used as a cooling agent in metal production and treatment (oxygen-free conditions). In the petroleum industry, kerosene is often used as a synthetic hydrocarbon for corrosion experiments to simulate crude oil in field conditions.", "Kerosene can be applied topically to hard-to-remove mucilage or adhesive left by stickers on a glass surface (such as in show windows of stores). It can be used to remove candle wax that has dripped onto a glass surface; it is recommended that the excess wax be scraped off prior to applying kerosene via a soaked cloth or tissue paper. It can be used to clean bicycle and motorcycle chains of old lubricant before relubrication. It can also be used to thin oil based paint used in fine art. Some artists even use it to clean their brushes; however, it leaves the bristles greasy to the touch. It has seen use in mosquito control in Australia.", "Ingestion of kerosene is harmful or fatal. Kerosene is sometimes recommended as a folk remedy for killing head lice, but health agencies warn against this as it can cause burns and serious illness. A kerosene shampoo can even be fatal if fumes are inhaled. People can be exposed to kerosene in the workplace by breathing it in, swallowing it, skin contact, and eye contact. The US National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit of 100 mg/m over an 8-hour workday." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tamarin and Mozilla.", "What Tamarin is not.", "Related projects.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The source code, including the just-in-time compiler and conservative garbage collector, was donated to the Mozilla Foundation on November 7, 2006. The contributed code is tri-licensed under the GPL, LGPL, and MPL licenses to be developed in Mozilla's Mercurial repository. The contributed code is approximately 135,000 lines of code, making it the largest single donation of code to the Mozilla project besides Netscape itself. There were plans to use Tamarin as part of Mozilla 2 (and therefore Firefox 4). The project to integrate Tamarin and SpiderMonkey was called \"ActionMonkey\", but was canceled in 2008 because Tamarin's interpreter turned out to be slower than SpiderMonkey's and because the plans of ECMAScript development shifted from ECMAScript 4, which was partially implemented by then existing Tamarin source code and was meant to be completed by joined efforts of Adobe, Mozilla and its community within the Tamarin Project, to ECMAScript Harmony. Tamarin continues to be used in Adobe Flash Player, but it has not replaced SpiderMonkey as the JavaScript engine of Mozilla applications. The only part of Tamarin used in modern Mozilla applications (i.e. Firefox 3.5+) via SpiderMonkey is NanoJIT, a module that is used to generate native code when performing just-in-time compilation.", "Adobe contributed code for its ActionScript Virtual Machine 2 and the JIT compiler. The ActionScript compiler is also open source and can be downloaded from GitHub. Tamarin is not the same as Adobe Flash Player, which remains closed source. The Tamarin virtual machine is only a part of Flash Player.", "Two projects related to Tamarin were announced on July 25, 2007 in Brendan Eich's keynote at The Ajax Experience West: IronMonkey and ScreamingMonkey. IronMonkey is a project to map IronPython and IronRuby to Tamarin led by Seo Sanghyeon. ScreamingMonkey's goal is to allow Tamarin to run within non-Mozilla browsers (thus allowing them to understand JavaScript 2), starting with Internet Explorer. The project is led by Mark Hammond. Neither project had production-quality releases and their current status is unclear.", "Both SpiderMonkey and Tamarin fulfill closely related goals and so were both dubbed after monkeys (the spider monkey and the tamarin, respectively)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Ideas and themes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the story, the wizards accidentally are transported to Roundworld (the real universe, inadvertently created during the first book) during the Elizabethan era. This is the first time they learn there are humans on Roundworld; they previously learnt that \"something\" would escape an Ice Age by heading for the stars via a space elevator, but missed which species it was. They are befriended by the magician John Dee, who is understandably confused by their appearance. Back at Unseen University, the thinking machine Hex informs the remaining faculty (Ponder Stibbons, the Librarian and Rincewind) that history has changed and humanity no longer makes it to the stars. The reason for this is, apparently, an infestation of elves feeding off human imagination and encouraging them to be scared of the dark and the monsters within. The wizards travel back in time to suppress the elvish influence, but this only makes things worse; people are no longer superstitious, but they are no longer creative either. In the \"new\" 17th century humans are still in the Stone Age, with a particular tribe having only slight fascination about a tree. Then Rincewind suggests doing the opposite, encouraging humanity to be \"more\" creative. They travel through time doing this, with the intent of creating a history in which William Shakespeare writes \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\". This achievement is symbolic of a new way of thinking, the human imagination is now sophisticated enough that stories can be told \"about\" stories. With the elves now seen as a harmless fiction, their power over Roundworld is gone.", "The science section explains that, apart from the wizards, this is probably how humanity and science developed; the imagination that peopled the night with terrors went on to create a story in which there was a reliable light source, and made that story reality. While Roundworld does not, as explained in the first book, contain any narrativium, human belief that it \"should\" has created something very similar. The book concludes with: \"The [stories] we've got have brought us a long way. Plenty of creatures are intelligent but only one tells stories. That's us: Pan narrans. And what about Homo sapiens? Yes, we think that would be a very good idea...\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Beliefs of the Pagan Federation.", "Aims of the Pagan Federation.", "Campaigns of the Pagan Federation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Pagan Federation believes that 'Paganism is the ancestral religion of the whole of humanity', according to Cole Morton who was awarded the 'Pagan Federation National Journalist of the Year' in 2010. Pagan Federation states that for someone to be Pagan, they need only believe in the following: The Aim of the PF translates as the following core activities,", "\"According to the Pagan Federation Wessex website the Pagan Federation \"seeks to support all Pagans to ensure they have the same rights as the followers of other beliefs and religions. It aims to promote a positive profile for Pagans and Paganism and to provide information on Pagan beliefs to the media, official bodies and the greater community.\"\" It is active throughout Europe and organises a large number of Pagan events. The organisation produces the magazine, \"Pagan Dawn\" which is the Pagan Federation's journal. In 2001, it successfully fought for the reinstatement of its first Youth Manager, Dr Ralph Morse, whose association with the organisation was considered sufficient grounds for his sacking as Head of Drama, Media and Theatre Arts at Shenfield High School in Essex. There are many different regional bodies each organising its own events and functioning on a local basis In addition, Scotland has its own national Pagan Federation which carries out the work of the PF in that country.", "The BBC reported on 27 February 2011, that according to the 2001 Census, 42,000 people declared themselves as Pagans - the seventh highest number for any UK religion - but some experts believe the true figure was nearer 250,000 - and is significantly higher now. For the 2011 Census, The Pagan Federation was asking all Pagans to put aside their reservations and to put 'Pagan' in the box for religion. This is so that a truer value of the number of pagans in the UK could be determined. The ONS reported that 56,620 people identified themselves as Pagan in the 2011 census, the eighth highest for a UK religion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and composition.", "Critical response.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Live performances and covers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1999 Spears began work on her second studio album \"Oops!...I Did It Again\" (2000), in Sweden and Switzerland. After meeting with Max Martin and Rami Yacoub in Sweden, Spears recorded several songs for the album, including \"Stronger\", which was co-written and co-produced by Martin and Rami. Upon returning to the United States, the singer revealed in an interview with MTV News that: \"I just got back from Sweden, and did half [of] the material [for \"Oops!\"] over there. I was really, really happy with the material, but we had [such] limited time to get so much done. So I've just really been in the studio nonstop, which is cool, though.\" Spears recorded her vocals for the song in November 1999 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. \"Stronger\" was released on November 13, 2000 as the third single from the album. \"Stronger\" is a teen pop and dance-pop song that features a heavy dance beat, and lasts 3 minutes and 23 seconds. According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com, the song is composed in the key of G-sharp minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 108 beats per minute, while Spears vocal range spans from C to C. Music critics noticed the song as Spears' declaration of independence, which is perceived in self-empowerment lines such as \"I'm not your property\" and \"I don't need nobody\". Its lyrics also quote Spears' iconic debut hit \"...Baby One More Time\", which was also co-written and produced for Spears by Martin and Yacoub and released two years earlier; the latter's famous chorus, \"My loneliness is killing me\", is answered in \"Stronger\" with the lyric, \"My loneliness ain't killin' me no more\". Despite not being written by the singer, it was speculated that the song is directed to the singer's record label and her management. In a review for the album, David Browne of \"Entertainment Weekly\" noted that \"Stronger\" together with \"Don't Go Knockin' on My Door\" is reminiscent of the Rolling Stones' \"The Last Time\" (1965).", "\"Stronger\" was lauded by music critics. Stephanie McGrath of Jam! considered the song \"the best dance track\" of \"Oops!\", deeming the song \"every bit as good as *Nsync's 'Bye, Bye, Bye' or The Backstreet Boys' 'The One'.\" Tracy E. Hopkins of \"Barnes & Noble\", while reviewing the album, said, \"Spears shines on the tongue-in-cheek lead single, the triumphant 'Stronger'...\" David Veitch of the \"Calgary Sun\" considered \"Stronger\" to be as \"another boom-bastic upbeat track\", while saying the song is \"notable for its foghorn synth, fabulous rhythm track and heavy effects applied to Britney's voice. Why she's panting at the end of the bridge is anybody's guess.\" A review by the \"NME\" staff compared \"Stronger\" to songs recorded by ABBA, saying, \"there's the deranged helium synth pop of 'Stronger' with the huge ABBA chord change in the chorus that sounds scarier and more robotic than the Backstreet Boys.\" Andy Battaglia from \"Salon\" said \"Stronger\" \"could crush the entire self-help industry with its melody alone.\" Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj pointed out the \"deeper element of defiance embedded both within the lyrics and the epic chord progressions\". Writing for \"Pink News\", Mayer Nissim deemed it \"a perfect pop masterpiece\". For Alex Macpherson from \"The Guardian\", it's one of the best examples of Spears' \"distressing vulnerability\" as well as her second best song; \"for the first but by no means last time, Britney embraces the inhuman qualities of her strange, hiccupping voice with vocals distorted and ground up against the beat\". Shannon Barbour from \"Cosmopolitan\" opined that it was \"proof that Empowered Britney is the best Britney\". Similarly, \"Gay Times\" Daniel Megarry called it \"an empowering gay club favourite\". \"Entertainment Weekly\" ranked it at number 14 on their ranking of Spears' songs; \"['Stronger'] foretold the future, both lyrically (she vowed to do things'my way') and sonically (the stormy electronic touches hinted at a shift in her Scandi-pop sound). Today, it’s the theme song for her resilience\". \"Rolling Stone\" hailed it \"a dance pop anthem of self-empowerment that is both obviously autobiographical and highly relatable to anyone eager to define themselves as a young adult\". Caryn Ganz from \"Spin\" said that \"Britney’s first self-empowerment anthem is still her best: a strutting finger-wagger that’s somehow also a fist-pumper\".", "In the United States, \"Stronger\" peaked at number 11 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the date of January 27, 2001, after entering the top 40 at number 29 on December 30, 2000.<ref name=\"12/30/00Billboard\"></ref> It also peaked at number 17 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart. It was also certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). \"Stronger\" also peaked at number two on the Hot Dance Music/Maxi-Singles Sales component chart, and number 37 on Rhythmic Top 40. As of June 2012, \"Stronger\" has sold 415,000 physical units, with 270,000 paid digital downloads in the United States. It is Spears' third best-selling physical single in the country. \"Stronger\" also achieved commercial success worldwide, reaching number one in Mexico and was the number one best-selling single in 2001, and reaching number four in Austria and Sweden, six in Ireland and Switzerland, and eight in Finland, while reaching the top 20 in several European countries. On the week of December 16, 2000, \"Stronger\" debuted at number seven in The Official Charts Company from the United Kingdom, falling to number 11 in the following week. In Australia, the song peaked at number 13, and was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), for shipments of more than 70,000 units of the single. In France, \"Stronger\" reached number 20, making it the lowest chart position for the song worldwide. However, it was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), for selling over 125,000 units of the single. In Germany, the song reached number four on the Media Control Charts, being certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie (BVMI) for shipping over 250,000 units of the single.", "The music video for the song was shot on October 5-7, 2000 at Syncro Aviation Hangar at Van Nuys Airport, Los Angeles, and directed by Joseph Kahn. Kahn revealed that the concept for the music video was created by Spears herself, by saying \"I would like to dance in a chair and drive in a car and break up with [my] boyfriend. [...] Those are your three elements.\" Kahn ended up creating, according to Jocelyn Vena of MTV, \"a semi-futuristic world in which Spears walks into a club, breaks up with her cheating boyfriend and triumphantly walks in the rain, knowing her life is better off without him.\" Kahn also considered the music video as very sophisticated, saying that it is \"definitely a departure from the sort of candy-colored videos she was doing before, so I always thought this was the transition between Britney the teenage pop star and Britney the sort of diva she became.\" An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album \"\". Kahn revealed that Spears' referenced Janet Jackson's \"The Pleasure Principle\" and \"Miss You Much\" music videos for the video's chair routine, saying her idea was inspired by \"Janet Jackson's 'Pleasure Principle' — the iconic chair sequence in that\". A review of the video also commented \"Ms. Spears gives us her best Janet Jackson impression (“Miss You Much“) with a dizzying chair-dance routine.\" Spears also referenced and draws inspiration from Jackson in several other music videos, including \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\". \"Overprotected (Darkchild Remix)\", \"Circus\", and \"Womanizer\". The video begins with a closed caption that reads \"Britney Spears – Stronger\", amidst the sound of a storm. It then cuts to a close up of Spears looking at her boyfriend, who is smiling with another woman holding him. She realizes she is better without him and walks away, after saying, \"Whatever,\" to the audience. There is a shot of the tower hotel they were in, in an apparent semi-futuristic world, having a party in the restaurant in the hotel tower at the top, and then the hotel tower explodes and blows up. At the beginning of the first chorus, Spears starts dancing with an Emeco 1006-style chair in front of a black background. The second half of the video finds Spears driving away from the party in a classic Ford Mustang car during a thunderstorm; however, before long, her car goes into a spin out, then stops on the very edge of the bridge. After recovering from the shock of it, she's forced to continue walking on in the rain. Cuts of her dancing with a cane, transformed from the chair, are also included. The video ends with Spears walking across a bridge. Two versions of the video exist, one in which at the end of video, Spears stands in mid-air above the spinning chair, and in the other a close up of her singing. Nuzhat Naoreen of MTV praised the music video, saying, \"few performers can work an entire routine on and around a chair as well as Britney did in 'Stronger'\". The music video received a nomination on the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video.", "Britney performed \"Stronger\" for the first time during her Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour in Columbia, U.S.A at June 20, 2000. The show began with the video introduction \"The Britney Spears Experience\", in which three images of Spears welcomed spectators to the show. Then, a giant metal orb was lowered onstage and lifted again to reveal Spears standing behind it. Wearing a glittery jeans and an orange halter top, she opened the show with a dance-oriented performance of the song. \"Stronger\" was last performed on 2002's Dream Within a Dream Tour. After a dance-oriented performance of \"Boys\", Spears performed the song, in which she wore a paint-covered robe and in some shows a bowler hat. Spears also performed the song on several television appearances, including on the American Music Awards of 2001, and on a MTV special titled \"Total Britney Live\". A Fox special titled \"Britney In Hawaii\", aired on June 8, 2000, included an exclusive performance of the song. A performance of \"Stronger\" live from Germany was broadcast on Radio Music Awards of 2000, since Spears was on tour by the time of the awards. \"Stronger\" was not included on the set lists of any of Spears' tours until it was included in her Las Vegas residency show. \"Stronger\" was covered by Kevin McHale on TV series \"Glee\", on an episode titled \"Britney/Brittany\", that was dedicated to the singer. In the episode, McHale's character Artie has a hallucination of himself singing \"Stronger\" during a dental visit. The cover received positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Raymund Flandez of \"The Wall Street Journal\" enjoyed the cover version, appreciating the twist of having males sing a feminist empowerment song, while Tim Stack of \"Entertainment Weekly\" deemed \"Stronger\" his favorite performance of the episode, as well as the best incorporation of Spears' music, as the song served Artie's storyline. Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life: 1922–52.", "Gerald Gardner and the Bricket Wood Coven: 1952–57.", "Robert Cochrane and \"Where Witchcraft Lives\": 1957–69.", "The Pagan Front, National Front, and further publications: 1970–84.", "Autobiography and final years: 1985–1999.", "Personality.", "Reception and legacy.", "Events and organisations.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Valiente was born Doreen Edith Dominy on 4 January 1922 in the London outer suburb of Colliers Wood, Mitcham, Surrey. Her father, Harry Dominy, was a civil engineer, and he lived with her mother Edith in Colliers Wood. Harry came from a Methodist background and Edith from a Congregationalist one, however Doreen was never baptised, as was the custom of the time, due to an argument that Edith had had with the local vicar. Doreen later claimed that she had not had a close or affectionate relationship with her parents, whom she characterised as highly conventional and heavily focused on social climbing. During her childhood they moved to Horley in Surrey, and it was there, according to her later account, that she had an early spiritual experience while staring at the moon. From there her family moved to the West Country and then to the New Forest. In either late 1934 or 1935, Doreen's mother left her father and took her to live with maternal relatives in Southampton. Valiente first began practicing magic aged 13, performing a spell to prevent her mother being harassed by a co-worker; she came to believe that it had worked. Her early knowledge of magical practices may have derived from books that she found in the local library. Her parents were concerned by this behaviour and sent her to a convent school. She despised the school and left it at the age of 15, refusing to return. She had wanted to go to art school, but instead gained employment in a factory, before moving on to work as a clerk and typist at the Unemployment Assistance Board. During the Second World War, she became a Foreign Office Civilian Temporary Senior Assistant Officer, in this capacity working as a translator at Bletchley Park. In relation to this work, she was also sent to South Wales, and it was there, in the town of Barry, that she met Joanis Vlachopolous, a Greek seaman in the Merchant Navy. Entering a relationship, they were married in East Glamorgan on 31 January 1941. However, in June 1941 he was serving aboard the \"Pandias\" when it was sunk by a U-boat off of the West African coast; he was declared missing in action and presumed deceased. Widowed, during 1942 and 1943 Valiente had a number of short-term jobs in Wales, which were possibly a cover for intelligence work. After October 1943 she was transferred to the intelligence service's offices in Berkeley Street in the Mayfair area of London, where she was involved in message decryption. In London she met and entered into a relationship with Casimiro Valiente, a Spaniard who had fled from the Spanish Civil War, where he had fought on the side of the Spanish Republican Army before later joining the French Foreign Legion, where he was wounded at the Battle of Narvik and evacuated to England. They were married on 29 May 1944 at St Pancras Registry Office. The couple moved to Bournemouth – where Doreen's mother was then living – and here Casimiro worked as a chef. Valiente would later say that both she and her husband suffered racism after the war because of their foreign associations. Developing an interest in occultism, she began practicing ceremonial magic with a friend, \"Zerki\", at his flat. She had obtained the magical regalia and notebooks of a recently deceased doctor, who had been a member of the Alpha et Omega, a splinter group of the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, and attempted to learn Hebrew, a language with uses in various forms of ceremonial magic. It was at this point that she selected \"Ameth\" as her magical name. She was particularly interested by John Symonds' book \"The Great Beast\", which was a biography of the occultist Aleister Crowley, who had founded the religion of Thelema in 1904, and following this she avidly read a copy of Crowley's \"Magick in Theory and Practice\" which she found in a local library. Alongside these, she also had some practical experience with the esoteric religions of Spiritualism and Theosophy, having attended the services of a local Christian Spiritualist church in Charminster.", "She had also become familiar with the idea of a pre-Christian witch-cult surviving into the modern period through the works of Charles Godfrey Leland, Margaret Murray, and Robert Graves, although believed that the religion was extinct. It was in autumn 1952 that she read an article by the reporter Allen Andrews in \"Illustrated\" magazine titled \"Witchcraft in Britain\". Discussing the recent opening of the Folklore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft in Castletown on the Isle of Man, it mentioned the museum's director, Cecil Williamson, and its \"resident witch\", Gerald Gardner. Intrigued by the article, Valiente wrote a letter to Williamson in 1952, who in turn put her in contact with Gardner. Valiente and Gardner wrote several letters back-and-forth, with the latter eventually suggesting that she meet him at the home of his friend and fellow Wiccan Edith Woodford-Grimes (\"Dafo\"), who lived not far from Bournemouth, in the Christchurch area. Before she left the meeting, Gardner gave her a copy of his 1949 novel, \"High Magic's Aid\", in which he describes a fictionalised account of Wiccan initiates in the Middle Ages; he allegedly did so in order to gauge her opinion on ritual nudity and scourging, both of which were present in his tradition of Gardnerian Wicca. Gardner invited Valiente again to Woodford-Grimes's house on Midsummer 1953, and it was here that he initiated her into Wicca in a ritual during which they stood before an altar and he read from his Book of Shadows. The three of them then set off to the prehistoric monument of Stonehenge in Wiltshire, where they witnessed the Druids performing a ritual there. Gardner had lent a ritual sword which he owned to the Druids, who placed it within the monument's Heel Stone during their rite. Valiente told her husband and mother about the visit to Stonehenge, but not about her initiation, of which, she feared, they would not have approved. Later in the year, Gardner invited Valiente to visit him at his flat in Shepherd's Bush, West London, and it was there that she met the eight to ten members of his Bricket Wood coven, which met near St. Albans, north of London. She soon rose to become the coven's High Priestess. The historian Ronald Hutton later commented that in doing so, she formed \"the second great creative partnership of [Gardner's] life\" after that with Woodford-Grimes. Valiente recognised how much of the material in Gardner's Book of Shadows was taken not from ancient sources as Gardner had initially claimed, but from the works of Crowley. She confronted Gardner with this; he claimed that the text he had received from the New Forest coven had been fragmentary, and he had had to fill much of it using various sources. She took the Book of Shadows, and with Gardner's permission, rewrote much of it, cutting out a lot of sections that had come from Crowley, fearing that his infamous reputation would sully Wicca. In 1953 she wrote \"Queen of the Moon, Queen of the Stars\", an invocation for use in a Yule ritual which was inspired by a Hebridean song found in the \"Carmina Gadelica\". With Gardner she also wrote \"The Witches Rune\", a chant for use while dancing in a circle. She rewrote much of the Charge of the Goddess, with Hutton characterising this act as \"her greatest single contribution to Wicca\", for her version of the Charge became \"the principle expression of Wiccan spirituality\" in coming years. Gardner spent his summers at the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft on the Isle of Man, and thus often relied on Valiente to deal with his affairs in Southern England. He sent her to meet the occult artist Austin Osman Spare when he wanted some talismans produced by the latter. Spare subsequently described Valiente as \"a myopic stalky nymph... harmless and a little tiresome\" in a letter that he wrote to Kenneth Grant. At Gardner's prompting, she also met with the occultist Gerald Yorke, who was interested in learning about Wicca; Gardner insisted that she lie to Yorke by informing him that she was from a longstanding family of hereditary Wiccan practitioners. She also aided him in preparing his second non-fiction book about Wicca, \"The Meaning of Witchcraft\", focusing in particular on those sections refuting the sensationalist accusations of the tabloid press. However Gardner's increasing desire for publicity, much of it ending up negative, caused conflict with Valiente and other members of his coven like Ned Grove and Derek Boothby. She felt that in repeatedly communicating with the press, he was compromising the coven's security. She was also not enthusiastic about two young people whom Gardner brought into the coven, Jack L. Bracelin and his girlfriend 'Dayonis', stating that \"a more qualid pair of spivs it would be hard to find indeed\". Two factions emerged within the coven; Valiente led a broadly anti-publicity group, while Gardner led a pro-publicity one. In 1957, Valiente and Grove drew up a list of \"Proposed Rules of the Craft\" which were partly designed to curtail Gardner's publicity-seeking. From his home in the Isle of Man, he responded that this was not necessary for a series of rules already existed—at which point he produced the Wiccan Laws. These laws limited the control of the High Priestess, which angered Valiente, who later realised that Gardner had simply made them up in response to her own Proposed Laws. In summer 1957, the coven split. According to Valiente, she and her followers \"had had enough of the Gospel according to St. Gerald; but we still believed that the real traditional witchcraft lived\". According to Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White, \"Wicca had experienced its first great schism\".", "After breaking from Gardner's Bricket Wood coven, Valiente formed her own coven with Grove as High Priest, still following the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca, albeit without the Wiccan laws, which she believed to be entirely an invention of Gardner's. However, this coven failed to last, breaking up amid arguments between its founders. In 1956, Valiente, along with her husband and her mother, moved into a basement flat in Lewes Crescent, Kemptown, in the southern coastal town of Brighton, although in 1968 they moved into a flat nearer to the town centre. She befriended another Kemptown resident, the journalist Leslie Roberts, who shared her interest in the supernatural. He attracted much attention to himself in the local press through his claims that practitioners of black magic were also operating in the area. Valiente remained a good friend to Roberts until his death from heart disease in 1966. She also got back in touch with Gardner, and mended their friendship, remaining on good terms until his death in 1964, when he left her £200 in his will. During the early 1960s she also developed a correspondence with two Gardnerian initiates in Sheffield, Patricia Crowther and her husband Arnold Crowther, finally meeting them when the latter couple visited Brighton in 1965. After her mother's death in August 1962, Valiente felt that she could be more open about being a Wiccan herself. Eager to spread information about Wicca throughout Britain, she also began to interact with press, sending a 1962 letter to the Spiritualist newspaper \"Psychic News\", and in 1964 being interviewed for her involvement with Wicca by Brighton's \"Evening Argus\". During the 1960s, she began producing articles about Wicca and other esoteric subjects on a regular basis, for such esoteric magazines as \"Light\", \"Fate\", and \"Prediction\". In this capacity, she also began to make appearances on television and radio. She also involved herself in the newly formed Witchcraft Research Association (WRA), becoming its second President after the resignation of Sybil Leek. Valiente's letter of welcome was included in the first issue of the WRA's newsletter, \"Pentagram\", published in August 1964, while she also gave a speech at the WRA's Halloween dinner in October. It was at the speech that Valiente proclaimed the Wiccan Rede; this was its first public appearance in a recognisable form, with Doyle White arguing that it was Valiente herself who both created and named the Rede. It was through the WRA that Valiente came to communicate with the journalist Justine Glass, who was then conducting research for her book \"Witchcraft, the Sixth Sense, and Us\". Valiente began visiting local libraries and archives in order to investigate the history of witchcraft in Sussex. On the basis of this research, the esoteric press Aquarian published her first book, \"Where Witchcraft Lives\", in 1962. Just as Gardner had done in his book \"Witchcraft Today\", here Valiente did not identify as a practicing Wiccan, but as an interested scholar of witchcraft. It contained her own research into the history and folklore of witchcraft in her county of Sussex, which she had collected both from archival research and from the published work of the historian L'Estrange Ewen. It interpreted this evidence in light of the discredited theories of Margaret Murray, which claimed that a pre-Christian religious movement had survived to the present, when it had emerged as Wicca. Hutton later related that it was \"one of the first three books to be published on the subject\" of Wicca, and that the \"remarkable feature of the book is that it remains, until this date [2010], the only one produced by a prominent modern witch that embodies actual original research into the records of the trials of people accused of the crime of witchcraft during the early modern period.\" In 1966, Valiente then produced a manuscript for a book titled \"I am a Witch!\", a collection of poems with a biographical introduction; however, it was never published, publishers not believing that it would be commercially viable. Valiente learned of the non-Gardnerian Wiccan Charles Cardell from a 1958 article, and subsequently struck up a correspondence with him. Cardell suggested that they pool their respective traditions together, but Valiente declined the offer, expressing some scepticism regarding Cardell's motives and conduct. In 1962, Valiente began a correspondence course run by Raymond Howard, a former associate of Cardell's; this course instructed her in a Wiccan tradition known as the Coven of Atho. At Halloween 1963 she was then initiated into the Coven of Atho in a ritual overseen by Howard, entering the lowest rank of the course, that of 'Sarsen', and beginning to copy the teachings that she received into notebooks, where she was able to identify many of the sources from which Howard had drawn upon in fashioning his tradition. In 1964, Valiente was introduced to the Pagan witch Robert Cochrane by a mutual friend, the ceremonial magician William G. Gray, who had met him at a gathering at Glastonbury Tor held by the Brotherhood of the Essenes. Although sceptical of Cochrane's claims to have come from a hereditary family of witches, she was impressed by his charisma, his desire to avoid publicity, and his emphasis on working outdoors. Valiente was invited to join Cochrane's coven, the Clan of Tubal Cain, becoming its sixth member. However, she became dissatisfied with Cochrane, who was openly committing adultery and constantly insulting Gardnerians, even at one point calling for \"a Night of the Long Knives of the Gardnerians\", at which point Valiente openly criticised him and then left his Clan. In her own words, she \"rose up and challenged him in the presence of the rest of the coven. I told him that I was fed up with listening to all this senseless malice, and that, if a 'Night of the Long Knives' was what his sick little soul craved, he could get on with it, but he could get on with it alone, because I had better things to do\". Shortly after, Cochrane committed ritual suicide on Midsummer 1966; she authored the poem \"Elegy for a Dead Witch\" in his memory. She remained in contact with his widow and other members of the Clan, as well as with Gray, and proceeded to work on occasion with The Regency, a group founded by former members of the Clan.", "Living in Brighton, Valiente took up employment in a branch of the Boots pharmacist. In 1971 she appeared on the BBC documentary, \"Power of the Witch\", which was devoted to Wicca and also featured the prominent Wiccan Alex Sanders. That same year, she was involved in the founding of the Pagan Front, a British pressure group that campaigned for the religious rights of Wiccans and other Pagans. In November 1970 she developed a full moon inauguration ritual for local branches of the Front to use and on May Day 1971 she chaired its first national meeting, held at Chiswick, West London. It was she who developed the three principles that came to be central to the Pagan Front's interpretation of their religion: adherence to the Wiccan Rede, a belief in reincarnation, and a sense of kinship with nature. In April 1972 her husband Casimiro died; he had never taken an interest in Wicca or esotericism and Valiente later claimed that theirs had been an unhappy relationship. Newly widowed, she soon had to move as the local council decided that her home was unfit for human habitation; she was relocated into council accommodation in the mid-1960s tower block of Tyson Place in Grosvenor Square, Brighton. Her flat was described by visitors as cramped, being filled with thousands of books. It was there that she met Ronald Cooke, a member of the apartment block's residents' committee; they entered into a relationship and she initiated him into Wicca, where he became her working partner. Together they regularly explored the Sussex countryside, and went on several holidays to Glastonbury, further considering moving there. She also joined a coven that was operating in the local area, Silver Malkin, after it was established by the Wiccan High Priestess Sally Griffyn. During the early 1970s, Valiente became a member of a far right white nationalist political party, the National Front, for about eighteen months, during which she designed a banner for her local branch. Valiente's biographer Philip Heselton suggested that the party's nationalistic outlook may have appealed to her strongly patriotic values and that she might have hoped that the Front would serve as a political equivalent to the Pagan movement. At the same time she also became a member of another, more extreme far right group, the Northern League. However, she allowed her membership of the National Front to lapse, sending a letter to her local branch stating that although she respected its leader John Tyndall and had made friends within the group, she was critical of the party's opposition to women's liberation, gay rights, and sex education, all of which she lauded as progressive causes. Heselton has also suggested that Valiente may have joined these groups in order to investigate them before reporting back to Britain's intelligence agencies. It was also in the early 1970s that she read John Michell's \"The View Over Atlantis\" and was heavily influenced by it, embracing Michell's view that there were ley lines across the British landscape that channelled earth energies. Inspired, she began searching for ley lines in the area around Brighton. She also began subscribing to \"The Ley Hunter\" magazine, for which she authored several articles and book reviews. Valiente came to see the public emergence of Wicca as a sign of the Age of Aquarius, arguing that the religion should ally with the feminist and environmentalist movements in order to establish a better future for the planet. In 1973, the publishing company Robert Hale brought out Valiente's second book, \"An ABC of Witchcraft\", in which she provided an encyclopaedic overview of various topics related to Wicca and esotericism. In 1975, Hale published Valiente's \"Natural Magic\", a discussion of what she believed to be the magical usages and associations of the weather, stones, plants, and other elements of the natural world. In 1978 Hale then published \"Witchcraft for Tomorrow\", in which Valiente proclaimed her belief that Wicca was ideal for the dawning Age of Aquarius and espoused James Lovelock's Gaia hypothesis. It also explained to the reader how they could initiate themselves into Wicca and establish their own coven. In 1978 she offered a book of poetry to Hale, although they declined to publish it, believing that there would not be sufficient market for such a publication. In 1982 she then submitted a book of short stories, \"The Witch Ball\", to Hale, but again they declined to publish it. In 1978, Valiente struck up a friendship with the Alexandrian Wiccans Stewart Farrar and Janet Farrar, who were then living in Ireland. With the Farrars, she agreed to publish the original contents of the Gardnerian Book of Shadows, in order to combat the garbled variants that had been released by Cardell and Lady Sheba. The original Gardnerian material appeared in the Farrars' two books, \"Eight Sabbats for Witches\" and \"The Witches' Way\" (1984), both published with Hale at Valiente's recommendation. In these works, Valiente and the Farrars identified differences between early recensions of the Book and identified many of the older sources that it drew upon. Hutton believed that later scholars such as himself had to be \"profoundly grateful\" to the trio for undertaking this task, while Doyle White opined that these publications, alongside \"Witchcraft for Tomorrow\", helped contribute to \"the democratisation of Wicca\" by enabling any reader to set themselves up as a Wiccan practitioner. As an appendix to \"The Witches' Way\" she also published the result of her investigations into \"Old Dorothy\", the woman whom Gardner had claimed had been involved with the New Forest coven. The academic historian Jeffrey Burton Russell had recently suggested that Gardner invented \"Old Dorothy\" as an attempt to hide the fact that he had invented Wicca himself. Valiente sought to disprove this, discovering that \"Old Dorothy\" was a real person: Dorothy Clutterbuck. Valiente biographer Jonathan Tapsell described it as \"one of Doreen's greatest known moments\".", "In the mid-1980s, Valiente began writing an autobiography in which she focused on her own place within Wiccan history. It would be published by Hale in 1989 as \"The Rebirth of Witchcraft\". In this work she did not dismiss the Murrayite witch-cult theory, but she did undermine the belief that Wicca was the survival of it by highlighting the various false claims made by Gardner, Cochrane, and Sanders, instead emphasising what she perceived as the religion's value for the modern era. She also provided a foreword for \"Witchcraft: A Tradition Renewed\", a book published in 1990 by Hale. It had been written by Evan John Jones, a former member of the Clan of Tubal Cain who also lived in Brighton. Heselton has expressed the view that Valiente likely did more than this, and that she wrote a number of the chapters herself. As Valiente became better known, she came to correspond with a wide range of people within the Pagan and esoteric communities. Through this, she met the American Wiccan Starhawk – whom she greatly admired – on one of the latter's visits to Britain. She also communicated with the American Wiccan and scholar of Pagan studies Aidan A. Kelly during his investigations into the early Gardnerian liturgies. She disagreed with Kelly that there had been no New Forest coven and that Gardner had therefore invented Wicca, instead insisting that Gardner had stumbled on a coven of the Murrayite witch-cult. In 1997 Valiente discovered the Centre for Pagan Studies (CFPS), a Pagan organisation based in the Sussex hamlet of Maresfield that had been established in 1995. Befriending its founders, John Belham-Payne and his wife Julie Belham-Payne, she became the Centre's patron and gave several lectures for the group. In 1997 Cooke died, leaving Valiente grief-stricken. Her final public speech was at the Pagan Federation's annual conference, held at Croydon's Fairfield Halls in November 1997; here she praised the work of early twentieth-century occultist Dion Fortune and urged the Wiccan community to accept homosexuals. Valiente's health was deteriorating as she was diagnosed first with diabetes and then terminal pancreatic cancer; increasingly debilitated, John Belham-Payne and two of her friends became her primary carers. In her last few days she was moved to the Sackville Nursing Home, there requesting that Belham-Payne publish an anthology of her poems after her death. She died on 1 September 1999, with Belham-Payne at her side. CFPS' barn in Maresfield, where an all-night vigil was held; those invited included Ralph Harvey, and Ronald Hutton. After this Pagan rite was completed, her coffin was cremated at Brighton's Woodvale crematorium, in an intentionally low-key service with John Belham-Payne, Doreen's last High priest as celebrant for the funeral. As per her wishes, Valiente's ashes were scattered in Sussex woodland. Her magical artefacts and manuscripts, including her Book of Shadows, were bequeathed to John Belham-Payne. Her book of poems was published posthumously in 2000, followed by an enlarged second edition in 2014.", "Hutton characterised Valiente as \"a handsome woman of striking, dark-haired, aquiline looks, possessed of a strong, enquiring, candid, and independent personality, and a gift for poetry and ritual\". Belham-Payne noted that Valiente was \"very tall, rather reserved and preferred to be in the background\", while Doreen Valiente Foundation Trustee, Ashley Mortimer described her as \"sensible, practical, decent, honest and, perhaps most importantly, pragmatic\". The writer Leo Ruickbie described her as \"a plain, owlishly bespectacled woman with a slight stoop and a friendly twinkle in her eye\". Throughout her life, Valiente remained a believer in the Murrayite Witch-Cult theory despite its having been academically discredited by the 1970s. Valiente had a strong dislike of unexpected visitors, and would often refuse to answer the door to those who knocked unannounced. She was an avid fan of football, and closely followed the World Cup, refusing to open the door to any visitors while she was watching the competition on television. She also enjoyed betting on horse races.", "Within the occult community, Valiente has become internationally known as the \"Mother of Modern Witchcraft\" or \"Mother of Wica\", although she herself disliked this moniker. Heselton believed that Valiente's influence on Wicca was \"profound and far-reaching\", while Ruickbie characterised her as Gardner's \"most gifted acolyte\". Doyle White stated that an argument could be made that Gardner would \"never have been anywhere near as successful\" in promoting Wicca had he not had Valiente's help. In 2016, Heselton expressed the view that Valiente was best known for her books, which are \"still some of the most readable on the subject\" of Wicca, further highlighting that they often appeared on Wiccan reading lists. The ritual liturgies that Valiente composed also proved highly influential within the Wiccan religion and constitute a core element of her legacy. Kelly asserted that Valiente \"deserves credit for having helped transform the Craft from being the hobby of a handful of eccentric Brits into being an international religious movement\". Describing her as \"a major personality in the development\" of Wicca, Hutton also expressed the view that \"her enduring greatness lay in the very fact that she was so completely and strong-mindedly dedicated to finding and declaring her own truth, in a world in which the signposts to it were themselves in a state of almost complete confusion\".", "In 2009, the CFPS organised \"A Day for Doreen\", an event in central London dedicated to Valiente. Sixteen speakers from within the Wiccan and Pagan community came to talk at the event, which was a sell-out. On 21 June 2013, the Centre For Pagan Studies unveiled a blue plaque at the Tyson Place tower block, Valiente's final home. Julie Belham-Payne performed the unveiling at the ceremony, and a speech was given by Denise Cobb, the Mayor of Brighton. It had been preceded by an open solstice ritual in Brighton's Steine Gardens, led by Ralph Harvey. Following Valiente's death, John Belham-Payne received offers of substantial amounts of money from buyers seeking to purchase parts of her collection. In 2011 he entrusted the collection of artefacts that he had inherited from Valiente to the newly established the Doreen Valiente Foundation. A charitable trust, the Foundation was designed to prevent the collection being broken up and sold, moreover allowing for future Wiccans and researchers to start \"delving into it, protecting it, making it accessible and available for people to research, learn from and enjoy.\" John Belham-Payne became the group's chairman, while Ashley Mortimer, Brian Botham, and Trish Botham were appointed as trustees. Aside from Valiente's autobiography, \"The Rebirth of Witchcraft\", the first published biography of Valiente was written by Jonathan Tapsell and published as \"Ameth: The Life and Times of Doreen Valiente\" by Avalonia Books in 2013. Doyle White characterised this volume as being \"all-too-brief\". Belham-Payne initially considered writing a biography of Valiente, but feeling that he was not academically qualified to do so, he commissioned Heselton — who had previously published several books on Gardner — to do so, publishing the result as \"Doreen Valiente: Witch\" through his Doreen Valiente Foundation in 2016. It held its launch party at the esoteric-themed bookstore, Treadwell's, in central London, in February 2016, shortly after Belham-Payne's death.", "A bibliography of Valiente's published books, as well as her contributions to the books published by others, appeared as an appendix to Heselton's biography of her." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "How it works.", "Threads.", "Thread synchronization.", "I/O.", "Network addresses.", "Time.", "Memory management.", "Linking." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first generation of NSPR originally aimed just to satisfy the requirements of porting Java to various host environments. NSPR20, an effort started in 1996, built on that original idea, though very little remains of the original code. (The \"20\" in \"NSPR20\" does not mean \"version 2.0\" but rather \"second generation\".) Many of the concepts show reform, expansion, and maturation. In 2009, NSPR still functioned appropriately as the platform-dependent layer under Java, but it also served in supporting clients written entirely in C or in C++.", "NSPR has the goal of providing uniform service over a wide range of operating-system environments. It strives not to export the lowest common denominator, but to exploit the best features of each operating system on which it runs, while still providing a uniform service across a wide range of host offerings.", "Threads feature prominently in NSPR. The software industry's offering of threads lacks consistency. NSPR, while far from perfect, does provide a single API to which clients may program and expect reasonably consistent behavior. The operating systems provide everything from no concept of threading at all up to and including sophisticated, scalable and efficient implementations. NSPR makes as much use of what the systems offer as it can. NSPR aims to impose as little overhead as possible in accessing those appropriate system features.", "Thread synchronization loosely depends on monitors as described by C. A. R. Hoare in \"Monitors: An operating system structuring concept\", \"Communications of the ACM\", 17(10), October 1974 and then formalized by Xerox' Mesa programming language (\"Mesa Language Manual\", J.G. Mitchell et al., Xerox PARC, CSL-79-3 (Apr 1979)). This mechanism provides the basic mutual exclusion (mutex) and thread notification facilities (condition variables) implemented by NSPR. Additionally, NSPR provides synchronization methods more suited for use by Java. The Java-like facilities include monitor reentrancy, implicit and tightly bound notification capabilities with the ability to associate the synchronization objects dynamically.", "NSPR's I/O slightly augments the Berkeley sockets model and allows arbitrary layering. The designers originally intended to export synchronous I/O methods only, relying on threads to provide the concurrency needed for complex applications. That method of operation remains preferred, though one can configure the network I/O channels as non-blocking in the traditional sense.", "Part of NSPR deals with manipulation of network addresses. NSPR defines an IP-centric network address object. While it does not define the object as opaque, the API provides methods that allow and encourage clients to treat the addresses as polymorphic items. In this area NSPR aims to provide a migration path between IPv4 and IPv6. To that end one can perform translations of ASCII strings (DNS names) into NSPR's network address structures, regardless of whether the addressing technology uses IPv4 or IPv6.", "NSPR makes timing facilities available in two forms: interval timing and calendar functions. Interval timers are based on a free running, 32-bit, platform-dependent resolution timer. Such timers are normally used to specify timeouts on I/O, waiting on condition variables and other rudimentary thread scheduling. Since these timers have finite namespace and are free running, they can wrap at any time. NSPR does not provide an epoch, but expects clients to deal with that issue. The granularity of the timers is guaranteed to be between 10 microseconds and 1 millisecond. This allows a minimal timer period in of approximately 12 hours. But in order to deal with the wrap-around issue, only half that namespace may be utilized. Therefore, the minimal usable interval available from the timers is slightly less than six hours. Calendar times are 64-bit signed numbers with units of microseconds. The epoch for calendar times is midnight, January 1, 1970, Greenwich Mean Time. Negative times extend to times before 1970, and positive numbers forward. Use of 64 bits allows a representation of times approximately in the range of −30000 to the year 30000. There exits a structural representation (i.e., exploded view), routines to acquire the current time from the host system, and convert them to and from the 64-bit and structural representation. Additionally there are routines to convert to and from most well-known forms of ASCII into the 64-bit NSPR representation.", "NSPR provides API to perform the basic malloc, calloc, realloc and free functions. Depending on the platform, the functions may be implemented almost entirely in the NSPR runtime or simply shims that call immediately into the host operating system's offerings.", "Support for linking (shared library loading and unloading) forms part of NSPR's feature set. In most cases this is simply a smoothing over of the facilities offered by the various platform providers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Qing Dynasty.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Administrative divisions.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Han Chinese began arriving in the area during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor of Qing Dynasty. Members of the Zhang clan from Zhangzhou as well as the Jian (), Lin and Xiao clans from Nanjing County in Zhangzhou were among the early settlers. A yamen was established in 1759 near the present Nantou Elementary School. In 1898, Nantou Commandery was organized.", "In 1901, during Japanese rule, was one of twenty local administrative offices established. In 1909, part of was merged into Nanto Chō. In 1920, Nantō Town was governed under Nantō District, Taichū Prefecture.", "After handover to the Republic of China, Nantou County was organized out of Taichung County in 1950, and, in October of the same year, Nantou Township was organized with the county government seated in it. On 1 July 1957, the Taiwan provincial government moved to Zhongxing New Village, making Nantou the location of the provincial government. On 25 December 1981, Nantou became a county-controlled city from the previous urban township. Due to its location along the Chelungpu Fault, Nantou was strongly affected by the 1999 921 earthquake: 92 people died and over 1,000 buildings were damaged", "Longquan, Kangshou, Sanmin, Renhe, Nantou, Zhangren, Chongwen, Sanxing, Sanhe, Jiaxing, Jiahe, Pinghe, Zhenxing, Qianqiu, Jungong, Tungshan, Yingnan, Yingbei, Neixing, Neixin, Guanghui, Guangrong, Guangming, Guanghua, Zhangxing, Zhanghe, Pingshan, Xinxing, Yongfeng, Fuxing, Fengshan, Yongxing, Fengming and Fushan Village.", "Bus stations in the city is Nantou Bus Station of Changhua Bus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The model.", "Past overuse." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "XPCOM is one of the main things making the Mozilla application environment an actual framework. It is a development environment that provides the following features for the cross-platform software developer: This component object model makes virtually all of the functionality of Gecko available as a series of components, or reusable cross-platform libraries, that can be accessed from the web browser or scripted from any Mozilla application. Applications that must access the various Mozilla XPCOM libraries (networking, security, DOM, etc.) use a special layer of XPCOM called XPConnect, which reflects the library interfaces into JavaScript, or other languages. XPConnect glues the front end to the C++ or C programming language based components in XPCOM, and it can be extended to include scripting support for other languages: PyXPCOM already offers support for Python. PerlConnect and plXPCOM provide support for Perl, and there are efforts underway to add Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) and Ruby language support for XPConnect. For developers, XPCOM allows writing components in C++, C, JavaScript, Python, or other languages for which special bindings have been created, and compile and run those components on dozens of different platforms, including these and others where Mozilla is supported. The flexibility to reuse the XPCOM components from the Gecko library and develop new components that run on different platforms facilitates rapid application development and results in an application that is more productive and easier to maintain. The networking library, for example, is a set of XPCOM components that can be accessed and used by any Mozilla application. File I/O, security, password management, and profiles are also separate XPCOM components that programmers can use in their own application development.", "XPCOM adds a lot of code for marshalling objects, and in the Netscape era XPCOM was overused for internal interfaces where it wasn't truly necessary, resulting in software bloat. This was a key reason why in 2001 Apple forked KHTML, not Gecko, to create the WebKit engine for its Safari browser. Mozilla has since cleaned up some of the XPCOM bloat. By 2008, this combined with other efforts resulted in big performance improvements for Gecko." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Administration.", "Energy.", "Climate.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The settlement's temple honoring the Chinese sea goddess Mazu, the deified form of the medieval Fujianese shamaness Lin Moniang, is usually accounted the oldest in all of Taiwan and Penghu. The town was originally named Makeng () but was changed to \"Bakō\" / during Japanese rule in 1920, and was the center of the Mako Guard District. After 1945, the Wade-Giles romanization Makung was used. Taiwan officially adopted Tongyong Pinyin in 2002 and Hanyu Pinyin in 2009, leading to the romanization Magong.", "The island's Mazu temple was erected in the late 16th or early 17th century. The city Magong'ao began to grow around 1887, during the rule of the Qing dynasty. Under Japanese rule, the settlement was renamed Makō and organized as a subprefecture of Hōko. The area was a major base of the Imperial Japanese Navy. It was an embarkation point for the invasion of the Philippines during the Second World War. On 25 December 1981, Makung was upgraded from an urban township to a county-controlled city.", "Magong City contains 33 municipal villages ():", "The city is powered by the Hujing Power Plant located on Table Island.", "Magong has a very warm humid subtropical climate under the Köppen system. Due to the maritime influence, diurnal temperature variation is very low, but in spite of being right on the boundary with the tropics and having winter lows it falls short of being such a climate. This is courtesy of the influence of the cool Asian landmass and prevailing winds in winter. As a result, the coldest month just falls short of the isotherm. In summer, Magong receives monsoonal rainfall with moderated but hot temperatures. While afternoons most often stay in the low 30's Celsius, nights remain above for several months. It is drier than many mainland areas of Taiwan, although it still frequently is cloudy.", "It contains the domestic Magong Airport and Magong Harbor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military service and education.", "Career.", "Awards and honours.", "Personal life and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hounsfield was born in Sutton-on-Trent, Nottinghamshire, England on 28 August 1919. He was the youngest of five children (two brothers, two sisters). His father, Thomas Hounsfield was a farmer from Beighton, and was linked to the prominent Hounsfield and Newbold families of Hackenthorpe Hall, his mother was Blanche Dilcock. As a child he was fascinated by the electrical gadgets and machinery found all over his parents' farm. Between the ages of eleven and eighteen, he tinkered with his own electrical recording machines, launched himself off haystacks with his own home-made glider, and almost killed himself by using water-filled tar barrels and acetylene to see how high they could be waterjet propelled. He attended the Magnus Grammar School (now Magnus Church of England School) in Newark-on-Trent and excelled in physics and arithmetic.", "Shortly before World War II, he joined the Royal Air Force as a volunteer reservist where he learned the basics of electronics and radar. After the war, he attended Faraday House Electrical Engineering College in London, graduating with the DFH (Diploma of Faraday House). Before the advent of most university engineering departments, Faraday House was a specialist Electrical Engineering college that provided university level education that combined practical experience with theoretical study.", "In 1949, Hounsfield began work at EMI, Ltd. in Hayes, Middlesex, where he researched guided weapon systems and radar. Hounsfield incorrectly gave this date as 1951 when he wrote his autobiography which is available on the Nobel Prize website. The correct date is 10 October 1949 as stated in a biography of Hounsfield. At EMI, he became interested in computers and in 1958, he helped design the first commercially available all-transistor computer made in Great Britain: the EMIDEC 1100. Shortly afterwards, he began work on the CT scanner at EMI. He continued to improve CT scanning, introducing a whole-body scanner in 1975, and was senior researcher (and after his retirement in 1984, consultant) to the laboratories. While on an outing in the country, Hounsfield came up with the idea that one could determine what was inside a box by taking X-ray readings at all angles around the object. He then set to work constructing a computer that could take input from X-rays at various angles to create an image of the object in \"slices\". Applying this idea to the medical field led him to propose what is now known as computed tomography. At the time, Hounsfield was not aware of the work that Cormack had done on the theoretical mathematics for such a device. Hounsfield built a prototype head scanner and tested it first on a preserved human brain, then on a fresh cow brain from a butcher’s shop, and later on himself. On 1 October 1971, CT scanning was introduced into medical practice with a successful scan on a cerebral cyst patient at Atkinson Morley Hospital in Wimbledon, London, United Kingdom. In 1975, Hounsfield built a whole-body scanner.", "In 1979, Hounsfield and Cormack received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Hounsfield received numerous awards in addition to the Nobel Prize. He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 1976 and knighted in 1981. In 1974, he received the Wilhelm Exner Medal. Hounsfield was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1975. In 1976, he received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. He was awarded the Howard N. Potts Medal in 1977.", "Hounsfield enjoyed hiking and skiing. He had resolved to develop what came to be CT scanning while on a country ramble. He retired from EMI in 1986 and used the prize money from his Nobel to build a personal laboratory in his home. Hounsfield died at Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, in 2004, at the age of 84." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Preparation.", "Structure.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Tungsten has a rich history dating back to its discovery during the 18th century. Peter Woulfe was the first to recognize a new element in the naturally occurring mineral wolframite. Tungsten was originally known as wolfram, explaining the choice of \"W\" for its elemental symbol. Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele contributed to its discovery with his studies on the mineral scheelite. In 1841, a chemist named Robert Oxland gave the first procedures for preparing tungsten trioxide and sodium tungstate. He was granted patents for his work soon after, and is considered to be the founder of systematic tungsten chemistry.", "Tungsten trioxide can be prepared in several different ways. CaWO, or scheelite, is allowed to react with HCl to produce tungstic acid, which decomposes to WO and water at high temperatures. Another common way to synthesize WO is by calcination of ammonium paratungstate (APT) under oxidizing conditions:", "The crystal structure of tungsten trioxide is temperature dependent. It is tetragonal at temperatures above 740 °C, orthorhombic from 330 to 740 °C, monoclinic from 17 to 330 °C, triclinic from -50 to 17 °C, and monoclinic again at temperatures below -50 °C. The most common structure of WO is monoclinic with space group P2/n.", "Tungsten trioxide is used for many purposes in everyday life. It is frequently used in industry to manufacture tungstates for x-ray screen phosphors, for fireproofing fabrics and in gas sensors. Due to its rich yellow color, WO is also used as a pigment in ceramics and paints. In recent years, tungsten trioxide has been employed in the production of electrochromic windows, or smart windows. These windows are electrically switchable glass that change light transmission properties with an applied voltage. This allows the user to tint their windows, changing the amount of heat or light passing through. 2010- AIST reports a quantum yield of 19% in photocatalytic water splitting with a caesium-enhanced tungsten oxide photocatalyst. In 2013, highly photocatalytic active titania/tungsten (VI) oxide/noble metal (Au and Pt) composites toward oxalic acid were obtained by the means of selective noble metal photodeposition on the desired oxide's surface (either on TiO or on WO). The composite showed a modest hydrogen production performance. In 2016, shape controlled tungsten trioxide semiconductors were obtained by the means of hydrothermal synthesis. From these semiconductors composite systems were prepared with commercial TiO. These composite systems showed a higher photocatalysis activity than the commercial TiO (Evonik Aeroxide P25) towards phenol and methyl orange degradation. Recently, some research groups have demonstrated that non-metal surface such as transition metal oxides (WO, TiO, CuO, MoO, and ZnO etc.) could serve as a potential candidate for SERS enhancement and their performance could be comparable or even higher than those of noble-metal elements. There are two basic mechanisms for this application. One is that the Raman signal enhancement was tuned by charge transfer between the dye molecules and the substrate WO materials. The other is to use the electrical tuning of the defect density in the WO materials by the oxide leakage current control in order to modulate the enhancement factor of the SERS effect." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Imprisonment and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jožka Řehová was born on April 16, 1896 in Vítkovice to dressmaker Anežka Řehová, who died soon after. During the First World War she worked in Vítkovice Ironworks and later in the company's hospital. After the war she moved to Prague where she committed herself to the Social Democratic and later the Communist movement. She worked in physical education and held several positions in the Social Democratic Youth and Workers. She studied briefly in Moscow at the local Institute of Physical Training. She used her literary talent in the field of women's work (work in magazines), where she took up social issues. She was involved in antiwar activities and organized actions on behalf of suffering children in the Spanish Civil War. In 1931, she was on the list of the Communist Party elected to the Chamber of Deputies of Prague. In this role, she continued her involvement in the field of women's work, child protection, unemployment, poverty, and health. She wrote about life in Prague, the concerns and interests of women, pointed to the possibility of addressing unemployment, devoted to the needs of children. She touched all the major social issues, responded to the threat of war. Under her leadership, the sower organized actions in favor of children suffering in Spain and to help the German anti-fascists fleeing to Czechoslovakia. She became a writer, and has written several books, such as \"Child Evička in Wonderland.\" In 1931 she was elected to the Central Council of the Capital City of Prague on the ticket of the Communist Party. Her social conscience manifested here. She advocated the establishment of nurseries, kindergartens, canteens and playgrounds, effective health care for children of workers and the unemployed, develop cheap modern homes for underprivileged families. Built a consistently against manifestations of fascism and pointed out its dangers. It sought to create a unified national anti-fascist front.", "During the night of 15 to 16 March 1939 Jabůrková was arrested after the entry of German troops in Prague and the establishment of the Protectorate. She and 6000 other people were arrested during the first great wave of arrests (so-called lattice action or \"akce Mříže\"). She was later imprisoned in the Ravensbrück concentration camp where she was one of the first Czech female prisoners. She was in contact with other anti-fascist-minded prisoners, particularly German women who had been imprisoned long-term. She died on 31 July 1942 to abuse and torture during interrogation. Sculptor Věra Merhautová created an oversized bronze statue of Jabůrková from 1960 to 1965. The monument was unveiled in a small park at the intersection of Pilsen and Podbělohorská in Prague-Košíře in 1965. The monument was removed and transferred to the Prague City Gallery depository in 1992 without the knowledge of the sculptor. Here it remained until the summer of 2002, when the statue moved to Olšany Cemetery. The original screenplay for the film \"Night Overtake Me\" (\"Zastihla mě noc\", 1985) by Juraj Herz was based on the life and death of Jabůrková." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Bloch was born in Neisse (Nysa), in the German Empire's Prussian Province of Silesia. He was the second child of middle-class parents Hedwig (Striemer) and Frederich D. \"Fritz\" Bloch. From 1930 to 1934, he studied chemistry at the Technical University of Munich. In 1934, due to the Nazi persecutions of Jews, he fled to the \"Schweizerische Forschungsinstitut\" in Davos, Switzerland, before moving to the United States in 1936. Later he was appointed to the department of biological chemistry at Yale Medical School. In the United States, Bloch enrolled at Columbia University, and received a Ph.D in biochemistry in 1938. He taught at Columbia from 1939 to 1946. From there he went to the University of Chicago and then to Harvard University as Higgins Professor of Biochemistry in 1954, a post he held until 1982. After retirement at Harvard, he served as the Mack and Effie Campbell Tyner Eminent Scholar Chair in the College of Human Sciences at Florida State University. Bloch shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1964 with Feodor Lynen, for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of the cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. Their work showed that the body first makes squalene from acetate over many steps and then converts the squalene to cholesterol. He traced all the carbon atoms in cholesterol back to acetate. Some of his research was conducted using radioactive acetate in bread mold: this was possible because fungi also produce squalene. He confirmed his results using rats. He was one of several researchers who showed that acetyl Coenzyme A is turned into mevalonic acid. Both Bloch and Lynen then showed that mevalonic acid is converted into chemically active isoprene, the precursor to squalene. Bloch also discovered that bile and a female sex hormone were made from cholesterol, which led to the discovery that all steroids were made from cholesterol. His Nobel Lecture was \"The Biological Synthesis of Cholesterol.\" In 1985, Bloch became a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1988, he was awarded the National Medal of Science. Bloch and his wife Lore Teutsch first met in Munich. They married in the U.S. in 1941. They had two children, Peter Conrad Bloch and Susan Elizabeth Bloch, and two grandchildren, Benjamin Nieman Bloch and Emilie Bloch Sondel. He was fond of skiing, tennis, and music. Konrad died in Lexington, Massachusetts of congestive heart failure in 2000, aged 88. Lore Bloch died in 2010 aged 98." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Fellowship." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Feodor Lynen was born in Munich on 6 April 1911. He started his studies at the chemistry department of Munich University in 1930 and graduated in March 1937 under Heinrich Wieland with the work: \"On the Toxic Substances in Amanita\". Lynen remained in Germany throughout World War II. In 1942 he became a chemistry lecturer at the Munich University. In 1947 he became an assistant professor and in 1953 a professor of biochemistry. From 1954 onwards he was director of the Max-Planck Institute for Cellular Chemistry in Munich, a position which was created for him at the instigation of two senior scientists, Otto Warburg and Otto Hahn. In 1972, that institute was merged into the newly founded Max-Planck Institute of Biochemistry in 1972. Also in 1972, Lynen was named President of the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (GDCh). In 1964 he won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine together with Konrad Bloch for their discoveries concerning the mechanism and regulation of cholesterol and fatty acid metabolism. These discoveries took many years to work out. The Nobel Committee felt that this was important because understanding the metabolism of sterols and fatty acids could reveal how cholesterol affects heart disease and stroke. His Nobel Lecture on 11 December 1964 was 'The pathway from \"activated acetic acid\" to the terpenes and fatty acids'. Working mostly separately, Lynen and Bloch both discovered the steps that created squalene and turned the squalene into cholesterol. Initially, Lynen found that acetate activated by Coenzyme A was needed to start the process. He discovered the chemical structure of acetyl-coenzyme A, which was needed for a detailed understanding of the biochemical pathways. He also learned that biotin, or Vitamin B7, was needed for in the process. On 14 May 1937, Lynen married Eva Wieland (1915-2002), daughter of his academic teacher. They had five children between 1938 and 1946. Feodor Lynen died in Munich, Germany, on 6 August 1979, six weeks after an operation for aneurism.", "The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation has a fellowship named in his honor." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Common elements.", "Types.", "History.", "Origins and rise.", "Golden age and refinement.", "Bullet hell and niche appeal.", "Independent titles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A \"shoot 'em up\", also known as a \"shmup\" or \"STG\" (the common Japanese abbreviation for \"shooting games\"), is a game in which the protagonist combats a large number of enemies by shooting at them while dodging their fire. The controlling player must rely primarily on reaction times to succeed. Beyond this, critics differ on exactly which design elements constitute a shoot 'em up. Some restrict the genre to games featuring some kind of craft, using fixed or scrolling movement. Others widen the scope to include games featuring such protagonists as robots or humans on foot, as well as including games featuring \"on-rails\" (or \"into the screen\") and \"run and gun\" movement. Mark Wolf restricts the definition to games featuring multiple antagonists (\"'em\" being short for \"them\"), calling games featuring one-on-one shooting \"combat games\". Formerly, critics described any game where the primary design element was shooting as a \"shoot 'em up\", but later shoot 'em ups became a specific, inward-looking genre based on design conventions established in those shooting games of the 1980s.", "Shoot 'em ups are a subgenre of shooter game, in turn a type of action game. These games are usually viewed from a top-down or side-view perspective, and players must use ranged weapons to take action at a distance. The player's avatar is typically a vehicle under constant attack. Thus, the player's goal is to shoot as quickly as possible at anything that moves or threatens them. In some games, the player's character can withstand some damage; in others, a single hit will result in their destruction. The main skills required in shoot 'em ups are fast reactions and memorising enemy attack patterns. Some games feature overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and the player has to memorise their patterns to survive. These games belong to one of the fastest-paced video game genres. Large numbers of enemy characters programmed to behave in an easily predictable manner are typically featured. These enemies may behave in a certain way dependent on their type, or attack in formations that the player can learn to predict. The basic gameplay tends to be straightforward and many games offset this with boss battles and a variety of weapons. Shoot 'em ups rarely have realistic physics. Characters can instantly change direction with no inertia, and projectiles move in a straight line at constant speeds. The player's character can collect \"power-ups\" which may afford the character greater protection, an \"extra life\", or upgraded weaponry. Different weapons are often suited to different enemies, but these games seldom keep track of ammunition. As such, players tend to fire indiscriminately, and their weapons only damage legitimate targets.", "Shoot 'em ups are categorized by design elements, particularly viewpoint and movement: Fixed shooters (such as \"Space Invaders\") restrict the protagonist to a single axis of motion, enemies attack in a single direction (such as descending from the top of the screen), and each level is contained within a single screen. Atari's \"Centipede\" is a hybrid, in that the player can move freely, but that movement is constrained to a small area at the bottom of the screen, and the game otherwise meets the fixed shooter definition. Tube shooters feature craft flying through an abstract tube, such as \"Tempest\" and \"Gyruss\". There is still a single axis of motion, making these a subset of fixed shooters. Rail shooters limit the player to moving around the screen while the game follows a specific route; these games often feature an \"into the screen\" viewpoint, with which the action is seen from behind the player character, and moves \"into the screen\", while the player retains control over dodging. Examples include \"Space Harrier\" (1985), \"Captain Skyhawk\" (1990), \"Starblade\" (1991), \"\" (1993), \"Panzer Dragoon\" (1995), \"Time Crisis\" (1995), \"The House of the Dead\" (1996), \"Star Fox 64\" (1997), and \"Sin and Punishment\" (2000). Light-Gun games that are \"on-rails\" are not in the shoot-em-up category but the FPS category, and the term has also been applied to scripted events in first-person shooters such as \"Call of Duty\". Scrolling shooters include vertical or horizontal scrolling games. Multidirectional shooters feature 360 degree movement where the protagonist may rotate and move in any direction. Multidirectional shooters with one joystick for movement and one joystick for firing in any direction independent of movement are called \"twin-stick shooters.\" Cute 'em ups feature brightly colored graphics depicting surreal settings and enemies. Cute 'em ups tend to have unusual, oftentimes completely bizarre opponents for the player to fight, with key games in the genre including \"Parodius\", \"Cotton\", \"Twinbee\", and \"Harmful Park\". Some cute 'em ups may employ overtly sexual characters and innuendo. Run and gun (or \"run 'n' gun\") describes a shoot 'em up in which the protagonist fights on foot, perhaps with the ability to jump. Examples include \"Ikari Warriors\", \"Contra\" and \"Metal Slug\". Run and gun games may use side scrolling, vertical scrolling or isometric viewpoints and may feature multidirectional movement.", "", "The genre's exact origins are a matter of some confusion. Video game journalist Brian Ashcraft pinpoints \"Spacewar!\" (one of the very earliest computer games) as the first shoot 'em up, but the later \"Space Invaders\" is more frequently cited as the \"first\" or \"original\" in the genre. \"Spacewar!\" was developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1961, for the amusement of the developers; it was, however, remade four times as an arcade game in the early to mid-1970s. The game featured combat between two spacecraft. However, it was not until 1978's seminal \"Space Invaders\", created by Tomohiro Nishikado at Japan's Taito Corporation, that the shooter genre became prolific. \"Space Invaders\" pitted the player against multiple enemies descending from the top of the screen at a constantly increasing rate of speed. The game used alien creatures inspired by \"The War of the Worlds\" (by H. G. Wells) because the developers were unable to render the movement of aircraft; in turn, the aliens replaced human enemies because of moral concerns (regarding the portrayal of killing humans) on the part of Taito Corporation. As with subsequent shoot 'em ups of the time, the game was set in space as the available technology only permitted a black background. The game also introduced the idea of giving the player a number of \"lives\". It popularised a more interactive style of gameplay with the enemies responding to the player-controlled cannon's movement, and it was the first video game to popularise the concept of achieving a high score, being the first to save the player's score. The aliens of \"Space Invaders\" return fire at the protagonist, making them the first arcade game targets to do so. It set the template for the shoot 'em up genre, and has influenced most shooting games released since then.", "In 1979, Namco's \"Galaxian\"—\"the granddaddy of all top-down shooters\", according to IGN—was released. Its use of colour graphics and individualised antagonists were considered \"strong evolutionary concepts\" among space ship games. That same year saw the release of SNK's debut shoot 'em up \"Ozma Wars\", notable for being the first action game to feature a supply of energy, resembling a life bar, a mechanic that has now become common in the majority of modern action games. It also featured vertically scrolling backgrounds and enemies. In 1981, \"Defender\" established scrolling in shoot 'em ups, offering horizontally extended levels. Unlike most later games in the genre, the player could move in either direction. The game's use of scrolling helped remove design limitations associated with the screen, and though the game's minimap feature had been introduced before, \"Defender\" integrated it into the gameplay in a more essential manner. Konami's \"Scramble\", released in 1981, is a side-scrolling shooter with forced scrolling. It was the first scrolling shooter to offer multiple, distinct levels. Atari's \"Tempest\", released in 1981, is one of the earliest tube shooters and an early attempt to incorporate a 3D perspective into shooter games. \"Tempest\" ultimately went on to influence major rail shooters. Vertical scrolling shooters emerged around the same time. Namco's \"Xevious\", released in 1983, is frequently cited as the first vertical scrolling shooter and, although it was in fact preceded by several other games of that type, it is considered one of the most influential. \"Xevious\" is also the first to convincingly portray realistic landscapes as opposed to purely science fiction settings. While \"Asteroids\" (1979) allowed the player to rotate the game's spacecraft, 1982's highly acclaimed \"\" was most influential on subsequent multi-directional shooters. Sega's \"Space Harrier\", a rail shooter released in 1985, broke new ground graphically and its wide variety of settings across multiple levels gave players more to aim for than high scores. 1985 also saw the release of Konami's \"Gradius\", which gave the player greater control over the choice of weaponry, thus introducing another element of strategy. The game also introduced the need for the player to memorise levels in order to achieve any measure of success. \"Gradius\", with its iconic protagonist, defined the side-scrolling shoot 'em up and spawned a series spanning several sequels. The following year saw the emergence of one of Sega's forefront series with its game \"Fantasy Zone\". The game received acclaim for its surreal graphics and setting and the protagonist, Opa-Opa, was for a time considered Sega's mascot. The game borrowed \"Defender's\" device of allowing the player to control the direction of flight and along with the earlier \"TwinBee\" (1985), is an early archetype of the \"cute 'em up\" subgenre. In 1986, Taito released \"KiKi KaiKai\", an overhead multi-directional shooter. The game is notable for using a traditional fantasy setting in contrast to most shoot 'em up games filled with science fiction motifs. \"R-Type\", an acclaimed side-scrolling shoot 'em up, was released in 1987 by Irem, employing slower paced scrolling than usual, with difficult levels calling for methodical strategies. 1990's \"Raiden\" was the beginning of another acclaimed and enduring series to emerge from this period. Shoot 'em ups such as SNK's \"Ikari Warriors\" (1986) featuring characters on foot, rather than spacecraft, became popular in the mid-1980s in the wake of action movies such as \".\" The origins of this type go back to \"Sheriff\" by Nintendo, released in 1979. Taito's \"Front Line\" (1982) established the upwards-scrolling formula later popularized by \"Commando,\" in 1985. \"Commando\" also drew comparisons to Rambo and indeed contemporary critics considered military themes and protagonists similar to Rambo or Schwarzenegger prerequisites for a shoot 'em up, as opposed to an action-adventure game. In 1986, Arsys Software released \"WiBArm\", a shooter that switched between a 2D side-scrolling view in outdoor areas to a fully 3D polygonal third-person perspective inside buildings, while bosses were fought in an arena-style 2D battle, with the game featuring a variety of weapons and equipment. In 1987, Square's \"3-D WorldRunner\" was an early stereoscopic 3-D shooter played from a third-person perspective, followed later that year by its sequel \"JJ\", and the following year by \"Space Harrier 3-D\" which used the SegaScope 3-D shutter glasses. That same year, Sega's \"Thunder Blade\" switched between both a top-down view and a third-person view, and introduced the use of force feedback, where the joystick vibrates. Also in 1987, Konami created \"Contra\" as an coin-op arcade game that was particularly acclaimed for its multi-directional aiming and two player cooperative gameplay. However, by the early 1990s and the popularity of 16-bit consoles, the scrolling shooter genre was overcrowded, with developers struggling to make their games stand out (one exception being the inventive \"Gunstar Heroes,\" by Treasure).", "A new type of shoot 'em up emerged in the early 1990s: variously termed \"bullet hell\", \"manic shooters\", \"maniac shooters\" and, these games required the player to dodge overwhelming numbers of enemy projectiles and called for still more consistent reactions from players. Bullet hell games arose from the need for 2D shoot 'em up developers to compete with the emerging popularity of 3D games: huge numbers of missiles on screen were intended to impress players. Toaplan's \"Batsugun\" (1993) provided the prototypical template for this new breed, with Cave (formed by former employees of Toaplan, including \"Batsugun's\" main creator Tsuneki Ikeda, after the latter company collapsed) inventing the type proper with 1995's \"DonPachi\". Bullet hell games marked another point where the shoot 'em up genre began to cater to more dedicated players. Games such as \"Gradius\" had been more difficult than \"Space Invaders\" or \"Xevious\", but bullet hell games were yet more inward-looking and aimed at dedicated fans of the genre looking for greater challenges. While shooter games featuring protagonists on foot largely moved to 3D-based genres, popular, long-running series such as \"Contra\" and \"Metal Slug\" continued to receive new sequels. Rail shooters have rarely been released in the new millennium, with only \"Rez\" and \"Panzer Dragoon Orta\" achieving cult recognition. Treasure's shoot 'em up, \"Radiant Silvergun\" (1998), introduced an element of narrative to the genre. It was critically acclaimed for its refined design, though it was not released outside Japan and remains a much sought-after collector's item. Its successor \"Ikaruga\" (2001) featured improved graphics and was again acclaimed as one of the best games in the genre. Both \"Radiant Silvergun\" and \"Ikaruga\" were later released on Xbox Live Arcade. The \"Touhou Project\" series spans 23 years and 27 games as of 2019 and was listed in the Guinness World Records in October 2010 for being the \"most prolific fan-made shooter series\". The genre has undergone something of a resurgence with the release of the Xbox 360, PlayStation 3 and Wii online services, while in Japan arcade shoot 'em ups retain a deep-rooted niche popularity. \"\" was released on Xbox Live Arcade in 2005 and in particular stood out from the various re-releases and casual games available on the service. The PC has also seen its share of dōjin shoot 'em ups like \"Crimzon Clover\", \"\", \"Xenoslaive Overdrive\", and the \"eXceed\" series. However, despite the genre's continued appeal to an enthusiastic niche of players, shoot 'em up developers are increasingly embattled financially by the power of home consoles and their attendant genres.", "In the mid-2010s indie game development increased in popularity, which led to several notable shoot 'em ups such as \"Jamestown: Legend of the Lost Colony\" (2011), \"Assault Android Cactus\" (2015), \"Enter the Gungeon\" (2016), and \"Cuphead\" (2017)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties of hydrogen iodide.", "Hydroiodic acid.", "Synthesis.", "Key reactions and applications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "HI is a colorless gas that reacts with oxygen to give water and iodine. With moist air, HI gives a mist (or fumes) of hydroiodic acid. It is exceptionally soluble in water, giving hydroiodic acid. One liter of water will dissolve 425 liters of HI, the most concentrated solution having only four water molecules per molecule of HI.", "Hydroiodic acid is not pure hydrogen iodide, but a mixture containing it. Commercial \"concentrated\" hydroiodic acid usually contains 48–57% HI by mass. The solution forms an azeotrope boiling at 127 °C with 57% HI, 43% water. The high acidity is caused by the dispersal of the ionic charge over the anion. The iodide ion is much larger than the other common halides, which results in the negative charge being dispersed over a large space. By contrast, a chloride ion is much smaller, meaning its negative charge is more concentrated, leading to a stronger interaction between the proton and the chloride ion. This weaker H···I interaction in HI facilitates dissociation of the proton from the anion and is the reason HI is the strongest acid of the hydrohalides.", "The industrial preparation of HI involves the reaction of I with hydrazine, which also yields nitrogen gas: When performed in water, the HI must be distilled. HI can also be distilled from a solution of NaI or other alkali iodide in concentrated phosphoric acid (note that concentrated sulfuric acid will not work for acidifying iodides, as it will oxidize the iodide to elemental iodine). Another way HI may be prepared is by bubbling hydrogen sulfide steam through an aqueous solution of iodine, forming hydroiodic acid (which is distilled) and elemental sulfur (this is filtered): Additionally, HI can be prepared by simply combining H and I: This method is usually employed to generate high-purity samples. For many years, this reaction was considered to involve a simple bimolecular reaction between molecules of H and I. However, when a mixture of the gases is irradiated with the wavelength of light equal to the dissociation energy of I, about 578 nm, the rate increases significantly. This supports a mechanism whereby I first dissociates into 2 iodine atoms, which each attach themselves to a side of an H molecule and break the : In the laboratory, another method involves hydrolysis of PI, the iodine equivalent of PBr. In this method, I reacts with phosphorus to create phosphorus triiodide, which then reacts with water to form HI and phosphorous acid:", "Solutions of hydrogen iodide are easily oxidized by air: Like HBr and HCl, HI adds to alkenes: HI is also used in organic chemistry to convert primary alcohols into alkyl halides. This reaction is an S2 substitution, in which the iodide ion replaces the \"activated\" hydroxyl group (water): HI is preferred over other hydrogen halides because the iodide ion is a much better nucleophile than bromide or chloride, so the reaction can take place at a reasonable rate without much heating. This reaction also occurs for secondary and tertiary alcohols, but substitution occurs via the S1 pathway. HI (or HBr) can also be used to cleave ethers into alkyl iodides and alcohols, in a reaction similar to the substitution of alcohols. This type of cleavage is significant because it can be used to convert a chemically stable and inert ether into more reactive species. In this example diethyl ether is split into ethanol and iodoethane: The reaction is regioselective, as iodide tends to attack the less sterically hindered ether carbon. HI is subject to the same Markovnikov and anti-Markovnikov guidelines as HCl and HBr. Although harsh by modern standards, HI was commonly employed as a reducing agent early on in the history of organic chemistry. Chemists in the 19th century attempted to prepare cyclohexane by HI reduction of benzene at high temperatures, but instead isolated the rearranged product, methylcyclopentane (\"see the article on\" cyclohexane). As first reported by Kiliani, hydroiodic acid reduction of sugars and other polyols results in the reductive cleavage of several or even all hydroxy groups, although often with poor yield and/or reproducibility. In the case of benzyl alcohols and alcohols with α-carbonyl groups, reduction by HI can provide synthetically useful yields of the corresponding hydrocarbon product (ROH + 2HI → RH + + I). This process can be made catalytic in HI using red phosphorus to reduce the formed I." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and terminology.", "Machining operations.", "Overview of machining technology.", "Machining operations.", "Cutting tool.", "Cutting conditions.", "Stages in metal cutting.", "Relationship of subtractive and additive techniques." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The precise meaning of the term \"machining\" has evolved over the past one and a half centuries as technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the word \"machinist\" simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This person's work was done mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood and the hand-forging and hand-filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds of \"engines\" (meaning, more or less, machines of any kind), such as James Watt or John Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun \"machine tool\" and the verb \"to machine\" (\"machined, machining\") did not yet exist. Around the middle of the 19th century, the latter words were coined as the concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during the Machine Age, \"machining\" referred to (what we today might call) the \"traditional\" machining processes, such as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming, and tapping. In these \"traditional\" or \"conventional\" machining processes, machine tools, such as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting tool to remove material to achieve a desired geometry. Since the advent of new technologies in the post–World War II era, such as electrical discharge machining, electrochemical machining, electron beam machining, photochemical machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym \"conventional machining\" can be used to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the term \"machining\" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining processes. In the decades of the 2000s and 2010s, as additive manufacturing (AM) evolved beyond its earlier laboratory and rapid prototyping contexts and began to become common throughout all phases of manufacturing, the term \"subtractive manufacturing\" became common retronymously in logical contrast with AM, covering essentially any removal processes also previously covered by the term \"machining\". The two terms are effectively synonymous, although the long-established usage of the term \"machining\" continues. This is comparable to the idea that evolved because of the proliferation of ways to contact someone (telephone, email, IM, SMS, and so on) but did not entirely replace the earlier terms such as \"call\", \"talk to\", or \"write to\".", "The three principal machining processes are classified as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing. An unfinished workpiece requiring machining will need to have some material cut away to create a finished product. A finished product would be a workpiece that meets the specifications set out for that workpiece by engineering drawings or blueprints. For example, a workpiece may be required to have a specific outside diameter. A lathe is a machine tool that can be used to create that diameter by rotating a metal workpiece, so that a cutting tool can cut metal away, creating a smooth, round surface matching the required diameter and surface finish. A drill can be used to remove metal in the shape of a cylindrical hole. Other tools that may be used for various types of metal removal are milling machines, saws, and grinding machines. Many of these same techniques are used in woodworking. More recent, advanced machining techniques include precision CNC machining, electrical discharge machining (EDM), electro-chemical erosion, laser cutting, or water jet cutting to shape metal workpieces. As a commercial venture, machining is generally performed in a machine shop, which consists of one or more workrooms containing major machine tools. Although a machine shop can be a stand-alone operation, many businesses maintain internal machine shops which support specialized needs of the business. Machining requires attention to many details for a workpiece to meet the specifications set out in the engineering drawings or blueprints. Beside the obvious problems related to correct dimensions, there is the problem of achieving the correct finish or surface smoothness on the workpiece. The inferior finish found on the machined surface of a workpiece may be caused by incorrect clamping, a dull tool, or inappropriate presentation of a tool. Frequently, this poor surface finish, known as chatter, is evident by an undulating or irregular finish, and the appearance of waves on the machined surfaces of the workpiece.", "Machining is any process in which a cutting tool is used to remove small chips of material from the workpiece (the workpiece is often called the \"work\"). To perform the operation, relative motion is required between the tool and the work. This relative motion is achieved in most machining operation by means of a primary motion, called \"cutting speed\" and a secondary motion called \"feed\". The shape of the tool and its penetration into the work surface, combined with these motions, produce the desired shape of the resulting work surface.", "There are many kinds of machining operations, each of which is capable of generating a certain part geometry and surface texture. In turning, a cutting tool with a single cutting edge is used to remove material from a rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape. The primary motion is provided by rotating the workpiece, and the feed motion is achieved by moving the cutting tool slowly in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the workpiece. Drilling is used to create a round hole. It is accomplished by a rotating tool that typically has two or four helical cutting edges. The tool is fed in a direction parallel to its axis of rotation into the workpiece to form the round hole. In boring, a tool with a single bent pointed tip is advanced into a roughly made hole in a spinning workpiece to slightly enlarge the hole and improve its accuracy. It is a fine finishing operation used in the final stages of product manufacture. Reaming is one of the sizing operations that removes a small amount of metal from a hole already drilled. In milling, a rotating tool with multiple cutting edges is moved slowly relative to the material to generate a plane or straight surface. The direction of the feed motion is perpendicular to the tool's axis of rotation. The speed motion is provided by the rotating milling cutter. The two basic forms of milling are: Other conventional machining operations include shaping, planing, broaching and sawing. Also, grinding and similar abrasive operations are often included within the category of machining.", "A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is made of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting edge serves to separate chip from the parent work material. Connected to the cutting edge are the two surfaces of the tool: The rake face which directs the flow of newly formed chip, is oriented at a certain angle is called the rake angle \"α\". It is measured relative to the plane perpendicular to the work surface. The rake angle can be positive or negative. The flank of the tool provides a clearance between the tool and the newly formed work surface, thus protecting the surface from abrasion, which would degrade the finish. This angle between the work surface and the flank surface is called the relief angle. There are two basic types of cutting tools: A single point tool has one cutting edge and is used for turning, boring and planing. During machining, the point of the tool penetrates below the original work surface of the workpart. The point is sometimes rounded to a certain radius, called the nose radius. Multiple-cutting-edge tools have more than one cutting edge and usually achieve their motion relative to the workpart by rotating. Drilling and milling uses rotating multiple-cutting-edge tools. Although the shapes of these tools are different from a single-point tool, many elements of tool geometry are similar.", "Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed. In addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion, called the feed. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool below the original work surface, called the depth of cut. Collectively, speed, feed, and depth of cut are called the cutting conditions. They form the three dimensions of the machining process, and for certain operations, their product can be used to obtain the material removal rate for the process: where", "Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and cutting conditions: Roughing cuts are used to remove large amount of material from the starting workpart as rapidly as possible, i.e. with a large Material Removal Rate (MRR), in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation. Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimension, tolerances, and surface finish. In production machining jobs, one or more roughing cuts are usually performed on the work, followed by one or two finishing cuts. Roughing operations are done at high feeds and depths – feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev (0.015–0.050 in/rev) and depths of 2.5–20 mm (0.100–0.750 in) are typical, but actual values depend on the workpiece materials. Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths – feeds of 0.0125–0.04 mm/rev (0.0005–0.0015 in/rev) and depths of 0.75–2.0 mm (0.030–0.075 in) are typical. Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing. A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting condition. Today other forms of metal cutting are becoming increasingly popular. An example of this is water jet cutting. Water jet cutting involves pressurized water in excess of 620 MPa (90 000 psi) and is able to cut metal and have a finished product. This process is called cold cutting, which eliminates the damage caused by a heat affected zone, as opposed to laser and plasma cutting.", "With the recent proliferation of additive manufacturing technologies, conventional machining has been retronymously classified, in thought and language, as a subtractive manufacturing method. In narrow contexts, additive and subtractive methods may compete with each other. In the broad context of entire industries, their relationship is complementary. Each method has its own advantages over the other. While additive manufacturing methods can produce very intricate prototype designs impossible to replicate by machining, strength and material selection may be limited." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Launch and installation.", "Laboratory structure.", "Equipment.", "Science equipment.", "Veggie.", "\"Destiny\" nadir window.", "WORF.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Destiny was launched to ISS aboard the Space Shuttle mission STS-98. It launched into Earth orbit on February 7, 2001 aboard the. On February 10, 2001 at 9:50 am CST, the installation of Destiny began. First, the Shuttle SRMSS (CanadaArm) was used to remove Pressurized Mating Adapter 2 (PMA 2) from Unity node's forward port to make room for the new module. PMA-2 was temporarily stowed on the forward berthing ring of the Z1 truss. \"Destiny\" was \"grabbed\" by the robotic arm at 11:23, lifted out of Atlantis' cargo bay, and berthed to the forward port of Unity. Two days later, PMA-2 was moved to its semi-permanent location on the forward hatch of \"Destiny\". (See also Pressurized Mating Adapter and Z1 Truss.) Several years later, on November 14, 2007, the Harmony module was attached to the forward end of the \"Destiny\" laboratory. The addition of Destiny increased the habitable volume by 3,800 cubic feet, an increase of 41 percent.", "The U.S. laboratory module is long and wide. It is made from aluminum and stainless steel, and comprises three cylindrical sections and two endcones that contain the hatch openings through which astronauts enter and exit the module. The aft port of \"Destiny\" is connected to the forward port of Unity, and the forward port of \"Destiny\" is connected to the aft port of Harmony. The ends are colored blue and white respectively for the crew to navigate easily. A -diameter window is located on one side of the center module segment. Each of the two berthing ports on \"Destiny\" contains a hatch. Both hatches are normally open, and remain open unless a situation arises requiring a module to be isolated. Each hatch has a window. The hatches can be opened or closed from either side. The hatches have a pressure interlock feature, which prevents the hatch from being opened if there is a negative pressure across the hatch (higher pressure on the outside of the hatch). The hatch openings are a square like six sided shape - which is associated to that module. \"Destiny\" has a optically pure, telescope-quality glass window located in an open rack bay used primarily for Earth science observations. Station crewmembers use very high quality video and still cameras at the window to record Earth's changing landscapes. A window shutter protects the window from potential micrometeoroid and orbital debris strikes during the life of the ISS. The crew manually opens the shutter to use the window. Imagery captured from \"Destiny's\" window has given geologists and meteorologists the chance to study floods, avalanches, fires and ocean events such as plankton blooms in a way never seen before, as well as given international scientists the opportunity to study features such as glaciers, coral reefs, urban growth and wild fires.", "As with the European and Japanese laboratories of the station, payloads inside \"Destiny\" are configured around International Standard Payload Racks (ISPRs), that can be removed or reconfigured for various experiments and equipment. Made out of a graphite composite shell, each rack weighs about, and is about high, and wide. The eight rack bays are equipped with curtains that provide around of temporary stowage space when not occupied by experiments. \"Destiny\" arrived at the station pre-configured with five racks housing electrical and life support systems that provide electrical power, cooling water, air revitalization, and temperature and humidity control. Seven additional racks were flown to \"Destiny\" in the \"Leonardo\" Multi-Purpose Logistics Module by STS-102, and ten more were delivered on subsequent missions. \"Destiny\" can hold up to 13 payload racks with experiments in human life science, materials research, Earth observations and commercial applications. The laboratory has a total of 24 racks inside the laboratory, six on each side. Internal to the laboratory are racks, rack stand-offs, and vestibule jumpers. The lab racks house the system hardware in removable modular units. The stand-offs provide space for electrical connections, data management systems cabling for computers, air conditioning ducts, thermal control tubes and more, all of which support the space station's equipment racks. The racks interface to the piping and wiring in the standoff via outlets and ports located in the standoffs at the base end of each rack location. Jumpers in the vestibule, the area between \"Unity\" and \"Destiny\", connect the piping and wiring between the two. Grounding straps between \"Unity\" and \"Destiny\" will be installed. One side of the grounding strap will be connected to the Active Common Berthing Mechanism (ACBM) on \"Unity\", while the other end will be connected to the Passive Common Berthing Mechanism (PCBM) on \"Destiny\". Some of the mechanisms on \"Destiny\" are the CBMs (passive and active), hatches, and the laboratory window shutter. The ACBM is in the forward port of the laboratory. It is attached to the \"Harmony\" node. The PCBM on \"Destiny\" is located in the laboratory's aft port. The ACBM in \"Unity's\" forward port is latched to the laboratory's PCBM to berth \"Destiny\" to \"Unity\".", "\"Destiny\" also contains the Minus Eighty Degree Laboratory Freezer for ISS (MELFI), transported to the Space Station on STS-121. The freezer is used both to store samples and reagents on the station, and to transport them to and from the space station in a temperature controlled environment. Currently installed at the main observation window of \"Destiny\" is the Agricultural Camera (AgCam). It is a multi-spectral imaging system built and primarily operated by students and faculty at the University of North Dakota. Its purpose is to take frequent images, in visible and infrared light, of vegetated areas on the Earth and promises to deliver a greater effectiveness for in-season agriculture applications research and operational decision support than current satellite systems such as Landsat.", "In 2016 the ISS crew operated Veg-03 experiment. In November they harvested a crop of edible romaine lettuce which contributed to the crew's meal. Also samples of cabbage are returned to Earth for testing as part of the experiment. This uses the \"Veggie\" experiment module in Destiny, which can provide light and nutrients for plant growth experiments.", "The nadir window is formally known as the \"U.S. Laboratory Science Window\", has the \"...highest quality optics ever flown on a human occupied spacecraft...\", according to NASA, and can support taking Earth observations/images. In 2010 a research facility was brought to the station, called WORF, and the first photo with it was taken in January 2011. WORF was delivered by ISS Flight 19A (which was STS-131).", "In 2010 the WORF was brought to ISS aboard STS-131 and installed. This is a facility that uses the Destiny nadir window to support various types of photography and observation. WORF, which stands for \"Window Observational Research Facility\" is constructed based on International Standard Payload Rack (ISPR) and EXPRESS Rack program technology. The first photo taken by WORF was on January 21, 2011 with Ag Cam. The name WORF is an allusion to the fictional character of the same name who appeared in the science fiction television and film franchise \"Star Trek\". A special mission patch for WORF was issued that featured text written in the Klingon language. Another cross-over of the \"Star Trek\" franchise and space exploration was the naming of Space Shuttle \"Enterprise\".", "After its installation, habitation and use of Destiny is similar to ISS history as an integrated part of that Space station:" ] }