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227480	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Welch	Jack Welch	John Francis Welch Jr. (November 19, 1935 – March 1, 2020) was an American business executive, chemical engineer, and writer. He was Chairman and CEO of General Electric (GE) between 1981 and 2001. When Welch retired from GE, he received a severance payment of $417 million, the largest such payment in business history up to that point. In 2006, Welch's net worth was estimated at $720 million. Early life and education Jack Welch was born in Peabody, Massachusetts, the only child of Grace (Andrews), a homemaker, and John Francis Welch, Sr, a Boston & Maine Railroad conductor. Welch was Irish American and Catholic. His paternal and maternal grandparents were both Irish. Throughout his early life in middle school and high school, Welch found work in the summers as a golf caddie, newspaper delivery boy, shoe salesman, and drill press operator. Welch attended Salem High School, where he participated in baseball, football, and captained the hockey team. Late in his senior year, Welch was accepted to University of Massachusetts Amherst, where he studied chemical engineering. Welch worked in chemical engineering at Sunoco and PPG Industries during his college summers. In his sophomore year, he became a member of the Phi Sigma Kappa fraternity. Welch graduated in 1957 with a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering, turning down offers from several companies in order to attend graduate school at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. He graduated from the University of Illinois, in 1960, with a master's and a PhD in chemical engineering. General Electric Welch joined General Electric in 1960. He worked as a junior chemical engineer in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, at a salary of $10,500, which would be equivalent to approximately $90,000 in 2018 dollars. In 1961, Welch planned to quit his job as junior engineer because he was dissatisfied with the raise offered to him and was unhappy with the bureaucracy he observed at GE. Welch was persuaded to remain at GE by Reuben Gutoff, an executive at the company, who promised him that he would help create the small-company atmosphere Welch desired. In 1963, an explosion at the factory which was under his management blew off the roof of the facilities, and he was almost fired for that episode. By 1968, Welch became the vice president and head of GE's plastics division, which at the time was a $26 million operation for GE. Welch oversaw production as well as the marketing for the GE-developed plastics Lexan and Noryl. Not long after, in 1971, Welch also became the vice president of GE's metallurgical and chemical divisions. By 1973, Welch was named the head of strategic planning for GE and he held that position until 1979, which involved him now working from the corporate headquarters, exposing him to many of the "big fish" he would one day be among. In 1977 Welch was named senior vice president and head of Consumer Products and Services Division, a position he held until 1979 when he became the vice chairman of GE. In 1981, Welch became GE's youngest chairman and CEO, succeeding Reginald H. Jones. By 1982, Welch had dismantled much of the earlier management put together by Jones with aggressive simplification and consolidation. One of his primary leadership directives was that GE had to be No. 1 or No. 2 in the industries it participated in. CEO Through the 1980s, Welch sought to streamline GE. In 1981, he made a speech in New York City called "Growing fast in a slow-growth economy". Under Welch's leadership, GE increased market value from $12 billion in 1981 to $410 billion when he retired, making 600 acquisitions while shifting into emerging markets. Welch pioneered a policy of informality at the work place, allowing all employees to have a small business experience at a large corporation. Welch worked to eradicate perceived inefficiency by trimming inventories and dismantling the bureaucracy that had almost led him to leave GE in the past. He closed factories, reduced payrolls and cut lackluster units. Welch valued surprise and made unexpected visits to GE's plants and offices. Welch popularized so-called "rank and yank" policies used now by other corporate entities. Each year, Welch would fire the bottom 10% of his managers, regardless of absolute performance. He earned a reputation for brutal candor. He rewarded those in the top 20% with bonuses and employee stock options. He also broadened the stock options program at GE, extending availability from top executives to nearly one third of all employees. Welch is also known for abolishing the nine-layer management hierarchy and bringing a sense of informality to the company. During the early 1980s he was dubbed "Neutron Jack" (in reference to the neutron bomb) for eliminating employees while leaving buildings intact. In Jack: Straight from the Gut, Welch stated GE had 411,000 employees at the end of 1980, and 299,000 at the end of 1985. Of the 112,000 who left the payroll, 37,000 were in businesses which GE sold off, and 81,000 were reduced in continuing businesses. In return, GE had tremendously increased its market capitalization. Welch reduced basic research, and closed or sold off under-performing businesses. In 1986, GE acquired RCA. RCA's corporate headquarters were located in Rockefeller Center; Welch subsequently took up an office in the now–GE Building at 30 Rockefeller Plaza. The RCA acquisition resulted in GE selling off RCA properties to other companies and keeping NBC as part of the GE portfolio of businesses. During the 1990s, Welch shifted GE's business from manufacturing to financial services through numerous acquisitions. Welch adopted Motorola's Six Sigma quality program in late 1995. In 1980, the year before Welch became CEO, GE recorded revenues of roughly $26.8 billion and in 2000, the year before he left, they were nearly $130 billion. By 1999 he was named "Manager of the Century" by Fortune magazine. Embedding succession planning and employee development is important since the departures of management can have significant consequences on an organization. This decision will have paramount effects on future activities. Welch was passionate in making people GE's core competency. There was a lengthy and publicized succession planning saga prior to his retirement among James McNerney, Robert Nardelli, and Jeff Immelt, with Immelt eventually selected to succeed Welch as chairman and CEO. His successor plan had always been a priority, as noted in his 1991 speech "From now on, [choosing my successor] is the most important decision I'll make. It occupies a considerable amount of thought almost every day." Welch's "walk-away" package from GE was not valued at the time of his retirement, but GMI Ratings estimates its worth at $420 million. He served as Chairman of The Business Council in 1991 and 1992. Criticism Upon his retirement from GE, Welch had stated that his effectiveness as its CEO for two decades would be measured by the company's performance for a comparable period under his successors. Welch had grown GE to over $450 billion in market capitalization, of which about 40% was in financial services. Twenty years later, the company's market capitalization was only $200 billion, and Welch refused to discuss its decline, other than noting much of the decline had resulted from investments in real estate, and that his immediate, handpicked successor Jeff Immelt had to deal with the after effects of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attack. The New York Times published a critical article in 2017, noting GE's stock price as overvalued under Welch because of the growth of the financial services sector, as well as describing the amalgamated corporation's decline in 16 years under Immelt, who likewise was one of the country's highest-paid managers and eventually sold off two of Welch's largest acquisitions, NBCUniversal and GE Capital. Under Welch's leadership, GE waged a twenty-year battle with the Environmental Protection Agency and New York State over polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) that the company dumped into the Hudson River at its capacitor products division plant in Hudson Falls, New York. Welch disputed scientists who classified PCBs as forever chemicals that can cause negative health consequences. The chemicals contaminated the aquifer beneath the plant to the point that the water was unusable for human consumption without treatment. New York State's Department of Environmental Consumption also advised people against eating fish from the river near the site. He went on to call the Obama administration's prioritization of addressing climate change "radical behavior". According to BusinessWeek in 1998, Welch's critics questioned whether the short-term performance pressure he placed on employees may have led them to "cut corners", thus contributing to subsequent scandals over defense-contracting, and/or the Kidder, Peabody & Co. bond-trading scheme in the early 1990s. The following year, CEO Welch took issue with reclassification of GE in the Fortune 500 as a "diversified financial services company" rather than an "electrical equipment company", and by 2005 many had noted that the price-earnings ratios of the financial services sector were lower than that for GE. In 2014, GE Capital (the company's major financial services branch organized during Welch's tenure) agreed to the largest credit card discrimination settlement in history, concerning many years of deceptive marketing as well as discriminatory credit practices. After Welch's tenure, GE Capital had been labeled as "too big to fail" and had become regulated by the Federal Reserve. The retired Welch publicly praised his former firm's "slim-down" and return to being an industrial company. In 2018 Welch discussed the different financial culture in Kidder, Peabody & Co., whose acquisition he arranged during his tenure at GE, and whose ethos was based on short-term bonus calculations. Shortly before the settlement was announced, GE Capital renamed itself as Synchrony Bank; the spin-off took two years. Welch also often received criticism for a lack of compassion for the middle class and working class. When asked about excessive CEO pay compared to ordinary workers (including backdating stock options, golden parachutes for nonperformance, and extravagant retirement packages), Welch labeled such allegations "outrageous" and vehemently opposed proposed SEC regulations affecting executive compensation. Countering the public uproar, Welch declared that CEO compensation should continue to be dictated by the "free market", without interference from government or other outside parties. Welch's income and assets came under particular scrutiny during his divorce from his second wife, Jane Welch, in 2001, for adultery with the woman who became his third wife. Court filings during the divorce described Welch's GE compensation, which led to a Securities and Exchange Commission investigation of the then-retired Welch's employment contracts with GE. In 1996, Welch and GE had agreed to a "retention package" worth $2.5 million, and which promised continued access after Welch's retirement to benefits he had received as CEO—including an apartment in New York, baseball tickets and the use of a private jet and chauffeured car. Welch stated that he did not want more money, nor a more traditional stock package, but instead preferred to retain the lifestyle he had enjoyed as GE's CEO. According to a 2008 interview with Welch, he had filed the agreement with the SEC, and addressed the media attention and accusations of being "greedy" by renouncing those benefits. In 2012, Welch and his third wife, Suzy Welch, quit their business associations with Fortune magazine and Reuters news service after Fortune published an article which criticized Welch's tweet, shortly before the 2012 election, which alleged that the Obama administration manipulated certain economic statistics, as well as another article which elucidated the 100,000 jobs GE lost during his tenure as CEO. Later career Following Welch's retirement from General Electric, he became an adviser to private equity firm Clayton, Dubilier & Rice and to the chief executive of IAC, Barry Diller. In addition to his consulting and advisory roles, Welch had been active on the public speaking circuit and co-wrote a popular column for BusinessWeek with his wife, Suzy, for four years until November 2009. The column was syndicated by The New York Times. In September 2004, the Central Intelligence Agency published a parody of Welch applying his management skills while serving as imagined Deputy Director of Intelligence. In 2005, he published Winning, a book about management co-written with Suzy Welch, which reached No. 1 on The Wall Street Journal bestseller list, and appeared on New York Times Best Seller list. On January 25, 2006, Welch gave his name to Sacred Heart University's College of Business, which was known as the "John F. Welch College of Business" until 2016, when it began using the name the "Jack Welch College of Business". Since September 2006, Welch had been teaching a class at the MIT Sloan School of Management to a hand-picked group of 30 MBA students with a demonstrated career interest in leadership. In December 2016, Welch joined a business forum assembled by then president-elect Donald Trump to provide strategic and policy advice on economic issues. Jack Welch Management Institute In 2009, Welch founded the Jack Welch Management Institute (JWMI), a program at Chancellor University that offered an online executive Master of Business Administration. The institute was acquired by Strayer University in 2011. Welch had been very actively involved with the curriculum, faculty and students since the beginning of the institution. JWMI's MBA program was recently named the number one most influential education brand on Linkedin and one of the top business schools to watch in 2016. The program has also been named one of the Top 25 Online MBA Programs four years in a row (2017, 2018, 2019, 2020) by The Princeton Review. Its goal is not to make money, but to build over time focusing on the quality of the program and increasing the number of students enrolled year after year. At GE, Welch became known for his teaching and growing leaders. He had taught at MIT Sloan School of Management and taught seminars to CEOs all over the globe. "More than 35 CEOs at today's top companies [were] trained under Jack Welch". JWMI students had direct access to Welch and he hosted quarterly video conferences with his students. It is known that along with his video conferences, Welch created many video responses to messages on bulletin boards and answered individual emails. His investment in the university was also reflected in his interest in the institute's Net Promoter score (NPS). He administered surveys on satisfaction regularly and scrutinized the results to find scores that needed improvement. In an interview with Wired Academic, Welch explained the overall status of his MBA program, stating that the persistence rate of students continuing on to a second year had grown from 90% to 95%, and that JWMI turns away very few students in the admissions process. He also said that he would like better leadership training for MBA students. Personal life Welch had four children with his first wife, Carolyn. They divorced amicably in 1987 after 28 years of marriage. His second wife, Jane Beasley, was a former mergers-and-acquisitions lawyer. She married Welch in April 1989, and they divorced in 2003. While Welch had crafted a prenuptial agreement, Beasley insisted on a ten-year time limit to its applicability, and thus she was able to leave the marriage reportedly with around $180 million. Welch's third wife, Suzy Wetlaufer (née Spring), co-authored his 2005 book Winning as Suzy Welch. She served briefly as the editor-in-chief of the Harvard Business Review. Welch's wife at the time, Jane Beasley, found out about an affair between Wetlaufer and Welch. Beasley informed the Review and Wetlaufer was forced to resign in early 2002 after admitting to the affair with Welch while preparing an interview with him for the magazine. They married on April 24, 2004. Starting in January 2012, Welch and Suzy Welch wrote a biweekly column for Reuters and Fortune, which they both left on October 9, 2012, after an article critical of Welch and his GE career was published by Fortune. Death Welch died from kidney failure at his home in New York City on March 1, 2020, at age 84. Politics Welch identified politically as a Republican. He stated that global warming is "the attack on capitalism that socialism couldn't bring", and that it is a form of "mass neurosis". Yet he said that every business must embrace green products and green ways of doing business, "whether you believe in global warming or not ... because the world wants these products". Regarding shareholder value, Welch said in a Financial Times interview on the global financial crisis of 2008–2009, "On the face of it, shareholder value is the dumbest idea in the world. Shareholder value is a result, not a strategy...your main constituencies are your employees, your customers and your products." Welch was widely criticized for his views on the job numbers from September 2012. After the Bureau of Labor Statistics released employment data stating that the U.S. unemployment rate had dropped from 8.1% to 7.8%, Welch tweeted, "Unbelievable jobs numbers ... these Chicago guys will do anything ... can't debate so change numbers". Welch stood by his tweet, stating if he could write it again, he would add question marks at the end to make it clear that his intention was to raise a question over the legitimacy of the numbers. A subsequent New York Post article on the employment data suggested manipulation of some of the survey responses by an individual employee in 2010, but that article was widely debunked, including the fact that the employee had not worked at the Bureau since 2011. No proof of the political manipulation of the job numbers from September 2012 has been presented. The Census Bureau later released a statement denying the possibility of systematic manipulation of the data. Still, in an opinion piece in The Wall Street Journal, Welch wrote that the debate led to people looking at unemployment data more carefully and skeptically. Referencing his original tweet, he stated "Thank God I did", in a Squawk Box appearance, and also wrote, "The coming election is too important to be decided on a number. Especially when that number seems so wrong". Legacy Welch has been described as “perhaps the most celebrated American boss of recent decades”. Yet by Wall Street measures, a $100,000 investment in GE shares in the year 2000 (near the end of Welch's tenure) had lost about 80 percent of its value as of the year 2021. Despite this trend, in a 2015 article in Harvard Business Review, business consultant Ron Ashkenas argues that "Jack Welch's approach to breaking down silos still works", citing examples of engineering companies who have discovered for themselves that "fragmented, geographically dispersed" patterns of organization make it "very difficult ... to coordinate efforts across functions, keep everyone focused on the cost and delivery goals and get people to reach consensus". As of late 2021, General Electric planned to break into three public companies and effectively cease to exist. The companies would separately operate in the aviation, health care and energy markets. As of 2021, GE was headed by H. Lawrence Culp Jr. who was named in 2018 as its fourth CEO since Welch's departure. Popular culture On March 11, 2010, Welch cameoed as himself in the NBC sitcom 30 Rock, appearing in the season four episode "Future Husband". In the episode, Welch confronts Alec Baldwin's character, Jack Donaghy, to confirm the sale of NBC Universal to a fictional Philadelphia-based cable company called Kabletown. The sale is a satirical reference to the real-world acquisition of NBCUniversal from General Electric by Comcast in November 2009. Bibliography Jack: Straight from the Gut, by Jack Welch and John A. Byrne (2001). New York: Warner Business Books. . Winning by Jack and Suzy Welch (April 2005). HarperCollins. . Winning: The Answers by Jack and Suzy Welch (2006). Harper. . See also Vitality curve Shareholder value, 1981 speech at The Pierre hotel. References Further reading Jack Welch and the GE way: management insights and leadership secrets of the legendary CEO by Robert Slater, McGraw-Hill (1998) () The New GE: How Jack Welch Revived an American Institution, by Robert Slater, McGraw-Hill (1992) () Jacked Up: The Inside Story of how Jack Welch Talked GE into Becoming the World's Greatest Company by Bill Lane – McGraw Hill (2008), () At Any Cost: Jack Welch, General Electric, and the Pursuit of Profit, Thomas F. O'Boyle, Vintage (1999) () Control Your Destiny or Someone Else Will: How Jack Welch Is Making General Electric the World's Most Competitive Company by Noel Tichy and Strat Sherman, Doubleday (1993)() External links 1935 births 2020 deaths 20th-century American businesspeople 21st-century American businesspeople 21st-century American non-fiction writers American business writers American chairpersons of corporations American chemical engineers American chief executives of Fortune 500 companies American columnists American corporate directors American manufacturing businesspeople American people of Irish descent Businesspeople from Massachusetts Deaths from kidney failure General Electric chief executive officers Fortune (magazine) people Massachusetts Republicans MIT Sloan School of Management faculty People from Peabody, Massachusetts Philanthropists from Massachusetts PPG Industries people Reuters Grainger College of Engineering alumni University of Massachusetts Amherst College of 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227493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim%20Neander	Joachim Neander	Joachim Neander (Neumann) (165031 May 1680) was a German Reformed (Calvinist) Church teacher, theologian and hymn writer whose most famous hymn, Praise to the Lord, the Almighty, the King of Creation () has been described by John Julian in his A Dictionary of Hymnology "a magnificent hymn of praise to God, perhaps the finest creation of its author, and of the first rank in its class." Due to its popularity it was translated several times into English - Catherine Winkworth being one of the translators in the 19th century - and the hymn has appeared in most major hymnals. Neander wrote about 60 hymns and provided tunes for many of them. He is considered by many to be the first important German hymnist after the Reformation and is regarded as the outstanding hymn writer of the German Reformed Church. Joachim Neander was born in Bremen, the son of a Latin teacher. His grandfather, a musician, had changed the family name from the original Neumann ('New man' in English) to the Graeco-Roman form Neander following the fashion of the time. After the death of his father, he could not afford to study at a famous university. He therefore studied theology in his hometown from 1666 to 1670. At first, his heart was not in it. It was only when he heard a sermon of Theodor Undereyk (shortly before the end of his course) that his beliefs became serious. In 1671 he became a private tutor in Heidelberg, and in 1674 he became a teacher in a Latin school in Düsseldorf, one step before becoming a minister. While living there, he liked to go to the nearby valley of the Düssel river, nature being the inspiration for his poems. He also held gatherings and services in the valley, at which he gave sermons. The Neandertal (originally Neanderthal, from German Thal for "valley," now spelled Tal, though both t and th represent a t-sound) was renamed in his honor in the early 19th century. In 1679, Neander became a pastor in Bremen, as his popularity with the common people had caused problems with the church administration in Düsseldorf. One year later, at the age of 30, he died of tuberculosis. Notable works Being the first important hymn-writer of the German Reformed Church, Neander wrote his creations mostly at Düsseldorf. The minister and elders of the Reformed Church had complete control of the school at Düsseldorf. About July 1673 to about May 1677 the minister was Sylvester Lürsen (a native of Bremen, and a few years older than Neander), a man of ability and earnestness, but jealous, and, in later times at least, quarrelsome. Neander worked harmoniously alongside him at first, frequently preaching in the church and assisting in the visitation of the sick. But he soon introduced practices which inevitably brought on a conflict. He began to hold prayer meetings of his own, without informing or consulting the minister or elders; he began to absent himself from Holy Communion, on the grounds that he could not conscientiously commune along with the unconverted, and also persuaded others to follow this example; and became less regular in his attendance at the ordinary services of the Church. Besides these causes of offence, he drew out a new timetable for the school, made alterations on the school buildings, held examinations and appointed holidays without consulting anyone. The result of all this was a Visitation of the school on Nov. 29, 1676, and then his suspension from school and pulpit on Feb. 3, 1677. On Feb. 17 he signed a full and definite declaration by which "without mental reservations" he bound himself not to repeat any of the acts complained of; and thereupon was permitted to resume his duties as rector but not as assistant minister. The suspension thus lasted only 14 days, and his salary was never actually stopped. The statements that he was banished from Düsseldorf, and that he lived for months in a cave in the Neanderthal near Mettmann are therefore without foundation. Still his having had to sign such a document was a humiliation which he must have felt keenly, and when, after Lürsen's departure, the second master of the Latin school was appointed permanent assistant pastor, this feeling would be renewed. Creation of hymns A number were circulated among his friends at Düsseldorf in MS., but they were first collected and published after his removal to Bremen, and appeared as: A und Ώ, Joachimi Neandri Glaub-und Liebesübung: — auffgemuntert durch ein fällige Bundes Lieder und Danck-Psalmen, Bremen, Hermann Brauer, 1680. Second edition, Bremen, 1683. Third edition, Bremen, 1687. The so-called third edition at Wesel, 1686, also found in Berlin, was evidently pirated. Other editions rapidly followed until we find the complete set (i.e., 57 or 58) formally incorporated as part of a hymnbook, e.g. in the Marburg Reformed Gesang-Buch, 1722, where the first part consists of Lobwasser's Psalter, the second of Neander's Bundeslieder, and the third of other hymns. Neander's Bundeslieder also form a division of the Lemgo Reformed Gesang-Buch, 1722. Fourth edition, Frankfurt, 1689. These editions contain 57 hymns. Fifth edition, Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1691, edited by G. C. Strattner, eight hymns were added as being also by Neander. The whole of these editions are in the Royal Library, Berlin. One of his favourites book used in the meetings conducted by G. Tersteegen, which in the fifth edition, Solingen, 1760, has the title Gott-geheiligtes Harfen-Spiel der Kinder Zion; bestehend in Joachimi Neandri sämtlichen Bundes-Liedern. In this way, especially in the district near Düsseldorf and on the Ruhr, Neander's name was honoured and beloved long after it had passed out of memory at Bremen. Further reading Helmut Ackermann: Joachim Neander. Sein Leben, seine Lieder, sein Tal. 3. erw. Aufl. Düsseldorf 2005, . Gerhard Dünnhaupt: "Joachim Neander (1650–1680)". In: Personalbibliographien zu den Drucken des Barock, Bd. 4. Hiersemann, Stuttgart 1991, , pp. 2933–2936 (bibliography of his works and literature) Lore Esselbrügge: Joachim Neander, ein Kirchenliederdichter des 17. Jhs. Diss. Marburg 1921. Andreas L. Hofbauer: Meine Taube / in den Felßlöchern / in dem Verborgene der Steinritzen / laß mich hören deine Stimme. Ad Joachim Neander. In: Dirk Matejovski, Dietmar Kamper, Gerd-C. Weniger (eds.), Mythos Neanderthal, Frankfurt/New York 2001, . W. Nelle: Joachim Neander, der Dichter der "Bundeslieder" und "Dankpsalmen". Hamburg 1904. Joachim Neander: Bundeslieder und Dankpsalmen von 1680 mit ausgesetztem Generalbaß von Oskar Gottlieb Blarr. (Schriftenreihe des Vereins für Rheinische rJoachim Neander: Bundes-Lieder und Dank-Psalmen. Facsimile reprint of the first edition, Bremen 1680, with studies by Thomas Elsmann and Oskar Gottlieb Blarr. Bremen: Schünemann 2009, 192, 34 pp. References External links Hymnary entry for Joachim Neander 1650 births 1680 deaths German Baroque composers Calvinist and Reformed hymnwriters German classical composers German male classical composers German Protestant hymnwriters German male writers 17th-century classical composers German-language poets People from Düsseldorf 17th-century male musicians	[ -0.030749520286917686, 1.2462877035140991, -0.08540163189172745, -0.13418777287006378, -0.034246381372213364, 0.9867328405380249, 0.9261578321456909, 0.02563219703733921, -0.4999158978462219, -0.5523878335952759, -0.5771507620811462, 0.0005139965214766562, 0.35730305314064026, 0.6867546439170837, -0.4176984131336212, 0.15942828357219696, 0.4467114210128784, -0.020691819489002228, -0.2084100991487503, -0.3416338562965393, -0.1113639548420906, -0.6003929376602173, 0.48843905329704285, -0.03416341915726662, 0.5529490113258362, 0.5105034708976746, -0.017585482448339462, -0.3757020831108093, 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227494	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadruddin%20Aga%20Khan	Sadruddin Aga Khan	Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan (, , 1933 – 2003) was a statesman and activist who served as United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from 1966 to 1977, during which he reoriented the agency's focus beyond Europe and prepared it for an explosion of complex refugee issues. He was also a proponent of greater collaboration between non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and UN agencies. The Prince's interest in ecological issues led him to establish the Bellerive Foundation in the late 1970s, and he was a knowledgeable and respected collector of Islamic art. Born in Paris, France, he was the son of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan and Princess Andrée Aga Khan. He married twice, but had no children of his own. Prince Sadruddin died of cancer at the age of 70, and was buried in Switzerland. Life and career Childhood and education Born in Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, he was the only child of Sir Sultan Mahomed Shah Aga Khan III and his French-born third wife, the former Andrée Joséphine Carron. He received his early education in Lausanne, Switzerland, before graduating Phi Beta Kappa in 1954 from Harvard College. At Harvard, he lived in Eliot House with Paul Matisse, grandson of French artist Henri Matisse, with future Paris Review founders George Plimpton and John Train, and with Stephen Joyce, grandson of Irish writer James Joyce. Along with Plimpton, he was an editor for the Harvard Lampoon. After three years of post-graduate research at the Harvard Center for Middle Eastern Studies, Prince Sadruddin began a lifelong career of international service. Although he was raised in Europe by his French mother, his father, who was the 48th hereditary Imam of the Nizari Ismaili Muslims, had a strong influence on him. He recalled that his father "insisted that I learnt the Koran and encouraged me to understand the basic traditions and beliefs of Islam but without imposing any particular views. He was an overwhelming personality but open-minded and liberal." Together with his father Prince Sadruddin traveled widely in Muslim countries, coming into contact with his Islamic roots from a young age. He described Iran as the cradle of his family, though he never lived there. When he was a child, his paternal grandmother used to recite to him the great epic poems of Persian history. He held British, French, Iranian, and Swiss citizenship, and was fluent in French, English, German and Italian, while also speaking some Persian and Arabic. UNESCO Prince Sadruddin joined the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) in 1958, and became the Executive Secretary to its International Action Committee for the Preservation of Nubia in 1961. This initiative brought together archaeologists from Eastern Europe and the West at the height of the Cold War. The construction of the Aswan Dam threatened ancient Egyptian treasures including Abu Simbel, the temples of Philae and Kalabsha, and the Christian churches of Nubia. He would later describe it as "one of UNESCO's great achievements" because of the challenging historical context in which it took place—in particular the ongoing tensions in the Middle East and the Cold War. UN High Commissioner for Refugees Prince Sadruddin began as a Special Envoy to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) in 1959 with a focus on World Refugee Year (1959–1960). The initiative became known for its Stamp Plan, a philatelic programme that raised funds through United Nations member countries, as well as the support of the Universal Postal Union. At the time, the UNHCR's resources were primarily focused on supporting refugees crossing from Eastern Europe. In January 1966, Prince Sadruddin was appointed United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees after serving for three years as Deputy High Commissioner. At the age of 33 he became the youngest person ever to lead the UNHCR. For the next twelve years he directed the UN refugee agency through one of its most difficult periods, coordinating the international response to the 1971 Bangladesh crisis that uprooted people, the 1972 exodus of hundreds of thousands of Hutus from Burundi to Tanzania, and the Vietnamese boat people tragedy of the mid-1970s. In 1972, Prince Sadruddin played a key role in finding new homes for tens of thousands of South Asians expelled from Uganda by Idi Amin. Prince Sadruddin's determination not to discriminate between European and Third World refugees helped prepare the UNHCR for a change in the landscape of internationally displaced persons. During the 1950s, between 200,000 and 300,000 refugees of European origin required assistance. By the 1970s the European refugee problems were mostly solved, but had been replaced by millions of displaced persons in the Third World. He had widened the UNHCR mandate well beyond its original focus on Eastern Europe, extending the organisation's reach to refugees from Palestine, Vietnam, Angola and Algeria. As the scale and complexity of refugee issues continued to increase, the UNHCR and the international community at large was better positioned to adapt. By the end of 1977 when he chose to step down from the position, he had become the longest-serving UN High Commissioner for Refugees. He continued to serve in various capacities dealing with humanitarian situations on behalf of the UN. United Nations diplomatic career Prince Sadruddin had, since 1978, been variously: Special Consultant and Chargé de Mission to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, Special Rapporteur of the UN Human Rights Commission and Convenor and Co-Chairman of the Independent Commission on International Humanitarian Issues and of the Independent Working Group on the UN Financial Emergency. He was later Coordinator for United Nations Humanitarian and Economic Assistance Programmes Relating to the People of Afghanistan and Executive Delegate of the Secretary-General for a United Nations Inter-Agency Humanitarian Programme, which dealt with problems of Iraq's border areas. His appointment in September 1990 as Personal Representative of the UN Secretary-General for Humanitarian Assistance Relating to the Crisis between Iraq and Kuwait required diplomatic finesse. Iraq's President Saddam Hussein was deeply suspicious of the UN, and was loath to do anything that would benefit the country's Shia Muslims. Despite this, Prince Sadruddin was able to successfully negotiate with Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz for the establishment of a UN relief program for tens of thousands of Shia Muslims trapped in worsening conditions in the marshlands of southern Iraq. Prince Sadruddin was nominated and passed over twice for the post of UN Secretary-General. Although he won the 1981 vote, the Soviet Union considered him too Western and vetoed his election. When he was nominated again in 1991, the United States and Britain expressed their disagreement with his belief in a policy of boosting aid to Iraq. Environmental protection and advocacy In 1977, Prince Sadruddin, together with Denis de Rougemont and a few other friends, established a Geneva-based think-tank, Groupe de Bellerive (named after Bellerive, the municipality where he lived in Geneva), and a non-profit organisation, the Bellerive Foundation. The foundation collaborated with international institutions, British and Scandinavian bilateral aid organizations, and other NGOs such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). It became a leading grassroots action group promoting environmental protection, natural resource conservation and the safeguarding of life in all its forms. Initially, Bellerive worked with UNICEF and the United Nations Children's Fund in the struggle against deforestation. Prince Sadruddin was motivated in part by what he called "ecological refugees", who were forced to leave regions that could no longer sustain them due to desertification and other environmental changes. The foundation worked with Swiss specialists to develop low-cost, energy-efficient cooking stoves that relied on renewable energy sources such as methane and biogas. It distributed these among needy rural populations, primarily in Africa. Other areas of concern for Bellerive included the proliferation of nuclear weapons, and the protection of threatened species. As a resident of Switzerland, Prince Sadruddin was concerned about the impact of insensitive tourist development and deforestation on the European Alps. At the World Economic Forum in 1990, he launched Alp Action to protect the mountain ecosystem and preserve the Alps' cultural diversity and vitality. The Bellerive Foundation program encouraged eco-tourism, aiming to reduce the impact of outdoor adventure sports on the fragile alpine habitat. During its years of operation, Alp Action successfully launched over 140 projects in seven countries. It found inspiration in the system of national parks of the Canadian Rockies. A long-standing trustee and former Vice-President of the World Wide Fund for Nature International, Prince Sadruddin led Bellerive's support for threatened species. Bellerive was also amongst the first organisations to warn of the potential human health hazards of modern intensive farming methods. In May 2006, the activities of the Bellerive Foundation were merged into the Geneva-based Aga Khan Foundation (founded in 1967 by Prince Sadruddin's nephew Karim Aga Khan IV) to form the Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan Fund for the Environment. The US$10 million fund is dedicated to finding practical solutions to environmental problems. The fund concentrates its activities in six areas that were important to Prince Sadruddin: environmental education; natural resource management in fragile zones; nature parks and wildlife reserves; environmentally and culturally appropriate tourism infrastructure; environmental health; and research. Death and remembrance Prince Sadruddin died of cancer in Boston, Massachusetts, on 2003, coincidentally, the same day as his elder half-brother Prince Aly Khan had died 43 years earlier. His body was conveyed to Switzerland, where members of the diplomatic corps, government officials and close friends were invited to pay their last respects at the Château de Bellerive, and sign books of condolence at various locations around the world. Ruud Lubbers, then UNHCR High Commissioner, expressed the sadness of the UNHCR and the entire humanitarian community, commenting that "he left an indelible print on UNHCR's history—leading the agency through some of the most challenging moments. Sadruddin's name became synonymous with UNHCR." In accordance with his wishes, Prince Sadruddin's burial took place at a private ceremony attended by members of his family. Traditional Muslim ceremonies were led by Sheikh Ahmed Ahmed Ibrahim, who leads the prayers at the mausoleum of the Prince's father, Aga Khan III, in Aswan, Egypt. Last respects were paid beneath the arches of the Château de Bellerive, before the bier was carried to the local cemetery of Collonge-Bellerive. A tribute from the Canton of Geneva read: "The destiny of this family of high Persian nobility, descended from the Prophet Muhammad, is inextricably linked to that of this small European town and to an ambitious project to improve the human condition." The United Nations community celebrated Prince Sadruddin's life at a memorial ceremony held in his honour at its headquarters in New York on 2003. He was remembered for representing the moral and compassionate side of the international community. Then United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan commented that "he combined respect for humankind with concern for our environment. He worked on behalf of the poor and dispossessed, while celebrating humanity through culture and art." He concluded his tribute by praising Prince Sadruddin as "a role model to many of us ... his example will continue to inspire new world citizens for several generations to come." He was survived by his wife of 31 years, Princess Catherine; his three stepsons Alexandre, Marc and Nicolas; as well as his nephews and niece Prince Karim, Prince Amyn and Princess Yasmin; and his cousin Mme. Francoise Carron. It was Prince Sadruddin's and Princess Catherine's wish that their remains be buried in Egypt. Personal life Prince Sadruddin's life was deeply influenced by his family roots and cultural heritage. Prince Sadruddin's grandmother was the granddaughter of the Qajar Emperor Fath'Ali Shah. International service was a family tradition, and throughout his life Prince Sadruddin was surrounded by it. His father held influential roles in British India. He also served two terms as President of the League of Nations. Prince Sadruddin's older half-brother, Prince Aly Khan, was Pakistan's Ambassador to the United Nations. Prince Karim Aga Khan IV, the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Muslims and present Aga Khan, was a nephew to Prince Sadruddin, and is the founder and Chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network. His brother, Prince Amyn, had previously worked with the United Nations before joining the Aga Khan's secretariat. Meanwhile, Prince Sadruddin's niece Princess Yasmin, has devoted herself to the fight against Alzheimer's disease. Prince Sadruddin had a taste for culture, including music, art and literature. He was a familiar figure at music festivals and other cultural events, both in Europe and overseas. His concern for the environment was complemented by his enjoyment of the outdoors; he was a keen skier and an accomplished sailor. While still at Harvard in 1953, Prince Sadruddin became the founding publisher of the Paris Review, which was established with the aim of bringing original creative work to the fore. Every year the Review awards the Aga Khan Prize for Fiction (established by his father) for the best short story that it published in the past year. Marriages On 27 August 1957, in Bellerive, Switzerland, Prince Sadruddin married Nina Dyer (1930–1965). An Anglo-Indian fashion model, she was the former wife of Baron Hans Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza. She converted to Islam, taking the name "Shirin" (lit. "sweetness"). They had no children and divorced in 1962. Dyer committed suicide in 1965. He married Catherine Aleya Beriketti Sursock on November 25, 1972 in the British West Indies. Born in Alexandria, she was the former wife of Lebanese aristocrat Cyril Sursock (son of Nicolas Sursock and Donna Vittoria Serra of the Dukes di Cassano). She and Prince Sadruddin had no children, but from this marriage he gained three stepchildren: Alexandre Sursock (married to Thai Princess Mom Rajawongse Charuvan Rangsit Prayurasakdi), Marc Sursock, and Nicolas Sursock. Art collection During his lifetime Prince Sadruddin assembled one of the finest private collections of Islamic art in the world. He became a knowledgeable and respected collector, accumulating a priceless collection of paintings, drawings, manuscripts and miniatures over 50 years. He had also gathered a collection of primitive and African art which he sold sometime prior to 1985. Prince Sadruddin's interest in Islamic art was sparked in his youth by his paternal grandmother's library of Persian books, mystical texts and astrological treatises. While at Harvard in the 1950s, he would make purchases in New York, and eventually began to acquire from dealers in Paris, Geneva and London. He would bid regularly at Sotheby's and Christie's auctions in Europe and North America. For advice, he looked to his friend Stuart Cary Welch, a noted historian of Islamic art at Harvard University. His collection is vast and diverse, and includes Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Indian pieces dating from the 10th century. One example is a Quranic page of North African origin written with gold lettering in the Kufic script – it is more than 1,000 years old. Prince Sadruddin's Persian roots are well represented in calligraphic as well as pictoral specimens reflecting a range of periods and dynastic patrons. Also included are several examples of Ottoman callgraphies, manuscripts and paintings. Over the years, parts of his collection were exhibited in New York, London, and Zurich, including a touring show, "Princes, Poets and Paladins", which was organized by the British Museum in 1998. The full collection is housed at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, established by Prince Sadruddin's nephew, the present Aga Khan. Awards and decorations Prince Sadruddin received several honorary doctorates and national decorations from states as diverse as Pakistan, Poland and the Vatican, as well as the United Nations Human Rights Award. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1991. He was awarded the Bourgeois d'Honneur de Geneve, made a Commandeur of the Légion d'honneur of France and a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Sylvester (KCSS) of the Holy See, and was a recipient of the Order of the Nile of Egypt. Furthermore, he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE), this for his services to humanitarian causes and the arts. He was an honorary citizen of Patmos, Greece, where he owned a house. References External links \|- 1933 births 2003 deaths Qajar dynasty Harvard College alumni The Harvard Lampoon alumni Aga Khan Development Network Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire French Ismailis Deaths from cancer in Massachusetts United Nations High Commissioners for Refugees French humanitarians French expatriates in the United States Commandeurs of the Légion d'honneur Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences French people of Iranian descent French officials of the United Nations Noorani family	[ -0.723650336265564, 0.33447983860969543, -0.49387678503990173, -0.310904324054718, -0.509746789932251, 0.1933378130197525, 0.7365885376930237, 0.024825284257531166, -0.22796621918678284, -0.036479949951171875, -0.9274506568908691, -0.2994702458381653, -0.7684595584869385, 0.6145610213279724, 0.3512001931667328, -0.3416358530521393, -0.09303054958581924, 0.01701253466308117, -0.5875151753425598, 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227500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seedbed	Seedbed	A seedbed or seedling bed is the local soil environment in which seeds are planted. Often it comprises not only the soil but also a specially prepared cold frame, hotbed or raised bed used to grow the seedlings in a controlled environment into larger young plants before transplanting them into a garden or field. A seedling bed is used to increase the number of seeds that germinate. Soil type The soil of a seedbed needs to be loose and smoothed, without large lumps. These traits are needed so that seeds can be planted easily, and at a specific depth for best germination. Large lumps and uneven surface would tend to make the planting depth random. Many types of seedlings also need loose soil with minimal rocky content for best conditions to grow their roots. (For example, carrots grown in rocky soil will tend not to grow straight.) Seedbed preparation Seedbed preparation in farm fields often involves secondary tillage via harrows and cultivators. This may follow primary tillage (if any) by moldboard plows or chisel plows. No-till farming methods avoid tillage for seedbed preparation as well as later weed control. Seedbed preparation in gardens often involves secondary tillage via hand tools such as rakes and hoes. This may follow primary tillage (if any) by shovels, picks, or mattocks. Rotary tillers provide a powered alternative that takes care of both primary and secondary tillage. The preparation of a seedbed may include: The removal of debris. Insect eggs and disease spores are often found in plant debris and so this is removed from the plot. Stones and larger debris will also physically prevent the seedlings from growing. Levelling. The site will have been levelled for even drainage. Breaking up the soil. Compacted soil will be broken up by digging. This allows air and water to enter, and helps the seedling penetrate the soil. Smaller seeds require a finer soil structure. The surface the soil can be broken down into a fine granular structure using a tool such as a rake. Soil improvement. The soil structure may be improved by the introduction of organic matter such as compost or peat. Fertilizing. The nitrate and phosphate levels of the soil can be adjusted with fertilizer. If the soil is deficient in any micro nutrients, these too can be added. The seedlings may be left to grow to adult plant. See also :Category:Horticulture Open field Seed drill False seedbed Sowing Stale seed bed Stratification (botany) References External links Horticulture Agriculture	[ 0.196919247508049, 0.3762401044368744, -0.6199800372123718, 0.13536623120307922, 0.5575199127197266, 0.02397768758237362, -0.3019200563430786, 0.606782853603363, 0.1856957972049713, -0.6401724219322205, -0.2627311944961548, 0.30836912989616394, 0.13282859325408936, 0.3090057373046875, -0.46542802453041077, 0.42621150612831116, 0.2049395591020584, 0.10406392067670822, 0.32795411348342896, 0.05897310748696327, -0.20899926126003265, -0.3104686737060547, -0.16664522886276245, 0.39988797903060913, 0.5292729735374451, -0.3590695559978485, 0.14086821675300598, 0.29628321528434753, 0.3261427879333496, -0.5012040734291077, -0.07628019154071808, 0.45740780234336853, 0.4744330942630768, -0.3135262131690979, 0.04813533276319504, -0.31352731585502625, -0.05781656503677368, -0.023290766403079033, -0.1862686574459076, 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227504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septum	Septum	In biology, a septum (Latin for something that encloses; plural septa) is a wall, dividing a cavity or structure into smaller ones. Examples Human anatomy Interatrial septum, the wall of tissue that is a sectional part of the left and right atria of the heart Interventricular septum, the wall separating the left and right ventricles of the heart Lingual septum, a vertical layer of fibrous tissue that separates the halves of the tongue. Nasal septum: the cartilage wall separating the nostrils of the nose Alveolar septum: the thin wall which separates the alveoli from each other in the lungs Orbital septum, a palpebral ligament in the upper and lower eyelids Septum pellucidum or septum lucidum, a thin structure separating two fluid pockets in the brain Uterine septum, a malformation of the uterus Vaginal septum, a lateral or transverse partition inside the vagina Intermuscular septa separating the muscles of the arms and legs Histological septa are seen throughout most tissues of the body, particularly where they are needed to stiffen soft cellular tissue, and they also provide planes of ingress for small blood vessels. Because the dense collagen fibres of a septum usually extend out into the softer adjacent tissues, microscopic fibrous septa are less clearly defined than the macroscopic types of septa listed above. In rare instances, a septum is a cross-wall. Thus it divides a structure into smaller parts. Cell biology The septum (cell biology) is the boundary formed between dividing cells in the course of cell division. Fungus A partition dividing filamentous hyphae into discrete cells in fungi. Botany A partition that separates the locules of a fruit, anther, or sporangium. Zoology A coral septum is one of the radial calcareous plates in the corallites of a coral. Annelids have septa that divide their coelom into segmented chambers. Many shelled organisms have septa subdividing their shell chamber, including rhizopods, cephalopods and gastropods, the latter seemingly serving as a defence against shell-boring predators. Laboratory technology A rubber septum is an engineered membrane that permits transfer of a substance (usually liquid or gas) without contact with air, usually using a syringe with needle. 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227508	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employee%20research	Employee research	In organizational development (OD), employee research involves the use of surveys, focus groups and other data-gathering methods to find out the attitudes, opinions and feelings of members of an organization. See also Employee survey Interviewing Focus group Customer satisfaction References Peter Goudge. Employee Research: How to Increase Employee Involvement Through Consultation. Kogan Page. 2006. . 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227509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Velvet	Black Velvet	Black Velvet may refer to: Music and entertainment The Black Velvets, an English rock band "Black Velvet" (song), a 1989 song by Alannah Myles "Black Velvet", a song by Ferry Corsten from the 2008 album Twice in a Blue Moon "Black Velvet", a song by Gass from the 1970 album Juju Black Velvet (Robin Lee album), 1990, featuring a cover of the song "Black Velvet" Black Velvet (O'Donel Levy album), 1971 Black Velvet (revue), a revue at the London Hippodrome in 1939 "Black Velvet", the former stage name taken by Charles Bradley when he performed as a James Brown impersonator Black Velvet (Charles Bradley album) Black Velvet (magazine), a British quarterly rock magazine Black Velvet or Schwarzer Samt, a 1964 German crime film Beverages Black Velvet (whisky), a Canadian whiskey Black Velvet (beer cocktail), a mixed drink Other uses Black Velvet, a fabric Velvet painting, the application of paint onto velvet fabric Black Velvet 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227511	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milan%20Vukcevich	Milan Vukcevich	Milan R. Vukcevich (born Milan Radoje Vukčević; March 11, 1937 – May 10, 2003) was a Yugoslav-American chemist, a grandmaster of chess problem composition and writer. Biography Milan Radoje Vukčević was born in Belgrade. In 1955 he won the Yugoslav junior championship, drawing a six-game match with Bent Larsen in the same year. In 1960, he played for Yugoslavia at the Chess Olympiad in Leipzig and had the second best overall score at the Student Chess Olympiad in Leningrad. In 1963 he moved to the US, settling in Ohio, and westernising his surname. Vukcevich decided on a career in science rather than chess, and in the year he moved to the United States he entered MIT. He was an instructor at Case Western Reserve University for six years before leaving to work for General Electric, where, from 1989, he served as Chief Scientist. He published two books on science. Vukcevich continued to play chess. In 1969 he was joint winner of the U.S. Open Chess Championship, along with Pal Benko and Robert Byrne. In 1975 he finished third in the U.S. Championship, ahead of Samuel Reshevsky, Robert Byrne, Larry Evans and Arthur Bisguier among others. From 1976-79, he played in the National Telephone League, scoring 16.5 from 22 games, including wins against Bisguier, Yasser Seirawan, Nick De Firmian and Leonid Shamkovich. Vukcevich died in 2003 in Cleveland, Ohio and is buried in Evergreen Hill Cemetery in Chagrin Falls. His son, Marko, is a former guitar player in the band Mushroomhead from Cleveland. The "Vukcevich Super Cup" was created in his honor soon after his death. Chess compositions Vukcevich is better known as an author of chess problems than as a player, however, being the first American resident to be awarded the title of International Composition Grandmaster by FIDE. In 1981 he published Chess by Milan: Problems and Games of Dr. Milan R. Vukcevich and in 1998 was inducted into the US Chess Hall of Fame, becoming only the second person (after Sam Loyd) to be primarily inducted for their achievements in problem composition. Vukcevich's compositions were gathered together in My Chess Compositions (2003). He composed in all genres, including directmates, selfmates, helpmates, problems with fairy pieces and a small number of endgame studies. {{Chess diagram \| tleft \|Milan Vukcevich 1st Prize, The Problemist, 1981\| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|bl\| \|pd\|rd\|nd\|qd \| \| \| \| \|pd\| \| \|pd \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \| \|ql\| \| \| \| \| \|nl\| \|pl\|bl\|rl\| \| \|nd\| \|pl\|nl\|kd\|pl\| \|bd\|kl\| \| \| \| \| \|rl \|Mate in three moves}} On the left is one of Vukcevich's famous problems. The key is 1. Bb6 with the threat 2. Qg6! and 3. Ne4# and 3. e4#. If 2. ... Rxf3 then 3. Rxf3#, which explains the choice of the key. In the main variations Black unpins the Queen, which can then form new batteries: 1. ... Rf5 2. Qf4!! (threat 3. Ne4#) Re5+ 3. Be4#; 2. ... Rxf4+ e4#. 1. ... Nf5! 2. Qh4!! (threat 3. Ne4#) Nxe3+ Rg6#; 2. ... Nxh4+ 3. e4#. Additional variation occurs after 1. ... e5 2. Qf5! Qxf5+ 3. e4#.'Further reading Milan Vukcevich (1981), Chess by Milan: Problems and Games of Dr. Milan R. Vukcevich''. MIM Company, Burton, Ohio. References External links Milan R Vukcevich chess games at 365Chess.com Biography, ChessBase Biographical sketch of Vukcevich by Edward J. Covington Obituary, The Week in Chess 1937 births 2003 deaths Serbian chess players Sportspeople from Belgrade American chess players American people of Serbian descent Yugoslav chess players Serbian scientists Serbian chemists Yugoslav emigrants to the United States Chess composers Serbian chess writers American chess writers American male non-fiction writers General Electric people Grandmasters for chess composition Case Western Reserve University faculty 20th-century chess players 20th-century American non-fiction writers 20th-century American male writers	[ -0.3365216851234436, 0.8094725608825684, 0.040769465267658234, -0.6368564367294312, -0.8242455124855042, 0.7183132171630859, 0.31493616104125977, 0.023689892143011093, -0.4273242950439453, 0.0861717239022255, 0.24986883997917175, 0.05773031711578369, -0.5097640156745911, 0.17420682311058044, 0.22089771926403046, 0.7378360033035278, -0.13896523416042328, 0.8346172571182251, -0.10965830087661743, -0.30546480417251587, 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227514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Stack	Robert Stack	Robert Stack (born Charles Langford Modini Stack, January 13, 1919 – May 14, 2003) was an American actor, sportsman, and television host. Known for his deep voice and commanding presence, he appeared in over forty feature films. He starred in the ABC television series The Untouchables (1959–1963), for which he won the 1960 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Series, and later hosted/narrated the true-crime series Unsolved Mysteries (1987–2002). He was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his role in the film Written on the Wind (1956). Early life He was born Charles Langford Modini Stack in Los Angeles, California, but his first name, selected by his mother, was changed to Robert by his father. He spent his early childhood in Adria and Rome, becoming fluent in French and Italian at an early age, and did not learn English until returning to Los Angeles when he was seven. His parents divorced when he was a year old, and he was raised by his mother, Mary Elizabeth (née Wood). His father, James Langford Stack, a wealthy advertising agency owner, later remarried his mother, but died when Stack was 10. He always spoke of his mother with the greatest respect and love. When he collaborated with Mark Evans on his autobiography, Straight Shooting, he included a picture of himself and his mother that he captioned "Me and my best girl". His maternal grandfather, opera singer Charles Wood, studied voice in Italy and performed there under the name "Carlo Modini." On the paternal side of his family, Stack had another opera-singer relative: American baritone Richard Bonelli (born George Richard Bunn), who was his uncle. Stack took some drama courses at the University of Southern California, where he played on the polo team. Clark Gable was a family friend. By the time he was 20, Stack had achieved minor fame as a sportsman. He was an avid polo player and shooter. His brother and he won the International Outboard Motor Championships, in Venice, Italy, and at age 16, he became a member of the All-American Skeet Team. He set two world records in skeet shooting and became national champion. In 1971, he was inducted into the National Skeet Shooting Hall of Fame. He was a Republican. The Piikani Nation of the Blackfoot Confederacy, which was known as the Peigan Nation before the 1990s, honored him by inducting him into their chieftainship in 1953 (July 2, 1953 Newspaper) as Chief Crow Flag. In 1962, Stack received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. Career Stack took drama courses at Bridgewater State University, a mid-sized liberal-arts school located 25 miles southeast of Boston. His deep voice and good looks attracted the attention of producers in Hollywood. Universal When Stack visited the lot of Universal Studios at age 20, producer Joe Pasternak offered him an opportunity to enter the business. Recalled Stack, "He said, 'How'd you like to be in pictures? We'll make a test with Helen Parrish, a little love scene.' Helen Parrish was a beautiful girl. 'Gee, that sounds keen,' I told him. I got the part." Stack's first film, which teamed him with Deanna Durbin, was First Love (1939), produced by Pasternak. This film was considered controversial at the time, as he was the first actor to give Durbin an on-screen kiss. Stack won critical acclaim for his next role, The Mortal Storm (1940) starring Margaret Sullavan and James Stewart, and directed by Frank Borzage at Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. He played a young man who joins the Nazi party. Back at Universal, Stack was in Pasternak's A Little Bit of Heaven (1940), starring Gloria Jean, who was that studio's back-up for Deanna Durbin. Stack was reunited with Durbin in Pasternak's Nice Girl? (1941). Stack then starred in a Western, Badlands of Dakota (1942), co-starring Richard Dix and Frances Farmer. United Artists borrowed him to play a Polish Air Force pilot in To Be or Not To Be (1942), alongside Jack Benny and Carole Lombard. Stack admitted he was terrified going into this role, but he credited Lombard, whom he had known personally for several years, with giving him many tips on acting and with being his mentor. Lombard was killed in a plane crash shortly before the film was released. Stack played another pilot in Eagle Squadron (1942), a huge hit. He then made a Western, Men of Texas (1942). World War II During World War II, Stack served as an aerial gunnery officer and gunnery instructor in the United States Navy. Postwar career Stack resumed his career after the war with roles in such films as Fighter Squadron (1948) at Warner Bros. with Edmond O'Brien, playing a pilot; A Date with Judy (1948) at MGM, with Wallace Beery and Elizabeth Taylor. Stack was in two films at Paramount: Miss Tatlock's Millions (1948) and Mr. Music (1950). He had an excellent role in Bullfighter and the Lady (1951), a passion project of Budd Boetticher for John Wayne's company. He later said this was the first time he liked himself on screen. Stack supported Mickey Rooney in My Outlaw Brother (1951) and had the lead in the adventure epic Bwana Devil (1952), considered the first color, American 3-D feature film. It was released by United Artists, which also put Stack in a Western, War Paint (1953). He continued making similar low-budget action fare: Conquest of Cochise (1953) for Sam Katzman; Sabre Jet (1953), playing another pilot, this time in the Korean War; The Iron Glove (1954), a swashbuckler where Stack played Charles Wogan, for Katzman. Return to "A" movies Stack was back in "A" pictures when he appeared opposite John Wayne in The High and the Mighty (1954), playing the pilot of an airliner who comes apart under stress after the airliner encounters engine trouble. The film was a hit, and Stack received good reviews. In 1954, he signed a seven-year contract with Fox. Sam Fuller cast him in the lead of House of Bamboo (1955), shot in Japan for 20th Century Fox. He supported Jennifer Jones in Good Morning, Miss Dove (1955), also at Fox, and starred in Great Day in the Morning (1956) at RKO, directed by Jacques Tourneur. Written on the Wind Stack was then given a role in Written on the Wind (1956), directed by Douglas Sirk and produced by Albert Zugsmith. Stack played another pilot, the son of a rich man who marries Lauren Bacall, who in turn falls for his best friend, played by Rock Hudson. The movie was a massive success and Stack was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor; Dorothy Malone, who played Stack's sister, was nominated for Best Supporting Actress. Malone won, but Stack lost, to Anthony Quinn. Stack felt that the primary reason he lost to Quinn was that 20th Century Fox, which had lent him to Universal-International, organized block voting against him to prevent one of their contract players from winning an Academy Award while working at another studio. Stack was reunited with Hudson, Malone, Zugsmith, and Sirk on The Tarnished Angels (1957), once more playing a pilot. At Fox, he was in The Gift of Love (1958) with Bacall. Stack then was given a real star role, playing the title part in John Farrow's biopic, John Paul Jones (1959). Despite a large budget and an appearance by Bette Davis, it was not a success. The Untouchables Stack portrayed the crimefighting Eliot Ness in the ABC television drama series The Untouchables (1959–1963) produced by Desilu Productions, in association with Stack's Langford Productions. The show portrayed the ongoing battle between gangsters and a special squad of federal agents in prohibition-era Chicago. "No one thought it was going to be a series," Stack once said, "When you tell the same story every week, it seemed like a vendetta between Ness and the Italians." The show won Stack the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series at the 12th Primetime Emmy Awards in 1960. During the series' run, Stack starred in a disaster movie, The Last Voyage (1960), appearing opposite Malone. At Fox, he was in The Caretakers (1963) with Joan Crawford and he appeared in a special on hunting, The American Sportsman. He owned 25% of The Untouchables and The Caretaker. After The Untouchables, Stack worked in Europe for Is Paris Burning? (1966), The Peking Medallion (1967), Action Man (1967), and later for Story of a Woman (1970). He did Laura (1967) on film. The Name of the Game Stack starred in a new drama series, rotating the lead with Tony Franciosa and Gene Barry in the lavish The Name of the Game (1968–1971). He played a former federal agent turned true-crime journalist, evoking memories of his role as Ness. In 1971, he sued CBS for $25 million for appearing in the documentary The Selling of the Pentagon, saying that the company had misrepresented his position regarding the Vietnam War. 1970s career Stack played a pilot in the TV movie Murder on Flight 502 (1975) and was the lead in the series Most Wanted (1976), playing a tough, incorruptible police captain commanding an elite squad of special investigators, also evoking the Ness role. He later did a similar part in the series Strike Force (1981). He made a film in France, Second Wind (1978). Comedy actor and later career Stack parodied his own persona in the comedy 1941 (1979). His performance was well received and Stack became a comic actor, appearing in Airplane! (1980), Big Trouble (1986), Plain Clothes (1988), Caddyshack II (1988), Joe Versus the Volcano (1990), Beavis and Butt-Head Do America (1996), and BASEketball (1998). He also provided the voice for the character Ultra Magnus in The Transformers: The Movie (1986). In a more serious vein, he appeared in the action movie Uncommon Valor (1983), the television miniseries George Washington (1984), and Hollywood Wives (1985), and appeared in several episodes of the primetime soap opera Falcon Crest in 1986. Stack's series Strike Force was scheduled opposite Falcon Crest, where it quickly folded. He began hosting Unsolved Mysteries in 1987. He thought very highly of the interactive nature of the show, saying that it created a "symbiotic" relationship between viewer and program, and that the hotline was a great crime-solving tool. Unsolved Mysteries aired from 1987 to 2002, first as specials in 1987 (Stack did not host all the specials, which were previously hosted by Raymond Burr and Karl Malden), then as a regular series on NBC (1988–1997), then on CBS (1997–1999) and finally on Lifetime (2001–2002). Stack served as the show's host during its entire original series run. Netflix revived the series in July 2020 with a six-episode run. Paying homage to the late host, a silhouette of Stack can be seen towards the end of the opening credits. In 1991, Stack voiced the main police officer Lt. Littleboy (who is also the main protagonist and narrator) in The Real Story of Baa Baa Black Sheep. For a brief period between 2001 and 2002, Stack voiced Stoat Muldoon, a character featured on the computer-animated television series Butt-Ugly Martians on Nickelodeon. In 1996, a Golden Palm Star on the Palm Springs, California, Walk of Stars was dedicated to him. Personal life and death Stack was married to actress Rosemarie Bowe from 1956 until his death. They had two children, a son, Charles, and a daughter, Elizabeth. He underwent radiation therapy for prostate cancer in October 2002, and died of heart failure at his home in Bel Air, Los Angeles on May 14, 2003, at the age of 84. Filmography Film Television Radio appearances Books Straight Shooting (with Mark Evans) (1980); Shotgun Digest (Jack Lewis, Editor) (1974); See also William H. Perry (Los Angeles), his great-grandfather References External links 1919 births 2003 deaths 20th-century American male actors 21st-century American male actors American male film actors American male television actors American male voice actors American people of Italian descent Audiobook narrators United States Navy personnel of World War II Television personalities from Los Angeles Bridgewater State University alumni California Republicans Male actors from Los Angeles Military personnel from California Outstanding Performance by a Lead Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners United States Navy sailors University of Southern California alumni Deaths from organ failure	[ -0.4990631341934204, 0.06976392865180969, -0.558833122253418, -0.13601896166801453, 0.6408138275146484, 0.47416427731513977, 0.9847972989082336, -0.27366960048675537, -0.5339447855949402, 0.014907822012901306, -0.20251885056495667, 0.8089234232902527, -0.090028777718544, -0.04417998716235161, 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227519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Crossroads	Operation Crossroads	Operation Crossroads was a pair of nuclear weapon tests conducted by the United States at Bikini Atoll in mid-1946. They were the first nuclear weapon tests since Trinity in July 1945, and the first detonations of nuclear devices since the atomic bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945. The purpose of the tests was to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships. The Crossroads tests were the first of many nuclear tests held in the Marshall Islands, and the first to be publicly announced beforehand and observed by an invited audience, including a large press corps. They were conducted by Joint Army/Navy Task Force One, headed by Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy rather than by the Manhattan Project, which had developed nuclear weapons during World War II. A fleet of 95 target ships was assembled in Bikini Lagoon and hit with two detonations of Fat Man plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapons of the kind dropped on Nagasaki, each with a yield of . The first test was Able. The bomb was named Gilda after Rita Hayworth's character in the 1946 film Gilda, and was dropped from the B-29 Superfortress Dave's Dream of the 509th Bombardment Group on July 1, 1946. It detonated above the target fleet and caused less than the expected amount of ship damage because it missed its aim point by . The second test was Baker. The bomb was known as Helen of Bikini and was detonated underwater on July 25, 1946. Radioactive sea spray caused extensive contamination. A third deep-water test named Charlie was planned for 1947 but was canceled primarily because of the United States Navy's inability to decontaminate the target ships after the Baker test. Ultimately, only nine target ships were able to be scrapped rather than scuttled. Charlie was rescheduled as Operation Wigwam, a deep-water shot conducted in 1955 off the coast of Mexico (Baja California). Bikini's native residents agreed to evacuate the island, and were evacuated on board the LST-861, with most moving to the Rongerik Atoll. In the 1950s, a series of large thermonuclear tests rendered Bikini unfit for subsistence farming and fishing because of radioactive contamination. Bikini remains uninhabited , though it is occasionally visited by sport divers. Planners attempted to protect participants in the Operation Crossroads tests against radiation sickness, but one study showed that the life expectancy of participants was reduced by an average of three months. The Baker test's radioactive contamination of all the target ships was the first case of immediate, concentrated radioactive fallout from a nuclear explosion. Chemist Glenn T. Seaborg, the longest-serving chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission, called Baker "the world's first nuclear disaster." Background The first proposal to test nuclear weapons against naval warships was made on August 16, 1945, by Lewis Strauss, future chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission. In an internal memo to Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal, Strauss argued, "If such a test is not made, there will be loose talk to the effect that the fleet is obsolete in the face of this new weapon and this will militate against appropriations to preserve a postwar Navy of the size now planned." With very few bombs available, he suggested a large number of targets widely dispersed over a large area. A quarter century earlier, in 1921, the Navy had suffered a public relations disaster when General Billy Mitchell's bombers sank every target ship the Navy provided for the Project B ship-versus-bomb tests. The Strauss test would be designed to demonstrate ship survivability. Nine days later, Senator Brien McMahon, who within a year would write the Atomic Energy Act and organize and chair the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, made the first public proposal for such a test, but one designed to demonstrate the vulnerability, rather than survivability, of ships. He proposed dropping an atomic bomb on captured Japanese ships and suggested, "The resulting explosion should prove to us just how effective the atomic bomb is when used against the giant naval ships." On September 19, the Chief of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), General of the Army Henry H. Arnold, asked the Navy to set aside ten of the thirty-eight captured Japanese ships for use in the test proposed by McMahon. Meanwhile, the Navy proceeded with its own plan, which was revealed at a press conference on October 27 by the Commander in Chief, United States Fleet, Fleet Admiral Ernest King. It involved between 80 and 100 target ships, most of them surplus U.S. ships. As the Army and the Navy maneuvered for control of the tests, Assistant Secretary of War Howard C. Peterson observed, "To the public, the test looms as one in which the future of the Navy is at stake ... if the Navy withstands [the tests] better than the public imagines it will, in the public mind the Navy will have 'won. The Army's candidate to direct the tests, Major General Leslie Groves, head of the Manhattan Project which built the bombs, did not get the job. The Joint Chiefs of Staff decided that because the Navy was contributing the most men and materiel, the test should be headed by a naval officer. Commodore William S. "Deak" Parsons was a naval officer who had worked on the Manhattan Project and participated in the bombing of Hiroshima. He was now the assistant to the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Special Weapons, Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy, whom he proposed for the role. This recommendation was accepted, and on January 11, 1946, President Harry S. Truman appointed Blandy as head of Army/Navy Joint Task Force One (JTF-1), which was created to conduct the tests. Parsons became Deputy Task Force Commander for Technical Direction. USAAF Major General William E. Kepner was Deputy Task Force Commander for Aviation. Blandy codenamed the tests Operation Crossroads. Under pressure from the Army, Blandy agreed to crowd more ships into the immediate target area than the Navy wanted, but he refused USAAF Major General Curtis LeMay's demand that "every ship must have a full loading of oil, ammunition, and fuel." Blandy's argument was that fires and internal explosions might sink ships that would otherwise remain afloat and be available for damage evaluation. When Blandy proposed an all-Navy board to evaluate the results, Senator McMahon complained to Truman that the Navy should not be "solely responsible for conducting operations which might well indeed determine its very existence." Truman acknowledged that "reports were getting around that these tests were not going to be entirely on the level." He imposed a civilian review panel on Operation Crossroads to "convince the public it was objective." Opposition Pressure to cancel Operation Crossroads altogether came from scientists and diplomats. Manhattan Project scientists argued that further testing was unnecessary and environmentally dangerous. A Los Alamos study warned "the water near a recent surface explosion will be a witch's brew" of radioactivity. When the scientists pointed out that the tests might demonstrate ship survivability while ignoring the effect of radiation on sailors, Blandy responded by adding test animals to some of the ships, thereby generating protests from animal rights advocates. Secretary of State James F. Byrnes, who a year earlier had told physicist Leo Szilard that a public demonstration of the bomb might make the Soviet Union "more manageable" in Europe, now argued the opposite: that further display of U.S. nuclear power could harden the Soviet Union's position against acceptance of the Acheson–Lilienthal Plan, which discussed possible methods for the international control of nuclear weapons and the avoidance of future nuclear warfare. At a March 22 cabinet meeting he said, "from the standpoint of international relations it would be very helpful if the test could be postponed or never held at all." He prevailed on Truman to postpone the first test for six weeks, from May 15 to July 1. For public consumption, the postponement was explained as an opportunity for more Congressional observers to attend during their summer recess. When Congressmen complained about the destruction of $450 million worth of target ships, Blandy replied that their true cost was their scrap value at $10 per ton, only $3.7 million. Veterans and legislators from New York and Pennsylvania requested to keep their namesake battleships as museum ships, as Texas had done with , but the JTF-1 replied that "it is regretted that such ships as the cannot be spared." Preparation A series of three tests was recommended to study the effects of nuclear weapons on ships, equipment, and materiel. The test site had to be in territory controlled by the United States. The inhabitants would have to be evacuated, so it was best if it was uninhabited, or nearly so, and at least from the nearest city. So that a B-29 could drop a bomb, there had to be an airbase within . To contain the target ships, it needed to have a protected anchorage at least wide. Ideally, it would have predictable weather patterns, and be free of severe cold and violent storms. Predictable winds would avoid having radioactive material blown back on the task force personnel, and predictable ocean currents would allow material to be kept away from shipping lanes, fishing areas, and inhabited shores. Timing was critical because Navy manpower required to move the ships was being released from active duty as part of the post-World War II demobilization, and civilian scientists knowledgeable about atomic weapons were leaving federal employment for college teaching positions. On January 24, Blandy named the Bikini Lagoon as the site for the two 1946 detonations, Able and Baker. The deep underwater test, Charlie, scheduled for early 1947, would take place in the ocean west of Bikini. Of the possible places given serious consideration, including Ecuador's Galápagos Islands, Bikini offered the most remote location with a large protected anchorage, suitable but not ideal weather, and a small, easily moved population. It had come under exclusive United States control on January 15, when Truman declared the United States to be the sole trustee of all the Pacific islands captured from Japan during the war. The Navy had been studying test sites since October 1945 and was ready to announce its choice of Bikini soon after Truman's declaration. On February 6, the survey ship Sumner began blasting channels through the Bikini reef into the lagoon. The local residents were not told why. The 167 Bikini islanders first learned their fate four days later, on Sunday, February 10, when Navy Commodore Ben H. Wyatt, United States military governor of the Marshall Islands, arrived by seaplane from Kwajalein. Referring to Biblical stories which they had learned from Protestant missionaries, he compared them to "the children of Israel whom the Lord saved from their enemy and led into the Promised Land." He also claimed it was "for the good of mankind and to end all world wars." There was no signed agreement, but he reported by cable "their local chieftain, referred to as King Juda, arose and said that the natives of Bikini were very proud to be part of this wonderful undertaking." On March 6, Wyatt attempted to stage a filmed reenactment of the February 10 meeting in which the Bikinians had given away their atoll. Despite repeated promptings and at least seven retakes, Juda confined his on-camera remarks to, "We are willing to go. Everything is in God's hands." The next day, LST-861 moved them and their belongings east to the uninhabited Rongerik Atoll, to begin a permanent exile. Three Bikini families returned in 1974 but were evacuated again in 1978 because of radioactivity in their bodies from four years of eating contaminated food. As of 2015, the atoll remains unpopulated. Ships To make room for the target ships, of dynamite were used to remove coral heads from Bikini Lagoon. On the grounds of the David Taylor Model Basin outside Washington, DC, dress rehearsals for Baker were conducted with dynamite and model ships in a pond named "Little Bikini." A fleet of 95 target vessels was assembled in Bikini Lagoon. At the center of the target cluster, the density was 20 ships per square mile (7.7 per km2), three to five times greater than military doctrine would allow. The stated goal was not to duplicate a realistic anchorage, but to measure damage as a function of distance from the blast center, at as many distances as possible. The arrangement also reflected the outcome of the Army/Navy disagreement about how many ships should be allowed to sink. The target fleet included four obsolete U.S. battleships, two aircraft carriers, two cruisers, thirteen destroyers, eight submarines, numerous auxiliary and amphibious vessels, and three surrendered German and Japanese ships. The ships carried sample amounts of fuel and ammunition, plus scientific instruments to measure air pressure, ship movement, and radiation. The live animals on some of the target ships were supplied by the support ship , which brought 200 pigs, 60 guinea pigs, 204 goats, 5,000 rats, 200 mice, and grains containing insects to be studied for genetic effects by the National Cancer Institute. Amphibious target ships were beached on Bikini Island. A support fleet of more than 150 ships provided quarters, experimental stations, and workshops for most of the 42,000 men (more than 37,000 of whom were Navy personnel) and the 37 female nurses. Additional personnel were located on nearby atolls such as Eniwetok and Kwajalein. Navy personnel were allowed to extend their service obligation for one year if they wanted to participate in the tests and see an atomic bomb explode. The islands of the Bikini Atoll were used as instrumentation sites and, until Baker contaminated them, as recreation sites. Cameras Radio-controlled autopilots were installed in eight B-17 bombers, converting them into remote-controlled drones which were then loaded with automatic cameras, radiation detectors, and air sample collectors. Their pilots operated them from mother planes at a safe distance from the detonations. The drones could fly into radiation environments, such as Able's mushroom cloud, which would have been lethal to crew members. All the land-based detonation-sequence photographs were taken by remote control from tall towers erected on several islands of the atoll. In all, Bikini cameras took 50,000 still pictures and of motion picture film. One of the cameras could shoot 1,000 frames per second. Before the first test, all personnel were evacuated from the target fleet and Bikini Atoll. They boarded ships of the support fleet, which took safe positions at least east of the atoll. Test personnel were issued special dark glasses to protect their eyes, but a decision was made shortly before Able that the glasses might not be adequate. Personnel were instructed to turn away from the blast, shut their eyes, and cradle their arm across their face for additional protection. A few observers who disregarded the recommended precautions advised the others when the bomb detonated. Most shipboard observers reported feeling a slight concussion and hearing a disappointing little "poom". On July 26, 2016, the National Security Archive declassified and released the entire stock of footage shot by surveillance aircraft that flew over the nuclear test site just minutes after the bomb detonated. The footage can be seen on YouTube. Nicknames Able and Baker are the first two letters of the Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet, used from 1941 until 1956. Alfa and Bravo are their counterparts in the current NATO phonetic alphabet. Charlie is the third letter in both systems. According to eyewitness accounts, the time of detonation for each test was announced as H or How hour; in the official JTF-1 history, the term M or Mike hour is used instead. There were only seven nuclear bombs in existence in July 1946. The two bombs used in the test were Fat Man plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapons of the kind dropped on Nagasaki. The Able bomb was stenciled with the name Gilda and decorated with an Esquire magazine photograph of Rita Hayworth, star of the 1946 movie, Gilda. The Baker bomb was Helen of Bikini. This femme-fatale theme for nuclear weapons, combining seduction and destruction, is epitomized by the use in all languages, starting in 1946, of "bikini" as the name for a woman's two-piece bathing suit. The United States' test series summary table is here: United States' nuclear testing series. Test Able At 9:00 on July 1, Gilda was dropped from the B-29 Superfortress Dave's Dream of the 509th Bombardment Group. The plane, formerly known as Big Stink, had been the photographic equipment aircraft on the Nagasaki mission in 1945. It had been renamed in honor of Dave Semple, a bombardier who was killed during a practice mission on March 7, 1946. Gilda detonated above the target fleet, with a yield of 23 kilotons. Five ships were sunk. Two attack transports sank immediately, two destroyers within hours, and one Japanese cruiser the following day. Some of the 114 press observers expressed disappointment at the effect on ships. The New York Times reported, prematurely, that "only two were sunk, one capsized, and eighteen damaged." The next day, the Times carried an explanation by Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal that "heavily built and heavily armored ships are difficult to sink unless they sustain underwater damage." The main cause of less-than-expected ship damage was that the bomb missed its aim point by . The ship the bomb was aimed at failed to sink. The miss resulted in a government investigation of the flight crew of the B-29 bomber. Various explanations were offered, including the bomb's known poor ballistic characteristics, but none was convincing. Images of the drop were inconclusive. The bombsight was checked and found error free. Pumpkin bomb drops were conducted, but were accurate. Colonel Paul W. Tibbets believed that the miss was caused by a miscalculation by the crew. The mystery was never solved. There were other factors that made Able less spectacular than expected. Observers were much farther away than at the Trinity test, and the high humidity absorbed much of the light and heat. The battleship , the only battleship to get underway at the Attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941, had been designated as the aim point for Able and was painted orange, with white gun barrels and gunwales, to make her stand out in the central cluster of target ships. There were eight ships within of it. Had the bomb exploded over the Nevada as planned, at least nine ships, including two battleships and an aircraft carrier, would likely have sunk. The actual detonation point, west-northwest of the target, was closer to the attack transport , in much less crowded water. Able target array In addition to the five ships that sank, fourteen were judged to have serious damage or worse, mostly due to the bomb's air-pressure shock wave. All but three were located within of the detonation. Inside that radius, orientation to the bomb was a factor in shock wave impact. For example, ship #6, the destroyer , which sank, was farther away than seven ships that stayed afloat. Lamson was broadside to the blast, taking the full impact on her port side, while the seven closer ships were anchored with their sterns toward the blast, somewhat protecting the most vulnerable part of the hull. The only large ship inside the radius which sustained moderate, rather than serious, damage was the sturdily built Japanese battleship , ship #7, whose stern-on orientation to the bomb gave her some protection. Also, unrepaired damage from World War II may have complicated damage analysis. As the ship from which the Pearl Harbor attack had been commanded, Nagato was positioned near the aim point to guarantee her being sunk. The Able bomb missed its target, and the symbolic sinking came three weeks later, five days after the Baker shot. Serious damage to ship #10, the aircraft carrier , more than from the blast, was due to fire. For test purposes, all the ships carried sample amounts of fuel and ordnance, plus airplanes. Most warships carried a seaplane on deck, which could be lowered into the water by crane, but Saratoga carried several airplanes with highly volatile aviation fuel, both on deck and in the hangars below. The fire was extinguished and Saratoga was kept afloat for use in the Baker shot. Radiation As with Little Boy (Hiroshima) and Fat Man (Nagasaki), the Crossroads Able shot was an air burst. These were purposely detonated high enough in the air to prevent surface materials from being drawn into the fireball. The height-of-burst for the first nuclear explosion Trinity, in New Mexico on July 16, 1945, was ; the device was mounted on a tower. It made a crater deep and wide, and there was some local fallout. The test was conducted in secret, and the world at large learned nothing about the radioactive fallout at the time. To be a true air burst with no local fallout, the Trinity height-of-burst needed to be . With an air burst, the radioactive fission products rise into the stratosphere and become part of the global, rather than the local, environment. Air bursts were officially described as "self-cleansing." There was no significant local fallout from Able. There was an intense transitory burst of fireball radiation lasting a few seconds. Many of the closer ships received doses of neutron and gamma radiation that could have been lethal to anyone on the ship, but the ships themselves did not become radioactive. Neutron activation of materials in the ships was judged to be a minor problem by the standards of the time. One sailor on the support ship was found to be "sleeping in a shower of gamma rays" from an illegal metal souvenir he had taken from a target ship. Fireball neutrons had made it radioactive. Within a day nearly all the surviving target ships had been reboarded. The ship inspections, instrument recoveries, and moving and remooring of ships for the Baker test proceeded on schedule. Fifty-seven guinea pigs, 109 mice, 146 pigs, 176 goats, and 3,030 white rats had been placed on 22 target ships in stations normally occupied by people. 35% of these animals died or were euthanised in the three months following the explosion: 10% were killed by the air blast, 15% were killed by radiation, and 10% were killed by the researchers as part of later study. The most famous survivor was Pig #311, which was reportedly found swimming in the lagoon after the blast and was brought back to the National Zoo in Washington, DC. The mysterious survival of Pig #311 caused some consternation at the time and has continued to be reported in error. However, an investigation pointed to the conclusion that it had neither swum in the ocean nor escaped the blast; it had likely been safely aboard an observation vessel during the test, thus "absent without leave" from its post on Sakawa and showing up about the same time other surviving pigs were captured. The high rate of test animal survival was due in part to the nature of single-pulse radiation. As with the two Los Alamos criticality accidents involving the earlier demon core, victims who were close enough to receive a lethal dose died, while those farther away recovered and survived. Also, all the mice were placed outside the expected lethal zone in order to study possible mutations in future generations. Although the Able bomb missed its target, Nevada, by nearly half a mile (800 m), and it failed to sink or to contaminate the battleship, a crew would not have survived. Goat #119, tethered inside a gun turret and shielded by armor plate, received enough fireball radiation to die four days later of radiation sickness having survived two days longer than goat #53, which was on the deck, unshielded. Had Nevada been fully manned, she would likely have become a floating coffin, dead in the water for lack of a live crew. She was later finished off by an aerial torpedo. In theory, every unprotected location on the ship received 10,000 rems (100 Sv) of initial nuclear radiation from the fireball. Therefore, people deep enough inside the ship to experience a 90% radiation reduction would still have received a lethal dose of 1,000 rems. In the assessment of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Test Baker In Baker on July 25, the weapon was suspended beneath landing craft LSM-60 anchored in the midst of the target fleet. Baker was detonated underwater, halfway to the bottom in water deep. How/Mike Hour was 08:35. No identifiable part of LSM-60 was ever found; it was presumably vaporized by the nuclear fireball. Ten ships were sunk, including the German heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen, which sank in December, five months after the test, because radioactivity prevented repairs to a leak in the hull. Photographs of Baker are unique among nuclear detonation pictures. The searing, blinding flash that usually obscures the target area took place underwater and was barely seen. The clear image of ships in the foreground and background gives a sense of scale. The large Wilson cloud and the vertical water column are distinctive Baker shot features. One picture shows a mark where the 27,000-ton battleship was. As with Able, any ships that remained afloat within of the detonation were seriously damaged, but this time the damage came from below, from water pressure rather than air pressure. The greatest difference between the two shots was the radioactive contamination of all the target ships by Baker. Regardless of the degree of damage, only nine surviving Baker target ships were eventually decontaminated and sold for scrap. The rest were sunk at sea after decontamination efforts failed. Baker target array The German heavy cruiser , ship #36, survived both the Able and Baker tests but was too radioactive to have leaks repaired. In September 1946 she was towed to Kwajalein Atoll, where she capsized in shallow water on December 22, 1946, five months after Baker. She remains there today, with starboard propeller blades in the air. The submarine was the only sunken ship successfully raised at Bikini. She was towed to California and sunk again, as a target ship off the coast, two years later. Three other ships, all in sinking condition, were towed ashore at Bikini and beached: attack transport , ship #25; destroyer , ship #27; and submarine , ship #24. Dentuda, with a skeleton crew aboard, being submerged (thus avoiding the base surge) and outside the circle, escaped serious contamination and hull damage and was successfully decontaminated, repaired, and briefly returned to service. Sequence of blast events The Baker shot produced so many unusual phenomena that a conference was held two months later to standardize nomenclature and define new terms for use in descriptions and analysis. The underwater fireball took the form of a rapidly expanding hot gas bubble that pushed against the water, generating a supersonic hydraulic shock wave which crushed the hulls of nearby ships as it spread out. Eventually it slowed to the speed of sound in water, which is one mile per second (1,600 m/s), five times faster than that of sound in air. On the surface, the shock wave was visible as the leading edge of a rapidly expanding ring of dark water, called the "slick" for its resemblance to an oil slick. Close behind the slick was a visually more dramatic, but less destructive whitening of the water surface called the "crack". When the gas bubble's diameter equaled the water depth, , it hit the sea floor and the sea surface simultaneously. At the bottom, it started digging a shallow crater, ultimately deep and wide. At the top, it pushed the water above it into a "spray dome", which burst through the surface like a geyser. Elapsed time since detonation was four milliseconds. During the first full second, the expanding bubble removed all the water within a radius and lifted two million tons of spray and seabed sand into the air. As the bubble rose at , it stretched the spray dome into a hollow cylinder or chimney of spray called the "column", tall and wide, with walls thick. As soon as the bubble reached the air, it started a supersonic atmospheric shock wave which, like the crack, was more visually dramatic than destructive. Brief low pressure behind the shock wave caused instant fog which shrouded the developing column in a "Wilson cloud", also called a "condensation cloud", obscuring it from view for two seconds. The Wilson cloud started out hemispherical, expanded into a disk which lifted from the water revealing the fully developed spray column, then expanded into a doughnut and vanished. The Able shot also produced a Wilson cloud, but heat from the fireball dried it out more quickly. By the time the Wilson cloud vanished, the top of the column had become a "cauliflower", and all the spray in the column and its cauliflower was moving down, back into the lagoon. Although cloudlike in shape, the cauliflower was more like the top of a geyser where water stops moving up and starts to fall. There was no mushroom cloud; nothing rose into the stratosphere. Meanwhile, lagoon water rushing back into the space vacated by the rising gas bubble started a tsunami which lifted the ships as it passed under them. At 11 seconds after detonation, the first wave was from surface zero and high. By the time it reached the Bikini Island beach, away, it was a nine-wave set with shore breakers up to high, which tossed landing craft onto the beach and filled them with sand. Twelve seconds after detonation, falling water from the column started to create a tall "base surge" resembling the mist at the bottom of a large waterfall. Unlike the water wave, the base surge rolled over rather than under the ships. Of all the bomb's effects, the base surge had the greatest consequence for most of the target ships, because it painted them with radioactivity that could not be removed. Tactical nuclear warfare advocates described the base surge as generation of very high sea states (GVHSS) disregarding radiation to emphasize the physical damage capable of disabling communication and radar equipment on warship superstructures. Arkansas Arkansas was the closest ship to the bomb other than the ship from which it was suspended. The underwater shock wave crushed the starboard side of her hull, which faced the bomb, and rolled the battleship over onto her port side. It also ripped off the two starboard propellers and their shafts, along with the rudder and part of the stern, shortening the hull by . She was next seen by Navy divers, the same year, lying upside down with her bow on the rim of the underwater bomb crater and stern angled toward the center. There was no sign of the superstructure or the big guns. The first diver to reach Arkansas sank up to his armpits in radioactive mud. When National Park Service divers returned in 1989 and 1990, the bottom was again firm-packed sand, and the mud was gone. They were able to see the barrels of the forward guns, which had not been visible in 1946. All battleships are top-heavy and tend to settle upside down when they sink. Arkansas settled upside down, but a 1989 diver's sketch of the wreck shows hardly any of the starboard side of the hull, making it look like the ship is lying on her side. Most of the starboard side is present, but severely compacted. The superstructure has not been found. It either was stripped off and swept away or is lying under the hull, crushed and buried under sand which flowed back into the crater, partially refilling it. The only diver access to the inside is a tight squeeze through the port side casemate, called the "aircastle." The National Park Service divers practiced on the similar casemate of the battleship , a museum ship, before entering Arkansas in 1990. Contrary to popular belief, Arkansas was not lifted vertically by the blast of the weapon test. Forensic examination of the wreck during multiple surveys since the test conclusively show that structural failure of hull plating along the starboard side allowed rapid flooding and capsized the ship. Aircraft carriers Saratoga, placed close to Baker, sank 7.5 hours after the underwater shock wave opened up leaks in the hull. Immediately after the shock wave passed, the water wave lifted the stern and the bow , rocked the ship side to side, and crashed over her, sweeping all five moored airplanes off the flight deck and knocking the stack over onto the deck. She remained upright and outside the spray column, but close enough to be drenched by radioactive water from the collapsing cauliflower head as well as by the base surge. Blandy ordered tugs to tow the carrier to Enyu island for beaching, but Saratoga and the surrounding water remained too radioactive for close approach until after she sank. She settled upright on the bottom, with the top of her mast below the surface. survived Able with spectacular damage to the flight deck. She was moored far enough away from Baker to avoid further physical damage, but was severely contaminated. She was towed to San Francisco, where four years of decontamination experiments at the Hunters Point Naval Shipyard failed to produce satisfactory results. On January 29, 1951, she was scuttled near the Farallon Islands. Fission-product radioactivity Baker was the first nuclear explosion close enough to the surface to keep the radioactive fission products in the local environment. It was not "self-cleansing." The result was radioactive contamination of the lagoon and the target ships. While anticipated, it caused far greater problems than were expected. The Baker explosion produced about of fission products. These fission products were thoroughly mixed with the two million tons of spray and seabed sand that were lifted into the spray column and its cauliflower head and then dumped back into the lagoon. Most of it stayed in the lagoon and settled to the bottom or was carried out to sea by the lagoon's internal tidal and wind-driven currents. A small fraction of the contaminated spray was thrown back into the air as the base surge. Unlike the Wilson cloud, a meteorological phenomenon in clean air, the base surge was a heavy fog bank of radioactive mist that rolled across all the target ships, coating their surfaces with fission products. When the mist in the base surge evaporated, the base surge became invisible but continued to move away, contaminating ships several miles from the detonation point. Unmanned boats were the first vessels to enter the lagoon. Onboard instruments allowed remote-controlled radiation measurements to be made. When support ships entered the lagoon for evaluation, decontamination, and salvage activities, they steered clear of lagoon water hot spots detected by the drone boats. The standard for radiation exposure to personnel was the same as that used by the Manhattan Project: 0.1 roentgens per day. Because of this constraint, only the five most distant target ships could be boarded on the first day. The closer-in ships were hosed down by Navy fireboats using saltwater and flame retardants. The first hosing reduced radioactivity by half, but subsequent hosings were ineffective. For most of the ships, reboarding had to wait until the short-lived radioisotopes decayed; ten days elapsed before the last of the targets could be boarded. In the first six days after Baker, when radiation levels were highest, 4,900 men boarded target ships. Sailors tried to scrub off the radioactivity with brushes, water, soap, and lye. Nothing worked, short of sandblasting to bare metal. Test animals Only pigs and rats were used in the Baker test. All the pigs and most of the rats died. Several days elapsed before sailors were able to reboard the target ships where test animals were located; during that time the accumulated doses from the gamma rays produced by fission products became lethal for the animals. Since much of the public interest in Operation Crossroads had focused on the fate of the test animals, in September Blandy asserted that radiation death is not painful: "The animal merely languishes and recovers or dies a painless death. Suffering among the animals as a whole was negligible." This was clearly not true. While the well-documented suffering of Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin as they died of radiation injury at Los Alamos was still secret, the widely reported radiation deaths at Hiroshima and Nagasaki had not been painless. In 1908, Dr. Charles Allen Porter had stated in an academic paper, "the agony of inflamed X-ray lesions is almost unequalled in any other disease." Induced radioactivity The Baker explosion ejected into the environment about twice as many free neutrons as there were fission events. A plutonium fission event produces, on average, 2.9 neutrons, most of which are consumed in the production of more fission, until fission falls off and the remaining uncaptured neutrons escape. In an air burst, most of these environmental neutrons are absorbed by superheated air which rises into the stratosphere, along with the fission products and unfissioned plutonium. In the underwater Baker detonation, the neutrons were captured by seawater in the lagoon. Of the four major elements in seawater – hydrogen, oxygen, sodium, and chlorine – only sodium takes on intense, short-term radioactivity with the addition of a single neutron to its nucleus: common sodium-23 becomes radioactive sodium-24, with a 15-hour half-life. In six days its intensity drops a thousandfold, but the corollary of short half-life is high initial intensity. Other isotopes were produced from seawater: hydrogen-3 (half-life 12 years) from hydrogen-2, oxygen-17 (stable) from oxygen-16, and chlorine-36 (half-life about 300,000 years) from chlorine-35, and some trace elements, but due to low abundance or low short-term intensity (long half-life) they were considered insignificant compared with sodium-24. Less than one pound of radioactive sodium was produced. If all the neutrons released by the fission of of plutonium-239 were captured by sodium-23, of sodium-24 would result, but sodium did not capture all the neutrons. Unlike fission products, which are heavy and eventually sank to the bottom of the lagoon, the sodium stayed in solution. It contaminated the hulls and onboard salt water systems of support ships that entered the lagoon, and the water used in decontamination. Unfissioned plutonium The of plutonium which did not undergo fission and the of fission products were scattered. Plutonium is not a biological hazard unless ingested or inhaled, and its alpha radiation cannot penetrate skin. Once inside the body it is significantly toxic both radiologically and chemically, having a heavy metal toxicity on a par with that of arsenic. Estimates based on the Manhattan Project's "tolerance dose" of one microgram of plutonium per worker put 10.6 pounds at the equivalent of about five billion tolerable doses. Plutonium alpha rays could not be detected by the film badges and Geiger counters used by people who boarded the target ships because alpha particles have very low penetrating power, insufficient to enter the glass detection tube. It was assumed to be present in the environment wherever fission product radiation was detected. The decontamination plan was to scrub the target ships free of fission products and assume the plutonium would be washed away in the process. To see if this plan was working, samples of paint, rust, and other target ship surface materials were taken back to a laboratory on the support ship Haven and examined for plutonium. The tests showed that the plan was not working. The results of these plutonium detection tests, and of tests performed on fish caught in the lagoon, caused all decontamination work to be abruptly terminated on August 10, effectively shutting down Operation Crossroads for safety reasons. Tests conducted on the support ship in November indicated the presence of of plutonium, which represented 2000 tolerance doses. Failed Baker cleanup and program termination The program termination on August 10, sixteen days after Baker, was the result of a showdown between Dr. Stafford Warren, the Army colonel in charge of radiation safety for Operation Crossroads, and Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Special Weapons, Vice Admiral William H. P. Blandy. A radiation safety monitor under Warren's command later described him as "the only Army colonel who ever sank a Navy flotilla." Warren had been Chief of the Medical Section of the Manhattan Project, and was in charge of radiation safety at the first nuclear test, Trinity, in New Mexico, as well as of the on-ground inspections at Hiroshima and Nagasaki after the bombings. At Operation Crossroads, it was his job to keep the sailors safe during the cleanup. Radiation monitoring A total of 18,875 film badge dosimeters were issued to personnel during the operation. About 6,596 dosimeters were given to personnel who were based on the nearby islands or support ships that had no potential for radiation exposure. The rest were issued to all of the individuals thought to be at the greatest risk for radiological contamination along with a percentage of each group who were working in less contaminated areas. Personnel were removed for one or more days from areas and activities of possible exposure if their badges showed more than 0.1 roentgen (R) per day exposure. Experts believed at the time that this radiation dose could be tolerated by individuals for long periods without any harmful effects. The maximum accumulated dose of 3.72 R was received by a radiation safety monitor. Cleanup issues The cleanup was hampered by two significant factors: the unexpected base surge and the lack of a viable cleanup plan. It was understood that if the water column fell back into the lagoon, which it did, any ships that were drenched by falling water might be contaminated beyond redemption. Nobody expected that to happen to almost the entire target fleet. No decontamination procedures had been tested to see if they would work and to measure the potential risk to personnel. In the absence of a decontamination protocol, the ships were cleaned using traditional deck-scrubbing methods: hoses, mops, and brushes, with water, soap, and lye. The sailors had no protective clothing. Secondary contamination By August 3, Colonel Warren concluded the entire effort was futile and dangerous. The unprotected sailors were stirring up radioactive material and contaminating their skin, clothing, and, presumably, their lungs. When they returned to their support ship living quarters, they contaminated the shower stalls, laundry facilities, and everything they touched. Warren demanded an immediate halt to the entire cleanup operation. He was especially concerned about plutonium, which was undetectable on site. Warren also observed that the radiation safety procedures were not being followed correctly. Fire boats got too close to the target ships they were hosing and drenched their crews with radioactive spray. One fire boat had to be taken out of service. Film badges showed 67 overdoses between August 6 and 9. More than half of the 320 Geiger counters available shorted out and became unavailable. The crews of two target ships, and , moored far from the detonation site, had moved back on board and become overexposed. They were immediately evacuated back to the United States. Captain L. H. Bibby, commanding officer of the apparently undamaged battleship New York, accused Warren's radsafe monitors of holding their Geiger counters too close to the deck. He wanted to reboard his ship and sail it home. The steadily dropping radiation counts on the target ships gave an illusion that the cleanup was working, but Warren explained that although fission products were losing some of their gamma ray potency through radioactive decay, the ships were still contaminated. The danger of ingesting microscopic particles remained. Warren persuades Blandy Blandy ordered Warren to explain his position to 1,400 skeptical officers and sailors. Some found him persuasive, but it was August 9 before he convinced Blandy. That was the date when Blandy realized, for the first time, that Geiger counters could not detect plutonium. Blandy was aware of the health problems of radium dial painters who ingested microscopic amounts of radium in the 1920s, and the fact that plutonium was assumed to have a similar biological effect. When plutonium was discovered in the captain's quarters of Prinz Eugen, unaccompanied by fission products, Blandy realized that plutonium could be anywhere. The following day, August 10, Warren showed Blandy an autoradiograph of a fish, an x-ray picture made by radiation coming from the fish. The outline of the fish was made by alpha radiation from the fish scales, evidence that plutonium, mimicking calcium, had been distributed throughout the fish, out to the scales. Blandy announced his decision, "then we call it all to a halt." He ordered that all further decontamination work be discontinued. Warren wrote home, "A self x ray of a fish ... did the trick." The decontamination failure ended plans to outfit some of the target ships for the 1947 Charlie shot and to sail the rest home in triumph. The immediate public relations problem was to avoid any perception that the entire target fleet had been destroyed. On August 6, in anticipation of this development, Blandy had told his staff that ships sunk or destroyed more than 30 days after the Baker shot "will not be considered as sunk by the bomb." By then, public interest in Operation Crossroads was waning, and the reporters had gone home. The failure of decontamination did not make news until the final reports came out a year later. Test Charlie Testing program staff originally set test Charlie for early 1947. They wanted to explode it deep under the surface in the lee of the atoll to test the effect of nuclear weapons as depth charges on unmoored ships. The unanticipated delays in decontaminating the target ships after test Baker prevented the required technical support personnel from assisting with Charlie and also meant that there were no uncontaminated target ships available for use in Charlie. The naval weapons program staff decided the test was less pressing given that the entire U.S. arsenal had only a handful of nuclear weapons and canceled the test. The official reason given for canceling Charlie was that the program staff felt it was unnecessary due to the success of the Able and Baker tests. The deep ocean effects testing that Charlie was to have performed were fulfilled nine years later with Operation Wigwam. Operation Crossroads follow-up All ships leak and require the regular operation of bilge pumps to stay afloat. If their bilge pumps could not be operated, the target ships would eventually sink. Only one suffered this fate: Prinz Eugen, which sank in the Kwajalein lagoon on December 22. The rest were kept afloat long enough to be deliberately sunk or dismantled. After the August 10 decision to stop decontamination work at Bikini, the surviving target fleet was towed to Kwajalein Atoll where the live ammunition and fuel could be offloaded in uncontaminated water. The move was accomplished during the remainder of August and September. Eight of the major ships and two submarines were towed back to the United States and Hawaii for radiological inspection. Twelve target ships were so lightly contaminated that they were remanned and sailed back to the United States by their crews. Ultimately, only nine target ships were able to be scrapped rather than scuttled. The remaining target ships were scuttled off Bikini or Kwajalein Atolls, or near the Hawaiian Islands or the California coast during 1946–1948. ex- was retained at Hunters Point Shipyard until 1951 to test decontamination methods. The support ships were decontaminated as necessary and received a radiological clearance before they could return to the fleet. This required a great deal of experimentation at Navy shipyards in the United States, primarily in San Francisco at Hunters Point. The destroyer required "sandblasting and painting of all underwater surfaces, and acid washing and partial replacement of salt-water piping and evaporators." Finally, a formal resurvey was conducted in mid-1947 to study long-term effects of the Operation Crossroads tests. According to the official report, decontamination efforts "revealed conclusively that removal of radioactive contamination of the type encountered in the target vessels in test Baker cannot be accomplished successfully." On August 11, 1947, Life summarized the report in a 14-page article with 33 pictures. The article stated, "If all the ships at Bikini had been fully manned, the Baker Day bomb would have killed 35,000 crewmen. If such a bomb were dropped below New York's Battery in a stiff south wind, 2 million people would die." The contamination problem was not widely appreciated by the general public until 1948, when No Place to Hide, a best-selling book by David Bradley, was serialized in the Atlantic Monthly, condensed by the Reader's Digest, and selected by the Book of the Month Club. In his preface, Bradley, a key member of the Radiological Safety Section at Bikini known as the "Geiger men", asserted that "the accounts of the actual explosions, however well intended, were liberally seasoned with fantasy and superstition, and the results of the tests have remained buried in the vaults of military security." His description of the Baker test and its aftermath brought to world attention the problem of radioactive fallout from nuclear weapons. Personnel exposure All Operation Crossroads operations were designed to keep personnel from being exposed to more than 0.1 roentgen (R) per day. At the time, this was considered to be an amount of radiation that could be tolerated for long periods without any harmful effects on health. Since there was no special clothing or radiation shielding available, the protection plan relied on managing who went where, when, and for how long. Radioactively "hot" areas were predicted, and then checked with Geiger counters, sometimes by remote control, to see if they were safe. The level of measured gamma radiation determined how long personnel could operate in them without exceeding the allowable daily dose. Instant gamma readings were taken by radiation safety specialists, but film-badge dosimeters, which could be read at the end of the day, were issued to all personnel believed to be at the greatest radiological risk. Anyone whose badge showed more than 0.1 R per day exposure was removed for one or more days from areas and activities of possible exposure. The maximum accumulated exposure recorded was 3.72 R, received by a radiation safety specialist. A percentage of each group working in less contaminated areas was badged. Eventually, 18,875 film-badge dosimeters were issued to about 15% of the total work force. On the basis of this sampling, a theoretical total exposure was calculated for each person who did not have a personal badge. As expected, exposures for target ship crewmen who reboarded their ships after Baker were higher than those for support ship crews. The hulls of support ships that entered the lagoon after Baker became so radioactive that sleeping quarters were moved toward the center of each ship. Of the total mass of radioactive particles scattered by each explosion, 85% was unfissioned plutonium which produces alpha radiation not detected by film badges or Geiger counters. There was no method of detecting plutonium in a timely fashion, and participants were not monitored for ingestion of it. A summary of film badge readings (in roentgens) for July and August, when the largest number of personnel was involved, is listed below: Service members who participated in the clean up of contaminated ships were exposed to unknown amounts of radiation. In 1996, a government-sponsored mortality study of Operation Crossroads veterans showed that, by 1992, 46 years after the tests, veterans had experienced a 4.6% higher mortality than a control group of non-veterans. There were 200 more deaths among Operation Crossroads veterans than in the similar control group (12,520 vs. 12,320), implying a life-span reduction of about three months for Operation Crossroads veterans. Veterans who were exposed to radiation formed the non-profit National Association of Atomic Veterans association in 1978 to lobby for veterans benefits covering illnesses they believed were due to their exposure. Legislation was passed in 1988 that removed the need for veterans to prove a causal link between certain forms of cancer and radiation exposure due to nuclear tests. Incidence of the main expected causes of this increased mortality, leukemia and other cancers, was not significantly higher than normal. Death by those diseases was tabulated on the assumption that if radiation exposure had a life-shortening effect it would likely show up there, but it did not. Not enough data were gathered on other causes of death to determine the reason for this increase in all-cause mortality, and it remains a mystery. The mortality increase was higher, 5.7%, for those who boarded target ships after the tests than for those who did not, whose mortality increase was only 4.3%. Bikini after Operation Crossroads The 167 Bikini residents who were moved to the Rongerik Atoll prior to the Crossroads tests were unable to gather sufficient food or catch enough fish and shellfish to feed themselves in their new environment. The Navy left food and water for a few weeks and then failed to return in a timely manner. By January 1947, visitors to Rongerik reported the islanders were suffering malnutrition, facing potential starvation by July, and were emaciated by January 1948. In March 1948 they were evacuated to Kwajalein, and then settled onto another uninhabited island, Kili, in November. With only one third of a square mile, Kili has one sixth the land area of Bikini and, more important, has no lagoon and no protected harbor. Unable to practice their native culture of lagoon fishing, they became dependent on food shipments. Their four thousand descendants today are living on several islands and in foreign countries. Their desire to return to Bikini was thwarted indefinitely by the U.S. decision to resume nuclear testing at Bikini in 1954. During 1954, 1956, and 1958, twenty-one more nuclear bombs were detonated at Bikini, yielding a total of , equivalent to more than three thousand Baker bombs. Only one was an air burst, the 3.8 megaton Redwing Cherokee test. Air bursts distribute fallout in a large area, but surface bursts produce intense local fallout. The first after Crossroads was the dirtiest: the 15 megaton Bravo shot of Operation Castle on March 1, 1954, which was the largest-ever U.S. test. Fallout from Bravo caused radiation injury to Bikini islanders who were living on Rongelap Atoll. The brief attempt to resettle Bikini from 1974 until 1978 was aborted when health problems from radioactivity in the food supply caused the atoll to be evacuated again. Sport divers who visit Bikini to dive on the shipwrecks must eat imported food. The local government elected to close the fly-in fly-out sports diving operation in Bikini lagoon in 2008, and the 2009 diving season was canceled due to fuel costs, unreliable airline service to the island, and a decline in the Bikini Islanders' trust fund which subsidized the operation. After a successful trial in October 2010, the local government licensed a sole provider of dive expeditions on the nuclear ghost fleet at Bikini Atoll starting in 2011. The aircraft carrier is the primary attraction of a struggling, high-end sport diving industry. Legacy Following test Baker decontamination problems, the United States Navy equipped newly constructed ships with a Countermeasure Wash Down System (CMWDS) of piping and nozzles to cover exterior surfaces of the ship with a spray of salt water from the firefighting system when nuclear attack appeared imminent. The film of flowing water would theoretically prevent contaminants from settling into cracks and crevices. In popular culture The juxtaposition of half-naked islanders with nuclear weapons that had the power to reduce everyone to a primitive state provided some with an inspirational motif. During Operation Crossroads, Paris swimwear designer Louis Réard adopted the name Bikini for his minimalist swimsuit design which, revolutionary for the time, exposed the wearer's navel. He explained that "like the bomb, the bikini is small and devastating". Fashion writer Diana Vreeland described the bikini as the "atom bomb of fashion". While two-piece swimsuits have been used since antiquity, it was Réard's name of the Bikini that stuck for all of its modern incarnations. Artist Bruce Conner made Crossroads (1976 film), a video assembled from the official films, with an audio collage fashioned by Patrick Gleeson on a Moog synthesizer and a drone composition performed on an electric organ by Terry Riley. A commentator at the New York Review of Books called the experience of watching the video the "nuclear sublime." Films and TV shows have also used archive footage of the test Baker explosion in a fictitious capacity. In the animated comedy series SpongeBob SquarePants, footage of Baker is used in the season 2 episode "Dying For Pie", appearing after the character Squidward Tentacles is hit in the face by an exploding pie. One film example, TriStar Pictures' Godzilla from 1998, uses the Baker test footage in the film's opening to depict the atomic bomb responsible for the creation of the titular monster. See also Wōdejebato a nearby seamount explored & mapped during these tests. Notes References External links Lauren R. Donaldson Collection, served as a radiation monitor for Operation Crossroads – University of Washington Digital Collection A series of watercolour paintings, made by U.S. Military combat artists, as a report of the tests. US Navy and Nuclear Weapons Testing (42m32s) Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Naval Units of Operation Crossroads – Volume I-Basic Report Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Naval Units of Operation Crossroads – Volume II-(Appendix A) Target Ships Analysis of Radiation Exposure for Naval Units of Operation Crossroads – Volume II-(Appendix B) Support Ships Internal Dose Assessment – Operation Crossroads The Archeology of the Atomic Bomb, National Park Service. Explosions in 1946 Articles containing video clips Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll Crossroads Forced migration History of the Manhattan Project Military projects of the United States 1946 disasters 1946 in military history 1946 in science 1946 in the environment 1946 in the Marshall Islands June 1946 events July 1946 events	[ -0.24338312447071075, -0.09337186068296432, -0.3068580627441406, 0.3525863587856293, 0.2808021306991577, -0.024086343124508858, 0.4333305358886719, -0.16728702187538147, -0.1273152381181717, 0.15655207633972168, -0.35584360361099243, 0.6133986115455627, 0.008309994824230671, 0.2697121798992157, -0.24950531125068665, 0.16414189338684082, 0.4942391812801361, -0.2659447193145752, 0.5172304511070251, -0.18476931750774384, 0.012998292222619057, -0.2590980529785156, -0.11498448997735977, 0.15050901472568512, 0.2354709506034851, 0.21537892520427704, 0.13972294330596924, -0.5174257755279541, 0.6736835241317749, 0.7083648443222046, 0.16252823173999786, 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227520	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Expedition%20of%20Humphry%20Clinker	The Expedition of Humphry Clinker	The Expedition of Humphry Clinker was the last of the picaresque novels of Tobias Smollett, published in London on 17 June 1771 (three months before Smollett's death), and is considered by many to be his best and funniest work. It is an epistolary novel, presented in the form of letters written by six characters: Matthew Bramble, a Welsh Squire; his sister Tabitha; their niece Lydia and nephew Jeremy Melford; Tabitha's maid Winifred Jenkins; and Lydia's suitor Wilson. Much of the comedy arises from differences in the descriptions of the same events and places seen by the participants. Attributions of motives and descriptions of behaviour show wild variation and reveal much about the character of the teller. The setting, amidst the high-society spa towns, inns, and seaside resorts of the 18th century, provides his characters with many opportunities for satirical observations on English and Scottish life, manners, and politics. Smollett relies heavily on a scatological humour and references to the body. The net effect re-creates the messiness of eighteenth-century British novels that relied on the epistolary form. The author's travels in Scotland, France, and Italy influenced his novel. Plot summary Matthew Bramble, his family and servants are traveling through England and Scotland. Although the primary motivation for the expedition is to restore the health of the gouty Matthew Bramble, each member of the family uses the excursion to achieve their ends. Leaving from Bramble's estate, Brambleton Hall, in Monmouthshire (there are frequent references to the family being Welsh, and the novel also contains individual Scottish and Irish characters), the family passes through many cities, making extended or significant stops at Gloucester, Bath, London, Harrogate, Scarborough and Edinburgh. The splenetic patriarch, Matthew Bramble, visits various natural spas to alleviate his health problems, and he corresponds primarily with his physician, Dr. Lewis. Through his letters and those of Jeremy, it is revealed that Bramble is misanthropic and something of a hypochondriac. Despite his frequent complaints, he is generally reasonable and extremely charitable to the people he meets on his travels as well as to his servants and wards back at home. His letters introduce and ridicule significant eighteenth century concerns such as medicine, the growth of urban life, class, the growth of the periodical press and the public sphere. His growing disillusionment at the changing moral and social landscape of Great Britain, particularly London, embodies his traditionalist perspective and reveals the absurdities of contemporary British culture. His sister, Tabitha Bramble, is a foolish and cantankerous spinster who uses the expedition as an excuse to search for a husband. Through her correspondence with Mrs. Gwyllim, the house-keeper at Brambleton Hall, Tabitha reveals her selfishness and lack of generosity towards servants and the impoverished. Her social pretensions are rendered all the more comical by her frequent misunderstandings, misuse of common idioms, and atrocious spelling. Tabitha's servant, Winifred or Win Jenkins, also corresponds with the servants at Brambleton Hall. As the only correspondent not related to Matthew Bramble, Ms. Jenkins offers a sympathetic and humorous perspective on the family and their travels. As a comic foil to Tabitha Bramble, Win Jenkins shares many of her misspellings and malapropisms but demonstrates considerably more common sense and intuition in her observation of the family. At London, she becomes infatuated with Humphry Clinker and Methodism both. Bramble's nephew, Jeremy Melford, is a young man looking for amusement. Corresponding primarily with Sir Watkin Phillips of Jesus College, Oxford, Jery also reflects upon issues of city life, class, and the growing public sphere, but often with a more progressive perspective than that of his rather traditional uncle. Despite his generously democratic views and his astute perceptions of the hypocrisy and absurdity of others, he is—as revealed through Bramble's letters—"hot-headed" and prone to rash anger and impulsive defenses of perceived slights to his family honor, especially when it relates to his sister's interest in a stage actor below her status. His introduction into society as a young gentleman often occurs during his socializing at the coffeehouse, a burgeoning social institution, especially in eighteenth century London. His study of the places and people of his journey includes the members of his family, whom he comically sketches for the reader. His accounts help provide insight into Matthew Bramble's character. Bramble's niece, Lydia Melford, is trying to recover from an unfortunate romantic entanglement with a stage actor named Wilson, who is later revealed to be a gentleman named George Dennison. Her letters to Miss Letitia Willis at Gloucester reveal her struggles between familial duty and her affection for Wilson. She describes her secret communications with him, as well as her surprise encounter with the disguised Wilson in Bath. Lydia also reflects upon the wonders of city life, with astonishment and excitement. Lydia has spent most of her life at a boarding school for young women, so the expedition serves her as a debut into society (an important cultural phenomenon with a long literary tradition). The eponymous character, Humphry Clinker, is an ostler, a stableman at an inn, who does not make his first appearance until about a quarter of the way through the story. He is taken on by Matthew Bramble and family, while they are traveling toward London, after offending Tabitha and amusing Matthew Bramble. Humphry Clinker is a primarily foolish character whose good-natured earnestness earns him the esteem of Matthew Bramble. He is largely described through the letters of Matthew Bramble and Jeremy Melford and, despite his frequent misunderstandings, is presented as a talented worker and gifted orator, attracting a devoted following of parishioners during a brief oratorical stint in London. After various romantic interludes, Humphry suffers false imprisonment due to accusations of being a highway robber, though he retains the confident support of Matthew Bramble and his family. He is rescued and returned to his sweetheart, the maid Winifred Jenkins. Eventually, it is discovered that Humphry is Mr. Bramble's illegitimate son from a relationship with a barmaid, during his wilder university days. The book ends in a series of weddings. Adaptations The novel was adapted into a radio script in four hour-long episodes by BBC Radio 4 and broadcast as the Classic Serial in 1992, repeated in 1994. Timothy West played Squire Bramble. Dramatisation was by Scott Cherry. There was a later production in three hour-long episodes by BBC Radio 4 and broadcast as the Classic Serial in 2008. It was last repeated on BBC Radio 4 Extra from 9 July 2018. Nigel Anthony played Squire Bramble. Dramatisation was by Yvonne Antrobus. Bibliography Paperback, Penguin Classics, 414 pages Published 30 May 1967 by Penguin Group (first published 1771) Edition language English Original title The Expedition of Humphry Clinker Setting United Kingdom References External links The Expedition of Humphrey Clinker at Internet Archive The Expedition of Humphry Clinker at GoodReads 1771 novels Novels by Tobias Smollett Epistolary novels Picaresque novels 18th-century British novels British comedy novels Novels adapted into radio programs	[ -0.6369953155517578, 0.6561312675476074, 0.28433138132095337, -0.252483606338501, 0.6343100070953369, 0.44906070828437805, 0.7398820519447327, 0.3459227383136749, -0.3352288603782654, 0.25737491250038147, -0.5320887565612793, 0.11366353183984756, -0.16470259428024292, 0.42056867480278015, 0.22625014185905457, 0.3221862018108368, 0.21263696253299713, 0.10078959912061691, -0.38921433687210083, -0.7126396298408508, -0.11367026716470718, -0.2985071837902069, -0.206466943025589, -0.4199056327342987, 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227521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ripley%2C%20Derbyshire	Ripley, Derbyshire	Ripley is a town in the Amber Valley borough of Derbyshire, England. Engineers from Ripley came up with some early improvements to the railway system. History Little information remains as to when Ripley was founded, but it appears in the 1086 Domesday Book, when it was held by a man called Levenot. In 1251 Henry III granted a charter for "one market one day a week, on Wednesday, at [the] manor of Ryppeleg: and one fair each year lasting three days, on the Vigil Day and Morrow of St Helen". Ripley Fair antedates Nottingham Goose Fair. The market day was later altered to Saturdays, with an extra market on Fridays. Medieval Ripley was just a few stone cottages and farms around a village green, with a few dwellings further afield. Corn was ground at a mill owned by the Abbot of Darley. In 1291, Ripley had "two water-mills with fish ponds". The Ripley area has been industrialised since the late 18th century. One of the earliest firms to take advantage of local mineral resources was the Butterley Company. It was formed in 1790 by Benjamin Outram and Francis Beresford. Jessop and Wright joined as partners in 1791. Benjamin Outram and Jessop were pioneering engineers best known for their input into the rail industry and their engineering of the Cromford Canal. Outram developed the L-shaped flange rail and Jessop engineered the cast iron fish belly rail. The Little Eaton Gangway project was one of the engineering feats they completed. The engineering part of the company closed and the site of the Butterley Company was demolished in 2010. The company was latterly in three parts, Butterley Engineering, Butterley Brick and Butterley Aggregates (all separate companies). Over the last 200 years these have dealt with steelworks, coal mining, quarrying, railway, foundry and brickworks. One of the best-known examples of the company's work is the arched roof of St Pancras railway station in London, recently restored as an international terminal. Recent major Butterley achievements were the design and construction of the Falkirk Wheel, a canal boat-lift funded by the Millennium Commission and the Spinnaker Tower seen in Portsmouth Harbour as the focus of its regeneration. Ripley was also a mining community, with collieries owned by the Butterley Company until the Coal Nationalisation Act of 1947. These included Ripley colliery (1863–1948), Britain colliery (1918–1946), Ormonde 1908–1970, and other pits at Upper and Lower Hartshay, Whiteley, Waingroves, Bailey Brook, Exhibition, Loscoe, New Langley and Denby Hall. Governance What is now Ripley Town Hall on the north side of the Market Place was erected in 1880 as a market hall. The architect was George Eyre of Codnor. It occupied the site of a much older dwelling known as The White House. The Market Hall was originally open on the ground floor. In 1907, it was converted into a Town Hall by the Urban District Council. In the 1990s, the building was much extended to the west and remodelled by Amber Valley Borough Council to form its headquarters. In 2012, the Council proposed to sell off some of the buildings under a rationalization scheme. Demography According to research into names in Britain in 2006, Ripley has the highest proportion of people of ethnic English origin. Of Ripley's inhabitants, 88.5 per cent have an English ethnic background. Education Primary schools Ripley Junior School, Poplar Avenue, DE5 3PN St Johns C of E Primary School, Dannah Street, Ripley Lons Infant School, Tavistock Avenue, Ripley Waingroves Primary School, Waingroves Road, Ripley Codnor Community Primary School, Whitegates Secondary schools The Ripley Academy, Peasehill Road, Ripley Swanwick Hall School, Swanwick Hill, Swanwick (2 miles north on B6179 road) John Flamsteed School, Derby Road, Denby (2.5 miles south on B6179) Pre-schools Ripley Nursery School, Sandham Lane Clowns Day Nursery, Cromford Road Clowns Day Nursery, Butterley Park, A610 Alphabet Childminders, Ripley. Religion The Methodist Church in Wood Street is reputed to be the oldest church in the town that is still active. At the peak of the movement there were five Methodist churches in Ripley, but the congregations combined over the years. The church was rebuilt on the same site and reopened in November 2009. See History of Methodism in Ripley Derbyshire An outcome of the nearby Pentridge (or Pentrich) Rising of 1817 was for the Vicar of Pentrich Church to call for an Anglican church to be built in Ripley as soon as possible. All Saints' Church, Ripley was erected in 1821 by the Butterley Company. Other places of worship include the Salvation Army hall in Heath Road, which was opened in 1911, the Springs of the Living Water housed in the former St John's Church in Derby Road, the Spiritual Church in Argyll Road, and Marehay Methodist Chapel in Warmwells Lane, Marehay. Transport Running under the premises of the Butterley Company is the Butterley Tunnel on the Cromford Canal. The central section of the canal is disused, but a charitable fund has been formed to reopen it. Ripley is the site of Midland Railway – Butterley (formerly the Midland Railway Centre), a trust dedicated to preserving railway locomotives, rolling stock and other items related to the Midland Railway. Ripley was once served by Ripley railway station on the Midland Railway Ripley Branch. It was the northern terminus of the Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire Tramways Company and later of the Nottinghamshire and Derbyshire trolleybus system. Media Ripley's local radio station, Amber Sound FM, is based in the Unicorn Business Park off Wellington Street. The station broadcasts on 107.2FM in the Amber Valley and online. Parks and natural features Butterley Reservoir, at the bottom of Butterley Hill in the north of the town, has pairs of great crested grebe, coot, moorhens and other birds to watch, and platforms for anglers to use. There is a footpath that takes in the scenery, with the Midland Railway Trust in the background. Wildlife and a small woodland area can be enjoyed at Carr Wood, signposted from halfway down Butterley Hill. At the bottom of Moseley Street, next to the Red Lion pub in Ripley Town Centre, is a recreation area named after Sir Barnes Wallis, which offers views over to Crich Stand, the Sherwood Foresters Memorial. Crich Stand was built by Francis Hurt in 1778 and in 1922 dedicated to the fallen of the Sherwood Foresters Regiment (colloquially known as the Woofers) in World War I. It is now the memorial for those in the Regiment who died in all conflicts. The Pit Top is an open area with some seating and a white arch sculpture. The grassed area is the site of the original Ripley Colliery, owned by Butterley Company and worked from 1863 until 1948. Crossley Park is a few acres of grassed land opened in 1935. It is surrounded by shrubs and trees on a tract given to the town by James Crossley in 1901. It has a children's play area with a paddling pool, a paved perimeter walk, and a bandstand used as such occasionally on late Sunday afternoons in the summer. Twin towns Ripley is twinned with the French towns of Château-Renault and Lons-le-Saunier. Community and facilities The headquarters of Derbyshire Constabulary is on the outskirts of Ripley at Butterley Hall. Ripley has a community hospital with a minor accident and emergency department that opened on 7 September 1912. The hospital was built after the death of a miner injured at Pentrich Colliery, who did not survive the road journey to Derby in time for treatment. The Ripley Hospital League of Friends has been an active fund-raising group for the hospital throughout its history. Ripley has a Scout group founded in 1914. For younger children it has two Beaver colonies and a Cub pack. Notable residents Gavin Butt (born 1967), an art historian based at Goldsmiths, University of London, was born in Ripley. Arthur Octavius Edwards (1876–1960), a civil engineer who built and managed the Grosvenor House Hotel in London, was born in Ripley. Agnes Elizabeth Slack, a leading temperance campaigner, was born here in 1858. John Bamford Slack (1857–1909), Liberal MP and prominent Methodist, was born in Ripley. Andy Sneap (born 1969), a heavy metal record producer and thrash metal musician, whose company Backstage Productions is based in the town Bombardier Charles Stone (1889–1952), awarded the VC, was born in Ripley. Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet (1803–1863), born in Ripley, fought in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and became known as the "Bayard of India". He was buried in Westminster Abbey. Sir Barnes Wallis (1887–1979), inventor of the "bouncing bomb", was born in Ripley. He has a town park named after him, and a pub, The Sir Barnes Wallis, until it was demolished in 2021. His house of birth bears a blue plaque. His father was a doctor at The Elms in Derby Road. 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227522	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tails%20%28Sonic%20the%20Hedgehog%29	Tails (Sonic the Hedgehog)	, better known by his nickname , is a fictional character in Sega's Sonic the Hedgehog series, and the title character's best friend, sidekick, and most recurring ally. Tails also appears in his own spin-off series, comic books, cartoons, and films. He is the second character to consistently appear by Sonic's side in the series. The name "Miles Prower" is a pun on "miles per hour", a reference to the famed speed of Sonic the Hedgehog. He is a two-tailed fox, hence the nickname. A mechanical genius and skilled pilot, he can fly by spinning his tails like a helicopter rotor and can be seen flying in multiple games and TV shows created by SEGA. He debuted in November 1992 with the release of Sonic the Hedgehog 2. In the mid-1990s, He was featured as the main character in a number of spinoff games: Tails and the Music Maker for the Sega Pico, and Tails Adventure and Tails' Skypatrol for the Game Gear. Tails was rated the third-most-popular character in the franchise, behind Sonic and Shadow, in an official poll from Sega in 2009. Concept and creation Yasushi Yamaguchi, originally the main artist and zone designer for Sega's Sonic Team, designed Tails for an internal competition for a sidekick to the speedy hedgehog. The character was based on a kitsune, a creature from Japanese folklore that could over time grow multiple tails. The character was also meant to hold a "deep admiration for Sonic". While Yamaguchi's entry won, Sega of Japan wanted to name the character "Miles Prower" (the surname being a play on "per hour"), whereas the American subsidiary Sega of America preferred the moniker "Tails", respectively. Sega of America crafted a compelling backstory for the character to convince the Japanese parent company and Sonic Team to have him named "Tails". Yamaguchi ended up with a compromise, using "Miles Prower" as the character's real name; "Tails" would be his nickname, giving the character the full name of Miles "Tails" Prower. The character debuted as Sonic's tag-along partner in the franchise's second game and has remained an important character since. However, the character's uniqueness was not established until Sonic the Hedgehog 3, when players were given the power to control his flying (although the AI would make Tails fly when he would get off-screen). Tails was redesigned (along with all of the other Sonic characters) by Yuji Uekawa for Sonic Adventure. His fur changed color to a more yellow shade as opposed to the orange in his early appearances, and he gained blue irises. In the American Sonic comic book, along with the Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog and Sonic the Hedgehog cartoons, he was originally dark brown, but the comic artists and cartoon artists eventually decided to change this to match his in-game appearance. Voice portrayal Throughout the years, Tails has been voiced by several different voice actors. In the Japanese dubs, Tails was voiced by Nariko Fujieda from 1994 to 1996, Hekiru Shiina in 1996, Kazuki Hayashi in 1998, Atsuki Murata from 2000 to 2001 and by Ryō Hirohashi since 2003. In Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog, Tails was originally voiced by Russi Taylor in the unaired pilot, Christopher Stephen Welch would later take over and voice the character throughout the entire series. He was then voiced by Bradley Pierce in Sonic the Hedgehog and then by Lainie Frasier in Sonic the Hedgehog: The Movie. Beginning in 2003 with Sonic X, he was voiced by Amy Palant who would later take over the role in the video games, starting with Shadow the Hedgehog in 2005. Palant was replaced by Kate Higgins in 2010, beginning with Sonic Free Riders. She continued to voice the character until 2013, where her final role as Tails was in Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games, though she reprised her role in 2021 for the Sonic Colors: Rise of the Wisps miniseries. Since 2014, Tails has been voiced by Colleen Villard, including in the television series Sonic Boom and the two live-action films. Characteristics The character of Tails is portrayed as a very cute and sweet-natured and humble fox who, before he met Sonic, was often picked on because of his twin tails. Sonic, however, saw Tails' special talents and cheered him on, causing the fox to have some admiration towards the blue hero. As a longtime friend, he admires Sonic and dreams of being just like him. Though he lacks much courage, he wants to prove that he can be counted on, and has fought Dr. Eggman and his robots without the aid of Sonic before. He loves mint candy, tinkering with machines, and flying mechas. Despite overcoming most of his fears and becoming very bold, Tails remains keraunophobic. Tails has been described as a mechanical prodigy who rivals Dr. Eggman but has not yet realized his full potential. Coupled with his skills as an airplane pilot, he uses a biplane nicknamed the Tornado to assist Sonic on their adventures. Additionally, by spinning his two tails like a helicopter rotor, he has the unique ability to push himself through the air to catch up with Sonic; however, this tires him quickly, hence his use of planes. Unlike Sonic, Tails can swim. Like Sonic, he can transform into Super Tails, but he requires either the Chaos Emeralds (Sonic Mania) or the Super Emeralds (Sonic 3 and Knuckles) to transform. Also, when in this form (in Sonic 3 and Knuckles only), a swarm of Flickies circle Tails. This was seen first as what seemed to be a one-time appearance in Sonic the Hedgehog 3 & Knuckles and then again in Sonic Heroes, where alongside Team Sonic members Sonic and Knuckles, would transform themselves into their super forms. Appearances In video games Tails debuted in November 1992 with the release of the Sonic the Hedgehog 2, playing the part of Sonic's sidekick. He was a playable character from the second controller and could be chosen as player one for the main game. Sonic Chaos (1993), on the Game Gear/Master System was the second game where the player could control Tails and the first time the player could control his flight. Tails also made a minor cameo in Sonic CD for the Sega CD, appearing in the debug mode unlock screen. Tails makes an appearance alongside Sonic in the little known arcade game, SegaSonic Popcorn Shop, a Japanese arcade game which also dispenses popcorn. Tails made his third major appearance in the 1994 game, Sonic 3 (& Knuckles), with the ability to pick up Sonic and use his tails to fly him to other areas, rotating his tails like a helicopter. He also gained the ability to swim under water, something Sonic has never been able to do. Tails has also starred in games without Sonic, such as Tails' Skypatrol, which is a side-scrolling score attack like game for the Game Gear released exclusively in Japan. This was followed by Tails Adventures later the same year, which is a Metroid-esque platformer with RPG elements. Tails is also the star of Tails and the Music Maker for the Sega Pico. Tails was intended to appear in the Sega 32X game Knuckles' Chaotix, but was scrapped during development. Leftover data of him still remains in the game, and can be played as by using a cheat code. In later games, Tails had roles that require unique modes of play including Sonic Adventure, where he appears as one of the six playable characters. His gameplay is based around standard platforming stages, but the goal of each stage is to get to the Chaos Emerald before Sonic, or to the missile dud in the final race against Eggman. In Sonic Adventure 2, he is featured in third-person-shooting segments, seated in his "Cyclone" mech. These stages, along with Dr. Eggman's shooting levels in the same game, were very similar to the E-102 Gamma levels of Sonic Adventure. In Sonic Adventure, he was given a theme song "Believe In Myself", of which another version appeared in Sonic Adventure 2. Tails also appeared either as a playable character or in a supporting role in many later Sonic titles and still often resumes his role flying other characters around, such as in Sonic Heroes, where Tails appears on Team Sonic as their flight-type character, being capable of carrying both Sonic and Knuckles the Echidna. Tails is seen in the background of Green Hill Zone along with Silver and Knuckles in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, and also appears as a trophy, he makes an appearance in the game's two sequels as well. He is the third character the player unlocks in Sonic Chronicles: The Dark Brotherhood, where he acts as a team medic. Tails appears in Sonic Unleashed, where he helps Sonic restore the shattered planet, largely by flying Sonic from continent to continent in the game. Tails takes a supporting role in Sonic and the Black Knight, portrayed as a local blacksmith who helps players craft goods from the items Sonic collects. He appears as a playable character in all of the Mario & Sonic titles, as well as in Sega Superstars Tennis, Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing, and Transformed. He also appears in Sonic Colors as a non-playable character. Tails celebrates Sonic's birthday along with his friends by setting up a party in Sonic Generations, but when the Time Eater appears, it warps them through various time holes, sending Tails to Green Hill. After Sonic frees him, Tails meets his classic counterpart (Classic Tails) and concludes that they were traveling through time and space. They accompany both Sonics throughout the game, later discovering that Eggman and Robotnik are controlling the Time Eater. Both Classic and Modern Tails, along with all of Sonic's friends, help motivate the 2 Sonics to defeat the Time Eater. The feature to play as Tails was added to the 2011 enhanced port of Sonic CD. He later appeared as a co-op character in the second episode of Sonic 4. Tails was added as a playable character in the enhanced port of Sonic the Hedgehog released in 2013 for mobile devices. The port also has the option to play the "Sonic and Tails" mode as well. Sonic and Tails end up facing a group of villains allied with Dr. Eggman, called the Deadly Six when they were shot down while chasing him in the Tornado in Sonic Lost World. They run into Eggman and notice him wielding a Cacophonic Conch to control the Deadly Six. Despite Tails' warnings, Sonic knocks away the conch, causing the Deadly Six to betray him. Eggman reluctantly teams up with Sonic and Tails to stop them. This causes numerous conflicts between Tails and Eggman and increases tension with his friendship with Sonic since Sonic believes Eggman is their only hope in defeating the Deadly Six. Eventually, Tails gets captured in a trap intended for Sonic, and the Deadly Six plan to use this to their advantage by turning Tails into a robot. However, Tails manages to reprogram the computer that would control his mind. The seemingly-roboticized Tails confronts Sonic at the game's final stage, but by retaining his free will, he takes the Deadly Six by surprise and attacks them. Later on, after Sonic defeats Eggman at the game's climax, Sonic apologizes to Tails for doubting him. Tails forgives him and the two return home. He is a playable character in the video game Sonic Mania (Plus), playing like his older incarnations along with Sonic, Knuckles, Mighty and Ray. Tails appears as a playable character in the games Sonic Boom: Rise of Lyric, Shattered Crystal and Fire & Ice. Tails was also featured in the Sonic the Hedgehog Level Pack of Lego Dimensions. He is also playable if the player uses the Tornado as Sonic to fly around the world. In the story mode for the Sonic level titled "Sonic Dimensions", Tails assists Sonic using the Tornado and his technological knowledge. In the hub world, Tails has a side quest for the player to aid him in disabling all of Eggman's roboticizers. Tails is a supporting non-playable character in Sonic Forces, finding Classic Sonic and joining up with the resistance in opposing Dr. Eggman and Infinite the Jackal. He also appears as a downloadable Mii Fighter costume in the crossover fighting games Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U and Ultimate, as well as being featured as a Spirit in the latter. In other media Tails is a supporting character in the animated series Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic the Hedgehog, Sonic X and Sonic Boom, as well as the Sonic the Hedgehog 1996. Tails also makes a guest appearance in the OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes episode "Let's Meet Sonic". In print, he is a supporting character in the Comics-produced Sonic the Hedgehog comic series as well as the Fleetway-produced Sonic the Comic. Tails appears in the 2020 Sonic the Hedgehog film during a mid-credits sequence, emerging from a ring portal onto Earth in search of Sonic. Early drafts for the film featured Tails in a bigger role, with some drafts featuring him as Sonic's best friend in his world, as in the games, while another draft featured him as one of the main characters in the film. However, when it was decided to center the film's storyline on Sonic being alone on Earth, the filmmakers decided to use Tails as a teaser for a sequel through a cameo in the film's mid-credits scene, a role co-writer Pat Casey compared to Nick Fury's role in the Marvel Cinematic Universe. Tails is set to feature more prominently in the sequel, Sonic the Hedgehog 2, the logo of which features an orange "2" with two tails attached in homage to the character. The film is expected to be released on April 8, 2022. Reception and legacy Reception to Tails has been widely positive. He was awarded "Best New Character" in Electronic Gaming Monthlys 1992 video game awards, stating "not only is he as cute as Sonic, but he actually serves a major purpose in the game." IGN editor Lucas M. Thompson listed Tails as one of the Sonic the Hedgehog characters who should be in Super Smash Bros. Brawl, citing his importance in the series and his abilities. IGN editor Levi Buchanan stated that the fan response to Tails' introduction was favorable, which led to further introductions such as Knuckles. Unlike most Sonic characters, Tails has received consistently positive opinions from the Sonic fanbase over the years. Tails is remembered for helping Sonic 2 become the second-highest-selling game for the Genesis through allowing a second player to join the game. He has been featured on many "Top Sidekicks" lists. Maximum PC listed him as their third-greatest sidekick, Machinima.com ranked him fifth, and Maxim listed him as the eighth-most-underrated sidekick. Ranking him as the sixth-greatest, Mashable stated that Tails "pretty much embodies the definition of 'sidekick'". Sonic and Tails were together ranked as IGN's ninth-greatest gaming duo. Morgan Sleeper of NintendoLife called Tails "one of Sega's most beloved mascots". However, IGN staff writer Levi Buchanan stated that when SEGA noticed the popularity of Tails, and, later, Knuckles, they "just kept stuffing new faces and names into the game, pulling attention away from their hero." GameDaily listed the "annoying sidekick" in their top 25 video game archetypes list, citing Tails as an example of this. GamesRadar+ listed him as number one on their list of cutesy characters they wanted to beat up, stating that while he started out as interesting, he led to the creation of other characters who "choked the life out the franchise". They cited him being a "know-it-all" in later games as to why they hate him so much. Official Nintendo Magazine listed him as the second-best Sonic character. See also Foxes in popular culture, films and literature Fox spirit Kitsune Kumiho Notes References External links Tails at Sonic Channel Animal superheroes Anthropomorphic foxes Animal characters in video games Anthropomorphic characters in video games Child characters in video games Fictional aviators Fictional inventors in video games Fictional mechanics Fictional scientists in video games Male characters in video games Orphan characters in video games Sega protagonists Sonic the Hedgehog characters Video game characters introduced in 1992 Video game characters who can move at superhuman speeds Video game sidekicks Video game superheroes	[ 0.19798454642295837, -0.1858469396829605, -0.1574031263589859, 0.050373490899801254, -0.35220998525619507, -0.3302974998950958, -0.2839393615722656, 0.0678500086069107, -0.002922284649685025, 0.04051557928323746, -0.564721405506134, -0.029521072283387184, -0.4318719506263733, -0.1951117068529129, -0.08912347257137299, -0.22603531181812286, 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227523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber%20Valley	Amber Valley	Amber Valley is a local government district and borough in the east of Derbyshire, England, taking its name from the River Amber. It covers a semi-rural zone with four main towns whose economy was based on coal mining and remains to some extent influenced by engineering, distribution and manufacturing, holding for instance the headquarters and production site of Thorntons confectionery. The seat in the House of Commons of Amber Valley is of smaller scope. The population at the 2011 Census was 122,309. The village of Crich and other parts of the district were the setting for ITV drama series Peak Practice. Elections to the borough council are held in three out of every four years, with one third of the 45 seats on the council being elected at each election. The council has been run by the Conservative party since they gained control from the Labour party at the 2000 election except for a single year after the 2014 election and for two years after the 2019 election. Following the 2021 election the council is once again under Conservative party control and is currently composed of the following numbers of councillors: Towns of Amber Valley Alfreton Belper Heanor Ripley Main villages of Amber Valley Ambergate Codnor Crich Denby Duffield Heage Holbrook Horsley Kedleston Kilburn Langley Mill Lea & Holloway Mackworth Milford Quarndon Smalley Somercotes Swanwick Whatstandwell The district was formed on 1 April 1974 by the merger of the urban districts of Alfreton, Belper, Heanor and rural districts of Ripley and Belper. The Amber Valley district was granted borough status in 1988. Parishes Aldercar and Langley Mill, Alderwasley, Alfreton Belper Codnor, Crich Denby, Dethick, Lea and Holloway, Duffield Hazelwood, Heanor and Loscoe, Holbrook, Horsley, Horsley Woodhouse Idridgehay, Alton and Ashleyhay, Ironville Kedleston, Kilburn, Kirk Langley Mackworth, Mapperley Pentrich Quarndon Ravensdale Park, Riddings, Ripley Shipley, Shottle and Postern, Smalley, Somercotes, South Wingfield, Swanwick Turnditch and Windley Weston Underwood Arms See also List of places in Derbyshire References External links Amber Valley Borough Council website Amber Valley Centre for Voluntary Services Amber Valley Info Web Site Non-metropolitan districts of Derbyshire	[ -0.480923056602478, 0.0852634608745575, 0.5509768724441528, -1.2718093395233154, 0.3214738368988037, 1.0481243133544922, 0.5866276025772095, 0.10380177944898605, -0.6593583822250366, 0.019648075103759766, -0.42940446734428406, 0.003448131959885359, 0.04004407674074173, 0.3333897888660431, -0.8164049983024597, 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227525	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.%20Welch%20Pogue	L. Welch Pogue	Lloyd Welch Pogue (October 21, 1899 – May 10, 2003) was an American aviation attorney and chairman of the Civil Aeronautics Board. Early life and education Pogue was born in Grant, Iowa on October 21, 1899, the son of Leander Welch Pogue and Myrtle Viola Casey. His mother home-schooled him after chores, and he began traditional schooling in eighth grade. He graduated from Red Oak High School in Red Oak, Iowa in 1917. He attended Grinnell College and enlisted there in the Student Army Training Corps of the U.S. Army before transferring to the University of Nebraska, where he became president of the student body. After returning to work on the family farm for a while, Pogue received his B.A. from the University of Nebraska in 1924, and his law degree from the University of Michigan Law School in 1926. Later, Pogue received his Doctor of Juridical Science (D.J.S.) from Harvard Law School. At Harvard Law School, noted law Professor and later United States Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter took Pogue in as a protégé. As a lawyer, Pogue was entranced by Charles Lindbergh's trans-Atlantic flight and decided to focus his law career mainly on the "skies". Personal life He married Mary Ellen Edgerton on September 8, 1926 at Aurora, Nebraska. They were married for 75 years until her death in 2001. She was born October 27, 1904, in Fremont, Nebraska, the daughter of Mary Nettie Coe and Frank Eugene Edgerton, a direct descendant of Richard Edgerton, one of the founders of Norwich, Connecticut and a descendant of Governor William Bradford (1590–1657) of the Plymouth Colony and a passenger on the Mayflower. Her father was a lawyer, journalist, author and orator and served as the assistant attorney general of Nebraska from 1911 to 1915. She died on September 19, 2001, just days after she and Pogue's 75th wedding anniversary, at Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center in Baltimore, Maryland. Mary Ellen grew up in Aurora, Nebraska, and spent some of her childhood years in Washington, D.C., and Lincoln, Nebraska. Mrs. Pogue received her bachelor's degree in music from the University of Nebraska at Lincoln in 1926 and was a member of Alpha Phi. They had three sons, Richard Welch Pogue, William Lloyd Pogue, and John Marshall Pogue who assisted his father on many research and writing projects. Their grandson David Pogue, is an Emmy award-winning technology correspondent, writer and journalist. His wife's brother was Harold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton, a professor of electrical engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and credited with transforming the stroboscope from an obscure laboratory instrument into a common device. Career Pogue joined the Civil Aeronautics Board in 1938. Four years later, he was appointed Chairman by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and he served as Chairman until 1946. During his tenure Pogue helped strike down a plan for a single world airline. He later resumed his law practice before retiring in 1981, after a career of nearly 60 years. Pogue founded the Washington D.C. law firm of Pogue & Neal, which represented several major airlines and other industry clients. In 1967, Pogue & Neal merged with Jones, Day, Cockley, Reavis to become Jones, Day, Reavis & Pogue. Pogue served as Managing Partner of the Washington Office from 1967 to 1979. Mr. Pogue was described by author James Parry as "a name synonymous with the pioneering giants who played a pivotal role in transforming international civil aviation ... into the cohesive global force that it is today ... Pogue is truly a living legend and a founding father of the international civil aviation system." Parry's book, 100 Years of Flight was commissioned by the International Civil Aviation Organization, based in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Death He died on May 10, 2003 at Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore, Maryland. He is buried at Quantico National Cemetery. Miscellaneous In 1994 Aviation Week & Space Technology established the L. Welch Pogue Award for Lifetime Achievement in Aviation, naming Pogue its first recipient. References Pogue, Lloyd Welch. Pogue/Pollock/Polk Genealogy As Mirrored in History, From Scotland to Northern Ireland/Ulster, Ohio, and Westward. 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227533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hornet	Hornet	Hornets (insects in the genus Vespa) are the largest of the eusocial wasps, and are similar in appearance to their close relatives yellowjackets. Some species can reach up to in length. They are distinguished from other vespine wasps by the relatively large top margin of the head and by the rounded segment of the abdomen just behind the waist. Worldwide, 22 species of Vespa are recognized. Most species only occur in the tropics of Asia, though the European hornet (V. crabro), is widely distributed throughout Europe, Russia, North America, and Northeast Asia. Wasps native to North America in the genus Dolichovespula are commonly referred to as hornets (e.g., baldfaced hornets), but are actually yellowjackets. Like other social wasps, hornets build communal nests by chewing wood to make a papery pulp. Each nest has one queen, which lays eggs and is attended by workers that, while genetically female, cannot lay fertile eggs. Most species make exposed nests in trees and shrubs, but some (such as Vespa orientalis) build their nests underground or in other cavities. In the tropics, these nests may last year-round, but in temperate areas, the nest dies over the winter, with lone queens hibernating in leaf litter or other insulative material until the spring. Male hornets are docile and do not have stingers. Hornets are often considered pests, as they aggressively guard their nesting sites when threatened and their stings can be more dangerous than those of bees. Classification While taxonomically well defined, some confusion may remain about the differences between hornets and other wasps of the family Vespidae, specifically the yellowjackets, which are members of the same subfamily. Also, a related genus of Asian nocturnal vespines, Provespa, is referred to as "night wasps" or "night hornets", though they are not true hornets. Some other large wasps are sometimes referred to as hornets, most notably the bald-faced hornet (Dolichovespula maculata) found in North America. It is set apart by its black and ivory coloration. The name "hornet" is used for this species primarily because of its habit of making aerial nests (similar to some of the true hornets) rather than subterranean nests. Another example is the Australian hornet (Abispa ephippium), which is actually a species of potter wasp. Distribution Hornets are found mainly in the Northern Hemisphere. The common European hornet (V. crabro) is the best-known species, widely distributed in Europe (but is never found north of the 63rd parallel), Ukraine, and European Russia (except in extreme northern areas). In the east, the species' distribution area stretches over the Ural Mountains to western Siberia (found in the vicinity of Khanty-Mansiysk). In Asia, the common European hornet is found in southern Siberia, as well as in eastern China. The common European hornet was accidentally introduced to eastern North America about the middle of the 19th century and has lived there since at about the same latitudes as in Europe. However, it has never been found in western North America. The Asian giant hornet (V. mandarinia) lives in the Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsky Krai (southern part), and Jewish AO regions of Russia, and China, Korea, Taiwan, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Indochina, India, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand, but is most commonly found in the mountains of Japan, where they are commonly known as the giant sparrow bee. The Oriental hornet (V. orientalis) occurs in semidry, subtropical areas of Central Asia (Armenia, Dagestan in Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Oman, Pakistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Kyrghyzstan, southern Kazakhstan), and southern Europe (Italy, Malta, Albania, Romania, Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, Cyprus). The Asian hornet (V. velutina) has been introduced to France, Spain, Portugal, and Italy. Stings Hornets have stingers used to kill prey and defend nests. Hornet stings are more painful to humans than typical wasp stings because hornet venom contains a large amount (5%) of acetylcholine. Individual hornets can sting repeatedly; unlike honey bees, hornets do not die after stinging because their stingers are very finely barbed (only visible under high magnification) and can easily be withdrawn, so are not pulled out of their bodies when disengaging. The toxicity of hornet stings varies according to hornet species; some deliver just a typical insect sting, while others are among the most venomous known insects. Single hornet stings are not in themselves fatal, except sometimes to allergic victims. Multiple stings by hornets (other than V. crabro) may be fatal because of highly toxic species-specific components of their venom. The stings of the Asian giant hornet (V. mandarinia) are among the most venomous known, and are thought to cause 30–50 human deaths annually in Japan. Between July and September 2013, hornet stings caused the death of 42 people in China. Asian giant hornet's venom can cause allergic reactions and multiple organ failure leading to death, though dialysis can be used to remove the toxins from the bloodstream. People who are allergic to wasp venom may also be allergic to hornet stings. Allergic reactions are commonly treated with epinephrine (adrenaline) injection using a device such as an epinephrine autoinjector, with prompt follow-up treatment in a hospital. In severe cases, allergic individuals may go into anaphylactic shock and die unless treated promptly. In general, Vespa stings induce the release of histamine due to the various mastoparans that they contain. However V. orientalis mastoparan is the interesting exception because it does not induce histamine increase in victim tissue - because it does not cause mast cell degranulation - and is not immunogenic. Attack pheromone Hornets, like many social wasps, can mobilize the entire nest to sting in defense, which is highly dangerous to humans and other animals. The attack pheromone is released in case of threat to the nest. In the case of the Asian giant hornet (V. mandarinia), this is also used to mobilize many workers at once when attacking colonies of their prey, honey bees and other Vespa species. Three biologically active chemicals, 2-pentanol, 3-methyl-1-butanol, and 1-methylbutyl 3-methylbutanoate, have been identified for this species. In field tests, 2-pentanol alone triggered mild alarm and defensive behavior, but adding the other two compounds increased aggressiveness in a synergistic effect. In the European hornet (V. crabro) the major compound of the alarm pheromone is 2-methyl-3-butene-2-ol. If a hornet is killed near a nest, it may release pheromones that can cause the other hornets to attack. Materials that come into contact with these pheromones, such as clothes, skin, and dead prey or hornets, can also trigger an attack, as can certain food flavorings, such as banana and apple flavorings, and fragrances that contain C5 alcohols and C10 esters. Life cycle In V. crabro, the nest is founded in spring by a fertilized female known as the queen. She generally selects sheltered places such as dark, hollow tree trunks. She first builds a series of cells (up to 50) out of chewed tree bark. The cells are arranged in horizontal layers named combs, each cell being vertical and closed at the top. An egg is then laid in each cell. After 5–8 days, the egg hatches. Over the following two weeks, the larva progresses through five stages of development. During this time, the queen feeds it a protein-rich diet of insects. Then, the larva spins a silk cap over the cell's opening, and during the next two weeks, transforms into an adult, a process called metamorphosis. The adult then eats its way through the silk cap. This first generation of workers, invariably females, now gradually undertakes all the tasks formerly carried out by the queen (foraging, nest building, taking care of the brood, etc.) with the exception of egg-laying, which remains exclusive to the queen. As the colony size grows, new combs are added, and an envelope is built around the cell layers until the nest is entirely covered, with the exception of an entry hole. To be able to build cells in total darkness, they apparently use gravity to aid them. At the peak of its population, which occurs in late summer, the colony can reach a size of 700 workers. At this time, the queen starts producing the first reproductive individuals. Fertilized eggs develop into females (called "gynes" by entomologists), and unfertilized ones develop into males (sometimes called "drones" as with honeybee drones). Adult males do not participate in nest maintenance, foraging, or caretaking of the larvae. In early to mid-autumn, they leave the nest and mate during "nuptial flights". Other temperate species (e.g., the yellow hornet, V. simillima, or the Oriental hornet, V. orientalis) have similar cycles. In the case of tropical species (e.g., V. tropica), life histories may well differ, and in species with both tropical and temperate distributions (such as the Asian giant hornet, V. mandarinia), the cycle likely depends on latitude. Diet and feeding Adult hornets and their relatives (e.g., yellowjackets) feed themselves with nectar and sugar-rich plant foods. Thus, they can often be found feeding on the sap of oak trees, rotting sweet fruits, honey, and any sugar-containing foodstuffs. Hornets frequently fly into orchards to feed on overripe fruit, and tend to gnaw a hole in fruit to become totally immersed in its pulp. A person who accidentally picks fruit with a feeding hornet can be attacked by the disturbed insect. The adults also attack various insects, which they kill with stings and jaws. Due to their size and the power of their venom, hornets are able to kill large insects such as honey bees, grasshoppers, locusts, and katydids without difficulty. The victim is fully masticated and then fed to the larvae developing in the nest, rather than consumed by the adult hornets. Given that some of their prey are considered pests, hornets may be considered beneficial under some circumstances. The larvae of hornets produce a sweet secretion containing sugars and amino acids that is consumed by the workers and queens. Species While a history of recognizing subspecies exists within many of the Vespa species, the most recent taxonomic revision of the genus treats all subspecific names in the genus Vespa as synonyms, effectively relegating them to no more than informal names for regional color forms. Vespa affinis Vespa analis Vespa basalis Vespa bellicosa Vespa bicolor †Vespa bilineata Vespa binghami †Vespa ciliata †Vespa cordifera Vespa crabro †Vespa crabroniformis †Vespa dasypodia Vespa ducalis Vespa dybowskii Vespa fervida Vespa fumida Vespa luctuosa Vespa mandarinia Vespa mocsaryana Vespa multimaculata †Vespa nigra Vespa orientalis Vespa philippinensis †Vespa picea Vespa simillima Vespa soror Vespa tropica Vespa velutina Vespa vivax Notable species Asian giant hornet (V. mandarinia) (one of its color forms is also known as the Japanese giant hornet) Asian hornet (V. velutina) (also known as the yellow-legged hornet or Asian predatory wasp) black hornet (V. dybowskii) black-bellied hornet (V. basalis) black shield wasp (V. bicolor) European hornet (V. crabro) (also known as the Old World hornet or brown hornet) greater banded hornet (V. tropica) lesser banded hornet (V. affinis) Oriental hornet (V. orientalis) yellow hornet (V. simillima) (one of its color forms is also known as the Japanese yellow hornet or Japanese hornet) Vespa luctuosa (a species which has the most lethal wasp venom (per volume)) As food and medicine Hornet larvae are widely accepted as food in mountainous regions in China. Hornets and their nests are treated as medicine in traditional Chinese medicine. Gallery See also Australian hornet Bald-faced hornet Potter wasp Vespid Yellowjacket Characteristics of common wasps and bees References External links European hornet protection site (also available in French, German, Russian, Spanish and Swedish) Paper Wasps and Hornets Controlling Wasps, Hornets, and Yellowjackets Hornets & Yellowjackets Yellowjackets and Other Social Wasps Vespidae of the World yellowjackets and hornets of Florida on the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site Vespidae Biological pest control wasps Insects used as insect pest control agents	[ -0.29775092005729675, 0.0458470955491066, -0.4016132056713104, -0.18977303802967072, -0.23745021224021912, 0.20245036482810974, 0.7558151483535767, 0.36617112159729004, -0.7992585301399231, -0.2516182065010071, 0.1039951965212822, 0.02852426841855049, -0.5094183087348938, 0.07093630731105804, 0.12016168981790543, 1.0065125226974487, -0.19195252656936646, 0.5168673396110535, 0.11175984144210815, -0.2055305689573288, 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227534	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Skate%20%28SSN-578%29	USS Skate (SSN-578)	USS Skate (SSN-578), the third submarine of the United States Navy named for the skate, a type of ray, was the lead ship of the of nuclear submarines. She was the third nuclear submarine commissioned, the first to make a completely submerged trans-Atlantic crossing, the second submarine to reach the North Pole, and the first to surface there. The contract to build her was awarded to the Electric Boat division of General Dynamics on 18 July 1955, and her keel was laid in Groton, Connecticut on 21 July 1955. She was launched on 16 May 1957, sponsored by Mrs. Lewis L. Strauss, and commissioned on 23 December 1957, with Commander James F. Calvert in command. Operational history Skate conducted shakedown training out of New London, Connecticut until 29 January 1958, when she cruised to the Bermuda operating area, then returned to her home port on 8 February. Sixteen days later, the nuclear powered submarine set a course for the Isle of Portland, England. Before returning home, she had also visited ports in France and the Netherlands. First visit to North Pole On 30 July, Skate sought the Arctic where she operated under the ice for 10 days. During this time, she surfaced nine times through the ice, navigated over under it, and on 11 August, 9:47 pm EDT (the week after ) became the second sea ship to reach the North Pole. Skate was unable to surface precisely at the Pole on the August voyage due to dangerous ice conditions as noted in the captain's 1960 book, Surface at the Pole: The Extraordinary Voyages of the USS Skate, where Calvert said, "Seldom had the ice seemed so heavy and so thick as it did in the immediate vicinity of the pole. For days we had searched in vain for a suitable opening to surface in." The closest was to make radio contact at the surface from a polynya around 30 nm away, but not to surface fully owing to the risk of damage from ice. Skate did manage to surface and make contact with Drifting Ice Station Alpha at 85ºN, 300 nm away. After being denied access to visit Copenhagen in Denmark, she sailed into Bergen, Norway on 23 August. There she was inspected by king Olav V of Norway, US ambassador Frances E. Willis and minister of defence Nils Handal. The submarine made port calls in the Netherlands, Belgium, and France before returning to New London on 25 September 1958. In recognition of the dangerous and historic feat, the Skate and its crew were given the Navy Unit Commendation award for "... braving the hazards of the polar ice pack...." Second visit to North Pole While the Skate was unable to surface on its first voyage to the pole, on 17 March 1959, she became the first submarine to surface at the North Pole,. Calvert described the historic moment in his book, saying, "Slowly we blew the tanks and the Skate moved reluctantly upward. It was apparent we were under heavier ice here than any we had experienced before." While at the pole, Calvert and the crew planted an American Flag in a cairn they built out of ice blocks, and put a waterproof container in the cairn with a note commemorating the event. The crew also held a ceremony for the late Arctic explorer Sir Hubert Wilkins and committed his ashes at the pole. In 1931, Sir Hubert had conducted an Arctic expedition in the disarmed research submarine Nautilus (ex-). After reaching the Pole, the Skate continued its mission to pioneer arctic operations during periods of extreme cold and maximum ice thickness. When the submarine returned to port, she was awarded a bronze star in lieu of a second Navy Unit Commendation for demonstrating "for the first time the ability of submarines to operate in and under the Arctic ice in the dead of winter". In the fall of 1959 and in 1960, Skate participated in exercises designed to strengthen American antisubmarine defenses. Skate returned to General Dynamics in January 1961 for a regular overhaul and to have her reactor refueled for the first time. She put to sea in August and, for the next 11 months, conducted exercises to increase the operational readiness of her crew. Third visit to North Pole On 7 July 1962, Skate again set course towards the North Pole. Five days later, , did likewise from Pearl Harbor. The two submarines made their rendezvous on 31 July. After meeting, they operated together for over a week. Both submarines surfaced at the North Pole on 2 August and official greetings and insignia of Submarine Force Atlantic Fleet and Submarine Force Pacific Fleet were exchanged. Later years Skate returned to New London and performed fleet and local operations for the next several years. She entered the Norfolk Naval Shipyard on 28 April 1965, the first nuclear submarine overhauled there, for nuclear refueling and installation of the SUBSAFE package. Skate was the first submarine to finish this major conversion program, which was instituted after the loss of in 1963. The process was not completed until September 1967. After sea trials and a shakedown cruise in the Caribbean, the submarine returned to New London and participated in exercises involved in the development of new undersea tactics and equipment. In October 1968, Skate was deployed to the Mediterranean where she operated with the Sixth Fleet for two months. The polar veteran operated under the Arctic ice again in March and April 1969, in October 1970, and in February 1971 . The remainder of her at sea time was spent in various Atlantic Fleet and NATO exercises. In July 1971, she began her third regular overhaul at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard and did not return to New London until 17 November 1973. In August 1974, Skate operated as a unit of the Atlantic Fleet. In late 1977, Skate transferred to Pearl Harbor, where she joined the other three Skate class submarines as a member of Submarine Squadron 7. Decommissioning Skate was decommissioned on 12 September 1986, stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 30 October 1986, and disposed of by submarine recycling at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard on 6 March 1995. Awards Skate received two Navy Unit Commendations and three Meritorious Unit Commendations during her career. The first Navy Unit Commendation was for the period 9–12 August 1958 and the second for the period 4 March through 6 April 1959. The Meritorious Unit Commendations were for the periods 24 March through 15 April 1969, 12 October through 18 November 1970 and 26 February through 9 March 1971. (Source – US Navy Unit Awards Webpage.) 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227535	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Skate%20%28SS-305%29	USS Skate (SS-305)	USS Skate (SS-305) was a Balao-class submarine in service with the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946. She was used as a target ship in the 1946 atomic bomb tests and finally sunk as a target ship in October 1948. History Skate was laid down at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard of Vallejo, California, 1 August 1942. She was launched on 4 March 1943, sponsored by Mrs. Ethel L. Shamer, wife of Captain George P. Shamer, Supply Officer of the Mare Island Naval Shipyard and commissioned on 15 April with Commander Eugene B. McKinney in command. First War Patrol Following shakedown off the California coast, Skate sailed to Pearl Harbor and on 25 September 1943, headed toward Wake Island and her first war patrol during which she performed lifeguard duty for the carriers during airstrikes against that Japanese-held island. At dawn on 6 October, the submarine was strafed by enemy aircraft, mortally wounding one of her officers, LtJg Willis Edward Maxson, III, as he attempted to assist wounded airmen from a liferaft. The next day, Skate closed to within 5,000 yards (4,600 m) of the beach, in the face of heavy enemy bombardment, to rescue two downed aviators. While searching for a third, she was attacked by a Japanese dive-bomber, and was forced to dive to escape. After a short return to Midway Island, Skate returned to Wake Island and rescued four additional airmen before terminating her first patrol at Midway on 29 October. Second War Patrol On 15 November, Skate departed Midway for her second war patrol, conducted off Truk in the Caroline Islands. On 25 November, she sighted the masts of five warships; but, after firing a spread of torpedoes at overlapping aircraft carriers, she was forced down by depth charging from the escort ships. On 30 November 1943, Skate attacked Japanese carriers Zuihō, Chuyō, and Unyō without success. While north of Truk on 21 December 1943, the submarine torpedoed and sank the cargo ship Terukawa Maru. During a rain squall on 25 December, she made an attack which badly damaged the battleship Yamato. Skate returned to Midway for refit on 7 January 1944. Third and Fourth War Patrols Skate'''s third war patrol was again conducted in the area of the Carolines, in support of Operation Hailstone, the carrier airstrikes on Truk. Skate departed Midway on 5 February 1944, this time under the command of Lt. Commander W.P. "Bud" Gruner, Jr. On 16 February, the evening before the airstrike, Skate intercepted a Japanese light cruiser, which had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine . Skate launched four torpedoes two of which hit, engulfing the ship in a shroud of smoke as the submarine submerged to evade heavy depth charging from the enemy escorts. She later returned to the scene of the attack, but before another torpedo could be launched, the cruiser rolled to port and sank. It was later determined the cruiser sunk was the Japanese light cruiser Agano. Following the airstrikes and further patrol in the area, the submarine returned to Pearl Harbor on 17 March. During her fourth war patrol, off the Bonin Islands from 11 April to 31 May, Skate scored hits on an enemy cargo ship for unconfirmed damage and, on 14 May 1944, sank an enemy sampan in a surface attack, taking three prisoners of war. Fifth, Sixth and Seventh War PatrolsSkate departed Midway on 23 June 1944 on her fifth war patrol, conducted off the Kuril Islands. On 7 July, she intercepted a convoy of five ships and escorting destroyers, fired three torpedoes, and sank the trailing destroyer, Usugumo. The submarine was then forced deep by the other escorts and depth charged for over two hours before escaping. On 15 July, the submarine sank a cargo ship taking two prisoners and, on the following day, another cargo ship was also sent to the bottom. Skate terminated her fifth patrol at Pearl Harbor on 7 August. Departing Pearl Harbor on 9 September, Skate sailed for the Ryukyu Islands and her sixth war patrol, during which she performed photographic reconnaissance of Okinawa and, on 29 September 1944, sank a small patrol craft and a cargo ship. Following her return to Pearl Harbor, she got underway for a complete overhaul at Hunters Point Navy Yard, San Francisco, California.Skate got underway from Pearl Harbor for her seventh war patrol on 11 April 1945, to form a coordinated attack group with other submarines and patrol in the Sea of Japan. On the morning of 10 June, she encountered I-122, a Japanese submarine on the surface returning to port. As the enemy crossed her bow, Skate launched two torpedoes with two hits, sinking the target. Two days later, while off the Nanto Peninsula, she evaded gunfire of enemy ships and an attack by an enemy escort to sink three cargo ships. Skate terminated her seventh war patrol at Pearl Harbor on 4 July 1945. End of World War II and fateSkate departed Pearl Harbor on 5 August 1945 for her eighth war patrol; but, while en route to the patrol area, she received word of the Japanese surrender and returned to port, and then set sail for the United States arriving at San Diego, on 6 September. For the next four months, she participated in training operations along the west coast, and then sailed to Pearl Harbor arriving on 9 January 1946. On 21 May, she departed for Bikini Atoll, Marshall Islands, to be used as a target ship in Operation Crossroads, the atomic bomb tests.Skate was moored directly astern of , the target ship for test Able. Skates crew was transferred to a transport where they maintained Skates log with entries reading "Moored as before, no one on board." The bomber missed Nevada and the bomb detonated above and astern of Skate, mangling the submarine's conning tower and raising the main ballast tank vents but leaving the pressure hull intact. The crew returned to the submarine and, finding the interior offered preferable living conditions to the transport, was able to get the surfaced submarine underway at . The crew was again transferred to the transport after Skate moored on the fringe of the formation for test Baker, which caused no further physical damage, but coated the submarine exterior with radioactive isotopes. When the crew was unable to remove the radioactivity, they were transferred to the submarine tender . Skate was towed back to Pearl Harbor, where she was moored in an isolated berth. On 11 October, salvage vessel took Skate in tow and headed for San Francisco, and then to Mare Island Naval Shipyard where the submarine was inspected and then decommissioned on 11 December. Skate was expended as a torpedo target off the California coast on 5 October 1948, and struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 21 October 1948. Awards Skate'' received eight battle stars for World War II service. References External links naval-history.net: USS Skate historycentral.com: USS Skate Balao-class submarines World War II submarines of the United States Ships built in Vallejo, California 1943 ships Ships sunk as targets Shipwrecks of the California coast Ships involved in Operation Crossroads Maritime incidents in 1946 Maritime incidents in 1948	[ -0.6213056445121765, -0.23191498219966888, -0.5499299168586731, 0.8548840880393982, -0.26359793543815613, 0.49193042516708374, 1.0870704650878906, -0.05767536908388138, -0.5615959763526917, 0.16116784512996674, 0.5580231547355652, 0.14067663252353668, -0.022134821861982346, 0.4847531318664551, 0.07745537906885147, -0.07909663766622543, 0.07661321759223938, 0.971879243850708, 0.36479508876800537, -0.30373406410217285, -0.20764562487602234, -0.39601877331733704, 0.49396219849586487, 0.01718299277126789, -0.21623986959457397, 0.3754354417324066, 0.0664215162396431, 0.3718264400959015, 0.2347172647714615, 0.23000791668891907, 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227540	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Pleasure%20Garden	The Pleasure Garden	The Pleasure Garden may refer to: The Pleasure Garden (1925 film), a British silent film directed by Alfred Hitchcock The Pleasure Garden (1953 film), a short film written and directed by James Broughton The Pleasure Garden (1961 film), a Swedish film directed by Alf Kjellin See also Pleasure garden, a park or garden open to the public for recreation and entertainment Pleasure Gardens Theatre, a theatre in Folkestone, Kent, UK, 1886–1964	[ 0.17154861986637115, -0.12446845322847366, -0.13159099221229553, -0.048887141048908234, 0.4272397756576538, 0.2662423253059387, 0.23633968830108643, -0.3622454106807709, -1.08171546459198, 0.24219438433647156, -0.6203699111938477, 0.28344160318374634, -0.06433916836977005, 0.5783209800720215, -0.22429870069026947, 0.21188810467720032, 0.3290450870990753, 0.026888597756624222, 0.3641376495361328, -0.26510706543922424, -0.5518366098403931, -0.34707459807395935, 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227542	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vespidae	Vespidae	The Vespidae are a large (nearly 5000 species), diverse, cosmopolitan family of wasps, including nearly all the known eusocial wasps (such as Polistes fuscatus, Vespa orientalis, and Vespula germanica) and many solitary wasps. Each social wasp colony includes a queen and a number of female workers with varying degrees of sterility relative to the queen. In temperate social species, colonies usually last only one year, dying at the onset of winter. New queens and males (drones) are produced towards the end of the summer, and after mating, the queens hibernate over winter in cracks or other sheltered locations. The nests of most species are constructed out of mud, but polistines and vespines use plant fibers, chewed to form a sort of paper (also true of some stenogastrines). Many species are pollen vectors contributing to the pollination of several plants, being potential or even effective pollinators, while others are notable predators of pest insect species. The subfamilies Polistinae and Vespinae are composed solely of eusocial species, while the Eumeninae, Euparagiinae, Gayellinae, Masarinae and Zethinae are all solitary with the exception of a few communal and several subsocial species. The Stenogastrinae are facultatively eusocial, considering nests may have one or several adult females; in cases where the nest is shared by multiple females (typically, a mother and her daughters) there is reproductive division of labor and cooperative brood care. In the Polistinae and Vespinae, rather than consuming prey directly, prey are premasticated and fed to the larvae, which in return, produce a clear liquid (with high amino acid content) for the adults to consume; the exact amino acid composition varies considerably among species, but it is considered to contribute substantially to adult nutrition. Fossils are known since Aptian of the Early Cretaceous, with several described species from Cretaceous amber. Gallery References External links Evolutionary history of social behavior in Vespids Stunning photographs of Vespidae (and other insects) in flight Vespidae: Potter wasps; vespid wasps; social wasps; hornets; paper wasps; yellowjackets Identification Atlas of the Vespidae of the northeastern Nearctic region Apocrita families	[ 0.3841080069541931, -0.36697638034820557, -0.21472476422786713, -0.28579750657081604, -0.48276960849761963, 0.723920464515686, 1.0659396648406982, 0.32257023453712463, -0.5887516736984253, -0.665658712387085, 0.0882076695561409, -0.22968058288097382, -0.8427518010139465, 0.2647390365600586, -0.15174029767513275, 0.5582852959632874, -0.03249809145927429, 0.9975355267524719, -0.13322299718856812, -0.27749013900756836, -0.18272465467453003, -0.3780970275402069, 0.6059656143188477, -0.6413455009460449, -0.11729047447443008, 0.16222374141216278, 0.021612506359815598, 0.353769987821579, 0.508580207824707, -0.23775295913219452, -0.038716528564691544, 0.8931931257247925, 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227543	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna	Magna	Magna may refer to: Companies Magna (bicycle company) Magna Corporation, an American public company Magna Entertainment Corp., gaming and horse racing company Magna Home Entertainment, entertainment distributor also known as Magna Pacific Magna International, Canadian automotive supplier Magna Publishing Group, American publisher of pornography Magna Steyr, automobile manufacturer in Graz, Austria Ancient Rome Magnis (Carvoran), a now ruined Roman fort, also known as Magna, at Carvoran, Northumberland, UK Leptis Magna, ancient Roman city in Libya Plancia Magna (fl. 1st century CE), prominent woman from Anatolia during the Roman Empire Other Magna (moth), genus of the family Erebidae Magna (paint), brand name of an acrylic resin paint Magna, Utah Mitsubishi Magna, automobile Honda Magna, motorcycle Magna cum laude, distinction with which an academic degree is earned Magna Defender, character from the Power Rangers Lost Galaxy TV series Marcus Magna (born 1988), French professional footballer See also MAGNA awards, Australian museum awards Magnum (disambiguation) Magnus (disambiguation) Magnis (disambiguation) Magna Carta (disambiguation)	[ 0.23693294823169708, 0.06589095294475555, -0.07609187066555023, 0.014345662668347359, 0.09514015167951584, 0.535179078578949, -0.32331719994544983, 0.3697463870048523, -0.4074638783931732, 0.3367220163345337, -0.05054360628128052, 0.3336547911167145, 0.08342400193214417, 0.45177870988845825, -0.6716176271438599, 0.26629507541656494, -0.06775900721549988, 0.6674563884735107, -0.4699007570743561, -0.10617037117481232, -0.3391229510307312, 0.1028672456741333, 0.7277766466140747, -0.5276641249656677, -0.49602213501930237, 0.009768522344529629, 0.2900800108909607, 0.32552358508110046, -0.4124109447002411, 0.4184863567352295, -0.1695031076669693, 0.5751638412475586, 0.24162502586841583, 0.03218391165137291, -0.22868263721466064, -0.06921805441379547, -0.12936899065971375, 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227547	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stale%20seed%20bed	Stale seed bed	The stale seed bed or false seed bed method is a weed control technique used at both the farm and garden scales. In this that the young weeds can then be easily eliminated. By destroying them early, the farmer or gardener eliminates most of that season's annual weeds, which reduces their labor and improves their crop yields. Description The stale seed bed technique of weed control was developed before herbicide use began. It reduces the soil's seed bank or quantity by allowing the weed seeds both opportunity and time to germinate, sprout, and appear before the intended crop is planted. Once the weeds appear, they are easily eliminated by various methods that minimize further soil disturbance. This cycle can be repeated numerous times before planting the crop. Early reduction of the weed seed quantity by this method reduces the need to weed for the rest of the growing season, and in some cases performs as well as chemical weed control methods. Method The false or stale seed bed technique can be started immediately after harvesting a field, or at least two weeks prior to planting a new crop. Farm-scale Approach The farm field should be worked and smoothed into a flat fine seed bed. The initial tillage is normally done with a disc harrow or a rotary tiller, rather than with a plow. If plowing is required, secondary passes with a disc or tiller will be needed. The next step is to break up clods and flatten the surface is done with a spring-tooth or spike-tooth harrow, or with a chain drag harrow, depending on the soil type. Final preparation is done with a cultipacker or other type of roller to firm the soil, which enhances seed germination. After the weeds have sprouted and reached the first-leaf stage, they are eliminated. This is done with by either mechanical or thermal means. Mechanical elimination of these small weed seedlings is done by stirring the surface of the soil to uproot and bury the seedlings. The most commonly used implement is a field cultivator fitted with sweeps. Either duckfoot sweeps and blade sweeps (beet knife) can be used, but must be set for a very shallow depth of cut. The other implement that can be used is a chain harrow or drag harrow. Thermal elimination of the small weed seedlings is done with a flame weeder. This method has the added advantage of not disturbing the soil at all. Flame weeding uses propane to very briefly expose the seedlings to flame and intense heat. It does not burn the plant, but instead causes denaturing of the cell membranes and subsequent dehydration. A flame weeder implement is normally a trailer that is light enough to be pulled through the field by either a tractor or a pickup truck. In many cases, several cycles of cultivatortilling and weeding are done, often at 2 week intervals. This allows more and more weed seeds to germinate and be removed. Repetition eliminates more weeds, but care must be used to not delay planting of a desirable crop later than the crop needs for a successful season's growth. After several years, most, if not all, weeds can be eliminated from the seed bank in the soil. Garden-scale Approach The stale seed bed method can easily be used in the garden. The timing and steps are the same as described for a farm-scale operation, but the equipment used is different. Rather than repeat the description of the steps detailed above, the equipment changes will be noted here. Initial tillage in the garden can be done by spading with a shovel or spade, cultivating with a wheel cultivator, or by tilling with grub hoe or a rototiller. The soil should only be worked deep enough to kill existing plants and loosen enough soil to create a seed bed. The garden tillage depth is normally about 4 inches, with a maximum of 6 inches. Seed bed finishing can be done with a heavy garden rake to break up clods and level the soil. Lightly rolling, tamping, or compacting the soil surface will increase germination. The garden can also be watered to speed up germination of the weeds. After the weeds have sprouted and reached the first-leaf stage, they are eliminated using mechanical or thermal methods as above. Mechanical elimination of small weed seedlings in the garden is done by stirring the surface of the soil to uproot and bury the seedlings. This can be done with a long-handled hoe that only works at the surface of the soil, such as a light draw hoe, a stirrup hoe, or a scuffle hoe. Weeding can also be done with a wheel hoe outfitted with sweeps. Thermal destruction of the small weed seedlings can be done with a flame weeder, which does not disturb the soil at all. There are both hand-held units for small gardens, and wheeled versions for larger gardens. No-Till Approach A no-till approach to creating a stale seed bed is usually done on large commercial garden beds or in home gardens. It skips the soil tillage steps, but may involve removing enough plant residue to avoid problems with the tarps. The no-till stale seed bed method involves covering the soil with plastic or silage tarps. There are two basic strategies: soil solarization and soil occultation. With soil solarization, the seed bed is covered with a clear plastic sheet which heats the soil to a temperature that kills pests, pathogens, and weeds. With occultation, black plastic or silage tarps are laid over the soil, creating a moist and warm environment in which weed seeds germinate, and then die due to lack of light. In either case, the seedbed is prepared and moistened prior to covering with the plastic or tarp. 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227550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTL%20Games	FTL Games	FTL Games (Faster Than Light) was the video game development division of Software Heaven Inc. FTL created several popular video games in the 1980s and early 1990s. Despite the company's small size, FTL products were consistently number-one sellers and received the highest critical acclaim and industry awards. FTL was founded by Wayne Holder in 1982. Holder started Software Heaven and FTL as its game division after founding Oasis Systems, which specialized in spell checking software. He hired Bruce Webster, with whom he graduated from high school, to head FTL. After Webster left FTL in 1984, Doug Bell joined FTL and served as the Technical Director until FTL ceased operations in 1996. The games FTL released several games throughout its relatively short history. Most went on to become best sellers and some even set new standards for games of their genres. SunDog Holder and Webster co-designed FTL's first game, SunDog: Frozen Legacy, a space trading game. It was released first for the Apple II in March 1984. Webster did most of the programming for the Apple II version, but resigned from FTL after the release of version 2.0. Doug Bell, Andy Jaros and Michael Newton significantly enhanced the game's graphics when porting the game to the Atari ST, releasing it in late 1985. SunDog became the best selling game on the Atari ST during the system's first year, and garnered lavish critical acclaim. The packaging cover art was designed and illustrated by David R. Darrow. All of FTL's subsequent games contain at least one subtle reference to Sundog. Oids Oids, an arcade game, was one of FTL's minor releases. The original Atari ST version was created by Dan Hewitt who did both the graphics and all of the programming. It received little attention with a later conversion to the Apple Macintosh, but received 5 Stars on Macworld 1990. However the original Atari ST release received rave reviews in the UK, where it remains a cult favourite. Later, after FTL ceased operations, an updated authorized shareware version of Oids for the Macintosh was developed and released by Kirk Baker. It was however eclipsed by the release of FTL's next game. As with SunDog, the packaging cover art was designed and illustrated by David R. Darrow. Dungeon Master Dungeon Master is a fantasy role-playing game, the first to feature real-time gameplay. The game included a number of user interface features that made gameplay particularly enjoyable, from a spell system that seemed to be "logical" to the intuitive way the player used the mouse to directly manipulate items in the simulated 3D view. It was released on the ST in 1987 and went on to become the ST's best selling product of all time. It was eventually ported to over a dozen platforms in six languages. It received too many awards to list here, including the first ever Special Award for Artistic Achievement from Computer Gaming World when it was initially released. Darrow did the cover artwork for this game as well. Chaos Strikes Back A Dungeon Master sequel, Chaos Strikes Back, was released in 1989 for most platforms, but notably excluding a PC version. It uses the same engine as Dungeon Master but features new creatures and graphics. Dungeon Master: Theron's Quest Dungeon Master: Theron's Quest was a simplified Dungeon Master version with new dungeons from 1992 for TurboGrafx-16 and the PC Engine. Dungeon Master II Dungeon Master II: The Legend of Skullkeep was the best-selling game of the week when it was released in Japan in December 1993. For some reason, it took two years before it was released in the US and Europe in 1995 by Interplay Productions. While the game had been anxiously awaited by legions of Dungeon Master players, by 1995 it was considered too dated and sold poorly. FTL broke up about this time. Dungeon Master Nexus Dungeon Master Nexus was released 1998 for Sega Saturn and only the Japanese market under the FTL and Software Heaven brand. It was published and maybe also developed by Victor Interactive Software Inc.. References External links FTL Games \| Dungeon Master Encyclopaedia Defunct video game companies of the United States Video game companies established in 1982 Defunct companies based in California 1982 establishments in California	[ 0.07936543971300125, -0.3450922966003418, 0.4566572308540344, 0.40925005078315735, -0.261625736951828, -0.09372424334287643, -0.31610849499702454, 0.35432857275009155, -0.3791583180427551, -0.11080789566040039, -0.2922687232494354, 0.1792161762714386, -0.13006724417209625, -0.06529063731431961, 0.13012287020683289, 0.014526098035275936, -0.1576366275548935, 0.23215335607528687, -0.13191179931163788, -0.4934387505054474, -0.21293507516384125, 0.18727101385593414, 0.12474167346954346, -0.4072037935256958, -0.25723621249198914, 0.08809944242238998, -0.030076658353209496, 0.6006964445114136, 0.13122054934501648, 0.07743425667285919, 0.179616317152977, 0.2702615559101105, -0.052003830671310425, -0.4141957461833954, -0.2975110113620758, -0.006457691080868244, 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227555	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous	Indigenous	Indigenous may refer to: Indigenous peoples Indigenous (ecology), presence in a region as the result of only natural processes, with no human intervention Indigenous (band), an American blues-rock band Indigenous (horse), a Hong Kong racehorse Indigenous (film), Australian, 2016 See also Disappeared indigenous women Indigenous Australians Indigenous language Indigenous religion Indigenous peoples in Canada Native (disambiguation)	[ 0.6644207835197449, -0.00462282495573163, -0.9667946696281433, 0.27338436245918274, -0.058325059711933136, 0.5273328423500061, 0.6946763396263123, 0.2846716046333313, -0.6318778991699219, -0.3028789162635803, -0.028550023213028908, 0.3137783706188202, -0.05201919749379158, 0.42733415961265564, -0.04730730876326561, 0.7382712960243225, -0.34332314133644104, 0.5322847366333008, -0.5698871612548828, 0.40317413210868835, -0.5828639268875122, -0.19147653877735138, 0.30467116832733154, 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227556	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1549%20in%20literature	1549 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1549. Events June 9 – The Booke of the Common Prayer is introduced in churches in England as required by the Act of Uniformity of January 15. It results in a Prayer Book Rebellion breaking out in the West Country. Sir Donald Monro, Dean of the Isles, produces the original manuscript of the Description of the Western Isles of Scotland (not published until 1582). unknown date – The content of the Guildhall Library in the City of London is acquired by Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, Lord Protector of England, for his personal use. New books Prose Joachim du Bellay – La Deffense et illustration de la langue françoyse Joannes Bunderius – Compendium concertationis hujus saeculi sapientium et theologorum Robert Wedderburn (probable) – The Complaynt of Scotland Drama Johannes Aal – Johannes der Täufer (John the Baptist) Lodovico Dolce Fabritia Giocasta (translation and adaptation of Euripides' The Phoenician Women) Poetry See 1549 in poetry Births March 11 – Hendrik Laurenszoon Spiegel, Dutch philosopher and grammarian (died 1612) December 24 – Kaspar Ulenberg, theologian and Bible translator (died 1617) unknown dates Pietro Alagona, Italian theologian (died 1624) Nikola Vitov Gučetić, Croatian statesman, philosopher and science writer (died 1610) Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas, Spanish historian (died 1626) Thomas Stephens, Jesuit writer and linguist (died 1619) Deaths January 23 – Johannes Honter, Romanian humanist theologian (born 1498) January 28 – Elia Levita, Hebrew grammarian, scholar and poet (born 1469) March 25 – Veit Dietrich, German theologian (born 1506) April – Andrew Boorde, traveller, physician and writer (born 1490) August – Jacob Ziegler, humanist and theologian (born c.1470) November 25 – Jean de Gagny, French theologian December 21 – Marguerite de Navarre, French princess, poet, playwright and short story writer (born 1492) unknown date – Daniel Bomberg, Flemish printer (born c.1483) probable – Leonard Cox, humanist scholar and rhetorician (born c. 1495) References 1549 books Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.2741330862045288, 0.010298310779035091, -0.3064334988594055, -0.0519547164440155, -0.7214322090148926, -0.07708974182605743, 0.48006749153137207, 0.5726845264434814, -0.772260308265686, -0.4893036484718323, -0.2460743635892868, 0.24251006543636322, -0.004863539710640907, 0.21780827641487122, 0.33054861426353455, -0.13262581825256348, 0.5103001594543457, -0.1724906712770462, 0.16765166819095612, -0.5543923377990723, -0.35625651478767395, -0.28367799520492554, 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227557	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1548%20in%20literature	1548 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1548. Events unknown dates Hôtel de Bourgogne opens as a theatre in Paris. Roger Ascham becomes tutor to Princess Elizabeth, the future Queen Elizabeth I of England. New books Prose Mikael Agricola – Se Wsi Testamenti (first translation of New Testament into Finnish) Edward Hall (posthumously) – The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancastre and Yorke (commonly called Hall's Chronicle) Gruffudd Hiraethog – (posthumous collection of Welsh proverbs by William Salesbury) Martynas Mažvydas – The Simple Words of Catechism (first printed book in Lithuanian) Catherine Parr – The Lamentation of a Sinner Paolo Pino – William Salesbury – A Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe Nicholas Udall – The first tome or volume of the Paraphrase of Erasmus vpon the newe testamente Thomas Vicary – Drama John Bale – Kynge Johan Poetry See 1548 in poetry Births May – Carel van Mander, Dutch painter and poet (died 1606) July 8 – Kim Jang-saeng, Korean scholar, politician and writer (died 1631) September 2 – Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian writer on architecture (died 1616) November – André Guijon, French orator (died 1631) November 27 – Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (died 1598) Unknown date – Luis Barahona de Soto, Spanish poet (died 1595) Deaths February 26 – Lorenzino de' Medici, Italian writer, 33 June 6 – João de Castro, Portuguese explorer and writer, 48 October 27 – Johannes Dantiscus, Polish poet and bishop, 63 Unknown date – Cristoforo di Messisbugo, Italian food writer References Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.33816903829574585, -0.028538884595036507, -0.30740582942962646, -0.08759965747594833, -0.745066225528717, -0.1383092850446701, 0.48882415890693665, 0.4979114830493927, -0.7530821561813354, -0.4338420331478119, -0.19273823499679565, 0.17331641912460327, 0.026828913018107414, 0.2420448660850525, 0.37113156914711, -0.18016178905963898, 0.5208818912506104, -0.15568488836288452, 0.18310482800006866, -0.50364089012146, -0.2684516906738281, -0.20192848145961761, 0.789496123790741, -0.25664612650871277, 0.32319313287734985, -0.4801769256591797, 0.4966173768043518, -0.2654312551021576, 0.02756672166287899, 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227558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1547%20in%20literature	1547 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1547. Events July 20 – On the death of the Alsatian scholar Beatus Rhenanus, his personal collection of around 670 books is bequeathed to the Humanist Library of Sélestat, where it remains intact in the 21st century. unknown date – Japanese Buddhist poet and diplomat Sakugen Shūryō leads a mission sent by the Ashikaga shogunate to the court of the Jiajing Emperor in Beijing. New books Prose Certain Sermons or Homilies Appointed to Be Read in Churches, book 1 Andrés de Olmos – Arte para aprender la lengua mexicana Martynas Mažvydas – The Simple Words of Catechism (first printed book in Lithuanian) Catherine Parr – The Lamentation of a Sinner William Salesbury – A Dictionary in Englyshe and Welshe "Lucas Shepeherd" – John Bon and Mast Parson Gian Giorgio Trissino – Italia liberata dai Goti Drama Lodovico Dolce – Didone Poetry See 1547 in poetry Births September – Mateo Alemán, Spanish novelist, poet and biographer (died c. 1615) September 22 – Philipp Nicodemus Frischlin, German philologist, poet, playwright and polymath (died 1590) September 29 – Miguel de Cervantes, Spanish novelist, poet, and playwright (died 1616) Unknown dates Cristóbal Mosquera de Figueroa, Spanish poet (died 1610) Conrad Vetter, German Jesuit preacher and polemical writer (died 1622) Probable year – Maciej Stryjkowski, Polish historian and poet (died c. 1593) Deaths January – Pietro Bembo, Italian scholar and poet (born 1470) January 19 – Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, a founder of English Renaissance poetry (born 1516 or 1517) February 25 – Vittoria Colonna, Italian noblewoman and poet (born 1492) March 16 – François Vatable, French humanist scholar (born late 15th century) October or November – John Redford, English composer, poet and playwright (born c. 1500) Unknown dates Edward Hall, English historian, politician and lawyer ((born 1497) Valentin Ickelshamer, German grammarian (born c. 1500) Johannes Mensing, German Dominican theologian (born 1477) References Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.345388799905777, -0.06350205838680267, -0.3110463321208954, -0.2098625898361206, -0.6689059138298035, -0.035289615392684937, 0.5788741111755371, 0.5062974095344543, -0.7833200693130493, -0.3644872009754181, -0.2909706234931946, 0.3007437288761139, -0.06641586869955063, 0.0701744481921196, 0.34723424911499023, -0.2666037678718567, 0.560534656047821, 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227559	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1546%20in%20literature	1546 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1546. Events July 17 – Peter Faber, appointed by Pope Paul III to act as a peritus on behalf of the Holy See at the Council of Trent, arrives in Rome; exhausted by his journey; he dies a fortnight later. unknown date – Francisco de Moraes visits Paris for the second time, obtaining inspiration for his Palmerin d'Angleterre. New books Prose Sir John Prise of Brecon (anonymously) – Yn y lhyvyr hwnn (first book printed in Welsh) François Rabelais – Le Tiers Livre Drama Sperone Speroni – Canace (published) Poetry See 1546 in poetry Births March 27 – Johannes Piscator, German theologian (died 1625) May 21 – Madeleine de l'Aubespine, French poet and patron (died 1596) October 5 – Cyriakus Schneegass, German Lutheran pastor, composer and music theorist (died 1597) unknown dates Philippe Desportes, French poet (died 1606) Pierre de La Primaudaye, French Protestant writer (died 1619) Veronica Franco, Venetian poet and courtesan (died 1591) Daniel Adam z Veleslavína, Czech lexicographer, publisher and writer (died 1599) Deaths February 18 – Martin Luther, German theologian and reformer, 62 April 7 – Friedrich Myconius, German Lutheran theologian, 55 August 1 – Peter Faber, French Jesuit theologian, 40 August 3 – Étienne Dolet, French humanist writer and printer, 37, executed for heresy References Years of the 16th 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227560	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1545%20in%20literature	1545 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1545. Events April 2 – Italian scholar Pietro Bembo, on reading Giovanni Battista Ramusio's Description of Africa, a translation from dictation by Leo Africanus, comments: "I cannot imagine how a man could have so much detailed information about these things." New books Prose Roger Ascham – Toxophilus Girolamo Cardano – Ars Magna Bernard Etxepare – Linguae Vasconum Primitiae (first book printed in Basque language) Sir John Fortescue – De laudibus legum Angliae (written c. 1471) Catherine Parr – Prayers or Meditations (first book published by an English queen under her own name) Thomas Phaer – The Boke of Chyldren Poetry See 1545 in poetry Births May 1 – Franciscus Junius the elder, French theologian (died 02) June 6 – Jerome Gratian, Spanish Carmelite writer (died 1614) unknown date George Bannatyne, collector of Scottish poems (died 1608) Heinrich Bünting, German theologian and cartographer (died 1606) Probable year – John Gerard(e), English botanist and author of herbal (died 1612) Deaths April 3 – Antonio de Guevara, Spanish chronicler and moralist (born c. 1481) April 14 – Sir Thomas Clere, English poet July 7 – Pernette Du Guillet, French poet (born c. 1520) References Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.19134624302387238, 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227561	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1544%20in%20literature	1544 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1544. Events Summer – The engraver and publisher Cornelis Bos relocates from Antwerp to Paris, after becoming involved with an antisacerdotalist, free-thinking spiritualist sect. In his absence, he is declared to be exiled by the Council of Brabant. December 31 – Eleven-year-old Princess Elizabeth of England presents her stepmother, Catherine Parr, with a manuscript book entitled The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul. unknown dates The University of Paris prohibits the printing of any book not approved by the appropriate University officials. The first (partial) Latin translation of Achilles Tatius' Leucippe and Clitophon, made by Annibal della Croce (Crucejus), is published in Lyon. New books Prose Cardinal John Fisher – Psalmi seu precationes (posthumous) in an anonymous English translation by its sponsor, Catherine Parr, queen of King Henry VIII of England John Leland – Assertio inclytissimi Arturii regis Britanniae Sebastian Münster – Cosmographia Guillaume Postel – De orbis terrae concordia Domingo de Vico – Los Proverbios de Salomón, las Epístolas y los Evangelios de todo el año, en lengua mexicana ("The Proverbs of Solomon, the Epistles and Gospels for the whole year, in the Mexican tongue"; later prohibited by the Spanish Inquisition) Sefer HaYashar, printed in Venice Michael Stifel – Arithmetica integra Tripartito del Christianissimo y consolatorio doctor Juan Gerson, the first Mexican book with woodcut illustrations, published by Juan Pablos. William Turner – Avium praecipuarum, quarum apud Plinium et Aristotelem mentio est, brevis et succincta historia (Brief and Succinct Account of Chief Birds Mentioned by Pliny and Aristotle; first English book devoted wholly to birds) Vidus Vidius – Chirurgia Poetry See also 1544 in poetry Clément Marot – Œuvres (definitive edition) Births May 24 – William Gilbert, astronomer and natural philosopher (died 1603) Deaths September 12 – Clément Marot, French poet (born 1496) December – Denis Janot, French printer Unknown dates Pedro Damiano, Portuguese chess player and writer (born 1480) Nilakantha Somayaji, Keralan mathematician and astronomer (born 1444) References Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.27867525815963745, 0.11038973927497864, -0.23433758318424225, -0.14262047410011292, -0.8586462736129761, -0.0824592337012291, 0.5490536093711853, 0.2565540671348572, -0.7488880753517151, -0.428493857383728, -0.2305479794740677, 0.293131023645401, -0.13779081404209137, 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227562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1543%20in%20literature	1543 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1543. Events unknown date – In France: The Faculty of Theology of the University of Paris issues its first Index of prohibited (religious) books. Guillaume Rouillé sets up as a bookseller in Lyon. New books Prose Mikael Agricola – Abckiria (first book printed in Finnish) Nicolaus Copernicus – De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolution of the Heavenly Spheres) Martin Luther – Vom Schem Hamphoras Fernan Perez de Oliva, completed by Francisco Cervantes de Salazar – Dialogo de la dignidad del hombre Andreas Vesalius – De humani corporis fabrica libri septem (On the Fabric of the Human Body, in Seven Books) Benefizio della Morte di Cristo ("The Benefit of Christ's Death", attributed to Aonio Paleario) Drama Lodovico Dolce – Hecuba Poetry See 1543 in poetry Births February 4 – Giovanni Francesco Fara, Sardinian historian, geographer and clergyman February 25 – Sharaf Khan Bidlisi, politician, historian and poet (died 1603) November 2 – Kasper Franck, German theologian (died 1584) Unknown dates Louis Bellaud, Occitan language writer and poet (died 1588) Thomas Deloney, silk weaver and writer (died in or before 1600 in literature) Bartosz Paprocki, Polish and Czech historiographer, translator and poet (died 1614) Thomas Twyne, Elizabethan translator and physician (died 1613) Antonio Veneziano, Sicilian poet (died 1593) Deaths May 24 – Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish Renaissance mathematician and astronomer (born 1473) July 19 – Berthold of Chiemsee, German theologian (born 1465) Unknown date – Jan Dubčanský ze Zdenína, Moravian nobleman, printer of Moravia's first Czech-language book (born 1490) References Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.274322509765625, 0.03930622339248657, -0.3219040632247925, -0.1796712875366211, -0.8472777605056763, 0.011327821761369705, 0.6023405194282532, 0.3144972622394562, -0.708587110042572, -0.5869529247283936, -0.2067192792892456, 0.2296927124261856, -0.12314318865537643, 0.06991137564182281, 0.25818511843681335, -0.21587735414505005, 0.5693157315254211, -0.21671414375305176, 0.15004001557826996, -0.5457814931869507, -0.3504639267921448, -0.2797297239303589, 0.6819779276847839, -0.25642096996307373, 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227563	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1542%20in%20literature	1542 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1542. Events The diary begun by Luca Landucci is completed by an unknown hand. The earliest written example of the Romani language appears. New books Prose Paul Fagius – Liber Fidei seu Veritatis Edward Hall – The Union of the Two Noble and Illustrate Famelies of Lancastre & Yorke Poetry See 1542 in poetry Births December – Catherine Des Roches, French poet and writer (died 1587) unknown date – John of the Cross (Juan de Yepes y Álvarez), Castilian poet and friar (died 1591) Deaths January 10 – Gerard Geldenhouwer, Dutch historian (born 1482) June 14 – Christoph von Scheurl, German humanist writer (born 1481) October 11 – Sir Thomas Wyatt, English poet (born 1503) unknown date – Lucas Fernández, Spanish dramatist and musician, who wrote in the Leonese language (born c. 1474) References 1542 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.19707313179969788, 0.025409866124391556, -0.3086791932582855, -0.13154391944408417, -0.733524739742279, -0.1075066328048706, 0.48490703105926514, 0.3689349591732025, -0.7336750626564026, -0.5710221529006958, -0.2602928876876831, 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227565	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1541%20in%20literature	1541 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1541. Events Late August – Siege of Buda: Ottoman Bektashi dervish poet Gül Baba, companion of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, believed killed or died during or immediately after the Ottoman relief of Buda. Elia Levita's chivalric romance, the Bovo-Bukh, is first printed, the earliest published secular work in Yiddish. unknown dates The Gustav Vasa Bible, the first official translation of the entire Bible into Swedish, Biblia, Thet är All then Helgha Scrifft på Swensko, is published in Upsala. The first complete translation of the New Testament into Hungarian, Újszövetség, is the first book printed in Hungary, at Sárvár. John Calvin translates his Institutio Christianae religionis into French as L'Institution chrétienne. New books Prose George Buchanan Baptistes Jephtha Joachim Sterck van Ringelbergh – Drama Lodovico Dolce – Il ragazzo Giovanni Battista Giraldi – Orbecche Poetry Anonymous – The Schole House of Women Francesco Berni (died 1535) – Orlando innamorato Jacques Pelletier du Mans – Ars Poetica (translation into French from Latin of Horace) Births January 26 – Florent Chrestien, French satirist and Latin poet (died 1596) Deaths April 24 – Celio Calcagnini, Ferraran polymath and Latin poet (born 1479) August Gül Baba, Ottoman Bektashi dervish poet (birthdate unknown) Juan de Valdés, Spanish religious writer (born 1500) unknown date – Giovanni Guidiccioni, Italian bishop and poet (born 1480) References 1541 1541 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.21999463438987732, -0.005167856812477112, -0.2938504219055176, -0.16503746807575226, -0.7555719017982483, -0.06703916937112808, 0.5672889947891235, 0.4476713538169861, -0.7205865383148193, 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227566	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1540%20in%20literature	1540 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1540. Events July 22 – Klemens Janicki is appointed poeta laureatus by Pope Paul III. December 13 – John Standish's religious work is printed by Elisabeth Pickering, the first work known to be printed in London by a woman. unknown dates The first known book from the first printing press in North America, set up in Mexico City, is published, Manual de Adultos. Sir David Lyndsay's Middle Scots satirical morality play A Satire of the Three Estates is given a private first performance. Lazare de Baif travels with Pierre de Ronsard to Alsace, where they meet northern humanists. New books Prose Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo – Amadis de Gaula Book 1 (translated into French by Nicolas de Herberay des Essarts at request of Francis I of France) Hector Boece – Historia Scotorum (translated into Middle Scots by John Bellenden at request of James V of Scotland) Rösslin – The Byrth of Mankynde (, translation attributed to Richard Jonas) Georg Joachim Rheticus – De libris revolutionum Copernici narratio prima (abstract of Copernicus' De revolutionibus orbium coelestium) Poetry Tontada Siddhesavara – Shatsthala Jnanamrita Souterliedekens (Dutch metrical psalter dedicated to and perhaps compiled by Willem van Zuylen van Nijevelt) Approximate year Sir Thomas More – Lady Fortune Girolamo Schola – Births January 26 – Florent Chrestien, French satirist and Latin poet (died 1596) June 11 – Barnabe Googe, English pastoral poet and translator (died 1594) unknown dates Pierre de Bourdeille, seigneur de Brantôme, French soldier, historian and poet (died 1614) Rhys Cain, Welsh-language poet (died 1614) Frei Agostinho da Cruz (brother of Diogo Bernardes), Portuguese poet (died 1619) Deaths May 6 – Juan Luis Vives, Spanish humanist polymath (born 1493) May 22 – Francesco Guicciardini, Italian historian and statesman (born 1483) October 5 – Helius Eobanus Hessus, German Latin poet (born 1488) October – Robert Redman, London printer References 1540 1540 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.21085163950920105, 0.2907276749610901, -0.21183082461357117, -0.06464692205190659, -0.7079554200172424, -0.13282793760299683, 0.5058854818344116, 0.33752110600471497, -0.6822823286056519, -0.4823307991027832, -0.14829039573669434, 0.42878028750419617, 0.27563756704330444, 0.1437041461467743, 0.34543636441230774, 0.11314962804317474, 0.4554075002670288, -0.13822156190872192, 0.1954168826341629, -0.782803475856781, -0.3314097821712494, -0.0780690461397171, 0.49083125591278076, -0.14034786820411682, 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227569	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methodological%20individualism	Methodological individualism	In the social sciences, methodological individualism is the principle that subjective individual motivation explains social phenomena, rather than class or group dynamics which are (according to proponents of individualistic principles) illusory or artificial and therefore cannot truly explain market or social phenomena. This concept was introduced as an assumption in the social sciences by Max Weber, and discussed in his book Economy and Society. Methodological individualism is often contrasted with methodological holism and methodological pluralism. In economics In neoclassical economics, people's behavior is explained in terms of rational choices as constrained by prices and incomes. The neoclassical economist accepts individuals' preferences as given. Gary Becker and George Stigler provide a forceful statement of this view: On the traditional view, an explanation of economic phenomena that reaches a difference in tastes between people or times is the terminus of the argument: the problem is abandoned at this point to whoever studies and explains tastes (psychologists? anthropologists? phrenologists? sociobiologists?). On our preferred interpretation, one never reaches this impasse: the economist continues to search for differences in prices or incomes to explain any differences or changes in behavior. Criticisms Economist Mark Blaug has criticized over-reliance on methodological individualism in economics, saying that "it is helpful to note what methodological individualism strictly interpreted [...] would imply for economics. In effect, it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones [...] this amounts to saying goodbye to almost the whole of received macroeconomics. There must be something wrong with a methodological principle that has such devastating implications". Similarly, the economist Alan Kirman has critiqued general equilibrium theory and modern economics for its "fundamentally individualistic approach to constructing economic models", and showed that an individualist competitive equilibrium is not necessarily stable or unique. However, stability and uniqueness can be achieved if aggregate variables are added, and as a result he argued "the idea that we should start at the level of the isolated individual is one which we may well have to abandon". See also Austrian School Praxeology References Further reading Agassi, Joseph. "Methodological individualism." The British journal of sociology 11.3 (1960): 244-270. Kenneth J. Arrow (1994), "Methodological Individualism and Social Knowledge," American Economic Review, 84(2), pp. 1–9. Kaushik Basu (2008), "Methodological Individualism," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, New York : Palgrave Macmillan Abstract. Brian Epstein (2009), "Ontological Individualism Reconsidered," Synthese 166(1), pp. 187–213. Friedrich A. Hayek (1948), Individualism and Economic Order. University of Chicago Press. Geoffrey Hodgson, (2007) "Meanings of Methodological Individualism", Journal of Economic Methodology 14(2), June, pp. 211–226. Harold Kincaid (2008), "Individualism versus Holism," The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, 2nd Edition, New York: Palgrave Macmillan Abstract. Steven Lukes (1968), "Methodological Individualism Reconsidered," British Journal of Sociology 19, pp. 119–29. Ludwig von Mises, "The Principle of Methodological Individualism", chapt. 2 in Human Action Eprint. Joseph Schumpeter (1909), "On the Concept of Social Value", Quarterly Journal of Economics, 23(2), February, pp. 213–32. Lars Udéhn (2002), "The Changing Face of Methodological Individualism", Annual Review of Sociology, 28, pp. 479–507. 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227570	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Venables-Vernon-Harcourt	Edward Venables-Vernon-Harcourt	Hon. Edward Venables-Vernon-Harcourt (10 October 1757 – 5 November 1847) was a Church of England bishop. He was the Bishop of Carlisle from 1791 to 1807 and then the Archbishop of York until his death. He was the third son of the George Venables-Vernon, 1st Baron Vernon (1709–1780), and took the additional name of Harcourt on succeeding to the property of his cousin, the last Earl Harcourt, in 1831. Biography Edward Venables-Vernon was born at Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire on 10 October 1757. He was educated at Westminster School; matriculated at Christ Church, Oxford on 2 July 1774 ; was elected fellow of All Souls College in 1777 ; and graduated B.C.L. 27 April 1786, and D.C.L. 4 May following. After his ordination he was instituted to the family living of Sudbury. He became a canon of Christ Church, Oxford, 13 October 1785, and a prebendary of Gloucester on 10 November in the same year . He resigned his prebendal stall in 1791, but held his other appointments to 1808. On 18 August 1791 he was nominated as the Bishop of Carlisle in succession to John Douglas and was consecrated on 6 November following. For 16 years he administered the affairs of the see of Carlisle with good sense and discretion, spending more than the whole income of the see upon the wants of his diocese. Archbishop of York After the death of Archbishop William Markham. Venables-Vernon was nominated on 26 November 1807 as archbishop of York, and was confirmed in St. James's Church, Westminster on 19 January 1808. In the same year, on 20 January, he was gazetted a privy councillor, and made Lord High Almoner to George III, an office which he also held under Queen Victoria's reign. According to the account of Dean Alford: "Archbishop Harcourt was very fond of hunting, so fond that he was very near refusing the archbishopric because he thought if he accepted he should have to give it up. He consulted a friend, who said that he must take counsel with others. 'Of course I should never join the meet,’ said the Archbishop, 'but you know I might fall in with the hounds by accident.' After some time the friend came back and said that on the whole the party considered that the Archbishop might hunt, provided he did not shout." Venables-Vernon was a member of the queen's council who had charge of George III during his illness. He was an eloquent speaker, and occasionally spoke in the House of Lords on ecclesiastical matters, but usually abstained from political contentions. He lived under five successive monarchs, and was respected for benevolence and simplicity of character. On 15 January 1831 he took the surname of Harcourt only on inheriting the large estates of the Harcourt family, which came to him on the death of his cousin, Field-marshal William, third and last Earl Harcourt. In 1835 he was appointed one of the first members of the ecclesiastical commission. In 1838 he was offered the renewal of the Harcourt peerage, but declined it, not wishing to be fettered in his parliamentary votes. York Minster twice suffered fires during his primacy, 1829 and 1841, and he contributed largely to both restorations. Archbishop Harcourt preached his valedictory sermon in York Minster on 13 November 1838. However Harcourt continued to enjoy good health, and as late as 1 November 1847 visited York and inspected the repairs of the chapterhouse. He died at the palace, Bishopthorpe, near York, on 5 November 1847, and was buried at Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, 13 November Family On 5 February 1784 he married Lady Anne Leveson-Gower, third daughter of Granville Leveson-Gower, 1st Marquess of Stafford, and they had sixteen children. His wife predeceased him at Bishopthorpe Palace on 16 November 1832, aged 72. His second son, the Revd. Leveson Vernon Harcourt, was chancellor of York, an author of The Doctrine of the Deluge and of other theological works. His fourth son was William Vernon Harcourt, the founder of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Two of his sons became Admirals and his youngest daughter, Georgiana, distinguished herself as a translator. The children included: George Granville Vernon-Harcourt (6 Aug 1785 – 19 Dec 1861) The Reverend Leveson Venables-Vernon-Harcourt (1788 – 26 Jul 1860) Reverend William Vernon Harcourt (Jun 1789 – 1 Apr 1871) Admiral Frederick Edward Vernon-Harcourt (15 Jun 1790 – 1 May 1883), forefather to the 11th Lord Vernon Lt.-Col. Henry Venables-Vernon-Harcourt (1791 – 26 Feb 1853) Granville Harcourt-Vernon (26 Jul 1792 – 8 Dec 1879) Vice-Admiral Octavius Henry Cyril Harcourt (26 Dec 1793 – 14 Aug 1863) The Reverend Charles Vernon-Harcourt (14 Nov 1798 – 10 Dec 1870) Colonel Francis Venables-Vernon-Harcourt (6 Jan 1801 – 23 Apr 1880) Egerton Vernon-Harcourt (1803 - 19 Oct 1883 Whitwell Hall, Yorkshire), who was a president of the United Debating Society in 1824 while educated at Christ Church, Oxford. Louisa Augusta Venables-Vernon-Harcourt (c. 1804 – 4 Aug 1869), who married Sir John Vanden-Bempde-Johnstone, Baronet, of Hackness, on 14 June 1825 at St. George's, Hanover Square. He died 24 Feb 1869, the widow dying only a few months later on 4 Aug 1869, at Eridge Castle, Kent. Georgiana Charlotte Frances Harcourt (1807–1886) Cato Street conspiracy As a director of the Ancient Concerts, Harcourt entertained his fellow-directors (the prince regent and Prince Adolphus – the Duke of Cambridge, the Duke of Cumberland (later the King of Hanover), and the Duke of Wellington) at his house in Grosvenor Square on 23 February 1821. On the same night the Cato Street conspirators had designed the murder of the cabinet ministers at the house adjoining Harcourt's, where the ministers had agreed to dine with Lord Harrowby. Harcourt's publications A Sermon preached before the Lords on the Anniversary of the Martyrdom of King Charles the First, 1794. A Sermon preached before the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, 1798. A Sermon preached at the Coronation of George IV, 1821, which was twice reprinted. An account of the life of Margaret Godolphin who died in 1678 was written by John Evelyn and this was passed down through his family to Harcourt. Harcourt allowed it to be published in 1847 with the assistance of the Bishop of Oxford. See also Vernon Islands References Archbishops of York Alumni of Christ Church, Oxford 1757 births 1847 deaths Bishops of Carlisle Doctors of Divinity Fellows of All Souls College, Oxford Edward People educated at Westminster School, London Younger sons of barons 18th-century Church of England bishops 19th-century Anglican archbishops People from Sudbury, Derbyshire 18th-century Anglican theologians 19th-century Anglican theologians	[ -0.3047620356082916, 0.392580509185791, -0.1370144635438919, 0.11872822046279907, 0.12356185913085938, 0.5432436466217041, 0.1835639625787735, -0.018779024481773376, -0.8382500410079956, -0.28664618730545044, 0.10114986449480057, 0.6881220936775208, -0.18555687367916107, 0.1729143261909485, 0.07818309217691422, -0.06493797898292542, -0.4210810959339142, 0.24765996634960175, -0.03104589879512787, -1.1182928085327148, 0.07593729346990585, -0.23977722227573395, 0.3828284740447998, 0.07470694184303284, 0.2949157953262329, 0.03510313481092453, 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227571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astro-Creep%3A%202000%20%E2%80%93%20Songs%20of%20Love%2C%20Destruction%20and%20Other%20Synthetic%20Delusions%20of%20the%20Electric%20Head	Astro-Creep: 2000 – Songs of Love, Destruction and Other Synthetic Delusions of the Electric Head	Astro-Creep: 2000 – Songs of Love, Destruction and Other Synthetic Delusions of the Electric Head (or simply Astro-Creep: 2000) is the fourth and final studio album by American heavy metal band White Zombie, released on April 11, 1995, by Geffen Records. The album proved to be their most commercially successful recording, peaking at number six on the Billboard 200 with the aid of the popular hit singles "More Human than Human" and "Super-Charger Heaven". It was the band's only album to feature John Tempesta on drums. Production The album was highly anticipated due to the surprise success of the band's previous release La Sexorcisto: Devil Music Volume One. Ivan DePrume, the drummer on La Sexorcisto, had left the band to start Burningsound studios during their touring sessions for that album. The band later recruited former Exodus and Testament drummer John Tempesta for the recording of this album. The album had help from significant industrial musicians, such as the keyboard work from Charlie Clouser, who had worked with artists like Nine Inch Nails, Rammstein, Marilyn Manson, Killing Joke, and more. They had also hired Terry Date (Deftones, Pantera, Soundgarden) to produce Astro-Creep: 2000 for them. According to J., the album comprises seventy-two track recordings, forty-eight of which are analog and twenty-four being digital recordings. The entire album took three months to write and another three to record. For the album, the band had a much bigger recording budget and more freedom in time. Music and lyrics The album is much heavier than La Sexorcisto and has been called "white-trash-on-acid metal" by Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic. The band also down-tuned the guitars and bass to give it the darker sound that the songs required, going from standard E tuning to dropped C# (1.5 steps below standard E). Much of the lyrics are also darker and more disturbing than on the previous album, and are arranged more like twisted poetry than La Sexorcisto's pseudo-rap scores, dealing with murder, the undead, blasphemy, and satanic elements. As with the previous two albums, many of the songs feature snippets of dialogue from horror and cult films including The Omega Man, Shaft, The Haunting, The Curse of Frankenstein and To the Devil a Daughter. The title "More Human Than Human" is the motto of the Tyrell Corp. from the film Blade Runner and "I am the nexus one, I want more life fucker, I ain't done, yeah" is an artistic rephrasing of lines from Blade Runner. Rob has said he favors this album to the previous one, stating, "I was never that happy with it [La Sexorcisto]. In some respects, it was probably the best thing we could do at the time under the circumstances; and that this record was exactly what we wanted it to sound like." Reception The album is White Zombie's best-selling album, being certified Double Platinum by the RIAA and selling over 2,600,000 copies in America since its release. There was also a limited 50,000 pressings of this album on see-through blue vinyl. The album has been certified by CAN platinum. The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album and the band's biggest hit, "More Human than Human", nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1996. To promote the album, music videos for "More Human than Human", "Electric Head Pt. 2 (The Ecstasy)", and a live video for "Super-Charger Heaven" were released. In 1995, "More Human than Human" won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Rock Video and was considered by Rob Zombie to be his favorite White Zombie video. There were also plans to start filming a video for "Blood, Milk and Sky" after Christmas as well as eventually filming a video for every song on the album. However, these plans were scrapped when the band dissolved. Accolades Track listing I "Blood, Milk and Sky" contains the hidden track "Where the Sidewalk Ends, the Bug Parade Begins" at 8:45, after 3 minutes of silence. On the digital version, however, the hidden track is its own 2:33 track. Sample overview Personnel Adapted from the Astro-Creep: 2000 – Songs of Love, Destruction and Other Synthetic Delusions of the Electric Head liner notes. White Zombie Rob Zombie – vocals, illustrations, art direction Jay Yuenger – guitars Sean Yseult – bass, art direction John Tempesta – drums Additional musicians Charlie Clouser – keyboards, programming Production and additional personnel Terry Date – production, recording, mixing Lamont Hyde – mixing assistant Ted Jensen – mastering Wade Norton – recording assistant Ulrich Wild – recording Chart positions Album Singles Release history References External links White Zombie (band) albums 1995 albums Geffen Records albums Albums produced by Terry Date	[ 0.1452038586139679, 0.626707136631012, -0.07381663471460342, 0.2373255044221878, -0.45101049542427063, 0.3499827980995178, 0.32138243317604065, -0.14677347242832184, 0.2127305269241333, 0.08903328329324722, 0.38697418570518494, 0.6742514967918396, -0.6252304315567017, 0.11689441651105881, -0.11619552224874496, 0.3735427260398865, 0.546337902545929, -0.11782075464725494, -0.1314103603363037, -0.7406444549560547, 0.5054877400398254, 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227572	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic%20equilibrium	Economic equilibrium	In economics, economic equilibrium is a situation in which economic forces such as supply and demand are balanced and in the absence of external influences the (equilibrium) values of economic variables will not change. For example, in the standard text perfect competition, equilibrium occurs at the point at which quantity demanded and quantity supplied are equal. Market equilibrium in this case is a condition where a market price is established through competition such that the amount of goods or services sought by buyers is equal to the amount of goods or services produced by sellers. This price is often called the competitive price or market clearing price and will tend not to change unless demand or supply changes, and quantity is called the "competitive quantity" or market clearing quantity. But the concept of equilibrium in economics also applies to imperfectly competitive markets, where it takes the form of a Nash equilibrium. Understanding Economic Equilibrium An economic equilibrium is a situation when the economic agent cannot change the situation by adopting any strategy. To fully grasp the concept of economic equilibrium, it must be highlighted that it has been borrowed from the physical sciences. Take a system where physical forces are balanced for instance.This economically interpreted means no further change ensues. Properties of equilibrium Three basic properties of equilibrium in general have been proposed by Huw Dixon. These are: Equilibrium property P1: The behavior of agents is consistent. Equilibrium property P2: No agent has an incentive to change its behavior. Equilibrium property P3: Equilibrium is the outcome of some dynamic process (stability). Example: competitive equilibrium In a competitive equilibrium, supply equals demand. Property P1 is satisfied, because at the equilibrium price the amount supplied is equal to the amount demanded. Property P2 is also satisfied. Demand is chosen to maximize utility given the market price: no one on the demand side has any incentive to demand more or less at the prevailing price. Likewise supply is determined by firms maximizing their profits at the market price: no firm will want to supply any more or less at the equilibrium price. Hence, agents on neither the demand side nor the supply side will have any incentive to alter their actions. To see whether Property P3 is satisfied, consider what happens when the price is above the equilibrium. In this case there is an excess supply, with the quantity supplied exceeding that demanded. This will tend to put downward pressure on the price to make it return to equilibrium. Likewise where the price is below the equilibrium point there is a shortage in supply leading to an increase in prices back to equilibrium. Not all equilibria are "stable" in the sense of equilibrium property P3. It is possible to have competitive equilibria that are unstable. However, if an equilibrium is unstable, it raises the question of reaching it. Even if it satisfies properties P1 and P2, the absence of P3 means that the market can only be in the unstable equilibrium if it starts off there. In most simple microeconomic stories of supply and demand a static equilibrium is observed in a market; however, economic equilibrium can be also dynamic. Equilibrium may also be economy-wide or general, as opposed to the partial equilibrium of a single market. Equilibrium can change if there is a change in demand or supply conditions. For example, an increase in supply will disrupt the equilibrium, leading to lower prices. Eventually, a new equilibrium will be attained in most markets. Then, there will be no change in price or the amount of output bought and sold — until there is an exogenous shift in supply or demand (such as changes in technology or tastes). That is, there are no endogenous forces leading to the price or the quantity. Example: Monopolist equilibrium In a monopoly, marginal revenue (MR) equals marginal cost (MC). The equilibrium quantity is obtained from where MR and MC intersect and the equilibrium price can be found on the demand curve where MR = MC. Property P1 is not satisfied because the amount demand and the amount supplied at the equilibrium price are not equal. Property P2 is not satisfied. Because the monopolist's profit-maximizing quantity is different from the socially-maximizing quantity, consumer's have an incentive to demand more at the equilibrium price. However, at the market price, monopolists maximize their profits so they have no incentive to change their price. Therefore, agents on the demand side have an incentive to alter their actions while the agents on the supply side do not have any incentive to alter their actions. In order to determine if Property P3 is satisfied, the same situations used to determine P3 in a competitive equilibrium can be used. When there is an excess in supply, monopolists will realize that the equilibrium is not at the profit-maximizing quantity and will put upward pressure on the price to make it return to equilibrium. This is the same case when the price is above the equilibrium and the shortage in supply leads the monopolist to decrease the supply to return to the profit-maximizing quantity. Therefore the equilibrium is the result of stability. Example: Nash equilibrium The Nash equilibrium is widely used in economics as the main alternative to competitive equilibrium. It is used whenever there is a strategic element to the behavior of agents and the "price taking" assumption of competitive equilibrium is inappropriate. The first use of the Nash equilibrium was in the Cournot duopoly as developed by Antoine Augustin Cournot in his 1838 book. Both firms produce a homogenous product: given the total amount supplied by the two firms, the (single) industry price is determined using the demand curve. This determines the revenues of each firm (the industry price times the quantity supplied by the firm). The profit of each firm is then this revenue minus the cost of producing the output. Clearly, there is a strategic interdependence between the two firms. If one firm varies its output, this will in turn affect the market price and so the revenue and profits of the other firm. We can define the payoff function which gives the profit of each firm as a function of the two outputs chosen by the firms. Cournot assumed that each firm chooses its own output to maximize its profits given the output of the other firm. The Nash equilibrium occurs when both firms are producing the outputs which maximize their own profit given the output of the other firm. In terms of the equilibrium properties, we can see that P2 is satisfied: in a Nash equilibrium, neither firm has an incentive to deviate from the Nash equilibrium given the output of the other firm. P1 is satisfied since the payoff function ensures that the market price is consistent with the outputs supplied and that each firms profits equal revenue minus cost at this output. Is the equilibrium stable as required by P3? Cournot himself argued that it was stable using the stability concept implied by best response dynamics. The reaction function for each firm gives the output which maximizes profits (best response) in terms of output for a firm in terms of a given output of the other firm. In the standard Cournot model this is downward sloping: if the other firm produces a higher output, the best response involves producing less. Best response dynamics involves firms starting from some arbitrary position and then adjusting output to their best-response to the previous output of the other firm. So long as the reaction functions have a slope of less than -1, this will converge to the Nash equilibrium. However, this stability story is open to much criticism. As Dixon argues: "The crucial weakness is that, at each step, the firms behave myopically: they choose their output to maximize their current profits given the output of the other firm, but ignore the fact that the process specifies that the other firm will adjust its output...". There are other concepts of stability that have been put forward for the Nash equilibrium, evolutionary stability for example. Normative evaluation Most economists, for example Paul Samuelson, caution against attaching a normative meaning (value judgement) to the equilibrium price. For example, food markets may be in equilibrium at the same time that people are starving (because they cannot afford to pay the high equilibrium price). Indeed, this occurred during the Great Famine in Ireland in 1845–52, where food was exported though people were starving, due to the greater profits in selling to the English – the equilibrium price of the Irish-British market for potatoes was above the price that Irish farmers could afford, and thus (among other reasons) they starved. Interpretations In most interpretations, classical economists such as Adam Smith maintained that the free market would tend towards economic equilibrium through the price mechanism. That is, any excess supply (market surplus or glut) would lead to price cuts, which decrease the quantity supplied (by reducing the incentive to produce and sell the product) and increase the quantity demanded (by offering consumers bargains), automatically abolishing the glut. Similarly, in an unfettered market, any excess demand (or shortage) would lead to price increases, reducing the quantity demanded (as customers are priced out of the market) and increasing in the quantity supplied (as the incentive to produce and sell a product rises). As before, the disequilibrium (here, the shortage) disappears. This automatic abolition of non-market-clearing situations distinguishes markets from central planning schemes, which often have a difficult time getting prices right and suffer from persistent shortages of goods and services. This view came under attack from at least two viewpoints. Modern mainstream economics points to cases where equilibrium does not correspond to market clearing (but instead to unemployment), as with the efficiency wage hypothesis in labor economics. In some ways parallel is the phenomenon of credit rationing, in which banks hold interest rates low to create an excess demand for loans, so they can pick and choose whom to lend to. Further, economic equilibrium can correspond with monopoly, where the monopolistic firm maintains an artificial shortage to prop up prices and to maximize profits. Finally, Keynesian macroeconomics points to underemployment equilibrium, where a surplus of labor (i.e., cyclical unemployment) co-exists for a long time with a shortage of aggregate demand. Solving for the competitive equilibrium price To find the equilibrium price, one must either plot the supply and demand curves, or solve for the expressions for supply and demand being equal. An example may be: In the diagram, depicting simple set of supply and demand curves, the quantity demanded and supplied at price P are equal. At any price above P supply exceeds demand, while at a price below P the quantity demanded exceeds that supplied. In other words, prices where demand and supply are out of balance are termed points of disequilibrium, creating shortages and oversupply. Changes in the conditions of demand or supply will shift the demand or supply curves. This will cause changes in the equilibrium price and quantity in the market. Consider the following demand and supply schedule: The equilibrium price in the market is $5.00 where demand and supply are equal at 12,000 units If the current market price was $3.00 – there would be excess demand for 8,000 units, creating a shortage. If the current market price was $8.00 – there would be excess supply of 12,000 units. When there is a shortage in the market we see that, to correct this disequilibrium, the price of the good will be increased back to a price of $5.00, thus lessening the quantity demanded and increasing the quantity supplied thus that the market is in balance. When there is an oversupply of a good, such as when price is above $6.00, then we see that producers will decrease the price to increase the quantity demanded for the good, thus eliminating the excess and taking the market back to equilibrium. Influences changing price A change in equilibrium price may occur through a change in either the supply or demand schedules. For instance, starting from the above supply-demand configuration, an increased level of disposable income may produce a new demand schedule, such as the following: Here we see that an increase in disposable income would increase the quantity demanded of the good by 2,000 units at each price. This increase in demand would have the effect of shifting the demand curve rightward. The result is a change in the price at which quantity supplied equals quantity demanded. In this case we see that the two now equal each other at an increased price of $6.00. Note that a decrease in disposable income would have the exact opposite effect on the market equilibrium. We will also see similar behaviour in price when there is a change in the supply schedule, occurring through technological changes, or through changes in business costs. An increase in technological usage or know-how or a decrease in costs would have the effect of increasing the quantity supplied at each price, thus reducing the equilibrium price. On the other hand, a decrease in technology or increase in business costs will decrease the quantity supplied at each price, thus increasing equilibrium price. The process of comparing two static equilibria to each other, as in the above example, is known as comparative statics. For example, since a rise in consumers' income leads to a higher price (and a decline in consumers' income leads to a fall in the price — in each case the two things change in the same direction), we say that the comparative static effect of consumer income on the price is positive. This is another way of saying that the total derivative of price with respect to consumer income is greater than zero. Dynamic equilibrium Whereas in a static equilibrium all quantities have unchanging values, in a dynamic equilibrium various quantities may all be growing at the same rate, leaving their ratios unchanging. For example, in the neoclassical growth model, the working population is growing at a rate which is exogenous (determined outside the model, by non-economic forces). In dynamic equilibrium, output and the physical capital stock also grow at that same rate, with output per worker and the capital stock per worker unchanging. Similarly, in models of inflation a dynamic equilibrium would involve the price level, the nominal money supply, nominal wage rates, and all other nominal values growing at a single common rate, while all real values are unchanging, as is the inflation rate. The process of comparing two dynamic equilibria to each other is known as comparative dynamics. For example, in the neoclassical growth model, starting from one dynamic equilibrium based in part on one particular saving rate, a permanent increase in the saving rate leads to a new dynamic equilibrium in which there are permanently higher capital per worker and productivity per worker, but an unchanged growth rate of output; so it is said that in this model the comparative dynamic effect of the saving rate on capital per worker is positive but the comparative dynamic effect of the saving rate on the output growth rate is zero. Disequilibrium Disequilibrium characterizes a market that is not in equilibrium. Disequilibrium can occur extremely briefly or over an extended period of time. Typically in financial markets it either never occurs or only momentarily occurs, because trading takes place continuously and the prices of financial assets can adjust instantaneously with each trade to equilibrate supply and demand. At the other extreme, many economists view labor markets as being in a state of disequilibrium—specifically one of excess supply—over extended periods of time. Goods markets are somewhere in between: prices of some goods, while sluggish in adjusting due to menu costs, long-term contracts, and other impediments, do not stay at disequilibrium levels indefinitely. Example: public transport in Armenia In the city of Yerevan, Armenia, there is an extensive public transport network. The price for most lines is forced by the government to be 100AMD or 50AMD, hence the prices are not allowed to fluctuate to respond to the changes in demand. Consequently, most lines are unable to match the demand and buses become overcrowded for most of the day and this market stays in an economic disequilibrium as long as the law is in place because demand consistently exceeds supply. See also Exchange value Labor theory of value Law of value Prices of production Real prices and ideal prices Asset pricing#General Equilibrium Asset Pricing References External links Equilibrium and Explanation, chapter 2 of Surfing Economics by Huw Dixon Market (economics) Market structure Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics)	[ -0.37339919805526733, -0.3097439408302307, 0.015707839280366898, 0.13360609114170074, -0.04011242836713791, 0.4966878592967987, -0.045247454196214676, 0.2689368724822998, -0.12653125822544098, -0.8037056922912598, -0.3450629711151123, 0.5362534523010254, -0.5884783864021301, 0.5583845376968384, 0.09006331861019135, 0.476762592792511, 0.3831251263618469, 0.3903716504573822, 0.15119969844818115, 0.03523088991641998, -0.24702514708042145, 0.22346346080303192, 0.07722944021224976, 0.13774991035461426, 0.5563056468963623, -0.7289996147155762, 0.2482459396123886, 0.06725766509771347, 0.2282494157552719, 0.3421810269355774, -0.1413431316614151, 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227575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%20Lamb	Pet Lamb	Pet Lamb were a Dublin-based rock band formed in 1991. They released two albums before splitting in 2000. History The band's initial line-up was Brian Mooney (vocals, guitar), Dylan Philips (vocals, guitar), Kevin Talbot (bass guitar), and James Lillis (drums). Irish independent record label Blunt Records released two EP's, Paranoid From The Neck Down (1993) and Spent (1994). Influenced by The Jesus Lizard and Butthole Surfers, they played support slots for Therapy?, Nomeansno, Babes In Toyland. In February 1994 they recorded their first Peel session for BBC Radio. This brought interest from Roadrunner Records, who signed them, releasing the single "Black Mask" in late 1994, before combining the tracks from the Blunt EPs for the Sweaty Handshake LP. The album, released in January 1995, got a 9/12 rating from Hot Press. They released the single "Where Did Your Plans Go?" in April 1995, described by Melody Maker as "noisy nonsense". In July they recorded their second Peel session. In November that year they recorded their first studio album for Roadrunner with producer Martin Bisi in New York City, called High Anxiety. Although artwork for the album, and for its lead single, "Holes", was drafted, neither were ultimately released as the band were dropped by the label in mid 1996. In 1996 drummer James Lillis left the band and was replaced by multi instrumentalist David Lacey. In summer 1997 they recorded their final album Tenderness, released on Blunt Records in April 1998. The band split up in 2000. The lost album High Anxiety was released on Spotify in 2014. Members Brian Mooney – vocals, guitar (1991–2000) Dylan Philips – vocals, guitar (1991–2000) Kevin Talbot – bass guitar (1991–2000) James Lillis – drums (1991–1996) Dave Lacey – drums, vocals (1996–2000) Discography Studio albums High Anxiety (2014), Spotify (recorded in 1995) Tenderness (1998), Blunt Compilations Sweaty Handshake (1995), Roadrunner EPs Paranoid From The Neck Down (1993), Blunt Spent (1994), Blunt Singles "Black Mask" (1994), Roadrunner "Where Did Your Plans Go?" (1995), Roadrunner Compilation appearances "Son of John Doe" : Volume Twelve (1994) CD & LP "Don't Phase Me" : Zip Up Your Boots for the Showbands (1996) CD "Baby, I Love You" : Hot Shots (1998) CD given away with Hot Press magazine "Song About Salt" : Three Degrees of Separation (1998) CD given away with Hot Press magazine "Six String Goal (remixed by Decal)" : There's Gonna Be Some Rockin''' (1999) Cassette given away at AC/DC tribute night at The Funnel, Dublin, on 17 March 1999 "Walk All Over You (live)" : It Was One of Those Nights...'' (1999) Cdr recorded live at The Funnel, Dublin, on 17 March 1999 References External links Pat Lamb on Facebook Pet Lamb at Irishmusiccentral.com Musical groups from Dublin (city) Musical groups established in 1991 1991 establishments in Ireland Musical groups disestablished in 2000	[ 0.39917466044425964, 0.36330583691596985, -0.4115227460861206, -0.545113742351532, -0.6751459836959839, 0.8972163796424866, 0.3456387519836426, -0.1811312884092331, 0.0016352050006389618, 0.2607095539569855, -0.24692153930664062, 0.39744725823402405, -0.5010248422622681, 0.12066502869129181, -0.36758068203926086, -0.05994091182947159, 0.4433782696723938, 0.04575785622000694, -0.1563117504119873, -0.32451772689819336, 0.44042059779167175, -0.4370090961456299, 0.3288782238960266, 0.12095693498849869, 0.2509208023548126, -0.017101293429732323, 0.4103390574455261, 0.33439603447914124, 0.45009645819664, -0.12391874194145203, 0.3390392065048218, 1.138515830039978, 0.47885406017303467, -0.8192309141159058, 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227584	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife%20garden	Wildlife garden	A wildlife garden (or wild garden) is an environment created by a gardener that serves as a sustainable haven for surrounding wildlife. Wildlife gardens contain a variety of habitats that cater to native and local plants, birds, amphibians, reptiles, insects, mammals and so on. Establishing a garden that emulates the environment before the residence was built and/or renders the garden similar to intact wild areas nearby (rewilding) will allow natural systems to interact and establish an equilibrium, ultimately minimizing the need for gardener maintenance and intervention. Wildlife gardens can also play an essential role in biological pest control, and also promote biodiversity, native plantings, and generally benefit the wider environment. In the history of gardening the term "wild garden" is more likely to refer to the sort of unstructured garden promoted by the influential Irish gardener and writer William Robinson, whose book The Wild Garden (1870) was very influential; the woodland garden is one legacy. Wildlife was only a peripheral concern of Robinson. Habitats Building a successful garden suitable for local wildlife is best accomplished through the use of multiple three-dimensional habitats with diverse structures that provide places for animals to nest and hide. Wildlife gardens may contain a range of habitats, including: Log piles – Preferably located in a shady area, a pile of logs is a sanctuary for insects and other invertebrates, as well as reptiles and amphibians. The organic structure is a shelter for both protection and breeding. In addition to logs, garden debris may also be added around the garden to be used as a natural mulch, fertilizer, weed control, soil amendment, and habitat for arthropod predators. Bird feeding stations and bird houses – A place for birds to eat and take shelter will increase the number of birds in the garden, which play a key role in biological pest control. Not only will food and shelter increase the survival rate of birds, but it will also ensure that they are healthy enough for a successful breeding season. Bug boxes and bee hotels – Bundles of hollow stems (elderberry, Joe-Pye weed, bamboo) can be hung up as an alternate place of shelter and breeding for beneficial insects, such as the Mason bee, which are valuable pollinators. Sources of water – A water feature, such as a pond, has the potential to support a large biodiversity of wildlife. To maximize the amount of wildlife attracted to the water feature, it should consist of ranging depths. Shallow areas are used by birds to drink and by insects and amphibians to lay eggs. Deeper areas provide habitat for aquatic insects and a place for amphibians, or even fish to swim. Pollinators – Flowers rich in nectar will attract bees and butterflies into the garden, which is of particular importance given the dramatic reduction in pollinator populations in the US, Europe and elsewhere. Wildflower meadows are an alternative option for lawns in the garden and will serve as a sanctuary for pollinators. However, pollinating plants should not be confused with plants suitable for butterfly breeding. Plant diversity – The garden should include a range of plant types to act as different habitats. A balance between ground cover, shrub, understory, and canopy species will allow different sized wildlife shelters that fit their individual needs. It is particularly important to use species that are native to the area or state, as native plants will more reliably be suited to insects and other invertebrates than many non-native plants; increased variety of insects is valuable both for its own sake and for birds and other predators. Choice of plants Although some exotics may also be included, as discussed in the previous section, wild gardens usually mostly feature a variety of native species. Generally, these will be a part of the pre-existing natural ecology of an area, making them easier to grow than most exotic species. Choosing native plants comes with an array of benefits for both plant and animal diversity, especially the ability to support native insect and fungal populations. Ornamental plants on the market tend to lean toward “pest-free” plants, making it hard for native insects to adapt, and ultimately reducing their food supply. Decreases in insect populations due to excessive ornamental planting will discourage bird populations from inhabiting the particular area. Invasive species can always prove problematic in the garden due to the absence of natural predators and their ability to reproduce rapidly. Without any measures of control, invasive species can easily overtake native species in the garden. Addressing invasive plants can be done a variety of ways; however, to ensure the least amount of damage to the surrounding ecosystem, this is best done by cutting down the plant, The debris from the invasive species can be piled and used as a home for smaller critters. In Australia, it has been found that invasive species such as Lantana (Lantana camara) can also provide refuge for bird species such as the superb fairywren (Malurus cyaneus) and silvereye (Zosterops lateralis), in the absence of native plant equivalents. Careful thought about how to balance invasive species management with what is best for urban biodiversity is needed for the best outcome in your garden. In the Netherlands Wildlife gardens in the Netherlands are called "heemtuinen". The first was created in 1925: Thijsse's Hof (Garden of Thijsse) in Bloemendaal, near Haarlem. It was gifted to Jac. P. Thijsse on the occasion of his 60th anniversary, and still exists today. The garden gives a display of about 800 plants native to the dune region of South Kennemerland, in which the garden is situated. It is said to be one of the oldest wildlife gardens of its sort in the world. Nowadays some 25 wildlife gardens exist in the Netherlands. See also List of garden types Backyard Wildlife Habitat Butterfly gardening Climate-friendly gardening Native plant gardening Natural landscaping Permaculture Wilderness (garden history) References External links National Wildlife Federation: Garden for wildlife (USA) Wild Ones: Native Plants, Natural Landscapes (USA) Wild about Gardens (UK) In-depth guide to all aspects of wildlife gardening (UK) Wildscaping (California) Backyards for Wildlife (Adelaide, Australia) Comprehensive wildlife gardening guide for US, Canada and UK Gardens for Wildlife Victoria(Australia) Types of garden Organic gardening Conservation projects Ecological restoration Habitats Wildlife	[ 0.6049951314926147, -0.08249172568321228, -0.7666276693344116, 0.06457819044589996, 0.6514592170715332, 0.12152210623025894, 0.40310049057006836, 0.05856700241565704, -0.3391227424144745, -0.4556266665458679, -0.9317833185195923, 0.16067233681678772, -0.5710264444351196, 0.39767247438430786, -0.26755914092063904, 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227585	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20War%20but%20the%20Class%20War	No War but the Class War	No War But The Class War (NWBTCW) is a motto expressing opposition to capitalism used by anarchist and communist groups. It is also the name for a number of anti-authoritarian and anti-capitalist groups. Group names The first two NWBTCW groups appeared in London during the 1990–1991 Gulf War and the 1999 Kosovo War. Both groups, which included ex-members of the London-based Class War, dissolved after the respective war they were protesting stopped. The third NWBTCW group appeared in London following the start of the War in Afghanistan in October 2001. Efforts, particularly by the Communist Workers' Organisation, to turn this into a network of groups across Britain failed. A split in the group which was characterised as between theory and practice led to the 'actionists' leaving to form the Disobedients, whose activities included an attempt to occupy Old Street Roundabout along with Critical Mass which was swamped by police much like all the other actions by this group. The 'theorist' section transmuted itself into the No War but the Class War Discussion Group, which eventually also dissolved. As a slogan As a slogan, "No War But The Class War" has been used by people not necessarily linked to any of the above groups. It is widely used by diverse Marxist groups as a means of underlining the priority of class struggle above other political aims and as a general anti-militarist slogan. The phrase was used in the first episode of the 1975 series Days of Hope, written by Jim Allen and directed by Ken Loach (both socialists), which caused controversy in Britain over its portrayal of the British military during World War I. A socialist who has deserted from the British army says, "I'm no pacifist. I'll fight in a war, but I'll fight in the only war that counts, and that's the class war, and it'll come when all this lot's over." Notes External links No War But The Class War – archive of texts by the various London NWBTCW groups. The story of this group (in its various incarnations) – article by the third NWBTCW group, looking at the history and limitations of the group. No War But The Class War: remembering and reflecting 10 years after – reflective analysis on the first NWBTCW group by a former member. 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227590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical%20transparency	Radical transparency	Radical transparency is a phrase used across fields of governance, politics, software design and business to describe actions and approaches that radically increase the openness of organizational process and data. Its usage was originally understood as an approach or act that uses abundant networked information to access previously confidential organizational process or outcome data. History and uses Modern usage of the term radical transparency coincided with increased public use of Information communications technologies including the Internet. Kevin Kelly argued in 1994 that, “in the network era, openness wins, central control is lost.” David Brin's writing on The Transparent Society re-imagined the societal consequences of radical transparency remixing Orwell's 1984. However, the explicit political argument for “radical transparency” was first made in a 2001 Foreign Affairs article on information and communication technology driving economic growth in developing regions. In 2006 Wired’s Chris Anderson blogged on the shift from secrecy to transparency blogging culture had made on corporate communications, and highlighted the next step as a shift to ‘radical transparency’ where the “whole product development process [is] laid bare, and opened to customer input.” By 2008 the term was being used to describe the WikiLeaks platform that radically decentralized the power, voices and visibility of governance knowledge that was previously secret. Contexts Radical corporate transparency Radical corporate transparency, as a philosophical concept, would involve removing all barriers to free and easy public access to corporate, political and personal (treating persons as corporations) information and the development of laws, rules, social connivance and processes that facilitate and protect such an outcome. Using these methods to 'hold corporations accountable for the benefit of everyone' was emphasised in Tapscott and Ticoll's book "The Naked Corporation" in 2003. Radical transparency has also been explained by Dan Goleman as a management approach where (ideally,) all decision making is carried out publicly. Specific to this approach is the potential for new technologies to reveal the eco-impact of products bought to steer consumers to make informed decisions and companies to reform their business practices. In traditional public relations management, damage control involved the suppression of public information. But, as observed by Clive Thompson in Wired, the Internet has created a force towards transparency: "[H]ere's the interesting paradox: The reputation economy creates an incentive to be more open, not less. Since Internet commentary is inescapable, the only way to influence it is to be part of it. Being transparent, opening up, posting interesting material frequently and often is the only way to amass positive links to yourself and thus to directly influence your Googleable reputation. Putting out more evasion or PR puffery won't work, because people will either ignore it and not link to it – or worse, pick the spin apart and enshrine those criticisms high on your Google list of life." Mark Zuckerberg has opined that "more transparency should make for a more tolerant society in which people eventually accept that everybody sometimes does bad or embarrassing things." Radical political transparency A partial form of radical transparency was instituted into parliaments of the Westminster system, through full records of discussions in parliament, recorded and published in what is referred to as Hansard, while the texts of proposed laws and final laws are all, in principle, public documents. Since the late 1990s, many national parliaments decided to publish all parliamentary debates and laws on the Internet. However, the initial texts of proposed laws and the discussions and negotiations regarding them generally occur in parliamentary commissions, which are rarely transparent, and among political parties, which are very rarely transparent. Moreover, given the logical and linguistic complexity of typical national laws, public participation is difficult despite the radical transparency at the formal parliamentary level. Radical transparency has also been suggested in the context of government finance and public economics. In Missed Information, Sarokin and Schulkin take the concept even further, advocating for hypertransparency of government decision-making, a situation where all internal records, emails, meeting minutes and other internal information is proactively available to the public. Hypertransparency reverses the current Freedom of Information model of access only upon request, instead making all information available by default unless withheld for limited exemptions such as personal information or national security. Radical educational transparency A radically transparent approach is also emerging within education. Open educational resources (OER) are freely accessible, usually openly licensed documents and media that are useful for teaching, learning, educational, assessment and research purposes. Although some people consider the use of an open format to be an essential characteristic of OER, this is not a universally acknowledged requirement. In addition online courses activities are also becoming increasingly more accessible for others. One example are the new and popular massive open online courses (MOOC). See also Corporate transparency E-democracy Open business Open government Open society Open source governance Open education References Further reading Rock, David. "Why Radical Transparency Is Good for Business." Psychology Today. October 15, 2012. Brin, David. "World Cyberwar And the Inevitability of Radical Transparency." Metroactive. July 6, 2011. The Transparent Society: Will Technology Force Us to Choose Between Privacy and Freedom? - by David Brin Radically Transparent: Monitoring and Managing Reputations Online - by Andy Beal and Judy Strauss Clare Birchall, podcast, 'Why WikiLeaks might not be as radical as it thinks' Clare Birchall (ed) 'Secrecy and Transparency', Theory, Culture & Society, 7-8, Dec 2011. Clare Birchall, '"There's been too much secrecy in this city": The False Choice between Secrecy and Transparency in US Politics', Cultural Politics, March 2011. McStay, Andrew. Privacy and Philosophy: New Media and Affective Protocol. New York: Peter Lang. 2014. 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227592	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweaty%20Handshake	Sweaty Handshake	Sweaty Handshake was the debut compilation album by Irish rock band Pet Lamb. It was released 27 January 1995 through Roadrunner Records. It is a compilation of two EPs released through Dublin based indie label Blunt Records – Paranoid from the Neck Down released 1 March 1993, and Spent released 5 January 1994. Two additional tracks recorded in 1994, 'All Time Low' and 'I Got Played', as well as additional instrumental segues at the end of tracks 6 and 12, are only available on this release. 'Drop It' from the Paranoid from the Neck Down EP, and all tracks from the Spent EP, were remixed for this album. The spoken sample at the end of 'Never Rest Again' fades out on this release. The album was released on LP, CD and Cassette. Initial copies of the LP included a 7" featuring 'The Cleaver' and 'Bangkok', an Alex Chilton cover. Track listing "Never Rest Again" "Asshole Agony Aunt" "All Time Low" "Little Meaner" "Where Did Your Plan Go" "Black Mask" "Insult to Injury" "I Got Played" "Fun with Maggots" "Suck the Grain" "Drop It" "The Bastard" Paranoid from the Neck Down EP "Little Meaner" "Where Did Your Plans Go" "Asshole Agony Aunt" "Never Rest Again" "Drop It" Spent EP "Insult to Injury" "Fun with Maggots" "Suck the Grain" "Black Mask" "The Bastard" Singles "Black Mask" was released November 1994 on CD and 10", with "Get Your Socks Off" and "Cinders". "Where Did Your Plans Go" was released 18 April 1995 on CD and 10", with "Bully Lover" and "Mutt Stamina". Personnel Brian Mooney – Vocals, Guitar Dylan Philips – Vocals, Guitar Kevin Talbot – Bass Guitar James Lillis – Drums References 1995 compilation albums Roadrunner Records albums Pet Lamb albums	[ 0.26129043102264404, 0.432160884141922, -0.16014273464679718, -0.4681360423564911, -0.5823454856872559, -0.09011978656053543, 0.097443126142025, -0.06446748971939087, 0.1682998389005661, 0.0689506083726883, 0.3576766848564148, 0.5552736520767212, -0.04810335859656334, -0.32331714034080505, -0.2060241848230362, 0.08682955801486969, -0.19618836045265198, 0.3811589777469635, 0.17664457857608795, -0.3781279921531677, 0.565545916557312, -0.1267576664686203, 0.09316176921129227, -0.27054452896118164, -0.2562570571899414, 0.7297254204750061, 0.09140907973051071, -0.07450437545776367, -0.38894930481910706, -0.651401937007904, 0.2095862776041031, 0.496095210313797, 0.08588553220033646, -0.7696329951286316, 0.17519953846931458, 0.07524950802326202, 0.20507024228572845, -0.1254577934741974, 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227593	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8Dkaid%C5%8D%20Main%20Line	Tōkaidō Main Line	The Tōkaidō Main Line (,) is a major Japanese railway line of the Japan Railways Group (JR Group) network, connecting and stations. It is long, not counting its many freight feeder lines around the major cities. The high-speed Tōkaidō Shinkansen largely parallels the line. The term "Tōkaidō Main Line" is largely a holdover from pre-Shinkansen days; now various portions of the line have different names which are officially used by JR East, JR Central, and JR West. Today, the only daily passenger train that operate over the entire length of the line is the combined overnight-train Sunrise Izumo - Sunrise Seto. During the day longer intercity trips require several transfers along the way. The Tokaido Main Line is owned and operated by three JR companies: East Japan Railway Company (JR East) ( - ) Tōkaidō Line Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) ( - ) Tōkaidō Line West Japan Railway Company (JR West) ( - ) Biwako Line, JR Kyoto Line, JR Kobe Line Basic data Total distance: (including branch lines; Tokyo – Kōbe is ) East Japan Railway Company (JR East) (Services and tracks) Tokyo – Atami: Shinagawa – Shin-Kawasaki – Tsurumi: Hamamatsuchō – Tokyo Freight Terminal – Kawasaki Freight Terminal – Hama-Kawasaki: (Tōkaidō Freight Line) Tsurumi – Hatchō-Nawate: (Tōkaidō Freight Line) Tsurumi – Higashi-Takashima – Sakuragichō: (Takashima Line) Tsurumi – Yokohama-Hazawa – Higashi-Totsuka: (Tōkaidō Freight Line) Central Japan Railway Company (JR Central) (Services and tracks) Atami – Maibara: ( between Kanayama – Nagoya overlaps with Chuo Main Line) Ōgaki – Mino-Akasaka: (Mino-Akasaka branch line) Ōgaki – (Shin-Tarui) – Sekigahara: (Shin-Tarui Line) West Japan Railway Company (JR West) (Services and tracks) Maibara – Kōbe: Kyōto Freight Terminal – Tambaguchi: (not in use by passenger trains) Suita – (Miyahara Rail Yard) – Amagasaki: (Hoppō Freight Line) Suita – Umeda – Fukushima: (Umeda Freight Line, used by Haruka and Kuroshio limited expresses) Japan Freight Railway Company (JR Freight) (Tracks and services) Sannō Signal – Nagoya-Minato: (Nagoya-Minato Line) Suita Signal – Osaka Freight Terminal: (Osaka Terminal Line) Japan Freight Railway Company (JR Freight) (Services only) Shinagawa – Atami: Shinagawa – Shin-Tsurumi Signal: Tokyo Freight Terminal – Hama-Kawasaki: Tsurumi – Yokohama-Hazawa – Higashi-Totsuka: Tsurumi – Hatchō-Nawate: Tsurumi – Shinkō – Sakuragichō: Atami – Maibara: Minami-Arao Signal – Sekigahara: Minami-Arao Signal – Mino-Akasaka: Maibara – Kōbe: (via Hoppō Freight Line) Kyōto Freight Terminal – Tambaguchi: Suita – Umeda – Fukushima: Gauge: Narrow gauge railway Stations: Passenger: 166 (does not include Shinagawa – Shin-Kawasaki – Tsurumi section or branches other than Mino-Akasaka branch line) JR East: 34 JR Central: 82 JR West: 50 Freight only: 14 Tracks: Four or more Tokyo – Odawara: Nagoya – Inazawa: Kusatsu – Kōbe: Two Odawara – Nagoya Inazawa – Kusatsu Shinagawa – Shin-Kawasaki – Tsurumi Hamamatsuchō – Tokyo Freight Terminal – Kawasaki Freight Terminal – Hama-Kawasaki Tsurumi – Hatchō-Nawate Tsurumi – Higashi-Takashima Tsurumi – Yokohama-Hazawa – Higashi-Totsuka Suita – Umeda Suita – (Miyahara Rail Yard) – Amagasaki Single-track: All other sections Electrification: 1,500 V DC (except for Sannō Signal – Nagoya-Minato) Railway signalling: Automatic Train Control Maximum speed: Tokyo – Ōfuna, Odawara – Toyohashi: Ōfuna – Odawara, Toyohashi – Maibara: Minami-Arao Signal – Tarui – Sekigahara, Minami-Arao Signal – Mino-Akasaka: Maibara – Kōbe: (Special Rapid Shin-Kaisoku only, local trains max at 120km/h or 75mph) Station list JR East The section between Tokyo and Atami is operated by East Japan Railway Company (JR East) and it is located in the Greater Tokyo Area. It has local services (,) and a rapid service called Rapid Acty (, ). It runs on dedicated tracks parallel to the Yamanote Line between Tokyo and Shinagawa, the Keihin-Tōhoku Line between Tokyo and Yokohama, and the Yokosuka Line between Yokohama and Ōfuna. Some Shōnan–Shinjuku Line trains share the segment south of Yokohama to Ōfuna and Odawara. Until 12 March 2021, there were also commuter rapid (, ) and Shōnan Liner (, ) services. The Ueno–Tokyo Line, a JR East project, extended the services of the Utsunomiya Line, the Takasaki Line, and the Joban Line to Tokyo Station, allowing for through services to and from the Tōkaidō Line from March 2015. Almost all trains along this section of the line have bi-level "Green Cars" with forward-facing seats, with each set of trains having 2 of them. Green Cars can be used after paying an additional fee. Legend: ● : a station that all trains stop ｜ :a station that all trains pass ▲ : a station that Shōnan–Shinjuku Line trains use Yokosuka Line platforms Some trains run through services beyond Atami, as far as Numazu. With the Ueno-Tokyo Line, Utsunomiya Line Rapid Rabbit and Takasaki Line Rapid Urban services now run along the Tokaido Line, and stop at all stations on this line. As such, the two services are classified as 'Local' service trains within the Tokaido Line. Tokaido Line Rapid Acty services operate only evening services from Tokyo to Odawara. Shōnan Limited Express services are special, all-reserved commuter express trains with comfortable seating. They operate from Odawara to Tokyo on weekday mornings, with a few services terminating in Shinagawa. Return services run from Tokyo to Odawara on weekday evenings. Like commuter rapid trains, Shōnan Liner services normally make no stops between Shinagawa and Fujisawa. Between Fujisawa and Odawara, varying stops are made. In addition to the standard fare, a reserved seat fee of ¥500 is required to use the Shōnan Liner. Keihin-Tōhoku Line stations between Tokyo and Yokohama officially are a part of the Tōkaidō Main Line. These stations are: , , , , , , , , and . Yokosuka Line stations between Tokyo and Ōfuna officially are a part of the Tōkaidō Main Line. These stations are: , , , , and . The route of the Yokosuka Line between Shinagawa and Tsurumi is separate from the main line and is referred to as the Hinkaku Line, on which Nishi-Ōi, Musashi-Kosugi, and Shin-Kawasaki stations are located. Shōnan–Shinjuku Line operates through services to the Tōkaidō Main Line. Trains operate from the Takasaki Line to and enter the Yokosuka Line at to then switches tracks to the Tōkaidō Main Line towards , and vice versa. Rapid Service stop at all stations on the Tōkaidō Main Line (Totsuka - Odawara), while Special Rapid Service operate the same pattern as a Rapid Acty Service. JR Central The point between JR East and JR Central operation is divided at Atami station, where section between Atami and Maibara is operated by JR Central, and covers the Tōkai region - Shizuoka Prefecture, Aichi Prefecture, and Gifu Prefecture. Some services from Odawara on the JR East section continues to travel on this section until Numazu station. Shizuoka Block Nagoya Block Main Line Maibara is shared by JR Central and JR West ; JR West manages the station Before March 2016, JR West operated trains from Maibara as far as Ogaki on JR Central territory. After the two companies realized this invasion, on March 25th, 2016, all JR West departures were changed to JR Central trains to Maibara station. Branch lines Both the Mino-Akasaka and Tarui branch lines separate from the Main Line at , located 3.1 km west of Ōgaki Station. Mino-Akasaka Branch Line Tarui Branch Line Between Ōgaki and Sekigahara, there is a 25 per mil grade. In 1944, a single track bypass was built to avoid this steep slope of the main line and the old westbound track was removed. JR West The western part of the Tōkaidō Main Line from Maibara to Kōbe is operated by JR West and forms the main trunk of the company's Urban Network in the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto metropolitan area. Although the line is divided into three segments, known as the Biwako Line, JR Kyoto Line, and JR Kobe Line, they are part of a single contiguous network, with many services traversing multiple sections. The Biwako Line includes a segment of the Hokuriku Main Line. Some services on the Kosei, JR Takarazuka and Gakkentoshi lines run through onto the Tōkaidō Main Line. Biwako Line The section between Maibara and Kyoto is known as the Biwako Line. ●: Trains stop. ○: Limited stop, early morning and late night only \|: Trains pass. Local (4-door Commuter trains): JR Kyoto Line local trains Local (3-door Suburban trains): Operated as Rapid service trains west of Takatsuki (west of Kyoto in the morning) JR Kyoto Line The section between Kyoto and Osaka is known as the JR Kyoto Line. Trains from the Biwako and Kosei lines travel through onto the JR Kyoto Line and continue west towards the JR Kobe Line at Osaka. Legend: ● : All trains stop \| : All trains pass ▲ : Trains only after morning rush stop Local trains stop at all stations. Rapid trains in the morning skip some stops between Kyoto and Takatsuki. JR Kobe Line The westernmost section between Osaka and Kōbe is part of the JR Kobe Line, which continues west to on the San'yō Main Line. Although Kōbe is the official terminus of the Tōkaidō Main Line, most trains continue to Nishi-Akashi, Himeji and beyond. ●: Trains stop at all times ｜: Trains pass at all times ▲: Eastbound trains pass in the morning ○:Trains stop at morning of Weekdays only Limited express services In addition to standard local, rapid, and special rapid service trains, the Tōkaidō Main Line also hosts a number of limited express services. Daytime trains Biwako Express: Maibara – Osaka Fujikawa: Shizuoka – Fuji – (Minobu Line) – Kōfu Haruka: Maibara - Kyoto – Shin-Osaka – (Osaka Loop Line) – Tennōji – (Hanwa Line) – Hineno – (Kansai Airport Line) – Kansai International Airport Hida: Nagoya / Osaka – Gifu – (Takayama Main Line) – Takayama Odoriko: Tokyo – Atami – (Itō Line) – Itō – (Izu Kyūkō) – Shimoda; Tokyo – Mishima – (Izuhakone Railway Sunzu Line) – Shuzenji Thunderbird: Osaka – Kyoto – (Kosei Line) – Tsuruga – (Hokuriku Main Line) – Kanazawa Saphir Odoriko: Tokyo – Atami – (Itō Line) – Itō – (Izu Kyūkō) – Izukyu-Shimoda Shirasagi: Nagoya – Maibara – (Hokuriku Main Line) – Kanazawa Shōnan: Tokyo – Odawara Overnight trains Overnight trains on the Tōkaidō Line go from Tokyo to western Honshū and Shikoku. Sunrise Izumo (Tokyo – Izumo via Okayama) (Operates daily) Sunrise Seto (Tokyo – Takamatsu) (Operates daily) Discontinued trains Overnight limited express Sakura (Tokyo – Nagasaki (discontinued March 2005), Tokyo – (discontinued 1999)) Overnight limited express Izumo (Tokyo – Izumo via Tottori), discontinued March 2006 Limited express Wide View Tōkai (Tokyo – Shizuoka), discontinued March 2007 Overnight express Ginga (Tokyo – Osaka), discontinued March 2008 Overnight limited express Fuji (Tokyo – Ōita), discontinued March 2009 Overnight limited express Hayabusa (Tokyo – Kumamoto), discontinued March 2009 Overnight limited express Sunrise Yume (Tokyo – Hiroshima), discontinued March 2009 Moonlight Nagara (Tokyo – Ōgaki) (Operates seasonally - rapid service with reserved seats), discontinued March 2020 Super View Odoriko, Resort Odoriko, Fleur Odoriko (Tokyo – Izukyu-Shimoda), discontinued March 2020 Rolling stock for local and rapid services JR East E231-1000 series (Tokyo – Atami – Numazu, through services onto the Itō Line) E233-3000 series (Tokyo – Atami – Numazu, through services onto the Itō Line) E257-2000/2500 series (Odoriko, Shōnan: Ikebukuro/Tokyo – Atami, through service onto the Itō Line) E261 series (Saphir Odoriko: Shinjuku/Tokyo – Atami, through service onto the Itō Line) JR Central 211-5000 series (Atami – Toyohashi, through services onto the Gotemba Line) 211-6000 series (Atami – Toyohashi, through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 311 series (Shizuoka – Kakegawa – Hamamatsu – Toyohashi – Gifu) 313-0 series (Hamamatsu – Toyohashi – Gifu – Ōgaki) 313-300 series (Hamamatsu – Toyohashi – Gifu – Ōgaki, Ōgaki – Mino-Akasaka) 313-2300 series (Atami – Toyohashi, through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 313-2500 series (Atami – Toyohashi, through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 313-2600 series (Atami – Toyohashi, through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 313-3000 series (through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 313-3100 series (through services onto the Gotemba Line, through services onto the Minobu Line) 313-5000 series (Hamamatsu – Toyohashi – Gifu – Ōgaki – Maibara) 373 series (Atami – – Shizuoka, Hamamatsu – Toyohashi, Ōgaki – Maibara) KiHa 85 series (Nagoya / Osaka – Gifu, through service on the Takayama Main Line) HC85 series (Nagoya / Osaka – Gifu, through service on the Takayama Main Line) JR West 681 series (Nagoya – Ōgaki – Sekigahara) 683-8000 series (Nagoya – Ōgaki – Sekigahara) 281 series\|271 series (Yasu - Shin-Osaka) 207 series\|321 series (Kusatsu - Kobe) 221 series\|223 series\|225 series(Maibara - Kobe) Former rolling stock KiHa 75 (through services onto the Taketoyo Line, 1999 - March 2015) 113-1000 series (April 1972 - March 2006) 185 series (Tokyo – Atami, Misima through services onto the Itō Line, March 1981 - March 2021) 211 series (Tokyo – Atami – Numazu, through services onto the Itō Line, 1985 - April 2012) 215 series (Tokyo – Atami, 1992 - March 2021) E217 series (Tokyo – Atami, March 2006 - March 2015) 251 series (Ikebukuro/Tokyo, Atami, through service onto the Itō Line, April 1990 - March 2020) 651 series (Izu Craile services: Odawara – Atami, through service onto the Itō Line, July 2016 - June 2020) History The Tōkaidō route takes its name from the ancient road connecting the Kansai region (Kyoto, Osaka) with the Kantō region (Tokyo, then Edo) through the Tōkai region (including Nagoya). Literally, it was the Tōkai road, or Road through Tōkai. The Tōkaidō Line does not follow the old road exactly, since the latter diverges at Nagoya toward the Mie Prefecture coastline; to follow it by train, the Kansai Main Line and Kusatsu Line would have to be followed from Nagoya to Kusatsu. The largest population centers in Japan are along this route - Tokyo, Yokohama, Nagoya, Kyoto, Osaka and Kobe. These centers have grown to occupy an ever more dominant role in the country's government, financial, manufacturing and cultural life. Historically, one of the first priorities of Japanese railway planners was to build a line from Tokyo to the Kansai region, either following the Tokaido route or the northern Nakasendō route. This decision remained unresolved as regional needs were addressed. The first railway in Japan was the line from Shimbashi to Sakuragicho in Yokohama, which opened in 1872; another segment of today's Tokaido Main Line, between Kyoto and Kobe, opened in 1877. In 1883, the government decided to use the Nakasendo route, and construction of several segments commenced (including the modern-day Takasaki Line). Railways were opened between Ogaki and Nagahama (1884) and between Nagoya and Kisogawa (1886) in line with the Nakasendo plan. However, by 1886, it was clear that the Tokaido route would be more practical, and so the Nakasendo plan was abandoned. The lines between Kisogawa and Ogaki, Yokohama and Kozu, and Hamamatsu and Obu were completed in 1887, and the first line from Tokyo to Kobe was completed in 1889, when Kozu and Hamamatsu were connected through the present-day Gotemba Line corridor, and the final segments were completed between Kasumigahara and Otsu. At the time, there was one Tokyo-Kobe train in each direction per day, taking over 20 hours each way. The "Tokaido Line" name was formally adopted in 1895. In October 1895, following the Sino-Japanese War, through service to the Sanyo Railway (now Sanyo Main Line) began. Express service between Tokyo and Kobe began in 1896, sleeper service in 1900, and dining car service in 1901. In 1906, all privately run main lines were nationalized under the newly created Japan Imperial Railway, which, at the time had a network of just over 7000 km. Automatic couplers were introduced on all freight wagons in 1926. In 1930, the first Tsubame ("swallow") express was introduced, reducing the Tokyo - Kobe travel-time to nine hours - a significant reduction from the twenty hours required in 1889 and fifteen in 1903. Infrastructure improvements included the completion of double track on this route in 1913, and the opening of the 7.8 km long Tanna Tunnel, which shortened the route by omitting a detour round the mountains between Atami and Numazu. This was the last major change to the alignment of the route. By the early 1950s the Tōkaidō Line had become the main transportation artery of Japan. Although it was only 3 percent of the railway system by length, it carried 24 percent of JNR's passenger traffic and 23 percent of its freight, and the rate of growth was higher than any other line in the country. By 1956 electrification was completed along the Tokyo-Osaka section and with the introduction of new Kodama trains, travel time was reduced to six and a half hours. The line became so popular that tickets regularly sold out within ten minutes of being put on sale, one month in advance of the travel date. The capacity constraints on the Tokaido Main Line had been clear prior to World War II, and work started on a new standard gauge "bullet train" line in 1940. Intercity passenger traffic between Tokyo, Nagoya and Osaka largely transferred to the Tōkaidō Shinkansen after it was completed in 1964. Since then, the Tokaido Main Line has been used as a commuter and freight line, serving a very small number of long-distance passenger trains (mainly overnight and sleeper services). Following the Hanshin earthquake on January 17, 1995, the line was shut down between Takatsuki and Kobe, with certain segments remaining impassable until April 1. Former connecting lines Kanagawa Prefecture Ninomiya Station: The Shonan Horse-drawn Tramway opened a 10 km line to Hatano in 1906 to haul tobacco. Steam locomotion was introduced in 1913. Passenger services ceased in 1933, and the line closed in 1935. Odawara Station: The Japan Tobacco and Salt Public Corporation operated an approximately 1 km line to its factory, electrified at 1,500 V DC, between 1950 and 1984. The line was also serviced by the adjoining Odakyu Odawara Line from its Ashigara station. Shizuoka Prefecture Atami Station: In 1895, a 10 km gauge handcar line opened to Yoshihama, and was extended 4 km to Odawara the following year. In 1907, the line was converted to gauge and steam locomotives were introduced. The line closed in 1923 as a result of the Great Kanto earthquake. Numazu Station: The Sunzu Electric Railway opened a 7 km line to Mishima-Tamachi on the Izuhakone Railway Sunzu Line in 1906. In 1915, the line was truncated 1 km to connect at Mishima-Hirokoji, and the line was electrified at 600 V DC in 1919. The line closed in 1961 following the destruction of the Kisegawa bridge during a flood. Yoshiwara Station: The opened a gauge line to Ōmiya (presentday Fujinomiya) in 1890. The purchased the tramway in 1912, converted it to a 1,067 mm gauge steam railway the following year and gradually extended it (eventually becoming the Minobu Line). In 1924, the company built a new alignment which connected to Fuji station on the Tokaido main line, at which time the original section from Omiya to Yoshiwara closed. Shimizu Station: Shimizukō Line from 1916 to 1984. Shizuoka Station: The Abe Railway opened a 9 km gauge line from Inomiya (approximately 2 km from Shizuoka) to Ushizuma in 1914 to haul timber. Plans to extend the line to Shizuoka did not eventuate and the line closed in 1934. The Shizuoka Electric Railway opened a 2 km line to Anzai, connecting to its Shimizu Line, electrified at 600 V DC, between 1922 and 1926. The line closed in 1962. Yaizu Station: A 5 km handcar line operated to Fujieda between 1891 and 1900. Fujieda Station: The Tōsō Railway opened a 4 km gauge line to Ote in 1913, and by 1926 had extended the line progressively in both directions for a length of 38 km from Jitogata to Suruga-Okabe, although in 1936 the 5 km section from Suruga-Okabe to Ote was closed. In 1943, the company merged with the Shizuoka Railway (see Fujiroi Station below), and in 1948, a 7 km line between Mitsumata and Jitogata opened, linking the two sections. This section of the combined line closed between 1964 and 1970. Shimada Station: The Fuji Prefectural Government opened a 3 km gauge handcar line in 1898 to haul timber. In 1944, following the destruction of the nearby Tokaido Line bridge over the Oigawa, it was proposed to use the alignment of this line as a replacement, including a 930 m wooden bridge over the river. The bridge was about 25% completed when the end of the war resulted in the termination of the proposal. A diesel locomotive was introduced in 1955 to haul construction material for the construction of the adjacent national highway, and the line closed in 1959. Kikukawa Station: The Joto horse-drawn tramway opened a 15 km gauge line to Ikeshinden in 1899. In 1923, the line was converted to gauge, and a single-cylinder diesel locomotive introduced. The line closed in 1935. Fukuroi Station: The Akiba horse-drawn tramway opened a 12 km gauge line to Enshumori-Cho in 1902. In 1926, the company renamed itself the Shizuoka Electric Railway, converted the line to gauge and electrified it at 600 V DC. The line closed in 1962. The Shizuoka Railway opened a 10 km gauge line to Yokosuka in 1914, extending it 7 km to Mitsumata in 1927. The company merged with the Fuji-sho Railway in 1943 (see Fujieda Station above), and in 1948, a 7 km line between Mitsumata and Jitogata opened, linking the two sections. This section of the combined line closed between 1964 and 1967. Hamamatsu Station: The Dainippon Railway opened a 7 km, gauge line to Kuniyoshi in 1909. In 1919, the line was acquired by the Enshu Railway Line, which closed the first 1 km of the line in 1925, so the new connecting station became Enshu-Magome. The line closed in 1937. Aichi Prefecture Okazaki Station: The Nishio Railway opened a gauge line to Nishio in 1911, and extended it to Kira-Yoshida on the Meitetsu Gamagōri Line between 1915 and 1916. In 1926, the company merged with the Aichi Electric Railway, which between 1928 and 1929 converted the line to gauge, electrified it at 600 V DC, and connected it to the line from Shin-Anjō on the Meitetsu Nagoya Main Line at Nishioguchi. The line to Nishio closed in 1962. A 6 km tram line connected to the Meitetsu Koromo line at Okazaki-Ida Station, which between 1929 and 1962 connected to the Meitetsu Mikawa Line at Uwagoromo, the tramway also closing in 1962. Owari-Ichinomiya Station: The 6 km Meitetsu line to Okoshi, electrified at 600 V DC, opened in 1924. When the voltage on the Meitetsu main line was increased to 1,500 V DC in 1952, services were suspended on this line. The substitute bus service proved so popular the line was closed rather than upgraded. Gifu Prefecture Ogaki Station: The Seino Railway opened a 3 km line from Mino-Akasaka to Ichihashi in 1928, and operated a passenger service from 1930 to 1945. Arao Station (on the Mino Akasaka branch): A 2 km freight-only line to the Mino Okubo limestone quarry operated between 1928 and 1990. Hyōgo Prefecture Nishinomiya Station: A 2 km freight-only line was opened in 1944 to connect to Mukogawa Station on the Hanshin Main Line. As the former was gauge, and the latter gauge, some tracks at Mukogawa were dual gauge. Service on the line ceased in 1958, but it was not formally closed until 1970. Rokkomichi Station: A 5 km line to Kobe Port opened in 1907, electrified at 1,500 V DC. Passenger services ceased in 1974, and the line closed in 2003. References External links Stations of the Tōkaidō Main Line (JR East) Lines of East Japan Railway Company Railway lines in Tokyo Lines of Central Japan Railway Company Lines of West Japan Railway Company 1067 mm gauge railways in Japan Railway lines opened in 1872 1872 establishments in Japan 1500 V DC railway electrification	[ -0.2688015103340149, -0.4283953011035919, -0.07719288021326065, 0.04487789049744606, -0.2808907628059387, 0.2716667354106903, 0.614206075668335, 0.8492540121078491, -0.33792608976364136, -0.163262277841568, -0.252208411693573, 0.02388228476047516, -0.5770288705825806, 0.2140043079853058, -0.23583851754665375, 0.047992438077926636, 0.424669086933136, -0.1701386272907257, -0.008696713484823704, -0.8269151449203491, -0.20987355709075928, -0.017071492969989777, 0.8013886213302612, -0.6205102801322937, 0.14716468751430511, -0.4068746566772461, -0.32370832562446594, 1.0191491842269897, -0.33597105741500854, -0.3150250017642975, 0.5268976092338562, 0.5205913186073303, 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227596	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hankyu	Hankyu	is a Japanese private railway company that provides commuter and interurban service to the northern Kansai region and is one of the flagship properties of Hankyu Hanshin Holdings Inc., in turn part of the Hankyu Hanshin Toho Group (which includes H2O Retailing Corporation and Toho Co., the creator of Godzilla). The railway's main terminal is at Umeda Station in Osaka. The signature color of Hankyu cars is maroon. The Hankyu network serves 1,950,000 people every weekday and offers several types of express service with no extra charge. The head offices of Hankyu Hanshin Holdings, Inc. and Hankyu Corporation are at 1-16-1, Shibata, Kita-ku, Osaka; the both companies' registered headquarters are at 1-1, Sakaemachi, Ikeda, Osaka Prefecture. History Foundation In 1907, the , a forerunner of Hankyu Hanshin Holdings, Inc., was established by Ichizō Kobayashi (precisely, he was one of the "promoters" of the tramway). On 10 March 1910, Minoo Arima Tramway opened the rail lines from Umeda to Takarazuka (the Takarazuka Main Line) and from Ishibashi to Minoo (the Minoo Line). The tramway was popular due to Kobayashi's pioneering act to develop housing around stations along the line (a first in Japan), a forerunner to transit-oriented developments. Expansion to Kobe On February 4, 1918, Minoo Arima Tramway was renamed . On July 16, 1920, the Kobe Main Line from Jūsō to Kobe (later, renamed Kamitsutsui) and the Itami Line from Tsukaguchi to Itami were opened. On April 1, 1936, the Kobe Main Line was extended from Nishi-Nada (present: Ōji-kōen) to the new terminal in Kobe (present: Kobe-Sannomiya Station), and the Kobe Main Line from Nishi-Nada to Kamitsutsui was named the Kamitsutsui Line, which was abandoned on May 20, 1940. In 1936, Hankyu established a professional baseball team and in 1937 the Nishinomiya Stadium as the team's home field was completed near Nishinomiya-Kitaguchi Station. The Hankyu Braves (named in 1947) played until the 1988 season and became the predecessors of the present-day Orix Buffaloes. Merger and separation with Keihan On October 1, 1943, under the order of the government, Hanshin Kyūkō and Keihan Electric Railway were merged, and renamed . The merged lines included the Keihan Main Line, the Uji Line, the Shinkeihan Line (present-day Kyoto Main Line), the Senriyama Line (present-day Senri Line), the Jūsō Line (part of Kyoto Main Line), the Arashiyama Line, the Keishin Line and the Ishiyama Sakamoto Line. The Katano Line was also added in 1945. On December 1, 1949, the Keihan Main Line, the Katano Line, the Uji Line, the Keishin Line, and the Ishiyama-Sakamoto Line were split off to become part of the newly established Keihan Electric Railway Co., Ltd. Although this revived the former Keihan Electric Railway, Keihan was now smaller than before the 1943 merger, because the Shinkeihan Line and its branches were not given up by Keihanshin. The present structure of the Hankyu network with the three main lines was fixed by this transaction. The abbreviation of Keihanshin Kyūkō Railway was changed from "Keihanshin" to "Hankyū". Postwar development On April 7, 1968, the Kobe Main Line started through service to the Kobe Rapid Transit Railway Tozai Line and the Sanyo Electric Railway Main Line. On December 6, 1969, the Kyoto Main Line and the Senri Line started through service to the Osaka Municipal Subway Sakaisuji Line. In 1970, the Senri Line was one of access routes to the Expo '70 held in Senri area. On April 1, 1973, Keihanshin Kyūkō Railway Company assumed its current name. On April 1, 2005, former Hankyu Corporation became a holding company and was renamed . The railway business was ceded to a subsidiary, now named Hankyu Corporation (before the restructuring, the new company which reused a dormant company founded on December 7, 1989 was called "Act Systems" (株式会社アクトシステムズ) until March 28, 2004, then "Hankyū Dentetsu Bunkatsu Junbi K.K." (阪急電鉄分割準備株式会社) from the next day). On October 1, 2006, Hankyu Holdings became the wholly owning parent company of Hanshin Electric Railway Co., Ltd. and the holdings were renamed Hankyu Hanshin Holdings, Inc.. Hankyu's stock purchase of Hanshin shares was completed on June 20, 2006. Rail lines Hankyu operates three main trunk lines, connecting Osaka with Kobe, Takarazuka and Kyoto respectively, and their branches. {{legend-line\|#3388cf solid 3px\|Kōbe Main Line (神戸本線) (Category-1: Umeda – Kobe-sannomiya)}} The three groups of the lines, the Kobe Lines, the Takarazuka Lines and the Kyoto Lines, can be further grouped into two, the Kobe-Takarazuka Lines and the Kyoto Lines from a historical reason. Hankyu has two groups of rolling stock, one for the Kobe-Takarazuka Lines and the other for the Kyoto Lines. Former lines Abandoned linesKitano Line (Umeda – Kitano) Kamitsutsui Line (Nishi-Nada (Ōji-kōen) – Kamitsutsui)Transferred lines'Keihan Line Keihan Main Line ( – ) Katano Line ( – ) Uji Line ( – ) Ōtsu Line Keishin Line (Sanjō – ) Ishiyama Sakamoto Line ( – ) The Keihan and Ōtsu Lines were transferred to Keihan Electric Railway Co., Ltd. which separated from Keihanshin Kyūkō (now Hankyu) on December 1, 1949. Rolling stock As of March 31, 2010, Hankyu has 1,319 cars for passenger service. Standard cars have three pairs of doors per side and bench seating facing the center of the train (exceptions are noted below). The Kobe Line and Takarazuka Line use the same fleet. Some former Hankyu trains, such as the 2000 series and 3100 series, have been transferred to the Nose Electric Railway. Kobe Line/Takarazuka Line 1000 series 3000 series 3100 series 5000 series 5100 series 6000 series 7000 series 8000 series (includes small number of transverse seating cars) 8200 series 9000 series Kyoto Line 1300 series (from spring 2014) 2300 series 3300 series 5300 series 6300 series (two doors per side, transverse seating) 7300 series 8300 series 9300 series (transverse seating) Fares Single fare (adult) in Japanese Yen by travel distance is as follows. Fares for children (6–11 years old) are half the adult fare, rounded up to the nearest 10 yen. For fare collection, IC cards (PiTaPa, ICOCA and others) are accepted. The fare rate was changed on April 1, 2014 to reflect the change in the rate of consumption tax from 5% to 8%, and again on October 1, 2019 from 8% to 10%. Etymology The name Hankyu is an abbreviation of Keihanshin Kyūkō (京阪神急行). Keihanshin (京阪神) refers to the area served by Hankyu trains, comprising the cities of Kyoto (京都), Osaka (大阪) and Kobe (神戸), along with the suburbs that connect them to each other. Kyūkō (急行) means "express train(s)". In popular culture A 2-car Hankyu train was featured in the 1988 Japanese animated war drama Grave of the Fireflies. One 2008 book by the Japanese writer Hiro Arikawa, Hankyu Densha, occurs entirely on the Hankyu - Imazu line, in the north-west suburbs of Osaka, where various characters meet and interact in the trains and at the various stations of the line. It was made into a film in 2011, titled Hankyu Railway: A 15-Minute Miracle''. See also Transport in Keihanshin Hankyu Hanshin Toho Group Hankyu Hanshin Holdings References External links Railway companies of Japan Companies based in Osaka Prefecture Standard gauge railways in Japan Railway lines opened in 1910 Midori-kai Japanese companies established in 1910 Hankyu Hanshin Holdings Railway companies established in 1910	[ 0.03335603326559067, 0.06771353632211685, 0.20779217779636383, -0.14713288843631744, -0.25542235374450684, 0.5866795778274536, 0.25480931997299194, 0.7879251837730408, 0.000818030268419534, 0.18478204309940338, 0.1771865338087082, 0.1597927361726761, -0.11241315305233002, 0.4949664771556854, -0.42545631527900696, -0.26336076855659485, 0.2003922313451767, 0.18764832615852356, -0.43621036410331726, -0.616631269454956, -0.1893211454153061, -0.5583717226982117, 0.4407711327075958, -0.3493940532207489, 0.3330232799053192, -0.3849044740200043, -0.19349715113639832, 0.7912403345108032, -0.1997298300266266, -0.2095721811056137, 0.28110960125923157, 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227598	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umeda%20Station	Umeda Station	is a railway station in Kita-ku in the northern commercial center of Osaka, Japan. It is the busiest station in western Japan, serving 2,343,727 passengers daily in 2005. Umeda Station is served by the following railways: Hankyu Railway (Kōbe Line, Kyōto Line, Takarazuka Line) - Osaka-umeda Station Hanshin Electric Railway (Main Line) - Osaka Umeda Station Osaka Metro (Midōsuji Line, Station number: M16) The freight terminal of Japan Freight Railway Company (JR Freight) (Umeda Freight Branch of Tōkaidō Main Line), closed in 2013, was also called Umeda. The nearby stations (JR West), (JR West Tōzai Line), (Osaka Subway Yotsubashi Line, Y11) and (Osaka Subway Tanimachi Line, T20) are within walking distance and connected by a large complex of underground malls. Hanshin Railway The underground Umeda terminal of Hanshin Electric Railway (officially Osaka-Umeda Station, but commonly called Hanshin Osaka-Umeda Station) is located south of Ōsaka Station, next to underground of Hanshin Department Store. The Hanshin station first opened on December 21, 1906 as a ground level station and moved to the present underground location on March 21, 1939. Layout There are five bay platforms and four tracks on the second basement. There are east ticket gates on the second basement and center ticket gates and west ticket gates on the first basement. Adjacent stations of Hanshin Osaka-Umeda Hankyu Railway The Umeda terminal of Hankyu Railway (officially Osaka-umeda Station, but commonly called Hankyu Osaka-umeda Station) is located northeast of Ōsaka Station. The station first opened on March 10, 1910, as a ground-level station. The original location of the station was southeast of Ōsaka Station and the Hankyu (then Minoo-Arima Electric Tramway) tracks crossed the Tōkaidō Main Line by an overpass. The station was elevated on July 5, 1926. When Osaka Station was elevated in 1934, Hankyu's elevated tracks were forced to be removed and new Umeda Station was built to handle new ground-level tracks. The switching of tracks were carried out on June 1, 1934. This station facility was used until November 28, 1971, when the move of station to the present location was completed. This move was because of a sharp increase of transit, which forced Hankyu to operate 8-car trains. The existence of JNR tracks on the northern end of the 1934 station prevented the expansion of the station so that the station could not handle long trains. After the opening of the current huge elevated station, spaces around and beneath the station, as well as the site of former station, were extensively redeveloped. One of the symbols of the commercial complex surrounding the station is the BIG MAN video screen above the Kinokuniya bookshop, common and necessary places to meet in this bustling railway station. The Hankyu Department Store, built next to the station in 1929, was a pioneer of the successful business model of department stores run by urban railway companies in Japan. The store is still in business at the original location even after the move of the station (as of 2007, the reconstruction of the store building is in progress). Layout There are ten bay platforms serving nine tracks on the third floor. There are south ticket gates on the third floor and center ticket gates and on Chayamachi ticket gates on the second floor. Adjacent stations of Hankyu Osaka-umeda Osaka Metro Umeda is the transferring point of three lines of the metro: the Midōsuji Line, the Tanimachi Line and the Yotsubashi Line. Among them, only the Midōsuji Line station is named Umeda, with the station number M16. The Tanimachi Line station is Higashi-Umeda (meaning "East Umeda") and the Yotsubashi Line station is Nishi-Umeda (meaning "West Umeda"). These three stations are connected with each other by underground walkways. Regular tickets of the subway, Surutto Kansai cards and IC cards are valid until the passenger gets out the ticket barrier of the station. The transfer between the three Umeda stations is an exception of this principle; the fare can be calculated as one travel as if the passengers do not exit the station provided the passengers transfer within 30 minutes. Umeda Station on the Midōsuji Line started its operation on May 20, 1933, as a temporary station. The station was moved to the present location on October 6, 1935. Originally the station with an island platform and two tracks was built amid one tunnel, but on November 5, 1989, the station was expanded to a tunnel that existed next to the station (built for Tanimachi Line but due to change of plan remained unused for decades). The two tunnels are separated by a wall with some passages. Layout There is an island platform with two tracks on the second basement. There is a wall with passages in the center of the platform. On the upper level of the platform, there are north, center-north-west, center-north-east, center-south and south ticket gates. Adjacent stations of Subway Umeda Japan Freight Railway Umeda Freight Terminal of Japan Freight Railway Company (JR Freight) was a freight terminal on the Umeda Branchline (unofficial name) of the Tōkaidō Main Line owned by West Japan Railway Company (JR West). The station was built to separate freight services from Ōsaka Station and began operation on December 1, 1928. The yard of the terminal was located to the north, literally in the backyard, of the Ōsaka Station. The freight terminal ceased to handle freight on March 16, 2013 and its function was succeeded by newly established Suita Freight Terminal and other nearby yards. The station was officially closed on March 31, 2013. The site, commonly called or , will be redeveloped. The JR West Limited Express trains still use the freight line to transfer from the Osaka Loop Line to the JR Kyoto Line bypassing Ōsaka Station. No passenger trains have stopped at Umeda Station of JR Freight. Surroundings Hankyu Department Store, Hanshin Department Store (Both are owned by Hankyu Hanshin Department Stores, Inc.) HEP Navio Hankyu Men's TOHO Cinemas Umeda HEP Five Hankyu San-Bangai Books Kinokuniya Hankyu Terminal Building Hankyu 17 bangai Hankyu Grand Building Hankyu 32 bandai Kitano Hankyu Building D.D.House Shin-Hankyu Building Shin-Hankyu Hachi-Bangai Hankyu Kappa Yokocho Hankyu Kosho no Machi Sonezaki Police Station Asahiya Shoten EST South Gate Building Daimaru Umeda Pokémon Center Osaka Hotel Granvia Osaka North Gate Building Lucua JR Osaka Isetan-Mitsukoshi Osaka Station City Cinema ITOCHU Umeda Center Building the headquarters of Daikin Industries, Ltd. the headquarters of NTT Data Sekisui Systems Corporation Animate Umeda Yodobashi Umeda (Yodobashi Camera Multimedia Umeda, Comme Ça Store, etc.) Chayamachi Applause Umeda Arts Theater Hotel Hankyu International NU Chayamachi Chaska Chayamachi Maruzen & Junkudo Umeda Mainichi Broadcasting System, Inc. 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227600	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanky%C5%AB%20K%C5%8Dbe%20Main%20Line	Hankyū Kōbe Main Line	The of Hankyu Railway is one of the three major commuter heavy rail lines in the Keihanshin conurbation of Japan. It links the urban centres of Osaka and Kobe by connecting the major stations of Umeda in Osaka and Sannomiya in Kobe. The Hanshin Electric Railway Main Line and West Japan Railway Company (JR West) Tokaido Main Line (this section nicknamed JR Kobe Line) are the two lines parallel to the Hankyu Kobe Line within a short distance of each other. Definition The line is commonly called for short, but in the broader sense 'Kobe Line' refers to the entire network of the trunk Kobe Main Line and connecting branch lines of Itami, Imazu and Kōyō Lines. Network At the Kobe end of the line some trains continue through onto the Kobe Rapid Railway, an underground line allowing interchange between the lines of several commuter rail companies operating in Kobe. The Kobe Main Line has interchanges at several of its stations with other lines operated by Hankyu. The Hankyu main lines to Kyoto and Takarazuka share stations at Umeda and Juso with the Kobe Line. The other lines with connections to the Kobe line are smaller lines with only local trains: the Itami Line connects at Tsukaguchi, the Imazu Line at Nishinomiya-kitaguchi and the Koyo Line at Shukugawa. History The Umeda - Juso section was opened in 1910 as part of the Hankyu Takarazuka Line. The Juso - Oji-Koen section opened as a 1435mm gauge line electrified at 600 VDC in 1920. In 1926 the line was duplicated, and in 1936 it was extended to Kobe Sannomiya. In 1967 the voltage was increased to 1500 VDC. Until 1936, the line's terminal in Kobe was in Kamitsutsui. As a branch of the main line, the 1 km line between Oji-Koen Station and Kamitsutsui Station continued to provide a connection to the Kobe tram network until 1941. The Kobe Main Line was damaged by the Great Hanshin earthquake in January 1995. Restoration work on the Kobe Line took 7 months to complete. Station numbering was introduced on 21 December 2013. Train services Regular train services on the lines come in two kinds: the local trains (普通) which stop at all stations, and the limited express trains (特急) which stop only at major stations along the line. Other commuter and express services operate only during limited time periods: Express trains (急行) are operated from Umeda to Kobe-sannomiya or Nishinomiya-Kitaguchi in the morning on weekdays and every midnight. There is also the only eastbound express train operated from Kobe-sannomiya to Umeda every early morning and the only westbound express train from Umeda to Shinkaichi in the midnight except weekdays. Rapid Express trains (快速急行) are operated between Umeda and Kosoku Kobe or Shinkaichi every midnight. There is also the only eastbound rapid express train operated from Shinkaichi for Umeda every early morning. Commuter Express trains (通勤急行, simply "Express") are operated on weekdays, from Kobe-sannomiya to Umeda in the morning, and from Umeda to Kobe-sannomiya in the evening and at night. Commuter Limited Express trains (通勤特急, simply "Limited Express") are operated in both directions on weekday mornings. Semi-Express trains (準急) are operated from Takarazuka to Umeda via the Imazu Line and the Kobe Line on weekday mornings. Maximum speed: 115 km/h Stations ● : All trains stop \| : All trains pass ◆ : Extra services to the Imazu Line pass Rolling stock 1000 series EMU (from November 2013) 5000 series EMU 6000 series EMU 7000 series EMU 8000 series EMU 8200 series EMU (Rush hour only) 9000 series EMU Former 1000 series EMU (1954) 1010 series EMU 1200 series EMU 2000 series EMU 2200 series EMU 2300 series EMU (Temporary) 3000 series EMU 5100 series EMU 5200 series EMU See also Hankyū Kyōto Main Line Hankyū Takarazuka Main Line References External links K Rail transport in Osaka Prefecture Rail transport in Hyōgo Prefecture Railway lines opened in 1936	[ -0.053217239677906036, -0.02053389884531498, -0.015089359134435654, -0.14159291982650757, -0.5761063098907471, 0.2642144560813904, 0.7502114176750183, 0.4059007465839386, -0.4269913136959076, -0.09107481688261032, -0.026821210980415344, -0.027392664924263954, -0.3695414960384369, 0.45546025037765503, -0.3522155284881592, -0.25908124446868896, 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227602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe-Sannomiya%20Station	Kobe-Sannomiya Station	, or simply , is located in the heart of Kobe, Japan. This station is the main railway terminal of Kobe. Lines Sannomiya is served by the following railway lines and stations: Hanshin Electric Railway (Main Line) - Kobe-Sannomiya Station (Hanshin) Hankyu Railway (Kobe Line, Kobe Kosoku Line) - Kobe-Sannomiya Station (Hankyu) Kobe New Transit (Port Island Line, K01) - Sannomiya Station Kobe Municipal Subway (Seishin-Yamate Line, S03) - Sannomiya Station Kobe Municipal Subway (Kaigan Line, S03) - Sannomiya-Hanadokeimae Station (see separate article) JR West - Sannomiya Station (see separate article) Hanshin Railway Main Line Overview The current station opened as Kobe Station on 12 April 1905. The station would undergo several name changes until the current name was introduced in 2013 along with the station number (HS 32). In 1987, platform 3 was extended and a new ticket gate was opened on the north side. The station was damaged by the Great Hanshin earthquake on 17 January 1995 and all services were suspended. Service was temporarily restored between this station and Kōsoku Kōbe on 1 February 1995, and full restoration of Hanshin Line services would be achieved on 26 June 1995. Layout This station has a combination bay/island platform serving three tracks below ground level. Tracks 1 and 3 are for through-trains running between Umeda and Sanyo Himeji, while track 2 is for trains headed to Ōsaka Namba and Kintetsu Nara. Hankyu Railway Kobe Line, Kobe Kosoku Line Overview Hankyu Railway’s station was established in 1936, and as its terminal within the city, was initially referred to as “Kobe”. The original station building was noted for its Art Deco architecture and a grand arch through which trains passed on their approach to the station; this was damaged beyond repair in the 1995 Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake and was replaced by a temporary structure, which remained in use until 2020. A new high-rise building is now under construction, mimicking the design of the original station building, but lacking the arch over the tracks. Layout This station has two island platforms with three tracks elevated close to JR Sannomiya Station. Kobe Municipal Subway Seishin-Yamate Line Layout This station has a side platform serving a track on the second basement and the third basement. Gallery Port Liner Overview The platforms for the Port Island Line opened on 5 February 1981. Platform screen doors have been installed since opening day. In an announcement in 2018, a proposal was made to extend the Port Island Line to 8-car operation following an increase in ridership. Layout This station has an island platform serving two elevated tracks. Surroundings East side (East entrance of Kobe New Transit and JR West) Kobe Shimbun Kaikan (M-INT Kobe) Sannomiya Bus Terminal (M1 - M11) Daiei Chuo Ward Office, Kobe Shinki Bus Sannomiya Bus Terminal (M15) South side (East of Flower Road, Center entrance of Hanshin Railway, Kobe New Transit and JR West) The Chuo Mitsui Trust and Banking Company, Limited Kobe Branch Hanshin Bus expressway bus (Kobe Sannomiya), Transit buses (Sannomiya-ekimae) (Y1, Y2) Kobe Sanyo Bus expressway bus (Kobe Sannomiya), Transit buses (Sannomiya-ekimae) (M12 - M14) Sannomiya OPA Sogo Kobe Shinki Bus expressway bus (Kobe Sannomiya), Transit buses (Sannomiya-ekimae) (Y3 - Y5) Kobe Loft Transit buses (Hanshin-mae) (Y6, Y7) Kobe International House Joshin South side (West of Flower Road, Entrances of Hankyu Railway, West entrance of Hanshin Railway and JR West) Kobe Kotsu Center Building Airport limousine for Osaka International Airport and Kansai International Airport (S1) Sannomiyacho Itchome (Kobe City Bus) (S2) Kobe Marui Transit buses (Hanshin-mae) (S3, S4) Sannomiya Center-gai Transit buses (Hanshin-mae) (S5, S6) Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation Sannomiya Branch Kobe City Hall North side (East of Flower Road, East entrance of JR West and Kobe Subway) Sundai Transit buses (Subway Sannomiya) (N4 - N8) North side (West of Flower Road, East entrance of Hankyu Railway and Kobe Subway) Yoyogi Seminar Transit buses (Subway Sannomiya) (N1 - N3) West side (West entrance of Hankyu Railway and Kobe Subway) Tokyu Hands Sannomiya - connected with the west entrance of Kobe Subway Ikuta Shrine Ikuta Police Station (Hyogo Prefecture) Kobe Mosque a Kobe Islamic Community Center Kobe Tax Office NHK Kobe Broadcansting Station References See also List of railway stations in Japan External links Port Liner Sannomiya Station (P01) (Japanese) Hanshin Sannomiya Station (Japanese) Hankyu Sannomiya Station (Japanese) Railway stations in Hyōgo Prefecture Hankyū Kōbe Main Line Hanshin Main Line Stations of 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227604	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobe%20Municipal%20Subway	Kobe Municipal Subway	The is a rapid transit system in Kobe, Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan. Like other large Japanese cities, Kobe's subway system is heavily complemented by suburban rail. In addition, two people mover lines also serve the Kobe area: the Port Island Line and the Rokko Island Line. History Construction of the first line of the subway system, the Seishin Line, began on November 25, 1971. The line opened on March 13, 1977, running for between Myōdani and Shin-Nagata stations. A second line, the Yamate Line, opened on June 17, 1983, running for between Shin-Nagata and Ōkurayama stations. On June 18, 1985, the Yamate Line was extended to Shin-Kobe and the Seishin Line was extended to Gakuen-toshi. When the final stage of the Seishin Line, an extension to Seishin-Chuo, opened on March 18, 1987, the Seishin Line and the Yamate Line were merged into the Seishin-Yamate Line. The Hokushin Kyūkō Electric Railway opened the Hokushin Line extension between Shin-Kobe and Tanigami on April 2, 1988; services on the Hokushin Line have through service onto the Seishin-Yamate Line. On January 17, 1995, the Seishin-Yamate Line was damaged in the Great Hanshin earthquake. The day after the earthquake, limited services resumed between Seishin-Chuo and Itayado; full service was restored to the entire line in March 1995 after repairs were completed. On July 7, 2001, the long Kaigan Line opened between Sannomiya-hanadokeimae and Shin-Nagata. On June 1, 2020, Hokushin Line was transferred to Kobe Municipal Subway. Lines Network Map See also List of metro systems Notes External links Kobe at UrbanRail.net Kobe at Subways.net real-distance map of the Kobe subway network Kobe subway network Kobe Municipal Subway Map Transport in Kobe	[ 0.3486718237400055, -0.6826613545417786, -0.4361429214477539, 0.2988755702972412, -0.5187236070632935, -0.1828269362449646, 0.530396580696106, 0.31676843762397766, -0.39005762338638306, -0.538432776927948, 0.10834058374166489, -0.12150273472070694, -0.22807255387306213, 0.2226954996585846, -0.2504274249076843, -0.5683148503303528, 0.5079727172851562, 0.03762950748205185, -0.19252876937389374, -0.3451664447784424, 0.15286864340305328, -0.024986017495393753, 0.2938946485519409, 0.0655766949057579, 0.07707181572914124, -0.08493753522634506, -0.027504783123731613, 0.8475945591926575, -0.1597834974527359, 0.023000866174697876, -0.2353585809469223, 0.5636434555053711, 0.030221305787563324, 0.0731688067317009, 0.1717018187046051, -0.42786574363708496, -0.22886382043361664, 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227612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neoism	Neoism	Neoism is a parodistic -ism. It refers both to a specific subcultural network of artistic performance and media experimentalists, and, more generally, to a practical underground philosophy. It operates with collectively shared pseudonyms and identities, pranks, paradoxes, plagiarism and fakes, and has created multiple contradicting definitions of itself in order to defy categorization and historization Background Definitions of Neoism were always disputed. The main source of this is the undefinable concept of Neoism which created vastly different, tactically distorted accounts of Neoism and its history. Undisputed, however, are the origin of the movement in the late 1970s Canada. It was initiated by Hungarian-born Canadian performance and media-artist Istvan Kantor (aka Monty Cantsin) in 1979, in Montreal. At around the same time the open-pop-star identity of Monty Cantsin was spread through the Mail Artist David Zack (born New Orleans, June 12, 1938, died presumably in Texas ca. 1995) with the collaboration of artists Maris Kudzins and performance artist Istvan Kantor. Schisms followed in the mid-1980s. Questions and concerns arose about whether the "open pop star" Monty Cantsin moniker was being overly associated with certain individuals. Later, writer Stewart Home sought to separate himself from the rest of the Neoist network, manifesting itself in Home's books on Neoism as opposed to the various Neoist resources in the Internet. In non-Neoist terms, Neoism could be called an international subculture which in the beginning put itself into simultaneous continuity and discontinuity with, among others, experimental arts (such as Dada, Surrealism, Fluxus and Concept Art), punk, industrial music and electropop, political and religious free-spirit movements, science fiction literature, 'pataphysics and speculative science. Neoism also gathered players with backgrounds in graffiti and street performance, language writing (later known as language poetry), experimental film and video, Mail Art, the early Church of the Subgenius and gay and lesbian culture. Neoism then gradually transformed from an active subculture into a self-written urban legend. As a side effect, many other subcultures, artistic and political groups since the late 1980s have—often vaguely—referred to or even opposed Neoism and thereby perpetuated its myth. Since the gradual disappearance of Neoism in the 1990s, brief offshoots have appeared including The Seven By Nine Squares, Stewart Home's frequent use of Karen Eliot (as well as Sandy Larson, Luther Blissett (nom de plume) and others) to replace Monty Cantsin as the embodiment of the open pop star concept. "This project... confuses the restrictions that both define and delimit individual identity.... Changing details, such as biographical particulars... are usually considered indispensable in securing the signature of an individual." History Neoism, as a name for a different context, was coined in 1914 by the American satirist Franklin P. Adams as a parody of modern arts. Sydney J. Bounds used the word as the name of a planet in his 1977 science fiction story No Way Back. In 1979, the name was reinitiated by Istvan Kantor (aka Monty Cantsin) for a subcultural -ism that grew out of the mail art network, particularly those parts of mail art that emphasized—rather than the exchange of artwork—alternative lifestyles, pranks, practical jokes, the use of pseudonyms and experimentation with identity In 1980 Monty spent two weeks at mail artist Ginny Lloyd's San Francisco Storefront., a one year living art project holding art events and installations in a storefront window. He lived in the space, compiled writings and launched his Blood Campaign. Centered on the idea of the "open pop star" or multiple persona Monty Cantsin in Montreal, Quebec, Canada, New York, New York and Baltimore, Maryland in the United States . Neoism quickly spread to other places in America, Europe and Australia and involved up to two dozens of Neoists. Until the late 1980s and before the mass availability of the Internet, the mail art network continued to be used as the main communication and propaganda channel for Neoism. Neoists refer to their strategies as "the great confusion" and "radical play". They were acted out in semi-private Apartment Festivals which took place in North America, Europe and Australia between 1980 and 1998 and in publications which sought to embody confusion and radical play rather than just describing it. Consequently, both Neoist festivals and Neoist writing experimented with radical undermining of identity, bodies, media, and notions of ownership and truth. Unlike typical postmodern currents, the experiment was practical and therefore existential. Monty Cantsin, for example, was not simply a collective pseudonym or mythical person, but an identity lived by Neoists in their everyday life. For these purposes, Neoists employed performance, video, small press publications (such as Smile, the international magazine of multiple origins) and computer viruses, but also food (Chapati), flaming steam irons and metal coat hangers (used as telepathic antennas). Borrowing from Thomas Pynchon, Neoism could be more suitably called an "anarchist miracle" of an international network of highly eccentric persons collaborating, often with extremist intensity, under the one shared identity of Monty Cantsin and Neoism. In 2004 Neoism was cited by Javier Ruis in response to the National Assembly Against Racism's condemnation of anarchists disrupting the Third European Social Forum session on anti- m and anti-racism in London (PGA Considered As Neoist Invisible Theatre). In the early 1980s, the Neoist Reinhard U. Sevol founded Anti-Neoism, which other Neoists adopted by declaring Neoism a pure fiction created by Anti-Neoists. The Dutch Neoist Arthur Berkoff operated as a one-person-movement "Neoism/Anti-Neoism/Pregroperativism". Similarly, Blaster Al Ackerman declared himself a "Salmineoist" after Sicilian-American actor Sal Mineo, and John Berndt was credited by Ackerman as having given Neoism the name "Spanish Art," circa 1983. In 1989, following the post-Neoist "Festival of Plagiarism" in Glasgow, Scotland, artist Mark Bloch left mail art and after publishing "The Last Word" remained defiantly silent on Neoism for almost two decades. In 1994, Stewart Home founded the Neoist Alliance as an occult order with himself as the magus. At the same time, Italian activists of the Luther Blissett project operated under the name "Alleanza Neoista". In 1997, the critic Oliver Marchart organized a "Neoist World Congress" in Vienna which did not involve any Neoists. In 2001, the Professional Association of Visual Artists in the German city of Wiesbaden declared itself Neoist. In 2004 Istvan Kantor received the Governor General's Award, and an international "Neoist Department Festival" took place in Berlin. Influences on other artists and subcultures Notable artists who participated in Neoist apartment festivals include early street artist Richard Hambleton, writer and director Kirby Malone, media artist Niels Lomholt, visual artist Peter Below, media artist Bill Vorn, the filmmaker Michael Brynntrup and the model and actress Eugenie Vincent. Neoist "play" such as multiple names, plagiarism and pranks were adopted, frequently mistaken for Neoism proper and by mixing in situationist concepts, by other subcultures such as the Plagiarism and Art Strike 1990-1993 campaigns of the late 1980s (triggered largely by Stewart Home after he had left the Neoist network), Plunderphonics music, the refounded London Psychogeographical Association, the Association of Autonomous Astronauts, the Luther Blissett project, the Michael K Project, the German Communication Guerilla, and, since the late 1990s, by some net artists such as 0100101110101101.org. Other artists who explicitly if vaguely credit Neoism are The KLF, Luther Blissett, Alexander Brener/Barbara Schurz, Lee Wells and Luke Haines (of The Auteurs and Black Box Recorder). The contemporary Dutch Artist Thomas Raat created a series of artworks based on Neoist manifestos and photographic documents. Neoism is also mentioned briefly in David O. Russell's 2005 film I ♥ Huckabees. Dustin Hoffman's character says the word under his breath in response to Jason Schwartzman's experience to "the blanket thing," which is a method of understanding the universe derived from being zipped up in a body bag. The California-based tech-pop band Brilliant Red Lights also applies the word in the song "Neoism," the first track off their second album, Actualism. The band imagines a literal—albeit applicable—definition of the word, defining it as "the culture of the new." In 2017, Istvan Kantor was featured in hiphop artists Future and The Weeknd's music video Coming Out Strong, prominently showing a tattoo of the word "NEOISM" on his head. Selected books A Neoist Research Project (2010), ed. N.O. Cantsin, London: OpenMute, , 246 pages; the first comprehensive anthology and source book of Neoist writing and images, documenting Neoist interventions, Apartment Festivals, definitions and pamphlets of Neoism and affiliated currents, language and identity experiments and Neoist concepts and memes. Touchon, Cecil (2008). New and Improved Neoist Manifesto—a Trans-Lingual Edition. The Neoist Society in association with Ontological Museum Publications. . Features Touchon's trans-lingual Neoist Manifesto with commentaries by Monte Cantsin and Karen Eliot. See also Artivism References External links SMILE No.40 Neo-Neoism Special 81 APT – May 29 81 APT – May 30 81 APT – May 31 81 APT – June 2 81 APT – June 3 81 APT – June 4 81 APT – June 5 81 APT – June 6 81 APT – June 7 Neoist site The Neoist Society A Mere Outline of a Neoist Thesaurus Anti-Neoist site [Bloch, Mark. http://panmodern.com/neoism.html Pan-Neoist manifesto from "C-NILE", a reluctant parody of Smile] [Bloch, Mark. http://panmodern.com/plagiarism.html Pan-Neoist reflections on the 1989 post-Neoist "Festival of Plagiarism" Notes on a Festival of Plagiarism. (Excerpted from "The Last Word: Art Strike, Word Strike, Plagiarism and Originality," 1990)] Neoism node in everything2.com Neoist Manifestos Neoism News on Instagram Political art	[ 0.019941534847021103, 0.2627495229244232, -0.46415936946868896, -0.06436876207590103, -0.45922425389289856, -0.12909618020057678, 0.5518006086349487, 0.44002118706703186, 0.1969640702009201, -0.33011895418167114, -0.5508522391319275, 0.19089919328689575, -0.358742356300354, 0.7521956562995911, 0.11238112300634384, 0.23849530518054962, -0.040965329855680466, 0.056927625089883804, -0.45889532566070557, 0.004329439252614975, -0.7178620100021362, -0.25351354479789734, 0.3444390594959259, -0.5133165121078491, -0.38310882449150085, 0.1715010553598404, 0.5080687999725342, -0.5916815996170044, -0.025998800992965698, 0.32628029584884644, -0.033479880541563034, 0.8377984762191772, -0.43857333064079285, -0.41926294565200806, -0.020366361364722252, 0.22681541740894318, -0.22121626138687134, -0.39159247279167175, 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227616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocation	Allocation	Allocation may refer to: Computing Block allocation map C++ allocators Delayed allocation File allocation table IP address allocation Memory allocation No-write allocation (cache) Register allocation Economics Asset allocation Economic system Market allocation scheme Resource allocation Tax allocation district Telecommunication Call-sign allocation plan Frequency allocation Type allocation code Other Allocution (law), or allocutus, is a formal statement made to the court Allocation (oil and gas) in hydrocarbon accounting to assign the proper portions of aggregated petroleum and gas flows back to contributing sources Allocation voting in voting Location-allocation, used in geographic information systems (GIS) The allocation of scarce resources in operations research See also Location (disambiguation)	[ 0.0630367174744606, 0.1870337575674057, -0.280243456363678, 0.29731443524360657, 0.08365427702665329, 0.4072241485118866, 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227618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Lennard-Jones	John Lennard-Jones	Sir John Edward Lennard-Jones (27 October 1894 – 1 November 1954) was a British mathematician and professor of theoretical physics at the University of Bristol, and then of theoretical science at the University of Cambridge. He was an important pioneer in the development of modern computational chemistry and theoretical chemistry. Early life and education Lennard-Jones was born on 27 October 1894 at Leigh, Lancashire, the eldest son of Mary Ellen and Hugh Jones, an insurance agent. He was educated at Leigh Grammar School, going on to study at the University of Manchester, graduating in 1915 with a first-class honours degree in mathematics. Career Lennard-Jones is well known among scientists for his work on molecular structure, valency and intermolecular forces. Much research of these topics over several decades grew from a paper he published in 1929. His theories of liquids and of surface catalysis also remain influential. He wrote few, albeit influential, papers. His main interest was of atomic and molecular structure, especially the forces between atomic particles, the nature of chemical bonds and such basic matters as why water expands when it freezes. Holding the first Chair of Theoretical Chemistry in the United Kingdom, he established a research school applying to phenomena in physics and organic chemistry new concepts of quantum mechanics and the interactions of subatomic particles. The department attracted many notable scientists and mathematicians, including S.F. Boys, C.A. Coulson, G.G. Hall, A. Hurley, and J. Pople. Atoms of a noble gas interact via a potential in which an attracting van der Waals force balances a repelling force which results from overlapping electron orbits. A well known approximation to this potential is the so-called Lennard-Jones potential, a description of the potential energy as a function of the separation of the atoms. Also named after him, the Lennard-Jones Laboratory houses the School of Chemistry and Physics at Keele University. The Royal Society of Chemistry awards a Lennard-Jones Medal and hosts the Lennard-Jones lecture every second year. Keele University holds a collection of Lennard-Jones's published work, as well as a laboratory named in his honour. Professor C.A. Coulson's collected lecture notes from 1928 to 1932, held in Cambridge University Library, record Lennard-Jones' lectures. Coulson wrote 'I suspect that these are the first lectures on theoretical chemistry (or perhaps more accurately quantum chemistry) that had been given in Britain'. Lennard-Jones's private papers are held at Churchill Archives Centre, in Cambridge. On 26 August 1925 he married Kathleen Mary Lennard, and added her surname to his own to become Lennard-Jones. The couple had two children, John and Mary. He died of cancer at Stoke-on-Trent on 1 November 1954. Summary of key biographical dates 1894 Born in Leigh, Lancashire, as John Edward Jones, and educated at Leigh Grammar School where he specialised in classics. 1912 Studied mathematics as an undergraduate at the University of Manchester 1915–18 First World War service in the Royal Flying Corps 1919–22 Studies for Doctor of Science degree and lectures in Mathematics at Manchester University. 1922 Receives Doctor of Science degree at Manchester 1922–4 Research student with a Senior 1851 Exhibition at Trinity College, Cambridge, supervised by Ralph H. Fowler. Sydney Chapman, then Professor of Mathematics at Manchester, had been a lecturer at Trinity in 1914, and advised Jones to apply there. 1924 Receives Doctor of Science degree at Cambridge. Proposes a semi-empirical interatomic force law. 1925 Marries Kathleen Lennard, adding his wife's surname to his own to become Lennard-Jones. 1925–32 Professor of Theoretical Physics, University of Bristol 1929 Paper introduces the Linear Combination of Atomic Orbitals approximation for molecular orbitals 1929 Brings to Bristol Gerhard Herzberg (1971 Nobel Laureate for chemistry) to study spectra of di- & poly-atomic molecules. 1930–2 Dean of the Faculty of Science, University of Bristol 1931 Paper introduces method for the atomic Self-Consistent Field (SCF) equations. Proposes the Lennard-Jones potential. 1932–53 John Humphrey Plummer Professor of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Cambridge. Founded the theoretical chemistry section of Cambridge University Chemical Laboratory. 1934 Paper applies group theory to explain energies & structures of hydrocarbon free radicals 1933 Elected a fellow of the Royal Society 1934 Graduate student Charles Coulson (in 1972 University of Oxford's first Professor of Theoretical Chemistry) completes PhD 1937 Paper on conjugated hydrocarbons 1937 First Director of University of Cambridge Mathematical Laboratory (now the Department of Computer Science and Technology) with Maurice Wilkes as researcher. 1939 At outbreak of war, seconded as Chief Superintendent of Armament Research to the Ministry of Supply which took over the mathematical laboratory for ballistics calculations, developed a team of mathematicians for this purpose. 1942–5 Director-General of Scientific Research (Defence), Ministry of Supply 1942–7 Member of the Advisory Council of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. 1946 Knighted (KBE), returns to Cambridge 1947–53 Chairman of the Scientific Advisory Council at the Ministry of Supply 1948–50 President of the Faraday Society 1949 Paper justifies use of diatomic orbitals only for valence electrons by showing the determinantal wave function to be invariant under unitary transformations that could accurately transform molecular orbitals into localized equivalent orbitals. 1950 Paper completely defines molecular orbitals as eigenfunctions of the SCF Hamiltonian 1951 Graduate student John Pople (1998 Nobel Laureate for chemistry) completes PhD 1953 Awarded Royal Society's Davy Medal for work applying quantum mechanics to the theory of valency and analysis of the structure of chemical compounds 1953 Succeeds Alexander Lindsay as Principal of the University College of North Staffordshire (now Keele University). Corresponds with Linus Pauling about the need in England for more universities and institutes of technology. 1954 Honorary doctorate of science, the University of Oxford; dies in Stoke-on-Trent, aged 60. Awards and honours The Lennard-Jones Centre at the University of Cambridge is named in his honour. The school of chemistry/medicinal chemistry and physics at Keele university is named after him. References 1894 births 1954 deaths British physicists 20th-century British mathematicians Theoretical chemists Royal Flying Corps officers Alumni of the University of Manchester Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge Academics of the University of Bristol People associated with Keele University Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire Fellows of the Royal Society People from Leigh, Greater Manchester British Army personnel of World War I Academics of the University of Cambridge Computational chemists	[ -0.1725722700357437, 0.7735518217086792, -0.4406408667564392, -0.1921585202217102, 0.0534055195748806, 0.9298140406608582, 0.6116374135017395, 0.11273585259914398, -0.19791889190673828, 0.056496597826480865, -0.6451772451400757, 0.6238383650779724, -0.036564476788043976, 0.333261638879776, 0.3529730439186096, -0.19392475485801697, -0.05324988439679146, -0.3754484951496124, -0.42150381207466125, -0.13395749032497406, -0.18594762682914734, -0.0880349650979042, 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227623	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie%20Clary	Julie Clary	Marie Julie Clary (26 December 1771 – 7 April 1845), was Queen consort of Naples, then of Spain and the Indies, as the wife of Joseph Bonaparte, who was King of Naples from January 1806 to June 1808, and later King of Spain and the Spanish West Indies from 25 June 1808 to June 1813. Early life Marie Julie Clary was born in Marseille, France, the daughter of François Clary (Marseille, St Ferreol, 24 February 1725 – Marseille, 20 January 1794), a wealthy silk manufacturer and merchant of Irish heritage, and his second wife (married on 26 June 1759) Françoise Rose Somis (Marseille, St. Ferreol, 30 August 1737 – Paris, 28 January 1815). Her sister Désirée Clary, six years younger, became Queen of Sweden and Norway when her husband, Marshal Bernadotte, was crowned King Charles XIV John of Sweden (Charles III John of Norway). Their brother, Nicolas Joseph Clary, was created 1st Comte Clary and married Anne Jeanne Rouyer (their granddaughter would be the first wife of Joachim, 4th Prince Murat). Marriage On 1 August 1794, at Cuges (Bouches-du-Rhône department), she married Joseph Bonaparte, elder brother of Napoléon Bonaparte. She accompanied her spouse to Italy when he became ambassador to Rome in 1797, and then settled with him in Paris in 1800. In 1804, when her brother-in-law Napoleon made himself emperor, he named his brother Joseph Imperial Prince, giving Julie status of Imperial Princess. During the coronation of the emperor and empress the same year, Julie was given the task to carry the train of the empress with her sisters-in-law. Although Julie was reportedly able to behave in accordance with court etiquette and "royal formality", she preferred to live a private life surrounded by her family and relatives in her chateau in Mortefontaine, Oise (which had been bought in 1800), away from court as well as away from her adulterous spouse. Queen of Naples Joseph was made King of Naples in 1806, thereby making Julie queen consort of Naples. She preferred to stay separated from him in Mortefontaine, however, and was ceremoniously treated as queen in the Imperial court of Paris. She finally joined Joseph in Naples before April 1808, when she was sent there by Napoleon to support him, as he by that time faced a rebellion. When they left, the Napolitans were convinced that they had removed many valuables with them, and commented: "The King arrived like a sovereign, and left like a brigand. The Queen arrived in rags and left like a sovereign." Queen of Spain In 1808, Joseph was made King of Spain and Julie thereby formally became Queen of Spain. She was the first queen of Spain not of royal birth. However, she did not join him when he traveled to Spain and in fact never lived there, preferring to remain in her residence in Mortefontaine. She was kept informed from Vichy and Plombières about her husband's adulterous relationships in Spain. In France, she was regarded as the representative of Joseph and his kingdom and ceremoniously treated as the queen of Spain at the French Imperial court of Napoleon. She effectively functioned as an ambassador and informer of Joseph and upheld a political correspondence with him regarding Napoleon's plans of Spain, warning Joseph that he should make precautions necessary to control Spain, its unity, finances and army himself, as Napoleon would never allow Spain to be too independent. In Spain, she was referred to as "Reina ausente" ('The Absent Queen'). The fall of Napoleon Napoleon's army was defeated at the Battle of Vitoria on 21 June 1813. During the war, Julie gave refuge to her sister Desirée Clary, who by her marriage to the Crown Prince of Sweden was in fact an enemy citizen, as well as her sister-in-law Catharina of Württemberg, in her home Mortefontaine, and when the allied troops took Paris in 1814, Julie herself took refuge in the home of her sister Desirée in Paris. After the abdication of Napoleon, Julie bought the castle of Prangins in Switzerland, near Lake Léman. During the Hundred Days in 1815, Julie was among those to welcome Napoleon to the Palace in Paris, dressed in Imperial court robe, alongside his former stepdaughter Hortense. After the Battle of Waterloo and the second downfall of Napoleon, the members of the Bonaparte family were exiled, and Joseph bought a property in the State of New Jersey near the River Delaware, with the proceeds of the sale of Spanish paintings taken from ransacked Madrid palaces, castles, monasteries and town halls; Julie herself, however, did not join him there, but left with her daughters to Frankfurt, where she stayed for six years, separated from her French-American husband. In 1816, her sister Desiree, who was Crown Princess of Sweden, wished to bring Julie with her upon her return to Sweden; her husband the crown prince, however, thought this unwise, as Julie was a member of the Bonaparte family and her presence might be taken as a sign that he sided with the deposed Napoleon, and in the end, this came to nothing. Later life Julie settled in Brussels in 1821, and then in Florence, Italy, at the Palazzo Serristori. She did not socialize with the French people. She was described as charming, quiet, dignified and peaceful and generally well liked. In 1823, she parted with her sister Desiree, who became queen of Sweden. In 1840, Joseph joined Julie in Florence. In spite of his adultery, she referred to Joseph as "my beloved husband". Joseph Bonaparte died on 28 July 1844, aged 76. Julie died eight months later in Florence, on 7 April 1845, at the age of seventy-three. They were buried side by side at the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence. In 1862, the self-proclaimed French Emperor Napoleon III brought Joseph Bonaparte's remains back to France and had them inhumed to the right of his younger brother, the Emperor Napoleon I. The remains of Julie are still at the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence beside those of her daughter, Charlotte, who died in Lucca, in Italy, on 3 March 1839, aged 36, giving birth to a stillborn child. Children Joseph and Julie Bonaparte had three daughters: Julie Joséphine Bonaparte (1796). Zénaïde Laetitia Julie Bonaparte (1801–1854), had twelve children. Charlotte Napoléone Bonaparte (1802–1839), married in 1826 Napoléon Louis, eldest son of Louis Bonaparte, King of Holland, and Hortense de Beauharnais, widowed in 1830. References Manuel Ríos Mazcarelle. Reinas de España, Casa de Borbón, I, Alderabán, El legado de la historia, Madrid, 1999. 1ª edición, , 291 pages, (Spanish). Juan balanso. Julia Bonaparte, reina de España, Planeta, 1991 - 170 sidor, 1st edition, , 2001 2 upplagan, 1771 births 1845 deaths Julie Clary Royal consorts of Naples Julie Clary People from Marseille Clary family	[ -0.618770956993103, 0.1360124945640564, 0.09117485582828522, 0.005182218737900257, 0.0017625471809878945, 0.5559321045875549, 0.39906108379364014, 0.06448452919721603, -0.7236799597740173, -0.4088119566440582, -0.027480458840727806, -0.020027263090014458, 0.3002079427242279, 0.4083164930343628, -0.45980942249298096, 0.30279800295829773, 0.22198888659477234, -0.016032811254262924, -0.04027853161096573, -0.7712711691856384, -0.001685735653154552, 0.47510966658592224, -0.07037072628736496, 0.2047119289636612, 0.08590977638959885, -0.10911940038204193, 0.07979587465524673, 0.2784986197948456, 0.8527466058731079, -0.13382484018802643, 0.2728743851184845, -0.1349572241306305, 0.3787415027618408, -0.10521306097507477, -0.6870786547660828, -0.007611163426190615, -0.06414202600717545, 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227627	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewy%20body%20dementias	Lewy body dementias	Lewy body dementias are two similar and common subtypes of dementia—dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB) and Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD). Both are characterized by changes in thinking, movement, behavior, and mood. The two conditions have similar features and may have similar causes, and are believed to belong on a spectrum of Lewy body disease that includes Parkinson's disease. As of 2014, they were more often misdiagnosed than any other common dementia. The exact cause is unknown, but involves widespread deposits of abnormal clumps of protein that form in neurons of the diseased brain. Known as Lewy bodies (discovered in 1912 by Frederic Lewy) and Lewy neurites, these clumps affect both the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The fifth revision of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) gives Lewy body disease as the causative subtype of dementia with Lewy bodies, and Parkinson's disease as the causative subtype of Parkinson's disease dementia. Dementia with Lewy bodies is marked by the presence of Lewy bodies primarily in the cortical regions, and Parkinson's disease dementia with Lewy bodies primarily in the subcortical basal ganglia. Classification The synucleinopathies (dementia with Lewy bodies, Parkinson's disease dementia, and Parkinson's disease) are characterized by shared features of parkinsonism motor symptoms, neuropsychiatric symptoms, impaired cognition, sleep disorders, and visual hallucinations. The Lewy body dementias—dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and Parkinson's disease dementia (PDD)—are distinguished by the timing when cognitive and motor symptoms appear. The two Lewy body dementias are often considered to belong on a spectrum of Lewy body disease that includes Parkinson's disease. MeSH lists Lewy body disease in several categories: as a nervous system disease in two listings one as a basal ganglia Parkinsonian movement disorder and the other under brain disease as a dementia; as a neurodegenerative disorder listed as a synucleinopathy; and as a neurocognitive disorder listed with dementia. Cause and mechanisms Dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia are similar in many ways, suggesting there may be a common pathophysiological mechanism, with PDD and DLB at opposite ends of a Lewy body disease spectrum, and a shared component of protein deposits in Lewy bodies and Lewy neurites. Lewy bodies and neurites have been found to develop from the aggregation of misfolded alpha-synuclein, a protein thought to assist in neurotransmitter release and vesicle turnover; whether these misfolded proteins are responsible for the neurodegenerative effects remains unclear, and no definitive link between Lewy bodies and neurodegenerative effects has been found. DSM-5 gives Lewy body disease as the causative subtype of DLB, and Parkinson's disease as the causative subtype of PDD. DLB is marked by the presence of Lewy bodies primarily in the cortical regions, and PDD with Lewy bodies primarily in the subcortical basal ganglia. Despite differences in the timing of the appearance of symptoms, the two dementias "show remarkably convergent neuropathological changes at autopsy". The relationship between Parkinson's disease dementia and dementia with Lewy bodies is unclear as of 2020, but there is likely to be genetic overlap, and the two conditions may represent different points on a continuum. Diagnosis Dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia have similar neuropathological features, but these features are highly variable and the conditions cannot be distinguished on pathological features alone. Generally, dementia with Lewy bodies is distinguished from Parkinson's disease dementia by the time frame in which dementia symptoms appear relative to parkinsonian symptoms and is diagnosed when cognitive symptoms begin before or at the same time as parkinsonism. Parkinson's disease dementia is the diagnosis when Parkinson's disease is already well established before the dementia occurs. Epidemiology Between 5% and 25% of diagnosed dementias in older adults are due to one of the Lewy body dementias. As of 2014, the Lewy body dementias affect about 1.3 million people in the US and 140,000 in the UK. LBD usually develops after the age of 50. Men are more likely to be diagnosed than women. Prognosis Life expectancy of people with one of the LBD is reduced; following diagnosis it ranges on average from five to eight years. Society and culture Advocacy and awareness As of 2014, the Lewy body dementias were more often misdiagnosed than any other common dementia. Most people with DLB had not heard of the condition prior to diagnosis; general awareness about LBD lags well behind that of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases, even though LBD is the second most common dementia, after Alzheimer's. It is not only frustrating for families and caregivers to find that few people, including many healthcare professionals, are knowledgeable about LBD; lack of knowledge can have significant health consequences because people with LBD have severe sensitivity to antipsychotics often used to treat the symptoms. The Lewy Body Dementia Association (LBDA) and the UK Lewy Body Society promote awareness and provide support that helps society, by reducing costly use of healthcare, and families with LBD, by reducing stress. These organizations, and others in Argentina, Australia and Japan, help raise knowledge and help families with LBD become advocates to raise awareness about the disease. Notable individuals Robin Williams, the American actor and comedian, died on August 11, 2014. Before his suicide, he had been diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, and according to his widow, Susan Schneider Williams, he experienced depression, anxiety, and increasing paranoia. Upon autopsy, his widow said he was found to have diffuse Lewy body disease, while the autopsy used the term diffuse Lewy body dementia. The vocabulary associated with Lewy pathology causes confusion. Lewy body dementia (the umbrella term that encompasses the clinical diagnoses of dementia with Lewy bodies and Parkinson's disease dementia) differs from Lewy body disease (the term used to describe pathological findings of Lewy bodies on autopsy). Dennis Dickson, a spokesperson for the Lewy Body Dementia Association, clarified the distinction by stating that diffuse Lewy body dementia is more commonly called diffuse Lewy body disease and refers to the underlying disease process. According to Dickson, "Lewy bodies are generally limited in distribution", while in dementia with Lewy bodies, "the Lewy bodies are spread widely throughout the brain, as was the case with Robin Williams." Ian G. McKeith, professor and researcher of Lewy body dementias, commented that Williams' symptoms and autopsy findings were explained by dementia with Lewy bodies. The British author and poet Mervyn Peake died in 1968 and was diagnosed posthumously as a probable case of DLB in a 2003 paper published in JAMA Neurology. Sahlas said his death was "variously ascribed to Alzheimer disease, Parkinson disease, or postencephalitic parkinsonism". Based on signs in his work and letters of progressive deterioration, fluctuating cognitive decline, deterioration in visuospatial function, declining attention span, and visual hallucinations and delusions, his may be the earliest known case where DLB was found to have been the likely cause of death. Other entertainers and artists who have or died from LBD include Estelle Getty, the actress known for her role as Sophia on the television series The Golden Girls, Nicholas King, a US actor and horticulturist, actress Dina Merrill, Donald Featherstone, who created the plastic pink flamingo, American radio and television host Casey Kasem, Canadian singer Pierre Lalonde, graphic artist/film set designer Ron Cobb, American actor Frank Bonner, and Canadian musician and actor André Gagnon. Individuals from industry or government who have or died from LBD are Seymour Berry, US Director of the Bureau of Engraving and Printing, Los Angeles Times publisher Otis Chandler, Philip J. Rock, a US Democratic politician of the Illinois Senate, and U.S. media mogul and philanthropist Ted Turner. Arnold R. Hirsch, an American historian who taught at the University of New Orleans, and Jessie Isabelle Price, an American veterinary microbiologist, died from LBD. In the sports realm, Jerry Sloan, American professional basketball player and coach, died from LBD. Major League Baseball players Tom Seaver, Andy Carey, and Bill Buckner died of LBD. Stan Mikita, Canadian ice hockey player, was diagnosed with possible LBD, but a post-mortem brain autopsy found that he had chronic traumatic encephalopathy. In popular culture Robin's Wish, a documentary exploring Robin Williams's Lewy body disease and how it contributed to his death, was released in September 2020. Sleepwalk with Me is a book, one-man comedy, and film about a young man with relationship problems and RBD, a precursor to synucleinopathy, including LBD. Notes References Cognitive disorders Dementia	[ 0.060415130108594894, -0.11340270936489105, 0.22382022440433502, -0.20227466523647308, -0.40324491262435913, 0.27694714069366455, 0.49473991990089417, 0.21047620475292206, -0.6121714115142822, -0.8040878772735596, -0.3560046851634979, -0.22511573135852814, -0.2501544952392578, 0.6290109157562256, -0.021257681772112846, 1.23526132106781, 0.30728957056999207, 0.22901570796966553, -0.2749193012714386, -0.16217245161533356, 0.2401636242866516, -0.22467373311519623, 0.16002337634563446, -0.4254987835884094, -0.24069246649742126, -0.31443139910697937, 0.6219429969787598, 0.07790694385766983, -0.08801070600748062, -0.2144143134355545, -0.18814966082572937, 0.7385359406471252, 0.17717768251895905, -0.10684376955032349, 0.011787474155426025, 0.2260897010564804, -0.47044637799263, -0.7546501159667969, 0.013038712553679943, -0.38745731115341187, -0.15929006040096283, -0.5570828318595886, 0.06593678146600723, 0.35980933904647827, 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227629	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickpocketing	Pickpocketing	Pickpocketing is a form of larceny that involves the stealing of money or other valuables from the person or a victim's pocket without them noticing the theft at the time. It may involve considerable dexterity and a knack for misdirection. A thief who works in this manner is known as a pickpocket. As an occupation Pickpockets and other thieves, especially those working in teams, sometimes apply distraction, such as asking a question or bumping into the victim. These distractions sometimes require sleight of hand, speed, misdirection and other types of skills. Pickpockets may be found in any crowded place around the world. However, Barcelona and Rome were recently singled out as being particularly dangerous pickpocket havens. Thieves have been known to operate in high traffic areas such as mass transit stations, even boarding subway trains so they can use the distractions of crowds and sudden stop-and-go movements from the train to steal from others. As soon as the thieves have what they want, they simply get off at the next stop leaving the victim unable to figure out who robbed them and when. As entertainment Pickpocketing skills are employed by some magicians as a form of entertainment, either by taking an item from a spectator or by returning it without them knowing they had lost it. , arguably the most famous stage pickpocket of all time, became the highest-paid European performer in circuses during the 1950s. For 60 years he was billed as "the King of Pickpockets" and encouraged his son, Charly, to follow in his cunning trade, his offspring being billed as "the Prince of Pickpockets". , a French-Tunisian illusionist, acted as technical advisor on Robert Bresson's 1959 film Pickpocket and appeared as instructor and accomplice to the main character. British entertainer James Freedman created the pickpocket sequences for the 2005 film Oliver Twist directed by Roman Polanski. American illusionist David Avadon featured pickpocketing as his trademark act for more than 30 years and promoted himself as "a daring pickpocket with dashing finesse" and "the country's premier exhibition pickpocket, one of the few masters in the world of this underground art." According to Thomas Blacke, an American illusionist who holds several world records, it has become more difficult nowadays to pickpocket both in the streets and on the stage because the general population wears less, or lighter, clothing. In 2015 an artist hired a pickpocket to distribute sculptures at Frieze Art Fair in New York. Methods Pickpocketing often requires different levels of skill, relying on a mixture of sleight of hand and misdirection. To get the proper misdirect or distraction, pickpockets will normally use the distracting environment that crowds offer or create situations using accomplices. Pickpocketing still thrives in Europe and other countries that are high in tourism. It's most common in areas with large crowds. Sometimes pickpockets put signs up that warn tourist to watch for pickpockets. This causes people to worry and quickly check if their valuables are still on them, ergo showing pickpockets exactly where their valuables are. Once a pickpocket finds a person they want to steal from, often called a "mark" or a victim, the pickpocket will then create or look for an opportunity to steal. The most common methods used by modern-day pickpockets are: Driving by and snatching a passerby's items. This method is common in cities like London where mopeds are a common way to travel. Offering to help someone with their luggage, then proceeding to disappear in a crowded area. This method works well because it gives the victim a false sense of trust with the pickpocketer. The next technique involves a team of three or more people and a crowded area. After finding their mark, two of the pickpockets slow down while walking in front of their mark appearing as a lost couple. Meanwhile, the mark is stuck behind them and their accomplice goes through the mark's bag unnoticed. Using large crowds where there is a small doorway, like that in trains, forcing the crowd to squeeze together to get through. A pickpocket uses this opportunity to stick their hands into peoples' pockets and go unnoticed. Using a stooge, a fake couple, or group goes up and ask the mark for help. For example, it can be to take their photo, hold their bag, or just simply asking for directions and getting them to hold a map. As this is happening their partner is going through the mark's bags while they are distracted helping. Using a child to pickpocket or as a distraction is common in many countries. The bump is the most famous of all the ways and is often used in movies. It is where the pickpocket bumps into the mark inconspicuously, allowing them to access the mark's pockets. The bump usually requires expert sleight of hand. Another common technique is so-called the "slash and grab"; the pickpocket cuts a purse or bag strap without the mark's knowledge and makes off with the bag. They can then take the contents and leave behind the bag and any form of identification in the trash or a back alley. Famous pickpockets Famous fictional pickpockets include the Artful Dodger and Fagin, characters from the Charles Dickens' novel Oliver Twist. Famous true-life historical pickpockets include the Irish prostitute Chicago May, who was profiled in books; Mary Frith, nicknamed Moll Cutpurse; the Gubbins band of highwaymen; and Cutting Ball, a notorious Elizabethan thief. George Barrington's escapades, arrests, and trials, were widely chronicled in the late 18th-century London press. Pickpocketing in the 17th and 18th centuries The 17th and 18th centuries saw a significant number of men and women pickpockets, operating in public and/or private places and stealing different types of items. Some of those pickpockets were caught and prosecuted for their theft, however, in most cases, they managed to avoid punishment (whether they were skilful enough not to get caught or they were acquitted in Court). Although we refer to them as "pickpockets" today, this is not necessarily how they were called in the 17th century: they were sometimes referred to as "cut-purses", as can be seen in some 17th-century ballads. At the time, pockets were not yet sewn to clothes, as they are today. This means that pockets were a little purse that people wore close to their body. This was especially true for women, since men's pockets were sewn "into the linings of their coats". Women's pockets were worn beneath a piece of clothing, and not "as opposed to pouches or bags hanging outside their clothes". These external pockets were still in fashion until the mid-19th century. Gender Pickpocketing in the 18th century was committed by both men and women (looking at prosecuted cases of pickpocketing, it appears that there were more female defendants than male.) Along with shoplifting, pickpocketing was the only type of crime committed by more women than men. It seems that in the 18th century, most pickpockets stole out of economic needs: they were often poor and did not have any economic support, and unemployment was "the single most important cause of poverty", leading the most needy ones to pick pockets. In most cases, pickpockets operated depending on the opportunities they got: if they saw someone wearing a silver watch or with a handkerchief bulging out of their pocket, the pickpockets took the item. This means that the theft was, in such cases, not premeditated. However, some pickpockets did work as a gang, in which cases they planned thefts, even though they could not be sure of what they would get (Defoe's Moll Flanders gives several examples of how pickpockets worked as a team or on their own, when the eponymous character becomes a thief out of need). The prosecutions against pickpockets at the Old Bailey between 1780 and 1808 show that male pickpockets were somewhat younger than female ones: 72% of men pickpockets convicted at the time were aged from under 20 to 30, while 72% of women convicted of picking pockets were aged between 20 and 40. One reason that may explain why women pickpockets were older is that most of women pickpockets were prostitutes (this explains why very few women under 20 years old were convicted for picking pockets). At the end of the 18th century, 76% of women defendants were prostitutes, and as a result, the victims of pickpockets were more often men than women. In most cases, these prostitutes would lay with men (who were frequently drunk), and take advantage of the situation to steal from these clients. Men who were robbed by prostitutes often chose not to prosecute the pickpockets, since they would have had to acknowledge their "immoral behaviour". The few men who decided to prosecute prostitutes for picking their pockets were often mocked in Court, and very few prostitutes ended up being declared fully guilty. The men who were prosecuted for picking pockets and who were under 20 years old were often children working in gangs, under the authority of an adult who trained them to steal. The children involved in these gangs were orphans (either because of having been abandoned or because their parents had died), and the whole relationship they had with the adult ruling the gang and the other children was that of a "surrogate family". Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist provides a good example of how orphans were recruited and turned into street criminals. Methods of operation and targets Male and female pickpockets tended to operate in different locations: 80% of men operated in public areas while 78% of women operated in private places. This can be explained by the fact that most female pickpockets were prostitutes, robbing their victims in their lodging after having laid with them. Male pickpockets, on the other hand, tended to operate in public places because they did not have the opportunity that prostitutes had. The fact that men and women did not operate in the same places led to them stealing different types of items: men stole mostly handkerchiefs, because they were one of the easiest items to take from someone without them noticing it. Women tended to steal watches (some pickpockets also stole watches in public places, but it was more difficult) and bags with money in them. When defending themselves in court, prostitutes often argued that the money had been a gift from the victim and managed to be acquitted, as the men prosecuting them were often drunk at the time of the theft and were not taken seriously by the court. Prosecution In the eyes of British law, pickpocketing was considered a capital offence from 1565 on: this meant that it was punishable by hanging. However, for the crime to be considered as a capital offence, the stolen item had to be worth more than 12 pennies, otherwise it was considered to be petty larceny, which meant that the thief would not be hanged. The 18th century law also stated that only the thief could be prosecuted—any accomplice or receiver of the stolen item could not be found guilty of the crime: "This meant that, if two people were indicted together, and there was not clear proof as to which one made the final act of taking, neither should be found guilty". Moreover, in order to be able to prosecute someone for pickpocketing, the victim of the theft had to not be aware that they were being robbed. In 1782, a case at the Old Bailey made it clear that this was supposed to prevent people who had been robbed while they were drunk from prosecuting the defendant (in most of the cases that meant men who had been robbed by prostitutes): The victims of pickpockets who were drunk at the time of the theft were considered to be partially responsible for being robbed. Even though pickpockets were supposed to be hanged for their crime, this punishment, in fact, rarely happened: 61% of women accused of picking pockets were acquitted and those who were not acquitted often managed to escape the capital sentence, as only 6% of defendants accused of pickpocketing between 1780 and 1808 were hanged. In the cases of prostitutes being accused of having pickpocketed male prosecutors, the jury's verdict was very often more favourable to the woman defendant than to the man prosecuting her. Men who had been laying with prostitutes were frowned upon by the court. One of the reasons was that they had chosen to take off their clothes, they were also drunk most of the time, so they were responsible for being robbed. The other reason is that it was considered bad for a man to mix with a prostitute, which is why in many cases there was no prosecution: the victim was too ashamed of admitting that he had been with a prostitute. In those cases, since the jury was often inclined to despise the prosecutor and to side with the defendant, when they did not completely acquit the woman they often reached a partial verdict and this mostly meant transportation to America (that is the case for Moll Flanders), and to Australia later on. See also School of Seven Bells – musical group named after a mythical pickpocket academy Blackguard Children – usually poor or homeless orphans who made a living through begging and pickpocketing References Further reading – about the history of theatrical pickpocketing. 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227630	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20economy	World economy	The world economy or the global economy is the economy of all humans of the world, referring to the global economic system which includes all economic activities which are conducted both within and between nations, including production, consumption, economic management, work in general, exchange of financial values and trade of goods and services. In some contexts, the two terms are distinct "international" or "global economy" being measured separately and distinguished from national economies while the "world economy" is simply an aggregate of the separate countries' measurements. Beyond the minimum standard concerning value in production, use and exchange, the definitions, representations, models and valuations of the world economy vary widely. It is inseparable from the geography and ecology of planet Earth. It is common to limit questions of the world economy exclusively to human economic activity and the world economy is typically judged in monetary terms, even in cases in which there is no efficient market to help valuate certain goods or services, or in cases in which a lack of independent research, genuine data or government cooperation makes establishing figures difficult. Typical examples are illegal drugs and other black market goods, which by any standard are a part of the world economy, but for which there is by definition no legal market of any kind. However, even in cases in which there is a clear and efficient market to establish a monetary value, economists do not typically use the current or official exchange rate to translate the monetary units of this market into a single unit for the world economy since exchange rates typically do not closely reflect worldwide value, for example in cases where the volume or price of transactions is closely regulated by the government. Rather, market valuations in a local currency are typically translated to a single monetary unit using the idea of purchasing power. This is the method used below, which is used for estimating worldwide economic activity in terms of real United States dollars or euros. However, the world economy can be evaluated and expressed in many more ways. It is unclear, for example, how many of the world's 7.8 billion people () have most of their economic activity reflected in these valuations. According to Maddison, until the middle of 19th century, global output was dominated by China and India. Waves of Industrial Revolution in Western Europe and Northern America shifted the shares to the Western Hemisphere. As of 2021, the following 17 countries or collectives have reached an economy of at least US$2 trillion by GDP in nominal or PPP terms: Brazil, Canada, China, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Italy, Japan, South Korea, Mexico, Russia, Spain, Turkey, the United Kingdom, the United States and the European Union. Despite high levels of government investment, the World Bank predicted that the global economy would decrease by 5.2 percent in 2020. Cities account for 80% of global GDP, thus they would face the brunt of this decline. Overview World economy by country groups Current world economic league table of largest economies in the world by GDP and share of global economic growth Twenty largest economies in the world by nominal GDP Twenty largest economies in the world by GDP (PPP) Statistical indicators Finance GDP (GWP) (gross world product): (purchasing power parity exchange rates) – $59.38 trillion (2005 est.), $51.48 trillion (2004), $23 trillion (2002). The GWP is the combined gross national income of all the countries in the world. When calculating the GWP, add GDP of all countries. Also, GWP shows that imports and exports are equal. Because imports and exports balance exactly when considering the whole world:, this also equals the total global gross domestic product (GDP). According to the World Bank, the 2013 nominal GWP was approximately US$75.59 trillion. In 2017, according to the CIA's World Factbook, the GWP was around US$80.27 trillion in nominal terms and totaled approximately 127.8 trillion international dollars in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP). The per capita PPP GWP in 2017 was approximately Int$17,500 according to the World Factbook. GDP (GWP) (gross world product): (market exchange rates) – $60.69 trillion (2008). The market exchange rates have increased from the 1990 to 2008. The reason for this increase is the world advancement in terms of technology. GDP (real growth rate): The following part shows the GDP growth rate and the expected value after one year. Developed Economies. A developed country, industrialized country, more developed country (MDC), or more economically developed country (MEDC), is a sovereign state that has a developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living. Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. The GDP of the developed countries is predicted to fall from 2.2% in 2017 to 2.0% 2018 due to the fall of dollar value. Developing Countries. A developing country is a country with a less developed industrial base (industries) and a low Human Development Index (HDI) relative to other countries. However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category. A nation's GDP per capita, compared with other nations, can also be a reference point. In general, the United Nations accepts any country's claim of itself being "developing". The GDP of the developing countries is expected to rise from 4.3% in 2017 to 4.6% in 2018 due to political stability in those countries and advancement in technology. Least developed countries. The least developed countries (LDCs) is a list of developing countries that, according to the United Nations, exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development, with the lowest Human Development Index ratings of all countries in the world. The concept of LDCs originated in the late 1960s and the first group of LDCs was listed by the UN in its resolution 2768 (XXVI) of 18 November 1971. This is a group of countries that are expected to improve their GDP from 4.8% in 2017 to 5.4% in 2018. The predicted growth is associated advancement in technology and industrialization of those countries for the past decade. GDP – per capita: purchasing power parity – $9,300, €7,500 (2005 est.), $8,200, €6,800 (92) (2003), $7,900, €5,000 (2002) World median income: purchasing power parity $1,041, €950 (1993) GDP – composition by sector: agriculture: 4%; industry: 32%; services: 64% (2004 est.) Inflation rate (consumer prices); In economics, inflation is a general rise in the price level in an economy over a period of time, resulting in a sustained drop in the purchasing power of money. When the general price level rises, each unit of currency buys fewer goods and services; consequently, inflation reflects a reduction in the purchasing power per unit of money – a loss of real value in the medium of exchange and unit of account within the economy. The opposite of inflation is deflation, a sustained decrease in the general price level of goods and services. The common measure of inflation is the inflation rate, the annualized percentage change in a general price index, usually the consumer price index, over time. national inflation rates vary widely in individual cases, from declining prices in Japan to hyperinflation (In economics, hyperinflation is very high and typically accelerating inflation) in several Third World countries (2003): World 2.6% (2017), 2.8% (predicted 2018); Developed Economies 1% to 4% typically Developing Countries 5% to 60% typically Least developed countries 11.4% (2017), 8.3% (predicted 2018) Derivatives OTC outstanding notional amount: $601 trillion (Dec 2010) () Derivatives exchange traded outstanding notional amount: $82 trillion (June 2011) () Global debt issuance: $5.187 trillion, €3 trillion (2004), $4.938 trillion, €3.98 trillion (2003), $3.938 trillion (2002) (Thomson Financial League Tables) Global equity issuance: $505 billion, €450 billion (2004), $388 billion. €320 billion (2003), $319 billion, €250 trillion (2002) (Thomson Financial League Tables) Employment Unemployment rate: 8.7% (2009 est.). 30% (2007 est.) combined unemployment and underemployment in many non-industrialized countries; developed countries typically 4%–12% unemployment. Industries Industrial production growth rate: 3% (2002 est.) Energy Yearly electricity – production: 21,080,878 GWh (2011 est.), 15,850,000 GWh (2003 est.), 14,850,000 GWh (2001 est.) Yearly electricity – consumption: 14,280,000 GWh (2003 est.), 13,930,000 GWh (2001 est.) Oil – production: (2003 est.), (2001) Oil – consumption: (2003 est.), (2001) Oil – proved reserves: 1.025 trillion barrel (163 km3) (2001 est.) Natural gas – production: 3,366 km3 (2012 est.), 2,569 km3 (2001 est.) Natural gas – consumption: 2,556 km3 (2001 est.) Natural gas – proved reserves: 161,200 km3 (1 January 2002) Cross-border Yearly exports: $12.4 trillion, €11.05 trillion (2009 est.) Exports – commodities: the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services Exports – partners: US 12.7%, Germany 7.1%, China 6.2%, France 4.4%, Japan 4.2%, UK 4.1% (2008) Yearly imports: $12.29 trillion, €10.95 trillion (2009 est.) Imports – commodities: the whole range of industrial and agricultural goods and services Imports – partners: China 10.3%, Germany 8.6%, US 8.1%, Japan 5% (2008) Debt – external: $56.9 trillion, €40 trillion (31 December 2009 est.) Gift economy Yearly economic aid – recipient: net Official Development Assistance (ODA) of $135.2 billion (2014) Communications Telephones – main lines in use: 843,923,500 (2007)4,263,367,600 (2008) Telephones – mobile cellular: 3,300,000,000 (Nov. 2007) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 10,350 (2000 est.) Internet users: 3,079,339,857 (31 December 2014 ), 360,985,492 (31 December 2000) Transport Transportation infrastructure worldwide includes: Airports Total: 41,821 (2013) Roadways (in kilometres) Total: 32,345,165 km Paved: 19,403,061 km Unpaved: 12,942,104 km (2002) Railways Total: 1,122,650 km includes about 190,000 to 195,000 km of electrified routes of which 147,760 km are in Europe, 24,509 km in the Far East, 11,050 km in Africa, 4,223 km in South America, and 4,160 km in North America. Military World military expenditure in 2018: estimated to $1.822 trillion Military expenditures – percent of GDP: roughly 2% of gross world product (1999). Science, research and development The Royal Society in a 2011 report stated that in terms of number of papers the share of English-language scientific research papers the United States was first followed by China, the UK, Germany, Japan, France, and Canada. In 2015, research and development constituted an average 2.2% of the global GDP according to the UNESCO Institute for Statistics. Metrics and rankings of innovation include the Bloomberg Innovation Index, the Global Innovation Index and the share of Nobel laureates per capita. Resources and environment Forests (carbon sinks, wood, ecosystem services, ...) Estimated number of trees that are net lost annually as of 2021: 10 billion Global annual deforested land in 2015–2020: 10 million hectares Global annual net forest area loss in 2000–2010 : 4.7 million hectares Other land degradation and land- and organisms-related ecosystem disturbances Soils (carbon sink, ecosystem services, food production, ...) Soil erosion by water in 2012: almost 36 billion tons (based on a high resolution global potential soil erosion model developed in 2017) Estimated annual loss of agricultural productivity due to soil erosion: 8 billion US dollars (based on the soil erosion data) Soil erosion by water in 2015: approximately 43 billion tons (according to a 2020 study) Environmental impact of pesticides Pesticide use in tonnes of active ingredient in Australia in 2016: ca. 62,500 tonnes Oceans (ecosystem services, food production, ...): Blue economy Waste and pollution (effects of economic mechanisms, effects on ecosystem services) As of 2018, about 380 million tonnes of plastic is produced worldwide each year. From the 1950s up to 2018, an estimated 6.3 billion tonnes of plastic has been produced worldwide, of which an estimated 9% has been recycled and another 12% has been incinerated with the rest reportedly being "dumped in landfills or the natural environment". Air pollution Number of human deaths caused annually by air pollution worldwide: ca. 7 million Estimated global annual cost of air pollution: $5 trillion Microplastic pollution Estimated accumulated number of microplastic particles in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2014: 15 to 51 trillion particles, weighing between 93,000 and 236,000 metric tons Estimated accumulated number of microplastic particles in the North Atlantic Ocean in 2020: 3700 microplastics per cubic meter From the scientific perspective, economic activities are embedded in a web of dynamic, interrelated, and interdependent activities that constitute the natural system of Earth. Novel application of cybernetics in decision-making (such as in decision-making related to process- and product-design and related laws) and direction of human activity (such as economic activity) may make it easier to control modern ecological problems. Historical development One example for a comparable metric other than GDP are the OECD Better Life Index rankings for different aggregative domains. The index includes 11 comparable "dimensions" of well-being: Housing: housing conditions and spendings (e.g. real estate pricing) Income: household income (after taxes and transfers) and net financial wealth Jobs: earnings, job security and unemployment Community: quality of social support network Education: education and what one gets out of it Environment: quality of environment (e.g. environmental health) Governance: involvement in democracy Health Life Satisfaction: level of happiness Safety: murder and assault rates Work-life balance Economic studies To promote exports, many government agencies publish on the web economic studies by sector and country. Among these agencies include the USCS (US DoC) and FAS (USDA) in the United States, the EDC and AAFC in Canada, Ubifrance in France, the UKTI in the United Kingdom, the HKTDC and JETRO in Asia, Austrade and the NZTE in Oceania. Through Partnership Agreements, the Federation of International Trade Associations publishes studies from several of these agencies (USCS, FAS, AAFC, UKTI, and HKTDC) as well as other non-governmental organizations on its website globaltrade.net. See also Anarchy (international relations) Capitalism Common Wealth: Economics for a Crowded Planet (book) Economic bubble Economic collapse Emerging and growth-leading economies Fourth Industrial Revolution Global financial system Global workforce Globality Globalization International trade Trade route Overconsumption Petrodollar recycling World Trade Report World history Economic history of the world World-systems theory Regional economies: Economy of Africa Economy of Asia Economy of Europe Economy of North America Economy of Oceania Economy of South America Events: Great Recession World oil market chronology from 2003 Financial crisis of 2007–2008 2007–2008 world food price crisis Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic Lists: List of countries by GDP sector composition List of world's largest economies (nominal) – based on current currency market exchange rates List of world's largest economies (PPP) – based on purchasing power parity Historical list of world's largest economies (PPP) – for the years between 1 and 1998 List of world production References External links OECD – Economic Outlook US Bureau of Labor and Statistics, Major Economic Indicators IMF – World Economic Outlook UN DESA – World Economy publications CIA – The World Factbook – World Career Education for a Global Economy BBC News Special Report – Global Economy Guardian Special Report – Global Economy World Bank Summary Trade Statistics for World Economics catchphrases Economic globalization	[ 0.3004867136478424, -0.03769787400960922, 0.14007394015789032, -0.0844658762216568, -0.03952467814087868, 0.2423865795135498, 0.20713606476783752, 1.1043859720230103, -0.5846808552742004, -0.9645185470581055, -0.24258500337600708, 0.4071183502674103, -0.8819028735160828, 0.9922528266906738, 0.09042693674564362, 0.12166465818881989, 0.47483590245246887, 0.49317091703414917, -0.31715065240859985, -0.07454080879688263, -0.6641715168952942, 0.22174012660980225, 0.25364962220191956, 0.20775598287582397, 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227634	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Dumont%20%28M%C3%A9tis%20leader%29	Gabriel Dumont (Métis leader)	Gabriel Dumont (1837–1906) was a Canadian political figure best known for being a prominent leader of the Métis people. Dumont was well known for his movements within the North-West Rebellion at the battles of Batoche, Fish Creek, and Duck Lake as well as for his role in the signing of treaties with the Blackfoot tribe, the traditional main enemy of the Métis. Dumont was born to Isidore Dumont and Louise Laframboise in 1837 in Red River. Growing up Dumont had little in the way of education – he was illiterate but could speak seven languages. In the early stages of his life, Dumont relied on buffalo hunting in order to gain a source of food. His family made a living through hunting buffalo and trading with the Hudson's Bay Company. After his time leading the Métis people alongside Louis Riel, Dumont spent time travelling throughout the United States where he spoke at public speaking events and political campaigns. In 1889 he dictated his memoirs in Quebec. Dumont was known throughout the Métis community for his various political and military endeavours. Among his major political campaigns was the severing of a treaty between the Métis and the Dakota in 1882. Just one year later, Dumont was elected hunt chief of the Saskatchewan Métis. Dumont was known as the adjutant general of the Métis people – he played a large role in the well-being of the Métis community and their subsequent resistance against the Canadian government during the North-West Rebellion. Dumont also figured prominently in the Battle of Duck Lake, as well as the battles of Fish Creek and Batoche. Dumont's legacy is marked by his grave in Batoche, as well as through his mark on the Métis people. Gabriel Bridge, a bridge that spans the Saskatchewan River, is named after Dumont, as are several research institutions and schools. In addition, many books and poems have been written about Dumont's life, his works, and his legacy as a political figure. Early life Gabriel Dumont was born in December 1837 in what is now known as Winnipeg as the fourth child and eldest son of 11 children. His parents were Isidore Dumont (known commonly as Ekapow) and Louise Laframboise, who made their home in the Red River Colony. Gabriel was the grandson of the French-Canadian commoner Jean-Baptiste Dumont and his First-Nations wife Josette of the Tsuu T’ina-Crow tribe. His indigenous background signalled that Dumont's early life was often marred by a lack of education, considering the circumstances of his family this was not entirely uncommon. He spent the majority of his childhood travelling across the Canadian Prairies (Great Plains) following the bison and learning the skills to become a hunter. The Dumont family was known throughout the settlement of Red River as a prominent Métis buffalo hunting family. In addition to this distinction, they held a long-vaunted relationship with the Saskatchewan area as leaders of a brigade. The Dumont family made their fortune through hunting in the lands controlled by the Hudson's Bay Company, with the primary source of their income coming through the trade of pemmican with the company. Dumont was introduced to the art of Métis buffalo hunting in his childhood years, and over time mastered the nuances of prairie life. This would equip him in the years to come for the conflict he would endure. Madeline Welke – the daughter of a Scottish trader and his Indian wife – married Dumont in 1858. Throughout his travels as a hunter, Dumont traded with different tribes and picked up different languages making him more valuable to his tribe. In 1868, Dumont and his wife settled in the Batoche area permanently. Dumont was known for his incredible versatility both as a huntsman and as a convenor of multilingualism. It was purported that Dumont could converse with an individual in no less than seven separate languages (although it was noted that Dumont never learned more than a few small phrases in English). His skills as a huntsman and marksman were another finely honed trait, in both the disciplines of bow and rifle. In addition to these traits, Dumont was known as a proficient horseman. In much the same vein as many of the other prominent Métis leaders of his day such as Louis Riel, Dumont had mastered the fine art of diplomacy in the northern plains of the West. Military actions and conflicts Dumont was first introduced to plains warfare at the young age of 13 in 1851, where he fought in the Battle of Grand Coteau against the much larger contingent of Yankton Sioux. Dumont's actions in that conflict included defending a large Métis encampment against the advances of a Dakota war party. In 1862, at the age of 24, Dumont served as the intermediary between the Métis and the Dakota whilst being accompanied by his father. Later on, Dumont helped to sign a treaty with the Blackfoot, an action that led to a long state of peace with the traditional enemies of the Métis. Although he was considered one of the figureheads of the Métis movement at the time, Dumont was not involved in the Red River Resistance that took place from 1869 to 1870. However, Dumont did move quickly to Fort Garry in order to offer his military assistance during Colonel Garnet Wolseley's movement on the area. Around the time of 1885, the North-West Rebellion broke out. Dumont's army of 300 Métis soldiers organized near Duck Lake on 26 March, and conflict broke out between the ranks of the Métis and the North-West Mounted Police later that day. Among the dead on the Métis side was Dumont's brother, Isidore – the victim of a botched parley attempt. Dumont was dealt a glancing blow to his head from a stray bullet during the battle, cutting an artery, and was thereafter confined to nursing his injury while the rest of the North-West Resistance played out. However, this injury suffered during the Duck Lake confrontation did not prevent Dumont from leading his soldiers. Dumont also played a key role in discovering the traitors within the Saskatchewan Métis. In particular, Dumont was a part of the arrest of Alexander Monkman. Dumont ensured the safety of Louis Riel by jumping in front of Monkman's revolver when he pulled it on Riel, leading to Monkman's quick arrest. Dumont was acutely aware that more Canadian troops led by General Frederick Middleton were streaming towards their location. In order to combat the advancing threat, Dumont proposed a campaign of terror that focused on uprooting railroads and prolonged periods of violence against Canadian soldiers. Riel was more inclined towards a peaceful resolution to proceedings, and Dumont deferred to Riel's judgements. Dumont's contingent of 300 Métis soldiers clashed with the opposing Canadian soldiers on 24 April at a place dubbed Fish Creek by the Canadians. The efforts of the Métis soldiers caused General Middleton to pause in his advancement towards Batoche. With the battle only lasting one day, the Métis soldiers were outnumbered five to one. Dumont's skillful military leadership allowed them to drive off the attackers and enabled the Métis soldiers to eventually retreat to the relative safety of Batoche. Once the Canadian soldiers reached Batoche, Dumont led a defence of the Métis community that lasted four days. After the first day there was no clear winner amongst the two sides, despite the Métis being once again vastly outnumbered. Although they lacked the numbers to truly put a dent in the Canadian forces, Dumont's group handicapped a military steamer and managed to repel several of Middleton's infantry pushes. The Métis utilized the tactic of digging holes approximately every to allow for the Métis troops to hide and advance throughout a vast majority of land, allowing for a place to watch the Canadians and easily attack. By the fourth day of the defence, the Métis soldiers were out of ammunition and shooting nails and pieces of metal. That day, the Canadian soldiers broke through Dumont's lines and took Batoche. Many Métis were saved because of the holes that were previously dug. For days afterwards, Dumont remained in the vicinity of Batoche to ensure that blankets were distributed to the now homeless Métis women and children. During this period Dumont also searched for Riel, who had surrendered to the Canadian soldiers in the interim on May 15. When Dumont learned of Riel's fate, he quickly left Batoche and travelled to the United States. After crossing the border into the United States via the Cypress Hills and Montana Territory, Dumont and his companion Michel Dumas were detained almost immediately. However, Dumont and Dumas were quickly released following a memo sent from the Oval Office ordering their release immediately. Although Dumont hid for some time in the United States, he was still wanted in Canada and had developed into something of a folk hero in Saskatchewan. While Dumont was indeed in hiding, it was rumoured that the soldiers looking for him made a rather feeble attempt to find him after learning that "", his famous rifle, was still in his possession. In July 1886 the Canadian government announced that amnesty was available to Dumont. He eventually returned to Batoche, where he spent time dictating two separate memoirs of the North-West Resistance. Political history Dumont's hereditary skills gained from his heritage as a buffalo hunter quickly gave rise to his influence politically. By the year 1863, the ranks of the buffalo hunters amongst the Saskatchewan Métis numbered around 200 – enough to require some form of formal organization. In 1863 he was first elected as the hunt chief of the Saskatchewan Métis, a position he remained in until 1881 – around the time that the buffalo herds had almost entirely disappeared from the region that Dumont was hunt chief of. Dumont's experience on the buffalo hunt gave him a great vision for the downturn of the buffalo trade during the 1870s. He was known as a leader with a vision for the Métis, as he recognized that the declining numbers of the buffalo in Western Canada coupled with the encroaching Canadian agricultural movement spreading from the east would spark a great amount of change on the prairies. His political agenda consisted of maintaining the independence of the Saskatchewan Métis both politically and economically. In December 1873, after a meeting Dumont called in order to form a government for the Métis at St. Laurent (De Grandin), Dumont was immediately elected leader of the council of St. Laurent. Through his position as the leader of the council, Dumont created and put into place a constitution for the Métis that was followed for some time afterwards. In his role as president of the council, Dumont's responsibilities included overseeing a committee of elected Métis councillors, and mediating relations between the council and the people of St. Laurent. During this period of time the Canadian government had begun to lay claim to the position of governing body in the region, which sparked conflict with Dumont and his council. At first Dumont was passive, informing the government that the purpose of the local government was simply that – to govern locally. The goal of the council was not to form a rebellion according to Dumont. Reassured by Dumont's implorements, colonial officials saw little cause to panic. Incidentally however, Dumont did seek a degree of complete authority. When land surveyors from the Canadian government began to arrive in Saskatchewan during the 1870s, they showed a complete lack of regard for the Métis system of land tenure When the North-West Mounted Police arrived on the plains in 1874, it proved the volatility of the situation – Sir John A. Macdonald's government had no plans to treat the Métis as a self-governing entity. Dumont was re-elected president and leader of the council at St. Laurent in December 1874. In order to ensure that order was kept in the region, Dumont's government attempted to impose fines on Métis who ignored the rules of the buffalo hunt. These individuals did not appreciate the tactics Dumont's government was employing, and complained to the Hudson's Bay Company factor Lawrence Clarke. Clarke sent their concerns on to Lieutenant Governor Alexander Morris, claiming that the Métis were in open revolt against the Canadian government. After this incident the North-West Mounted Police were dispatched to investigate, and found no issue with Dumont's dealings. However, the incident did spell the virtual end of the rule of the governing council at St. Laurent, although the council itself remained. During the 1880s Dumont's council sent petitions to the capital in Ottawa imploring the government to recognize the traditional land holdings (tenure) of the Métis. When these petitions went unanswered by the prime minister and his cabinet, Dumont and the Métis felt compelled to protect the land through a more direct method. In March 1884, a meeting was called by Dumont at the house of Abraham Montour, in which Dumont proceeded to call for Louis Riel to take up the mantle of leadership that Dumont had been previously holding. Subsequently, a delegation consisting of Dumont and three of his closest companions was sent to Riel requesting that he travel to Saskatchewan in order to provide insight into how best to protect Métis lands and freedoms. Dumont and three others travelled to St. Peter's Jesuit Mission in Montana, and convinced Riel to ride north to Saskatchewan. From that point onwards, Dumont and Riel maintained a close friendship. In March 1885, Dumont called a general meeting of the Métis of St. Laurent at Batoche. During the meeting, several of the indigenous people present suggested a more violent approach to proceedings – defending their lands against the Canadian government through the use of arms. By the conclusion of the meeting, a new provisional government had been formed led by Dumont, known as the Provisional Government of Saskatchewan. This new government served as a direct competitor to Ottawa's rule. Dumont was chosen to be the adjutant governor of this new government. While Riel was officially the figurehead and overruled Dumont in terms of decision power, Dumont remained responsible for many of the Métis political and military decisions until his retirement from active governing duty. Later life and death During the years of the 1870s and the 1880s, Dumont owned a farm near the South Saskatchewan River, where he both worked the farm and operated a ferry across the South Saskatchewan nicknamed "Gabriel's Crossing" around upstream from the ferry that Francois Xavier Letendre dit Batoche began around the same time. Dumont and his wife Madeleine were among the many Métis families that had been pushed out of Manitoba by the Canadian government. In June 1886, Dumont was briefly employed in a western show named Buffalo Bill's Wild Wild West Show, where he was billed as a desperado and a crack shot until the latter half of the summer when he travelled to the northeastern States to engage in public speaking events and political campaigns. Dumont soon grew tired of politics and returned to the Wild Wild West Show before settling down at a relative's property to return to hunting, fishing and trapping in 1903. He died at the age of sixty-eight on the 19th of May 1906 in Batoche, the result of heart failure. Legacy The legacy of Dumont as a Métis leader is one that is only outshone by that of Louis Riel. Gabriel Dumont has left a legacy behind that is known through schools, museums, institutions, books, and landmarks. In the spring of 2008, provincial Tourism, Parks, Culture and Sport Minister Christine Tell proclaimed at Duck Lake, that "the 125th commemoration, in 2010, of the 1885 Northwest Resistance is an excellent opportunity to tell the story of the Prairie Métis and First Nations peoples' struggle with government forces and how it has shaped Canada today." Batoche – the site of a Métis Provisional Government, has been declared a National Historic Site. The Gabriel Dumont Institute of Native Studies and Applied Research in Saskatchewan was named in his honour when it was founded in 1980. In 1985, a scholarship fund was formed in his name with a $1.24-million capital investment. In 1993, an agreement was set up between the institute and the University of Saskatchewan creating the Gabriel Dumont College. The Gabriel Bridge was built in 1969 over the South Saskatchewan River east of Rosthern, Saskatchewan. It is located at the site of Gabriel's Crossing, where he ran a small store, billiards hall, and ferry service in the late 1870s and early 1880s. In 1998, the public French-first-language high school in London, Ontario, was renamed École secondaire Gabriel-Dumont in Dumont's honour. See also Indigenous Canadian personalities List of Métis people Southbranch Settlement James Isbister Footnotes Further reading Barkwell, Lawrence J. (2011). Veterans and Families of the 1885 Northwest Resistance. Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute. Barrett, Matthew. "'Hero of the Half-Breed Rebellion': Gabriel Dumont and Late Victorian Military Masculinity." Journal of Canadian Studies/Revue d'études canadiennes 48#3 (2014): 79-107. McLean, Donald George. 1885: Métis Rebellion or Government Conspiracy? (Pemmican Publications, 1985) Préfontaine Darren R. (2011). Gabriel Dumont: Li Chef Michif in Images and in Words. Saskatoon: Gabriel Dumont Institute Press. Primary sources External links Biography at the Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online library.usask.ca esask.uregina.ca Gabriel Dumont Institute 1837 births 1906 deaths Bison hunters Métis politicians Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada) People of the North-West Rebellion Pre-Confederation Saskatchewan people Refugees in the United States Wild West shows Louis Riel Canadian folklore Cowboys Canadian fur traders Canadian Métis people	[ -0.2046252191066742, 0.6659827828407288, -0.6969389915466309, 0.19960345327854156, -0.5107371211051941, 0.3735610246658325, 1.2445544004440308, -0.02044427953660488, -0.32515305280685425, -1.006791114807129, -0.12070473283529282, 0.3996078073978424, -0.25627562403678894, 0.375033974647522, -0.12791430950164795, 0.7239888310432434, -0.46991869807243347, 0.30609264969825745, -0.7295048236846924, -0.5001031756401062, -0.5403692126274109, -0.3365601897239685, 0.47043919563293457, 0.278108686208725, -0.2036752700805664, 0.44348177313804626, 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227637	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etobicoke	Etobicoke	Etobicoke (, ) is an administrative district of, and one of six municipalities amalgamated into, the city of Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Comprising the city's west-end, Etobicoke was first settled by Europeans in the 1790s, and the municipality grew into city status in the 20th century. Several independent villages and towns developed and became part of Metropolitan Toronto in 1954. In 1998, its city status and government dissolved after it was amalgamated into present-day Toronto. Etobicoke is bordered on the south by Lake Ontario, on the east by the Humber River, on the west by Etobicoke Creek, the city of Mississauga, and the Toronto Pearson International Airport (a small portion of the airport extends into Etobicoke), and on the north by Steeles Avenue West. Etobicoke has a highly diversified population, which totalled 365,143 in 2016. It is primarily suburban in development and heavily industrialized, resulting in a lower population density than the other districts of Toronto. Much of its cityscape is characterized by larger main streets, shopping malls, and cul-de-sac housing developments. Etobicoke has several expressways, including Highways 427, 401, 409, the Queen Elizabeth Way (QEW) and Gardiner Expressway. Etobicoke is the western terminus of Line 2 Bloor-Danforth of the Toronto subway and served by four suburban rail stations of GO Transit. Humber College is in Etobicoke, encompassing two campuses, one of which is also home to the University of Guelph-Humber. History At different times throughout history, different groups of First Nations peoples used the land that is now present day Etobicoke. As the Algonquins gradually moved west from the Atlantic to Lake Erie, it is almost certain they would have occupied this land. By the time they were mostly settled on the shores of Georgian Bay, the Huron-Wendat were the primary residents of Lake Ontario's north shore. During the 17th century, the powerful Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) confederacy, made up of nations based to the south of the lake, pushed them out. After continued harassment from the Iroquois to the south, a coalition of the Ojibway, Odawa, and Potawatomi Algonquin nations, known as the Three Fires, gradually pushed the Haudenosaunee off this land. The Algonquian-speaking Mississaugas settled here by 1695, fishing and growing crops more locally in the summer and hunting farther afield in the winter. The name "Etobicoke" derives from the Mississauga word wah-do-be-kang (wadoopikaang), meaning "place where the alders grow". This was how they described the area between Etobicoke Creek and the Humber River. The first provincial land surveyor, Augustus Jones, also spelled it as "ato-be-coake." Etobicoke was finally adopted as the official name in 1795 at the direction of Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe. The British officials intended Etobicoke to be included in the Toronto Purchase of 1787. However, the Mississauga and government disagreed as to whether the western boundary of the purchase was the Humber River or the Etobicoke River (now, Etobicoke Creek). The Mississauga Indians allowed British surveyor Alexander Aitkin to survey the disputed land, and the British paid an additional 10 shillings for the purchase, although the purchase was never formally agreed to. The dispute was settled between the government and the Mississauga First Nation in 2010. Immigrants from the British Isles were among the new settlers, as well as Loyalists who had left the rebellious Thirteen Colonies, by then the United States. Early settlers included many of the Queen's Rangers, who Simcoe gave land to help protect the new capital of Upper Canada and develop this frontier area. In 1793-95, the Honourable Samuel Smith, a colonel in the Queen's Rangers, received land grants of , extending from today's Kipling Avenue to Etobicoke Creek, and north to Bloor Street. On March 18, 1797, Sergeant Patrick Mealey received the first land patent for a plot on the west side of Royal York Road on Lake Ontario. This was part of the First Military Tract, or "Militia Lands", which extended from today's Royal York Road to Kipling Avenue, south from Bloor Street. The Crown was providing land to Loyalists in compensation for property they left behind in the US and to veterans of the American Revolution in payment for service. In other parts of Ontario, the Crown granted land to the Iroquoian First Nations who had served as allies during the war and were forced to cede most of their land in New York to the state. The Crown granted more land to members of the Queen's Rangers in the First Military tract, but most did not occupy their land. Many sold their acreage after a short time. The census of 1805 counted 84 people in the township of Etobicoke. In 1806, William Cooper built a grist mill and saw mill on the Humber river's west bank, just south of Dundas Street. The 1809 census counted 137 residents. The Dundas Street bridge opened in 1816, making the township more accessible. On May 18, 1846, the Albion Road Company was incorporated. Its purpose was to build and maintain a road to the north-west corner of Etobicoke, where a new community was planned. At the same time, John Grubb, who had already founded Thistletown, hired land surveyor John Stoughton Dennis to plan a community at the intersection of Islington Avenue and Albion Road, to be named Saint Andrew's. Plan 6 for this community was registered on October 15, 1847. The French master of Upper Canada College, Jean du Petit Pont de la Haye, contracted land surveyor James McCallum Jr to create a plan for the community planned by the Albion Road Company, and Plan 28 was registered for Claireville on October 12, 1849. The township of Etobicoke was incorporated on January 1, 1850. The first meeting of the town council was held on January 21. Present at the meeting were reeve William Gamble, vice-reeve W. B. Wadsworth and aldermen Moses Appleby, Thomas Fisher, and John Geddes. The council convened monthly meetings at a variety of places. In 1850, the township's population was 2904. By 1881, the population of Etobicoke township was 2976. In 1911, the community of Mimico was incorporated on land taken from Etobicoke township. New Toronto was incorporated on January 1, 1913. Early on, there was talk of merging Mimico and New Toronto. A 1916 referendum on amalgamating the two communities was approved by the residents of Mimico, but rejected by residents of New Toronto. In 1917, Mimico became a town and in 1920, New Toronto became the Town of New Toronto. Long Branch was incorporated in 1930 as a village. In 1954, Etobicoke Township became a part of the newly formed regional government, the Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto ("Metro"). In 1967, the township of Etobicoke was merged with three small lakeside municipalities — the Village of Long Branch, the Town of New Toronto, and the Town of Mimico — to form the Borough of Etobicoke. The borough was reincorporated as a city in 1984. In 1998, six local municipalities (including Etobicoke) and the Metropolitan Toronto government merged to form the amalgamated city of Toronto. Character Etobicoke has the lowest population density of the former cities and boroughs comprising the city of Toronto. This is mainly due to its expanses of industrial lands along the various expressways. The residential areas are primarily single-family dwellings, although several large multi-storey high-rise condominium developments have been built in south Etobicoke near the Humber River over the past few years. Etobicoke's central areas are generally middle class. The central and northern areas of Etobicoke have many high-density apartment complexes set in the middle of sizable, open fields and parks. The central/southern areas, such as Markland Wood, The Kingsway, New Toronto, Mimico and Long Branch, have large green spaces, many parks, and main street shopping areas. The Kingsway neighbourhood has attracted many affluent individuals and families (as of 2001, over 50% of households have an income in excess of C$100,000/year). Etobicoke has many public parks. Located on the banks of the Humber River, James Gardens, a popular site for wedding photography, features seasonal flowers, walkways, a rock garden, streams, and waterfalls. Etobicoke also has Centennial Park, a large recreational park, and Colonel Samuel Smith Park and Humber Bay Park on the lakeshore. Etobicoke's many golf courses include St. George's Golf and Country Club, which in 2007 was ranked as one of the three best golf courses in Canada. Neighbourhoods Etobicoke is generally divided into three large areas roughly corresponding to its political ridings. Each has neighbourhoods, mostly developments of 19th-century 'postal villages' (rural neighbourhoods), that were built at key points along the early roads and railways; especially the three former 'Lakeshore Municipalities' that separated from Etobicoke in the early 20th century and Etobicoke's central Islington community: The Lakeshore (Etobicoke—Lakeshore), along the north shore of Lake Ontario and the "Lake Shore Road" (now Lake Shore Boulevard West), comprises three former municipalities that were the first to urbanize and became separate municipalities during the first half of the 20th century: Mimico, New Toronto and Long Branch, and related communities that were never separate from the Township of Etobicoke; namely, Alderwood (originally a suburb of New Toronto), and Humber Bay (a historic gateway community connecting to Toronto) which was originally sprawl from the east side of the Humber River that was subsequently split by the construction of Ontario's first motor vehicle 'freeway' in 1938, which cuts across the top of southern Etobicoke; (the Queen Elizabeth Way). Today, the original remnant residential (northern) section of Humber Bay is north of The Queensway, east of Mimico Creek to the Humber River. The commercial, southern section of Humber Bay retains only Christie's Biscuits bakery, as high-rise condominium towers and clustered row housing have forced out virtually all other commercial/industrial employment uses. In the late 1990s, the former McGuiness Whisky factory was converted into a high-rise loft condominium which became the centrepiece of the Mystic Pointe development. Etobicoke's first railway opened through the area in 1855, just north of the Lake Ontario shoreline, leading to the first period of growth as it replaced Dundas Street in Central Etobicoke as the main means of transportation and the industrial centre along its right-of-way. Central Etobicoke (Etobicoke Centre); the oldest communities in Etobicoke developed along the first street, Dundas Street, in the south of this area, which crosses the width of Etobicoke on the escarpment formed by the ancient shoreline of Lake Iroquois. This area centres around the Islington community, the former administrative centre of Etobicoke and later Etobicoke's 'downtown' which is near the central 'Six Points' intersection at its western boundary. The rural Richview community developed directly to the north of Islington in the 19th century on Eglinton Ave. (formerly Richview Rd.), as did the gateway Humber Heights communities (connecting to Toronto): Westmount and Humbervale, to the east on Eglinton. Development of the until-then largely undeveloped eastern part of central Etobicoke (originally a forest reserved for the use of government mills as "The King's Mill Reserve"; "Kingsmill"), the "Humber Valley", was largely the work of Robert Home Smith starting about 1900 and including the communities of The Kingsway and Humber Valley Village. As Etobicoke developed in the post-war years, low-density residential areas filled in most of the rural areas between the old communities including Thorncrest Village, Princess-Rosethorn and Eringate – Centennial – West Deane as well as the older Eatonville community to the west of Islington. Central Etobicoke includes Etobicoke's most exclusive neighbourhoods, with fine housing stock and many large treed properties. Along the East and West Mall parallel to Highway 427 exists a mix of hi-rise rentals, townhouses and post-war bungalows. Markland Wood is the farthest western community within Etobicoke/Toronto; situated along Bloor Street West, it is predominately single family housing with some mixed hi-rise rentals. North Etobicoke; The 19th-century Etobicoke communities are Clairville, Highfield, Rexdale, Smithfield, Thistletown which grew along two formerly private roads (now Albion Rd. and Rexdale Blvd.) constructed diagonally across farms in Northern Etobicoke as a shortcut for travellers to Peel County (especially modern Brampton). First developed as an urban area by Rex Heslop in the post-World War II years around the new Rexdale (the Elms) community, northern Etobicoke has many apartment buildings as well as a large 'skyway' industrial park to the west, developed after Malton Airport (in nearby Mississauga) became Toronto's main "Pearson International" Airport, and faces many of the problems associated with such areas. Demographics Most of Etobicoke's visible minorities, immigrants, and lower income population reside in North Etobicoke, with 62% of its population being foreign-born. Many people from India, Jamaica, Iraq, Guyana, Somalia, Ghana, Philippines, Nigeria, and Pakistan have settled in North Etobicoke. Etobicoke's central and south end has a large European population from countries such as Italy, Poland, and Ukraine, and some of the wealthiest neighbourhoods in Toronto such as The Kingsway. As of 2016, English was the most spoken language in Etobicoke, followed by (in order) Italian, Punjabi, Spanish, Polish, Ukrainian, Gujarati, and Portuguese. Economy Islington–City Centre West is one of several central business districts outside of downtown Toronto. Pizza Pizza and Sunwing Airlines have their headquarters in Etobicoke. Skyservice and Canada 3000 had their headquarters in Etobicoke before the closure of these airlines. The construction industry in Etobicoke has been booming, with many new condominium towers developed along the waterfront near Humber Bay and along Bloor street. This has helped increase Etobicoke's population after a brief decline. The area's film and television industry is also promising. Etobicoke is home to a rib fest held every year on Canada Day long weekend at Centennial Park. The weekend is filled with entertainment, food, midway, and music. Education Four public school boards offer primary education and secondary education for residents living in Etobicoke, Conseil scolaire catholique MonAvenir (CSCM), Conseil scolaire Viamonde (CSV), the Toronto Catholic District School Board (TCDSB), and the Toronto District School Board (TDSB). CSV and TDSB operate as secular public school boards, the former operating French first language institution, whereas the latter operated English first language institutions. The other two school boards, CSCM and TCDSB, operate as public separate school boards, the former operating French first language separate schools, the latter operating English first language separate schools. Before 1998, the boards were responsible for the education in Etobicoke were the Etobicoke Board of Education for anglophone public secular schools and the Metropolitan Separate School Board for anglophone and francophone Roman Catholic separate schools. In addition to primary and secondary schools, two post-secondary institutions are within Etobicoke. Humber College is a public college that operates two campuses in Etobicoke, the Humber North campus, and the Lakeshore campus, on the corner of Efstathia Avenue and Kourabiedes Lane. The University of Guelph-Humber is another post-secondary institution in Etobicoke that is jointly operated by Humber College, and the University of Guelph, based in Guelph, Ontario. Guelph-Humber is not an independent degree-granting institution, with its degrees and diplomas issued from Humber College, or the University of Guelph. History In 1924, Mimico High School, the oldest high school in Etobicoke at the time, was opened in the village of Mimico. This was followed by Etobicoke Collegiate Institute in 1928 in central Etobicoke. Today, the Mimico school building is used by John English Junior Middle School. Other secondary schools were built: Royal York Collegiate Institute (1953) Alderwood Collegiate Institute (1955) Burnhamthorpe Collegiate Institute (1956) Thistletown Collegiate Institute (1957) Richview Collegiate Institute (1958) Kipling Collegiate Institute (1960) Vincent Massey Collegiate Institute (1961) North Albion Collegiate Institute (1962) Scarlett Heights Collegiate Institute (1963) Silverthorn Collegiate Institute (1964) Martingrove Collegiate Institute (1966) West Humber Collegiate Institute (1966) Kellier Mackay Collegiate Institute (1971) Michael Power/St. Joseph High School (1981) Father John Redmond Catholic Secondary School (1986) Bishop Allen Academy (1989) In the village of New Toronto, New Toronto Secondary School was constructed in 1949 and opened in 1950 as a vocational trade school. Beginning in 1963, Kingsmill Vocational School, a junior vocational school, opened at a King's Mill site and two other schools erected: Humbergrove Vocational School to the north in 1965 and Westway Vocational School in 1969. At its peak, Etobicoke operated 14 collegiates and 4 vocational schools in 1980. Downsizing occurred in the 1980s when nine high schools were closed due to declining enrollment; Alderwood and New Toronto merged to form Lakeshore Collegiate Institute in 1983 while Humbergrove, Kingsmill and Westway were consolidated to form Central Etobicoke High School in 1988. Etobicoke's first Roman Catholic high school, Michael Power/St. Joseph High School was first opened in 1949 as St. Joseph's High School in the village of Islington with 150 girls by the Sisters of St. Joseph. Next door, the Basilian Fathers established an all-boys school Michael Power High School in 1957. In September 1982, the two schools were merged. Today, Michael Power/St. Joseph serves many students in the southern and central Etobicoke areas predominantly populated by Polish and Ukrainian Byzantine Catholics, who attend southern Etobicoke's two other high schools: Father John Redmond Catholic Secondary School (1986) and Bishop Allen Academy (1989). The first art school in Etobicoke is the Etobicoke School of the Arts established in 1981. Father John Redmond was designated as the Regional Arts Centre in 2006. Sport Etobicoke has a wide range of indoor and outdoor sporting leagues including baseball, soccer, football, hockey, and ringette. Some of the prominent clubs include the Etobicoke Kangaroos Australian rules football club, the Serbian White Eagles FC club, Toronto Croatia, and FC Ukraine United, which operate in the Canadian Soccer League, and the Toronto Furies of the Canadian Women's Hockey League. Southern Etobicoke is home to the Ford Performance Centre, the home arena for the Toronto Furies, and the practice rink of the Toronto Maple Leafs. The Toronto Patriots of the Ontario Junior Hockey League are based out of Etobicoke. Etobicoke is the hometown of Major League Baseball star Joey Votto as well as National Hockey League star P. K. Subban, Connor Brown (ice hockey) of the Maple Leafs, and National Hockey League Hall of Famer Brendan Shanahan. Etobicoke's Centennial Park is a huge green space in west Toronto posing a great venue for soccer, basketball, skiing, hockey, hiking, track and field and also rugby. Rexdale (North Etobicoke) is home to the top ranked high school basketball program in Canada, Henry Carr Crusaders. Producing notable US Division 1 and NBA players such as Tyler Ennis and Sim Bhullar. Henry Carr Crusaders were the 2016 AAA Provincial high school basketball champions. Transportation Several major expressways, such as Ontario Highways 427, 401, 409, and 27, the Queen Elizabeth Way, as well as the city-maintained Gardiner Expressway, are routed through the area. There are numerous four- and six-lane thoroughfares in Etobicoke, laid out in a grid system. Many exceptions to Toronto's gridded street matrix are found in Etobicoke. A number of overpasses and awkward intersections have been created in an effort to reconcile the grid with these planning anomalies. One such interchange is Bloor/Kipling/Dundas West (Six Points), which was constructed in the 1960s, and has since been removed and replaced with a network of at-grade streets and intersections. Public transportation is primarily provided by the Toronto Transit Commission's (TTC) bus, streetcar, and subway system. Line 2 Bloor-Danforth of the TTC subway system has its western terminus at Kipling, along with three other stations. Both Kipling and Islington stations are major transit hubs, with the latter serving as a terminal for MiWay bus services to Mississauga. Former transit expansion plans in Etobicoke, including the Eglinton West subway and the extension of Line 2 from Kipling to Square One Bus Terminal in Mississauga, were cancelled by previous provincial governments. Future transit expansion plans include two light rail transit projects, namely the Eglinton line extension from the future Mount Dennis station to Toronto Pearson International Airport and a new Finch West line between University of Guelph-Humber (Humber College North Campus) and Finch West station. Etobicoke is also home to four GO stations: Etobicoke North station on the Kitchener line, Kipling station on the Milton line, as well as Long Branch and Mimico stations on the Lakeshore West line. See also List of reeves and mayors of Etobicoke Etobicoke Board of Control Disappearance of Nicole Morin References Notes Further reading Inside Toronto – The Weekender; March 27, 2005 External links Etobicoke Ethnocultural Profile Markland Wood website, history of the Silverthorn Homestead Former cities in Ontario Former municipalities in Toronto Metropolitan Toronto Neighbourhoods in Toronto Populated places established in 1797 Populated places disestablished in 1998 1797 establishments in Upper Canada 1998 disestablishments in Ontario	[ -0.5705375671386719, 0.22017508745193481, -0.05224064737558365, 0.27190789580345154, 0.15875186026096344, 0.5224225521087646, 0.10485556721687317, 0.6604408621788025, 0.29709145426750183, -0.7380259037017822, -0.16043440997600555, 0.062377993017435074, 0.03684152662754059, -0.37989702820777893, -0.4701367914676666, 0.22775229811668396, -0.2249421775341034, 0.4573281407356262, 0.06784181296825409, -0.42759308218955994, -0.0683598518371582, 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227642	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin%20Schwartz%20%28comics%29	Alvin Schwartz (comics)	Alvin Stanley Schwartz (November 17, 1916 – October 28, 2011) was an American comic book writer best known for his Batman and Superman stories. He was also a novelist, poet, and essayist. Biography Early life and career Alvin Schwartz debuted in comics with an issue of Fairy Tale Parade in 1939. He then wrote extensively for Sheldon Mayer at All-American Publications and then for National Comics, two of the three companies which merged to form DC Comics. Golden Age of comics books Schwartz wrote his first Batman story in 1942, expanding into the Batman newspaper comic strip in August 1944 and the Superman strip two months later. Through 1952, he scripted for most of the company's newspaper strips. For rival Fawcett Comics, he wrote stories for Superman's chief competitor Captain Marvel. 1950s Until ending his association with DC in 1958, Schwartz contributed comic-book scripts for such superheroes as Aquaman, Wonder Woman, the Flash, Green Lantern, the Newsboy Legion, Vigilante, Slam Bradley, and Tomahawk. He also wrote comic books such as A Date With Judy, Buzzy, and House of Mystery. Among Schwartz's contributions to Superman was writing the first tale of Bizarro, denizen of an opposite, interdimensional world where "hello" means "goodbye", and citizens do good by doing bad. He wrote World's Finest Comics #71 (July 1954), the issue which began featuring Superman and Batman in the same story together. Schwartz left DC after clashing repeatedly with the new Superman-line editor Mort Weisinger. Corporate work After leaving DC, Schwartz went into corporate market research and helped develop such techniques as psychographics and typological identification. As research director for Dr. Ernst Dichter's Institute for Motivational Research, he provided structural and marketing advice to corporations such as General Motors and General Foods. He later joined the advisory committee of the American Association of Advertising Agencies. Other writing Schwartz wrote three novels for Arco Press, one of which, the detective story Sword of Desire, won praise for its takeoff on Wilhelm Reich's orgone therapy, a popular psychotherapeutic technique used during the 1940s and 1950s. His proto-Beat novel The Blowtop was published by Dial Press in 1948. Under the title Le Cinglé, it became a best-seller in France. In 1968, Schwartz moved to Canada, where he wrote documentaries and docudramas for the National Film Board of Canada for nearly 20 years, and created several economic and social studies for the Government of Canada. Additionally, Schwartz wrote and lectured on superheroes, and received a Canada Council Grant for a study on religious symbolism in popular culture, using Superman as a springboard. Later life and career In 1997, Schwartz published an autobiography titled An Unlikely Prophet. In it, he wrote that Superman had attained the status of a tulpa, an entity that according to Buddhist beliefs attains reality solely by the act of imagination. Schwartz claimed he had actually met the superhero in a New York cab. In the mid-2000s, Schwartz wrote a weekly web column. Schwartz and his wife lived in the rural village of Chesterville near Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. He died in 2011 of heart-related complications. Awards Schwartz and writer-editor Harvey Kurtzman were awarded the 2006 Bill Finger Award for Excellence in Comic Book Writing. Bibliography The Blowtop (1948) Sword of Desire (Arco 1952) under pseudonym Robert W. 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227643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pretty%20Hate%20Machine	Pretty Hate Machine	Pretty Hate Machine is the debut studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails, released by TVT Records on October 20, 1989. Production of the record was handled by NIN frontman Trent Reznor and English producer Flood, among other contributors. The album features a heavily synth-driven electronic sound blended with industrial and rock elements. Much like the band's later work, the album's lyrics contain themes of angst, betrayal, and lovesickness. The record was promoted with the singles "Down in It", "Head Like a Hole", and "Sin", as well as the accompanying tour. A remastered edition was released in 2010. Although the record was successful, reaching No. 75 in the US and receiving highly favorable reviews from critics, Reznor (the band's only official member until 2016) feuded with TVT over promotion of the album, which led him to eventually sign with Interscope Records. Pretty Hate Machine was later certified triple-platinum by RIAA, becoming one of the first independently released albums to do so, and was included on several lists of the best releases of the 1980s. In 2020, the album was placed in the 453rd place in Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time list. Background While working nights as a handyman and engineer at the Right Track Studio in Cleveland, Ohio, Reznor used studio "down-time" to record and develop his own music. Playing most of the keyboards, drum machines, guitars, and samplers himself, he recorded a demo. The sequencing was done on a Macintosh Plus. Reznor mainly used an E-mu Emax, Prophet VS, Oberheim Xpander, and Minimoog as synthesizers. With the help of manager John Malm Jr., he sent the demo to various record labels. Reznor received contract offers from many of the labels, but eventually signed with TVT Records, who were known mainly for releasing novelty and television jingle records. Pretty Hate Machine was recorded in various studios with Reznor collaborating with some of his most idolized producers: Flood, Keith LeBlanc, Adrian Sherwood, and John Fryer. Much like his recorded demo, Reznor refused to record the album with a conventional band, recording Pretty Hate Machine mostly by himself. "A lot of it sounds immature to me now," he stated in 1991 of the recordings that were then two years old. "At first it totally sucked. I became completely withdrawn. I couldn't function in society very well. And the LP became a product of that. It's quite small scale, introverted, claustrophobic – that's the feel I went for." Reznor discussed the recording and touring of Pretty Hate Machine in the April 1990 issue of Keyboard. He used an E-mu Emax because it produced a high-end buzzing noise when transposing down sounds. Rough and first takes of vocals and guitar were used to contrast the quantized drums and bass. Reznor hated the factory sounds of the Emax but had not transferred anything from his old Emulator, and used samples from his record collection for all the drum sounds. He initially expected to use real drum sounds when recording the album, but in the end he and the producers merely equalized his drum samples. After the album was released, a recording known as Purest Feeling surfaced. The bootleg album contains early demo recordings of many of the tracks featured on Pretty Hate Machine, as well as a couple that were not used ("Purest Feeling", "Maybe Just Once", and an instrumental introduction to "Sanctified" called "Slate"). Music and lyrics "I wasn't proud of a lot of the things I was saying," Reznor recalled, "but I said to myself, 'Well, no one's going to hear this stuff anyway.' ... The record is honest and that's where its power came from." Unlike the industrial music of Nine Inch Nails' contemporaries, Pretty Hate Machine displays catchy riffs and verse-chorus song structures rather than repetitive electronic beats. Reznor's lyrics express adolescent angst and feelings of betrayal by lovers, society, or God. Themes of despair are collocated with lovesick sentiments. Pitchforks Tom Breihan categorized it as a synth-pop album that was shaped by industrial music's "nascent new-wave period rather than its subsequent styles." According to Breihan, the beats were muscular, but not in the vein of metal or post-punk, and that the most rock-inspired song on the album was "Head Like a Hole". Journalist Jon Pareles described the album as "electro-rock or industrial rock, using drum machines, computerized synthesizer riffs and obviously processed sounds to detail, and usually denounce, an artificial world." Tom Popson of the Chicago Tribune called it a dance album partly characterized by industrial dance's aggressive sound: "Reznor's electronics-plus-guitar LP also carries a brighter techno-pop element that might remind some of Depeche Mode. Things occasionally mellow out to moody atmospherics, while Reznor's vocals range from whispers to screams." PopMatters' A.J. Ramirez regarded the album as "a synthesizer-dominated industrial dance record that on occasion slipped under the alternative rock banner." Reznor has humorously described Pretty Hate Machine as "the all-purpose alternative album," remarking that "if you want to stage dive to it, you can, but if you're a big Depeche Mode fan, you can get what you need out of it as well." Reznor further stated: "I like electronic music, but I like it to have some aggression. That 'first wave' of electro music – Human League and Devo – that's the easiest way to use it. To be able to get some humanity and aggression into it in a cool way, that's the thing ... Pretty Hate Machine is a record you can listen to and get more out of each time. To me, something like Front 242 is the opposite: great at first but, after 10 listens, that's it." In a commentary on the album, Tom Hull said that Reznor's "notion of industrial is closer to New Order new wave, but with a harder metallic gleam and more dystopian attitude." Samples Prince, Jane's Addiction, and Public Enemy are listed in the liner notes as artists whose music was sampled on the album. Segments of Prince's "Alphabet St." and Jane's Addiction's "Had a Dad" can be heard in "Ringfinger". Other samples were edited or distorted so as to be unrecognizable, such as the introduction to "Kinda I Want To". "Something I Can Never Have" features unused backing tracks created by John Fryer for This Mortal Coil. A speech from Midnight Express was sampled at low volume during the pause in "Sanctified". On the album's 2010 reissue, this sample is not present, most likely due to clearance issues. Reznor stated, "I was tempted to lay in more of other people‘s stuff, but I thought that would lend a real dated quality to the record, seeing where that has gone the way it has in hip-hop." Time constraints similarly prevented him from accumulating "good sounds" as he wanted. He obtained "weird percussion tracks" by sampling loops from artists like Public Enemy, playing them backwards and modulating them in Macintosh Turbosynth with an oscillator tuned to the pitch of the song, obtaining "this weird flanging-type thing that‘s in key". He said that "every drum fill on 'Terrible Lie' is lifted intact from somewhere. There are six other songs playing through that cut, recorded on tape, in and out, depending on where they worked." Cover art The cover art was designed by Gary Talpas, which is a photo of the blades of a turbine stretched vertically to create the illusion of a rib cage. For the 2010 reissue, visual artist Rob Sheridan was assigned to update the cover art by Reznor to tone down the heavy late-Eighties neon aesthetic. Unfortunately, Sheridan was unable to locate the original artwork as it was deemed lost forever. To remedy this, he had to reverse engineer the cover art by scanning the original artwork and digitally painted the image in very high resolution. Touring In 1990, Reznor quickly formed a band, hiring guitarist and future Filter frontman Richard Patrick, and began the Pretty Hate Machine Tour Series, in which they toured North America as an opening act for alternative rock artists such as Peter Murphy and The Jesus and Mary Chain. Nine Inch Nails' live set at the time was known for louder, more aggressive versions of the studio songs. At some point, Reznor began smashing his equipment onstage (Reznor preferred using the heel of his boots to strip the keys from expensive keyboards, most notably the Yamaha DX7); Nine Inch Nails then embarked on a world tour that continued through the first Lollapalooza festival in 1991 and culminated in an opening slot to support Guns N' Roses on their European tour. Critical reception In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone, Michael Azerrad called Pretty Hate Machine "industrial-strength noise over a pop framework" and "harrowing but catchy music"; Reznor proclaimed this combination "a sincere statement" of "what was in [his] head at the time". Robert Hilburn found Reznor's "dark obsession" compelling in the Los Angeles Times, while Q said Reznor "scans the spectrum of modern dance" with a "panoramic vision" that is "both admirably adventurous and yet accessible." Select critic Neil Perry said that record was "a flawed but listenable labour of loathing". Sounds gave the album four stars out of five, noting that "Reznor has guts, and they make his Machine one to be treated with respect." and that the album was comparable to releases by Ministry and Foetus. Pareles was less impressed in his review for The New York Times, writing that Pretty Hate Machine "stays so close to the conventions established by Depeche Mode, Soft Cell and New Order that it could be a parody album". Mark Jenkins of The Washington Post found the music "competent but undistinctive stuff" and believed the "angry denunciations" of songs such as "Terrible Lie" are overshadowed by the "nursery-rhyme" chants of "Down in It". Tom Popson from the Chicago Tribune wrote that "the playing and production get points for introducing some variety to the industrial style, but the moments of soap-on-a-rope singing tend to cancel them out." In a retrospective review, AllMusic editor Steve Huey commended Reznor for giving "industrial music a human voice, a point of connection" with his "tortured confusion and self-obsession", and felt that "the greatest achievement of Pretty Hate Machine was that it brought emotional extravagance to a genre whose main theme had nearly always been dehumanization." Upon its 2010 reissue, Will Hermes of Rolling Stone called it "the first industrial singer-songwriter album" and commended the sound produced by Flood and Keith LeBlanc, who he said "taught Reznor a lot." Kyle Ryan of The A.V. Club felt that the album "remains the work of an artist just discovering his voice" and said that "20 years later, it doesn't warrant repeat listens like its successors." He found some of its synth and sampled sounds to still be dated after the album's remastering and Reznor's lyrics "mopey" and "silly". In his review for Blender, journalist and novelist Chuck Palahniuk said that the album "seemed like the first honest piece of music I ever heard." Commercial performance Released on October 20, 1989, Pretty Hate Machine was a commercial success and entered the Billboard 200 in February 1990. Although it peaked at number 75 on the Billboard 200, the album gained popularity through word of mouth and developed an underground following. In March 1992, Pretty Hate Machine was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on March 3, 1992, two years after the album's initial release, for shipping 500,000 units in the USA. Three years later in 1995, it became one of the first independently released records to attain a Platinum certification. It eventually garnered a triple Platinum certification on May 12, 2003, with three million copies sold in the United States. Pretty Hate Machine spent a total of 115 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart, tying their sophomore album, The Downward Spiral as their longest charting effort. The album was also certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) on November 1, 1995, following its number 67 peak on the UK Albums Chart. Reissue Pretty Hate Machine went out of print through TVT, but was reissued by Rykodisc on November 22, 2005, with slightly modified packaging. Reznor had expressed interest in making a deluxe edition with surround sound remastering and new remixes, similar to the rerelease of The Downward Spiral. Rykodisc initially accepted the idea, but wanted Reznor to pay the production costs. On March 29, 2010, the recording rights to Pretty Hate Machine were acquired by the Bicycle Music Company and on October 22, 2010, Reznor announced that a remastered edition would be released the following month. The remaster included new cover art by Rob Sheridan and the bonus track "Get Down, Make Love", a Queen cover originally from the "Sin" single. The 2010 reissue was mastered by Tom Baker at the Precision Mastering in Hollywood, California. "PHM 2.0 is far brighter and clearer than its original incarnation," observed Classic Rock, "but ultimately it's the strength of the songwriting… that shines through. Although that said, a super bass beef-up job on an already infamous cover of Queen's 'Get Down, Make Love' ups the sleaze 'n' grind quotient no end." Before the album's rerelease, a fan website was launched featuring touring information for Pretty Hate Machine, the videos for "Head Like a Hole" and "Down in It" (with remastered sound), the uncut video for "Sin" (a remix for the video was used) and two early live segments, one with interviews. The album and its respective singles were included in a Record Store Day Black Friday exclusive box set, Halo I–IV in 2015. Track listing Notes signifies an additional remix producer. signifies a remixer. Personnel Credits adapted from the liner notes of Pretty Hate Machine. Trent Reznor – vocals, arrangement, continuity, digital editing, programming ; production ; mixing ; engineering Tom Baker – mastering Sean Beavan – engineering Blumpy – remastering preparation Tony Dawsey – mastering Doug DeAngelis – engineering Flood – engineering, production ; additional synth programming John Fryer – engineering ; mixing ; production Hypo Luxa – engineering, production Kennan Keating – engineering Keith LeBlanc – additional remix production ; engineering ; mixing ; production ; remix Jeff "Critter" Newell Tim Niemi – additional synth programming Richard Patrick – drone guitar at end Ken Quartarone – engineering Rob Sheridan – art direction Adrian Sherwood – engineering, mixing, production Jeffrey Silverthorne – portrait photography Gary Talpas – original sleeve Chris Vrenna – continuity, digital editing Charts Certifications References Bibliography External links Pretty Hate Machine at Discogs 1989 debut albums Albums produced by Adrian Sherwood Albums produced by 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227649	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fragile	The Fragile	The Fragile is the third studio album by American industrial rock band Nine Inch Nails, released as a double album on September 21, 1999, by Nothing Records and Interscope Records. It was produced by Nine Inch Nails frontman Trent Reznor and longtime collaborator Alan Moulder. It was recorded throughout 1997 to 1999 in New Orleans. Looking to depart from the distorted production of their previous record, The Downward Spiral (1994), the album features elements of ambient and electronic music, alongside the band's traditional industrial rock sound. Lyrically, the record brings over some of the themes from The Downward Spiral, including depression and drug abuse. The album notably contains more instrumental sections than their previous work, some of which span entire tracks. The Fragile is also one of the band's longest studio releases, clocking in at nearly one and three quarter hours long. The record was promoted with three singles: "The Day the World Went Away", "We're in This Together", and "Into the Void", as well as the promotional single "Starfuckers, Inc." and an accompanying tour, the Fragility Tour, which spanned two legs. Several accompanying recordings were also released, including a remix album, Things Falling Apart (2000), a live album, And All That Could Have Been (2002), as well as an alternate version of the record, The Fragile: Deviations 1 (2016). Upon release, the album received a positive response from critics, who applauded its ambition and composition, although some criticized its length and perceived lack of lyrical substance. Retrospectively, it is cited by many critics and audiences to be among the band's best work. The album debuted at number one in the US, becoming their first chart-topper, and was eventually certified double-platinum by RIAA. Writing and recording The Fragile was produced by Trent Reznor and Alan Moulder at Nothing Studios in New Orleans. There were some personnel changes within Nine Inch Nails after the Self-Destruct tour, which saw drummer Chris Vrenna replaced by Bill Rieflin and Jerome Dillon, the latter of whom would become Nine Inch Nails' full-time drummer until late 2005. Charlie Clouser and Danny Lohner contributed occasional instrumentation and composition to several tracks although the album was predominantly written and performed by Reznor alone. The Fragile was mixed by Alan Moulder and mastered by Tom Baker. The packaging was created by David Carson and Rob Sheridan. Music and lyrics Over a year before the album's release, Reznor suggested – presumably deliberately misleadingly – that the album would "be irritating to people because it's not traditional Nine Inch Nails. Think of the most ridiculous music you could ever imagine with nursery rhymes over the top of it. A bunch of pop songs." In contrast to the heavily distorted instruments and gritty industrial sounds of their previous album, The Downward Spiral, The Fragile relies more on soundscapes, electronic beats, ambient noise, rock-laden guitar, and the usage of melodies as harmonies. Several critics noted that the album was seemingly influenced by progressive rock, art rock, electronica, and avant-garde music. It is categorized as an art rock album by The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004), Edna Gundersen of USA Today, and Will Hermes of Entertainment Weekly. Hermes views that, like "art-rockers" King Crimson and David Bowie, Reznor incorporates elements of 20th-century classical music on the album, "mixing prepared piano melodies à la John Cage with thematic flavor from Claude Debussy". Music journalist Ann Powers observes elements of progressive rock bands King Crimson and Roxy Music, Reznor's influences, and the experimentation of electronica artists such as Autechre and Squarepusher, and writes that The Fragile uses funk bass lines, North African minor-key modalities, and the treatment of tonality by Symbolist composers like Debussy. The album also features several distorted guitar parts which Powers suggests that fans can enjoy. Rob Sheffield observes a "prog-rock vibe" akin to Pink Floyd's 1979 album The Wall and feels that The Fragile is similarly "a double album that vents ... alienation and misery into paranoid studio hallucinations, each track crammed with overdubs until there's no breathing room". Described by Reznor as a sequel to The Downward Spiral—an album with a plot detailing the destruction of a man—The Fragile is a concept album dealing with his personal issues, including depression, angst, and drug abuse. His vocals, for the most part, are more melodic and somewhat softer, a departure from his harsh and often angry singing in previous works. However, several music critics including Reznor noticed the lack of lyrics on the album. The Bulletin interprets it as an industrial rock album about "fear and loathing that could compete with Pink Floyd's The Wall". In some ways, The Fragile is a response to The Downward Spiral. Reznor compared the lyrical content of the two albums: The song "I'm Looking Forward to Joining You, Finally" is credited in the album's booklet as "for clara", suggesting that the song's topic, like "The Day the World Went Away", is about Reznor's grandmother, Clara Clark. Fight Club author Chuck Palahniuk singled out "The Wretched" for comment: "I remember being amazed when I first heard this... This wasn't just ennui: this was an active, aggressive, angry lack of caring. It's not 'Let's kill ourselves'; it's 'Let's kill each other'... It's not rock 'n' roll and it's not classical. It's something in between." According to a CIA document entitled Guidelines for Interrogation Methods the song "Somewhat Damaged" was one of 13 songs played to detainees at Guantanamo Bay, supposedly as a means of torture. Packaging The cover artwork was designed by David Carson. A section within his book Fotografiks reveals that the top section of the album cover is from a photo of a waterfall and the bottom section is from a closeup photo of the inside of a seashell. Carson elaborated on this further in an image on his website: Promotion On September 10, 1998, at the 1998 MTV Video Music Awards, a thirty-second teaser trailer was shown on television to promote the then untitled album. It would be more than a year before the album was finally released. The first single, "The Day the World Went Away", was released two months before the album. "Into the Void" and "We're in This Together" proved to be the album's most successful singles. The B-side "Starfuckers, Inc." was released on the album as a track at the last minute , and served as a promotional single for The Fragile. In support of The Fragile, the Nine Inch Nails live band reformed for the Fragility tour. The tour began in late 1999 and lasted until mid-2000, spanning Europe, Japan, New Zealand, Australia, and North America. The tour consisted of two major legs, labeled Fragility 1.0 and Fragility 2.0. The live band lineup remained largely the same from the previous tour in support of The Downward Spiral, featuring Robin Finck on guitar, Charlie Clouser on keyboards, and Danny Lohner on bass guitar. Reznor held open auditions to find a new drummer, eventually picking then-unknown Jerome Dillon. Nine Inch Nails' record label at the time, Interscope Records, reportedly refused to fund the promotional tour following The Fragile'''s lukewarm sales. Reznor instead committed to fund the entire tour himself, which quickly sold out. He concluded that "the reality is, I'm broke at the end of the tour", but also added, "I will never present a show that isn't fantastic." The tour featured increasingly large production values, including a triptych video display created by contemporary video artist Bill Viola. Rolling Stone magazine named Fragility the best tour of 2000. In 2002, the tour documentary And All That Could Have Been was released featuring performances from the Fragility 2.0 tour. While making the DVD, Reznor commented on the tour in retrospect by saying "I thought the show was really, really good when we were doing it", but later wrote that "I can't watch it at all. I was sick for most of that tour and I really don't think it was Nine Inch Nails at its best." Reissue On September 21, 2009—the tenth anniversary of the album's release—a Nine Inch Nails official Twitter update hinted that a deluxe 5.1 surround audio reissue of The Fragile was in the works and was scheduled for a 2010 release. During an interview with The New York Times that was broadcast on January 7, 2011, after questioned about the album Reznor explained: While on tour in 2014 in Australia and New Zealand, Reznor was interviewed by a local reporter and was quoted about the reissue stating: In June 2015, an instrumental version of the album was released to Apple Music. This version of the album also includes alternative versions of "The Frail", "Just Like You Imagined", "Pilgrimage", "La Mer", "The Mark Has Been Made", and "Complication", the instrumental version of "The Day the World Went Away (Quiet)", an extended version of "+Appendage", a demo version of "10 Miles High" called "Hello, Everything Is Not OK", and three previously unreleased tracks from The Fragile ("The March" and "Can I Stay Here?") In 2017 a reissue of the vinyl version of The Fragile was released, alongside an expanded, instrumental version, titled The Fragile: Deviations 1. This version of The Fragile contains all songs in either instrumental or alternate formats, and combines them with newly released songs written and recorded during the sessions for The Fragile. Deviations 1 consists of a one-off 4×LP pressing. Critical receptionThe Fragile received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics. Mojo called it "an impressively multi-textured, satisfyingly violent sonic workout", and Alternative Press found it "nothing short of astounding". Edna Gundersen of USA Today called it "meticulously honed and twisted to baffle, tantalize, disarm and challenge the listener", and wrote that "the coats of polish ... can't camouflage Trent Reznor's perverse and subversive paths to musical glory." Ann Powers of Spin called the album "a good old-fashioned strap-on-your-headphones experience". Jon Pareles of The New York Times wrote that, although he "doesn't approach suicide as he did on" The Downward Spiral, "Reznor can hide in the studio and piece together music that's as cunning, and disquieting, as his raw anger used to be." Will Hermes of Entertainment Weekly viewed that, even "if [Reznor's] emotional palette is limited, it remains broader than any of his metalhead peers", and that, "right now, hard rock simply doesn't get any smarter, harder, or more ambitious than this." Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times wrote that, despite its length, "this is a profoundly challenging and moving work that strikes at the hollowness of most contemporary pop-rock with bullwhip force." The Guardians Adam Sweeting praised it as "a fearsomely accomplished mix of monster riffing, brooding melodies and patches of minimalist soul-searching". Rolling Stone writer Rob Sheffield felt that the album's "excess is Reznor's chosen shock tactic here, and what's especially shocking is how much action he packs into his digital via dolorosa." In a negative review, Pitchforks Brent DiCrescenzo panned the album's lyrics as "overly melodramatic". John Aizlewood of Q felt that it is "let down by Reznor's refusal to trouble himself with melody and by some embarrassing lyrics". NMEs Victoria Segal panned its music as "background" and accused it of "chas[ing] 'crossover'", with "grey rock sleet masquerading as a storm beneath a haze of 'experimental' textures." Scott Seward of The Village Voice facetiously commended Reznor for "once again ... pioneering the marriage of heavy guitars, moody atmospherics, electronic drones and beats, and aggressive singing. Just like Killing Joke 20 years ago." Village Voice critic Robert Christgau was even less receptive: "After six fucking years, genius-by-acclamation Trent Reznor delivers double-hoohah, every second remixed till it glistens like broken glass on a prison wall. Is the way he takes his petty pain out on the world a little, er, immature for a guy who's pushing 35? Never mind, I'm told—just immerse in the music. So I do. 'Dream job: emperor,' it says. 'More fun than death by injection.'"The Fragile was included on several magazines' "end-of-year" album lists, including The Village Voice (number 14), Rolling Stone (number four), and Spin (number one). In a retrospective review, The Rolling Stone Album Guide (2004) gave it three-and-a-half out of five stars and wrote that, as "NIN's monumental double-disc bid for the art-rock crown, The Fragile sounds fantastic from start to finish, but there aren't enough memorable tunes underneath the alluring surfaces." AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine offered similar criticism, writing that "Reznor's music is immaculately crafted and arranged, with every note and nuance gliding into the next — but he spent more time constructing surfaces than songs. Those surfaces can be enticing but since it's just surface, The Fragile winds up being vaguely unsatisfying." In 2005, The Fragile was ranked number 341 in Rock Hard magazine's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. But, even if initial reception was mixed, the album has gotten a cult following from Nine Inch Nails fans. In 2016, Exclaim! listed The Fragile at number two on their "Essential Albums" list for Nine Inch Nails, citing it as their most ambitious work and "a tragic if not stunning portrait of depression." Pitchfork would later reassess the album in their review of the album's 2017 "Definitive Edition", with a score change going from 2.0 to 8.7, describing it as Reznor's "magnum opus... The Fragile scrapes the sky like never before." In 2021, it was named one of the 20 best metal albums of 1999 by Metal Hammer magazine. Commercial performanceThe Fragile debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first-week sales of 229,000 copies, earning the band their first number-one album on the chart. The album fell to number 16 the following week, becoming the largest drop from number one at the time. On January 4, 2000, the album was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), and by May 2005, it had sold 898,000 copies in the United States. Steven Hyden of The A.V. Club writes that Reznor developed Nine Inch Nails from its role as a prominent rock act and by the time he finished recording The Fragile, alternative rock's overall popularity declined with several of Nine Inch Nails' contemporaries being disestablished or displaced by newer bands. Hyden also attributes the album's commercial performance to the rise of file-sharing on the Internet, which deviated from the alternative rock movement's emphasis on "fetishized vinyl" and "music festivals as peaceful places for young people to commune and dream of better futures." Track listing CD Cassette This release is identical to the CD pressing, with the exclusive addition of "+Appendage" attached to the end of "Please". Vinyl / 2017 Definitive Edition This release of The Fragile contains the songs "10 Miles High" and "The New Flesh" (both of which were later released as part of the "We're in This Together" and "Into the Void" singles, dependent on territory.) "The Day the World Went Away", "The Wretched", "Even Deeper" and "La Mer" are all extended mixes, while the opening and closing of each side eliminates the crossfading between songs found on the CD and cassette versions, due to the nature of the vinyl medium. Finally, "Ripe" was shortened by removing the conclusive "(With Decay)" portion of the song. All of these changes made for the vinyl carry over to both the digital and the vinyl Definitive Edition pressings, released digitally in 2016 and physically in 2017. The Fragile: Deviations 1The Fragile: Deviations 1 is an alternate version of The Fragile that contains all of the original songs in either instrumental or alternate forms, and combines them with newly released tracks written and recorded during the sessions for The Fragile. Deviations 1 consists of a one-off, limited edition four-LP pressing that was not made available on CD. Critical reception Neil Z. Yeung of AllMusic recommended that fans listen to and understand the original album first before delving into Deviations 1. Ultimately, he said that the release "serves as both a sonic time capsule and a reminder of one of NIN's most rewarding and underrated efforts." Writing for Pitchfork, Sean T. Collins found Deviations 1 interesting but simultaneously perplexing, saying "Far too many of Deviations freshly vocal-free songs sound like karaoke versions rather than instrumentals that can stand on their own. The result is a listening experience that outstays its welcome on a song-by-song basis, let alone over the course of its massive 150-minute running time." Track listing Personnel Credits adapted from AllMusic, and The Fragile liner notes.Nine Inch Nails Trent Reznor – vocals, programming and production Charlie Clouser – keyboards, synthesizers, programming and additional sound design Danny Lohner – drum programming, synthesizers, guitars Jerome Dillon – drums Technical personnel Jeff Anderson – artist relations Emma Banks – booking agent David Carson – art direction, design and photography David 'Khan' Johnson – merchandising Alex Kochan – booking agent John Malm Jr. – management Ross Rosen – legal Susan Swan – publicityAdditional musicians and production personnel Steve Albini – engineering Tom Baker – mastering Adrian Belew – guitars Roy C. Bennett – guitars Clinton Bradley – programming, technical assistant to Bob Ezrin Paul Bradley – programming Paul DeCarli – programming Dr. Dre – additional production, mixing assistance Steve Duda – production, programming and percussion , chorus , violin , additional sound design Bob Ezrin – additional production Ken Friedman – additional sound design Mike Garson – piano Toni Halliday – additional vocals Page Hamilton – guitar Leo Herrera – engineering Dan Hill – additional vocals Keith Hillebrandt – programming and additional production , chorus , additional sound design Cherry Holly – trumpet Martin Kierszenbaum – additional programming John Lewis – piano Denise Milfort – vocals Alan Moulder – production, engineering and mixing Dave Ogilvie – engineering Brian Pollack – engineering Kim Prevost – vocals Porter Ricks – keyboards, programming and synthesizer Bill Rieflin – drums Tony Thompson – drums Willie – cello Choirs' Buddha Debutante Choir : Heather Bennett Melissa Daigle Judy Miller Christine Parrish M. Gabriela Rivas Martha Wood Fae Young Choir : Di Coleman Tracy Hardin Gary L. Neal Traci Nelson Elquine L. Rice Terry L. Rice Rodney Sulton Stefani Taylor Barbara Wilson Leslie Wilson Buddha Boys Choir : Eric Edmonson Doug Idleman Marcus London Clint Mansell Adam Persaud Nick Scott Nigel Wiesehan Charts Weekly charts Year-end charts Certifications See also List of Billboard 200 number-one albums of 1999 References External links Album review at The A.V. Club Album review at The Washington Post'' Playing God: The Fragile at Stylus Magazine 1999 albums Albums produced by Alan Moulder Albums produced by Trent Reznor Art rock albums by American artists Concept albums Interscope Geffen A&M Records albums Interscope Records albums Nine Inch Nails albums Nothing Records albums	[ -0.21026143431663513, 0.2130805402994156, -0.29439210891723633, 0.1276734322309494, -0.009167065843939781, 0.629012942314148, 0.33690524101257324, -0.06670582294464111, -0.0013810418313369155, 0.02462715283036232, 0.672834575176239, 1.2731404304504395, -0.25888270139694214, 0.49318990111351013, -0.12207081913948059, 0.26512154936790466, 0.311628133058548, -0.09320025891065598, 0.3116965591907501, -0.46818286180496216, -0.24907562136650085, -0.09651821106672287, 0.4426986873149872, -0.41807305812835693, -0.20234905183315277, 0.23353339731693268, -0.3768763542175293, 0.311405748128891, 0.03255149722099304, 0.18405424058437347, -0.021778179332613945, 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227668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20collector	Solar collector	Solar collector may refer to: Solar thermal collector, a solar collector that collects heat by absorbing sunlight Solar Collector (sculpture), a 2008 interactive light art installation in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada See also Concentrating solar power Renewable heat Solar air heating Solar water heating Solar panel	[ 0.8554556369781494, -0.15655212104320526, -0.05702173709869385, 0.12027342617511749, -0.1326484978199005, 0.12802843749523163, -0.6056250929832458, -0.23389048874378204, -0.586909830570221, -0.45762789249420166, -0.1795637309551239, -0.057018350809812546, -0.19536812603473663, 0.1377679705619812, 0.07933485507965088, -0.33323851227760315, 0.32074299454689026, 0.00994964875280857, -0.5052201747894287, 0.03377994894981384, -0.35547760128974915, -0.3436500132083893, 0.917172908782959, 0.3328973054885864, -0.9046886563301086, -0.06693688780069351, 0.47525420784950256, 0.22866663336753845, 0.1639428734779358, 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227672	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine%20peso	Philippine peso	The Philippine peso, also referred to by its Filipino name piso (Philippine English: , , plural pesos; ; sign: ₱; code: PHP), is the official currency of the Philippines. It is subdivided into 100 sentimo, also called centavos. The Philippine peso sign is denoted by the symbol "₱", introduced under American rule in place of the original peso sign "$" used throughout Spanish America. Alternative symbols used are "PHP", "PhP", "Php", or just "P". The monetary policy of the Philippines is conducted by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP), established on July 3, 1993 as its central bank. It produces the country's banknotes and coins at its Security Plant Complex, which is set to move to the New Clark City in Capas, Tarlac. History The Philippine peso is derived from the Spanish peso or pieces of eight brought over in large quantities from Spanish America by the Manila galleons of the 16th to 19th centuries. From the same Spanish peso or dollar is derived the various pesos of Spanish America, the dollars of the US and Hong Kong, as well as the Chinese yuan and the Japanese yen. Pre-colonial coinage The trade the pre-colonial tribes of what is now the Philippines did among themselves with its many types of pre-Hispanic kingdoms (kedatuans, rajahnates, wangdoms, lakanates and sultanates) and with traders from the neighboring islands was conducted through barter. The inconvenience of barter however later led to the use of some objects as a medium of exchange. Gold, which was plentiful in many parts of the islands, invariably found its way into these objects that included the Piloncitos, small bead-like gold bits considered by the local numismatists as the earliest coin of the ancient peoples of the Philippines, and gold barter rings. The original silver currency unit was the rupya or rupiah, brought over by trade with India and Indonesia. Two native Tagalog words for money which survive today in Filipino were salapi and possibly pera. Salapi is thought to be from isa (one) + rupya which would become lapia when adapted to Tagalog. Alternately, it could be from Arabic asrafi (a gold coin, see Persian ashrafi) or sarf (money, money exchange). Pera is thought to be from Malay perak (silver), which also has a direct cognate or adaptation in Tagalog/Filipino as pilak. Alternately, it could be from 10 and 5 centimo coins of the Spanish peseta, known as the perra gorda and perra chica. Spanish colonial period The Spanish dollar or silver peso worth eight reales was first introduced by the Magellan expedition of 1521 and brought in large quantities after the 1565 conquest of the Philippines by Miguel López de Legazpi. The local salapi continued under Spanish rule as a toston or half-peso coin. Additionally, Spanish gold onzas or eight-escudo coins were also introduced with identical weight to the Spanish dollar but valued at 16 silver pesos. The earliest silver coins brought in by the galleons from Mexico and other Spanish American colonies were in the form of roughly-cut cobs or macuquinas. These coins usually bore a cross on one side and the Spanish royal coat-of-arms on the other. These crudely-made coins were subsequently replaced by machine-minted coins called Columnarios (pillar dollars) or “dos mundos (two worlds)” in 1732 containing 27.07 grams of 0.917 fine silver (revised to 0.903 fine in 1771). Fractional currency was supplied by cutting the Spanish dollar coin, most commonly into eight wedges each worth one Spanish real. Locally produced crude copper or bronze coins called cuartos or barrillas (hence the Tagalog/Filipino words cuarta or kwarta, "money" and barya "coin" or "loose change") were also struck in the Philippines by order of the Spanish government, with 20 cuartos being equal to one real (hence, 160 cuartos to a peso). The absence of officially minted cuartos in the 19th century was alleviated in part by counterfeit two-cuarto coins made by Igorot copper miners in the Cordilleras. A currency system derived from coins imported from Spain, China and neighboring countries was fraught with various difficulties. Money came in different coinages, and fractional currency in addition to the real and the cuarto also existed. Money has nearly always been scarce in Manila, and when it was abundant it was shipped to the provinces or exported abroad to pay for exports. An 1857 decree requiring the keeping of accounts in pesos and centimos (worth 1/100th of a peso) was of little help to the situation given the existence of copper cuartos worth 160 to a peso. 19th century Gold/Silver Bimetallic standard The Spanish gold onza (or 8-escudo coin) was of identical weight to the Spanish dollar but was officially valued at 16 silver pesos, thus putting the peso on a bimetallic standard with a gold/silver ratio of 16. Its divergence with the value of gold in international trade featured prominently in the continued monetary crises of the 19th century. In the 1850s the low price of gold in the international markets triggered the outflow of silver coins. In 1875 the adoption of the gold standard in Europe triggered a rise in the international price of gold and the replacement of gold coins with silver pesos. While the Philippines stayed officially bimetallic until 1898 with the peso worth either one silver Mexican peso (weighing 27.07 grams 0.903 fine, or 0.786 troy ounce XAG) or 1/16th the gold onza (weighing 1.6915 gram 0.875 fine, or 0.0476 troy ounce XAU), in reality the gold peso has increased in value to approx. two silver pesos. Concurrent with these events is the establishment of the Casa de Moneda de Manila in the Philippines in 1857, the mintage starting 1861 of gold 1, 2 and 4 peso coins according to Spanish standards (the 4-peso coin being 6.766 grams of 0.875 gold), and the mintage starting 1864 of fractional 50, 20 and 10 centimo silver coins also according to Spanish standards (with 100 centimos containing 25.96 grams of 0.900 silver; later lowered to 0.835 silver in 1881). In 1897 Spain introduced 1-peso silver coins with the bust of King Alfonso XIII, as well as 5- and 10-centimos de peseta coins for circulation in the Philippines as 1- and 2-centimos de peso. The Spanish-Filipino peso remained in circulation and were legal tender in the islands until 1904, when the American authorities demonetized them in favor of the new US-Philippine peso. The first paper money circulated in the Philippines was the Philippine peso fuerte issued in 1851 by the country's first bank, the El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II. Convertible to either silver pesos or gold onzas, its volume of 1,800,000 pesos was small relative to about 40,000,000 silver pesos in circulation at the end of the 19th century. A fanciful etymology for the term pera holds that it was inspired by the Carlist Wars where Queen Isabel II was supposedly called La Perra (The Bitch) by her detractors, and thus coins bearing the image of Isabel II were supposedly called perras, which became pera. A less outlandish Spanish origin, if the term is indeed derived from Spanish, could be the Spanish coins of 10- and 5-centimos de peseta (valued locally at 2- and 1-centimos de peso) which were nicknamed perra gorda and perra chica, where the "bitch" or female dog is a sarcastic reference to the Spanish lion. Arguments against either theory are that the coins bearing the face of Isabel II were nicknamed Isabelinas and that the perra coins were only introduced to the Philippines in 1897. Revolutionary Period Asserting its independence after the Philippine Declaration of Independence on June 12, 1898, the República Filipina (Philippine Republic) under General Emilio Aguinaldo issued its own coins and paper currency backed by the country's natural resources. The coins were the first to use the name centavo for the subdivision of the peso. The island of Panay also issued revolutionary coinage. After Aguinaldo's capture by American forces in Palanan, Isabela on March 23, 1901, the revolutionary peso ceased to exist. American Colonial Period After the United States took control of the Philippines, the United States Congress passed the Philippine Coinage Act of 1903, established the unit of currency to be a theoretical gold peso (not coined) consisting of 12.9 grains of gold 0.900 fine (0.0241875 XAU). This unit was equivalent to exactly half the value of a U.S. dollar. Its peg to gold was maintained until the gold content of the U.S. dollar was reduced in 1934. Its peg of ₱2 to the U.S. dollar was maintained until independence in 1946. The act provided for the coinage and issuance of Philippine silver pesos substantially of the weight and fineness as the Mexican peso, which should be of the value of 50 cents gold and redeemable in gold at the insular treasury, and which was intended to be the sole circulating medium among the people. The act also provided for the coinage of subsidiary and minor coins and for the issuance of silver certificates in denominations of not less than 2 nor more than 10 pesos (maximum denomination increased to 500 pesos from 1905). It also provided for the creation of a gold-standard fund to maintain the parity of the coins so authorized to be issued and authorized the insular government to issue temporary certificates of indebtedness bearing interest at a rate not to exceed 4 percent per annum, payable not more than one year from date of issue, to an amount which should not at any one time exceed 10 million dollars or 20 million pesos. The US territorial administration also issued Culion leper colony coinage between 1913 and 1930. Commonwealth Period When the Philippines became a U.S. Commonwealth in 1935, the coat of arms of the Philippine Commonwealth were adopted and replaced the arms of the U.S. Territories on the reverse of coins while the obverse remained unchanged. This seal is composed of a much smaller eagle with its wings pointed up, perched over a shield with peaked corners, above a scroll reading "Commonwealth of the Philippines". It is a much busier pattern, and widely considered less attractive. World War II In 1942, at the height of the resistance against the Japanese invasion in Corregidor island, US-Philippine forces managed to ship off to Australia most of the gold and significant assets held in reserve by Manila's banks, but they had to discard an estimated ₱ 15 million worth of silver pesos into the sea off Caballo Bay rather than surrender it to the Japanese. After the war these assets would be returned to Philippine banks, and most of the discarded pesos would be recovered but in badly corroded condition. The Japanese occupiers then introduced fiat notes for use in the Philippines. Emergency circulating notes (also termed "guerrilla pesos") were also issued by banks and local governments, using crude inks and materials, which were redeemable in silver pesos after the end of the war. The puppet state under José P. Laurel outlawed possession of guerrilla currency and declared a monopoly on the issuance of money and anyone found to possess guerrilla notes could be arrested or even executed. Because of the fiat nature of the currency, the Philippine economy felt the effects of hyperinflation. Combined U.S. and Philippine Commonwealth military forces including recognized guerrilla units continued printing Philippine pesos, so that, from October 1944 to September 1945, all earlier issues except for the emergency guerrilla notes were considered illegal and were no longer legal tender. Independence and the Central Bank of the Philippines, 1949–1993 Republic Act No. 265 created the Central Bank of the Philippines (now the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas) on January 3, 1949, in which was vested the power of administering the banking and credit system of the country. Under the act, all powers in the printing and mintage of Philippine currency was vested in the CBP, taking away the rights of the banks such as Bank of the Philippine Islands and the Philippine National Bank to issue currency. The Philippines faced various post-war problems due to the slow recovery of agricultural production, trade deficits due to the need to import needed goods, and high inflation due to the lack of goods. The CBP embarked on a fixed exchange system during the 1950s where the peso's convertibility was maintained at ₱2 per US$1 by various measures to control and conserve the country's international reserves. This system, combined with other “Filipino First” efforts to curtail importations, helped reshape the country's import patterns and improve the balance of payments. Such restrictions, however, gave rise to a black market where dollars routinely traded for above ₱3/$. The CBP's allocation system which rations a limited supply of dollars at ₱2/$ to purchase priority imports was exploited by parties with political connections. Higher black market exchange rates drove remittances and foreign investments away from official channels. By 1962 the task of maintaining the old ₱2/$ parity while defending available reserves has become untenable under the new Diosdado Macapagal administration, opening up a new decontrol era from 1962–1970 where foreign exchange restrictions were dismantled and a new free-market exchange rate of ₱3.90/$ was adopted since 1965. This move helped balance foreign exchange supply versus demand and greatly boosted foreign investment inflows and international reserves. However, a weak manufacturing base that can't capture market share in (mostly imported) consumer goods meant that devaluation only fueled inflation, and by the time the decontrol era ended in 1970 another devaluation to ₱6.43/$ was needed. In 1967, coinage adopted Filipino language terminology instead of English, banknotes following suit in 1969. Consecutively, the currency terminologies as appearing on coinage and banknotes changed from the English centavo and peso to the Filipino sentimo and piso. However, centavo is more commonly used by Filipinos in everyday speech. The CBP's final era from 1970 until the BSP's reestablishment in 1993 involved a managed float system with no more fixed parity commitments versus the dollar. The CBP only committed to maintain orderly foreign exchange market conditions and to reduce short-term volatility. Difficulties continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s in managing inflation and keeping exchange rates stable, and was complicated further by the CBP lacking independence in government especially when the latter incurs fiscal shortfalls. The worst episode occurred when a confidence crisis in the Ferdinand Marcos administration triggered a capital flight among investors between August 1983 to February 1986, nearly doubling the exchange rate from ₱11/$ to ₱20/$ and also doubling the prices of goods. Reorganization to the new Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Positive political and economic developments in the 1990s paved the way for further economic liberalization and an opportunity to unburden the central bank of objectives that are inconsistent with keeping inflation stable. The New Central Bank Act (Republic Act No 7653) of June 14, 1993 replaces the old CBP with a new Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas mandated explicitly to maintain price stability, and enjoying fiscal and administrative autonomy to insulate it from government interference. This, along with the further liberalization of various foreign exchange regulations, puts the Philippine peso on a fully floating exchange rate system. The market decides on the level in which the peso trades versus foreign currencies based on the BSP's ability to maintain a stable inflation rate on goods and services as well as sufficient international reserves to fund exports. Black market exchange rates as seen in the past are now nonexistent since official markets now reflect underlying supply and demand. The Philippine peso has since traded versus the U.S. dollar in a range of ₱24–46 from 1993–99, ₱40–56 from 2000–2009, and ₱40–54 from 2010–2019. The previous 1903–1934 definition of a peso as 12.9 grains of 0.9 gold (or 0.0241875 XAU) is now worth ₱2,266.03 based on gold prices as of November 2021. Names for different denominations The smallest currency unit is called centavo in English (from Spanish centavo). Following the adoption of the "Pilipino series" in 1967, it became officially known as sentimo in Filipino (from Spanish céntimo). However, "centavo" and its local spellings, síntabo and sentabo, are still used as synonyms in Tagalog. It is the most widespread preferred term over sentimo in other Philippine languages, including Abaknon, Bikol, Cebuano, Cuyonon, Ilocano, and Waray, In Chavacano, centavos are referred to as céns (also spelled séns). Tagalog language words for the different centavo-denominated coins were more common in the 20th century before the decrease in their use afterwards. The half-centavo coin was called a kusing, and the 1-centavo coin was called isang pera or sampera. Coins for 5, 10, 25 and 50 centavos went by their Spanish names singko, diyes, bentesingko and singkwenta. Additionally, the 50-centavo coin was also called salapi. The terms "1 peso each", "50 centavos each" and "1 centavo each" may be expressed as mamiso, manalapi and mamera, respectively. Coins The Spanish administration opened the Casa de Moneda de Manila (or Manila mint) in 1857 in order to supply coins for the Philippines, minting silver coins of 10 centimos, 20 centimos, and 50 centimos; and gold coins of 1 peso, 2 pesos and 4 pesos. The American government minted currency under the Philippine Coinage Act of 1903 in its mints in the United States, in base-metal denominations of half centavo, one centavo and five centavos; and in silver denominations of 10 centavos, 20 centavos, 50 centavos and 1 peso. They eventually deemed it more economical and convenient to mint coins in the Philippines, hence the re-opening of the Manila Mint in 1920, which produced coins until the Commonwealth Era excluding 1/2 centavo and regular-issue 1-peso coins (commemorative 1-peso coins were minted in 1936). In 1937 the eagle-and-shield reverse design was changed into the coat-of-arms of the Commonwealth of the Philippines while retaining the legend "United States of America". During the Second World War, no coins were minted from 1942 to 1943 due to the Japanese Occupation. Minting resumed in 1944–45 for the last time under the Commonwealth. Coins only resumed in 1958 after an issuance of centavo-denominated fractional banknotes from 1949 to 1957. In 1958, the new English coinage series entirely of base metal was introduced, consisting of bronze 1 centavo, brass 5 centavos and nickel-brass 10 centavos, 25 centavos and 50 centavos. The 20-centavo denomination was discontinued. In 1967, the Pilipino-language coin series was introduced with the peso and centavo renamed into piso and sentimo. It consisted of aluminum 1-sentimo, brass 5-sentimo, and nickel-brass 10, 25 and 50 sentimo. The 1-piso coin was reintroduced in 1972. In 1975, the Ang Bagong Lipunan Series was introduced. It consisted of aluminum 1-sentimo, brass 5-sentimo, cupro-nickel 10-sentimo, 25-sentimo and 1-piso, and a pure nickel 5-piso coin which rarely circulated. In 1983, the Flora and Fauna Series was introduced. It consisted of aluminum 1-, 5- and 10-sentimo, brass 25-sentimo, and cupro-nickel 50-sentimo, 1-piso and a new 2-piso coin. From 1991 to 1994 the sizes of coins from 25-sentimo to 2-piso were reduced under the Improved Flora and Fauna Series, and a new nickel-brass 5-piso coin was introduced. In 1995, the New Design coin series was introduced with the aim of replacing and demonetizing all previously issued coin series on January 3, 1998. It initially consisted of copper-plated steel 1-, 5- and 10-sentimo, brass 25-sentimo, copper-nickel 1-piso and nickel-brass 5-piso. In 2000, the bimetallic 10-piso coin was added to the series. In 2004 the composition of the 25-sentimo and 1-piso was changed to brass-plated steel and nickel-plated steel, respectively. The current series, the New Generation Currency Series was introduced in 2017, consisting of nickel-plated steel 1-, 5- ,25-sentimo and 1-, 5- and 10-piso. In December 2019 the bimetallic plated-steel 20-piso coin was introduced, together with a modified nine-sided 5-piso coin issued in response to numerous complaints that the round steel 5-piso coin looked too much like the 1-piso and 10-piso. Denominations worth P0.25 (~$0.005) and below are still issued but have been increasingly regarded as a nuisance. Proposals to retire and demonetize all coins less than one peso in value have been rejected by the government and the BSP. Banknotes Previous series In 1852 the Philippines first issued banknotes under El Banco Español Filipino de Isabel II (the present Bank of the Philippine Islands) in denominations of 10, 25, 50 and 200 pesos fuertes (strong pesos). By 1903, the American colonial Insular Government issued Silver Certificates in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100 and 500 pesos, backed by silver coin or U.S. gold at a fixed rate of 2:1. These were supplemented by banknotes of the Bank of the Philippine Islands in 1908, banknotes of the Philippine National Bank in 1916, and Treasury Certificates of the Philippine Treasury in 1918 backed by United States Government bonds. Only the latter remained legal tender after Philippine independence in 1946. The dimensions of all banknotes issued under the US-Philippine administration, 16 x 6.6 cm, has been used ever since on all Philippine banknotes (except pre-1958 centavo notes), and was introduced during William Howard Taft's tenure as governor-general of the Philippines. In view of its highly successful run, President Taft then appointed a committee that reported favorably on the advantages and savings from changing the size of United States banknotes to Philippine-size. Since 1928 the sizes of the U.S. dollar Federal Reserve Notes and Philippine banknotes have therefore been nearly identical. In 1949, the Central Bank of the Philippines took over paper money issue. Its first notes were Treasury Certificates printed under US administration overprinted with "Victory - Central Bank of the Philippines". These were followed in 1951 by regular-issue English Series banknotes in denominations of 5, 10, 20 and 50 centavos, 1 peso, 2 pesos, 5 pesos, 10 pesos, 20 pesos, 50 pesos, 100 pesos, 200 pesos and 500 pesos. The centavo notes (except for the 50-centavo note, which would be later known as the half-peso note) were discontinued in 1958 when the English Series coins were first minted. In 1967, the CBP adopted the Filipino language on its Pilipino Banknote Series, using the name Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas, and in 1969 introduced the Pilipino Series of notes in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20, 50 and 100 piso. The Ang Bagong Lipunan Series was introduced in 1973 and included 2-piso notes. A radical change occurred in 1985, when the CBP issued the New Design Series with 500-piso notes introduced in 1987, 1000-piso notes (for the first time) in 1991 and 200-piso notes in 2002. The New Design Series was the name used to refer to Philippine banknotes issued from 1985 to 1993. It was then renamed as the BSP Series due to the re-establishment of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas in 1993. It was succeeded by the New Generation Currency Series issued on December 16, 2010. The New Design/BSP Series banknotes were printed from 1985 to 2013 (1985–1995 for the 5 peso notes, 1985–2001 for the 10 peso notes, 1986–2012 for the 20 peso notes, 1991–2012 for the 1000 peso notes, 2002–2013 for the 200 peso notes, and 1987–2013 for 50, 100, and 500 peso notes). Existing banknotes remained legal tender until December 31, 2015. The bills were originally to be demonetized by January 1, 2017, but the deadline for exchanging the old banknotes was extended twice, on June 30, 2017 and December 29, 2017. After that date, all NDS/BSP banknotes were demonetized and are no longer a liability of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas. New Generation Currency (current) In 2009, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) announced that it has launched a massive redesign for current banknotes and coins to further enhance security features and improve durability. The members of the numismatic committee include BSP Deputy Governor Diwa Guinigundo and Ambeth Ocampo, Chairman of the National Historical Institute. The new banknote designs feature famous Filipinos and iconic natural wonders. Philippine national symbols will be depicted on coins. The BSP started releasing the initial batch of new banknotes in December 2010. Several, albeit disputable, errors have been discovered on banknotes of the New Generation series and discussed over social media. Among these are the exclusion of Batanes from the Philippine map on the reverse of all denominations, the mislocation of the Puerto Princesa Subterranean Underground River on the reverse of the 500-peso bill and the Tubbataha Reef on the 1000-peso bill, and the incorrect coloring on the beak and feathers of the blue-naped parrot on the 500-peso bill, but these were eventually realized to be due to the color limitations of intaglio printing. The scientific names of the animals featured on the reverse sides of all banknotes were incorrectly rendered in the 2010 series, but were corrected starting 2017. By February 2016, the BSP started to circulate new 100-peso bills which were modified to have a stronger mauve or violet color. This was "in response to suggestions from the public to make it easier to distinguish from the 1000-peso bank note". The public could still use the New Generation Currency 100-peso bills with fainter colors as they are still acceptable. On December 11, 2019, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) introduced the 20-piso coin that will eventually replace the 20-piso note. The latter will continue to be produced in 2020 until raw materials to print it are totally used up; it will then remain legal tender and will be withdrawn gradually as the notes become unfit for circulation. Commemorative banknotes Commemorative banknotes have been issued by the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas to memorialize events of historic significance to the Philippines. The most common method of commemoration is by adding a commemorative overprint on the watermark area of a circulating denomination. There also exist especially printed commemorative higher-denomination non-circulating banknotes, in the following denominations: 2,000-piso: Centennial of Declaration of Philippine Independence, 1998 100,000-piso: Centennial of Declaration of Philippine Independence, 1998 5,000-piso: 2021 Quincentennial Commemorations in the Philippines Monetary policy The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) was established on July 3, 1993 as the Philippines’ central bank, succeeding the previous Central Bank of the Philippines which was established in 1949. Its primary monetary policy objective is to promote a low and stable inflation conducive to a balanced and sustainable economic growth. It achieves this objective through inflation targeting, a monetary policy approach where an inflation target is publicly announced, which the BSP then commits to achieve over a two-year horizon by using these monetary policy tools: Adjusting the policy rate at which the BSP borrows from banks; Open Market Operations where the BSP buys (or sells) government securities and BSP securities in order to increase (or decrease) liquidity; Offering term deposits to absorb liquidity; Standing Liquidity Facilities to provide liquidity to banks as needed; and Increasing (or decreasing) bank reserve requirements to decrease (or increase) remaining liquidity that can be loaned out. Inflation forecasts exceeding targets are addressed by a contractionary policy to bring down inflation to target by increasing policy rates, increasing reserve requirements, or selling government securities - all resulting in reduced liquidity. An expansionary policy to counteract low inflation brought by economic pessimism involves the opposite steps - lower policy rates, lower reserve requirements, or buying government securities. Exchange rates Historical exchange rate The official exchange rate was ₱2 against the U.S. dollar from 1946–62, devalued to ₱3.90/$ in 1962, and devalued again to ₱6.43/$ in 1970. Black market exchange rates during these periods, however, were nearly always higher than official rates. Several depreciations followed, with the peso trading at ₱18/$ in 1984 from the dirty float at ₱11.25/$ in 1983 and ₱21/$ in 1986. In the early 1990s, the peso depreciated again to ₱28/$. Due to the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the peso depreciated from ₱26/$ in July 1997 to ₱42/$ in 1998 and to about ₱50/$ in 2001. Black market exchange rates as seen in the past are now nonexistent since official exchange rates now reflect underlying supply and demand rather than political considerations. Current exchange rate Recent issues Errors in currency In 2005, About 78 million 100-peso notes with President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo’s surname misspelled as "Arrovo" were printed and planned to be circulated. The error was only found out after 2 million of the notes were circulated and the BSP had ordered an investigation. The incorrect manner in which scientific names were printed in the 2010 New Generation Currency Series were addressed in 2017 revisions. In December 2017, a 100 peso banknote which had no face of Manuel A. Roxas and no electrotype 100 was issued. The Facebook post was shared over 24,000 times. The BSP said that the banknotes are due to a rare misprint. 1-peso coin fraud By August 2006, it became publicly known that the 1-peso coin has the same size as the 1 United Arab Emirates dirham coin. , 1-peso is only worth 8 fils (0.08 dirham), leading to vending machine fraud in the UAE. Similar frauds have also occurred in the US, as the 1-peso coin is roughly the same size as the quarter but is worth slightly less than 2 U.S. cents. Newer digital parking meters are not affected by the fraud, though most vending machines will accept them as quarters. Fake denominations In 2017, a one-peso coin that was allegedly minted in 1971 was said to bear the design of the novel Noli Me Tángere by Jose Rizal at the back of the coin. The coin was allegedly sold for up to ₱1,000,000. The holder of the said coin was interviewed by Kapuso Mo, Jessica Soho about this, but potential buyers made no serious offers to purchase the coin, and the BSP said that it did not release any coin of the said design. The BSP also mentioned that the coin is thinner than the circulating coin which gives the possibility that someone might have tampered it and replaced it with a different design. In June 2018, a Facebook page posted a ₱10,000 note with a portrait of President Ramon Magsaysay on the front and a water buffalo and Mount Pinatubo on the back. The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas did not issue this banknote and stressed that only 6 denominations are in current circulation (20-, 50-, 100-, 200-, 500- and 1000 pesos). The Facebook page of the BSP said that it was fake. The signature was also of former governor of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas Amando Tetangco Jr. It was found out that the photo was from a different user who found a fake 10,000 peso banknote in a book at a library. See also Economy of the Philippines References Bibliography Banknotes and Coins June 2010, Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP). Philippine Coins'' at the Bohol.ph website External links Coinage Notes Currencies of the Philippines Economy of the Philippines Currency symbols	[ -0.3817169964313507, 0.2531008720397949, 0.1627957671880722, 0.6724537014961243, -0.08018883317708969, 0.6419508457183838, -0.5934451818466187, 1.3487731218338013, -0.4146372675895691, 0.1414402574300766, -0.015871958807110786, 0.4064742624759674, 0.15470510721206665, 0.08789435774087906, -0.36618098616600037, -0.015298030339181423, 1.063138723373413, 0.8988651633262634, -0.1779858022928238, -0.660333514213562, -0.8302207589149475, -0.0043346574530005455, 0.3388417065143585, -0.025300374254584312, 0.17637962102890015, 0.032260071486234665, 0.10173049569129944, 0.30040866136550903, -0.563718855381012, 0.21379509568214417, 0.006665549706667662, 0.5004201531410217, -0.09548142552375793, 0.5361402034759521, -0.028325911611318588, -0.17476420104503632, -0.47091448307037354, -0.5102389454841614, -0.25997573137283325, -0.3117065131664276, 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227674	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charismatic%20authority	Charismatic authority	Charismatic authority is a concept of leadership developed by the German sociologist Max Weber. It involves a type of organization or a type of leadership in which authority derives from the charisma of the leader. This stands in contrast to two other types of authority: legal authority and traditional authority. Each of the three types forms part of Max Weber's tripartite classification of authority. "Charisma" is an ancient Greek term that initially gained prominence through Saint Paul's letters to the emerging Christian communities in the first century. In this context, it generally referred to a divinely-originating "gift" that demonstrated the authority of God within the early leaders of the Church. Max Weber took this theological notion and generalized it, viewing it as something that followers attribute, thereby opening it up for use by sociologists who applied it to political, military, celebrity, and non-Christian religious contexts. Other terms used are "charismatic domination" and "charismatic leadership". Characteristics Charisma Weber applies the term charisma to This definition, however, does not get to the crux of what charisma is, making the concept, as defined by Weber unscientific and impossible to measure or to manipulate. In the modern era, psychologists have defined charisma it terms of it outcomes (i.e., charismatic leaders are highly effective). Whether from a Weberian or psychological conceptualization, it is problematic to not define a construct scientifically. This issue of conceptualization is important to consider else the concept and how it relates to outcomes is circular in reasoning. The conclusions derived from the theory cannot be refuted given that the proponents claim something akin to if effective, therefore charismatic. Charisma, however, can be studied scientifically if seen as a costly signal, using values, symbols, and emotions. Its economic value in consequential settings has also been scientifically examined. Thus Weber's insights were valuable in identifying the construct of charisma. Modern social science therefore still supports the original thinking regarding the utility of the construct. Authority Weber interchanges authority and dominance[H]as been considered in sociological terms as indicating the legitimate or socially approved use of power. It is the legitimate power which one person or a group holds and exercises over another. The element of legitimacy is vital to the notion of authority and is the main means by which authority is distinguished from the more general concept of power. Power can be exerted by the use of force or violence. Authority, by contrast, depends on the acceptance by subordinates of the right of those above them to give them orders or directives. Charismatic authority is often the most lasting of regimes because the leader is seen as infallible and any action against him will be seen as a crime against the state. Charismatic leaders eventually develop a cult of personality often not by their own doing. Leadership is the power to diffuse a positive energy and a sense of greatness. As such, it rests almost entirely on the leader. The absence of that leader for any reason can lead to the authority's power dissolving. However, due to its idiosyncratic nature and lack of formal organization, charismatic authority depends much more strongly on the perceived legitimacy of the authority than Weber's other forms of authority. For instance, a charismatic leader in a religious context might require an unchallenged belief that the leader has been touched by God, in the sense of a prophet. Should the strength of this belief fade, the power of the charismatic leader can fade quickly, which is one of the ways in which this form of authority shows itself to be unstable. In contrast to the current popular use of the term charismatic leader, Weber saw charismatic authority not so much as character traits of the charismatic leader but as a relationship between the leader and his followers. The validity of charisma is founded on its "recognition" by the leader's followers (or "adepts" – Anhänger). His charisma risks disappearing if he is "abandoned by God" or if "his government doesn't provide any prosperity to those whom he dominates". Routinizing charisma Charismatic authority almost always endangers the boundaries set by traditional (coercive) or rational (legal) authority. It tends to challenge this authority, and is thus often seen as revolutionary. Usually this charismatic authority is incorporated into society. Hereby the challenge that it presents to society will subside. The way in which this happens is called routinization. By routinization, the charismatic authority changes: A religion which evolves its own priesthood and establishes a set of laws and rules is likely to lose its charismatic character and move towards another type of authority. For example, Muhammad, who had charismatic authority as "The Prophet" among his followers, was succeeded by the traditional authority and structure of Islam, a clear example of routinization. In politics, charismatic rule is often found in various authoritarian states, autocracies, dictatorships and theocracies. To help to maintain their charismatic authority, such regimes will often establish a vast personality cult. When the leader of such a state dies or leaves office, and a new charismatic leader does not appear, such a regime is likely to fall shortly thereafter, unless it has become fully routinized. Charismatic succession Because the authority is concentrated in one leader, the death of the charismatic leader would constitute the destruction of the government unless prior arrangements were made. A society that faces the end of their charismatic leader can choose to move to another format of leadership or to have a transference of charismatic authority to another leader by means of succession. According to Max Weber, the methods of succession are: search, revelation, designation by original leader, designation by qualified staff, hereditary charisma, and office charisma. These are the various ways in which an individual and a society can contrive to maintain the unique energy and nature of charisma in their leadership. Search "The search for a new charismatic leader (takes place) on the basis of the qualities which will fit him for the position of authority." An example of this search method is the search for a new Dalai Lama. "It consists in a search for a child with characteristics which are interpreted to mean that he is a reincarnation of the Buddha." This search is an example of the way in which an original charismatic leader can be forced to "live on" through a replacement. Revelation "In this case the legitimacy of the new leader is dependent on the legitimacy of the technique of selection." The technique of selection is the modus operandi of the selection process. In ancient times, oracles were believed to have special access to "divine judgment" and thus their technique in selection was perceived to be legitimate. Their choice was imbued with the charismatic authority that came with the oracle's endorsement. Designation by original leader In this form, the original holder of charismatic authority is perceived to have passed their authority to another. An example is Joseph Stalin's claim that Vladimir Lenin had designated him to be his successor as leader of the USSR. Insofar as people believed in this claim, Stalin gained Lenin's charismatic authority. Designated by qualified staff "A successor (may be designated) by the charismatically qualified administrative staff... (T)his process should not be interpreted as 'election' or 'nomination'... It is not determined by merely a majority vote...Unanimity (is) often required." A case example of this form of succession is the papal conclave of cardinals to choose a new pope. The cardinals taking part in the papal conclave are viewed to be charismatically qualified by their Roman Catholic congregations and thus their choice is imbued with charismatic authority. Hereditary charisma Charisma can be perceived as "a quality transmitted by heredity". This method of succession is present in Kim Il-sung's charisma being passed on to his son, Kim Jong Il. This type of succession is a difficult undertaking and often results in a movement toward traditionalization and legalization in authority. Office charisma "The concept of charisma may be transmitted by ritual means from one bearer to another...It involves a dissociation of charisma from a particular individual, making it an objective, transferable entity." Priestly consecration is believed to be a modus through which priestly charisma to teach and perform other priestly duties is transferred to a person. In this way, priests inherit priestly charisma and are subsequently perceived by their congregations as having the charismatic authority that comes with the priesthood. Application of Weber's theories Weber's model of charismatic leadership giving way to institutionalization is endorsed by several academic sociologists. New religious movements Eileen Barker discusses the tendency for new religious movements to have founders or leaders who wield considerable charismatic authority and are believed to have special powers or knowledge. Charismatic leaders are unpredictable, Barker says, for they are not bound by tradition or rules and they may be accorded by their followers the right to pronounce on all aspects of their lives. Barker warns that in these cases the leader may lack any accountability, require unquestioning obedience, and encourage a dependency upon the movement for material, spiritual and social resources. George D. Chryssides asserts that not all new religious movements have charismatic leaders, and that there are differences in the hegemonic styles among those movements that do. Narcissism Len Oakes, an Australian psychologist who wrote a dissertation about charisma, had eleven charismatic leaders fill in a psychometric test, which he called the adjective checklist, and found them as a group quite ordinary. Following the psychoanalyst Heinz Kohut, Oakes argues that charismatic leaders exhibit traits of narcissism and also argues that they display an extraordinary amount of energy, accompanied by an inner clarity unhindered by the anxieties and guilt that afflict more ordinary people. He did however not fully follow Weber's framework of charismatic authority. Comparison table See also Authentic leadership Caudillo Demagogue Führerprinzip Monarch Power (social and political) Tripartite classification of authority The Three Types of Legitimate Rule References Informational notes Citations Bibliography Waters, Tony and Dagmar Waters (2015) editors and translators. Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations on Politics, Bureaucracy, and Social Stratification. New York: Palsgrave Macmillan. External links Let's face it: Charisma matters from TEDx Charisma by Thomas Robbin in the Encyclopedia of Religion and Society edited by William H. 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227675	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular%20cambium	Vascular cambium	The vascular cambium is the main growth tissue in the stems and roots of many plants, specifically in dicots such as buttercups and oak trees, gymnosperms such as pine trees, as well as in certain other vascular plants. It produces secondary xylem inwards, towards the pith, and secondary phloem outwards, towards the bark. In herbaceous plants, it occurs in the vascular bundles which are often arranged like beads on a necklace forming an interrupted ring inside the stem. In woody plants, it forms a cylinder of unspecialized meristem cells, as a continuous ring from which the new tissues are grown. Unlike the xylem and phloem, it does not transport water, minerals or food through the plant. Other names for the vascular cambium are the main cambium, wood cambium, or bifacial cambium. Occurrence Vascular cambia are found in dicots and gymnosperms but not monocots, which usually lack secondary growth. A few leaf types also have a vascular cambium. In dicot and gymnosperm trees, the vascular cambium is the obvious line separating the bark and wood; they also have a cork cambium. For successful grafting, the vascular cambia of the rootstock and scion must be aligned so they can grow together. Structure and function The cambium present between primary xylem and primary phloem is called the fascicular cambium (within vascular bundles). During secondary growth, cells of medullary rays, in a line (as seen in section; in three dimensions, it is a sheet) between neighbouring vascular bundles, become meristematic and form new interfascicular cambium (between vascular bundles). The fascicular and interfascicular cambia thus join up to form a ring (in three dimensions, a tube) which separates the primary xylem and primary phloem, the cambium ring. The vascular cambium produces secondary xylem on the inside of the ring, and secondary phloem on the outside, pushing the primary xylem and phloem apart. The vascular cambium usually consists of two types of cells: Fusiform initials (tall, axially oriented) Ray initials (smaller and round to angular in shape) Maintenance of cambial meristem The vascular cambium is maintained by a network of interacting signal feedback loops. Currently, both hormones and short peptides have been identified as information carriers in these systems. While similar regulation occurs in other plant meristems, the cambial meristem receives signals from both the xylem and phloem sides for the meristem. Signals received from outside the meristem act to down regulate internal factors, which promotes cell proliferation and differentiation. Hormonal regulation The phytohormones that are involved in the vascular cambial activity are auxins, ethylene, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid and probably more to be discovered. Each one of these plant hormones is vital for regulation of cambial activity. Combination of different concentrations of these hormones is very important in plant metabolism. Auxin hormones are proven to stimulate mitosis, cell production and regulate interfascicular and fascicular cambium. Applying auxin to the surface of a tree stump allowed decapitated shoots to continue secondary growth. The absence of auxin hormones will have a detrimental effect on a plant. It has been shown that mutants without auxin will exhibit increased spacing between the interfascicular cambiums and reduced growth of the vascular bundles. The mutant plant will therefore experience a decrease in water, nutrients, and photosynthates being transported throughout the plant, eventually leading to death. Auxin also regulates the two types of cell in the vascular cambium, ray and fusiform initials. Regulation of these initials ensures the connection and communication between xylem and phloem is maintained for the translocation of nourishment and sugars are safely being stored as an energy resource. Ethylene levels are high in plants with an active cambial zone and are still currently being studied. Gibberellin stimulates the cambial cell division and also regulates differentiation of the xylem tissues, with no effect on the rate of phloem differentiation. Differentiation is an essential process that changes these tissues into a more specialized type, leading to an important role in maintaining the life form of a plant. In poplar trees, high concentrations of gibberellin is positively correlated to an increase of cambial cell division and an increase of auxin in the cambial stem cells. Gibberellin is also responsible for the expansion of xylem through a signal traveling from the shoot to the root. Cytokinin hormone is known to regulate the rate of the cell division instead of the direction of cell differentiation. A study demonstrated that the mutants are found to have a reduction in stem and root growth but the secondary vascular pattern of the vascular bundles were not affected with a treatment of cytokinin. Cambium as food The cambium of most trees are edible. In Scandinavia, it was historically used as a flour to make bark bread. See also Cambium Meristem Cork cambium Unifacial cambium Sun scald (flora) References External links Pictures of Vascular cambium Detailed description - James D. 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227677	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cork%20cambium	Cork cambium	Cork cambium (pl. cambia or cambiums) is a tissue found in many vascular plants as a part of the epidermis. It is one of the many layers of bark, between the cork and primary phloem. The cork cambium is a lateral meristem and is responsible for secondary growth that replaces the epidermis in roots and stems. It is found in woody and many herbaceous dicots, gymnosperms and some monocots (monocots usually lack secondary growth). It is one of the plant's meristems – the series of tissues consisting of embryonic disk (incompletely differentiated) cells from which the plant grows. The function of cork cambium is to produce the cork, a tough protective material. Synonyms for cork cambium are bark cambium, pericambium and phellogen. Phellogen is defined as the meristematic cell layer responsible for the development of the periderm. Cells that grow inwards from there are termed phelloderm, and cells that develop outwards are termed phellem or cork (note similarity with vascular cambium). The periderm thus consists of three different layers: phelloderm – inside of cork cambium; composed of living parenchyma cells phellogen (cork cambium) – meristem that gives rise to periderm phellem (cork) – dead at maturity; air-filled protective tissue on the outside Growth and development of cork cambium is very variable between different species, and is also highly dependent on age and growth conditions, as can be observed from the different surfaces of bark, which may be smooth, fissured, tesselated, scaly, or flaking off. Economic importance Commercial cork is derived from the bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). Cork has many uses including wine bottle stoppers, bulletin boards, coasters, hot pads to protect tables from hot pans, insulation, sealing for lids, flooring, gaskets for engines, fishing bobbers, handles for fishing rods and tennis rackets, etc. It is also a high strength-to-weight/cost ablative material for aerodynamic prototypes in wind tunnels, as well as satellite launch vehicle payload fairings, reentry surfaces, and compression joints in thrust-vectored solid rocket motor nozzles. Many types of bark are used as mulch. See also Complementary cells Frost crack Sun scald (flora) References Plant anatomy	[ -0.09165037423372269, 0.426114946603775, -0.36185258626937866, -0.21840815246105194, -0.5702685117721558, 0.015818282961845398, 0.14212380349636078, 0.7353034019470215, -0.16726607084274292, -0.07561919838190079, -0.4218977093696594, -0.00784954521805048, -0.12655243277549744, 0.5514215230941772, 0.4832095801830292, 0.4454033374786377, 0.13544540107250214, 1.0017369985580444, 0.5606058835983276, -0.13435246050357819, 0.017265906557440758, -0.5096485614776611, -0.03723805770277977, -0.44600504636764526, 0.22277650237083435, -0.3267425000667572, 0.0901346206665039, -0.09709928184747696, -0.2618921399116516, -0.23777899146080017, -0.5006333589553833, 0.9446274638175964, -0.4422937035560608, -0.20686060190200806, 1.0329570770263672, -0.46262750029563904, 0.30812451243400574, -0.7669425010681152, -0.014044588431715965, -0.5586367249488831, -0.006119861267507076, 0.22024351358413696, 1.2136913537979126, 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227680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osaka%20Loop%20Line	Osaka Loop Line	The is a railway loop line in Japan operated by the West Japan Railway Company (JR West). It encircles central Osaka. Part of a second, proposed outer loop line, the Osaka Higashi Line, from Hanaten to Kyuhoji was opened on March 15, 2008, and the line from Shigino to Shin-Ōsaka opened in March 2019. This entry covers the original central loop line. Outline This loop line consists of two tracks around the heart of metropolitan Osaka. All trains consist of 8 carriages, with distinctive orange colour with white JR graphics on the front, rear and sides. The train schedule varies, but on average, two trains leave Tennōji Station and Ōsaka Station every five minutes, in opposite directions. Operation On this line, JR West operates several types of trains. The line serves as a link between Ōsaka Station in northern Osaka (actually the Umeda district), and Tennōji in southern central Osaka. Some Limited Express trains linking north and south of the Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto area use the line as a bypass between the Tōkaidō Main Line in the north and the Hanwa Line in the south. Traffic is heavier in the eastern half, Osaka - Kyōbashi - Tennōji, than in the western half via Nishi-Kujō. Direction The completely loop shaped Osaka Loop Line is unable to use the 'up' and 'down' train direction convention commonly applied in Japanese railways, e.g. trains traveling to Tokyo are usually 'up' trains and vice versa. Instead, the words and the are used to refer to the direction. The outer is clockwise, the inner counterclockwise. If rules, such as the registration of the line at Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport apply, the inner loop is down. Local Local trains are operated all day. Some operate over the complete loop, while some serve the eastern half between Osaka and Tennōji via Kyōbashi. Eight-car EMUs of 323 series are used. 221 series, 223 series and 225 series are used only for morning rush. Sakurajima Line trains Trains of the Sakurajima Line (JR Yumesaki Line) are now operated through to the loop line to/from Kyōbashi and Tennoji. Eight-car 323 series EMUs are used. Rapids of Kansai Main Line Through trains to the Kansai Main Line (Yamatoji Line) began operated in 1973. and trains originate at Tennōji on the loop, passing the loop as "inner" via Osaka, and after stopping at Tennōji after a complete circuit, exit the loop onto the Kansai Main Line and terminate at , or . In the loop, Yamatoji Rapids pass some stations while Regional Rapids stop all. For "Yamatoji Rapid" and "Regional Rapid", usually 8-car and 4+4 car 221 series EMUs are used. Rapids of Hanwa Line Trains to the Hanwa Line, for and for originate at either Tennoji or Kyobashi, and together with other types of rapid trains, operate on the inner loop via Osaka, pausing at Tennoji and then exiting from the loop. This pattern commenced in 1989, but increased significantly in 1994 on the opening of Kansai Airport. 8-car 223 series and 225 series EMUs in 4+4 formations are used for Kansai Airport and Kishūji rapids. 113 series 4-car units were used for rapids of Shin-Ōsaka - in early morning and late night. They were withdrawn in 2010. Limited express Charged Limited Expresses such as Haruka for Kansai International Airport, and south bound Kuroshio on the Hanwa Line and Kisei Main Line (Kinokuni Line) heading for the scenic southern Wakayama Prefecture utilise the Osaka Loop Line to bypass the Tōkaidō Main Line and reach the Hanwa Line. On the loop, aside from Tennōji, limited numbers of trains stop only at Nishi-Kujō. Between the Tōkaidō Main Line and the Osaka Loop Line, trains utilise the "Umeda freight line" which crosses immediately west of Ōsaka Station, not stopping at Osaka because no passenger facilities are installed on the freight line, until it merges the main line at Shin-Ōsaka. This route was introduced in 1989 on the completion of a bypass track from the Hanwa Line to platforms of the Kansai Main Line at Tennōji. Until then no through operations were possible from the Hanwa Line. 281 series and 271 series EMUs are used for Haruka, 283 series EMUs, 287 series EMUs and 289 series EMUs for Kuroshio. Freight trains After the abandonment of the Naniwa freight terminal, freight trains on the line operate only between Fukushima and Nishikujō, from the "Umeda Freight Line" to on the Sakurajima Line (JR Yumesaki Line). Stations Listed counterclockwise: All stations are in the city of Osaka, Osaka Prefecture. Stopping patterns Stations ● : All trains stop. ▲ : Stop, outer loop (Tennoji → Nishikujo → Osaka → Kyobashi → Tennoji) Number: Track (Platform) numbers to arrive at and depart from. \| : All trains skip Rolling stock Local 323 series (since 24 December 2016) The first of a fleet of 21 new 323 series eight-car EMU trains were introduced from 24 December 2016, scheduled to entirely replace the fleet of 23 103 and 201 series trains by 2018. As of December 2021, few of the remaining 103 series (from Nara Line) and 201 series (Osaka Higashi & Yamatoji Line) continue to be used on the Loop Line. Yamatoji Rapid, Regional Rapid 221 series Kansai Airport Rapid, Kishūji Rapid, Direct Rapid and Local 223 series (0 and 2500 subseries) 225 series (5000 and 5100 subseries) Limited express 271 series (Haruka service, from Spring 2020) 281 series (Haruka service) 283 series (Kuroshio service) 287 series (Kuroshio service) 289 series (Kuroshio service) Freight Locomotives seen hauling freight trains include the M250 series, EF65, EF66, EF81, EF210 and DE10. Former Passenger 72 series 101 series (March 22, 1964 – April 28, 1991) 103 series (1969– 3 October 2017) 113 series (until December 10, 2011) 381 series (Kuroshio service, until October 30, 2015) 201 series ( 2005–7 June 2019) Freight DD51 Fares A special discount rate is applied for travels within the Osaka Loop Line, the Sakurajima Line and the segment between JR Namba Station and Tennōji Station of the Kansai Main Line (collectively called the ). The following table is the rate for adult single-ride tickets. (Note: Fractions of one kilometre are rounded up to the nearest full kilometre.) For travel between a station within the zone and a station out of the zone or between two stations out of the zone, fares are calculated in accordance with a universal fare table and the discount rate as above is not applicable. For the calculation of the fare for travel between two stations out of the zone that includes the segment between Ōsaka Station and Tennōji Station of the Osaka Loop Line, where two routes ( route via Temma and route via Fukushima) are practical, the shorter route is always used irrespective of the actual travel route. History The Osaka Loop Line consists of four segments, namely: Jōtō Line Eastern half of present line, Osaka - Tennōji via Kyōbashi Nishinari Line The northwestern quarter, Osaka - Nishi-Kujō Kansai Main Line freight line Southwestern portion, Tennōji - Sakaigawa Junction Purpose built section The remainder to complete the loop, Nishi-Kujō - Sakaigawa Junction Jōtō Line The Osaka to Tennōji via Kyōbashi section (the eastern half of Osaka Loop Line) was opened by the (which also opened the present Minami Osaka Line network) to link it to the Japanese Government Railway (JGR) network in 1895. The line was opened in 2 stages: Tennōji - Tamatsukuri (2 mi. 28 chain, ca. 3.8 km) on 28 May; and Tamatsukuri - Umeda (4 mi. 29 chain, ca. 7.0 km) on 17 October. Earlier, in 1889, the company opened its main line from - Tennōji - which includes a short section of the Osaka Loop Line, being Tennōji - ; Imamiya station itself, located between Tennōji and Minatomachi, was opened in 1890. The Osaka Railway merged with the in 1900, creating a single entity for the line from Tennōji Station to JGR Ōsaka Station. The Kansai Railway was acquired by the national government in 1907 under the 1906 Railway Nationalization Act. In 1909 the line was named the . In 1930, distrances were changed to metric, thus the distance changed from 6.6 miles. to 10.7 km. Electrification of the Jōtō Line was commissioned in 1933. Nishinari Line The Osaka to Nishi-Kujō section (the northwestern quarter of the line) was built by the to provide rail access to the Osaka Port. In 1898, the company opened the Osaka - line, which was leased to JGR in 1904. In 1906 the company was nationalized under the act of the same year. In 1909, the line was named the which included the present-day Sakurajima Line. The Nishinari Line was electrified in 1941. Kansai Main Line Freight Line The Tennōji to Sakaigawa Signal Box (between Taishō and Bentenchō, closed in 2006 when the branch to the port closed) section (south-western portion of the loop) was constructed for freight traffic by the JGR to the port area in 1928, connecting to a freight branch line of the Kansai Main Line, Imamiya - - with a distance of 5.2 mi. (ca. 8.4 km). In 1930 with the change to metric measurement, it became 8.2 km. The former Osaka-Minato and Osaka-Tōkō stations were closed in 1984. Purpose-built loop line section To complete the Loop Line, new tracks were constructed between Nishi-Kujō and Sakaigawa Signal Box by the then Japanese National Railways. In 1961, this section opened and the new Osaka Loop Line was named for the entirety of the then Jōtō Line, Osaka - Nishi-Kujō section of the Nishinari Line (the rest, Nishi-Kujō - Sakurajima was named the Sakurajima Line) and the new Nishi-Kujō - Taishō - Tennōji section. In 1964, operation as a complete Loop Line commenced with the opening of elevated double tracks around Nishi-Kujō. Until then the operation had been undertaken in the shape of a mirrored "6", Sakurajima - Nishi-Kujō - Osaka - Kyōbashi - Tennōji - Nishi-Kujō. The Tennōji - Shin-Imamiya section was quadrupled in 1968, to separate operations from the Kansai Main Line. See also Yamanote Line Osaka Higashi Line References This article incorporates material from the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia Railway loop lines Railway lines opened in 1898 1067 mm gauge railways in Japan	[ 0.12066935002803802, -0.7500146627426147, -0.3879786729812622, -0.12741772830486298, -0.5782347917556763, 0.2924956977367401, 0.8729121685028076, 0.4585687518119812, -0.5388692617416382, -0.12145236134529114, 0.1796102374792099, -0.37945473194122314, -0.9153180122375488, 0.24200905859470367, -0.6438210010528564, -0.6688757538795471, 0.531938374042511, 0.2608240842819214, 0.28299346566200256, -0.7150965332984924, 0.1338789165019989, 0.22842158377170563, 0.4253480136394501, -0.36350512504577637, 0.3081778287887573, -0.4639599323272705, -0.34767138957977295, 0.7891985177993774, -0.15963105857372284, -0.23990218341350555, 0.16341669857501984, 0.7566185593605042, 0.2477514147758484, 0.40333303809165955, 0.5177359580993652, -0.18084748089313507, 0.1088843122124672, 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227681	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%20Carter%20Cash	June Carter Cash	June Carter Cash (born Valerie June Carter; June 23, 1929 – May 15, 2003) was a five-time Grammy award-winning American singer, songwriter, actress, dancer, comedian, and author who was a member of the Carter Family and the second wife of singer Johnny Cash. Prior to her marriage to Cash, she was professionally known as June Carter and occasionally was still credited as such after her marriage (as well as on songwriting credits predating it). She played guitar, banjo, harmonica, and autoharp, and acted in several films and television shows. Carter Cash won five Grammy Awards and was inducted into the Christian Music Hall of Fame in 2009. Early life June Carter Cash was born Valerie June Carter in Maces Spring, Virginia, to Maybelle Carter (nee' Addington) and Ezra Carter. Her parents were country music performers and she performed with the Carter Family from the age of 10, in 1939. In March 1943, when the Carter Family trio stopped recording together at the end of the WBT contract, Maybelle Carter, with encouragement from her husband Ezra, formed "Mother Maybelle and the Carter Sisters" with her daughters, Helen, Anita, and June. The new group first aired on radio station WRNL in Richmond, Virginia, on June 1. Doc (Addington) and Carl (McConnell)—Maybelle's brother and cousin, respectively, known as "The Virginia Boys", joined them in late 1945. June, then 16, was a co-announcer with Ken Allyn and did the commercials on the radio shows for Red Star Flour, Martha White, and Thalhimers Department Store, just to name a few. For the next year, the Carters and Doc and Carl did show dates within driving range of Richmond, through Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. She attended John Marshall High School during this period. June later said she had to work harder at her music than her sisters, but she had her own special talent—comedy. A highlight of the road shows was her "Aunt Polly" comedy routine. With her thin and lanky frame, June Carter often played a comedic foil during the group's performances alongside other Opry stars Faron Young and Webb Pierce. Carl McConnell wrote in his memoirs that June was "a natural-born clown, if there ever was one". Decades later, Carter revived Aunt Polly for the 1976 TV series Johnny Cash & Friends. After Doc and Carl dropped out of the music business in late 1946, Maybelle and her daughters moved to Sunshine Sue Workman's "Old Dominion Barn Dance" on the WRVA Richmond station. After a while there, they moved to WNOX in Knoxville, Tennessee, where they met Chet Atkins with Homer and Jethro. In 1949, Mother Maybelle and the Carter Sisters, with their lead guitarist, Atkins, were living in Springfield, Missouri, and performing regularly at KWTO. Ezra "Eck" Carter, Maybelle's husband and manager of the group, declined numerous offers from the Grand Ole Opry to move the act to Nashville, Tennessee, because the Opry would not permit Atkins to accompany the group onstage. Atkins' reputation as a guitar player had begun to spread, and studio musicians were fearful that he would displace them as a 'first-call' player if he came to Nashville. Finally, in 1950, Opry management relented and the group, along with Atkins, became part of the Opry company. Here the family befriended Hank Williams and Elvis Presley (to whom they were distantly related), and June met Johnny Cash. June and her sisters, with mother Maybelle and aunt Sara joining in from time to time, reclaimed the name "The Carter Family" for their act during the 1960s and '70s. Career highlights While June Carter Cash may be best known for singing and songwriting, she was also an author, dancer, actress, comedian, philanthropist, and humanitarian. Director Elia Kazan saw her perform at the Grand Ole Opry in 1955 and encouraged her to study acting. She studied with Lee Strasberg and Sanford Meisner at the Neighborhood Playhouse School of the Theatre in New York. Her acting roles included Mrs. "Momma" Dewey in Robert Duvall's 1998 movie The Apostle, Sister Ruth, wife to Johnny Cash's character Kid Cole, on Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman (1993–97), and Clarise on Gunsmoke in 1957. She was notable as Mayhayley Lancaster playing alongside husband Cash in the 1983 television movie Murder in Coweta County. June was also Momma James in The Last Days of Frank and Jesse James. She also acted in occasional comedy skits for various Johnny Cash TV programs. As a singer, she had both a solo career and a career singing with first her family and later her husband. As a solo artist, she became somewhat successful with upbeat country tunes of the 1950s such as "Jukebox Blues" and, with her exaggerated breaths, the comedic hit "No Swallerin' Place" by Frank Loesser. June also recorded "The Heel" in the 1960s along with many other songs. In the early 1960s, June Carter wrote the song "Ring of Fire", which later went on to be a hit for her future husband, Johnny Cash. She co-wrote the song with fellow songwriter Merle Kilgore. June wrote the lyrics about her relationship with Johnny Cash and she offered the song to her sister Anita Carter, who was the first singer to record the song. In 1963, Johnny recorded the song with the Carter Family singing backup, and added mariachi horns. The song became a number-one hit and went on to become one of the most recognizable songs in the world of country music. In her autobiography, “I Walked the Line”, Johnny's first wife Vivian Cash disputes the myth that June Carter co-wrote the song, "Ring of Fire". Vivian relates the story that Johnny told her in 1963 that he wrote the song with Merle Kilgore and Curly while fishing and that he was going to give June half credit because “She needs the money. And I like her.” Her first notable studio performance with Johnny Cash occurred in 1964 when she duetted with Cash on "It Ain't Me Babe", a Bob Dylan composition, that was released as a single and on Cash's album Orange Blossom Special. In 1967, the two found more substantial success with their recording of "Jackson", which was followed by a collaboration album, Carryin' On with Johnny Cash and June Carter. All these releases antedated her marriage to Cash (upon which event she changed her professional name to June Carter Cash). She continued to work with Cash on record and on stage for the rest of her life, recording a number of duets with Cash for his various albums and being a regular on The Johnny Cash Show from 1969 to 1971 and on Cash's annual Christmas specials. After Carryin' On, June Carter Cash recorded one more direct collaboration album, Johnny Cash and His Woman, released in 1973, and along with her daughters was a featured vocalist on Cash's 1974 album The Junkie and the Juicehead Minus Me. She also shared sleeve credit with her husband on a 2000 small-label gospel release, Return to the Promised Land Although she provided vocals on many recordings, and shared the billing with Cash on several album releases, June Carter Cash only recorded three solo albums during her lifetime: the first, Appalachian Pride, released in 1975, Press On (1999), and Wildwood Flower, released posthumously in 2003 and produced by her son, John Carter Cash. Appalachian Pride is the only one of the three on which Johnny Cash does not perform, while Press On is notable for featuring June Carter Cash singing her original arrangement of "Ring of Fire". One of her final appearances was a nonspeaking/nonsinging appearance in the music video for her husband's 2003 single, "Hurt", filmed a few months before her death. One of her last known public appearances was on April 7, 2003, just over a month before her death, when she appeared on the CMT Flameworthy awards program to accept an achievement award on behalf of her husband, who was too ill to attend. She won a Grammy award in 1999 for, Press On. Her last album, Wildwood Flower, won two additional Grammys. It contains bonus video enhancements showing extracts from the film of the recording sessions, which took place at the Carter Family estate in Hiltons, Virginia, on September 18–20, 2002. The songs on the album include "Big Yellow Peaches", "Sinking in the Lonesome Sea", "Temptation", and the trademark staple "Wildwood Flower". Due to her involvement in providing backing vocals on many of her husband's recordings, a further posthumous release occurred in 2014, when Out Among the Stars was released under Johnny Cash's name. The album consists of previously unreleased recordings from the early 1980s, including two on which June Carter Cash provides duet vocals. Her autobiography was published in 1979, and she wrote a memoir, From the Heart, almost 10 years later. Personal life Carter was married three times and had one child with each husband. All three of her children went on to have successful careers in country music. She was married first to honky-tonk singer Carl Smith from July 9, 1952, until their divorce in 1956. Together, they wrote "Time's A-Wastin". They had a daughter, Rebecca Carlene Smith, professionally known as Carlene Carter, a country musician. June's second marriage was to Edwin "Rip" Nix, a former football player, police officer, and racecar driver, on November 11, 1957. They had a daughter, Rosie, on July 13, 1958. The couple divorced in 1966. Rosie was a country/rock singer. On October 24, 2003, Rosie, aged 45, died from accidental carbon monoxide poisoning. She and Bluegrass musician Jimmy Campbell were on a school bus, which had been converted for travel. Several propane heaters were being used to heat the bus. Carter and the entire Carter Family had performed with Johnny Cash for a number of years. In 1968, Cash proposed to Carter during a live performance at the London Ice House in London, Ontario. They married on March 1 in Franklin, Kentucky, and remained married until her death in May 2003, just four months before Cash died. The couple's son, John Carter Cash, is a musician, songwriter, and producer. Carter's distant cousin, the former U.S. President Jimmy Carter, became closely acquainted with Cash and Carter and maintained their friendship throughout their lifetimes. In a June 1977 speech, Jimmy Carter acknowledged that June Carter was his distant cousin. Carter was a longtime supporter of SOS Children's Villages. In 1974, the Cashes donated money to help build a village near their home in Barrett Town, Jamaica, which they visited frequently, playing the guitar and singing songs to the children in the village. June Carter Cash also had close relationships with a number of entertainers, including Audrey Williams, James Dean, Patsy Cline, Loretta Lynn, Jessi Colter, Kris Kristofferson, Willie Nelson, Elvis Presley, Robert Duvall, and Roy Orbison. Death Carter died in Nashville, Tennessee, on May 15, 2003, at the age of 73, from complications following heart-valve replacement surgery, surrounded by her family, including her husband of 35 years, Johnny Cash. At Carter's funeral, her stepdaughter Rosanne Cash stated, "if being a wife were a corporation, June would have been a CEO. It was her most treasured role." Johnny Cash died four months after Carter's death, and Carter's daughter, Rosie Nix Adams, a month after that. All three are buried at the Hendersonville Memory Gardens near their home in Hendersonville, Tennessee. Awards Carter and her future husband, Johnny Cash, reached number 2 on the U.S. Country charts with their 1967 duet of "Jackson". Their performance won the 1968 Grammy Award for Best Country & Western Performance Duet, Trio or Group. The two won the 1971 Grammy Award, for Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group, for their 1970 duet "If I Were a Carpenter". Carter Cash won the 2000 Grammy Award, for Best Traditional Folk Album, for her 1999 album Press On. The album was a top-15 success on the Americana chart. Carter Cash's last album, Wildwood Flower, was released posthumously in 2003. Carter Cash won the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Traditional Folk Album, and she also won the 2004 Grammy Award for Best Female Country Vocal Performance for the single "Keep on the Sunny Side". Philanthropy June Carter Cash along with her husband, Johnny Cash, worked with and gave money to the group, SOS Children's Villages, throughout their life. They began this involvement in 1973 when they donated $12,000 ($75,351 in 2022 terms) to build an orphanage in a Jamaican village close to their home in the country. They would visit the nearby village during their time spent in Jamaica and play with the children and sing songs to them. When Johnny Cash died in 2003, their family asked that donations be made to the SOS Children's Villages due to the couple's involvement. In a quote from a representative of the Prime Minister of Jamaica at the time, P.J. Patterson, talks about their charitable works in the country, "A philanthropist extraordinaire, Mrs. Cash made Jamaica her second home and loved and cared deeply for the people of her adopted country. A gifted and talented singer, she and her husband, Johnny Cash, used the very talents for the benefit of many charities in and around Montego Bay." Legacy In 2003, Carter was included by Country Music Television on their list of the "40 Greatest Women of Country Music". June Carter was played by Reese Witherspoon in Walk the Line, a 2005 biographical film of Johnny Cash (played by Joaquin Phoenix). The film largely focused on the development of their relationship over the course of 13 years, from their first meeting to her final acceptance of his proposal of marriage. Witherspoon performed all vocals for the role, singing many of June's famous songs, including "Juke Box Blues" and "Jackson" with Phoenix. Witherspoon won an Academy Award, Golden Globe, BAFTA and Screen Actors Guild Award for Best Actress in the role. Musician and actress Jewel portrayed June Carter Cash in the Lifetime television movie Ring of Fire, which aired on May 27, 2013. The film is based on John Carter Cash's memoir Anchored in Love: An Intimate Portrait of June Carter Cash. Discography Albums Albums with Johnny Cash Note: this list only lists albums on which June Carter Cash received co-billing. Most 1970s and 1980s album releases by Cash featured at least one duet with her, and/or she provided backing vocals. Singles Singles with Johnny Cash Featured singles Music videos References Further reading . . . . Background for liner notes for a Doc and Carl album recorded at Johnny Cash's Nashville studio. Online at . External links June Carter Cash Official Site . . Official Carter Family Fold Website 1929 births 2003 deaths 20th-century American singers 21st-century American singers People from Nashville, Tennessee People from Scott County, Virginia American women country singers American country singer-songwriters American female dancers Dancers from Virginia American banjoists American women guitarists Country musicians from Virginia Country musicians from Tennessee Burials in Tennessee Grammy Award winners Autoharp players Grand Ole Opry members Liberty Records artists Johnny Cash Carter family Cash–Carter family American folk singers Guitarists from Virginia The Carter Family members 20th-century American women singers 20th-century American guitarists 21st-century American women singers 20th-century American women guitarists Singer-songwriters from Tennessee Singer-songwriters from Virginia	[ -0.7409057021141052, -0.025533059611916542, -0.8350285887718201, 0.08656769245862961, 0.35254761576652527, 0.735456109046936, 0.9246198534965515, 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227682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meristem	Meristem	The meristem is a type of tissue found in plants. It consists of undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) capable of cell division. Cells in the meristem can develop into all the other tissues and organs that occur in plants. These cells continue to divide until a time when they get differentiated and then lose the ability to divide. Differentiated plant cells generally cannot divide or produce cells of a different type. Meristematic cells are undifferentiated or incompletely differentiated. They are totipotent and capable of continued cell division. Division of meristematic cells provides new cells for expansion and differentiation of tissues and the initiation of new organs, providing the basic structure of the plant body. The cells are small, with no or small vacuoles and protoplasm fills the cell completely. The plastids (chloroplasts or chromoplasts), are undifferentiated, but are present in rudimentary form (proplastids). Meristematic cells are packed closely together without intercellular spaces. The cell wall is a very thin primary cell wall. The term meristem was first used in 1858 by Carl Wilhelm von Nägeli (1817–1891) in his book Beiträge zur Wissenschaftlichen Botanik ("Contributions to Scientific Botany"). It is derived from the Greek word merizein (μερίζειν), meaning to divide, in recognition of its inherent function. There are three types of meristematic tissues: apical (at the tips), intercalary or basal (in the middle), and lateral (at the sides). At the meristem summit, there is a small group of slowly dividing cells, which is commonly called the central zone. Cells of this zone have a stem cell function and are essential for meristem maintenance. The proliferation and growth rates at the meristem summit usually differ considerably from those at the periphery. Apical meristems Apical meristems are the completely undifferentiated (indeterminate) meristems in a plant. These differentiate into three kinds of primary meristems. The primary meristems in turn produce the two secondary meristem types. These secondary meristems are also known as lateral meristems because they are involved in lateral growth. There are two types of apical meristem tissue: shoot apical meristem (SAM), which gives rise to organs like the leaves and flowers, and root apical meristem (RAM), which provides the meristematic cells for future root growth. SAM and RAM cells divide rapidly and are considered indeterminate, in that they do not possess any defined end status. In that sense, the meristematic cells are frequently compared to the stem cells in animals, which have an analogous behavior and function. The apical meristems are layered where the number of layers varies according to plant type. In general the outermost layer is called the tunica while the innermost layers are the corpus. In monocots, the tunica determines the physical characteristics of the leaf edge and margin. In dicots, layer two of the corpus determines the characteristics of the edge of the leaf. The corpus and tunica play a critical part of the plant physical appearance as all plant cells are formed from the meristems. Apical meristems are found in two locations: the root and the stem. Some Arctic plants have an apical meristem in the lower/middle parts of the plant. It is thought that this kind of meristem evolved because it is advantageous in Arctic conditions. Shoot apical meristems Shoot apical meristems are the source of all above-ground organs, such as leaves and flowers. Cells at the shoot apical meristem summit serve as stem cells to the surrounding peripheral region, where they proliferate rapidly and are incorporated into differentiating leaf or flower primordia. The shoot apical meristem is the site of most of the embryogenesis in flowering plants. Primordia of leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and ovaries are initiated here at the rate of one every time interval, called a plastochron. It is where the first indications that flower development has been evoked are manifested. One of these indications might be the loss of apical dominance and the release of otherwise dormant cells to develop as auxiliary shoot meristems, in some species in axils of primordia as close as two or three away from the apical dome. The shoot apical meristem consists of four distinct cell groups: Stem cells The immediate daughter cells of the stem cells A subjacent organizing center . Founder cells for organ initiation in surrounding regions These four distinct zones are maintained by a complex signalling pathway. In Arabidopsis thaliana, 3 interacting CLAVATA genes are required to regulate the size of the stem cell reservoir in the shoot apical meristem by controlling the rate of cell division. CLV1 and CLV2 are predicted to form a receptor complex (of the LRR receptor-like kinase family) to which CLV3 is a ligand. CLV3 shares some homology with the ESR proteins of maize, with a short 14 amino acid region being conserved between the proteins. Proteins that contain these conserved regions have been grouped into the CLE family of proteins. CLV1 has been shown to interact with several cytoplasmic proteins that are most likely involved in downstream signalling. For example, the CLV complex has been found to be associated with Rho/Rac small GTPase-related proteins. These proteins may act as an intermediate between the CLV complex and a mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), which is often involved in signalling cascades. KAPP is a kinase-associated protein phosphatase that has been shown to interact with CLV1. KAPP is thought to act as a negative regulator of CLV1 by dephosphorylating it. Another important gene in plant meristem maintenance is WUSCHEL (shortened to WUS), which is a target of CLV signaling in addition to positively regulating CLV, thus forming a feedback loop. WUS is expressed in the cells below the stem cells of the meristem and its presence prevents the differentiation of the stem cells. CLV1 acts to promote cellular differentiation by repressing WUS activity outside of the central zone containing the stem cells. The function of WUS in the shoot apical meristem is linked to the phytohormone cytokinin. Cytokinin activates histidine kinases which then phosphorylate histidine phosphotransfer proteins. Subsequently, the phosphate groups are transferred onto two types of Arabidopsis response regulators (ARRs): Type-B ARRS and Type-A ARRs. Type-B ARRs work as transcription factors to activate genes downstream of cytokinin, including A-ARRs. A-ARRs are similar to B-ARRs in structure; however, A-ARRs do not contain the DNA binding domains that B-ARRs have, and which are required to function as transcription factors. Therefore, A-ARRs do not contribute to the activation of transcription, and by competing for phosphates from phosphotransfer proteins, inhibit B-ARRs function. In the SAM, B-ARRs induce the expression of WUS which induces stem cell identity. WUS then suppresses A-ARRs. As a result, B-ARRs are no longer inhibited, causing sustained cytokinin signaling in the center of the shoot apical meristem. Altogether with CLAVATA signaling, this system works as a negative feedback loop. Cytokinin signaling is positively reinforced by WUS to prevent the inhibition of cytokinin signaling, while WUS promotes its own inhibitor in the form of CLV3, which ultimately keeps WUS and cytokinin signaling in check. Root apical meristem Unlike the shoot apical meristem, the root apical meristem produces cells in two dimensions. It harbors two pools of stem cells around an organizing center called the quiescent center (QC) cells and together produces most of the cells in an adult root. At its apex, the root meristem is covered by the root cap, which protects and guides its growth trajectory. Cells are continuously sloughed off the outer surface of the root cap. The QC cells are characterized by their low mitotic activity. Evidence suggests that the QC maintains the surrounding stem cells by preventing their differentiation, via signal(s) that are yet to be discovered. This allows a constant supply of new cells in the meristem required for continuous root growth. Recent findings indicate that QC can also act as a reservoir of stem cells to replenish whatever is lost or damaged. Root apical meristem and tissue patterns become established in the embryo in the case of the primary root, and in the new lateral root primordium in the case of secondary roots. Intercalary meristem In angiosperms, intercalary (sometimes called basal) meristems occur in monocot (in particular, grass) stems at the base of nodes and leaf blades. Horsetails and Welwitschia also exhibit intercalary growth. Intercalary meristems are capable of cell division, and they allow for rapid growth and regrowth of many monocots. Intercalary meristems at the nodes of bamboo allow for rapid stem elongation, while those at the base of most grass leaf blades allow damaged leaves to rapidly regrow. This leaf regrowth in grasses evolved in response to damage by grazing herbivores. Floral meristem When plants begin flowering, the shoot apical meristem is transformed into an inflorescence meristem, which goes on to produce the floral meristem, which produces the sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels of the flower. In contrast to vegetative apical meristems and some efflorescence meristems, floral meristems cannot continue to grow indefinitely. Their growth is limited to the flower with a particular size and form. The transition from shoot meristem to floral meristem requires floral meristem identity genes, that both specify the floral organs and cause the termination of the production of stem cells. AGAMOUS (AG) is a floral homeotic gene required for floral meristem termination and necessary for proper development of the stamens and carpels. AG is necessary to prevent the conversion of floral meristems to inflorescence shoot meristems, but is identity gene LEAFY (LFY) and WUS and is restricted to the centre of the floral meristem or the inner two whorls. This way floral identity and region specificity is achieved. WUS activates AG by binding to a consensus sequence in the AG's second intron and LFY binds to adjacent recognition sites. Once AG is activated it represses expression of WUS leading to the termination of the meristem. Through the years, scientists have manipulated floral meristems for economic reasons. An example is the mutant tobacco plant "Maryland Mammoth". In 1936, the department of agriculture of Switzerland performed several scientific tests with this plant. "Maryland Mammoth" is peculiar in that it grows much faster than other tobacco plants. Apical dominance Apical dominance is where one meristem prevents or inhibits the growth of other meristems. As a result, the plant will have one clearly defined main trunk. For example, in trees, the tip of the main trunk bears the dominant shoot meristem. Therefore, the tip of the trunk grows rapidly and is not shadowed by branches. If the dominant meristem is cut off, one or more branch tips will assume dominance. The branch will start growing faster and the new growth will be vertical. Over the years, the branch may begin to look more and more like an extension of the main trunk. Often several branches will exhibit this behavior after the removal of apical meristem, leading to a bushy growth. The mechanism of apical dominance is based on auxins, types of plant growth regulators. These are produced in the apical meristem and transported towards the roots in the cambium. If apical dominance is complete, they prevent any branches from forming as long as the apical meristem is active. If the dominance is incomplete, side branches will develop. Recent investigations into apical dominance and the control of branching have revealed a new plant hormone family termed strigolactones. These compounds were previously known to be involved in seed germination and communication with mycorrhizal fungi and are now shown to be involved in inhibition of branching. Diversity in meristem architectures The SAM contains a population of stem cells that also produce the lateral meristems while the stem elongates. It turns out that the mechanism of regulation of the stem cell number might be evolutionarily conserved. The CLAVATA gene CLV2 responsible for maintaining the stem cell population in Arabidopsis thaliana is very closely related to the maize gene FASCIATED EAR 2(FEA2) also involved in the same function. Similarly, in rice, the FON1-FON2 system seems to bear a close relationship with the CLV signaling system in Arabidopsis thaliana. These studies suggest that the regulation of stem cell number, identity and differentiation might be an evolutionarily conserved mechanism in monocots, if not in angiosperms. Rice also contains another genetic system distinct from FON1-FON2, that is involved in regulating stem cell number. This example underlines the innovation that goes about in the living world all the time. Role of the KNOX-family genes Genetic screens have identified genes belonging to the KNOX family in this function. These genes essentially maintain the stem cells in an undifferentiated state. The KNOX family has undergone quite a bit of evolutionary diversification while keeping the overall mechanism more or less similar. Members of the KNOX family have been found in plants as diverse as Arabidopsis thaliana, rice, barley and tomato. KNOX-like genes are also present in some algae, mosses, ferns and gymnosperms. Misexpression of these genes leads to the formation of interesting morphological features. For example, among members of Antirrhineae, only the species of the genus Antirrhinum lack a structure called spur in the floral region. A spur is considered an evolutionary innovation because it defines pollinator specificity and attraction. Researchers carried out transposon mutagenesis in Antirrhinum majus, and saw that some insertions led to formation of spurs that were very similar to the other members of Antirrhineae, indicating that the loss of spur in wild Antirrhinum majus populations could probably be an evolutionary innovation. The KNOX family has also been implicated in leaf shape evolution (See below for a more detailed discussion). One study looked at the pattern of KNOX gene expression in A. thaliana, that has simple leaves and Cardamine hirsuta, a plant having complex leaves. In A. thaliana, the KNOX genes are completely turned off in leaves, but in C.hirsuta, the expression continued, generating complex leaves. Also, it has been proposed that the mechanism of KNOX gene action is conserved across all vascular plants, because there is a tight correlation between KNOX expression and a complex leaf morphology. Primary meristems Apical meristems may differentiate into three kinds of primary meristem: Protoderm: lies around the outside of the stem and develops into the epidermis. Procambium: lies just inside of the protoderm and develops into primary xylem and primary phloem. It also produces the vascular cambium, and cork cambium, secondary meristems. The cork cambium further differentiates into the phelloderm (to the inside) and the phellem, or cork (to the outside). All three of these layers (cork cambium, phellem, and phelloderm) constitute the periderm. In roots, the procambium can also give rise to the pericycle, which produces lateral roots in eudicots. Ground meristem: develops into the cortex and the pith. Composed of parenchyma, collenchyma and sclerenchyma cells. These meristems are responsible for primary growth, or an increase in length or height, which were discovered by scientist Joseph D. Carr of North Carolina in 1943. Secondary meristems There are two types of secondary meristems, these are also called the lateral meristems because they surround the established stem of a plant and cause it to grow laterally (i.e., larger in diameter). Vascular cambium, which produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem. This is a process that may continue throughout the life of the plant. This is what gives rise to wood in plants. Such plants are called arboraceous. This does not occur in plants that do not go through secondary growth (known as herbaceous plants). Cork cambium, which gives rise to the periderm, which replaces the epidermis. Indeterminate growth of meristems Though each plant grows according to a certain set of rules, each new root and shoot meristem can go on growing for as long as it is alive. In many plants, meristematic growth is potentially indeterminate, making the overall shape of the plant not determinate in advance. This is the primary growth. Primary growth leads to lengthening of the plant body and organ formation. All plant organs arise ultimately from cell divisions in the apical meristems, followed by cell expansion and differentiation. Primary growth gives rise to the apical part of many plants. The growth of nitrogen-fixing root nodules on legume plants such as soybean and pea is either determinate or indeterminate. Thus, soybean (or bean and Lotus japonicus) produce determinate nodules (spherical), with a branched vascular system surrounding the central infected zone. Often, Rhizobium infected cells have only small vacuoles. In contrast, nodules on pea, clovers, and Medicago truncatula are indeterminate, to maintain (at least for some time) an active meristem that yields new cells for Rhizobium infection. Thus zones of maturity exist in the nodule. Infected cells usually possess a large vacuole. The plant vascular system is branched and peripheral. Cloning Under appropriate conditions, each shoot meristem can develop into a complete, new plant or clone. Such new plants can be grown from shoot cuttings that contain an apical meristem. Root apical meristems are not readily cloned, however. This cloning is called asexual reproduction or vegetative reproduction and is widely practiced in horticulture to mass-produce plants of a desirable genotype. This process is also known as mericloning. Propagating through cuttings is another form of vegetative propagation that initiates root or shoot production from secondary meristematic cambial cells. This explains why basal 'wounding' of shoot-borne cuttings often aids root formation. Induced meristems Meristems may also be induced in the roots of legumes such as soybean, Lotus japonicus, pea, and Medicago truncatula after infection with soil bacteria commonly called Rhizobia. Cells of the inner or outer cortex in the so-called "window of nodulation" just behind the developing root tip are induced to divide. The critical signal substance is the lipo-oligosaccharide Nod factor, decorated with side groups to allow specificity of interaction. The Nod factor receptor proteins NFR1 and NFR5 were cloned from several legumes including Lotus japonicus, Medicago truncatula and soybean (Glycine max). Regulation of nodule meristems utilizes long-distance regulation known as the autoregulation of nodulation (AON). This process involves a leaf-vascular tissue located LRR receptor kinases (LjHAR1, GmNARK and MtSUNN), CLE peptide signalling, and KAPP interaction, similar to that seen in the CLV1,2,3 system. LjKLAVIER also exhibits a nodule regulation phenotype though it is not yet known how this relates to the other AON receptor kinases. See also Secondary growth Stem cell Thallus Tissues References Footnotes Plant Anatomy Laboratory from University of Texas; the lab of JD Mauseth. Micrographs of plant cells and tissues, with explanatory text. Scofield and Murray (2006). The evolving concept of the meristem. 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227686	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennard-Jones%20potential	Lennard-Jones potential	The Lennard-Jones potential (also termed the LJ potential or 12-6 potential) is an intermolecular pair potential. Among the intermolecular potentials, the Lennard-Jones potential is the potential that has been studied most extensively and most thoroughly. It is considered an archetype model for simple yet realistic intermolecular interactions. The Lennard-Jones potential models soft repulsive and attractive interactions. Hence, the Lennard-Jones potential describes electronically neutral atoms or molecules. It is named after John Lennard-Jones. The commonly used expression for the Lennard-Jones potential is where is the distance between two interacting particles, is the depth of the potential well (usually referred to as 'dispersion energy'), and is the distance at which the particle-particle potential energy is zero (often referred to as 'size of the particle'). The Lennard-Jones potential has its minimum at a distance of , where the potential energy has the value . The Lennard-Jones potential is a simplified model that yet describes the essential features of interactions between simple atoms and molecules: Two interacting particles repel each other at very close distance, attract each other at moderate distance, and do not interact at infinite distance, see figure 1. The Lennard-Jones potential is a pair potential, i.e. no three- or multi-body interactions are covered by the potential. Statistical mechanics and computer simulations can be used to study the Lennard-Jones potential and to obtain thermophysical properties of the 'Lennard-Jones substance'. Both the Lennard-Jones potential and, accordingly, the Lennard-Jones substance are simplified yet realistic models, such as they accurately capture essential physical principles like the presence of a critical and a triple point, condensation and freezing. The Lennard-Jones potential is mathematically simple and is therefore extensively used in studies on matter since the early days of computer simulation. Due to its mathematical simplicity and generic modeling capabilities, the Lennard-Jones potential is probably still the most frequently studied model potential. The Lennard-Jones substance is often even referred to as 'Lennard-Jonesium', suggesting that it is viewed as a chemical element. The Lennard-Jones potential is usually the standard choice for the development of theories for matter (especially soft-matter) as well as for the development and testing of computational methods and algorithms. Upon adjusting the model parameters and to real substance properties, the Lennard-Jones potential can be used to describe simple substance (like noble gases) with good accuracy. Furthermore, the Lennard-Jones potential is often used as a building block in molecular models (a.k.a. force fields) for more complex substances. Physical background and mathematical details The Lennard-Jones potential models the two most important and fundamental molecular interactions: The repulsive term ( term) describes the Pauli repulsion at short distances of the interacting particles due to overlapping electron orbitals and the attractive term ( term) describes attraction at long ranged interactions (dispersion force), which vanish at infinite distance between two particles. The steep repulsive interactions at short distances yield the low compressibility of the solid and liquid phase; the attractive dispersive interactions act stabilizing for the condensed phase, especially the vapor-liquid equilibrium. The functional form of the attractive term, the exponent '6', has a physical justification, which does not hold as rigorously for the repulsive term with the exponent '12'. The attractive dispersive interactions between simple atoms and molecules are a result of fluctuating partial charges. It has been shown by quantum-chemical calculations that this dispersive contribution has to decay with . The term is mainly used because it can be implemented computationally very efficiently as the square of , which does not hold to the same extent for values other than '12'. Also, approximates the Pauli repulsion reasonably well. The Lennard-Jones potential can be generalized using arbitrary exponents instead of 12 and 6. The resulting potential is called Mie potential. The present article exclusively discusses the classical (12-6) Lennard-Jones potential. The Lennard-Jones potential exhibits a pole at , i.e. the potential energy diverges to , which can cause instabilities in molecular simulations, e.g. for the sampling of the chemical potential. The Lennard-Jones potential converges to for . Hence, from a mathematical standpoint, attractive interactions stay present for infinitely distanced particles. These dispersive 'long-range' interactions have an important influence on several properties of the Lennard-Jones substance, e.g. the pressure or heat capacity in the vicinity of the critical point and the critical point itself. The importance of the long-range interactions were noticed already in the early stages of statistical mechanics. For computer simulations, only finite numbers of particles can be used, which leads to the fact that the potential can only be evaluated up to a finite radius , which is a so-called finite size effect. There are well-established methods to implicitly consider the thereby neglected long-range contribution for a given observable (details are given below). It is often claimed that multiple Lennard-Jones potentials and corresponding substances exist depending on the handling of the long-range interactions. This is misleading. There is only one 'Lennard-Jones potential', which is exactly defined by Eq. (1). The Lennard-Jones potential requires the consideration and evaluation of long-range interactions up to very long (actually infinite) distances – at least so that the influence of the truncation has no influence on the observable of interest for the reported decimal places. The Lennard-Jones potential implies that the particles are point masses with a mass . Even though the parameter is often referred to as 'size of the particle', particles interacting with the Lennard-Jones potential have no uniquely defined 'size' – opposite to the hard sphere potential. Particles interacting with the Lennard-Jones potential rather have soft repulsive cores. The Lennard-Jones model describes the potential intermolecular energy between two particles based on the outlined principles. Following Newton's mechanics, the actual force between two interacting particles is simply obtained by negating and differentiating the Lennard-Jones potential with respect to , i.e. . Depending on the distance between the two particles, the net force can be either attractive or repulsive. The Lennard-Jones potential yields a good approximation of intermolecular interactions for many applications: The macroscopic properties computed using the Lennard-Jones potential are in good agreement with experimental data for simple substances like argon on one side and the potential function is in fair agreement with results from quantum chemistry on the other side. The Lennard-Jones potential gives a good description of molecular interactions in fluid phases, whereas molecular interactions in solid phases are only roughly well described. This is mainly due to the fact that multi-body interactions play a significant role in solid phases, which are not comprised in the Lennard-Jones potential. Therefore, the Lennard-Jones potential is extensively used in soft-matter physics and associated fields, whereas it is less frequently used in solid-state physics. Due to its simplicity, the Lennard-Jones potential is often used to describe the properties of gases and simple fluids and to model dispersive and repulsive interactions in molecular models. It is especially accurate for noble gas atoms and methane. It is furthermore a good approximation for molecular interactions at long and short distances for neutral atoms and molecules. Therefore, the Lennard-Jones potential is very often used as a building block of molecular models of complex molecules, e.g. alkanes or water. The Lennard-Jones potential can also be used to model the adsorption interactions at solid-fluid interfaces, i.e. physisorption or chemisorption. It is well accepted, that the main limitations of the Lennard-Jones potential lie in the fact the potential is a pair potential (does not cover multi-body interactions) and that the exponent term is used for the repulsion. Results from quantum chemistry suggest that a higher exponent than 12 has to be used, i.e. a steeper potential. Furthermore, the Lennard-Jones potential has a limited flexibility, i.e. only the two model parameters and can be used for the fitting to describe a real substance. Numerous intermolecular potentials have been proposed in the past for the modeling of simple soft repulsive and attractive interactions between spherically symmetric particles, i.e. the general shape shown in figure 1. Examples for other potentials are the Morse potential, the Mie potential, the Buckingham potential and the Tang-Tönnies potential. Nevertheless, none of those are of such general importance as the Lennard-Jones potential. Application of the Lennard-Jones potential The Lennard-Jones potential is not only of fundamental importance in computational chemistry and soft-matter physics, but also for the modeling of real substances. The Lennard-Jones potential is frequently used for fundamental studies on the behavior of matter and for elucidating atomistic phenomena. It is also often used for somewhat special use cases, e.g. for studying thermophysical properties of two- or four-dimensional substances (instead of the classical three spatial directions of our universe). The Lennard-Jones potential is extensively used for molecular modeling. There are essentially two ways the Lennard-Jones potential can be used for molecular modeling: (1) A real substance atom or molecule is modeled directly by the Lennard-Jones potential, which yields very good results for noble gases and methane, i.e. dispersively interacting spherical particles. In the case of methane, the molecule is assumed to be spherically symmetric and the hydrogen atoms are fused with the carbon atom to a common unit. This simplification can in general also be applied to more complex molecules, but yields usually poor results. (2) A real substance molecule is built of multiple Lennard-Jones interactions sites, which can be connected either by rigid bonds or flexible additional potentials (and eventually also consists of other potential types, e.g. partial charges). Molecular models (often referred to as 'force fields') for practically all molecular and ionic particles can be constructed using this scheme for example for alkanes. Upon using the first outlined approach, the molecular model has only the two parameters of the Lennard-Jones potential and that can be used for the fitting, e.g. and are frequently used for argon. Evidently, this approach is only a good approximation for spherical and simply dispersively interacting molecules and atoms. The direct use of the Lennard-Jones potential has the great advantage that simulation results and theories for the Lennard-Jones potential can be used directly. Hence, available results for the Lennard-Jones potential and substance can be directly scaled using the appropriate and (see reduced units). The Lennard-Jones potential parameters and can in general be fitted to any desired real substance property. In soft-matter physics, usually experimental data for the vapor-liquid phase equilibrium or the critical point is used for the parametrization; in solid-state physics, rather the compressibility, heat capacity or lattice constants are employed. The second outlined approach of using the Lennard-Jones potential as a building block of elongated and complex molecules is far more sophisticated. Molecular models are thereby tailor-made in a sense that simulation results are only applicable for that particular model. This development approach for molecular force fields is today mainly performed in soft-matter physics and associated fields such as chemical engineering. A large number of force fields are based on the Lennard-Jones potential, e.g. the TraPPE force field, the OPLS force field, and the MolMod force field (an overview of molecular force fields is out of the scope of the present article). For the state-of-the-art modeling of solid-state materials, more elaborate multi-body potentials (e.g. EAM potentials) are used. Alternative notations of the Lennard-Jones potential There are several different ways to formulate the Lennard-Jones potential besides Eq. (1). Alternatives are: AB form The AB form is frequently used in implementations of simulation software as it is computationally favorable. The Lennard-Jones potential can be written as where, and . Conversely, and . This is the form in which Lennard-Jones wrote the potential named after him. n-exp form The n-exp form is a mathematically more general form and can be written as where is the bonding energy of the molecule (the energy required to separate the atoms). Applying an harmonic approximation at the potential minimum (at ), the exponent and the energy parameter can be related to the spring constant: from where can be calculated if is known. Normally the harmonic states are known, , where . can also be related to the group velocity in a crystal, where is the lattice distance, and is the mass of a particle. Dimensionless (reduced units) Dimensionless reduced units can be defined based on the Lennard-Jones potential parameters, which is convenient for molecular simulations. From a numerical point of view, the advantages of this unit system include computing values which are closer to unity, using simplified equations and being able to easily scale the results. This reduced units system requires the specification of the size parameter and the energy parameter of the Lennard-Jones potential and the mass of the particle . All physical properties can be converted straightforwardly taking the respective dimension into account, see table. The reduced units are often abbreviated and indicated by an asterisk. In general, reduced units can also be built up on other molecular interaction potentials that consist of a length parameter and an energy parameter. Thermophysical properties of the Lennard-Jones substance Thermophysical properties of the Lennard-Jones substance, i.e. particles interacting with the Lennard-Jones potential can be obtained using statistical mechanics. Some properties can be computed analytically, i.e. with machine precision, whereas most properties can only be obtained by performing molecular simulations. The latter will in general be superimposed by both statistical and systematic uncertainties. The virial coefficients can for example be computed directly from the Lennard-potential using algebraic expressions and reported data has therefore no uncertainty. Molecular simulation results, e.g. the pressure at a given temperature and density has both statistical and systematic uncertainties. Molecular simulations of the Lennard-Jones potential can in general be performed using either molecular dynamics (MD) simulations or Monte Carlo (MC) simulation. For MC simulations, the Lennard-Jones potential is directly used, whereas MD simulations are always based on the derivative of the potential, i.e. the force . These differences in combination with differences in the treatment of the long-range interactions (see below) can influence computed thermophysical properties. Since the Lennard-Jonesium is the archetype for the modeling of simple yet realistic intermolecular interactions, a large number of thermophysical properties were studied and reported in the literature. Computer experiment data of the Lennard-Jones potential is presently considered the most accurately known data in classical mechanics computational chemistry. Hence, such data is also mostly used as benchmark for the validation and testing of new algorithms and theories. The Lennard-Jones potential has been constantly used since the early days of molecular simulations. The first results from computer experiments for the Lennard-Jones potential were reported by Rosenbluth and Rosenbluth and Wood and Parker after molecular simulations on "fast computing machines" became available in 1953. Since then many studies reported data of the Lennard-Jones substance; approximately 50,000 data points are publicly available. The current state of research of thermophysical properties of the Lennard-Jones substance is summarized in the following. The most comprehensive summary and digital database was given by Stephan et al. Presently, no data repository covers and maintains this database (or any other model potential) – even data and results stated by the NIST website should be treated with caution (not reproducible and misleading referencing). Figure 2 shows the phase diagram of the Lennard-Jones fluid. Phase equilibria of the Lennard-Jones potential have been studied numerous times and are accordingly known today with good precision. Figure 2 shows results correlations derived from computer experiment results (hence, lines instead of data points are shown). The mean intermolecular interaction of a Lennard-Jones particle strongly depends on the thermodynamic state, i.e. temperature and pressure (or density). For solid states, the attractive Lennard-Jones interaction plays a dominant role – especially at low temperatures. For liquid states, no ordered structure is present compared to solid states. The mean potential energy per particle is negative. For gaseous states, attractive interactions of the Lennard-Jones potential play a minor role – since they are far distanced. The main part of the internal energy is stored as kinetic energy for gaseous states. At supercritical states, the attractive Lennard-Jones interaction plays a minor role. With increasing temperature, the mean kinetic energy of the particles increases and exceeds the energy well of the Lennard-Jones potential. Hence, the particles mainly interact by the potentials' soft repulsive interactions and the mean potential energy per particle is accordingly positive. Overall, due to the large timespan the Lennard-Jones potential has been studied and thermophysical property data has been reported in the literature and computational resources were insufficient for accurate simulations (to modern standards), a noticeable amount of data is known to be dubious. Nevertheless, in many studies dodge data is used as reference. The lack of data repositories and data assessment is a crucial element for future work in the long-going field of Lennard-Jones potential research. Characteristic points and curves The most important characteristic points of the Lennard-Jones potential are the critical point and the vapor-liquid-solid triple point. They were studied numerous times in the literature and compiled in Ref. The critical point was thereby assessed to be located at The given uncertainties were calculated from the standard deviation of the critical parameters derived from the most reliable available vapor-liquid equilibrium data sets. These uncertainties can be assumed as a lower limit to the accuracy with which the critical point of fluid can be obtained from molecular simulation results. The triple point is presently assumed to be located at The uncertainties represent the scattering of data from different authors. The critical point of the Lennard-Jones substance has been studied far more often than the triple point. For both the critical point and the vapor-liquid-solid triple point, several studies reported results out of the above stated ranges. The above stated data is the presently assumed correct and reliable data. Nevertheless, the determinateness of the critical temperature and the triple point temperature is still unsatisfactory. Evidently, the phase coexistence curves (cf. figure 2) are of fundamental importance to characterize the Lennard-Jones potential. Furthermore, Brown's characteristic curves yield an illustrative description of essential features of the Lennard-Jones potential. Brown's characteristic curves are defined as curves on which a certain thermodynamic property of the substance matches that of an ideal gas. For a real fluid, and its derivatives can match the values of the ideal gas for special , combinations only as a result of Gibbs' phase rule. The resulting points collectively constitute a characteristic curve. Four main characteristic curves are defined: One 0th-order (named Zeno curve) and three 1st-order curves (named Amagat, Boyle, and Charles curve). The characteristic curve are required to have a negative or zero curvature throughout and a single maximum in a double-logarithmic pressure-temperature diagram. Furthermore, Brown's characteristic curves and the virial coefficients are directly linked in the limit of the ideal gas and are therefore known exactly at . Both computer simulation results and equation of state results have been reported in the literature for the Lennard-Jones potential. Points on the Zeno curve Z have a compressibility factor of unity . The Zeno curve originates at the Boyle temperature , surrounds the critical point, and has a slope of unity in the low temperature limit. Points on the Boyle curve B have . The Boyle curve originates with the Zeno curve at the Boyle temperature, faintly surrounds the critical point, and ends on the vapor pressure curve. Points on the Charles curve (a.k.a. Joule-Thomson inversion curve) have and more importantly , i.e. no temperature change upon isenthalpic throttling. It originates at in the ideal gas limit, crosses the Zeno curve, and terminates on the vapor pressure curve. Points on the Amagat curve A have . It also starts in the ideal gas limit at , surrounds the critical point and the other three characteristic curves and passes into the solid phase region. A comprehensive discussion of the characteristic curves of the Lennard-Jones potential is given by Stephan and Deiters. Properties of the Lennard-Jones fluid Properties of the Lennard-Jones fluid have been studied extensively in the literature due to the outstanding importance of the Lennard-Jones potential in soft-matter physics and related fields. About 50 datasets of computer experiment data for the vapor-liquid equilibrium have been published to date. Furthermore, more than 35,000 data points at homogeneous fluid states have been published over the years and recently been compiled and assessed for outliers in an open access database. The vapor-liquid equilibrium of the Lennard-Jones substance is presently known with a precision, i.e. mutual agreement of thermodynamically consistent data, of for the vapor pressure, for the saturated liquid density, for the saturated vapor density, for the enthalpy of vaporization, and for the surface tension. This status quo can not be considered satisfactory considering the fact that statistical uncertainties usually reported for single data sets are significantly below the above stated values (even for far more complex molecular force fields). Both phase equilibrium properties and homogeneous state properties at arbitrary density can in general only be obtained from molecular simulations, whereas virial coefficients can be computed directly from the Lennard-Jones potential. Numerical data for the second and third virial coefficient is available in a wide temperature range. For higher virial coefficients (up to the sixteenth), the number of available data points decreases with increasing number of the virial coefficient. Also transport properties (viscosity, heat conductivity, and self diffusion coefficient) of the Lennard-Jones fluid have been studied frequently, but the database is significantly less dense than for homogeneous equilibrium properties like – or internal energy data. Moreover, a large number of analytical models (equations of state) have been developed for the description of the Lennard-Jones fluid (see below for details). Properties of the Lennard-Jones solid The database and knowledge for the Lennard-Jones solid is significantly poorer than for the fluid phases, which is mainly due to the fact that the Lennard-Jones potential is less frequently used in applications for the modeling of solid substances. It was realized early that the interactions in solid phases should not be approximated to be pair-wise additive – especially for metals. Nevertheless, the Lennard-Jones potential is still frequently used in solid-state physics due to its simplicity and computational efficiency. Hence, the basic properties of the solid phases and the solid-fluid phase equilibria have been investigated several times, e.g. Refs. The Lennard-Jones substance form fcc (face centered cubic), hcp (hexagonal close-packed) and other close-packed polytype lattices – depending on temperature and pressure, cf. figure 2. At low temperature and up to moderate pressure, the hcp lattice is energetically favored and therefore the equilibrium structure. The fcc lattice structure is energetically favored at both high temperature and high pressure and therefore overall the equilibrium structure in a wider state range. The coexistence line between the fcc and hcp phase starts at at approximately , passes through a temperature maximum at approximately , and then ends on the vapor-solid phase boundary at approximately , which thereby forms a triple point. Hence, only the fcc solid phase exhibits phase equilibria with the liquid and supercritical phase, cf. figure 2. The triple point of the two solid phases (fcc and hcp) and the vapor phase is reported to be located at: not reported yet Note, that other and significantly differing values have also been reported in the literature. Hence, the database for the fcc-hcp-vapor triple point should be further solidified in the future. Mixtures of Lennard-Jones substances Mixtures of Lennard-Jones particles are mostly used as a prototype for the development of theories and methods of solutions, but also to study properties of solutions in general. This dates back to the fundamental work of conformal solution theory of Longuet-Higgins and Leland and Rowlinson and co-workers. Those are today the basis of most theories for mixtures. Mixtures of two or more Lennard-Jones components are set up by changing at least one potential interaction parameter ( or ) of one of the components with respect to the other. For a binary mixture, this yields three types of pair interactions that are all modeled by the Lennard-Jones potential: 1-1, 2-2, and 1-2 interactions. For the cross interactions 1-2, additional assumptions are required for the specification of parameters or from , and , . Various choices (all more or less empirical and not rigorously based on physical arguments) can be used for these co-called combination rules. The by far most frequently used combination rule is the one of Lorentz and Berthelot The parameter is an additional state-independent interaction parameter for the mixture. The parameter is usually set to unity since the arithmetic mean can be considered physically plausible for the cross-interaction size parameter. The parameter on the other hand is often used to adjust the phase behavior of the model mixture. For analytical models, e.g. equations of state, the deviation parameter is usually written as . For , the cross-interaction dispersion energy and accordingly the attractive force between unlike particles is intensified. Vice versa, the attractive forces between unlike particles are diminished for . For Lennard-Jones mixtures, both fluid and solid phase equilibria can be studied, i.e. vapor-liquid, liquid-liquid, gas-gas, solid-vapor, solid-liquid, and solid-solid. Accordingly, different types of triple points (three-phase equilibria) and critical points can exist as well as different eutectic and azeotropic points. Binary Lennard-Jones mixtures in the fluid region (various types of equilibria of liquid and gas phases) have been studied more comprehensively then phase equilibria comprising solid phases. A large number of different Lennard-Jones mixtures have been studied in the literature. To date, no standard for such has been established. Usually, the binary interaction parameters and the two component parameters are chosen such that a mixture with properties convenient for a given task are obtained. Yet, this makes comparisons often tricky. For the fluid phase behavior, mixtures exhibit practically ideal behavior (in the sense of Raoult's law) for . For attractive interactions prevail and the mixtures tend to form high-boiling azeotropes, i.e. a lower pressure than pure components' vapor pressures is required to stabilize the vapor-liquid equilibrium. For repulsive interactions prevail and mixtures tend to form low-boiling azeotropes, i.e. a higher pressure than pure components' vapor pressures is required to stabilize the vapor-liquid equilibrium since the mean dispersive forces are decreased. Particularly low values of furthermore will result in liquid-liquid miscibility gaps. Also various types of phase equilibria comprising solid phases have been studied in the literature, e.g. by Carol and co-workers. Also, cases exist where the solid phase boundaries interrupt fluid phase equilibria. However, for phase equilibria that comprise solid phases, the amount of published data is sparse. Equations of state for the Lennard-Jones potential A large number of equations of state (EOS) for the Lennard-Jones potential/ substance have been proposed since its characterization became available with the first computer simulations. Due to the fundamental importance of the Lennard-Jones potential, most currently available EOS describe the Lennard-Jones fluid. They have been comprehensively reviewed by Stephan et al. Equations of state for the Lennard-Jones fluid are of particular importance in soft-matter physics and physical chemistry since those are frequently used as starting point for the development of EOS for complex fluids, e.g. polymers and associating fluids. The monomer units of these models are usually directly adapted from Lennard-Jones EOS as a building block, e.g. the PHC EOS, the BACKONE EOS, and SAFT type EOS. More than 30 Lennard-Jones EOS have been proposed in the literature. A comprehensive evaluation of such EOS showed that several EOS describe the Lennard-Jones potential with good and similar accuracy, but none of them is outstanding. Three of those EOS show an unacceptable unphysical behavior in some fluid region, e.g. multiple van der Waals loops, while being elsewise reasonably precise. Only the Lennard-Jones EOS of Kolafa and Nezbeda was found to be robust and precise for most thermodynamic properties of the Lennard-Jones fluid. Hence, the Lennard-Jones EOS of Kolafa and Nezbeda is presently considered to be most useful choice – because robust and precise. Furthermore, the Lennard-Jones EOS of Johnson et al. was found to be less precise for practically all available reference data than the Kolafa and Nezbeda EOS. It is interesting to note that the LJ EOS Johnson et al. is yet far more often used than that of Kolafa and Nezbeda. Long-range interactions of the Lennard-Jones potential The Lennard-Jones potential, cf. Eq. (1) and figure 1, has an infinite range. Only under its consideration, the 'true' and 'full' Lennard-Jones potential is examined. For the evaluation of an observable of an ensemble of particles interacting by the Lennard-Jones potential using molecular simulations, the interactions can only be evaluated explicitly up to a certain distance – simply due to the fact that the number of particles will always be finite. The maximum distance applied in a simulation is usually referred to as 'cut-off' radius (because the Lennard-Jones potential is radially symmetric). To obtain thermophysical properties (both macroscopic or microscopic) of the 'true' and 'full' Lennard-Jones (LJ) potential, the contribution of the potential beyond the cut-off radius has to be accounted for. Different corrections schemes have been developed to account for the influence of the long-range interactions in simulations and to sustain a sufficiently good approximation of the 'full' potential. They are based on simplifying assumptions regarding the structure of the fluid. For simple cases, such as in studies of the equilibrium of homogeneous fluids, simple correction terms yield excellent results. In other cases, such as in studies of inhomogeneous systems with different phases, accounting for the long-range interactions is more tedious. These corrections are usually referred to as 'long-range corrections'. For most properties, simple analytical expressions are known and well established. For a given observable , the 'corrected' simulation result is then simply computed from the actually sampled value and the long-range correction value , e.g. for the internal energy . The hypothetical true value of the observable of the Lennard-Jones potential at truly infinite cut-off distance (thermodynamic limit) can in general only be estimated. Furthermore, the quality of the long-range correction scheme depends on the cut-off radius. The assumptions made with the correction schemes are usually not justified at (very) short cut-off radii. This is illustrated in the example shown in figure 7. The long-range correction scheme is said to be converged, if the remaining error of the correction scheme is sufficiently small at a given cut-off distance, cf. figure 7. Lennard-Jones truncated & shifted (LJTS) potential The Lennard-Jones truncated & shifted (LJTS) potential is an often used alternative to the 'full' Lennard-Jones potential (see Eq. (1)). The 'full' and the 'truncated & shifted' Lennard-Jones potential have to be kept strictly separate. They are simply two different potentials yielding different thermophysical properties. The Lennard-Jones truncated & shifted potential is defined as with Hence, the LJTS potential is sturdily truncated at and shifted by the corresponding energy value . The latter is applied to avoid a discontinuity jump of the potential at . For the LJTS potential, no long-range interactions beyond are considered – neither explicitly nor implicitly. The potential simply ends abruptly at . The most frequently used version of the Lennard-Jones truncated & shifted potential is the one with . Nevertheless, different values have been used in the literature. Each LJTS potential with a given truncation radius has to be considered as a potential and accordingly a substance of its own. The LJTS potential is computationally significantly cheaper than the 'full' Lennard-Jones potential, but still covers the essential physical features of matter (the presence of a critical and a triple point, soft repulsive and attractive interactions, phase equilibria etc.). Therefore, the LJTS potential is very frequently used for the testing of new algorithms, simulation methods, and new physical theories. Interestingly, for homogeneous systems, the intermolecular forces that are calculated from the LJ and the LJTS potential at a given distance are the same (since is the same), whereas the potential energy and the pressure are affected by the shifting. Also, the properties of the LJTS substance may furthermore be affected by the chosen simulation algorithm, i.e. MD or MC sampling (this is in general not the case for the 'full' Lennard-Jones potential). For the LJTS potential with , the potential energy shift is approximately 1/60 of the dispersion energy at the potential well: . The figure 8 shows the comparison of the vapor-liquid equilibrium of the 'full' Lennard-Jones potential and the 'Lennard-Jones truncated & shifted' potential. The 'full' Lennard-Jones potential results prevail a significantly higher critical temperature and pressure compared to the LJTS potential results, but the critical density is very similar. The vapor pressure and the enthalpy of vaporization are influenced more strongly by the long-range interactions than the saturated densities. This is due to the fact that the potential is manipulated mainly energetically by the truncation and shifting. Extensions and modifications of the Lennard-Jones potential The Lennard-Jones potential – as archetype for intermolecular potentials – has been used numerous times as starting point for the development of more elaborated intermolecular potentials. Various extension and modifications of the Lennard-Jones potential have been proposed in the literature. One could argue that all force fields (hundreds exists) can be traced back to the Lennard-Jones potential. A more extensive list is given in the 'interatomic potential' functions article. The following list refers only to potentials that are directly related to the Lennard-Jones potential and are of both historic importance and still relevant for present research Mie potential The Mie potential is the generalized version of the Lennard-Jones potential, i.e. the exponents 12 and 6 are introduced as parameters and . Especially thermodynamic derivative properties, e.g. the compressibility and the speed of sound, are known to be very sensitive to the steepness of the repulsive part of the intermolecular potential, which can therefore be modeled more sophisticated by the Mie potential. The first explicit formulation of the Mie potential is attributed to Eduard Grüneisen. Hence, the Mie potential was actually proposed before the Lennard-Jones potential. The Mie potential is named after Gustav Mie. Buckingham potential The Buckingham potential was proposed by Richard Buckingham. The repulsive part of the Lennard-Jones potential is therein replaced by an exponential function and it incorporates an additional parameter. Stockmayer potential The Stockmayer potential is named after W.H. Stockmayer. The Stockmayer potential is a combination of a Lennard-Jones potential superimposed by a dipole. Hence, Stockmayer particles are not spherically symmetric, but rather have an important orientational structure. Two center Lennard-Jones potential The two center Lennard-Jones potential consists of two identical Lennard-Jones interaction sites (same , , ) that are bonded as a rigid body. It is often abbreviated as 2CLJ. Usually, the elongation (distance between the Lennard-Jones sites) is significantly smaller than the size parameter . Hence, the two interaction sites are significantly fused. Lennard-Jones truncated & splined potential The Lennard-Jones truncated & splined potential is a rarely used yet useful potential. Similar to the more popular LJTS potential, it is sturdily truncated at a certain 'end' distance and no long-range interactions are considered beyond. Opposite to the LJTS potential, which is shifted such that the potential is continuous, the Lennard-Jones truncated & splined potential is made continuous by using an arbitrary but favorable spline function. See also Molecular mechanics Embedded atom model Force field (chemistry) Comparison of force field implementations Morse potential and Morse/Long-range potential Virial expansion References External links Lennard-Jones model on SklogWiki. 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227687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Christian%20Science%20Monitor	The Christian Science Monitor	The Christian Science Monitor (CSM), commonly known as The Monitor, is a nonprofit news organization that publishes daily articles in electronic format as well as a weekly print edition. It was founded in 1908 as a daily newspaper by Mary Baker Eddy, the founder of the Church of Christ, Scientist. , the print circulation was 75,052. According to the organization's website, "the Monitor's global approach is reflected in how Mary Baker Eddy described its object as 'To injure no man, but to bless all mankind.' The aim is to embrace the human family, shedding light with the conviction that understanding the world's problems and possibilities moves us towards solutions." The Christian Science Monitor has won seven Pulitzer Prizes and more than a dozen Overseas Press Club awards. Reporting Despite its name, the Monitor is not a religious-themed paper, and does not promote the doctrine of its patron church. However, at its founder Eddy's request, a daily religious article has appeared near the end of every issue of the Monitor. The paper has been known for avoiding sensationalism, producing a "distinctive brand of nonhysterical journalism". In 1997, the Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, a publication critical of United States policy in the Middle East, praised the Monitor for its objective and informative coverage of Islam and the Middle East. During the 27 years while Nelson Mandela was in prison in South Africa for opposing apartheid, The Christian Science Monitor was one of the newspapers he was allowed to read. Five months after his release, Mandela visited Boston and stopped by the Monitor offices, telling the staff "The Monitor continues to give me hope and confidence for the world's future," and thanking them for their "unwavering coverage of apartheid." He called the Monitor "one of the more important voices covering events in South Africa." During the era of "McCarthyism", a term first coined by the Monitor, the paper was one of the earliest and most consistent critics of US Senator Joseph McCarthy. In 2006, Jill Carroll, a freelance reporter for the Monitor, was kidnapped in Baghdad, and released safely after 82 days. Although Carroll was initially a freelancer, the paper worked tirelessly for her release, even hiring her as a staff writer shortly after her abduction to ensure that she had financial benefits. Beginning in August 2006, the Monitor published an account of Carroll's kidnapping and subsequent release, with first-person reporting from Carroll and others involved. Circulation The paper's circulation has ranged widely, from a peak of over 223,000 in 1970, to just under 56,000 shortly before the suspension of the daily print edition in 2009. Partially in response to declining circulation and the struggle to earn a profit, the church's directors and the manager of the Christian Science Publishing Society were purportedly forced to plan cutbacks and closures (later denied), which led in 1989 to the mass protest resignations by its chief editor Kay Fanning (an ASNE president and former editor of the Anchorage Daily News), managing editor David Anable, associate editor David Winder, and several other newsroom staff. Those developments also presaged administrative moves to scale back the print newspaper in favor of expansions into radio, a magazine, shortwave broadcasting, and television. Expenses, however, rapidly outpaced revenues, contradicting predictions by church directors. On the brink of bankruptcy, the board was forced to close the broadcast programs in 1992. By late 2011, the Monitor was receiving an average of about 22 million hits per month on its website, slightly below the Los Angeles Times. In 2017, the Monitor put up a paywall on its content, and in 2018, there were approximately 10,000 subscriptions to the Monitor Daily email service. History Founding The Monitor's inception was, in part, a response by its founder Mary Baker Eddy to the journalism of her day, which relentlessly covered the sensations and scandals surrounding her new religion with varying degrees of accuracy. In addition, Joseph Pulitzer's New York World was consistently critical of Eddy, and this, along with a derogatory article in McClure's, furthered Eddy's decision to found her own media outlet. Eddy also required the inclusion of "Christian Science" in the paper's name, over initial opposition by some of her advisors who thought the religious reference might repel a secular audience. Eddy also saw a vital need to counteract the fear often spread by media reporting: Looking over the newspapers of the day, one naturally reflects that it is dangerous to live, so loaded with disease seems the very air. These descriptions carry fears to many minds, to be depicted in some future time upon the body. A periodical of our own will counteract to some extent this public nuisance; for through our paper, at the price at which we shall issue it, we shall be able to reach many homes with healing, purifying thought.Eddy declared that the Monitor's mission should be "to injure no man, but to bless all mankind". Radio and television MonitoRadio was a radio service produced by the Church of Christ, Scientist between 1984 and 1997. It featured several one-hour news broadcasts a day, as well as top of the hour news bulletins. The service was widely heard on public radio stations throughout the United States. The Monitor later launched an international broadcast over shortwave radio, called the World Service of the Christian Science Monitor. Weekdays were news-led, but weekend schedules were exclusively dedicated to religious programming. That service ceased operations on June 28, 1997. In 1986, the Monitor started producing a current affairs television series, The Christian Science Monitor Reports, which was distributed via syndication to television stations across the United States. In 1988, the Christian Science Monitor Reports won a Peabody Award for a series of reports on Islamic fundamentalism. That same year, the program was canceled and the Monitor created a daily television program, World Monitor, anchored by former NBC correspondent John Hart, which was initially shown on the Discovery Channel. In 1991, World Monitor moved to the Monitor Channel, a 24-hour news and information channel. The channel launched on May 1, 1991, with programming from its Boston TV station, WQTV. The only religious programming on the channel was a five-minute Christian Science program early each morning. In 1992, after eleven months on the air, the service was shut down amid huge financial losses. Programming from the Monitor Channel was also carried nationally via the WWOR EMI Service (a nationally oriented feed of New Jersey TV station WWOR-TV, launched in 1990 due to the SyndEx laws put into place the year prior). Modernization The print edition continued to struggle for readership, and, in 2004, faced a renewed mandate from the church to earn a profit. Subsequently, the Monitor began relying more on the Internet as an integral part of its business model. The Monitor was one of the first newspapers to put its text online in 1996, and was also one of the first to launch a PDF edition in 2001. It was also an early pioneer of RSS feeds. In 2005, Richard Bergenheim, a Christian Science practitioner, was named the new editor. Shortly before his death in 2008, Bergenheim was replaced by a veteran Boston Globe editor and former Monitor reporter John Yemma. In October 2008, citing net losses of $US18.9 million per year versus $US12.5 million in annual revenue, the Monitor announced that it would cease printing daily and instead print weekly editions starting in April 2009. The last daily print edition was published on March 27, 2009. The weekly magazine follows on from the Monitor London edition, also a weekly, launched in 1960 and the weekly World Edition which replaced the London edition in 1974. Mark Sappenfield became the editor in March 2017. Notable editors and staff (past and present) Willis J. Abbot, editor and author Clay Bennett, Pulitzer Prize winning cartoonist Richard Bergenheim, editor Erwin Canham, longtime editor, author Jill Carroll, reporter, kidnapped for 82 days in 2006 William Henry Chamberlin, reporter, author Grover Clark, China correspondent John K. Cooley, longtime contributing editor Roscoe Drummond, longtime reporter and editor Kay Fanning, editor, first woman to edit an American national newspaper John Gould, longtime columnist, author Joseph C. Harsch, CBE, longtime reporter Sir Harold Hobson, longtime drama critic John Hughes, Pulitzer Prize winner, editor, author Reuben H. Markham, longtime reporter, author Luix Overbea, journalist, founding member of National Association of Black Journalists Scott Peterson, longtime reporter, author Cora Rigby, first woman at a major paper to head a Washington news bureau, co-founder of the Women's National Press Club. David S. Rohde, Pulitzer Prize winner Richard Strout, Pulitzer Prize winner Nate White, Gerald Loeb Newspaper Award winner Paul Wohl, longtime political commentator Awards Monitor staff have been the recipients of seven Pulitzer Prizes for their work on the Monitor: 1950, Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting: Edmund Stevens, for his series of 43 articles written over a three-year residence in Moscow entitled, "This Is Russia Uncensored". 1967, Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting: R. John Hughes, For his thorough reporting of Indonesia's attempted Transition to the New Order in 1965 and the purge that followed in 1965–66. 1968, Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting: Howard James, for his series of articles, Crisis in the Courts. 1969, Pulitzer Prize for National Reporting: Robert Cahn, for his inquiry into the future of the United States' national parks and the methods that may help to preserve them. 1978, Pulitzer Prize Special Citations and Awards, Journalism: Richard Strout, for distinguished commentary from Washington over many years as staff correspondent for The Christian Science Monitor and contributor to The New Republic. 1996, Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting: David Rohde, for his persistent on-site reporting of the slaughter of thousands of Bosnian Muslims in the Srebrenica Genocide. 2002, Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning: Clay Bennett References Further reading Canham, Erwin D. Commitment to Freedom: The Story of the Christian Science Monitor, Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company (1958) Merrill, John C. and Fisher, Harold A. The world's great dailies: profiles of fifty newspapers, Hastings House (1980) pp. 96–103 Christian Science Publishing Society. The First 80 Years: The Christian Science Monitor, Boston, MA: CSPS (1988) Bridge, Susan. Monitoring the News: The Brilliant Launch and Sudden Collapse of the Monitor Channel, Armonk, New York: M.E. Sharpe (1998) Strout, Lawrence N. Covering McCarthyism: how the 'Christian Science Monitor' handled Joseph R. McCarthy, 1950-1954, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press (1999) Fuller, Linda K. The Christian Science Monitor: An Evolving Experiment in Journalism, Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger (2011) Collins, Keith S. The Christian Science Monitor: Its History, Mission, and People, Nebbadoon Press (2012) External links About the Monitor Locations of Reading Rooms selling the Monitor Weekly Christian Science Christian Science in Massachusetts International newspapers National newspapers published in the United States Newspapers published in Boston Publications established in 1908 1908 establishments in Massachusetts Christian newspapers Online newspapers with defunct print editions Websites utilizing paywalls Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers Weekly newspapers published in the United States	[ 0.4607292711734772, 0.4667375683784485, -0.04461391270160675, 0.15983343124389648, -0.04234683886170387, -0.5563958287239075, 0.08053947985172272, 0.605867326259613, -0.08054224401712418, -0.2007596492767334, -0.5092873573303223, 0.429317831993103, -0.24013541638851166, 0.16248121857643127, -0.03419732674956322, 0.010951113887131214, 0.644130289554596, 0.3630244731903076, 0.027567502111196518, 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227689	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davy%20Crockett%20%28nuclear%20device%29	Davy Crockett (nuclear device)	The M-28 or M-29 Davy Crockett Weapon System was a tactical nuclear recoilless smoothbore gun for firing the M388 nuclear projectile, armed with the W54 nuclear warhead, that was deployed by the United States during the Cold War. It was the first, and, at the time, the most important project assigned to the United States Army Weapon Command in Rock Island, Illinois. It remains one of the smallest nuclear weapon systems ever built, with a yield of . It is named after American folk hero, soldier, and congressman Davy Crockett. History By the year 1950, there had been rapid developments made in the use of nuclear weapons after the detonation of "Little Boy" and "Fat Man" in 1945. These developments paved the way for nuclear warheads to be created at a smaller size. By the 1950s, advances in nuclear weapons technology, spurred on by the first detonation of the Soviet nuclear bomb in 1949, led to great reductions in the size of nuclear weapons. By 1957, the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) declared that it had created a small fission warhead that could be deployed for frontline use by infantrymen. AEC made Major General John H. Hinrichs the leader in turning the warhead into a weapon system under the Battle Group Atomic Delivery System (BGADS) program, which began at Picatinny Arsenal in New Jersey in January 1958. In August 1958, the Army began to officially refer to the BGADS as the Davy Crockett, after the American folk hero, who died at the battle of the Alamo in 1836. After 4 years of testing at Forts Greeley and Wainwright in Alaska, and the Yuma Test Station in Arizona, the M28/M29 Davy Crockett entered service in May 1961. Davy Crockett sections were assigned to United States Army Europe and Eighth United States Army armor and mechanized and non-mechanized infantry battalions. During alerts to the Inner German border in the Fulda Gap the Davy Crocketts accompanied their battalions. All V Corps (including 3rd Armored Division) combat maneuver battalions had preassigned positions in the Fulda Gap. These were known as GDP (General Defense Plan) positions. The Davy Crockett sections were included in these defensive deployment plans. In addition to the Davy Crocketts (e.g., assigned to the 3rd Armored Division), V Corps had nuclear artillery rounds and atomic demolition munitions, and these were also for use in the Fulda Gap. On the Korean peninsula, units assigned the Davy Crockett weapons primarily planned to use the passes that funneled armor as killing grounds, creating temporarily deadly radioactive zones roadblocked by destroyed tanks and other vehicles. Production of the Davy Crockett began following the 15 August 1958 (at) Picatinny Arsenal approval of the design. There was approval for funding of 6,247 to be manufactured, but a total of 2,100 were actually made. The weapon was tested between 1962 and 1968 at the Pohakuloa Training Area on Hawaiʻi island, with 714 M101 spotter rounds (not live warheads) that contained depleted uranium. The weapon was deployed with US Army forces from 1961 to 1971. From recent findings in 2005 the Army manufactured 75,000 depleted uranium spotting rounds that were used during the program, but only 30,000 were ever used. The 55th and 56th Infantry Platoons, attached to the Division Artillery of the US 82nd Airborne Division, were the last units equipped with the M-29 Davy Crockett weapons system. These two units were parachute deployed and, with a ton truck per section (three per platoon), were fully air droppable. The units were deactivated in mid-1968. The M388 was removed from US Army Europe (in West Germany) in August 1967. The last nuclear-equipped warhead was retired in 1971. Brigadier General Alvin Cowan, Assistant Division Commander of 3rd Armored Division, while stating the weapon was a "significant advance" in technical terms and that the laboratory responsible deserved "a great deal of credit", further stated that the Army retired the weapon due to the personnel costs associated with it as well as apparent "great fear that some sergeant would start a nuclear war". The Davy Crockett was never used in actual combat. Since their retirement, Davy Crockett systems have been preserved in many museums throughout the United States. In 2005 the Army announced that it uncovered 600 pounds of depleted uranium from the training sites used for the Davy Crockett's inert rounds to be practice fired. They said that 12,405 acres of land could likely be tainted by these training days. M388 nuclear round Projectile, Atomic, Supercaliber 279mm XM388 for the Davy Crockett contained a W54 Mod 2 nuclear warhead. It was a very compact pure fission device weighing and when packaged in the M388 round weighed . The weapon had an official yield of and contained of high explosives. Controls on the projectile included a two-position height-of-burst switch that could be set to and airburst, a safety switch with 'safe' and 'arm' positions and a time setting dial that allowed a time delay between 1 and 50 seconds before the fuze armed. If the time delay was greater than the time-of-flight, the weapon would hit the ground before it armed and not detonate. The time dial also had a 'safe' setting, and so acted as a second safety switch. The complete round weighed . It was long with a diameter of at its widest point; a subcaliber piston at the back of the shell was inserted into the launcher's barrel for firing. The M388 atomic projectile was mounted on the barrel-inserted spigot via bayonet slots. Once the propellant was discharged the spigot became the launching piston for the M388 atomic projectile: this was necessary because the fission round could not be subject to high acceleration and the spigot/piston, acting as a "pusher tube", facilitated this. In flight, four fins on the end deployed to stabilize trajectory and flight. Practice rounds The M390 practice round was outwardly similar to the nuclear round and was designed to be a ballistic match to it. It contained of Composition B high explosive that was detonated by an electrical switch on impact with the ground. The practice round had a significant destructive effect in its own right and was intended to be used in combat in an emergency situation. A further type of dummy training round, the M421, was completely inert and not intended to be fired. Launcher The M388 could be launched from either of two launchers known as the Davy Crockett Weapon System(s): the M28, with a range of about , or the M29, with a range of . The limited firing range was due to the combination of poor aerodynamics of the "watermelon with fins" (some soldiers referred to the warhead as the "atomic watermelon") type shape and the warhead's inability to withstand being fired like a traditional artillery round. This meant that it had to be fired out of a short range recoilless rifle. Both weapons fired the same projectile, propelled using a separate cartridge. The smaller M28 used a explosive cartridge to launch the warhead. The larger M29 used an 5 kg or a propellant charge, depending on the desired range. The launcher systems were muzzle loading weapons. As they were intended for a very low rate of fire a breechloading mechanism was unnecessary. Davy Crockett launchers were either mounted on a tripod launcher transported by an M113 armored personnel carrier, or they were carried by a Jeep (the M38, and later the M-151). The Jeep was equipped with an attached launcher for the M28 or the M29, as required, whereas the Davy Crockett carried by an armored personnel carrier was set up in the field on a tripod away from the carrier. The M113 was equipped to carry up to ten nuclear rounds. Weapons assigned to infantry units were carried in M113s, those allocated to airborne units were carried on Jeeps. The M28 launcher was also equipped with a 20mm spotting rifle – a single-shot weapon that fired depleted uranium rounds using a high–low system. These rounds flew a similar trajectory to the nuclear projectiles and produced white smoke when they landed, helping determine range. The Davy Crockett was fired remotely. A mechanically-operated detonator at the end of of detonating cord led to the propellant charge. The M388 nuclear projectile was attached to a titanium piston by means of a bayonet mount. When fired, the piston was blown out of the tube by the detonating propellent. The piston was hollow and filled with high-pressure gas from the explosion, this pressure broke shear pins that connected the piston to the nuclear projectile, detaching it after a few meters of flight. The piston would hit the ground several hundred meters in front of the weapon while the projectile continued to the target. The Davy Crocketts were operated by a five-man crew, the squad consisting of a Commander, Gunner, Assistant Gunner, Loader and Computer. The commander of the M388 could issue use and have the weapon fired in a matter of minutes. The weapon was made from lightweight metals – the tripod was aluminum, the barrel was titanium – and it was possible to break the smaller M28 weapon into three loads that could be carried by the crew, with the other two crew carrying two radios and accessories. The weight of the M28 launcher was while the bigger M29 weighed . Operating the M28 or M29 versions of the weapon with a three-man crew was also possible. In the 3rd Armored Division in Germany in the 1960s many Davy Crockett Sections (all of which were in the Heavy Mortar Platoons, in Headquarters Companies of Infantry or Armor Maneuver Battalions) received what became a mix of M28 and M29 launchers (e.g., one of each per D/C section). Eventually, the M28s were replaced by M29s, so that both the armored personnel carriers and the Jeeps carried the M29. Effects Both recoilless guns proved to have good accuracy in testing, most training shots landing within ten feet of the point of aim, and CEP under , with a 100% instant casualty radius in excess of . The shell's greatest effect would have been its extreme prompt neutron radiation which would have killed most of the enemy troops inside that circle within minutes. Its blast would do very little if any damage to the enemy's tracked vehicles. Troops further away would have died within hours, days and less than two weeks depending on their range from the point of burst and the thickness of their protection. The weapon's blast was not a danger to the crew as long as they followed normal procedures. The Army created a standard for the crew to follow when firing the M388; they advised that the soldiers shelter their bodies behind a sloped hill and lie in prone position on the ground with their necks and heads covered. The warhead was tested on July 7, 1962, in the Little Feller II weapons effects test shot, and again in an actual firing of the Davy Crockett from a distance of in the Little Feller I test shot on July 17, 1962. This was the last atmospheric test detonation at the Nevada Test Site. Information and recorded data from test-firing inert rounds showed the recoilless rifles to be "shockingly inaccurate" and led to the realization that the weapon was "too inaccurate to deliver even low-yield nuclear fires". Spending Development of this weapon proved to be costly in all aspects of design, modifications, and labor. Over a 5 year period from 1958 to 1963, total expenses soared to nearly $20 million (equivalent to $ million in ). The initial allotted development costs varied from year to year, starting with $1.1 million in 1958, $9.15 million in 1959, $5 million in 1960, $2.4 million in 1961, $1.5 million in 1962, and $250,000 in 1963. Proposed German military use One of the most fervent supporters of the Davy Crockett was West Germany's defense minister Franz Josef Strauss, in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Strauss promoted the idea of equipping German brigades with the nuclear weapon, to be supplied by the US, arguing that this would allow German troops to become a much more effective factor in NATO's defense of Germany against a potential Soviet invasion. He argued that a single Davy Crockett could replace 40–50 salvos of a whole divisional artillery park – allowing the funds and troops normally needed for this artillery to be invested into further troops, or not having to be spent at all. US NATO commanders strongly opposed Strauss's ideas, as they would have made the use of tactical nuclear weapons almost mandatory in case of war, further reducing the ability of NATO to defend itself without resorting to atomic weapons. Concerns and potential problems Radiation exposure The Davy Crockett Weapon System's use of depleted uranium in the spotting round led to concerns about troop exposure to the material. However, studies indicated that there was no risk of exposure to the material during use of the weapon. As a nuclear munition, however, an exceptionally strong safety program was required. This included providing render-safe procedure documentation to explosive ordnance personnel before delivery of the first warheads. Accuracy Program documentation for the weapon indicates that the weapon had a circular error probable (CEP) of less than . Brigadier General Alvin Cowan, Assistant Division Commander of 3rd Armored Division, while discussing the weapon's retirement commended the technical design of the weapon. Other uses of the W54 warhead The W54 warhead used by the Davy Crockett was initially developed for both the Davy Crockett and the AIM-4 Falcon air-to-air missile under the designation of XW-51. However, the development of the warhead was reassigned to Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory in January 1959 and redesignated the XW-54. This produced the Mark 54 mod 0 and Mark 54 Mod 2 warheads for Falcon and Davy Crockett use respectively, which were only distinguishable by the environmental sensing device employed. Later, the Special Atomic Demolition Munition (SADM – sometimes designated the B54) was developed and saw service between 1964 and 1989. SADM was so different from the W54 warhead that consideration was given to renaming the weapon with its own unique mark number. Mod numbers between the Mark 54/W54 and B54/SADM are not shared. A later development of the W54 was the W72 warhead for the AGM-62 Walleye television-guided glide bomb system. Museum examples The following museums have a Davy Crockett casing in their collection: National Museum of the United States Army, Fort Belvoir, Fairfax County, Virginia Air Force Space and Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral Space Force Station, Florida National Museum of Nuclear Science & History, adjacent to Kirtland AFB, Albuquerque, New Mexico National Infantry Museum, Fort Benning, Georgia United States Army Ordnance Training and Heritage Center, Fort Lee, Prince George County, Virginia (closed to public) Watervliet Arsenal Museum, Watervliet, New York West Point Museum, United States Military Academy, West Point, New York National Atomic Testing Museum, Las Vegas, Nevada Don F. Pratt Memorial Museum, Fort Campbell, Clarksville, Tennessee References Citations Bibliography Further reading Davy Crockett King of the Atomic Frontier Title: “Project Management of the Davy Crockett Weapons System 1958 – 1962” External links M-28/29 Davy Crockett, the World’s Smallest Nuclear Weapon Facts about the "Davy Crockett" launcher and warhead Loaded and unloaded M29 Davy Crockett and Height of Burst Switch D/C Launching Piston Characteristics of all US nuclear weapons designs DCs in 3rd Armored Division DCs on the highway President Kennedy questions Davy Crockett crewmen DC Souvenirs See John Marshall's Davy Crockett write up in the 3rd Bn, 36th Infantry section Davy Crocketts in Southern Avenue of Fulda Gap Davy Crocketts during Oct 62 Cuban Crisis (Southern Avenue of Fulda Gap)-- see especially bottom of jchorazy's Page 12 Video showing testing of device on youtube.com Operation Ivy Flats — testing of the Davy Crockett, 1962 (17:46) Wee Gwen - a UK weapon similar to Davy 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62661433	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%E2%80%932000%20West%20Midlands%20%28Regional%29%20League	1999–2000 West Midlands (Regional) League	The 1999–2000 West Midlands (Regional) League season was the 100th in the history of the West Midlands (Regional) League, an English association football competition for semi-professional and amateur teams based in the West Midlands county, Shropshire, Herefordshire, Worcestershire and southern Staffordshire. Premier Division The Premier Division featured 19 clubs which competed in the division last season, along with three new clubs: Causeway United, promoted from Division One South Heath Hayes, promoted from Division One North Little Drayton Rangers, promoted from Division One North League table References External links 1999–2000 9	[ -0.6752046942710876, -0.09114663302898407, -0.5644295811653137, -0.31785544753074646, -0.3041035532951355, -0.5388209819793701, 0.6865381598472595, -0.09429013729095459, -0.5188028216362, 0.1888214647769928, 0.2579421103000641, 0.5439132452011108, 0.25405606627464294, 0.3352208435535431, -0.2707931399345398, 0.530410647392273, 0.47788742184638977, -0.00916421040892601, 0.15771476924419403, -0.6920033693313599, 0.5262283086776733, 0.027127543464303017, 0.16844117641448975, 0.17255963385105133, 0.05023496598005295, 0.5014545917510986, 0.29335764050483704, -0.2856603264808655, 0.47812116146087646, -0.5137183666229248, -0.24238424003124237, 0.5310354232788086, 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227690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei%20car	Kei car	Kei car (or , kanji: , "light automobile", ), known variously outside Japan as Japanese city car, ultramini, or Japanese microcar, is the Japanese vehicle category for the smallest highway-legal passenger cars with restricted dimensions and engine capacity. Similar Japanese categories exist for microvans, and kei trucks. These vehicles are most often the Japanese equivalent of the EU A-segment (city cars). The kei-car category was created by the Japanese government in 1949, and the regulations have been revised several times since. These regulations specify a maximum vehicle size, engine capacity, and power output, so that owners may enjoy both tax and insurance benefits. In most rural areas they are also exempted from the requirement to certify that adequate parking is available for the vehicle. Kei cars have become very successful in Japan, consisting of over one-third of domestic new-car sales in fiscal 2016, despite dropping from a record 40% market share in 2013, after the government increased the kei-car tax by 50% in 2014. In 2018, seven of the 10 top-selling models were kei cars, including the top four, all boxy passenger vans: Honda N-Box, Suzuki Spacia, Nissan Dayz, and Daihatsu Tanto. Isuzu is the only manufacturer that has never offered a kei-sized vehicle for either private ownership or commercial trucks and microvans. In export markets, though, the genre is generally too specialized and too small for most models to be profitable. Notable exceptions exist, though, for instance the Suzuki Alto and Daihatsu Cuore, which were exported consistently from around 1980. Kei cars are not only popular with the elderly, but they are also popular with youths, especially younger families because of their affordability and ease of use. Nearly all kei cars have been designed and manufactured in Japan, but a version of the French-made Smart was briefly imported and officially classified as a kei car, and since then, the British Caterham 7 160 has also received such classification. Description Kei cars feature yellow license plates, earning them the name "yellow-plate cars" (black numbers on yellow background for private use and yellow numbers on black background for commercial use) in English-speaking circles. Japanese government regulations limit the physical size, engine power, and engine displacement of kei cars. Keis have also been subject to other restrictions, such as lower speed limits, including a warning chime that goes off if being driven too fast. Kei cars are often available with forced-induction engines, automatic and continuously variable transmissions, front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive. History 360-cc era (1949–1975) The kei-car legal class originated in the era following the end of World War Two, when most Japanese could not afford a full-sized car, but many had enough money to buy a motorcycle. To promote the growth of the car industry, as well as to offer an alternative delivery method to small business and shop owners, the kei- car category and standards were created. Originally limited to a displacement of only (or just 100 cc for two-stroke engines) in 1949, dimensions and engine size limitations were gradually expanded (in 1950, 1951, and 1955) to tempt more manufacturers to produce kei cars. In 1955, the displacement limit increased to for both two-stroke and four-stroke engines, resulting in several new kei-car models beginning production in the following years. These included the 1955 Suzuki Suzulight and the 1958 Subaru 360, the first mass-produced kei car, finally able to fill people's need for basic transportation without being too severely compromised. In 1955, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry also set forth goals to develop a "national car" that was larger than kei cars produced at the time. This goal influenced Japanese automobile manufacturers to determine how best to focus their product development efforts for the smaller cars, or the larger "national car". The small exterior dimensions and engine displacement reflected the driving environment in Japan, with speed limits in Japan realistically not exceeding in urban areas. Keis were not allowed to be driven any faster than 40 km/h until the mid-1960s, when the kei speed limit was increased to . The class then went through a period of ever increasing sophistication, with an automatic transmission appearing in the Honda N360 in August 1968, with front disc brakes becoming available on a number of sporting kei cars, beginning with the Honda Z GS of January 1970. Power outputs also kept climbing, reaching a peak in the Daihatsu Fellow Max SS of July 1970. Sales increased steadily, reaching a peak of 750,000 in 1970. Throughout the 1970s, the government kept whittling away at the benefits offered to kei vehicles, which combined with ever stricter emissions standards to lower sales drastically through the first half of the decade. Honda and Mazda withdrew from the contracting passenger kei-car market, in 1974 and 1976, respectively, although they both maintained a limited offering of commercial vehicles. Until 31 December 1974, kei cars used smaller license plates than regular cars . As of 1975, they received the medium-sized standard plates, which are . To set them apart from regular passenger cars, the plates were now yellow and black rather than white and green. 550-cc era (1976–1990) Sales had been steadily declining, reaching a low-water mark of 150,000 passenger cars in 1975, 80% less than 1970 sales. Many were beginning to doubt the continued existence of the kei car, with both Honda and Mazda withdrawing in the middle of the 1970s. Emissions laws were another problem for the kei-car industry in the mid-1970s. From 1973 to 1978, emissions standards were to be tightened in four steps. Meeting the stricter standards, which were to be introduced in 1975, would be problematic for manufacturers of kei cars. This was particularly hard for Daihatsu and Suzuki, which focused on two-stroke engines, especially Suzuki, a relatively small company whose entire production consisted of two-stroke kei cars. Daihatsu, though, had both the engineering backing and powerful connections of their large owner, Toyota, to aid them in meeting the new requirements. All manufacturers of kei cars were clamoring for increased engine displacement and vehicle size limits, claiming that the emissions standards could not be met with a functional 360-cc engine. In the end, the Japanese legislature relented, increasing the overall length and width restrictions by and , respectively. Engine size was increased to , taking effect from 1 January 1976. The new standards were announced on 26 August 1975, leaving very little time for manufacturers to revise their designs to take advantage of the new limits. Most manufacturers were somewhat surprised by the decision; having expected a limit, they had already developed new engines to fit such restrictions. These new engines were quickly introduced, usually mounted within widened bodies of existing models. These interim versions (with displacements ranging between 443 and 490 cc) were "feelers", developed to see if indeed a continued market existed for the kei car. As sales improved, they only lasted for a model year or so until manufacturers had the time to develop "full-sized" engines. Only Daihatsu managed to avoid developing transitional engine versions that did not take full advantage of the new regulations. Kei-car sales remained stagnant, however, while combined passenger and commercial kei car sales reached 700,000 for the first time since 1974, the small cars still lost market share in a quickly growing market. As the kei cars became larger and more powerful, another benefit appeared, as exports increased considerably. In particular, export sales of trucks increased, while kei passenger car exports increased at a lower rate. In 1976, combined exports of kei cars and trucks were 74,633 (up 171% year-on-year), despite exports of passenger kei cars decreasing. In 1980, another record year occurred as exports climbed 80.3% (to 94,301 units), of which 77.6% were microtrucks. Nearly 17% of exports went to Europe, dwarfed by Chile, which took nearly a quarter of the exported keis. Due to the difficult economic environment, low-priced cars sold well and 1981 marked another successful year as Japanese midget car sales reached their highest since the 1970 record (at 1,229,809 units for cars and commercials). As the 1980s progressed, kei cars became increasingly refined, losing their utilitarian origins, as Japanese customers became ever better off. Features such as four-wheel drive, turbochargers, and air conditioning began to become available on kei-car models. Conversely, van versions of the small hatchbacks were now marketed to nonbusiness users, to take advantage of even lower taxation and laxer emissions rules; this move in the market was spearheaded by Suzuki with their 1979 Alto, and competitors soon followed suit, with the Subaru Family Rex and the Daihatsu Mira appearing within a year's time. In the 1980s, the speed limit for kei cars was . Government rules also mandated a warning chime to alert the driver if this speed were exceeded. 660-cc era (1990–2014) The kei car regulations were revised in March 1990, allowing engines an increase of in displacement, and the overall car length to be increased by . These changes occurred during the 1990s Japanese economic bubble, and all manufacturers quickly developed new models to suit. Within five months, all the major models of kei cars had switched from 550- to 660-cc engines. For the first time, a power limit was also applied, in addition to the limit on engine size. This power limit of matched the highest output reached by any kei manufacturer at the time and was a gentlemen's agreement amongst the manufacturers in an effort to avoid a kei-class horsepower war. The only kei-engined car to have exceeded this limit was the Caterham 7 160, a lightweight British sports car that was not expected to qualify as a kei, though it is small enough (in dimensions and displacement) to fit the regulations. Its engine is rated at , and since that is how the car is homologated in the United Kingdom, the Japanese authorities told the importer that its power should remain unchanged. The addition of a power limit was a response to the ever-increasing power outputs available with turbocharging and multivalve technologies popularized in the late '80s. Engine technology was also shared with sport bikes, which are designed for rider enjoyment, and less so for fuel economy - going against the idea of small, people's cars and putting the kei cars' tax and structural advantages at risk of a governmental backlash. The Japan Automobile Manufacturers Association also self-imposes a speed limit for kei cars of . In a rare example of an overseas mass-produced model being sold as a kei car in Japan, a kei version of the Smart Fortwo (called the Smart K) was sold at the Yanase dealerships in Japan from 2001 to 2004. The Smart K used revised rear fenders and reduced tire dimensions and track width to conform to kei-car regulations. The model was not a success, and it sold the fewest examples of a kei car when it was marketed. The Suzuki Wagon R was the best-selling kei car in Japan from 2003 to 2008. Starting in 2011, Toyota entered the kei-car market for the first time. The resulting Toyota Pixis Space, a rebadged Daihatsu Move Conte, was expected to increase competition in that market. Currently, Nissan and Mitsubishi jointly produce the Mitsubishi eK (also sold as the Nissan Dayz or Nissan Otti). Honda's kei-car line-up, the N-one, N-Box, and N-WGN, accounts for around a quarter of its overall sales. Reduced incentives (2014–present) In April 2014, the Japanese government significantly reduced advantages for kei-car owners, imposing higher sales tax, higher gasoline tax and higher kei-car tax – the last of which was raised by 50% – greatly reducing their tax benefits, compared to regular-sized cars. Daihatsu, Honda, Suzuki and Nissan-Mitsubishi (through NMKV joint venture) are currently the only mass-production manufacturers of kei cars. Mazda sells rebadged Suzuki models, Toyota and Subaru sell badge-engineered Daihatsu models, while Nissan-Mitsubishi sourced their commercial kei models from Suzuki. Electric kei cars The 2009 Japanese domestic market Mitsubishi i-MiEV was the first electric kei car, and the world's first mass-produced electric car. Sales began in 2009 to fleet purchasers and in 2010 to the general public. In Japan, the car is called the i-MiEV, an acronym for Mitsubishi innovative Electric Vehicle. The i-MiEV uses a permanent-magnet motor. Current models charge overnight in 14 hours from home 110-volt mains, or in 30 minutes from quick-charging stations installed at fleet locations. The range is using the U.S. EPA testing routine and using the Japanese Transport Ministry's testing routine. Current taxation and insurance The vehicle excise tax levy is 2% of the purchase price, compared to 3% for a regular car. An automobile weight tax also is levied: The amount is ¥13,200 and ¥8,800 for a three- and two-year period, respectively, as compared to the ¥18,900 and ¥12,600 charged for larger-sized passenger cars. The savings are thus more than 30% in both cases. This weight tax is paid after the vehicle has passed its safety inspection. The required road tax is based on the engine's displacement. A 24-month insurance contract typically costs ¥18,980 at the time of registration, versus ¥22,470 for a larger car. Best-selling models Gallery 360-cc era 550-cc era Sport Present See also Kei truck References Further reading Road transport in Japan Car classifications	[ 0.3105910122394562, -0.24392490088939667, 0.03482089564204216, 0.4113600552082062, -0.25497233867645264, 0.2764824628829956, -0.14068378508090973, -0.05111909657716751, 0.19431109726428986, -0.21899211406707764, -0.05880187824368477, 0.5754286050796509, 0.13626356422901154, 0.48008495569229126, -0.2584984004497528, 0.4076062738895416, 0.5585666298866272, 0.5274432301521301, -0.4486887753009796, 0.20543749630451202, -0.20607639849185944, -0.13923504948616028, 0.15494738519191742, -0.4296938180923462, -0.036750443279743195, -0.06361401081085205, 0.6795722246170044, 0.7421573400497437, -0.4816303551197052, -0.37872081995010376, 0.039724353700876236, 0.5623084306716919, -0.03462459146976471, 0.5861179828643799, 0.21384193003177643, -0.6093556880950928, 0.12239740043878555, -0.30839473009109497, -0.20494043827056885, 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227696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciano%20Pavarotti	Luciano Pavarotti	Luciano Pavarotti (, , ; 12 October 19356 September 2007) was an Italian operatic tenor who during the late part of his career crossed over into popular music, eventually becoming one of the most acclaimed and loved tenors of all time. He made numerous recordings of complete operas and individual arias, gaining worldwide fame for his tone, and achieving the honorific title "King of the High Cs". As one of the Three Tenors, who performed their first concert during the 1990 FIFA World Cup before a global audience, Pavarotti became well known for his televised concerts and media appearances. From the beginning of his professional career as a tenor in 1961 in Italy to his final performance of "Nessun dorma" at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Pavarotti was at his best in bel canto operas, pre-Aida Verdi roles, and Puccini works such as La bohème, Tosca, Turandot and Madama Butterfly. He sold over 100 million records, and the first Three Tenors recording became the best-selling classical album of all time. Pavarotti was also noted for his charity work on behalf of refugees and the Red Cross, amongst others. He died from pancreatic cancer on 6 September 2007. Biography Early life and musical training Luciano Pavarotti was born in 1935 on the outskirts of Modena in Northern Italy, the son of Fernando Pavarotti, a baker and amateur tenor, and Adele Venturi, a cigar factory worker. Although he spoke fondly of his childhood, the family had little money; its four members were crowded into a two-room apartment. According to Pavarotti, his father had a fine tenor voice but rejected the possibility of a singing career because of nervousness. World War II forced the family out of the city in 1943. For the following year they rented a single room from a farmer in the neighbouring countryside, where the young Pavarotti developed an interest in farming. After abandoning the dream of becoming a football goalkeeper, Pavarotti spent seven years in vocal training. Pavarotti's earliest musical influences were his father's records, most of them featuring the popular tenors of the day—Beniamino Gigli, Giovanni Martinelli, Tito Schipa, and Enrico Caruso. Pavarotti's favourite tenor and idol was Giuseppe Di Stefano and he was also deeply influenced by Mario Lanza, saying: "In my teens I used to go to Mario Lanza movies and then come home and imitate him in the mirror". At around the age of nine he began singing with his father in a small local church choir. In addition to music, as a child Pavarotti enjoyed playing football. When he graduated from the Scuola Magistrale he was interested in pursuing a career as a professional football goalkeeper, but his mother convinced him to train as a teacher. He subsequently taught in an elementary school for two years but finally decided to pursue a music career. His father, recognising the risk involved, only reluctantly gave his consent. Pavarotti began the serious study of music in 1954 at the age of 19 with Arrigo Pola, a respected teacher and professional tenor in Modena who offered to teach him without remuneration. According to conductor Richard Bonynge, Pavarotti never learned to read music. In 1955, he experienced his first singing success when he was a member of the Corale Rossini, a male voice choir from Modena that also included his father, which won first prize at the International Eisteddfod in Llangollen, Wales. He later said that this was the most important experience of his life, and that it inspired him to become a professional singer. At about this time Pavarotti first met Adua Veroni. They married in 1961. When his teacher Arrigo Pola moved to Japan, Pavarotti became a student of Ettore Campogalliani, who at that time was also teaching Pavarotti's childhood friend, Mirella Freni, whose mother worked with Luciano's mother in the cigar factory. Like Pavarotti, Freni went on to become a successful opera singer; they would go on to collaborate in various stage performances and recordings together. During his years of musical study, Pavarotti held part-time jobs in order to sustain himself—first as an elementary school teacher and then as an insurance salesman. The first six years of study resulted in only a few recitals, all in small towns and without pay. When a nodule developed on his vocal cords, causing a "disastrous" concert in Ferrara, he decided to give up singing. Pavarotti attributed his immediate improvement to the psychological release connected with this decision. Whatever the reason, the nodule not only disappeared but, as he related in his autobiography: "Everything I had learned came together with my natural voice to make the sound I had been struggling so hard to achieve". Career: 1960s–1970s Pavarotti began his career as a tenor in smaller regional Italian opera houses, making his debut as Rodolfo in La bohème at the Teatro Municipale in Reggio Emilia in April 1961. His first known recording of "Che gelida manina" was recorded during this performance. Pavarotti's first of two marriages was to his first wife Adua Veroni which lasted from 1961 to 2000 and they had three daughters: Lorenza, Cristina, and Giuliana. He made his first international appearance in La traviata in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Very early in his career, on 23 February 1963, he debuted at the Vienna State Opera in the same role. In March and April 1963 Vienna saw Pavarotti again as Rodolfo and as Duca di Mantova in Rigoletto. The same year saw his first concert outside Italy when he sang in Dundalk, Ireland for the St Cecilia's Gramophone Society, he was engaged by the Dublin Grand Opera Society to sing The Duke of Mantua in Verdi's Rigoletto in May and June, and his Royal Opera House debut, where he replaced an indisposed Giuseppe Di Stefano as Rodolfo. There exist on archive.org three complete performances from Pavarotti's early career in 1964, when he was engaged by the Dublin Grand Opera Society to sing Rudolfo in Giacomo Puccini's La bohème (Audio recording of LA BOHEME Presented on May 19, 21, 27, Jun 1 1964 at the Gaiety Theatre Dublin as part of the Dublin Grand Opera Society’s Spring Season) and Alfredo in Giuseppe Verdi's La Traviata (Audio recording of LA TRAVIATA Presented on Jun 8 1964 at the Gaiety Theatre Dublin as part of the Dublin Grand Opera Society's Spring Season, Audio recording of LA TRAVIATA Presented on May 25, 1964 at the Gaiety Theatre Dublin as part of the Dublin Grand Opera Society's Spring Season). Also available are reviews of those performances in which the reviewers favorably comment on his singing (from the reviews for "La Boheme"): "sang sweetly and appealingly," "rich promise," "outstanding," "fit for the big heroic roles," and "robust;" his voice: "pure tone", "arresting quality," "unforced strength and range," "well sustained," and "lovely;" and his acting: "looked and moved well," "sang with musically-directed intelligence," "used the voice to reinforce his acting," and "chief delight of the evening." While generally successful, Pavarotti's early roles did not immediately propel him into the stardom that he would later enjoy. An early coup involved his connection with Joan Sutherland (and her conductor husband, Richard Bonynge), who in 1963 was seeking a tenor taller than herself to take along on her 1965 tour to Australia. With his commanding physical presence, Pavarotti proved ideal. However, before the summer 1965 Australia tour Pavarotti sang with Joan Sutherland when he made his American début with the Greater Miami Opera in February 1965, singing in Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor on the stage of the Miami-Dade County Auditorium in Miami. The tenor scheduled to perform that night became ill with no understudy. As Sutherland had plans to travel with him on the Australia tour that summer, she recommended the young Pavarotti as he was acquainted with the role. Shortly after, on 28 April, Pavarotti made his La Scala debut in the revival of the famous Franco Zeffirelli production of La bohème, with his childhood friend Mirella Freni singing Mimi and Herbert von Karajan conducting. Karajan had requested the singer's engagement. During the Australia tour in summer 1965 Sutherland and Pavarotti sang some forty performances over two months, and Pavarotti later credited Sutherland for the breathing technique that would sustain him over his career. After the extended Australian tour, he returned to La Scala, where he added Tebaldo from I Capuleti e i Montecchi to his repertoire on 26 March 1966, with Giacomo Aragall as Romeo. His first appearance as Tonio in Donizetti's La fille du régiment took place at the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden, on 2 June of that year. It was his performances of this role that would earn him the title of "King of the High Cs". He scored another major triumph in Rome on 20 November 1969 when he sang in I Lombardi opposite Renata Scotto. This was recorded on a private label and widely distributed, as were various recordings of his I Capuleti e i Montecchi, usually with Aragall. Early commercial recordings included a recital of Donizetti (the aria from Don Sebastiano were particularly highly regarded) and Verdi arias, as well as a complete L'elisir d'amore with Sutherland. His major breakthrough in the United States came on 17 February 1972, in a production of La fille du régiment at New York's Metropolitan Opera, in which he drove the crowd into a frenzy with his nine effortless high Cs in the signature aria. He achieved a record seventeen curtain calls. Pavarotti sang his international recital début at William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri, on 1 February 1973, as part of the college's Fine Arts Program, now known as the Harriman–Jewell Series. Perspiring due to nerves and a lingering cold, the tenor clutched a handkerchief throughout the début. The prop became a signature part of his solo performances. He began to give frequent television performances, starting with his performances as Rodolfo (La bohème) in the first Live from the Met telecast in March 1977, which attracted one of the largest audiences ever for a televised opera. He won many Grammy awards and platinum and gold discs for his performances. In addition to the previously listed titles, his La favorite with Fiorenza Cossotto and his I puritani (1975) with Sutherland stand out. In 1976, Pavarotti debuted at the Salzburg Festival, appearing in a solo recital on 31 July, accompanied by pianist Leone Magiera. Pavarotti returned to the festival in 1978 with a recital and as the Italian singer in Der Rosenkavalier in 1983 with Idomeneo, and both in 1985 and 1988 with solo recitals. In 1979, he was profiled in a cover story in the weekly magazine Time. That same year saw Pavarotti's return to the Vienna State Opera after an absence of fourteen years. With Herbert von Karajan conducting, Pavarotti sang Manrico in Il trovatore. In 1978, he appeared in a solo recital on Live from Lincoln Center. Career: 1980s–1990s At the beginning of the 1980s, he set up The Pavarotti International Voice Competition for young singers, performing with the winners in 1982 in excerpts of La bohème and L'elisir d'amore. The second competition, in 1986, staged excerpts of La bohème and Un ballo in maschera. To celebrate the 25th anniversary of his career, he brought the winners of the competition to Italy for gala performances of La bohème in Modena and Genoa, and then to China where they staged performances of La bohème in Beijing (Peking). To conclude the visit, Pavarotti performed the inaugural concert in the Great Hall of the People before 10,000 people, receiving a standing ovation for nine effortless high Cs. The third competition in 1989 again staged performances of L'elisir d'amore and Un ballo in maschera. The winners of the fifth competition accompanied Pavarotti in performances in Philadelphia in 1997. In the mid-1980s, Pavarotti returned to two opera houses that had provided him with important breakthroughs, the Vienna State Opera and La Scala. Vienna saw Pavarotti as Rodolfo in La bohème with Carlos Kleiber conducting and again Mirella Freni was Mimi; as Nemorino in L'elisir d'amore; as Radames in Aida conducted by Lorin Maazel; as Rodolfo in Luisa Miller; and as Gustavo in Un ballo in maschera conducted by Claudio Abbado. In 1996, Pavarotti appeared for the last time at the Staatsoper in Andrea Chénier. Throughout the 1980s and 90s, promoters Tibor Rudas and Harvey Goldsmith booked Pavarotti into increasingly larger venues. In 1985, Pavarotti sang Radames at La Scala opposite Maria Chiara in a Luca Ronconi production conducted by Maazel, recorded on video. His performance of the aria "Celeste Aida" received a two-minute ovation on the opening night. He was reunited with Mirella Freni for the San Francisco Opera production of La bohème in 1988, also recorded on video. In 1992, La Scala saw Pavarotti in a new Zeffirelli production of Don Carlos, conducted by Riccardo Muti. Pavarotti's performance was heavily criticised by some observers and booed by parts of the audience. Pavarotti became even better known throughout the world in 1990 when his rendition of the aria "Nessun dorma" from Giacomo Puccini's Turandot was taken as the theme song of BBC's coverage of the 1990 FIFA World Cup in Italy. The aria achieved pop status, became the World Cup soundtrack, and it remained his trademark song. This was followed by the first Three Tenors concert, held on the eve of the 1990 FIFA World Cup Final at the ancient Baths of Caracalla in Rome with fellow tenors Plácido Domingo and José Carreras and conductor Zubin Mehta. The performance for the World Cup closing concert captivated a global audience, and it became the biggest selling classical record of all time. A highlight of the concert, in which Pavarotti sang the opening verses using extended vocal runs for di Capua's "O Sole Mio" and which was in turn perfectly repeated note-for-note by Domingo and Carreras to the delight of the audience. The recorded album sold millions of copies, and the first Three Tenors recording became the best-selling classical album of all time. Throughout the 1990s, Pavarotti appeared in many well-attended outdoor concerts, including his televised concert in London's Hyde Park, which drew a record attendance of 150,000. In June 1993, more than 500,000 listeners gathered for his free performance on the Great Lawn of New York's Central Park, while millions more around the world watched on television. The following September, in the shadow of the Eiffel Tower in Paris, he sang for an estimated crowd of 300,000. Following on from the original 1990 concert, the Three Tenors concerts were held during the three subsequent FIFA World Cup Finals, in 1994 in Los Angeles, 1998 in Paris, and 2002 in Yokohama. In September 1995, Pavarotti performed Schubert's Ave Maria along with Dolores O'Riordan; Diana, Princess of Wales, who attended the live performance, told O'Riordan that the song brought her to tears. In 1995, Pavarotti's friends, the singer Lara Saint Paul (as Lara Cariaggi) and her husband showman Pier Quinto Cariaggi, who had produced and organised Pavarotti's 1990 FIFA World Cup Celebration Concert at the PalaTrussardi in Milan, produced and wrote the television documentary The Best is Yet to Come, an extensive biography about the life of Pavarotti. Lara Saint Paul was the interviewer for the documentary with Pavarotti, who spoke candidly about his life and career. Pavarotti's rise to stardom was not without occasional difficulties, however. He earned a reputation as "The King of Cancellations" by frequently backing out of performances, and his unreliable nature led to poor relationships with some opera houses. This was brought into focus in 1989 when Ardis Krainik of the Lyric Opera of Chicago severed the house's 15-year relationship with the tenor. Over an eight-year period, Pavarotti had cancelled 26 out of 41 scheduled appearances at the Lyric, and the decisive move by Krainik to ban him for life was well noted throughout the opera world, after the performer walked away from a season premiere less than two weeks before rehearsals began, saying pain from a sciatic nerve required two months of treatment. On 12 December 1998, he became the first (and, to date, only) opera singer to perform on Saturday Night Live, singing alongside Vanessa L. Williams. He also sang with U2 in the band's 1995 song "Miss Sarajevo" and with Mercedes Sosa in a big concert at the Boca Juniors arena La Bombonera in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in 1999. In 1998, Pavarotti was presented with the Grammy Legend Award. Career: Early 2000s In 2001, Pavarotti was acquitted in Italian court of a long standing dispute concerning his official country of residency and taxable earnings. Pavarotti long claimed Monte Carlo in the tax haven of Monaco as his official residence, but an Italian court in 1999 had rejected that claim by ruling that his Monaco address could not accommodate his entire family. In 2000 Pavarotti agreed to pay the Italian government more than $7.6 million in back taxes and penalties as a result of tax evasion charges that dated from 1989 to 1995. Pavarotti was subsequently fully acquitted by an Italian court of filing false tax returns in 2001. On 13 December 2003, he married his second wife and former personal assistant, Nicoletta Mantovani (born 1969), with whom he already had another daughter, Alice. Alice's twin brother, Riccardo, was stillborn after complications in January 2003. At the time of his death in September 2007, he was survived by his wife, his four daughters, and one granddaughter. In late 2003, he released his final compilation—and his first and only "crossover" album, Ti Adoro. Most of the 13 songs were written and produced by Michele Centonze, who had already helped produce the "Pavarotti & Friends" concerts between 1998 and 2000. The tenor described the album as a wedding gift to Nicoletta Mantovani. That same year he was made a Commander of Monaco's Order of Cultural Merit. In 2004, one of Pavarotti's former managers, Herbert Breslin, published a book, The King & I. Seen by critics as bitter and sensationalistic, it is critical of the singer's acting (in opera), his inability to read music well and learn parts, and his personal conduct, although acknowledging their success together. In an interview in 2005 with Jeremy Paxman on the BBC, Pavarotti rejected the allegation that he could not read music, although he acknowledged he did not read orchestral scores. He received an enormous number of awards and honours, including Kennedy Center Honors in 2001. He also holds two Guinness World Records: one for receiving the most curtain calls (165) and another for the best-selling classical album (Carreras Domingo Pavarotti in Concert by the Three Tenors; the latter record is thus shared by fellow tenors Plácido Domingo and José Carreras). Final performances and health issues Pavarotti began his farewell tour in 2004, at the age of 69, performing one last time in old and new locations, after more than four decades on the stage. On 13 March 2004, Pavarotti gave his last performance in an opera at the New York Metropolitan Opera, for which he received a long standing ovation for his role as the painter Mario Cavaradossi in Giacomo Puccini's Tosca. On 1 December 2004, he announced a 40-city farewell tour. Pavarotti and his manager, Terri Robson, commissioned impresario Harvey Goldsmith to produce the Worldwide Farewell Tour. His last full-scale performance was at the end of a two-month Australasian tour in Taiwan in December 2005. In March 2005, Pavarotti underwent neck surgery to repair two vertebrae. In early 2006, he underwent further back surgery and contracted an infection while in the hospital in New York, forcing cancellation of concerts in the U.S., Canada, and the U.K. On 10 February 2006, Pavarotti performed "Nessun dorma" at the 2006 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Turin, Italy, at his final performance. In the last act of the opening ceremony, his performance received the longest and loudest ovation of the night from the international crowd. Leone Magiera, who directed the performance, revealed in his 2008 memoirs, Pavarotti Visto da Vicino, that the performance had been recorded weeks earlier. "The orchestra pretended to play for the audience, I pretended to conduct and Luciano pretended to sing. The effect was wonderful," he wrote. Pavarotti's manager, Terri Robson, said that the tenor had turned the Winter Olympic Committee's invitation down several times because it would have been impossible to sing late at night in the subzero conditions of Turin in February. The committee eventually persuaded him to take part by prerecording the song. Death While proceeding with an international "farewell tour", Pavarotti was diagnosed with pancreatic cancer in July 2006. The tenor fought back against the implications of this diagnosis, undergoing major abdominal surgery and making plans for the resumption and conclusion of his singing commitments, but he died at his home in Modena on 6 September 2007. After his death, his manager, Terri Robson, noted in a statement, "The Maestro fought a long, tough battle against the pancreatic cancer which eventually took his life. In fitting with the approach that characterised his life and work, he remained positive until finally succumbing to the last stages of his illness". Pavarotti's funeral was held at Modena Cathedral. The then Prime Minister Romano Prodi and Kofi Annan attended. The Frecce Tricolori, the aerobatic demonstration team of the Italian Air Force, flew overhead, leaving green-white-red smoke trails. After a funeral procession through the centre of Modena, Pavarotti's coffin was taken the final to Montale Rangone, a village part of Castelnuovo Rangone, and was interred in the Pavarotti family crypt. The funeral, in its entirety, was also telecast live on CNN. The Vienna State Opera and the Salzburg Festival Hall flew black flags in mourning. Tributes were published by many opera houses, such as London's Royal Opera House. Other work Film and television Pavarotti's one venture into film was Yes, Giorgio (1982), a romantic comedy movie directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, in which he starred as the main character Giorgio Fini. The film was a critical and commercial failure, although it received an Academy Award nomination for Best Music, Original Song. He can be seen to better advantage in Jean-Pierre Ponnelle's adaptation of Rigoletto for television, released that same year, or in his more than 20 live opera performances taped for television between 1978 and 1994, most of them with the Metropolitan Opera, and most available on DVD. He received two Primetime Emmy Awards for his PBS variety specials Pavarotti in Philadelphia: La Boheme and Duke of Mantua, Rigoletto Great Performances. Pavarotti, a 2019 documentary film about him, was directed by Ron Howard and produced with the cooperation of Pavarotti's estate using family archives, interviews and live music footage. Humanitarianism Pavarotti annually hosted the Pavarotti & Friends charity concerts in his home town of Modena Italy, joining with singers from all parts of the music industry, including B.B. King, Andrea Bocelli, Zucchero, Jon Bon Jovi, Bryan Adams, Bono, James Brown, Mariah Carey, Eric Clapton, Dolores O'Riordan, Sheryl Crow, Céline Dion, Anastacia, Elton John, Deep Purple, Meat Loaf, Queen, George Michael, Tracy Chapman, the Spice Girls, Sting and Barry White to raise money for several UN causes. Concerts were held for War Child, and victims of war and civil unrest in Bosnia, Guatemala, Kosovo and Iraq. After the war in Bosnia, he financed and established the Pavarotti Music Centre in the southern city of Mostar to offer Bosnia's artists the opportunity to develop their skills. For these contributions, the city of Sarajevo named him an honorary citizen in 2006. He performed at benefit concerts to raise money for victims of tragedies such as the Spitak earthquake that killed 25,000 people in northern Armenia in December 1988, and sang Gounod's Ave Maria with legendary French pop music star and ethnic Armenian Charles Aznavour. He was a close friend of Diana, Princess of Wales. They raised money for the elimination of land mines worldwide. In 1998, he was appointed the United Nations Messenger of Peace, using his fame to raise awareness of UN issues, including the Millennium Development Goals, HIV/AIDS, child rights, urban slums and poverty. In 1999, Pavarotti performed a charity benefit concert in Beirut, to mark Lebanon's re-emergence on the world stage after a brutal 15-year civil war. The largest concert held in Beirut since the end of the war, it was attended by 20,000 people who travelled from countries as distant as Saudi Arabia and Bulgaria. In 1999 he also hosted a charity benefit concert to build a school in Guatemala, for Guatemalan civil war orphans. It was named after him Centro Educativo Pavarotti. Now the foundation of nobel prize winner Rigoberta Menchú Tum is running the school. In 2001, Pavarotti received the Nansen Medal from the UN High Commission for Refugees for his efforts raising money on behalf of refugees worldwide. Through benefit concerts and volunteer work, he has raised more than any other individual. Also in 2001, Pavarotti was chosen one of that year's five recipients by the President and First Lady as an honoree for their lifetime achievements in the arts at the White House, followed by the Kennedy Center; the Kennedy Center Honors, He was surprised by the appearance of Secretary-General of the United Nations and that year's winner of the Nobel Peace Prize, Kofi Annan, who lauded him for his contribution to humankind. Six months prior, Pavarotti had held a large charity concert for Afghan refugees, particularly children in his home town of Modena, Italy. Other honours he received include the "Freedom of London Award" and The Red Cross "Award for Services to Humanity", for his work in raising money for that organisation, and the 1998 "MusiCares Person of the Year", given to humanitarian heroes by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. He was a National Patron of Delta Omicron, an international professional music fraternity. Legacy and estate assignment His first will was opened the day after his death; a second will was opened within the same month of September. He left an estate outside his native Modena (now a museum), a villa in Pesaro, his flat in Monte Carlo, and three flats in New York City. Pavarotti's widow's lawyers, Giorgio Bernini and Anna Maria Bernini, and manager Terri Robson announced on 30 June 2008 that his family amicably settled his estate—€300 million ($474.2 million, including $15 million in U.S. assets). Pavarotti drafted two wills before his death: one divided his assets by Italian law, giving half to his second wife, Nicoletta Mantovani, and half to his four daughters; the second gave his U.S. holdings to Mantovani. The judge confirmed the compromise by the end of July 2008. However, a Pesaro public prosecutor, Massimo di Patria, investigated allegations that Pavarotti was not of sound mind when he signed the will. Pavarotti's estate has been settled "fairly", a lawyer for Mantovani said in statements after reports of a dispute between her and his three daughters from his first marriage. He posthumously received the Italy-USA Foundation's America Award in 2013 and the Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music in 2014. Selected discography In addition to his very large discography of opera performances Pavarotti also made many classical crossover and pop recordings, the Pavarotti & Friends series of concerts and, for Decca, a series of studio recital albums: first six albums of opera arias and then, from 1979, six albums of Italian song. Studio recital albums Favourite Italian Arias – Arias from La Bohème, Tosca and Rigoletto. Orchestra of the Royal Opera House, Covent Garden Edward Downes Decca Records 1966 Arias by Verdi & Donizetti – Arias from Luisa Miller, I due Foscari, Un ballo in maschera, Macbeth, Lucia di Lammermoor, Il duca d’Alba, La favorita and Don Sebastiano (with the Wiener Opernorchester under Edward Downes, 1968). Tenor Arias from Italian Opera – Arias from Guglielmo Tell, I puritani, Il trovatore, L'arlesiana, La bohème, Mefistofele, Don Pasquale, La Gioconda and Giuseppe Pietri's :it:Maristella. Luciano Pavarotti tenor with Arleen Auger soprano. Leone Magiera (piano) Wiener Opernorchester and choir. Ambrosian Singers New Philharmonia Orchestra Nicola Rescigno 1971 The World's Favourite Tenor Arias – Tosca, Carmen, Aida, Faust, Pagliacci, Martha. Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Wiener Volksoper Orchester. Leone Magiera. New Philharmonia Orchestra Richard Bonynge 1973 Pavarotti in Concert – Arias and songs by Bononcini, Handel, Alessandro Scarlatti, Bellini, Tosti, Respighi, Rossini. Orchestra del Teatro Comunale di Bologna. Richard Bonynge. 1973 O Holy Night – Songs and carols by Adam, Stradella, Franck, Mercadante, Schubert, Bach (arranged Gounod), Bizet, Berlioz, Pietro Yon, Alois Melichar. Wandsworth School Boys' Choir. London Voices. National Philharmonic Orchestra, Kurt Herbert Adler 1976 O Sole Mio – Favourite Neapolitan Songs 13 songs by Eduardo di Capua: O sole mio Francesco Paolo Tosti: 'A vucchella, Enrico Cannio: O surdato 'nnammurato, :it:Salvatore Gambardella: O marenariello, Traditional: Fenesta vascia, Tosti: A Marechiare, Ernesto de Curtis: Torna a Surriento, Gaetano Errico Pennino: Pecchè?, Vincenzo d'Annibale: O paese d' 'o sole, Ernesto Tagliaferri: Piscatore 'e Pusilleco, Curtis: :it:Tu ca nun chiagne, Capua: Maria, Mari, Luigi Denza: Funiculì funiculà. Orchestra del Teatro Comunale di Bologna Anton Guadagno National Philharmonic Orchestra :it:Giancarlo Chiaramello 1979 Verismo – Arias from Fedora, Mefistofele, Adriana Lecouvreur, Iris, L'Africaine, Werther, La fanciulla del West, Manon Lescaut, Andrea Chénier. National Philharmonic Orchestra Oliviero de Fabritiis (Riccardo Chailly for Andrea Chénier arias) 1979 Mattinata – 14 songs by Caldara, formerly attrib. Pergolesi, probably by Vincenzo Ciampi: Tre giorni son che Nina, Bellini, Tommaso Giordani, Rossini, Gluck, Tosti, Donizetti, Leoncavallo, Beethoven and Francesco Durante. Philharmonia Orchestra Piero Gamba National Philharmonic Orchestra. Antonio Tonini (conductor) 1983 Mamma – songs by Cesare Andrea Bixio, Ernesto de Curtis, Arturo Buzzi-Peccia, Stanislao Gastaldon, Cesare Cesarini, A. Walter Kramer, Carlo Innocenzi, Giovanni D'Anzi, Eldo di Lazzaro, Vincenzo De Crescenzo, Domenico Martuzzi, Aniello Califano, Colombino Arona. Arranged and conducted by Henry Mancini, 1984. Passione – 12 songs by Ernesto Tagliaferri, Paolo Tosti, :it:Pasquale Mario Costa, Teodoro Cottrau, :it:Evemero Nardella, Rodolfo Falvo, De Curtis, Di Capua, E. A. Mario, Gaetano Lama and Salvatore Cardillo. Orchestra del Teatro Comunale di Bologna. Giancarlo Chiaramello 1985 Volare – 16 songs by Domenico Modugno, Luigi Denza, Cesare Andrea Bixio, Gabriele Sibella, Giovanni D'Anzi, Michael John Bonagura, Edoardo Mascheroni, Ernesto De Curtis, Ermenegildo Ruccione, Pietro Mascagni, Guido Maria Ferilli. arranged and conducted by Henry Mancini 1987 Ti Adoro – songs by Romano Musumarra, Carlo Mioli, Ornella D'Urbano, Michele Centonze, Andrea Bellantani, Daniel Vuletic, Veris Giannetti, Nino Rota/Elsa Morante, Edoardo Bennato, Hans Zimmer/Gavin Greenaway/Jeffrey Pescetto, Lucio Dalla. Royal Philharmonic Orchestra Orchestra di Roma. Bulgarian Symphony Orchestra. Romano Musumarra Giancarlo Chiaramello, 2000 Selected videography Mozart: Idomeneo (1982), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4234, 2006 The Metropolitan Opera Centennial Gala (1983), Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4538, 2009 The Metropolitan Opera Gala 1991, Deutsche Grammophon DVD, 00440-073-4582, 2010 Awards and honors Grammy Awards The Grammy Awards are awarded annually by the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. \|- \|1979 \|"Luciano Pavarotti – Hits From Lincoln Center" \|Best Classical Vocal Solo \| \|- \|1980 \|Luciano Pavarotti & the Bologna Orchestra for O Sole Mio – Favorite Neapolitan Songs \|Best Classical Vocal Solo \| \|- \|1982 \|Marilyn Horne, Luciano Pavarotti, Joan Sutherland, Richard Bonynge (conductor) & the New York City Opera Orchestra for Live From Lincoln Center – Sutherland/Horne/Pavarotti \|Best Classical Vocal Solo \| \|- \| rowspan="3"\|1989 \| Luciano Pavarotti, Emerson Buckley (conductor) & the Symphony Orchestra of Amelia Romangna for Luciano Pavarotti in Concert \|Best Classical Vocal Solo \| \|- \| Bellini: Norma \| rowspan="2"\|Best Opera Recording \| \|- \| Mozart: Idomeneo \| \|- \|1991 \| José Carreras, Plácido Domingo, Luciano Pavarotti, Zubin Mehta (conductor) & the Orchestra Del Maggio Musicale for Carreras, Domingo, Pavarotti in Concert \|Best Classical Vocal Solo \| \|- \|rowspan="2"\|1995 \| rowspan="2"\|José Carreras, Plácido Domingo and Luciano Pavarotti with Zubin Mehta – The Three Tenors in Concert 1994 \| Best Pop Vocal Album \| \|- \| Album of the Year \| \|- \|1997 \|Frank Sinatra and Luciano Pavarotti – "My Way" \|Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals \| \|- \| rowspan="2"\|1998 \| rowspan="2"\|Luciano Pavarotti \|MusiCares Person of the Year \| \|- \| \|Grammy Legend Award \| \|- \|} Kennedy Center honors \|- \| 2001 \| Himself \| Kennedy Center Honors \| \|- \|} See also List of best-selling music artists Pavarotti & Friends for the Children of Bosnia Pavarotti & Friends for the Children of Liberia Pavarotti & Friends for Guatemala and Kosovo Centro Educativo Pavarotti Pavarotti, a 2019 documentary film by Ron Howard References External links Official website Casamuseo Luciano Pavarotti – Home in Modena, now a museum Discography (Capon's Lists of Opera Recordings) Pavarotti Video Biography by National Italian American Foundation NIAF 1935 births 2007 deaths 20th-century Italian male opera singers Burials in Emilia-Romagna Commanders of the Order of Cultural Merit (Monaco) Deaths from cancer in Emilia-Romagna Deaths from pancreatic cancer Grammy Award winners Grammy Legend Award winners Italian expatriates in Monaco Italian operatic tenors Italian philanthropists Italian Roman Catholics Kennedy Center honorees London Records artists Musicians from Modena Performing arts pages with videographic documentation Primetime Emmy Award winners Rocket Records artists The Three Tenors	[ -0.23989322781562805, -0.25830405950546265, 0.1848205029964447, -0.24715206027030945, 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227702	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Briartite	Briartite	Briartite is an opaque iron-grey metallic sulfide mineral, Cu2(Zn,Fe)GeS4 with traces of Ga and Sn, found as inclusions in other germanium-gallium-bearing sulfides. It was discovered at the Prince Léopold Mine, Kipushi, Shaba, Congo (Léopoldville) in 1965 by Francotte and others, and named for Gaston Briart who had studied formations at Kipushi. Briartite is also found in Namibia, Greece, and Spain. See also List of minerals List of minerals named after people References Copper minerals Zinc minerals Iron(II) minerals Germanium minerals Sulfide minerals Tetragonal minerals Minerals in space group 121	[ -0.5641469359397888, 0.6493332386016846, -0.13507965207099915, -0.5939558744430542, -0.4186108112335205, 0.41778790950775146, 0.3123350739479065, 0.7358383536338806, 0.33348023891448975, 0.16544072329998016, -0.20841532945632935, 0.4263378977775574, -0.008617222309112549, 0.7887527346611023, 0.4731544852256775, 0.986605167388916, 0.1365080177783966, 0.7646583318710327, 0.3944491446018219, -0.32958275079727173, 0.22545936703681946, -0.5595611333847046, 0.8333880305290222, -0.4458012878894806, 0.44431838393211365, -0.19366832077503204, 0.3529239892959595, 0.3986510634422302, 0.437614768743515, -0.13718217611312866, -0.4709712266921997, 0.7668266892433167, 0.02059851959347725, -0.6056960225105286, 0.41070276498794556, 0.3361220061779022, -0.07177639752626419, -0.3302924335002899, 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227705	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Stanley%20%28director%29	Richard Stanley (director)	Richard Stanley (born 22 November 1966) is a South African filmmaker, known for his work in the horror genre. He began his career making short films and music videos, and subsequently directed the feature films Hardware (1990) and Dust Devil (1992), both of which are considered cult classics. He was the original director of The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996), but was fired early into principal photography due to creative differences, an episode recounted in the 2014 documentary Lost Soul: The Doomed Journey of Richard Stanley's Island of Dr. Moreau. In 2019, he returned to feature films after more than 20 years, directing the H. P. Lovecraft adaptation Color Out of Space. Early life Richard Stanley was born in Fish Hoek, South Africa on 22 November 1966. He is descended from famous journalist and explorer of Africa Sir Henry Morton Stanley. His mother, Penny Miller, was an artist and anthropologist best known for her book Myths and Legends of Southern Africa. While still a student at the University of Cape Town, where he studied anthropology, Stanley worked for the archival department of the South African College of Music, filming tribal dance and initiation rituals. Career Early career (1983–1987) Stanley's first foray into film making began in high school where he joined the Young Filmmaker's Workshop. Here he created his first film, Rites of Passage. Shot on super-8 stock, the 10-minute short film draws comparisons between modern man and primitive man. The short eventually won Stanley the IAC International Student Film Trophy film award in 1984. Stanley followed his first success with the ambitious 45-minute 8 mm short Incidents in an Expanding Universe. Set in a future dystopia, the film laid the groundwork for Stanley's cyberpunk feature debut Hardware. It won the IAC Gold Seal Award and was eventually made available on the Severin DVD release of Hardware. In the mid-1980s, Stanley began work on two more shorts. In a Season of Soft Rains was another futuristic journey, but a majority of the footage has been lost. Dust Devil was his first work on 16 mm. Inspired by a series of unsolved murders in Namibia, this short was unfinished but footage can be viewed on the Subversive Cinema DVD release of the feature Dust Devil. Music videos (1987–1990) Following the move to London, England, Stanley began working in music videos in 1987. He directed videos for bands including Fields of the Nephilim, Pop Will Eat Itself, and Renegade Soundwave. In the late 1980s Stanley traveled to Afghanistan to document the Soviet–Afghan War. Stanley and his crew witnessed the Soviet Army's withdrawal and the country's slide into the civil war that would bring the Taliban to power. The resulting documentary, Voice of the Moon, is a 30-minute look at the daily lives of the Afghan people trying to survive. Stanley was present at the siege of Jalalabad, and the events surrounding his escape from the country, along with his wounded camera man, Immo Horn, later formed the basis of the screenplay Addicted to Danger, by Sebastian Junger. The documentary is available on the Subversive Cinema DVD release of the feature Dust Devil. Mainstream breakthrough (1990–1996) Stanley made his feature film directing debut with the post-apocalyptic science fiction film Hardware in 1990. The film included cameos by musicians Iggy Pop, Carl McCoy and Lemmy. Shot for approximately £960,000, it was eventually picked up by the Weinstein brothers and released theatrically in the United States through their early Millimeter Films division. Stanley returned to his South African roots with the supernatural horror film Dust Devil in 1992. The full director's cut was officially released on DVD by Subversive Cinema in September 2006. In 1994, Stanley directed a 50-minute length video for Marillion's concept album, Brave, which has since been released on DVD. He would later disown the end result, claiming the material was re-edited to cover the overall running time without his consent. The Island of Dr. Moreau (1996) Stanley's next project was the third major movie version of the H.G. Wells novel The Island of Doctor Moreau for New Line Cinema in 1996. An ambitious project attempting to stay true to the source material, the film's production was fraught with problems from the start, with Stanley being undercut by his belligerent lead actors, suspicious studio and a sudden burst of bad weather; he was fired and replaced by John Frankenheimer a week after shooting began. The details of Stanley's involvement in the film, which ultimately veered far from his original vision, are captured in the 2014 documentary Lost Soul: The Doomed Journey of Richard Stanley's Island of Dr. Moreau. Indie film writing and documentaries (1996–2019) Stanley completed The Secret Glory – an examination of SS officer Otto Rahn's search for the Holy Grail – in 2001 and The White Darkness – a look at the voodoo practices in Haiti – in 2002. Following several festival screenings, both documentaries appeared in the Dust Devil DVD box-set, released by Subversive Cinema in 2006. Stanley's cinematic efforts include a number of short films. Children of the Kingdom appeared in the short-film collection Europe - 99euro-films 2 in 2003. The science fiction story The Sea of Perdition premiered in October 2006 at the Festival de Cine de Sitges, and has since been made available online and on the 2009 Severin DVD release of Hardware. The werewolf short Black Tulips premiered online in September 2008. Stanley was a contributing writer-director to the 2011 omnibus The Theatre Bizarre, with an adaptation of the short story "Mother of Toads" by Clark Ashton Smith. In addition to directing, Stanley has continued working as a screenwriter. He co-wrote the script for Nacho Cerdà's feature debut The Abandoned (2006) and delivered the screenplay for Cerdà's upcoming comic book adaptation I Am Legion (2012). In addition, Stanley was a script collaborator on the Italian horror-thriller Imago Mortis (2009). Stanley also co-wrote an unmade film adaptation of J.G. Ballard's High Rise with director Vincenzo Natali. Stanley launched the interactive website Terra Umbra – Empire of Shadows in October 2009, an ongoing inquiry into the invisible world and the hidden history of southern and central Europe. He also released the e-book Shadow of the Grail – Magic and Mystery at Montsegur in December 2010. In early 2012, it was announced that Stanley would collaborate on the anthology film The Profane Exhibit. Stanley's contribution will be the short Coltan, which is described as "an unflinching look into darkest Africa." Return to mainstream (2018–present) In December 2018, it was announced Stanley was returning to film with an adaptation of The Colour Out of Space with Nicolas Cage set to star. The film, Color Out of Space, was released in 2020 and became a critical success with Stanley being praised for his return. In a Q&A session upon the release of the film, Stanley revealed it was the first in a trilogy of H.P. Lovecraft adaptations, and that he was currently writing an adaptation of The Dunwich Horror. Personal life Stanley works and lives in Montségur, France. Abuse allegation In March 2021, screenwriter Scarlett Amaris, who previously collaborated with Stanley on several projects, alleged in a blog post that she had been in an abusive relationship with him. Subsequently SpectreVision, which produced Color Out of Space, announced it would no longer work with Stanley and that all future revenue from the film would be donated to anti-domestic violence charities. On October 25, 2021, entertainment news outlet Deadline reported Stanley has filed criminal complaints for libel and harassment in response to the accusation. Filmography Feature film Short films Documentary films References External links Between Death and the Devil - the unofficial Richard Stanley website The official website The official blog Interviews Unfilmable's 2010 interview with Stanley Richard Stanley & co-directors talk The Theatre Bizarre Not Coming to a Theater Near You interview with Stanley The Quietus interview Sci-Fi Bulletin interview Hardware, Dust Devil and Vacation interview "Return to The Island of Dr. Moreau" 1966 births Living people People from Fish Hoek Horror film directors South African music video directors South African film directors South African emigrants to France South African exiles South African expatriates in the United Kingdom South African people of Welsh descent University of Cape Town alumni White South African people	[ 0.1099349781870842, 0.5444252490997314, -0.005737063474953175, -0.33724671602249146, 0.313993364572525, 0.14844141900539398, 0.728365957736969, -0.35249727964401245, 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227708	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rik%20Van%20Steenbergen	Rik Van Steenbergen	Rik Van Steenbergen (9 September 1924 – 15 May 2003) was a Belgian racing cyclist, considered to be one of the best among the great number of successful Belgian cyclists. Early life Van Steenbergen was born in Arendonk into a poor family. He worked as an errand boy and a cigar-roller. He began racing at 16 and became one of Belgium's best juniors from 1940 to 1942. Career He started cycling as a professional during World War II in 1942, after being an amateur since he was 14. The next year, he won his first important races, and became Belgian road cycling champion. In 1944, he won the Tour of Flanders Classic, which he won again two years later. During his career, which lasted until 1966, Van Steenbergen won several more classics: Paris–Roubaix, Paris–Brussels and Milan–San Remo. He also won the World Road Cycling Championships three times (1949 Copenhagen, 1956 Copenhagen and 1957 Waregem), equalling the (still standing) record of Alfredo Binda. His last world title, a year after his second, was won in front of a home crowd. In addition, he placed third in the first post-war championships in 1946. He held the Ruban Jaune for seven years for winning the 1948 Paris-Roubaix in a record average speed for a professional race, covering the 246 km at an average of 43.612 km per hour. Van Steenbergen also excelled on the track, and won 40 Six-day events, and improved two world records. His track capabilities made him an excellent road sprinter. However, he usually had difficulty climbing, which prevented him from winning major stage races. He nevertheless placed 2nd in the 1951 Giro d'Italia. Some suggest he could have competed for victory in stage races had he concentrated on them, instead of racing almost every race he could enter. It is estimated Van Steenbergen won slightly fewer than 1000 races, though accounts differ widely. Career achievements Highlights 3 World Road Cycling Championships (1949, 1956, 1957) 8 major classics wins (Tour of Flanders x 2, Paris–Roubaix x 2, La Flèche Wallonne x 2, Paris–Brussels, Milan–San Remo) 7 Belgian Road Championships 4 Stage wins in the Tour de France 15 Stage wins in the Giro d'Italia (including second overall 1951) 6 Stage wins in the Vuelta a España 6 European Track Championships 40 Six Day wins 9 Belgian Track Championships Major results Source: 1943 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1944 1st Tour of Flanders 1945 1st Road race, National Road Championships 1946 1st Tour of Flanders 1948 1st Paris–Roubaix 1949 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships Tour de France 1st Stages 12 & 21 1st La Flèche Wallonne 1950 1st Paris–Brussels 1951 2nd Overall Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 1 & 15 Held after Stages 1, 7, & 13–17 1952 Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 6, 9 & 10 Tour de France 1st Stage 1 Held after Stages 1–2 1st Paris–Roubaix 1953 1st Stage 9 Giro d'Italia 1954 1st Road race, National Road Championships Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 5, 16, 17 & 22 1st Milan–San Remo 1955 1st Stage 16 Tour de France 1956 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships 5th Overall Vuelta a España 1st Points classification 1st Stages 1, 7, 8, 11, 14 & 17 1957 1st Road race, UCI Road World Championships Giro d'Italia 1st Stages 1, 11, 17b, 20 & 21 1958 1st La Flèche Wallonne Retirement After his cycling career he entered a dark period. He was named in connection with many unsavory practices. He had a gambling addiction and was suspected of drug trafficking, conspiracy and incitement to debauchery. During this period, in 1968, he also starred in the Belgian adult movie Pandore as the character Dimitri. The movie tells the story of an industrialist who neglects his young wife. The couple are looking for solace in extramarital relationships. They make a trip to Greece to save their relationship, but over there the woman pays more attention to Dimitri, a local fisherman. In the context of that era the movie was a sensational, provocative, scandal movie. Van Steenbergen also ended up in jail for a while. He came close to prison for smuggling a suspect package over the Dutch border. But his marriage with the British Doreen Hewitt saved him from ruin and he got his life back on track. Death and commemoration Rik Van Steenbergen died in Antwerp after a prolonged sickness, at the age of 78. The funeral was in the Sint Pauluskerk of Westmalle, attended by about 2000 people, including Eddy Merckx, Rik Van Looy, Roger De Vlaeminck, Walter Godefroot, Johan De Muynck, Lucien Van Impe, Freddy Maertens and Briek Schotte. The UCI president Hein Verbruggen and Belgian prime minister Guy Verhofstadt also attended. In 2004 a statue was erected in his honour on the Wampenberg in Arendonk. Books Walter Rottiers: Rik Van Steenbergen. Das Ass der Asse. Bielefeld, Covadonga-Verlag, 2005. 144 p. (German) Rik van Steenbergen: Geschiedenis der Kruistochten. Rebo Productions. 1987 203 p. (Flemish) Fred De Bruyne: Rik van Steenbergen. Mechelen, Uitgave G. Kolff, 1963. (Flemish) See also Memorial Rik Van Steenbergen References External links Official Tour de France results for Rik Van Steenbergen 1924 births 2003 deaths Belgian male cyclists Belgian Tour de France stage winners UCI Road World Champions (elite men) Belgian Giro d'Italia stage winners Belgian Vuelta a España stage winners Sportspeople from Antwerp (province) People from Arendonk	[ -0.42702561616897583, -0.04973345622420311, -0.7659640312194824, -0.037979334592819214, -0.09911786764860153, 0.9364281296730042, 0.4057292342185974, 0.13974212110042572, -0.7072175741195679, -0.13133685290813446, 0.7647993564605713, 0.4223642349243164, 0.18536996841430664, 0.10597672313451767, 0.022313959896564484, 0.04306987300515175, -0.09812919050455093, -0.32086071372032166, -0.1917659044265747, -0.36847877502441406, -0.26083454489707947, -0.66842120885849, 0.11052513867616653, -0.11359856277704239, -0.08516494184732437, 0.17535412311553955, -0.25955209136009216, 0.3650907278060913, 0.4257075786590576, 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227709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meniscus%20%28liquid%29	Meniscus (liquid)	The meniscus (plural: menisci, from the Greek for "crescent") is the curve in the upper surface of a liquid close to the surface of the container or another object, caused by surface tension. It can be either concave or convex, depending on the liquid and the surface. A concave meniscus occurs when the particles of the liquid are more strongly attracted to the container (adhesion) than to each other (cohesion), causing the liquid to climb the walls of the container. This occurs between water and glass. Water-based fluids like sap, honey, and milk also have a concave meniscus in glass or other wettable containers. Conversely, a convex meniscus occurs when the particles in the liquid have a stronger attraction to each other than to the material of the container. Convex menisci occur, for example, between mercury and glass in barometers and thermometers. Contact angle and surface tension The formation of menisci is commonly used in surface science to measure contact angles and surface tension. In a contact angle measurement, the shape of the menisci is measured with a balance or optically with a digital camera. In a surface tension measurement, the measurement probe has a contact angle of zero and the surface tension can be obtained by measuring the mass of the menisci. This is typically done with a Wilhelmy plate. Capillary action Menisci are a manifestation of capillary action, by which either surface adhesion pulls a liquid up to form a concave meniscus, or internal cohesion pulls the liquid down to form a convex meniscus. This phenomenon is important in transpirational pull in plants. When a tube of a narrow bore, often called a capillary tube, is dipped into a liquid and the liquid wets the tube (with zero contact angle), the liquid surface inside the tube forms a concave meniscus, which is a virtually spherical surface having the same radius, r, as the inside of the tube. The tube experiences a downward force of magnitude 2πrσ, where σ is the surface tension of the liquid. References External links Using menisci to measure surface tension Fluid mechanics Greek words and phrases	[ -0.30652254819869995, 0.16132259368896484, 0.14230795204639435, 0.3188541531562805, -0.18443569540977478, 0.4772537648677826, -0.30075666308403015, 0.299991250038147, -0.366127610206604, -0.9134576916694641, -0.5075871348381042, 0.4118923842906952, 0.1548924297094345, 0.6447842121124268, 0.6340070962905884, 0.2526969015598297, 0.48964256048202515, 0.42543265223503113, 0.12497381865978241, 0.09566418826580048, -0.5359457731246948, -0.3759273290634155, 0.36801770329475403, -0.7882848978042603, 0.5581414699554443, -0.5416585803031921, -0.5567111372947693, 0.4611298441886902, 0.4659404456615448, 0.04407208412885666, -0.02659214660525322, 0.5109490156173706, -0.06779124587774277, -0.5975212454795837, 0.231124147772789, -0.13259363174438477, 0.04375109076499939, -0.29926085472106934, -0.2608361542224884, -0.5500173568725586, -0.1813555806875229, 0.1484159380197525, 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227711	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20ring	Fire ring	A fire ring is a construction or device used to contain campfires and prevent them from spreading and turning into wildfires. A fire ring is designed to contain a fire that is built directly upon the ground, such as a campfire. Fire rings have no bottom, and are simply circles made of forged metal, stones, concrete, etc. which surround and contain a fire. Manufactured steel fire rings are available in various sizes to suit every need. When a fire is to be built somewhere such as on a patio or in a backyard, a fire pit or outdoor fireplace may be better used instead. These are designed to contain the entire fire instead of just keeping it in one place. A fire ring may be nothing more than a short, wide section of metal tube, partially buried in the ground. Slightly more advanced fire rings may be partially covered with metal bars so that the fire may be used for cooking. These types are seen at many campgrounds. Fire rings in urban areas, such as on beaches, may be made of poured concrete. Makeshift fire rings can be constructed out of a ring of stones where pre-constructed rings are not available, but care should be taken as some stones can explode when heated due to trapped gas pockets, thermal expansion, or water contained flashing into steam. 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227714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry%20as%20a%20Bone/Rehab%20Doll	Dry as a Bone/Rehab Doll	Dry as a Bone/Rehab Doll is a compilation album by the American rock band Green River. It was released on September 13, 1990 through Sub Pop Records. Overview Released in 1990 by Sub Pop Records, the album combines Green River's two releases for the label: Dry as a Bone (1987) and Rehab Doll (1988). It also includes the bonus tracks "Ain't Nothing to Do" (recorded in 1985), "Searchin'" (recorded in 1986), and "Queen Bitch" (recorded in 1987). Steve Huey of AllMusic said, "Since Dry as a Bone/Rehab Doll is more energetic and less murky than many proto-grunge artifacts, it's arguably the most effective and enduring building block in the music's early evolution." Track listing All songs written by Jeff Ament, Mark Arm, Bruce Fairweather, Stone Gossard, and Alex Vincent, except where noted: Recorded for Dry as a Bone: "This Town" – 3:23 "P.C.C." – 3:44 "Ozzie" (Tales of Terror) – 3:11 "Unwind" – 4:42 "Baby Takes" – 4:24 "Searchin'" – 3:48 Recorded in March 1985: "Ain't Nothing to Do" (Stiv Bators, Cheetah Chrome) – 2:38 Recorded for Rehab Doll: "Queen Bitch" (David Bowie) – 2:58 "Forever Means" – 4:20 "Rehab Doll" (Arm, Paul Solger) – 3:23 "Swallow My Pride" (Arm, Steve Turner) – 2:59 "Together We'll Never" – 4:01 "Smilin' and Dyin'" – 3:23 "Porkfist" – 3:13 "Take a Dive" – 3:28 "One More Stitch" – 3:53 Personnel Green River Jeff Ament – bass guitar, vocals Mark Arm – vocals Bruce Fairweather – guitars Stone Gossard – guitars, vocals Alex Vincent – drums, percussion Production Bruce Calder, Jack Endino – production Jane Higgins – layout Linda Owens – original album cover layout Charles Peterson – photos, layout References 1990 compilation albums 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227715	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Agnadello	Battle of Agnadello	The Battle of Agnadello, also known as Vailà, was one of the most significant battles of the War of the League of Cambrai and one of the major battles of the Italian Wars. Background On 15 April 1509, a French army under the command of Louis XII left Milan and invaded Venetian territory. To oppose its advance, Venice had massed a mercenary army near Bergamo, jointly commanded by the Orsini cousins, Bartolomeo d'Alviano and Niccolò di Pitigliano. The Orsini had orders to avoid a direct confrontation with the advancing French, and spent the next several weeks engaged in light skirmishing. By 9 May, however, Louis had crossed the Adda River at Cassano d'Adda. Alviano and Pitigliano, encamped around the town of Treviglio, disagreed on how to deal with Louis, since Alviano wanted to attack the French in defiance of his orders; they finally decided to move south towards the Po River in search of better positions. Battle On 14 May, as the Venetian army moved south, Alviano's rearguard, commanded by Piero del Monte and Saccoccio da Spoleto, was attacked by a French detachment under Gian Giacomo Trivulzio, who had massed his troops around the village of Agnadello. Alviano, who was at Pandino, hurried back to position his forces, numbering around eight thousand, on a ridge overlooking some vineyards. Charles II attempted to attack, first with cavalry and then with Swiss pikemen, but the French, forced to march up a hillside crossed with irrigation ditches, which were soon filled with mud from the pouring rain, were unable to breach the Venetian lines. Pitigliano had been moving ahead of Alviano, and was several miles away when the French began their attack. In reply to Alviano's request for help, he sent a note suggesting that a pitched battle should be avoided, and continued his march south. Meanwhile, Louis, with the remainder of the French army, had reached Agnadello. The French surrounded Alviano on three sides and proceeded to destroy his forces over the next three hours. The Venetian cavalry charged the center of the French Army to relieve the pressure on the infantry. Despite being initially successful, the Venetian cavalry was soon outnumbered and surrounded; when Alviano himself was wounded and captured the formation collapsed and the surviving knights fled from the battlefield. Of Alviano's command, more than four thousand were killed, including his commanders Spoleto and del Monte, and 30 pieces of artillery were captured. Although Pitigliano had avoided engaging the French directly, news of the battle reached him by that evening, and the majority of his forces had deserted by morning. Faced with the continued advance of the French army, he hurriedly retreated towards Treviso and Venice. Louis then proceeded to occupy the remainder of Lombardy. The battle is mentioned in Machiavelli's The Prince, noting that in one day, the Venetians "lost what it had taken them eight hundred years' exertion to conquer." Aftermath The economic historian, Niall Ferguson suggests that the collapse in Venetian monte nuovo bonds from 102 percent of their face value to 40 percent was a direct consequence of the Venetians' defeat at Agnadello. Notes References Machiavelli, Niccolò (1514) The Prince Translated by Rufus Goodwin, 2003, Boston: Dante University Press. . A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East, Vol. II, ed. Spencer C. Tucker, ABC-CLIO, 2010. External links The Battle of Agnadello 1509 in Italy Agnadello 1509 Agnadello 1509 Agnadello 1509 Agnadello 1509 Agnadello France–Republic of Venice relations	[ -0.28440427780151367, -0.595306396484375, -0.38793084025382996, 0.14013588428497314, 0.05572320148348808, 0.3386220335960388, 0.3100322484970093, 0.048581719398498535, -0.3258456289768219, -0.9444832801818848, 0.3361826539039612, 0.839688241481781, -0.4280981123447418, 0.8119632601737976, -0.45336851477622986, 0.6185557842254639, 0.6212091445922852, -0.5952388644218445, 0.3452751040458679, -0.8280810117721558, 0.32147037982940674, -0.48203933238983154, 0.37751469016075134, 0.637712836265564, 0.250659316778183, -0.10524079948663712, 0.43178731203079224, 0.033500853925943375, 0.34559085965156555, -0.1803825944662094, 0.1162664070725441, 0.39328670501708984, -0.5183223485946655, -0.437124103307724, -0.6151169538497925, -0.3373657166957855, 0.6088301539421082, -0.19953805208206177, -0.6478594541549683, -0.4850602149963379, 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227718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1539%20in%20literature	1539 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1539. Events April – Printing of the Great Bible (The Byble in Englyshe) is completed; it is distributed to churches in England. Prepared by Myles Coverdale, it contains much material from the Tyndale Bible – unacknowledged as the Tyndale version is officially deemed heretical. Unknown dates Game Place House in Great Yarmouth becomes the first place in England to be used regularly as a public theatre. Marie Dentière writes an open letter to Marguerite of Navarre, sister of King Francis I of France. This Epistre tres utile (very useful letter) calls for an expulsion of Catholic clergy from France. The first printing press in North America is set up in Mexico City. The first known book from it, Manual de Adultos, appears in 1540. Teseo Ambrogio's Introductio in Chaldaicam lingua, Syriaca atq Armenica, & dece alias linguas, published in Pavia, introduces several Middle Eastern languages to Western Europe for the first time. New books Prose Robert Estienne – Alphabetum Hebraicum Martin Luther – On the Councils and the Church Poetry Births February 27 – Franciscus Raphelengius, Flemish-born Dutch scholar, printer and bookseller (died 1597) March 5 – Christoph Pezel, German theologian (died 1604) April 12 – Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish Peruvian mestizo chronicler (died 1616) December 5 – Fausto Paolo Sozzini, Italian theologian (died 1604) December 20 – Paulus Melissus, German writer in Latin, translator and composer (died 1602) Unknown dates Olivier de Serres, French writer on agriculture and horticulture (died 1619) Jean de Tournes, French author, printer and bookseller (died 1615) Richard White of Basingstoke, English jurist and historian (died 1611) Deaths March 5 – Kaspar Ursinus Velius, German scholar, poet and historian (born c. 1493) May 7 – Ottaviano Petrucci, Italian printer (born 1466) July 5 – Anthony Maria Zaccaria, Italian religious writer, leader of the Counter-reformation and saint (born 1502) July 12 – Ferdinand Columbus, Spanish bibliographer and cosmographer (born 1488) August 10 – Lanspergius, German Carthusian monk and ascetic writer (born 1489) November 25 – Johann Alexander Brassicanus, German author and teacher (born c. 1500) Unknown date – Gabriel Alonso de Herrera, Spanish author of an agricultural treatise (born 1470) References 1539 1539 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.30107662081718445, 0.11998814344406128, -0.25168895721435547, -0.07703068107366562, -0.7068092823028564, 0.0023940864484757185, 0.4999649226665497, 0.7195915579795837, -0.8341466188430786, -0.506310224533081, -0.2655159831047058, 0.2225528061389923, -0.03619449585676193, 0.16653142869472504, 0.28849083185195923, 0.002359092002734542, 0.47182372212409973, -0.23059698939323425, 0.23089538514614105, -0.5835366249084473, -0.42776554822921753, -0.2501683831214905, 0.6092379093170166, -0.37836673855781555, 0.285448282957077, 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227719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1538%20in%20literature	1538 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1538. Events December 20 – Pietro Bembo is made a Cardinal. New books Prose Hélisenne de Crenne – Les Angoisses douloureuses qui procèdent d'amours Sir Thomas Elyot – The dictionary of syr Thomas Eliot knyght (Latin to English) Paracelsus – Astronomia Magna or the whole Philosophia Sagax of the Great and Little World William Turner – Libellus de re herbaria (Handbook of Herbs) Drama John Bale Kynge Johan, the earliest known English historical drama (in verse) Three Laws of Nature, Moses and Christ, corrupted by the Sodomytes, Pharisees and Papystes most wicked Georg Wickram – Der treue Eckart Poetry Hélisenne de Crenne – Les Angoisses douloureuses qui procèdent d'amours Sir David Lyndsay – The Complaynte and Testament of a Popinjay Clément Marot – Œuvres de Clément Marot Births December 10 – Giovanni Battista Guarini, Italian poet, dramatist and diplomat (died 1612) Deaths unknown dates Germain de Brie, French humanist scholar and poet (born 1490) Pierre Gringoire, French poet and playwright (born c.1475) References 1538 1538 books Renaissance 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227720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1537%20in%20literature	1537 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1537. Events February – The Institution of the Christian Man (also called The Bishops' Book), is written by a board of 46 divines and bishops headed by Thomas Cranmer. The purpose, like that of the Ten Articles of the previous year, is to implement the reforms of Henry VIII by separating from the Roman Catholic Church and reforming the Ecclesia Anglicana. "The work was a noble endeavor on the part of the bishops to promote unity, and to instruct the people in Church doctrine." December 28 – The Ordonnance de Montpellier initiates a legal deposit system for books in the Kingdom of France. Date unknown Construction of the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice to the design of Jacopo Sansovino begins, continuing until 1560. Paracelsus starts to write Astronomia Magna or the whole Philosophia Sagax of the Great and Little World. Two complete Bible translations into English, both based on Tyndale's, appear: Myles Coverdale's 1535 text is the first to be printed in England (by James Nicholson in Southwark, London). The Matthew Bible edited by John Rogers under the pseudonym "Thomas Matthew", is printed in Antwerp. The English scholar John Twyne publishes an edition of the late-medieval encyclopedic verse dialogue Sidrak and Bokkus, . New books Prose Francesco Guicciardini – La Historia d'Italia (History of Italy, to 1540) Martin Luther – Drama Lazare de Baïf – translation of Sophocles' Electra Nicholas Udall (attrib.) – Thersites Poetry Births Unknown dates Achille Gagliardi, Italian Jesuit writer (died 1607) Jane Lumley, English translator from Greek and Latin (died 1578) Thomas Preston, English dramatist and master of Trinity Hall, Cambridge (died 1598) Probable year – Bernardino de Escalante, Spanish priest, geographer and writer (died after 1605) Deaths May 10 – Andrzej Krzycki, Polish archbishop, humanist writer of Latin prose and Polish poetry (born 1482) September 24 – Jean Ruel, French physician and botanical writer (born 1474) Unknown date – Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Indian Sufi poet (born 1456) References 1537 1537 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.3764267563819885, 0.06378248333930969, -0.29186302423477173, -0.24491289258003235, 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227721	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1536%20in%20literature	1536 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1536. Events unknown dates Petar Zoranić writes the first Croatian novel, the pastoral-allegorical Planine ("Mountains"); it is first published posthumously in Venice in 1569. The first Helvetic Confession is drawn up, in Latin, by Heinrich Bullinger and Leo Jud of Zürich, Kaspar Megander of Bern, Oswald Myconius and Simon Grynaeus of Basel, Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Capito of Strasbourg, with other representatives from Schaffhausen, St Gall, Mülhausen and Biel. New books John Calvin – Institutes of the Christian Religion (in Latin) Sir Thomas Elyot – The Castel of Helth Wessel Gansfort – Sum of Christianity (English translation) Paracelsus – Die große Wundarzney Poetry Aonio Paleario – De immortalitate animarum Births May 13 – Jacobus Pamelius, Flemish theologian (died 1587) Deaths March 1 – Bernardo Accolti, Italian poet c. July – John Rastell, English printer and author (born c. 1475) July 12 – Erasmus, Dutch-born Renaissance humanist scholar (born 1466) September 25 – Johannes Secundus, Dutch poet writing in Latin (born 1511) October 14 – Garcilaso de la Vega, Spanish soldier and poet (born c.1501) date unknown – Merten de Keyser, French printer and publisher working in Antwerp References 1536 1536 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.20701195299625397, 0.19263069331645966, -0.29995572566986084, -0.12842042744159698, -0.698160707950592, 0.046680666506290436, 0.6012188196182251, 0.5418691635131836, -0.8211267590522766, -0.49394357204437256, -0.26138222217559814, 0.19768060743808746, -0.027596190571784973, 0.16447865962982178, 0.2315826117992401, -0.07647036015987396, 0.509299099445343, -0.1917952597141266, 0.1668291985988617, -0.5871864557266235, -0.3395770490169525, -0.17870116233825684, 0.635956346988678, -0.29437750577926636, 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227722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1535%20in%20literature	1535 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1535. Events January 13 – A statute of the Parlement of Paris is enacted forbidding all printing under threat of hanging and closing all bookshops, although it is quickly abandoned. October 4 – Publication of Myles Coverdale's complete Bible translation into English in Antwerp is completed. unknown date – The earliest printed book in Estonian, a Catechism with a translation by Johann Koell from the Middle Low German Lutheran text of Simon Wanradt, is printed by Hans Lufft in Wittenberg for use in Tallinn. New books Prose John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners – Huon of Burdeuxe Desiderius Erasmus – Ecclesiastes: sive de ratione concionandi Simon Wanradt and Johann Koell – Catechism (first book text in Estonian) Poetry Births Thomas North, English translator (died c.1604) Approximate years George Gascoigne, English writer, soldier and courtier (died 1577) Thomas Legge, English dramatist (died 1607) Deaths February 7 – Thomas More, English social philosopher, politician and author (born 1478) October 10 – Pedro Manuel Jiménez de Urrea, Spanish poet and dramatist (born 1485) Unknown date – Girolamo Angeriano (also "Hieronymus Angerianus"), poet in Italian and Latin (born c. 1470 – 1490) References 1535 1535 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.18082252144813538, 0.06846261024475098, -0.29193463921546936, -0.09117527306079865, -0.7245622873306274, 0.02338501438498497, 0.5075734257698059, 0.4739682972431183, -0.9648562073707581, 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227723	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1534%20in%20literature	1534 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1534. Events July 20 – Cambridge University Press is granted a royal charter by King Henry VIII of England to print "all manner of books" and becomes the first of the privileged presses. unknown dates Luther Bible: Martin Luther's Biblia: das ist die gantze Heilige Schrifft Deudsch, a translation of the complete Bible into German is printed by Hans Lufft in Wittenberg, including woodcut illustrations. Rabbi Asher Anchel's Mirkevet ha-Mishneh (a Tanakh concordance) becomes the first book printed in Yiddish (in Kraków). New books Anthony Fitzherbert – La Novelle Natura Brevium François Rabelais (as Alcofribas Nasier) – Gargantua (La vie très horrifique du grand Gargantua, père de Pantagruel) Polydore Vergil – Historia Anglica Juan Luis Vives – De conscribendis epistolis Syed Shah Israil – Maʿdan al-Fawāʾid in Persian Poetry Births April 18 – William Harrison, clergyman and writer (died 1593) October 18 – Jean Passerat, poet and satirist (died 1602) Deaths November 23 – Otto Brunfels, German botanist and theologian (born 1488) Unknown dates Cesare Magni, Italian printer Wynkyn de Worde, Lotharingian-born English printer References 1534 1534 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.29564931988716125, 0.22720256447792053, -0.23628221452236176, -0.13568207621574402, -0.8825177550315857, 0.03361731767654419, 0.5806411504745483, 0.40350663661956787, -0.854015588760376, -0.4736550748348236, -0.2036633938550949, 0.30719006061553955, 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227724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1533%20in%20literature	1533 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1533. Events October – The censors of the Collège de Sorbonne stigmatize François Rabelais' Pantagruel as obscene. date unknown – French poet Maurice Sceve announces that he has found the tomb of "Laura", the woman who is the subject of so many poems by Petrarch, at the church of Santa Croce in Avignon, further strengthening French interest in the Italian poet. New books Prose Henry Cornelius Agrippa – De occulta philosophia libri tres, Books 2 & 3 Antoine Marcourt (as Pantople) – Le Livre des marchans Approximate year Young Man of Arévalo Brief Compendium of our Sacred Law and Sunna Tafsira Drama John Heywood The Merry Play between Johan Johan the Husband, Tyb his Wife, and Sir Johan, the Priest (first published; written 1520) The Mery Play between the Pardoner and the Frere, the Curate and Neybour Pratte (first published) The Play of the Wether, a new and mery interlude of all maner of Wethers The Play of Love Poetry Births January 2 – Johann Major, German poet and theologian (died 1600) January 3 – Jerónimo Bautista Lanuza, Spanish friar, bishop and homiletic writer (died 1624) June 6 – Bernardino Baldi, Italian mathematician, polymath and writer (died 1617) August 7 – Alonso de Ercilla, Spanish soldier and poet (died 1594) Unknown dates Eknath, Marathi language religious poet in the Hindu tradition of India (died 1599) Elazar ben Moshe Azikri, Jewish kabbalist, poet and writer (died 1600) Andrea Rapicio, Italian poet writing in Latin (died 1573) Sun Kehong (孫克弘), Chinese landscape painter, calligrapher and poet (died 1611) (Or 1534) – Lucas Janszoon Waghenaer, Dutch cartographer (died 1606) Deaths July 6 – Ludovico Ariosto, Italian poet also writing Latin verse (born 1474) November 6 or 11 – Pieter Gillis, Flemish humanist, printer and Antwerp city official (born 1486) Unknown date – Giovanni Francesco Pico della Mirandola, Italian philosopher writing in Latin (born 1470) References 1533 1533 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.30533280968666077, 0.1723010390996933, -0.31935587525367737, -0.192376047372818, -0.8901752829551697, 0.09175869077444077, 0.6845822930335999, 0.43386611342430115, -0.8197475075721741, -0.6222235560417175, -0.17461419105529785, 0.21428200602531433, -0.1497795730829239, 0.07228302955627441, 0.2106657177209854, -0.054661959409713745, 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227725	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1532%20in%20literature	1532 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1532. Events unknown dates William Thynne's edition of The Workes of Geffray Chaucer is published in England. First edition of François Villon's Œuvres with a commentary by Clément Marot is published in France. First complete edition of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso is published in Italy. Yamazaki Sōkan compiles the Shinseninutsukubashū, a significant anthology of Japanese renku poetry (from which haiku will develop). New books Prose Otto Brunfels – Contrafayt Kräuterbuch (second and final part: 1537) Sebald Heyden – De arte canendi (first installment) Niccolò Machiavelli (posthumous) – The Prince (Il Principe) Thomas More – The Confutation of Tyndale's Answer François Rabelais (as Alcofribas Nasier) – Pantagruel (Les horribles et épouvantables faits et prouesses du très renommé Pantagruel Roi des Dipsodes, fils du Grand Géant Gargantua) Feliciano de Silva – Don Florisel de Niquea Poetry Clément Marot – L'Adolescence clémentine Births February 19 – Jean-Antoine de Baïf, French poet and member of La Pléiade (died 1589) November 28 – Bartholomäus Ringwaldt, German didactic poet (died c.1599) Unknown dates Étienne Jodelle, French poet and playwright associated with La Pléiade (died 1573) Dominicus Lampsonius, Flemish humanist poet and painter (died 1599) Probable year Thomas Norton, English politician and poet (died 1584) Tulsidas (तुलसीदास), Indian Hindu Awadhi language poet, sant and philosopher (died 1623) Deaths August 19 – Caritas Pirckheimer, German abbess and chronicler (born 1573) unknown date – Thomas Arthur, dramatist (year of birth unknown) References 1532 1532 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.19227245450019836, 0.16382905840873718, -0.2960224151611328, -0.174747496843338, -0.6972680687904358, 0.00729136960580945, 0.5468373894691467, 0.4946601390838623, -0.8240893483161926, -0.6365671157836914, -0.274296373128891, 0.25588613748550415, -0.12256644666194916, 0.023711932823061943, 0.2802700698375702, -0.03401714563369751, 0.4963318109512329, -0.19003677368164062, 0.16782814264297485, -0.5350358486175537, -0.32993003726005554, -0.18422174453735352, 0.5752971172332764, -0.2490578591823578, 0.27649977803230286, -0.39794617891311646, 0.5345286130905151, -0.09641382098197937, 0.19441111385822296, -0.28952932357788086, -0.3309288024902344, 0.24886129796504974, 0.1716335564851761, -0.007610844448208809, 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227726	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1531%20in%20literature	1531 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1531. Events unknown dates The first emblem book appears, the Emblemata (), an unauthorized issue by the printer Heinrich Steyner in Augsburg, Bavaria, of Italian jurist Andrea Alciato's privately circulated Latin verses, accompanied by woodcuts. Petrarch's poetry Trionfi (Triumphs) is first translated into French as Les Triomphes. New books Prose Henry Cornelius Agrippa – De occulta philosophia libri tres, Book One Andrea Alciato – Emblemata Sir Thomas Elyot – The Boke Named the Governour (the first English work of moral philosophy) Niccolò Machiavelli (posthumous) – Discourses on Livy Paracelsus – Opus Paramirum (written in St. Gallen) Michael Servetus – (On the Errors of the Trinity) William Turner – (completed in 1568) Drama Accademia degli Intronati – Gl' Ingannati Poetry Marguerite de Navarre – Approximate date – John Skelton – Colin Clout Births June 1 – János Zsámboky, Hungarian humanist scholar (died 1584) October 7 – Scipione Ammirato, Italian historian (died 1601) November 29 – Johannes Letzner, German historian (died 1613) Unknown date – Ercole Bottrigari, Italian poet, music theorist and publisher (died 1612) Deaths October 11 – Huldrych Zwingli, Swiss theologian (born 1484; killed in Second War of Kappel) probable – Fernan Perez de Oliva, Spanish linguist (born c. 1492) References 1531 1531 books 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227727	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1530%20in%20literature	1530 in literature	This article contains information about the literary events and publications of 1530. Events January – The first printed translation of the Torah into English, by William Tyndale, is published in Antwerp for distribution in Britain. May – The Tyndale Bible is publicly burned in England as heretical. unknown dates An edition of Desiderius Erasmus's Paraphrasis in Elegantiarum Libros Laurentii Vallae is the first book to use the Roman form of the Garamond typeface cut by Claude Garamond. Paracelsus finishes writing Paragranum and leaves Nuremberg. This is the earliest likely date for first printing of the Middle English tail-rhyme chivalric romance Sir Isumbras and of Sir Lamwell. New books Prose Otto Brunfels – (third part: 1536) Erasmus – A handbook on manners for children (De Civilitate Morum Puerilium Libellus) William Tyndale – The Practice of Prelates Drama Henry Medwall – Nature (first printing) John Heywood – The Play called the foure PP; a newe and a very mery interlude of a palmer, a pardoner, a potycary, a pedler Poetry Pietro Bembo – Rime Girolamo Fracastoro – Syphilis sive morbus gallicus Hans Sachs – Das Schlaraffenland Births July 3 – Claude Fauchet, French historian (died 1601) August 2 – Girolamo Mercuriale, Italian physician and philologist (died 1606) November 1 – Étienne de La Boétie, French judge, philosopher and essayist (died 1563) Unknown dates Jerónimo Bermúdez, Spanish playwright and poet (died 1599) Jean Bodin, French political philosopher (died 1596) François de Belleforest, French poet and translator (died 1582) Pey de Garros, Occitan poet writing in Gascon (died 1585) Baltasar del Alcázar, Spanish poet (died 1606) Thomas Hoby, English diplomat and translator (died 1566) Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet also writing in Latin (died 1584) William Stevenson, English clergyman and presumed playwright (died 1575) Approximate years Judah Moscato, Italian rabbi, poet and philosopher (died 1593) Richard Tarlton, English actor (died 1588) Deaths April 27 (one source states August 6) – Jacopo Sannazaro, Neapolitan poet, humanist and epigrammist also writing in Latin (born 1458) April 28 – Niklaus Manuel, Swiss playwright writing in German and artist (born 1484) August 28 – Gerold Edlibach, Swiss chronicler (born 1454) December 22 – Willibald Pirckheimer, German humanist writer (born 1470) Unknown date – Molla, Indian poet writing in Telugu, translator of the Ramayana (born 1440) probable – Juan del Encina, Spanish poet, musician and playwright (born 1468) References Literature 1530 books Renaissance literature Early Modern literature Years of the 16th century in literature	[ -0.30180415511131287, 0.04343881830573082, 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227730	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockefeller%20Foundation	Rockefeller Foundation	The Rockefeller Foundation is an American private foundation based at 420 Fifth Avenue, New York City. It was established by the Rockefeller family in New York State on May 14, 1913, when its charter was formally accepted by the New York State Legislature. The foundation was started by Standard Oil co-founder John D. Rockefeller ("Senior"), along with his son John D. Rockefeller Jr. ("Junior"), and Senior's principal business and philanthropic advisor, Frederick Taylor Gates. As of 2015, the foundation was ranked as the 39th largest U.S. foundation by total giving. By the end of 2016, assets were tallied at $4.1 billion (unchanged from 2015), with annual grants of $173 million. According to the OECD, the foundation provided US$103.8 million for development in 2019. Leadership On January 5, 2017, the board of trustees announced the selection of Dr. Rajiv Shah to serve as the 13th president of the foundation. Shah became the youngest person, at 43, and first Indian-American to serve as president of the foundation. He assumed the position March 1, succeeding Judith Rodin who served as president for nearly twelve years and announced her retirement, at age 71, in June 2016. A former president of the University of Pennsylvania, Rodin was the first woman to head the foundation. Rodin in turn had succeeded Gordon Conway in 2005. Beginnings John D Rockefeller first had the notion to set up a large-scale foundation in 1901, but it was not until 1906 that Senior's business and philanthropic advisor, Frederick Taylor Gates, seriously revived the idea, saying that Rockefeller's fortune was rolling up so fast his heirs would "dissipate their inheritances or become intoxicated with power", unless he set up "permanent corporate philanthropies for the good of Mankind". In 1906, the Russell Sage Foundation was established, though its program was limited to working women and social ills. Rockefeller's would thus not be the first foundation in America (Benjamin Franklin was the first to introduce the concept), but it brought to an international scale and scope. In 1909 he signed over 73,000 shares of Standard Oil of New Jersey, valued at $50 million, to the three inaugural trustees, Junior, Gates and Harold Fowler McCormick, the first installment of a projected $100 million endowment. They applied for a federal charter for the foundation in the US Senate in 1910, with at one stage Junior even secretly meeting with President William Howard Taft, through the aegis of Senator Nelson Aldrich, to hammer out concessions. However, because of the ongoing (1911) antitrust suit against Standard Oil at the time, along with deep suspicion in some quarters of undue Rockefeller influence on the spending of the endowment, the result was that Senior and Gates withdrew the bill from Congress in order to seek a state charter. On May 14, 1913, New York Governor William Sulzer approved a state charter for the foundation with Junior becoming the first president. With its large-scale endowment, a large part of Senior's fortune was insulated from inheritance taxes. Early grants and connections The first secretary of the foundation was Jerome Davis Greene, the former secretary of Harvard University, who wrote a "memorandum on principles and policies" for an early meeting of the trustees that established a rough framework for the foundation's work. On December 5, the Board made its first grant of $100,000 to the American Red Cross to purchase property for its headquarters in Washington, D.C. At the beginning the foundation was global in its approach and concentrated in its first decade entirely on the sciences, public health and medical education. It was initially located within the family office at Standard Oil's headquarters at 26 Broadway, later (in 1933) shifting to the GE Building (then RCA), along with the newly named family office, Room 5600, at Rockefeller Center; later it moved to the Time-Life Building in the center, before shifting to its current Fifth Avenue address. In 1913, the foundation set up the International Health Commission (later Board), the first appropriation of funds for work outside the US, which launched the foundation into international public health activities. This expanded the work of the Sanitary Commission worldwide, working against various diseases in fifty-two countries on six continents and twenty-nine islands, bringing international recognition of the need for public health and environmental sanitation. Its early field research on hookworm, malaria, and yellow fever provided the basic techniques to control these diseases and established the pattern of modern public health services. The commission established and endowed the school of Hygiene and Public Health, at Johns Hopkins University, and later at Harvard, and then spent more than $25 million in developing other public health schools in the US and in 21 foreign countries – helping to establish America as the world leader in medicine and scientific research. In 1913, it also began a 20-year support program of the Bureau of Social Hygiene, whose mission was research and education on birth control, maternal health and sex education. Europe In the interwar years, the Foundation's support of public health, nursing, and social work in Eastern and Central Europe was a concentrated effort to advance medicine and create a global network of medical research. After World War II it sent a team to West Germany to investigate how it could become involved in reconstructing the country. They focused on restoring democracy, especially regarding education and scientific research, with the long-term goal of reintegrating Germany into the Western world. Although the United States never joined the League of Nations, American philanthropies came heavily involved, especially the Rockefeller Foundation. It made major grants designed to build up the technical expertise of the leak staff. Ludovic Tournès said that by the 1930s the foundations had changed the League from a "Parliament of Nations" to a modern think tank that used specialized expertise to provide in-depth impartial analysis of international issues. China Medical Board In 1914, the foundation set up the China Medical Board, which established the first public health university in China, the Peking Union Medical College, in 1921; this was subsequently nationalized when the Communists took over the country in 1949. In the same year it began a program of international fellowships to train scholars at many of the world's universities at the post-doctoral level; a fundamental commitment to the education of future leaders. Department of Industrial Relations Also in 1914, the trustees set up a new Department of Industrial Relations, inviting William Lyon Mackenzie King to head it. He became a close and key advisor to Junior through the Ludlow Massacre, turning around his attitude to unions; however the foundation's involvement in IR was criticized for advancing the family's business interests. The foundation henceforth confined itself to funding responsible organizations involved in this and other controversial fields, which were beyond the control of the foundation itself. Psychiatry During the late-1920s, the Rockefeller Foundation created the Medical Sciences Division, which emerged from the former Division of Medical Education. The division was led by Dr. Richard M. Pearce until his death in 1930, to which Alan Gregg succeeded him until 1945. During this period, the Division of Medical Sciences was known for making large contributions to research across several fields of psychiatry. The 1930s was one of the most prominent decades in Rockefeller Foundation philanthropy to psychiatric research, as the foundation set a goal to find, train, and encourage scholars for research and practice. One of the first large contributions from the Foundation to psychiatric research was in 1935, with the appropriation of $100000 to the Institute for Psychoanalysis in Chicago. This grant was renewed in 1938, with payments extending into the early-1940s. Social sciences Through the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial (LSRM), established by Senior in 1918 and named after his wife, the Rockefeller fortune was for the first time directed to supporting research by social scientists. During its first few years of work, the LSRM awarded funds primarily to social workers, with its funding decisions guided primarily by Junior. In 1922, Beardsley Ruml was hired to direct the LSRM, and he most decisively shifted the focus of Rockefeller philanthropy into the social sciences, stimulating the founding of university research centers, and creating the Social Science Research Council. In January 1929, LSRM funds were folded into the Rockefeller Foundation, in a major reorganization. Junior became the foundation chairman in 1917. One of the many prominent trustees of the institution since has been C. Douglas Dillon, the United States Secretary of the Treasury under both Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. Eugenics and Nazi racial studies Beginning in 1930, the Rockefeller Foundation provided financial support to the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, which later inspired and conducted eugenics experiments in the Third Reich. The Rockefeller Foundation funded Nazi racial studies even after it was clear that this research was being used to rationalize the demonizing of Jews and other groups. Up until 1939, the Rockefeller Foundation was funding research used to support Nazi racial science studies at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute of Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics (KWIA.) Reports submitted to Rockefeller did not hide what these studies were being used to justify. Still, Rockefeller continued the funding and refrained from criticizing this research so closely derived from Nazi ideology. The Rockefeller Foundation did not alert "the world to the nature of German science and the racist folly" that German anthropology promulgated. Rockefeller funded for years after the passage of the 1935 Nuremberg racial laws. The Rockefeller Foundation, along with the Carnegie Institution, was the primary financier for the Eugenics Record Office, until 1939. Harvard International Seminars The foundation also supported the early initiatives of Henry Kissinger, such as his directorship of Harvard's International Seminars (funded as well by the Central Intelligence Agency) and the early foreign policy magazine Confluence, both established by him while he was still a graduate student. Programs: scale and scope Through the years the foundation has expanded greatly in scope. Historically, it has given more than $14 billion in current dollars to thousands of grantees worldwide and has assisted directly in the training of nearly 13,000 Rockefeller Fellows. Its overall philanthropic activity has been divided into five main subject areas: Medical, health, and population sciences Agricultural and natural sciences Arts and humanities Social sciences International relations In the 1920s, the Rockefeller Foundation started a program to eradicate hookworm in Mexico. The program demonstrated the time period's confidence in science as the solution for everything. This reliance on science was known as scientific neutrality. The Rockefeller Foundation program stated that there was a crucial correlation between the world of science, politics and international health policy. This heavy reliance on scientific neutrality contradicted the hookworm program's fundamental objective to invest in public health in order to develop better social conditions and to establish positive ties between the United States and Mexico. The Hookworm Campaign set the terms of the relationship between Mexico and the Rockefeller Foundation that persisted through subsequent programs including the development of a network of local public health departments. The importance of the hookworm campaign was to get a foot in the door and swiftly convince rural people of the value of public health work. The roles of the RF's hookworm campaign are characteristic of the policy paradoxes that emerge when science is summoned to drive policy. The campaign in Mexico served as a policy cauldron through which new knowledge could be demonstrated applicable to social and political problems on many levels. A major program beginning in the 1930s was the relocation of German (Jewish) scholars from German universities to America. This was expanded to other European countries after the Anschluss occurred; when war broke out it became a full-scale rescue operation. Another program, the Emergency Rescue Committee was also partly funded with Rockefeller money; this effort resulted in the rescue of some of the most famous artists, writers and composers of Europe. Some of the notable figures relocated or saved (out of a total of 303 scholars) by the Foundation were Thomas Mann, Claude Lévi-Strauss and Leó Szilárd, enriching intellectual life and academic disciplines in the US. This came to light afterwards through a brief, unpublished history of the Foundation's program. Another program was its Medical Sciences Division, which funded women's contraception and the human reproductive system in general. Other funding went into endocrinology departments in American universities, human heredity, mammalian biology, human physiology and anatomy, psychology, and the studies of human sexual behavior by Dr. Alfred Kinsey. In 1950, the Foundation mounted a major program of virus research, establishing field laboratories in Poona, India; Port of Spain, Trinidad; Belém, Brazil; Johannesburg, South Africa; Cairo, Egypt; Ibadan, Nigeria; and Cali, Colombia. In time, major funding was also contributed by the countries involved, while in Trinidad the British government and neighbouring British-controlled territories also assisted. Sub-professional staff were almost all recruited locally and, wherever possible, local people were given scholarships and other support to be professionally trained. In most cases, locals eventually took over management of the facilities. Support was also given to research on viruses in many other countries. The result of all this research was the identification of a huge number of viruses affecting humans, the development of new techniques for the rapid identification of viruses, and a quantum leap in our understanding of arthropod-borne viruses. In the arts it has helped establish or support the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Ontario, Canada, and the American Shakespeare Festival in Stratford, Connecticut; Arena Stage in Washington, D.C.; Karamu House in Cleveland, Ohio; and Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts in New York. In a recent shift in program emphasis, President Rodin eliminated the division that spent money on the arts, the creativity and culture program. One program that signals the shift was the foundation's support as the underwriter of Spike Lee's documentary on New Orleans, When the Levees Broke. The film has been used as the basis for a curriculum on poverty, developed by the Teachers College at Columbia University for their students. Many scientists and scholars from all over the world have received foundation fellowships and scholarships for advanced study in major scientific disciplines. In addition, the foundation has provided significant and often substantial research grants to finance conferences and assist with published studies, as well as funding departments and programs, to a vast range of foreign policy and educational organizations, including: Council on Foreign Relations (CFR) – Especially the notable 1939-45 War and Peace Studies that advised the US State Department and the US government on World War II strategy and forward planning Royal Institute of International Affairs (RIIA) in London Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Washington – Support of the diplomatic training program Brookings Institution in Washington – Significant funding of research grants in the fields of economic and social studies World Bank in Washington – Helped finance the training of foreign officials through the Economic Development Institute Harvard University – Grants to the Center for International Affairs and medical, business and administration Schools Yale University – Substantial funding to the Institute of International Studies Princeton University – Office of Population Research Columbia University – Establishment of the Russia Institute University of the Philippines, Los Baños – Funded research for the College of Agriculture and built an international house for foreign students McGill University – The Rockefeller Foundation funded the Montreal Neurological Institute, on the request of Dr. Wilder Penfield, a Canadian neurosurgeon, who had met David Rockefeller years before Library of Congress – Funded a project for photographic copies of the complete card catalogues for the world's fifty leading libraries Bodleian Library at Oxford University – Grant for a building to house five million volumes Population Council of New York – Funded fellowships Social Science Research Council – Major funding for fellowships and grants-in-aid National Bureau of Economic Research National Institute of Public Health of Japan (formerly ja) in Tokyo (1938) Group of Thirty – In 1978 the Foundation invited Geoffrey Bell to set up this high-powered and influential advisory group on global financial issues, whose former chairman was longtime Rockefeller associate Paul Volcker, until his death in 2019 London School of Economics – funded research and general budget University of Lyon, France – funded research in natural sciences, social sciences, medicine and the new building of the medical school during the 1920s-1930s The Trinidad Regional Virus Laboratory The Results for Development Institute – funded the Center for Health Market Innovations Mahidol University in Thailand Notable programs The Rockefeller Foundation has accomplished some notable achievements, such as: Financially supported education in the United States "without distinction of race, sex or creed" Helped establish the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine in the United Kingdom; Established the Johns Hopkins School of Public Health and Harvard School of Public Health, two of the first such institutions in the United States;Harvard School of Public Health, History Established the School of Hygiene at the University of Toronto in 1927; Developed the vaccine to prevent yellow fever; Helped The New School provide a haven for scholars threatened by the Nazis The foundation also funded several infamous projects: Various German eugenics programs, including the laboratory of Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, for whom Josef Mengele worked before he went to Auschwitz. The construction of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute's Institute for Brain Research with a $317,000 grant in 1929, with continuing support for the institute's operations under Ernst Rüdin over the next several years. An experiment conducted by Vanderbilt University in the 1940s where they gave 800 pregnant women radioactive iron, 751 of which were pills, without their consent. In a 1969 article published in the American Journal of Epidemiology, it was estimated that three children had died from the experiment. The Green Revolution Agriculture was introduced to the Natural Sciences division of the foundation in the major reorganization of 1928. In 1941, the foundation gave a small grant to Mexico for maize research, in collaboration with the then new president, Manuel Ávila Camacho. This was done after the intervention of vice-president Henry Wallace and the involvement of Nelson Rockefeller; the primary intention being to stabilise the Mexican Government and derail any possible communist infiltration, in order to protect the Rockefeller family's investments. By 1943, this program, under the foundation's Mexican Agriculture Project, had proved such a success with the science of corn propagation and general principles of agronomy that it was exported to other Latin American countries; in 1956, the program was then taken to India; again with the geopolitical imperative of providing an antidote to communism. It wasn't until 1959 that senior foundation officials succeeded in getting the Ford Foundation (and later USAID, and later still, the World Bank) to sign on to the major philanthropic project, known now to the world as the Green Revolution. It was originally conceived in 1943 as CIMMYT, the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center in Mexico. It also provided significant funding for the International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines. Part of the original program, the funding of the IRRI was later taken over by the Ford Foundation. The International Rice Research Institute and the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center are part of a consortium of agricultural research organizations known as CGIAR. Costing around $600 million, over 50 years, the revolution brought new farming technology, increased productivity, expanded crop yields and mass fertilization to many countries throughout the world. Later it funded over $100 million of plant biotechnology research and trained over four hundred scientists from Asia, Africa and Latin America. It also invested in the production of transgenic crops, including rice and maize. In 1999, the then president Gordon Conway addressed the Monsanto Company board of directors, warning of the possible social and environmental dangers of this biotechnology, and requesting them to disavow the use of so-called terminator genes; the company later complied. In the 1990s, the foundation shifted its agriculture work and emphasis to Africa; in 2006, it joined with the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation in a $150 million effort to fight hunger in the continent through improved agricultural productivity. In an interview marking the 100 year anniversary of the Rockefeller Foundation, Judith Rodin explained to This Is Africa that Rockefeller has been involved in Africa since their beginning in three main areas – health, agriculture and education, though agriculture has been and continues to be their largest investment in Africa. Bellagio Center The foundation also owns and operates the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio Center in Bellagio, Italy. The Center comprises several buildings, spread across a property, on the peninsula between lakes Como and Lecco in Northern Italy. The center is sometimes colloquially referred to as the Villa Serbelloni. The Villa is only one of the many buildings in which residents and conference participants are housed. The property was bequeathed to the Foundation in 1959 under the presidency of Dean Rusk (who was later to become U.S. President Kennedy's secretary of state). The Bellagio Center operates both a conference center and a residency program. The residency program is a highly competitive program to which scholars, artists, writers, musicians, scientists, policymakers and development professionals from around the world can apply to work on a project of their own choosing for a period of four weeks. The essence of the program is the synergy obtained by the interaction between people coming from the most diverse backgrounds. Numerous Nobel laureates, Pulitzer winners, National Book Award recipients, Prince Mahidol Award winners and MacArthur fellows, as well as several acting and former heads of State and Government, have been in residence at Bellagio. Rockefeller Foundation Communication for Social Change Network The network is enabled by the Rockefeller Foundation for collaboration between experts and communication professionals that include grassroots/community-based and international non-governmental organizations, as well as multilateral and bilateral entities. Its involvement in AIDS prevention was based on promoting deep-rooted social changes that stem from informed and inclusive public engagement. However, it recognized that wide-scale educational campaigns focused on altering individual behavior played a critical role. The strategy and principles linked with the network are listed below: "Sustainability of social change is more likely if the individuals and communities most affected own the process and content of communication." "Communication for social change should be empowering, horizontal (versus top-down), give a voice to the previously unheard members of the community, and be biased towards local content and ownership." "Communities should be the agents of their own change." "Emphasis should shift from persuasion and the transmission of information from outside technical experts to dialogue, debate and negotiation on issues that resonate with members of the community." "Emphasis on outcomes should go beyond individual behaviour to social norms, policies, culture and the supporting environment." 100 Resilient Cities In December 2013, The Rockefeller Foundation launched the 100 Resilient Cities initiative, which was dedicated to promoting urban resilience, defined as "the capacity of individuals, communities, institutions, businesses, and systems within a city to survive, adapt, and grow no matter what kinds of chronic stresses and acute shocks they experience." Through its program, 100 Resilient Cities offered cities the following resources: Financial and logistical guidance for establishing an innovative new position in city government, a Chief Resilience Officer, who will lead the city's resilience efforts Expert support for development of a robust resilience strategy Access to solutions, service providers, and partners from the private, public and NGO sectors who can help them develop and implement their resilience strategies Membership of a global network of member cities who can learn from and help each other A total of 100 cities across six continents were part of the program. All 100 cities developed individual City Resilience Strategies with technical support from a Chief Resilience Officer (CRO), funded by the program. The CRO ideally reports directly to the city's chief executive and helps coordinate all the resilience efforts in a single city. In January 2016, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development announced winners of its National Disaster Resilience Competition (NDRC), awarding three 100RC member cities – New York, NY; Norfolk, VA; and New Orleans, LA – with more than $437 million in disaster resilience funding. The grant was the largest ever received by the city of Norfolk. In April 2019, it was announced that the Rockefeller Foundation would no longer be funding the 100 Resilient Cities program as a whole. Some elements of the initiative's work, most prominently the funding of several cities' Chief Resilience Officer roles, continues to be managed and funded by the Rockefeller Foundation, while other aspects of the program continue in the form of two independent organizations, Resilient Cities Catalyst (RCC) and the Global Resilient Cities Network (GRCN), founded by former 100RC leadership and staff. Cultural Innovation Fund The Cultural Innovation Fund is a pilot grant program that is overseen by Lincoln Center for the Arts. The Rockefeller Foundation selected Lincoln Center to administer the fund based on the institutions steady track record in creating community based partnerships and implementing art based programs. The grants are to be used towards innovative ideas that would bring art access and foster cultural opportunities in the underserved areas of Brooklyn and the South Bronx with three overarching goals. Increase access to the arts in underserved neighborhoods around New York City increase the "places and platforms" where cultural activities are taking place support nonprofit organizations in implementing cultural based programs and strategies Family involvement The Rockefeller family helped lead the foundation in its early years, but later limited itself to one or two representatives, to maintain the foundation's independence and avoid charges of undue family influence. These representatives have included the former president John D. Rockefeller III, and then his son John D. Rockefeller, IV, who gave up the trusteeship in 1981. In 1989, David Rockefeller's daughter, Peggy Dulany, was appointed to the board for a five-year term. In October 2006, David Rockefeller, Jr. joined the board of trustees, re-establishing the direct family link and becoming the sixth family member to serve on the board. By contrast, the Ford Foundation has severed all direct links with the Ford family. Stock in the family's oil companies had been a major part of the foundation's assets, beginning with Standard Oil and later with its corporate descendants, including Exxon Mobil. In December 2020, the foundation pledged to dump their fossil fuel holdings. With a $5 billion endowment, the Rockefeller Foundation was "the largest US foundation to embrace the rapidly growing divestment movement." CNN writer Matt Egan noted, "This divestment is especially symbolic because the Rockefeller Foundation was founded by oil money." Historical legacy The second-oldest major philanthropic institution in America, after the Carnegie Corporation, the foundation's impact on philanthropy in general has been profound. It has supported United Nations programs throughout its history, such as the recent First Global Forum On Human Development, organized by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in 1999. The early institutions it set up have served as models for current organizations: the UN's World Health Organization, set up in 1948, is modeled on the International Health Division; the U.S. Government's National Science Foundation (1950) on its approach in support of research, scholarships and institutional development; and the National Institute of Health (1950) imitated its longstanding medical programs. Current trustees As of June 1, 2021 * Admiral James G. Stavridis (chair), 2018-, retired United States Navy; Supreme Allied Commander at NATO, 2009–2013, Operating Executive, The Carlyle Group; chair of the Board of Counselors, McLarty Associates Agnes Binagwaho, 2019-, Vice-Chancellor, The University of Global Health Equity, Rwanda Mellody Hobson, 2018-, President, Ariel Investments Donald Kaberuka, 2015-, former president, African Development Bank Group, Rwanda Minister of Finance and Economic Planning between 1997 and 2005. Martin L. Leibowitz, 2012-, Vice-chairman, Morgan Stanley Research Department's Global Strategy Team; formerly TIAA-CREF (1995 to 2004) and 26 years with Salomon Brothers Yifei Li, 2013-, country chair, Man Group China Ndidi Okonkwo Nwuneli, 2019-, co-founder, Sahel Consulting Paul Polman, 2019-, chair, International Chamber of Commerce, The B Team; Former CEO, Unilever Sharon Percy Rockefeller, 2017-, President & CEO, WETA-TV Juan Manuel Santos, 2020-, Former President of Colombia & Recipient of 2016 Nobel Peace Prize Dr. Rajiv Shah, 2017-, President of the Foundation and ex-officio member of the board; served as a Rockefeller Foundation Trustee, 2015–2017; former administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) from 2010 to 2017. Adam Silver, 2020-, Commissioner, National Basketball Association (NB) Patty Stonesifer, 2019-, former President & CEO, Martha's Table; former CEO and co-chair, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation Ravi Venkatesan, 2014-, former chairman, Bank of Baroda; former Chairman Microsoft India (2004–2011) and Cummins India; Special Representative for Young People and Innovation, UNICEF Past trustees include: Alan Alda, 1989–1994 – actor and film director. Winthrop W. Aldrich 1935–1951 – chairman of the Chase National Bank, 1934–1953; Ambassador to the Court of St. James, 1953–1957. John W. Davis 1922–1939 – J. P. Morgan's private attorney; founding president of the Council on Foreign Relations. C. Douglas Dillon 1960–1961 – US Treasury Secretary, 1961–1965; member of the Council on Foreign Relations. Orvil E. Dryfoos 1960–1963 – publisher of The New York Times, 1961–1963. Peggy Dulany, 1989–1994 – Fourth child of David Rockefeller; founder and president of Synergos. John Foster Dulles 1935–1952 (chairman) – US Secretary of State, 1953–1959; senior partner, Sullivan & Cromwell law firm. Charles William Eliot 1914–1917 – president of Harvard, 1869–1909. John Robert Evans 1982 -1996 (chairman) – president of the University of Toronto 1972–1978; founding director of the Population, Health and Nutrition Department of the World Bank Ann M. Fudge, 2006–2015, former chairman and CEO, Young & Rubicam Brands, New York Frederick Taylor Gates 1913–1923 – John D. Rockefeller Sr.'s principal advisor. Helene D. Gayle, 20010–2019, president and CEO of CARE. Stephen Jay Gould 1993–2002 – author; professor and curator, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. Rajat Gupta, 2006–11, former director, Goldman Sachs, Procter & Gamble, AMR Corporation; Special Advisor to the UN Secretary-General; former managing director, McKinsey & Company. Wallace Harrison 1951–1961 – Rockefeller family architect; lead architect for the UN Headquarters complex. Thomas J. Healey, 2003–2012, partner, Healey Development LLC; teaching course at Harvard University's John F. Kennedy School of Government; formerly with Goldman Sachs and an Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Treasury. Alice S. Huang, senior faculty associate, California Institute of Technology. Charles Evans Hughes 1917–1921; 1925–1928 – Chief Justice of the United States, 1930–1941. Robert A. Lovett 1949–1961 – US Secretary of Defense, 1951–1953. Monica Lozano, 2012–2018, CEO, ImpreMedia, LLC Yo-Yo Ma 1999–2002 – cellist. Strive Masiyiwa, 2003–2018, Zimbabwe a businessman and cellphone pioneer, founding Econet Wireless. Jessica T. Mathews, president, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington, D.C. John J. McCloy chairman: 1946–1949; 1953–1958 – prominent US presidential advisor; chairman of the Ford Foundation, 1958–1965; chairman of the council on Foreign Relations. Bill Moyers 1969–1981 – journalist. Diana Natalicio, 2004–2014, president, The University of Texas at El Paso Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, 2009–2018, Finance Minister of Nigeria; former managing director of the World Bank; former Foreign Minister of Nigeria. Sandra Day O'Connor, 2006–2013, associate justice, retired, Supreme Court of the United States James F. Orr, III, (board chair), president and chief executive officer, LandingPoint Capital, Boston, Massachusetts. Richard Parsons, 2007–2021, chairman of the board, Citigroup Inc. Surin Pitsuwan, 2010–2012, secretary general of ASEAN (2007–2012) and Thai politician. Mamphela Ramphele, chairperson, Circle Capital Ventures, Cape Town, South Africa. David Rockefeller Jr., 2006–2016, chair of foundation board Dec. 2010- ; vice-chairman of Rockefeller Family & Associates; director and former chair, Rockefeller & Co., Inc.; current trustee of the Museum of Modern Art. John D. Rockefeller 1913–1923. John D. Rockefeller Jr. chairman: 1917–1939. John D. Rockefeller III chairman: 1952–1972. John D. Rockefeller IV 1976–81. Judith Rodin, president of the foundation (2005-2016); ex-officio member of the board Julius Rosenwald 1917–1931 – chairman of Sears Roebuck, 1932–1939. John Rowe M.D., 2007–2019, professor at the Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health; former chairman and CEO of Aetna Inc. Dean Rusk 1950–1961 – US Secretary of State, 1961–1969. Raymond W. Smith, chairman, Rothschild, Inc., New York; chairman of Arlington Capital Partners; chairman of Verizon Ventures; and a trustee of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Frank Stanton 1961–1966? – president of CBS, 1946–1971. Arthur Hays Sulzberger 1939–1957 – publisher of The New York Times, 1935–1961. Paul Volcker 1975–1979 – chairman, board of governors, Federal Reserve Board; president, New York Federal Reserve Bank. Thomas J. Watson Jr. 1963–1970? – president of IBM, 1952–1971. James Wolfensohn – former president of the World Bank. George D. Woods 1961–1967? – president of the World Bank, 1963–1968. Võ Tòng Xuân, 2002–2010, vice president for academic affairs, Tan Tao University, Ho Chi Minh City; former rector of An Giang University, the second university in Vietnam's Mekong Delta. Owen D. Young 1928–1939 – chairman of GE, 1922–1939, 1942–1945. Scandal Bristol-Myers Squibb, Johns Hopkins University and the Rockefeller Foundation are currently the subject of a $1 billion lawsuit from Guatemala for "roles in a 1940s U.S. government experiment that infected hundreds of Guatemalans with syphilis". A previous suit against the United States government was dismissed in 2011 for the Guatemala syphilis experiments when a judge determined that the U.S. government could not be held liable for actions committed outside of the U.S. Presidents John D. Rockefeller, Jr. – 11 February 1913 – 6 November 1917 George E. Vincent – 6 November 1917 – 20 September 1929; member of the John D. Rockefeller/Frederick T. Gates General Education Board (1914–1929) Max Mason – 20 September 1929 – 30 May 1936 Raymond B. Fosdick – 30 May 1936 – 22 August 1948; brother of American clergyman Harry Emerson Fosdick Chester Barnard – 22 August 1948 – 17 July 1952; Bell System executive and author of landmark 1938 book, The Functions of the Executive Dean Rusk – 17 July 1952 – 19 January 1961; United States Secretary of State from 1961 to 1969 J. George Harrar – 20 January 1961 – 3 October 1972; plant pathologist, "generally regarded as the father of 'the Green Revolution.'" John Hilton Knowles – 3 October 1972 – 31 December 1979; physician, general director of the Massachusetts General Hospital (1962–1971). Richard Lyman – 1 January 1980 – 11 January 1988; president of Stanford University (1970–1980). Peter Goldmark, Jr. – 11 January 1988 – 31 December 1997; former executive director of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. Gordon Conway – 1 January 1998 – 31 December 2004; an agricultural ecologist and former president of the Royal Geographical Society. Judith Rodin - 1 January 2005 – 1 March 2017; former president of the University of Pennsylvania, and provost, chair of the Department of Psychology, Yale University. Rajiv Shah - 1 March 2017 -, distinguished fellow in residence, Georgetown University; previously administrator of the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) from 2010 to 2015. See also Asia Society Association Internationale Africaine CGIAR Eugenics in the United States Industrial relations Philanthropy Philanthropy in the United States Rockefeller Brothers Fund Rockefeller family Social sciences References Bibliography Berman, Edward H. The Ideology of Philanthropy: The influence of the Carnegie, Ford, and Rockefeller foundations on American foreign policy, New York: State University of New York Press, 1983. Brown, E. Richard, Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Capitalism in America, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1979. Chernow, Ron, Titan: The Life of John D. Rockefeller, Sr., London: Warner Books, 1998. Dowie, Mark, American Foundations: An Investigative History, Boston: The MIT Press, 2001. Farley, John. To Cast Out Disease: A History of the International Health Division of the Rockefeller Foundation (1913–1951) (2005) Fisher, Donald, Fundamental Development of the Social Sciences: Rockefeller Philanthropy and the United States Social Science Research Council, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1993. Fosdick, Raymond B., John D. Rockefeller, Jr., A Portrait, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956. Fosdick, Raymond B., The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York: Transaction Publishers, Reprint, 1989. Harr, John Ensor, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller Century: Three Generations of America's Greatest Family. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. Harr, John Ensor, and Peter J. Johnson. The Rockefeller Conscience: An American Family in Public and in Private, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1991. Jonas, Gerald. The Circuit Riders: Rockefeller Money and the Rise of Modern Science. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1989. Kay, Lily, The Molecular Vision of Life: Caltech, the Rockefeller Foundation, and the Rise of the New Biology, New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. Lawrence, Christopher. Rockefeller Money, the Laboratory and Medicine in Edinburgh 1919–1930: New Science in an Old Country, Rochester Studies in Medical History, University of Rochester Press, 2005. Nielsen, Waldemar, The Big Foundations, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1973. Nielsen, Waldemar A., The Golden Donors, E. P. Dutton, 1985. Called Foundation "unimaginative ... lacking leadership and 'slouching toward senility.'" Palmer, Steven, Launching Global Health: The Caribbean Odyssey of the Rockefeller Foundation, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2010. Rockefeller, David, Memoirs, New York: Random House, 2002. Shaplen, Robert, Toward the Well-Being of Mankind: Fifty Years of the Rockefeller Foundation, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1964. Theiler, Max and Downs, W. G., The Arthropod-Borne Viruses of Vertebrates: An Account of The Rockefeller Foundation Virus Program, 1951–1970. (1973) Yale University Press. New Haven and London. . Tournès, Ludovic. "American membership of the League of Nations: US philanthropy and the transformation of an intergovernmental organisation into a think tank." International Politics 55.6 (2018): 852–869. Uy, Michael Sy. Ask the Experts: How Ford, Rockefeller, and the NEA Changed American Music'', (Oxford University Press, 2020) 270pp. Rockefeller Foundation 990 Further reading CFR Website – Continuing the Inquiry: The Council on Foreign Relations from 1921 to 1996 The history of the council by Peter Grose, a council member – mentions financial support from the Rockefeller foundation. Interview with Norman Dodd An investigation of a hidden agenda within tax-free foundations, including the Rockefeller Foundation (Video). Foundation Center: Top 50 US Foundations by total giving New York Times: Rockefeller Foundation Elects 5 – Including Alan Alda and Peggy Dulany SFGate.com: "Eugenics and the Nazis: the California Connection" Press for Conversion! magazine, Issue # 53: "Facing the Corporate Roots of American Fascism," Bryan Sanders, Coalition to Oppose the Arms Trade, March 2004 External links Rockefeller Foundation website, including a timeline Hookworm and malaria research in Malaya, Java, and the Fiji Islands; report of Uncinariasis commission to the Orient, 1915–1917 The Rockefeller foundation, International health board. 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227746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisela%20of%20Burgundy	Gisela of Burgundy	Gisela of Burgundy (c. 955 – 21 July 1007), a member of the royal Elder House of Welf, was Duchess of Bavaria from about 972 to 976 and again from 985 to 995, by her marriage with Duke Henry the Wrangler. She was the mother of Emperor Henry II. Life Gisela was the eldest daughter of King Conrad I of Burgundy (c. 925 – 993), presumably from his first marriage with Adelaide of Bellay. After her mother's death, King Conrad married Matilda, a daughter of the West Frankish king Louis IV; among her half-siblings were Rudolph III, who succeeded his father as King of Arles (Bourgogne Transjurane in French or 'King of Burgundy') and Bertha, who married King Robert II of France in 996. Gisela's father ruled over the united Kingdom of Burgundy since 937, after he had been able to reject claims raised by King Hugh of Italy. The minor king was brought into safety by Otto I, then King of East Francia, who thereby scuppered Hugo's plans. In 951 Otto married Conrad's sister Saint Adelaide of Burgundy, the widow of Hugo's son King Lothair II of Italy. About 965 Gisela was betrothed to Otto's nephew Henry the Wrangler, who then ruled as Duke of Bavaria; the couple married some time before 972. Emperor Otto I died in 973 and was succeeded by his son Otto II. The 18-year-old had to cope with the Burgundian relations of his Bavarian cousin, forming a considerable power bloc in the southern domains of his realm. Gisela's husband revolted immediately, when upon the death of Henry's brother-in-law Duke Burchard III of Swabia in 973, Emperor Otto II skipped his claims and vested his nephew Otto with the Swabian duchy. During several years of bitter fighting, Duke Henry was arrested in the Imperial Palace of Ingelheim, fled, was declared deposed in 976, and again taken in the custody of Bishop Folcmar of Utrecht two years later. Gisela with her young son Henry II sought refuge with Bishop Abraham of Freising; during her husband's imprisonment, she resided in Merseburg. Henry was not released until the emperor's death in 983. He again tried to snatch the crown from the minor successor Otto III, however, with the intervention by Dowager Empress Theophanu and her predecessor, Gisela's aunt Adelaide of Burgundy, he finally submitted in 985 and regained his Bavarian duchy. Marriage and children With Henry, Gisela had three children: Henry IV of Bavaria (973–1024), succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, fulfilled his father's ambitions when he was elected King of the Romans (as Henry II) in 1002 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1014 Bruno (died 1029), Bishop of Augsburg from 1006 Gisela (c.985–1060), married King Stephen I of Hungary. Henry II was already mentioned as a Bavarian condux in 994. Gisela lived to see her son's accession to the throne in the royal election of 1002. According to the chronicles by Thietmar of Merseburg, she died on 21 July 1007. She was buried in the abbey of Niedermünster, Regensburg. Her daughter Gisela of Hungary donated an opulent burial cross, known as Giselakreuz, which today is part of the collections at the Munich Residenz treasury. References 10th-century births 1006 deaths Kingdom of Burgundy French princesses Burials at Niedermünster, Regensburg Elder House of Welf 10th-century French nobility 10th-century French women 10th-century German nobility 10th-century German women 11th-century German nobility 11th-century German women	[ -0.82148677110672, 0.18188510835170746, -0.40724727511405945, 0.23486098647117615, -0.8998547792434692, 0.5866628885269165, 0.3868049383163452, 0.1666744500398636, -0.715192437171936, -0.28595805168151855, 0.2738030254840851, -0.03543960303068161, 0.053994644433259964, 0.22018329799175262, -0.24944961071014404, 0.2864975929260254, -0.0252518467605114, 0.8675850033760071, 0.17615284025669098, -0.9326340556144714, 0.5773777961730957, -0.490635484457016, -0.4285149872303009, -0.22889214754104614, 0.4112086892127991, 0.46366021037101746, 0.481230765581131, 0.2552078664302826, 0.41434261202812195, -0.04826610907912254, 0.18942752480506897, 0.12913446128368378, 0.5603612065315247, 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227797	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisela%20of%20Hungary	Gisela of Hungary	Gisela of Hungary (or Gisele, Gizella and of Bavaria; 985 – 7 May 1065) was the first queen consort of Hungary by marriage to Stephen I of Hungary, and the sister of Henry II, Holy Roman Emperor. She has been beatified by the Catholic Church. Biography Gisela was a daughter of Henry II, Duke of Bavaria and Gisela of Burgundy. Gisela was raised very devout, most likely with bishop Wolfgang of Regensburg as her mentor and governor. She married King Stephen I of Hungary in 996 as a part of Hungary's policy of opening up to the West. The couple had a son, Saint Emeric, who died on 2 September 1031, while hunting boar. The wedding of Stephen and Gisela marked a turning point in Hungary's history. Queen Gisela played a fundamental role in spreading the Christian faith and Western culture in Hungary. When Edmund Ironside of England died, he was succeeded by Cnut. Edmund's infant sons were sent abroad and ended up under the protection of King Stephen of Hungary. One of the twins died young, but the other, Edward Atheling, was brought up as a protégé of Queen Gisela, and regarded in that foreign court as the heir to the Anglo-Saxon throne. King Stephen died in 1038. In 1046 Gisela, her attendants, and a number of many Bavarian settlers left Hungary to return to Bavaria, where she joined Niederburg convent in Passau and became the abbess. She lived in the nunnery of Niederburg in Passau, where she died. Veneration Gisela's canonisation was attempted in the 18th century but failed. She was beatified in 1975. Her memorial days are 7 May and 1 February. Gisela and her husband were not buried together. On 4 May 1996, the remains of King Stephen's right hand was preserved, and it was brought back together with a bone taken from the arm of Gisela. Both are now safely protected in glass and gold cases, and are displayed in the basilica in the western Hungarian town of Veszprém, where Gisela once lived. Her grave is well known, and regarded as a holy place. The cross was commissioned by Queen Gisela for the tomb of her mother, who died in 1006 and was buried in the Niedermünster in Regensburg. Blessed Gisela is depicted on a white limestone panel by Hungarian artist Sandor Kiss on the wall of the Chapel of Our Lady – Queen of Hungary in St. Peter's Basilica, Rome. References Sources \|- 980s births 11th-century deaths 10th-century German nobility 11th-century German nobility 10th-century Hungarian nobility 11th-century Hungarian nobility Hungarian queens consort Hungarian people of German descent German beatified people Hungarian Roman Catholic saints Roman Catholic royal saints 10th-century German women 11th-century German abbesses 10th-century Hungarian women 11th-century Hungarian women	[ -0.6431634426116943, 0.1622917503118515, 0.33061838150024414, -0.03593096509575844, -0.5812408924102783, 0.9022101163864136, 0.3644988238811493, -0.48974868655204773, -0.5196521282196045, -0.36524027585983276, 0.05919775366783142, -0.2910820543766022, -0.005397420842200518, -0.0635882169008255, -0.6895570755004883, 0.048519499599933624, 0.8716042637825012, 0.6234413385391235, -0.03572763875126839, -1.0963801145553589, 0.786689281463623, 0.21464474499225616, -0.011743888258934021, -0.01899762451648712, 0.4467194080352783, 0.11500617116689682, 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227807	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humerus	Humerus	The humerus (; ) is a long bone in the arm that runs from the shoulder to the elbow. It connects the scapula and the two bones of the lower arm, the radius and ulna, and consists of three sections. The humeral upper extremity consists of a rounded head, a narrow neck, and two short processes (tubercles, sometimes called tuberosities). The body is cylindrical in its upper portion, and more prismatic below. The lower extremity consists of 2 epicondyles, 2 processes (trochlea & capitulum), and 3 fossae (radial fossa, coronoid fossa, and olecranon fossa). As well as its true anatomical neck, the constriction below the greater and lesser tubercles of the humerus is referred to as its surgical neck due to its tendency to fracture, thus often becoming the focus of surgeons. Etymology The word "humerus" is derived from meaning upper arm, shoulder, and is linguistically related to Gothic ams shoulder and Greek ōmos. Structure Upper extremity The upper or proximal extremity of the humerus consists of the bone's large rounded head joined to the body by a constricted portion called the neck, and two eminences, the greater and lesser tubercles. Head The head (caput humeri), is nearly hemispherical in form. It is directed upward, medialward, and a little backward, and articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral joint (shoulder joint). The circumference of its articular surface is slightly constricted and is termed the anatomical neck, in contradistinction to a constriction below the tubercles called the surgical neck which is frequently the seat of fracture. Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The diameter of the humeral head is generally larger in men than in women. Anatomical neck The anatomical neck (collum anatomicum) is obliquely directed, forming an obtuse angle with the body. It is best marked in the lower half of its circumference; in the upper half it is represented by a narrow groove separating the head from the tubercles. The line separating the head from the rest of the upper end is called the anatomical neck. It affords attachment to the articular capsule of the shoulder-joint, and is perforated by numerous vascular foramina. Fracture of the anatomical neck rarely occurs. The anatomical neck of the humerus is an indentation distal to the head of the humerus on which the articular capsule attaches. Surgical neck The surgical neck is a narrow area distal to the tubercles that is a common site of fracture. It makes contact with the axillary nerve and the posterior humeral circumflex artery. Greater tubercle The greater tubercle (tuberculum majus; greater tuberosity) is a large, posteriorly placed projection that is placed laterally. The greater tubercle is where supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres minor muscles are attached. The crest of the greater tubercle forms the lateral lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of pectoralis major. The greater tubercle is just lateral to the anatomical neck. Its upper surface is rounded and marked by three flat impressions: the highest of these gives insertion to the supraspinatus muscle; the middle to the infraspinatus muscle; the lowest one, and the body of the bone for about 2.5 cm. below it, to the teres minor muscle. The lateral surface of the greater tubercle is convex, rough, and continuous with the lateral surface of the body. Lesser tubercle The lesser tubercle (tuberculum minus; lesser tuberosity) is smaller, anterolaterally placed to the head of the humerus. The lesser tubercle provides insertion to subscapularis muscle. Both these tubercles are found in the proximal part of the shaft. The crest of the lesser tubercle forms the medial lip of the bicipital groove and is the site for insertion of teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles. The lesser tuberosity, is more prominent than the greater: it is situated in front, and is directed medialward and forward. Above and in front it presents an impression for the insertion of the tendon of the subscapularis muscle. Bicipital groove The tubercles are separated from each other by a deep groove, the bicipital groove (intertubercular groove; bicipital sulcus), which lodges the long tendon of the biceps brachii muscle and transmits a branch of the anterior humeral circumflex artery to the shoulder-joint. It runs obliquely downward, and ends near the junction of the upper with the middle third of the bone. In the fresh state its upper part is covered with a thin layer of cartilage, lined by a prolongation of the synovial membrane of the shoulder-joint; its lower portion gives insertion to the tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle. It is deep and narrow above, and becomes shallow and a little broader as it descends. Its lips are called, respectively, the crests of the greater and lesser tubercles (bicipital ridges), and form the upper parts of the anterior and medial borders of the body of the bone. Shaft The body or shaft of the humerus is triangular to cylindrical in cut section and is compressed anteroposteriorly. It has 3 surfaces, namely: Anterolateral surface: the area between the lateral border of the humerus to the line drawn as a continuation of the crest of the greater tubercle. The antero-lateral surface is directed lateralward above, where it is smooth, rounded, and covered by the deltoid muscle; forward and lateralward below, where it is slightly concave from above downward, and gives origin to part of the Brachialis. About the middle of this surface is a rough, rectangular elevation, the deltoid tuberosity for the insertion of the deltoid muscle; below this is the radial sulcus, directed obliquely from behind, forward, and downward, and transmitting the radial nerve and profunda artery. Anteromedial surface: the area between the medial border of the humerus to the line drawn as a continuation of the crest of the greater tubercle. The antero-medial surface, less extensive than the antero-lateral, is directed medialward above, forward and medialward below; its upper part is narrow, and forms the floor of the intertubercular groove which gives insertion to the tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle; its middle part is slightly rough for the attachment of some of the fibers of the tendon of insertion of the coracobrachialis muscle; its lower part is smooth, concave from above downward, and gives origin to the brachialis muscle. Posterior surface: the area between the medial and lateral borders. The posterior surface appears somewhat twisted, so that its upper part is directed a little medialward, its lower part backward and a little lateralward. Nearly the whole of this surface is covered by the lateral and medial heads of the Triceps brachii, the former arising above, the latter below the radial sulcus. Its three borders are: Anterior: the anterior border runs from the front of the greater tubercle above to the coronoid fossa below, separating the antero-medial from the antero-lateral surface. Its upper part is a prominent ridge, the crest of the greater tubercle; it serves for the insertion of the tendon of the pectoralis major muscle. About its center it forms the anterior boundary of the deltoid tuberosity, on which the deltoid muscle attaches; below, it is smooth and rounded, affording attachment to the brachialis muscle. Lateral: the lateral border runs from the back part of the greater tubercle to the lateral epicondyle, and separates the anterolateral from the posterior surface. Its upper half is rounded and indistinctly marked, serving for the attachment of the lower part of the insertion of the teres minor muscle, and below this giving origin to the lateral head of the triceps brachii muscle; its center is traversed by a broad but shallow oblique depression, the spiral groove (musculospiral groove). The radial nerve runs in the spiral groove. Its lower part forms a prominent, rough margin, a little curved from backward, forward the lateral supracondylar ridge, which presents an anterior lip for the origin of the brachioradialis muscle above, and extensor carpi radialis longus muscle above, a posterior lip for the triceps brachii muscle, and an intermediate ridge for the attachment of the lateral intermuscular septum. Medial: the medial border extends from the lesser tubercle to the medial epicondyle. Its upper third consists of a prominent ridge, the crest of the lesser tubercle, which gives insertion to the tendon of the teres major muscle. About its center is a slight impression for the insertion of the coracobrachialis muscle, and just below this is the entrance of the nutrient canal, directed downward; sometimes there is a second nutrient canal at the commencement of the radial sulcus. The inferior third of this border is raised into a slight ridge, the medial supracondylar ridge, which became very prominent below; it presents an anterior lip for the origins of the brachialis muscle and the pronator teres muscle, a posterior lip for the medial head of the triceps brachii muscle, and an intermediate ridge for the attachment of the medial intermuscular septum. The Deltoid tuberosity is a roughened surface on the lateral surface of the shaft of the Humerus and acts as the site of insertion of deltoideus muscle. The posterorsuperior part of the shaft has a crest, beginning just below the surgical neck of the humerus and extends till the superior tip of the deltoid tuberosity. This is where the lateral head of triceps brachii is attached. The radial sulcus, also known as the spiral groove is found on the posterior surface of the shaft and is a shallow oblique groove through which the radial nerve passes along with deep vessels. This is located posteroinferior to the deltoid tuberosity. The inferior boundary of the spiral groove is continuous distally with the lateral border of the shaft. The nutrient foramen of the humerus is located in the anteromedial surface of the humerus. The nutrient arteries enter the humerus through this foramen. Distal humerus The distal or lower extremity of the humerus is flattened from before backward, and curved slightly forward; it ends below in a broad, articular surface, which is divided into two parts by a slight ridge. Projecting on either side are the lateral and medial epicondyles. Articular surface The articular surface extends a little lower than the epicondyles, and is curved slightly forward; its medial extremity occupies a lower level than the lateral. The lateral portion of this surface consists of a smooth, rounded eminence, named the capitulum of the humerus; it articulates with the cup-shaped depression on the head of the radius, and is limited to the front and lower part of the bone. Fossae Above the front part of the trochlea is a small depression, the coronoid fossa, which receives the coronoid process of the ulna during flexion of the forearm. Above the back part of the trochlea is a deep triangular depression, the olecranon fossa, in which the summit of the olecranon is received in extension of the forearm. The coronoid fossa is the medial hollow part on the anterior surface of the distal humerus. The coronoid fossa is smaller than the olecranon fossa and receives the coronoid process of the ulna during maximum flexion of the elbow. Above the front part of the capitulum is a slight depression, the radial fossa, which receives the anterior border of the head of the radius, when the forearm is flexed. These fossæ are separated from one another by a thin, transparent lamina of bone, which is sometimes perforated by a supratrochlear foramen; they are lined in the fresh state by the synovial membrane of the elbow-joint, and their margins afford attachment to the anterior and posterior ligaments of this articulation. The Capitulum is a rounded eminence forming the lateral part of the distal humerus. The head of the radius articulates with the capitulum. The trochlea is spool-shaped medial portion of the distal humerus and articulates with the ulna. Epicondyles The epicondyles are continuous above with the supracondylar ridges. The lateral epicondyle is a small, tuberculated eminence, curved a little forward, and giving attachment to the radial collateral ligament of the elbow-joint, and to a tendon common to the origin of the Supinator and some of the Extensor muscles. The medial epicondyle, larger and more prominent than the lateral, is directed a little backward; it gives attachment to the ulnar collateral ligament of the elbow-joint, to the Pronator teres, and to a common tendon of origin of some of the Flexor muscles of the forearm; the ulnar nerve runs in a groove on the back of this epicondyle. The Medial supracondylar crest forms the sharp medial border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from the medial epicondyle. The Lateral Supracondylar crest forms the sharp lateral border of the distal humerus continuing superiorly from the lateral epicondyle. Borders The medial portion of the articular surface is named the trochlea, and presents a deep depression between two well-marked borders; it is convex from before backward, concave from side to side, and occupies the anterior, lower, and posterior parts of the extremity. The lateral border separates it from the groove which articulates with the margin of the head of the radius. The medial border is thicker, of greater length, and consequently more prominent, than the lateral. The grooved portion of the articular surface fits accurately within the semilunar notch of the ulna; it is broader and deeper on the posterior than on the anterior aspect of the bone, and is inclined obliquely downward and forward toward the medial side. Articulations At the shoulder, the head of the humerus articulates with the glenoid fossa of the scapula. More distally, at the elbow, the capitulum of the humerus articulates with the head of the radius, and the trochlea of the humerus articulates with the trochlear notch of the ulna. Nerves The axillary nerve is located at the proximal end, against the shoulder girdle. Dislocation of the humerus's glenohumeral joint has the potential to injure the axillary nerve or the axillary artery. Signs and symptoms of this dislocation include a loss of the normal shoulder contour and a palpable depression under the acromion. The radial nerve follows the humerus closely. At the midshaft of the humerus, the radial nerve travels from the posterior to the anterior aspect of the bone in the spiral groove. A fracture of the humerus in this region can result in radial nerve injury. The ulnar nerve lies at the distal end of the humerus near the elbow. When struck, it can cause a distinct tingling sensation, and sometimes a significant amount of pain. It is sometimes popularly referred to as 'the funny bone', possibly due to this sensation (a "funny" feeling), as well as the fact that the bone's name is a homophone of 'humorous'. It lies posterior to the medial epicondyle, and is easily damaged in elbow injuries. Function Muscular attachment The deltoid originates on the lateral third of the clavicle, acromion and the crest of the spine of the scapula. It is inserted on the deltoid tuberosity of the humerus and has several actions including abduction, extension, and circumduction of the shoulder. The supraspinatus also originates on the spine of the scapula. It inserts on the greater tubercle of the humerus, and assists in abduction of the shoulder. The pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi insert at the intertubercular groove of the humerus. They work to adduct and medially, or internally, rotate the humerus. The infraspinatus and teres minor insert on the greater tubercle, and work to laterally, or externally, rotate the humerus. In contrast, the subscapularis muscle inserts onto the lesser tubercle and works to medially, or internally, rotate the humerus. The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis (which attaches distally) act to flex the elbow. (The biceps do not attach to the humerus.) The triceps brachii and anconeus extend the elbow, and attach to the posterior side of the humerus. The four muscles of supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor and subscapularis form a musculo-ligamentous girdle called the rotator cuff. This cuff stabilizes the very mobile but inherently unstable glenohumeral joint. The other muscles are used as counterbalances for the actions of lifting/pulling and pressing/pushing. Other animals Primitive fossils of amphibians had little, if any, shaft connecting the upper and lower extremities, making their limbs very short. In most living tetrapods, however, the humerus has a similar form to that of humans. In many reptiles and some mammals (where it is the primitive state), the lower extremity includes a large opening called the entepicondylar foramen to allow the passage of nerves and blood vessels. Additional images Ossification During embryonic development, the humerus is one of the first structures to ossify, beginning with the first ossification center in the shaft of the bone. Ossification of the humerus occurs predictably in the embryo and fetus, and is therefore used as a fetal biometric measurement when determining gestational age of a fetus. At birth, the neonatal humerus is only ossified in the shaft. The epiphyses are cartilaginous at birth. The medial humeral head develops an ossification center around 4 months of age and the greater tuberosity around 10 months of age. These ossification centers begin to fuse at 3 years of age. The process of ossification is complete by 13 years of age, though the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) persists until skeletal maturity, usually around 17 years of age. See also Humerus fracture References External links Humerus - BlueLink Anatomy, University of Michigan Medical School Bones of the upper limb Long bones	[ -0.17597457766532898, 0.23868206143379211, -0.006250869482755661, 0.1338736116886139, -0.04354193061590195, 0.6599169373512268, 0.29258212447166443, 0.563784658908844, -0.17796523869037628, -0.688702404499054, -0.2516597807407379, 0.8614895939826965, 0.2695035934448242, -0.4007556736469269, -0.42098310589790344, 0.3354928493499756, 0.17854280769824982, 0.06703122705221176, -0.003201459301635623, 0.01753852516412735, -0.15101629495620728, -0.37435221672058105, 0.7541215419769287, -0.7522059082984924, 0.1506311148405075, 0.10649395734071732, 0.18220217525959015, 0.7174056768417358, -0.39851638674736023, -0.4551738202571869, -0.30737993121147156, 0.5268812775611877, -0.352583110332489, -1.1343371868133545, -0.701971173286438, -0.5494548082351685, 0.32754403352737427, -0.5996821522712708, -0.03475005924701691, -0.6411176323890686, 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227809	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian%20cuisine	Indian cuisine	Indian cuisine consists of a variety of regional and traditional cuisines native to the Indian subcontinent. Given the diversity in soil, climate, culture, ethnic groups, and occupations, these cuisines vary substantially and use locally available spices, herbs, vegetables, and fruits. Indian food is also heavily influenced by religion, in particular Hinduism and Islam, cultural choices and traditions. Historical events such as invasions, trade relations, and colonialism have played a role in introducing certain foods to this country. The Columbian discovery of the New World brought a number of new vegetables and fruit to India. A number of these such as potatoes, tomatoes, chillies, peanuts, and guava have become staples in many regions of India. Indian cuisine has shaped the history of international relations; the spice trade between India and Europe was the primary catalyst for Europe's Age of Discovery. Spices were bought from India and traded around Europe and Asia. Indian cuisine has influenced other cuisines across the world, especially those from Europe (especially Britain), the Middle East, Southern African, East Africa, Southeast Asia, North America, Mauritius, Fiji, Oceania, and the Caribbean. History Indian cuisine reflects an 8,000-year history of various groups and cultures interacting with the Indian subcontinent, leading to diversity of flavours and regional cuisines found in modern-day India. Later, trade with British and Portuguese influence added to the already diverse Indian cuisine. Prehistory and Indus Valley Civilization See also: Meluhha, Indus-Mesopotamia relations, and Maritime history of India After 9000 BCE, a first period of indirect contacts between Fertile Crescent and Indus Valley (IV) seems to have occurred as a consequence of the Neolithic Revolution and the diffusion of agriculture. Around 7000 BCE, agriculture spread from the Fertile Crescent to the Indus Valley, and wheat and barley began to be grown. Sesame, and humped cattle were domesticated in the local farming communities. Mehrgarh is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in South Asia. From circa 4500 to 1900 BC the rulers of Lower Mesopotamia were Sumerians who spoke a non-Indo-European and non-Semitic language, may have initially come from India and may have been related to the original Dravidian population of India. By 3000 BCE, turmeric, cardamom, black pepper and mustard were harvested in India. From Around 2350 BCE the evidence for imports from the Indus to Ur in Mesopotamia have been found, as well as Clove heads which are thought to originate from the Moluccas in Maritime Southeast Asia were found in a 2nd millennium BC site in Terqa. Akkadian Empire records mention timber, carnelian and ivory as being imported from Meluhha by Meluhhan ships, Meluhha being generally considered as the Mesopotamian name for the Indus Valley Civilization. Vedic age The ancient Hindu text Mahabharata mentions rice and vegetable cooked together, and the word "pulao" or "pallao" is used to refer to the dish in ancient Sanskrit works, such as Yājñavalkya Smṛti. Ayurveda, ancient Indian system of wellness, deals with holistic approach to the wellness, and it includes food, dhyana (meditation) and yoga. Antiquity Early diet in India mainly consisted of legumes, vegetables, fruits, grains, dairy products, and honey. Staple foods eaten today include a variety of lentils (dal), whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), rice, and pearl millet (bājra), which has been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent since 6200 BCE. Over time, segments of the population embraced vegetarianism during the Śramaṇa movement while an equitable climate permitted a variety of fruits, vegetables, and grains to be grown throughout the year. A food classification system that categorised any item as saatvic, raajsic, or taamsic developed in Yoga tradition. The Bhagavad Gita proscribes certain dietary practices (chapter 17, verses 8–10). Consumption of beef is taboo, due to cows being considered sacred in Hinduism. Beef is generally not eaten by Hindus in India except for Kerala, parts of southern Tamil Nadu and the north-east. Foods mentioned in ancient Indian scripture While many ancient Indian recipes have been lost in history, one can look at ancient texts to see what was eaten in ancient and pre-historic India. Barley—(known as Yava in both Vedic and Classical Sanskrit) is mentioned many times in Rigveda and other Indian scriptures as one of the principal grains in ancient India Betel leaf—primary use is as a wrapper for the chewing of areca nut or tobacco, where it is mainly used to add flavour; may also be used in cooking, usually raw, for its peppery taste Breadfruit—fritters called jeev kadge phodi in Konkani or kadachakka varuthath in Malayalam are a local delicacy in coastal Karnataka and Kerala Chickpeas—popular dishes are made with chickpea flour, such as mirchi bajji and mirapakaya bajji Curd—a traditional yogurt or fermented milk product, originating from the Indian subcontinent, usually prepared from cow's milk, and sometimes buffalo milk, or goat milk Figs—cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of India; from the 15th century onwards, also grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New World Ghee—a class of clarified butter that originated in ancient India, commonly used in the Indian subcontinent, Middle-Eastern cuisine, traditional medicine, and religious rituals Grape wine—first-known mention of grape-based wines in India is from the late 4th-century BC writings of Chanakya Honey—the spiritual and supposed therapeutic use of honey in ancient India was documented in both the Vedas and the Ayurveda texts Mango—the Jain goddess Ambika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree Mustard—brown mustard is a spice that was cultivated in the Indus Valley Civilization and is one of the important spices used in the Indian subcontinent today Pomegranate—in some Hindu traditions, the pomegranate (Hindi: anār) symbolizes prosperity and fertility, and is associated with both Bhoomidevi (the earth goddess) and Lord Ganesha (the one fond of the many-seeded fruit) Rice—cultivated in the Indian subcontinent from as early as 5,000 BC Rice cake—quite a variety are available Rose apple—mainly eaten as a fruit and also used to make pickles (chambakka achar) Saffron—almost all saffron grows in a belt from Spain in the west to Kashmir in the east Salt—considered to be a very auspicious substance in Hinduism and is used in particular religious ceremonies like house-warmings and weddings; in Jainism, devotees lay an offering of raw rice with a pinch of salt before a deity to signify their devotion, and salt is sprinkled on a person's cremated remains before the ashes are buried Sesame oil—popular in Asia, especially in Korea, China, and the South Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, where its widespread use is similar to that of olive oil in the Mediterranean Sorghum—commonly called jwaarie, jowar, jola, or jondhalaa, sorghum is one of the staple sources of nutrition Sugar—produced in the Indian subcontinent since ancient times, its cultivation spread from there into modern-day Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass Sugarcane—the earliest known production of crystalline sugar began in northern India; the earliest evidence of sugar production comes from ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts Turmeric—used widely as a spice in South Asian and Middle Eastern cooking Middle Ages to the 16th Century During the Middle Ages, several Indian dynasties were predominant, including the Gupta dynasty. Travel to India during this time introduced new cooking methods and products to the region, including tea. India was later invaded by tribes from Central Asian cultures, which led to the emergence of Mughlai cuisine, a mix of Indian and Central Asian cuisine. Hallmarks include seasonings such as saffron. Colonial Period The Portuguese and British during their rule introduced cooking techniques such as baking, and foods from the New World and Europe. The new-world vegetables popular in cuisine from the Indian subcontinent include tomato, potato, sweet potatoes, peanuts, squash, and chilli. Most New world vegetables such as sweet potatoes, potatoes, Amaranth, peanuts and cassava based Sago are allowed on Hindu fasting days. Cauliflower was introduced by the British in 1822. In the late 18th/early 19th century, an autobiography of a Scottish Robert Lindsay mentions a Sylheti man called Saeed Ullah cooking a curry for Lindsay's family. This is possibly the oldest record of Indian cuisine in the United Kingdom. Ingredients Staple foods of Indian cuisine include pearl millet (bājra), rice, whole-wheat flour (aṭṭa), and a variety of lentils, such as masoor (most often red lentils), tuer (pigeon peas), urad (black gram), and moong (mung beans). Lentils may be used whole, dehusked—for example, dhuli moong or dhuli urad—or split. Split lentils, or dal, are used extensively. Some pulses, such as channa or cholae (chickpeas), rajma (kidney beans), and lobiya (black-eyed peas) are very common, especially in the northern regions. Channa and moong are also processed into flour (besan). Many Indian dishes are cooked in vegetable oil, but peanut oil is popular in northern and western India, mustard oil in eastern India, and coconut oil along the western coast, especially in Kerala and parts of southern Tamil Nadu. Gingelly (sesame) oil is common in the south since it imparts a fragrant, nutty aroma. In recent decades, sunflower, safflower, cottonseed, and soybean oils have become popular across India. Hydrogenated vegetable oil, known as Vanaspati ghee, is another popular cooking medium. Butter-based ghee, or deshi ghee, is used commonly. Many types of meat are used for Indian cooking, but chicken and mutton tend to be the most commonly consumed meats. Fish and beef consumption are prevalent in some parts of India, but they are not widely consumed except for coastal areas, as well as the north east. The most important and frequently used spices and flavourings in Indian cuisine are whole or powdered chilli pepper (mirch, introduced by the Portuguese from Mexico in the 16th century), black mustard seed (sarso), cardamom (elaichi), cumin (jeera), turmeric (haldi), asafoetida (hing), ginger (adrak), coriander (dhania), and garlic (lasoon). One popular spice mix is garam masala, a powder that typically includes seven dried spices in a particular ratio, including black cardamom, cinnamon (dalchini), clove (laung), cumin (jeera), black peppercorns, coriander seeds and anise star. Each culinary region has a distinctive garam masala blend—individual chefs may also have their own. Goda masala is a comparable, though sweet, spice mix popular in Maharashtra. Some leaves commonly used for flavouring include bay leaves (tejpat), coriander leaves, fenugreek (methi) leaves, and mint leaves. The use of curry leaves and roots for flavouring is typical of Gujarati and South Indian cuisine. Sweet dishes are often seasoned with cardamom, saffron, nutmeg, and rose petal essences. Regional cuisines Cuisine differs across India's diverse regions as a result of variation in local culture, geographical location (proximity to sea, desert, or mountains), and economics. It also varies seasonally, depending on which fruits and vegetables are ripe. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Seafood plays a major role in the cuisine of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Staples of the diet of the Indigenous Andamanese traditionally include roots, honey, fruits, meat, and fish, obtained by hunting and gathering. Some insects were also eaten as delicacies. Immigration from mainland of India, however, has resulted in variations in the cuisine. Andhra Pradesh The cuisine of Andhra Pradesh belongs to the two Telugu-speaking regions of Rayalaseema and Coastal Andhra and is part of Telugu cuisine. The food of Andhra Pradesh is known for its heavy use of spices, and the use of tamarind. Seafood is common in the coastal region of the state. Rice is the staple food (as is with all South Indian states) eaten with lentil preparations such as pappu (lentils) and pulusu (stew) and spicy vegetables or curries. In Andhra, leafy greens or vegetables such as bottle-gourd and eggplant are usually added to dal. Pickles are an essential part of the local cuisine; popular among those are mango-based pickles such as avakaya and maagaya, gongura (a pickle made from sorrel leaves), usirikaya (gooseberry or amla), nimmakaya (lime), and tomato pickle. Perugu (yogurt) is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering spiciness. Breakfast items include dosa, pesarattu (mung bean dosa), vada, and idli. Arunachal Pradesh The staple food of Arunachal Pradesh is rice, along with fish, meat, and leaf vegetables. Native tribes of Arunachal are meat eaters and use fish, eggs, beef, chicken, pork, and mutton to make their dishes. Many varieties of rice are used. Boiled rice cakes wrapped in leaves are a popular snack. Thukpa is a kind of noodle soup common among the Monpa tribe of the region. Lettuce is the most common vegetable, usually prepared by boiling with ginger, coriander, and green chillies. Apong or rice beer made from fermented rice or millet is a popular beverage in Arunachal Pradesh and is consumed as a refreshing drink. Assam Assamese cuisine is a mixture of different indigenous styles, with considerable regional variation and some external influences. Although it is known for its limited use of spices, Assamese cuisine has strong flavours from its use of endemic herbs, fruits, and vegetables served fresh, dried, or fermented. Rice is the staple food item and a huge variety of endemic rice varieties, including several varieties of sticky rice are a part of the cuisine in Assam. Fish, generally freshwater varieties, are widely eaten. Other non-vegetarian items include chicken, duck, squab, snails, silkworms, insects, goat, pork, venison, turtle, monitor lizard, etc. The region's cuisine involves simple cooking processes, mostly barbecuing, steaming, or boiling. Bhuna, the gentle frying of spices before the addition of the main ingredients, generally common in Indian cooking, is absent in the cuisine of Assam. A traditional meal in Assam begins with a khar, a class of dishes named after the main ingredient and ends with a tenga, a sour dish. Homebrewed rice beer or rice wine is served before a meal. The food is usually served in bell metal utensils. Paan, the practice of chewing betel nut, generally concludes a meal. Bengal Due to being split between Bangladesh and India, the cuisine of Bengal differs in the use of religiously significant items, as well as international cuisine, such as Chinese food from the diaspora, Portuguese items, Armenian, Jewish and Anglo items from the colonial period. Mughal cuisine is a universal influencer in the Bengali palate, and has introduced Persian and Islamic foods to the region, as well as a number of more elaborate methods of preparing food, like marination using ghee. Fish, meat, rice, milk, and sugar all play crucial parts in Bengali cuisine. Bengali cuisine can be subdivided into four different types of dishes, charbya (চারব্য), or food that is chewed, such as rice or fish; choṣya, or food that is sucked, such as ambal and tak; lehya (লেহ্য), or foods that are meant to be licked, like chuttney; and peya (পেয়ে), which includes drinks, mainly milk. During the 19th century, many Odia-speaking cooks were employed in Bengal, which led to the transfer of several food items between the two regions. Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent that is analogous in structure to the modern service à la russe style of French cuisine, with food served course-wise rather than all at once. Bengali cuisine differs according to regional tastes, such as the emphasis on the use of chilli pepper in the Chittagong district of Bangladesh However, across all its varieties, there is predominant use of mustard oil along with large amounts of spices. The cuisine is known for subtle flavours with an emphasis on fish, meat, vegetables, lentils, and rice. Bread is also a common dish in Bengali cuisine, particularly a deep-fried version called luchi is popular. Fresh aquatic fish is one of its most distinctive features; Bengalis prepare fish in many ways, such as steaming, braising, or stewing in vegetables and sauces based on coconut milk or mustard. East Bengali food, which has a high presence in West Bengal and Bangladesh, is much spicier than the West Bengali cuisine, and tends to use high amounts of chilli, and is one of the spiciest cuisines in India and the World. Shondesh and Rashogolla are popular dishes made of sweetened, finely ground fresh cheese. For the latter, West Bengal and neighboring Odisha both claim to be the origin of dessert. Each state also has a geographical indication for their regional variety of rasgulla. The cuisine is also found in the state of Tripura and the Barak Valley of Assam. Bihar Bihari cuisine may include litti chokha, a baked salted wheat-flour cake filled with sattu (baked chickpea flour) and some special spices, which is served with baigan bharta, made of roasted eggplant (brinjal) and tomatoes. Among meat dishes, meat saalan is a popular dish made of mutton or goat curry with cubed potatoes in garam masala. Dalpuri is another popular dish in Bihar. It is salted wheat-flour bread, filled with boiled, crushed, and fried gram pulses. Malpua is a popular sweet dish of Bihar, prepared by a mixture of maida, milk, bananas, cashew nuts, peanuts, raisins, sugar, water, and green cardamom. Another notable sweet dish of Bihar is balushahi, which is prepared by a specially treated combination of maida and sugar along with ghee, and the other worldwide famous sweet, khaja is made from flour, vegetable fat, and sugar, which is mainly used in weddings and other occasions. Silao near Nalanda is famous for its production. During the festival of Chhath, thekua, a sweet dish made of ghee, jaggery, and whole-meal flour, flavoured with aniseed, is made. Chandigarh Chandigarh, the capital of Punjab and Haryana is a city of 20th-century origin with a cosmopolitan food culture mainly involving North Indian cuisine. People enjoy home-made recipes such as paratha, especially at breakfast, and other Punjabi foods like roti which is made from wheat, sweetcorn, or other glutenous flour with cooked vegetables or beans. Sarson da saag and dal makhani are well-known dishes among others. Popular snacks include gol gappa (known as panipuri in other places). It consists of a round, hollow puri, fried crisp and filled with a mixture of flavoured water, boiled and cubed potatoes, bengal gram beans, etc. Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh cuisine is unique in nature and not found in the rest of India, although the staple food is rice, like in much of the country. Many Chhattisgarhi people drink liquor brewed from the mahuwa flower palm wine (tadi in rural areas). Chhattisgarhi cuisines varies as per special occasions and festivals like Thethari and Khurmi, fara, gulgule bhajiya, chausela, chila, aaersa are prepared in regional festivals. The tribal people of the Bastar region of Chhattisgarh eat ancestral dishes such as mushrooms, bamboo pickle, bamboo vegetables, etc. Dadra and Nagar Haveli The local cuisine resembles the cuisine of Gujarat. Ubadiyu is a local delicacy made of vegetables and beans with herbs. The common foods include rice, roti, vegetables, river fish, and crab. People also enjoy buttermilk and chutney made of different fruits and herbs. Daman and Diu Daman and Diu is a union territory of India which, like Goa, was a former colonial possession of Portugal. Consequently, both native Gujarati food and traditional Portuguese food are common. Being a coastal region, the communities are mainly dependent on seafood. Normally, rotli and tea are taken for breakfast, rotla and saak for lunch, and chokha along with saak and curry are taken for dinner. Some of the dishes prepared on festive occasions include puri, lapsee, potaya, dudh-plag, and dhakanu. While alcohol is prohibited in the neighbouring state of Gujarat, drinking is common in Daman and Diu. Better known as the "pub" of Gujarat. All popular brands of alcohol are readily available. Delhi Delhi was once the capital of the Mughal empire, and it became the birthplace of Mughlai cuisine. Delhi is noted for its street food. The Paranthewali Gali in Chandani Chowk is just one of the culinary landmarks for stuffed flatbread (parathas). Delhi has people from different parts of India, thus the city has different types of food traditions; its cuisine is influenced by the various cultures. Punjabi cuisine is common, due to the dominance of Punjabi communities. Delhi cuisine is actually an amalgam of different Indian cuisines modified in unique ways. This is apparent in the different types of street food available. Kababs, kachauri, chaat, Indian sweets, Indian ice cream (commonly called kulfi), and even Western food items like sandwiches and patties, are prepared in a style unique to Delhi and are quite popular. Goa The area has a tropical climate, which means the spices and flavours are intense. Use of kokum is a distinct feature of the region's cuisine. Goan cuisine is mostly seafood and meat-based; the staple foods are rice and fish. Kingfish (vison or visvan) is the most common delicacy, and others include pomfret, shark, tuna, and mackerel; these are often served with coconut milk. Shellfish, including crabs, prawns, tiger prawns, lobster, squid, and mussels, are commonly eaten. The cuisine of Goa is influenced by its Hindu origins, 400 years of Portuguese colonialism, and modern techniques. Bread, introduced by the Portuguese, is very popular, and is an important part of the Goan breakfast, most frequently in the form of toast. Tourism in the area adds an international aspect, hence vegetarianism has become quite favored. Gujarat Gujarati cuisine is primarily vegetarian. The typical Gujarati thali consists of roti (rotlii in Gujarati), daal or kadhi, rice, sabzi/shaak, papad and chaas (buttermilk). Sabzi is a dish of different combinations of vegetables and spices which may be stir fried, spicy or sweet. Gujarati cuisine can vary widely in flavour and heat based on personal and regional tastes. North Gujarat, Kathiawad, Kachchh, and South Gujarat are the four major regions of Gujarati cuisine. Many Gujarati dishes are simultaneously sweet, salty (like handvo), and spicy. In mango season, keri no ras (fresh mango pulp) is often an integral part of the meal. Spices also vary seasonally. For example, garam masala is used much less in summer. Gujarati snacks include sev khamani, khakhra, dal vada, methi na bhajiya, khaman, bhakharwadi and more. Regular fasting, with diets limited to milk, dried fruit, and nuts, is a common practice, Haryana Cattle being common in Haryana, dairy products are a common component of its cuisine. Specific regional dishes include kadhi, pakora, besan masala roti, bajra aloo roti, churma, kheer, bathua raita, methi gajar, singri ki sabzi, and tomato chutney. In the past, its staple diet included bajra khichdi, rabdi, onion chutney, and bajra ki roti. In non-vegetarian cuisine it includes kukad kadhai and chicken tikka masala. Lassi, sharbat, nimbu pani and labsi (a mixture of bajra flour and lassi) are three popular non-alcoholic beverages in Haryana. However, liquor stores are common there, which cater to a large number of truck drivers. Himachal Pradesh The daily diet of Himachal people is similar to that of the rest of North India, including lentils, broth, rice, vegetables, and bread, although non-vegetarian cuisine is preferred. Some of the specialities of Himachal include sidu, patande, chukh, rajmah, and til chutney. Jammu and Kashmir The cuisine of Jammu and Kashmir is from two regions of the state: Jammu division and Kashmir Valley. Kashmiri cuisine has evolved over hundreds of years. Its first major influence was the food of the Kashmiri Hindus and Buddhists. The cuisine was later influenced by the cultures which arrived with the invasion of Kashmir by Timur from the area of modern Uzbekistan. Subsequent influences have included the cuisines of Central Asia and the North Indian plains. The most notable ingredient in Kashmiri cuisine is mutton, of which over 30 varieties are known. Wazwan is a multicourse meal in the Kashmiri tradition, the preparation of which is considered an art. Kashmiri pandit food is elaborate, and an important part of the Pandits' ethnic identity. Kashmiri pandit cuisine usually uses dahi (yogurt), oil, and spices such as turmeric, red chilli, cumin, ginger, and fennel, though they do not use onion and garlic. Birayanis are quite popular, and are the speciality of Kashmir. The Jammu region is famous for its sund panjeeri, patisa, rajma with rice and Kalari cheese. Dogri food includes ambal (sour pumpkin dish), khatta meat, kulthein di dal, dal chawal, maa da madra (black gram lentils in yogurt) and Uriya. Many types of pickles are made including mango, kasrod, and girgle. Street food is also famous which include various types of chaats, specially gol gappas, gulgule, chole bhature, rajma kulcha and dahi bhalla. Jharkhand Staple foods in Jharkhand are rice, dal and vegetables. Famous dishes include chirka roti, pittha, malpua, dhuska, arsa roti and litti chokha. Local alcoholic drinks include handia, a rice beer, and mahua daru, made from flowers of the mahua tree (Madhuca longifolia). Karnataka A number of dishes, such as idli, rava idli, Mysore masala dosa, etc., were invented here and have become popular beyond the state of Karnataka. Equally, varieties in the cuisine of Karnataka have similarities with its three neighbouring South Indian states, as well as the states of Maharashtra and Goa to its north. It is very common for the food to be served on a banana leaf, especially during festivals and functions. Karnataka cuisine can be very broadly divided into Mysore/Bangalore cuisine, North Karnataka cuisine, Udupi cuisine, Kodagu/Coorg cuisine, Karavali/coastal cuisine, and Saraswat cuisine. This cuisine covers a wide spectrum of food from pure vegetarian and vegan to meats like pork, and from savouries to sweets. Typical dishes include bisi bele bath, jolada rotti, badanekai yennegai, holige, kadubu, chapati, idli vada, ragi rotti, akki rotti, saaru, huli, kootu, vangibath, khara bath, kesari bhath, sajjige, neer dosa, mysoore, haal bai, chiroti, benne dose, ragi mudde, and uppittu. The Kodagu district is known for spicy pork curries, while coastal Karnataka specialises in seafood. Although the ingredients differ regionally, a typical Kannadiga oota (Kannadiga meal) is served on a banana leaf. The coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada and Udupi have slightly varying cuisines, which make extensive use of coconut in curries and frequently include seafood. Kerala Contemporary Kerala food includes vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Fish and seafood play a major role in Kerala cuisine, as Kerala is a coastal state. An everyday Kerala meal in most households consists of rice with fish curry made of sardines, mackerel, seer fish, king fish, pomfret, prawns, shrimp, sole, anchovy, or parrotfish, (mussels, oysters, crabs, squid, scallops are not rare), and vegetable curry and stir-fried vegetables with or without coconut traditionally known as thoran or mizhukkupiratti. As Kerala has large number of inland water bodies, freshwater fish are also abundant, and part of regular meals. It is common in Kerala to have a breakfast with non-vegetarian dishes in restaurants, in contrast to other states in India. Chicken or mutton stews, lamb, chicken, beef, pork, egg curry, and fish curry with tapioca for breakfast are also widely enjoyed. Kerala cuisine reflects its rich trading heritage. Over time, various cuisines have blended with indigenous dishes, while foreign ones have been adapted to local tastes. Significant Arab, Syrian, Portuguese, Dutch, Jewish, and Middle Eastern influences exist in this region's cuisine. Coconuts grow in abundance in Kerala, so grated coconut and coconut milk are commonly used for thickening and flavouring. Kerala's long coastline and numerous rivers have led to a strong fishing industry in the state, making seafood a common part of the meal. Starchy food like Rice and tapioca forms the major part of Kerala's staple food. Having been a major region of spice cultivation and trade for thousands of years, the spices like black pepper, cardamom, clove, ginger, cumin and cinnamon finds extensive use in Kerala cuisine. Kerala sadhya, an elaborate vegetarian banquet prepared for festivals and ceremonies. A full-course sadhya, which consists of rice with about 20 different accompaniments and desserts is the ceremonial meal, eaten usually on celebrations such as marriages, Onam, Vishu, etc. and is served on a plantain leaf. Most of Kerala's Hindus, except its Brahmin community, eats fish, chicken, beef, pork, eggs, and mutton. The Brahmin are famed for their vegan cuisine, especially varieties of sambar and rasam. A thick vegetable stew popular in South and Central India called avial is believed to have originated in southern Kerala. The avial, eaten widely in the state, is an important vegetarian dish in Kerala sadya. In most Kerala households, a typical meal consists of rice served along with vegetables and fish or meat dishes. Kerala also has a variety of breakfast dishes like idli, dosa, appam, idiyappam, puttu, parotta and pathiri served with sambar, coconut chutney, mutta curry (egg curry), kadala (chickpea) curry, green peas, chicken curry, beef curry and mutton curry. The Muslim community of Kerala blend Arabian, North Indian, and indigenous Malabari cuisines, using chicken, eggs, beef, and mutton. Thalassery biryani is the only biryani variant, which is of Kerala origin having originated in Talassery, in Malabar region. The dish is significantly different from other biryani variants. Snacks like Pazham nirachathu, Unnakkai, Bread pola— made of bread, eggs, milk and a simple masala, Iftar preparations like Thari kanji, Kozhi pichuporichathu (shredded chicken), Pidi— a preparation of rice dumplings dunked in gravy,Irachi pathiri, Chatti pathiri, Meen pathiri, Neriya pathiri and Kannu vecha pathiri — roti varieties usually made of powdered rice, dishes like Kaai curry etc., are also contributions of Muslim community to the broad Kerala cuisine. The Pathanamthitta region is known for raalan and fish curries. Appam along with wine and curries of duck, pork and cured beef are popular among Syrian Christians in Central Kerala. Popular desserts are payasam (pudding) and halwa. Payasam, especially Ambalappuzha Paalpayasam also known as Gopala Kashayam (Krishnan's potion) prepared at the 17th century Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna swami temple, is a delicacy known for its unique and flavourful taste. Interestingly, on each day the paalpayasam is prepared only after (ritualistically) seeking due permission from the presiding deity — Shri Krishna. Kerala has a number of paayasam varieties including but not limited to Paalpayasam, Vermicelli Payasam, Pradhaman, Ada Pradhaman, Chakka (Jackfruit) Pradhaman, Parippu Paayasam and more. Paayasam like Vermicelli Payasam (Semiya payasam) also finds a place in Iftar feast of Muslim communities in Kerala. Halva is one of the most commonly found or easily recognized sweets in bakeries throughout Kerala, and originated from the Gujarathi community in Calicut. Europeans used to call the dish "sweetmeat" due to its texture, and a street in Kozhikode where became named Sweet Meat Street during colonial rule. This is mostly made from maida (highly refined wheat), and comes in various flavours, such as banana, ghee or coconut. However, karutha haluva (black haluva) made from rice is also very popular. Ladakh Ladakhi cuisine is from the two districts of Leh and Kargil in the union territory of Ladakh. Ladakhi food has much in common with Tibetan food, the most prominent foods being thukpa (noodle soup) and tsampa, known in Ladakhi as ngampe (roasted barley flour). Edible without cooking, tsampa makes useful trekking food. Strictly Ladakhi dishes include skyu and chutagi, both heavy and rich soup pasta dishes, skyu being made with root vegetables and meat, and chutagi with leafy greens and vegetables. As Ladakh moves toward a cash-based economy, foods from the plains of India are becoming more common. As in other parts of Central Asia, tea in Ladakh is traditionally made with strong green tea, butter, and salt. It is mixed in a large churn and known as gurgur cha, after the sound it makes when mixed. Sweet tea (cha ngarmo) is common now, made in the Indian style with milk and sugar. Most of the surplus barley that is produced is fermented into chang, an alcoholic beverage drunk especially on festive occasions. Lakshadweep The cuisine of Lakshadweep prominently features seafood and coconut. Local food consists of spicy non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes. The culinary influence of Kerala is quite evident in the cuisines of Lakshadweep, since the island lies in close proximity to Kerala. Coconut and sea fish serve as the foundation of most meals. The people of Lakshadweep drink large amounts of coconut water, which is the most abundant aerated drink on the island. Coconut milk is the base for most of the curries. All the sweet or savory dishes have a touch of famous Malabar spices. Local people also prefer to have dosa, idlis, and various rice dishes. Madhya Pradesh The cuisine in Madhya Pradesh varies regionally. Wheat and meat are common in the north and west of the state, while the wetter south and east are dominated by rice and fish. Milk is a common ingredient in Gwalior and Indore. The street food of Indore is well known, with shops that have been active for generations. Bhopal is known for meat and fish dishes such as rogan josh, korma, qeema, biryani, pilaf, and kebabs. On a street named Chatori Gali in old Bhopal, one can find traditional Muslim nonvegetarian fare such as paya soup, bun kabab, and nalli-nihari as some of the specialties. Dal bafla is a common meal in the region and can be easily found in Indore and other nearby regions, consisting of a steamed and grilled wheat cake dunked in rich ghee, which is eaten with daal and ladoos. The culinary specialty of the Malwa and Indore regions of central Madhya Pradesh is poha (flattened rice); usually eaten at breakfast with jalebi. Beverages in the region include lassi, beer, rum and sugarcane juice. A local liquor is distilled from the flowers of the mahua tree. Date palm toddy is also popular. In tribal regions, a popular drink is the sap of the sulfi tree, which may be alcoholic if it has fermented. Maharashtra Maharashtrian cuisine is an extensive balance of many different tastes. It includes a range of dishes from mild to very spicy tastes. Bajri, wheat, rice, jowar, vegetables, lentils, and fruit form important components of the Maharashtrian diet. Popular dishes include puran poli, ukdiche modak, batata wada, sabudana khichdi, masala bhat, pav bhaji, and wada pav. Poha or flattened rice is also usually eaten at breakfast. Kanda poha and aloo poha are some of the dishes cooked for breakfast and snacking in evenings. Popular spicy meat dishes include those that originated in the Kolhapur region. These are the Kolhapuri Sukka mutton, pandhra rassa, and tabmda rassa. Shrikhand, a sweet dish made from strained yogurt, is a main dessert of Maharashtrian cuisine. The cuisine of Maharashtra can be divided into two major sections, the coastal and the interior. The Konkan, on the coast of the Arabian Sea, has its own type of cuisine, a homogeneous combination of Malvani, Goud Saraswat Brahmin, and Goan cuisine. In the interior of Maharashtra, the Paschim Maharashtra, Khandesh, Vidarbha and Marathwada areas have their own distinct cuisines. The cuisine of Vidarbha uses groundnuts, poppy seeds, jaggery, wheat, jowar, and bajra extensively. A typical meal consists of rice, roti, poli, or bhakar, along with varan and aamtee—lentils and spiced vegetables. Cooking is common with different types of oil. Savji food from Vidarbha is well known all over Maharashtra. Savji dishes are very spicy and oily. Savji mutton curries are very famous. Like other coastal states, an enormous variety of vegetables, fish, and coconuts exists, where they are common ingredients. Peanuts and cashews are often served with vegetables. Grated coconuts are used to flavour many types of dishes, but coconut oil is not widely used; peanut oil is preferred. Kokum, most commonly served chilled, in an appetiser-digestive called sol kadhi, is prevalent. During summer, Maharashtrians consume panha, a drink made from raw mango. Malwani Malwani cuisine is a specialty of the tropical area which spans from the shore of Deogad Malwan to the southern Maharashtrian border with Goa. The unique taste and flavor of Malwani cuisine comes from Malwani masala and use of coconut and kokam. The staple foods are rice and fish. Various kinds of red and green fish, prawns, crab, and shellfish curries (also called mashacha sar in the Malwani language) are well known, along with kombadi (chicken) wade and mutton prepared Malwani style. Mohari mutton is also one of the distinct delicacies of Malwani cuisine. A large variety of fish is available in the region, which include surmai, karali, bangada, bombil (Bombay duck), paplet (pomfret), halwa, tarali, suandale, kolambi (prawns), tisari (shellfish), kalwa (stone fish) and kurli (crab). All these fish are available in dried form, including prawns, which are known as sode. Local curries and chatanis are also prepared with dried fish. Different types of rice breads and pancakes add to the variety of Malwani cuisine and include tandlachi bhakari, ghawane, amboli, patole, appe, tandalachi and shavai (rice noodles). These rice breads can be eaten specially flavored with coconut milk, fish curries, and chicken or mutton curries. Sole kadi made from kokam and coconut milk is a signature appetizer drink . For vegetarians, Malwani delicacies include alloochi bhaji, alloochi gathaya, kalaya watanyacha, and sambara (black gram stew). The sweets and desserts include ukadiche modak, Malawani khaje, khadakahde kundiche ladu, shegdanyache ladu, tandalchi kheer, and tandalachi shavai ani ras (specially flavored with coconut milk). Manipur Manipuri cuisine is represented by the cuisine of the Meitei people who form the majority population in the central plain. Meitei food are simple, tasty, organic and healthy. Rice with local seasonal vegetables and fish form the main diet. Most of the dishes are cooked like vegetable stew, flavored with either fermented fish called ngari, or dried and smoked fish. The most popular Manipuri dish is eromba, a preparation of boiled and mashed vegetables, often including carrots, potatoes or beans, mixed with chilli and roasted fermented fish. Another popular dish is the savory cake called paknam, made of a lentil flour stuffed with various ingredients such as banana inflorescence, mushrooms, fish, vegetables etc., and baked covered in turmeric leaves. Along with spicy dishes, a mild side dish of steamed or boiled sweet vegetables are often served in the daily meals. The Manipuri salad dish called singju, made of finely julienned cabbage, green papaya, and other vegetables, and garnished with local herbs, toasted sesame powder and lentil flour is extremely popular locally, and often found sold in small street side vendors. Singju is often served with bora, which are fritters of various kinds, and also kanghou, or oil-fried spicy veggies. Cooked and fermented soybean is a popular condiment in all Manipuri kitchens. The staple diet of Manipur consists of rice, fish, large varieties of leafy vegetables (of both aquatic and terrestrial). Manipuris typically raise vegetables in a kitchen garden and rear fishes in small ponds around their house. Since the vegetables are either grown at home or obtained from local market, the cuisines are very seasonal, each season having its own special vegetables and preparations. The taste is very different from mainland Indian cuisines because of the use of various aromatic herbs and roots that are peculiar to the region. They are however very similar to the cuisines of Southeast, East, and Central Asia, Siberia, Micronesia and Polynesia. Meghalaya Meghalayan cuisine is unique and different from other Northeastern Indian states. Spiced meat is common, from goats, pigs, fowl, ducks, chickens, and cows. In the Khasi and Jaintia Hills districts, common foods include jadoh, ki kpu, tung-rymbai, and pickled bamboo shoots. Other common foods in Meghalaya include minil songa (steamed sticky rice), sakkin gata, and momo dumplings. Like other tribes in the northeast, the Garos ferment rice beer, which they consume in religious rites and secular celebrations. Mizoram The cuisine of Mizoram differs from that of most of India, though it shares characteristics to other regions of Northeast India and North India. Rice is the staple food of Mizoram, while Mizos love to add non-vegetarian ingredients in every dish. Fish, chicken, pork and beef are popular meats among Mizos. Dishes are served on fresh banana leaves. Most of the dishes are cooked in mustard oil. Meals tend to be less spicy than in most of India. Mizos love eating boiled vegetables along with rice. A popular dish is bai, made from boiling vegetables (spinach, eggplant, beans, and other leafy vegetables) with bekang (fermented soya beans) or sa-um, fermented pork fat served with rice. Sawhchiar is another common dish, made of rice and cooked with pork or chicken. Nagaland The cuisine of Nagaland reflects that of the Naga people. It is known for exotic pork meats cooked with simple and flavourful ingredients, like the extremely hot bhut jolokia (ghost chili) pepper, fermented bamboo shoots, and akhuni ( fermented soya beans). Another unique and strong ingredient used by the Naga people, is the fermented fish known as ngari. Fresh herbs and other local greens also feature prominently in the Naga cuisine. The Naga use oil sparingly, preferring to ferment, dry, and smoke their meats and fish. Traditional homes in Nagaland have external kitchens that serve as smokehouses. A typical meal consists of rice, meat, a chutney, a couple of stewed or steamed vegetable dishes, flavored with ngari or akhuni. Desserts usually consist of fresh fruits. Odisha The cuisine of Odisha relies heavily on local ingredients. Flavours are usually subtle and delicately spiced. Fish and other seafood, such as crab and shrimp, are very popular, and chicken and mutton are also consumed. Panch phutana, a mix of cumin, mustard, fennel, fenugreek and kalonji (nigella), is widely used for flavouring vegetables and dals, while garam masala and turmeric are commonly used for meat-based curries. Pakhala, a dish made of rice, water, and dahi (yogurt), that is fermented overnight, is very popular in summer in rural areas. Oriyas are very fond of sweets, so dessert follows most meals. Popular Oriya dishes include anna, kanika, dalma, khata (tamato and oou), dali (different types of lentils, i.e. harada [red gram], muga [green gram], kolatha [horsegram], etc.), spinach and other green leaves, and alu-bharta (mashed potato) along with pakhala. Odisha and neighboring West Bengal both claim to be the origin of rasgulla, each state having a geographical indication for their regional variety of the dessert. Odisha is also known for its chhena-based sweets, including chhena poda, chhena gaja, chhena jhili, and rasabali. Puducherry The union territory of Puducherry was a French colony for around 200 years, making French cuisine a strong influence on the area. Tamil cuisine is eaten by the territory's Tamil majority. The influence of the neighbouring areas, such as Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, is also visible on the territory's cuisine. Some favourite dishes include coconut curry, tandoori potato, soya dosa, podanlangkai (snake gourd chutney), curried vegetables, stuffed cabbage, and baked beans. Punjab The cuisine of Punjab is known for its diverse range of dishes. It is closely related to the cuisine of the neighbouring Punjab province of Pakistan. The state, being an agriculture center, is abundant with whole grains, vegetables, and fruits. Home-cooked and restaurant Punjabi cuisine can vary significantly. Restaurant-style Punjabi cooking puts emphasis on creamy textured foods by using ghee, butter and cream, while home-cooked meals center around whole wheat, rice, and other ingredients flavored with various kinds of masalas. Common dishes cooked at home are roti with daal and dahi (yogurt) with a side chutney and salad that includes raw onion, tomato, cucumber, etc. The meals are also abundant of local and seasonal vegetables usually sautéed with spices such as cumin, dried coriander, red chili powder, turmeric, black cloves, etc. Masala chai is a favorite drink and is consumed in everyday life and at special occasions. Many regional differences exist in the Punjabi cuisine based on traditional variations in cooking similar dishes, food combinations, preference of spice combination, etc. It is clear that "the food is simple, robust, and closely linked to the land." Certain dishes exclusive to Punjab, such as makki di roti and sarson da saag, dal makhani, and others are a favorite of many. The masala in a Punjabi dish traditionally consists of onion, garlic, ginger, cumin, garam masala, salt, turmeric, tomatoes sauteed in mustard oil. Tandoori food is a Punjabi specialty. Dishes like Bhatti da murgh also known as tandoori chicken, Chicken hariyali kabab, Achari paneer tikka, fish ajwaini tikka and Amritsari kulcha are some popular tandoori foods from Punjab. Common meat dishes in this region are Bhakra curry (goat) and fish dishes. Dairy products are regularly enjoyed and usually accompany main meals in the form of dahi, milk, and milk-derived products such as lassi, paneer, and more. Punjab has a large number of people following the Sikh religion who traditionally follow a vegetarian diet (which includes plant-derived foods, milk, and milk by-products. See diet in Sikhism) in accordance to their beliefs. No description of Punjabi cuisine is complete without the myriad of famous desserts, such as kheer, gajar ka halwa, sooji (cream of wheat) halwa, rasmalai, gulab jamun and jalebi. Most desserts are ghee or dairy-based, use nuts such as almonds, walnuts, pistachios, cashews, and, raisins. Many of the most popular elements of Anglo-Indian cuisine, such as tandoori foods, naan, pakoras and vegetable dishes with paneer, are derived from Punjabi styles. Punjabi food is well liked in the world for its flavors, spices, and, versatile use of produce, and so it is one of the most popular cuisines from the sub-continent. Last but not least are the chhole bhature and chhole kulche which are famous all over the North India. Rajasthan Cooking in Rajasthan, an arid region, has been strongly shaped by the availability of ingredients. Food is generally cooked in milk or ghee, making it quite rich. Gram flour is a mainstay of Marwari food mainly due to the scarcity of vegetables in the area. Historically, food that could last for several days and be eaten without heating was preferred. Major dishes of a Rajasthani meal may include daal-baati, tarfini, raabdi, ghevar, bail-gatte, panchkoota, chaavadi, laapsi, kadhi and boondi. Typical snacks include bikaneri bhujia, mirchi bada, pyaaj kachori, and dal kachori. Daal-baati is the most popular dish prepared in the state. It is usually supplemented with choorma, a mixture of finely ground baked rotis, sugar and ghee. Rajasthan is also influenced by the Rajput community who have liking for meat dishes. Their diet consisted of game meat and gave birth to dishes like laal maans, safed maas, khad khargosh and jungli maas. Sikkim In Sikkim, various ethnic groups such as the Nepalese, Bhutias, and Lepchas have their own distinct cuisines. Nepalese cuisine is very popular in this area. Rice is the staple food of the area, and meat and dairy products are also widely consumed. For centuries, traditional fermented foods and beverages have constituted about 20 percent of the local diet. Depending on altitudinal variation, finger millet, wheat, buckwheat, barley, vegetables, potatoes, and soybeans are grown. Dhindo, daal bhat, gundruk, momo, gya thuk, ningro, phagshapa, and sel roti are some of the local dishes. Alcoholic drinks are consumed by both men and women. Beef is eaten by Bhutias. Sindh Sindhi cuisine refers to the native cuisine of the Sindhi people from the Sindh region, now in Pakistan. While Sindh is not geographically a part of modern India, its culinary traditions persist, due to the sizeable number of Hindu Sindhis who migrated to India following the independence of Pakistan in 1947, especially in Sindhi enclaves such as Ulhasnagar and Gandhidam. A typical meal in many Sindhi households includes wheat-based flatbread (phulka) and rice accompanied by two dishes, one with gravy and one dry. Lotus stem (known as kamal kakri) is also used in Sindhi dishes. Cooking vegetables by deep frying is common. Some regular Sindhi dishes are sindhi kadhi, sai bhaji, koki and besan bhaji. Ingredients frequently used are mango powder, tamarind, kokum flowers, and dried pomegranate seeds. Tamil Nadu Tamil Nadu is noted for its deep belief that serving food to others is a service to humanity, as is common in many regions of India. The region has a rich cuisine involving both traditional non-vegetarian and vegetarian dishes. Tamil food is characterised by its use of rice, legumes, and lentils, along with distinct aromas and flavours achieved by the blending of spices such as mustard, curry leaves, tamarind, coriander, ginger, garlic, chili pepper, cinnamon, clove, cardamom, cumin, nutmeg, coconut and rose water. The traditional way of eating involves being seated on the floor, having the food served on a plantain leaf, and using the right hand to eat. After the meal the plantain leaf is discarded but becomes food for free-ranging cattle and goats. A meal (called saapadu) consists of rice with other typical Tamil dishes on a plantain leaf. A typical Tamilian would eat on a plantain leaf as it is believed to give a different flavour and taste to food. Also growing in popularity are stainless-steel trays, plates with a selection of different dishes in small bowls. Tamil food is characterized by tiffin, which is a light food taken for breakfast or dinner, and meals which are usually taken during lunch. The word "curry" is derived from the Tamil kari, meaning something similar to "sauce". Southern regions such as Tirunelveli, Madurai, Paramakudi, Karaikudi, Chettinad and Kongu Nadu are noted for their spicy non-vegetarian dishes. Dosa, idli, pongal and biryani are some of the popular dishes that are eaten with chutney and sambar. Fish and other seafoods are also very popular, because the state is located on the coast. Chicken and goat meat are the predominantly consumed meats in Tamil Nadu. A typical Tamil vegetarian meal is heavily dependent on rice, vegetables and lentil preparations such as rasam and sambar, but there are variations. They have influenced Kerala as well in their kootu, arachi vitta sambhar and molagootals (mulligatawny soup). As mentioned above, the Chettinad variety of food uses many strong spices, such as pepper, garlic, fennel seeds and onions. Tamil food tends to be spicy compared to other parts of India so there is a tradition of finishing the meal with dahi (yogurt) is considered a soothing end to the meal. Notably, Tamil Brahmin cuisine, the food of the Iyers and Iyengar community, is characterized by slightly different meal times and meal structures compared to other communities within the state. Historically vegetarian, the cuisine is known for its milder flavor and avoidance of onion and garlic (although this practice appears to be disappearing with time). After a light morning meal of filter coffee and different varieties of porridges (oatmeal and janata kanji are immensely popular), the main meal of the day, lunch/brunch is usually at 11 am and typically follows a two-three course meal structure. Steamed rice is the main dish, and is always accompanied by a seasonally steamed/sauteed vegetable (poriyal), and two or three types of tamarind stews, the most popular being sambhar and rasam. The meal typically ends with thair sadham (rice with yogurt), usually served with pickled mangoes or lemons. Tiffin is the second meal of the day and features several breakfast favorites such as idli, rava idli, upma, dosa varieties, and vada, and is usually accompanied by chai. Dinner is the simplest meal of the day, typically involving leftovers from either lunch or tiffin. Fresh seasonal fruit consumed in the state include bananas, papaya, honeydew and canteloupe melons, jackfruit, mangos, apples, kasturi oranges, pomegranates, and nongu (hearts of palm). Telangana The cuisine of Telangana consists of the Telugu cuisine, of Telangana's Telugu people as well as Hyderabadi cuisine (also known as Nizami cuisine), of Telangana's Hyderabadi Muslim community. Hyderabadi food is based heavily on non-vegetarian ingredients, while Telugu food is a mix of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian ingredients. Telugu food is rich in spices and chillies are abundantly used. The food also generally tends to be more on the tangy side with tamarind and lime juice both used liberally as souring agents. Rice is the staple food of Telugu people. Starch is consumed with a variety of curries and lentil soups or broths. Vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods are both popular. Hyderabadi cuisine includes popular delicacies such as biryani, haleem, Baghara baingan and kheema, while Hyderabadi day-to-day dishes see some similarities to Telanganite Telugu food, with its use of tamarind, rice, and lentils, along with meat. Dahi (yogurt) is a common addition to meals, as a way of tempering spiciness. Tripura The Tripuri people are the original inhabitants of the state of Tripura in northeast India. Today, they comprise the communities of Tipra, Reang, Jamatia, Noatia, and Uchoi, among others. The Tripuri are non-vegetarian, although they have a minority of Vaishnavite vegetarians. The major ingredients of Tripuri cuisine include vegetables, herbs, pork, chicken, mutton, fishes, turtle, shrimps, crabs, freshwater mussels, periwinkles, edible freshwater snails and frogs. Uttar Pradesh Traditionally, Uttar Pradeshi cuisine consists of Awadhi, Bhojpuri, and Mughlai cuisine, though a vast majority of the state is vegetarian, preferring dal, roti, sabzi, and rice. Pooris and kachoris are eaten on special occasions. Chaat, samosa, and pakora, among the most popular snacks in India, originate from Uttar Pradesh. Well-known dishes include kebabs, dum biryani, and various mutton recipes. Sheer qorma, ghevar, gulab jamun, kheer, and ras malai are some of the popular desserts in this region. Awadhi cuisine () is from the city of Lucknow, which is the capital of the state of Uttar Pradesh in Central-South Asia and Northern India, and the cooking patterns of the city are similar to those of Central Asia, the Middle East, and other parts of Northern India. The cuisine consists of both vegetarian and non-vegetarian dishes. Awadh has been greatly influenced by Mughal cooking techniques, and the cuisine of Lucknow bears similarities to those of Central Asia, Kashmir, Punjab and Hyderabad. The city is also known for its Nawabi foods. The bawarchis and rakabdars of Awadh gave birth to the dum style of cooking or the art of cooking over a slow fire, which has become synonymous with Lucknow today. Their spread consisted of elaborate dishes like kebabs, kormas, biryani, kaliya, nahari-kulchas, zarda, sheermal, roomali rotis, and warqi parathas. The richness of Awadh cuisine lies not only in the variety of cuisine but also in the ingredients used like mutton, paneer, and rich spices, including cardamom and saffron. Mughlai cuisine is a style of cooking developed in the Indian subcontinent by the imperial kitchens of the Mughal Empire. It represents the cooking styles used in North India (especially Uttar Pradesh). The cuisine is strongly influenced by Central Asian cuisine, the region where the Chagatai-Turkic Mughal rulers originally hailed from, and has strongly influenced the regional cuisines of Kashmir and the Punjab region. The tastes of Mughlai cuisine vary from extremely mild to spicy, and is often associated with a distinctive aroma and the taste of ground and whole spices. A Mughlai course is an elaborate buffet of main course dishes with a variety of accompaniments. Uttarakhand Food from Uttrakhand is known to be healthy and wholesome to suit the high-energy necessities of the cold, mountainous region. It is a high-protein diet that makes heavy use of pulses and vegetables. Traditionally, it is cooked over wood or charcoal fire mostly using iron utensils. While making use of condiments such as jeera, haldi and rai common in other Indian cuisines, Uttarakhand cuisine also use exotic ingredients such as jambu, timmer, ghandhraini and bhangira. Although the people in Uttarakhand also make dishes common in other parts of northern India, several preparations are unique to Uttarakhand such as rus, chudkani, dubuk, chadanji, jholi, kapa, and more. Among dressed salads and sauces, kheere ka raita, nimbu mooli ka raita, daarim ki khatai and aam ka fajitha are also popular. The cuisine mainly consists of food from two different sub-regions, Garhwal and Kumaon, though their basic ingredients are the same. Both Kumaoni and Garhwali styles make liberal use of ghee, lentils or pulses, vegetables and bhaat (rice). They also use badi (sun-dried urad dal balls) and mungodi (sun-dried moong dal balls) as substitutes for vegetables at times. During festivals and other celebrations, the people of Uttarakhand prepare special refreshments which include both salty preparations such as bada and sweet preparations such as pua and singal. Uttarakhand also has several sweets (mithai) such as singodi, bal-mithai, and malai laddu, native to its traditions. Gallery North India West India East India South India Hindu fasting cuisine Hindu people fast on days such as Ekadashi, in honour of Lord Vishnu or his Avatars, Chaturthi in honour of Ganesh, Mondays in honour of Shiva, or Saturdays in honour of Hanuman or Saturn. Only certain kinds of foods are allowed to be eaten. These include milk and other dairy products (such as dahi), fruit, and Western food items such as sago, potatoes, purple-red sweet potatoes, amaranth seeds, nuts and (shama millet). Popular fasting dishes include farari chevdo, sabudana khichadi, and peanut soup. Diaspora and fusion cuisines The interaction of various Indian diaspora communities with the native cultures in their new homes has resulted in the creation of many fusion cuisines, which blend aspects of Indian and other international cuisines. These cuisines tend to interpolate Indian seasoning and cooking techniques into their own national dishes. Indian Chinese cuisine Indian Chinese cuisine, also known as Indo-Chinese cuisine originated in the 19th century among the Chinese community of Calcutta, during the immigration of Hakka Chinese from Canton (present-day Guangzhou) seeking to escape the First and Second Opium Wars and political instability in the region. Upon exposure to local Indian cuisine, they incorporated many spices and cooking techniques into their own cuisine, thus creating a unique fusion of Indian and Chinese cuisine. After 1947, many Cantonese immigrants opened their own restaurants in Calcutta, whose dishes combined aspects of Indian cuisine with Cantonese cuisine. In other parts of India, Indian Chinese cuisine is derived from Calcutta-Chinese cuisine, but bears little resemblance to their Chinese counterparts as the dishes tend to be flavoured with cumin, coriander seeds, and turmeric, which with a few regional exceptions, are not traditionally associated with Chinese cuisine. Chilli, ginger, garlic and dahi (yogurt) are also frequently used in dishes. Popular dishes include Chicken Manchurian, chicken lollipop, chilli chicken, Hakka noodles, Hunan chicken, chow mein, and Szechwan fried rice. Soups such as Manchow soup and sweet corn soup are very popular, whereas desserts include ice cream on honey-fried noodles and date pancakes. Chowmein is now known as one of the most favorite Chinese dishes in India. Especially in West Bengal, it is one of the most loved street foods. Indian Thai cuisine Thai cuisine was influenced by Indian cuisine, like as recorded by the Thai monk Buddhadasa Bhikku in his writing ‘India's Benevolence to Thailand’. He wrote that Thai people learned how to use spices in their food in various ways from Indians. Thais also obtained the methods of making herbal medicines (Ayurveda) from the Indians. Some plants like sarabhi of family Guttiferae, kanika or harsinghar, phikun or Mimusops elengi and bunnak or the rose chestnut etc. were brought from India. Malaysian Indian cuisine Malaysian Indian cuisine, or the cooking of the ethnic Indian communities in Malaysia consists of adaptations of authentic dishes from India, as well as original creations inspired by the diverse food culture of Malaysia. A typical Malaysian Indian dish is likely to be redolent with curry leaves, whole and powdered spice, and contains fresh coconut in various forms. Ghee is still widely used for cooking, although vegetable oils and refined palm oils are now commonplace in home kitchens. Indian Singaporean cuisine Indian Singaporean cuisine refers to foods and beverages produced and consumed in Singapore that are derived, wholly or in part, from South Asian culinary traditions. The great variety of Singaporean food includes Indian food, which tends to be Tamil cuisine, especially local Tamil Muslim cuisine, although North Indian food has become more visible recently. Indian dishes have become modified to different degrees, after years of contact with other Singaporean cultures, and in response to locally available ingredients, as well as changing local tastes. Indian Indonesian cuisine Indian-Indonesian cuisine refers to food and beverages in Indonesian cuisine that have influenced Indian cuisine—especially from Tamil, Punjabi, and Gujarati cuisine. These dishes are well integrated, such as appam, biryani, murtabak and curry. Indian Filipino cuisine Filipino cuisine, found throughout the Philippines archipelago, has been historically influenced by the Indian cuisine. Indian influences can also be noted in rice-based delicacies such as bibingka (analogous to the Indonesian bingka), puto, and puto bumbong, where the latter two are plausibly derived from the south Indian puttu, which also has variants throughout Maritime Southeast Asia (e.g. kue putu, putu mangkok). The kare-kare, more popular in Luzon, on the other hand could trace its origins from the Seven Years' War when the British occupied Manila from 1762 to 1764 with a force that included Indian sepoys, who had to improvise Indian dishes given the lack of spices in the Philippines to make curry. This is said to explain the name and its supposed thick, yellow-to-orange annatto and peanut-based sauce, which alludes to a type of curry. Atchara of Philippines originated from the Indian achar, which was transmitted to the Philippines via the acar of the Indonesia, Malaysia, and Brunei. Anglo-Indian cuisine Anglo-Indian cuisine developed during the period of British colonial rule in India, as British officials interacted with their Indian cooks. Well-known Anglo-Indian dishes include chutneys, salted beef tongue, kedgeree, ball curry, fish rissoles, and mulligatawny soup. Desserts Many Indian desserts, or mithai, are fried foods made with sugar, milk or condensed milk. Ingredients and preferred types of dessert vary by region. In the eastern part of India, for example, most are based on milk products. Many are flavoured with almonds and pistachios, spiced with cardamon, nutmeg, cloves and black pepper, and decorated with nuts, or with gold or silver leaf. Popular Indian desserts include rasogolla, gulab jamun, jalebi, laddu, and peda. Beverages Non-alcoholic beverages Tea is a staple beverage throughout India, since the country is one of the largest producers of tea in the world. The most popular varieties of tea grown in India include Assam tea, Darjeeling tea and Nilgiri tea. It is prepared by boiling the tea leaves in a mix of water, milk, and spices such as cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, and ginger. In India, tea is often enjoyed with snacks like biscuits and pakoda. Coffee is another popular beverage, but more popular in South India. Coffee is also cultivated in some parts of India. There are two varieties of coffee popular in India, which include Indian filter coffee and instant coffee. Lassi is a traditional dahi (yogurt)-based drink in India. It is made by blending yogurt with water or milk and spices. Salted lassi is more common in villages of Punjab and in Porbandar, Gujarat. Traditional lassi is sometimes flavoured with ground roasted cumin. Lassi can also be flavoured with ingredients such as sugar, rose water, mango, lemon, strawberry, and saffron. Sharbat is a sweet cold beverage prepared from fruits or flower petals. It can be served in concentrate form and eaten with a spoon, or diluted with water to create a drink. Popular sharbats are made from plants such as rose, sandalwood, bel, gurhal (hibiscus), lemon, orange, pineapple, sarasaparilla and kokum, falsa (Grewia asiatica). In Ayurveda, sharbats are believed to hold medicinal value. Thandai is a cold drink prepared with a mixture of almonds, fennel seeds, watermelon kernels, rose petals, pepper, poppy seeds, cardamom, saffron, milk and sugar. It is native to India and is often associated with the Maha Shivaratri and Holi or Holla mahalla festival. Sometimes bhaang (cannabis) is added to prepare special thandai. Other beverages include nimbu pani (lemonade), chaas, badam doodh (almond milk with nuts and cardamom), Aam panna, kokum sharbat, and coconut water. Modern carbonated cold drinks unique to southern India include beverages, such as panner soda or goli soda, a mixture of carbonated water, rose water, rose milk, and sugar, naranga soda, a mixture of carbonated water, salt and lemon juice, and nannari sarbath, a mixture with sarasaparilla. Sharbats with carbonated water are the most popular non-alcoholic beverages in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Street shops in Central Kerala and Madurai region of Tamil Nadu are well known for these drinks which are also called kulukki sarbaths in Kerala. Alcoholic beverages Beer Most beers in India are either lagers (4.8 percent alcohol) or strong lagers (8.9 percent). The Indian beer industry has witnessed steady growth of 10–17 percent per year over the last ten years. Production exceeded 170 million cases during the 2008–2009 financial year. With the average age of the population decreasing and income levels on the rise, the popularity of beer in the country continues to increase. Others Other popular alcoholic drinks in India include fenny, a Goan liquor made from either coconut or the juice of the cashew apple. The state of Goa has registered for a geographical indicator to allow its fenny distilleries to claim exclusive rights to production of liquor under the name "fenny." Hadia is a rice beer, created by mixing herbs with boiled rice and leaving the mixture to ferment for around a week. It is served cold and is less alcoholic than other Indian liquors. Chuak is a similar drink from Tripura. Palm wine, locally known as neera, is a sap extracted from inflorescences of various species of toddy palms. Chhaang is consumed by the people of Sikkim and the Darjeeling Himalayan hill region of West Bengal. It is drunk cold or at room temperature in summer, and often hot during cold weather. Chhaang is similar to traditional beer, brewed from barley, millet, or rice. Kallu (Chetthu Kallu) is a popular natural alcohol extracted from coconut and pine trees in Kerala. It is sold in local Kallu shops and is consumed with fried fish and chicken. Its alcoholic content is increased by addition of distilled alcohol. Eating habits Indians consider a healthy breakfast important. They generally prefer to drink tea or coffee with breakfast, though food preferences vary regionally. North Indian people prefer roti, parathas, and a vegetable dish accompanied by achar (a pickle) and some curd. Various types of packaged pickles are available in the market. One of the oldest pickle-making companies in India is Harnarains, which started in the 1860s in Old Delhi. People of Gujarat prefer dhokla and milk, while south Indians prefer idli and dosa, generally accompanied by sambhar or sagu and various chutneys. Traditional lunch in India usually consists of a main dish of rice in the south and the east, and whole-wheat rotis in the north. It typically includes two or three kinds of vegetables, and sometimes items such as kulcha, naan, or parathas. Paan (stuffed, spiced and folded betel leaves) which aids digestion is often eaten after lunch and dinner in many parts of India. Indian families often gather for "evening snack time", similar to tea time to talk and have tea and snacks. Dinner is considered the main meal of the day. Also, many households, especially in north and central India, prefer having sweets after the dinner (similar to the Western concept of dessert after meals). Dietary restrictions In India people often follow dietary restrictions based on their religion or faith: Hindu communities consider beef taboo since it is believed that Hindu scriptures condemn cow slaughter. Cow slaughter has been banned in many states of India. However, these restrictions are not followed in the North-Eastern states, West Bengal and Kerala. Vaishnavism followers generally are strict lacto-vegetarians due to an emphasis on Ahimsa. They also do not consume garlic and onions because they are advised against it in the Bhagavad Gita. Jains follow a strict form of lacto-vegetarianism, known as Jain vegetarianism, which in addition to being completely lacto-vegetarian, also excludes all root vegetables such as carrots and potatoes because when the root is pulled up, organisms that live around the root also die. Muslims do not eat pork or pork products. Except in certain North-Eastern regions, canines are not considered suitable for consumption. Etiquette Traditionally, meals in India are eaten while seated either on the floor, or on very low stools or mattress. Food is most often eaten with the hands rather than cutlery. Often roti is used to scoop curry without allowing it to touch the hand. In the wheat-producing north, a piece of roti is gripped with the thumb and middle finger and ripped off while holding the roti down with the index finger. A somewhat different method is used in the south for dosai, adai, and uththappam, where the middle finger is pressed down to hold the bread and the forefinger and thumb used to grip and separate a small part. Traditional serving styles vary regionally throughout India. Contact with other cultures has affected Indian dining etiquette. For example, the Anglo-Indian middle class commonly uses spoons and forks, as is traditional in Western culture. In South India, cleaned banana leaves, which can be disposed of after meals, are used for serving food. When hot food is served on banana leaves, the leaves add distinctive aromas and taste to the food. Leaf plates are less common today, except on special occasions. Outside India Indian migration has spread the culinary traditions of the subcontinent throughout the world. These cuisines have been adapted to local tastes, and have also affected local cuisines. The international appeal of curry has been compared to that of pizza. Indian tandoor dishes such as chicken tikka also enjoy widespread popularity. Australia A Roy Morgan Research survey taken between 2013 and 2018 found that Indian cuisine was the top-rated international food among 51% of Australians, behind Chinese, Italian, and Thai. Canada As in the United Kingdom and the United States, Indian cuisine is widely available in Canada, especially in the cities of Toronto, Vancouver, and Ottawa where the majority of Canadians of South Asian heritage live. China Indian food is gaining popularity in China, where there are many Indian restaurants in Beijing, Shanghai, and Shenzhen. Hong Kong alone has more than 50 Indian restaurants, some of which date back to the 1980s. Most of the Indian restaurants in Hong Kong are in Tsim Sha Tsui. Middle East The Indian culinary scene in the Middle East has been influenced greatly by the large Indian diaspora in these countries. Centuries of trade relations and cultural exchange resulted in a significant influence on each region's cuisines. The use of the tandoor, which originated in northwestern India, is an example. The large influx of Indian expatriates into Middle Eastern countries during the 1970s and 1980s led to a boom in Indian restaurants to cater to this population and was also widely influenced by the local and international cuisines. Nepal Indian cuisine is available in the streets of Nepalese cities, including Kathmandu and Janakpur. Southeast Asia Other cuisines which borrow inspiration from Indian cooking styles include Cambodian, Lao, Filipino, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Thai, and Burmese cuisines. The spread of vegetarianism in other parts of Asia is often credited to Hindu and Buddhist practices. Indian cuisine is very popular in Southeast Asia, due to the strong Hindu and Buddhist cultural influence in the region. Indian cuisine has had considerable influence on Malaysian cooking styles and also enjoys popularity in Singapore. There are numerous North and South Indian restaurants in Singapore, mostly in Little India. Singapore is also known for fusion cuisine combining traditional Singaporean cuisine with Indian influences. Fish head curry, for example, is a local creation. Indian influence on Malay cuisine dates to the 19th century. United Kingdom The UK's first Indian restaurant, the Hindoostanee Coffee House, opened in 1810. By 2003, there were as many as 10,000 restaurants serving Indian cuisine in England and Wales alone. According to Britain's Food Standards Agency, the Indian food industry in the United Kingdom is worth 3.2 billion pounds, accounts for two-thirds of all eating out in the country, and serves about 2.5 million customers every week. One of the best known examples of British Indian restaurant cuisine is chicken tikka masala, which has also been called "a true British national dish." Ireland Ireland's first Indian restaurant, the Indian Restaurant and Tea Rooms, opened in 1908 on Sackville Street, now O'Connell Street, in Dublin. Today, Indian restaurants are commonplace in most Irish cities and towns. Non-Chinese Asians are the fastest growing ethnic group in Ireland. United States A survey by The Washington Post in 2007 stated that more than 1,200 Indian food products had been introduced into the United States since 2000. There are numerous Indian restaurants across the US, which vary based on regional culture and climate. North Indian and South Indian cuisines are especially well represented. Most Indian restaurants in the United States serve Americanized versions of North Indian food, which is generally less spicy than its Indian equivalents. At sit-down restaurants with North Indian cuisine (the most common), complimentary papadum is served with three dipping sauces—typically hari chutney (mint and cilantro), imli chutney (taramind), and a spicy red chili or onion chutney—in place of European-style bread before the meal. See also Buddhist vegetarianism Diet in Hinduism Diet in Sikhism Jain vegetarianism Indian bread Indian Chinese cuisine Indian tea culture List of Indian breads List of Indian dishes List of Indian pickles List of Indian snacks List of plants used in Indian cuisine North East Indian cuisine South Asian pickles South Indian cuisine Street food of Chennai Street food of Mumbai References Bibliography Pat Chapman. 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227817	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20II%2C%20Duke%20of%20Bavaria	Henry II, Duke of Bavaria	Henry II (951 – 28 August 995), called the Wrangler or the Quarrelsome (), a member of the German royal Ottonian dynasty, was Duke of Bavaria from 955 to 976 and again from 985 to 995, as well as Duke of Carinthia from 989 to 995. Life He was the son of Duke Henry I of Bavaria, younger brother of King Otto I of Germany (Emperor from 962), and his wife Judith. Henry succeeded his father at the age of four, under the guardianship of his mother. His sister Hadwig was married to Duke Burchard III of Swabia in 954. In 972 Henry married Princess Gisela of Burgundy, herself a niece of Empress Adelaide. Upon Emperor Otto's death in 973, Henry could rely on his ties to the South German duchies of Swabia and Bavaria as well as to the adjacent Kingdom of Burgundy. He installed his cousin Henry as Bishop of Augsburg, denying the investiture rights of Emperor Otto's son and successor Otto II. When his brother-in-law Duke Burchard III died without heirs, he raised claims to his Swabian duchy. However, Otto II enfeoffed his nephew Otto of Swabia; against the tenacious opposition of Burchard's widow Hadwig. In 974 Duke Henry resolved to oust Otto II from the throne. With support of his sister Hadwig, he forged alliances with Bavarian and Saxon nobles, and also with Duke Boleslaus II of Bohemia and Duke Mieszko I of Poland. Otto II was able to take Henry captive in Ingelheim - though he also had to deal with rebellious nobles in the County of Hainaut and the Bishopric of Cambrai as well as with the raids of the Danish king Harald Bluetooth in Holstein. In 976 Henry managed to escape and instigated a revolt in Bavaria, but was defeated when Otto II occupied Regensburg and stripped Henry of his duchy. He severed the Duchy of Carinthia and the Margraviate of Austria from the Bavarian lands and enfeoffed them to his supporters Henry the Younger (who changed sides shortly afterwards) and Leopold of Babenberg. The smaller Bavarian duchy was ceded to Henry's rival Duke Otto of Swabia. Following the War of the Three Henries in 977/78, the deposed duke was placed under the custody of Bishop Folcmar of Utrecht. When in 983 Otto II suddenly died from malaria in Rome, Henry was released from captivity. He once again tried to usurp the German throne, when he abducted the infant Otto III and, according to the medieval chronicler Thietmar of Merseburg, had himself proclaimed King of the Romans at the graves of Emperor Otto I and King Henry the Fowler in Magdeburg and Quedlinburg. However, it turned out that he had lost the support of the German dukes and also was not able to oust Duke Henry the Younger from Bavaria. Through the agency of Archbishop Willigis of Mainz, Henry in 985 finally submitted to Empress Theophanu and her mother-in-law Adelaide at an Hoftag assembly in Rohr. Although he failed in his attempt to gain control of Germany, he did regain Bavaria and in 989 also received the Carinthian duchy. Marriage and children Henry and his wife Gisela of Burgundy had the following children: Henry IV of Bavaria (973/78–1024), succeeded his father as Duke of Bavaria in 995, fulfilled his father's ambitions when he was elected King of the Romans (as Henry II) in 1002 and crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 1014 Bruno (d. 1029), Bishop of Augsburg from 1006 Gisela of Bavaria (984/85–1060), married King Stephen I of Hungary. 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227822	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturne%20%28Siouxsie%20and%20the%20Banshees%20album%29	Nocturne (Siouxsie and the Banshees album)	Nocturne is a live double album and video by English rock band Siouxsie and the Banshees, released on 25 November 1983 by Polydor Records. Co-produced by Mike Hedges, Nocturne featured performances recorded at two shows at the Royal Albert Hall in London, on 30 September and 1 October 1983, featuring Robert Smith (of the Cure) on guitar. Most of the material came from 1981's Juju and 1982's A Kiss in the Dreamhouse. It also contained a couple of B-sides ("Pulled to Bits" and "Eve White/Eve Black") as well as a live version of the Beatles' "Dear Prudence", a song the Banshees had recorded in the studio earlier that year in Stockholm and issued as a single in September. The music heard at the introduction of "Israel" is an excerpt from The Rite of Spring, composed in 1913 by Igor Stravinsky. Background and release The Banshees had already performed live with Robert Smith on guitar in September and October 1979, when he and his band the Cure served as tour support for the Banshees. A friendship had started at the time between the members of the Cure and the Banshees. In late 1982, when guitarist John McGeoch left the Banshees prior to the A Kiss in the Dreamhouse tour, Steven Severin asked Smith to join them for the British and European tour. In 1983, the band toured in Japan for the second time in less than a year and also visited Australia and New Zealand. With the September 1983 release of the "Dear Prudence" single, Smith became an official member of the Banshees; a few weeks later, they recorded Nocturne in London. The album was released in late November 1983. A video version of Nocturne was released on VHS the same year and was remastered for a DVD reissue in 2006. DVD bonus features included the Play at Home TV special from 1983, the "Dear Prudence" music video and performances from The Old Grey Whistle Test. The album was remastered for a cd reissue in 2009. Reception David Cleary of AllMusic said that Nocturne "serves as an excellent, no-nonsense introduction to the band's music for neophytes, while fans of the group will appreciate the tight, gutsy, stripped-down performances", also describing it as "top-notch". In 2013, the album was included in The Quietus list of its writers' 40 favourite live albums. Julian Marszalek wrote: "Nocturne stands as both a representation of where they were at that point in their career and their status as an incredible live band. Be it Budgie's precise and muscular rhythms, Steven Severin's flanged bass, Siouxsie's commanding presence or Robert Smith's interpretation of other guitarists' material, the performance is magnificent and convincing throughout. By cherry picking their finest material, Nocturne was – and still is – a kind of alternate Greatest Hits that acts as a gateway to their kaleidoscopic world". Total Guitar wrote that "Nocturne successfully reproduces the sound of the Banshees at their creative peak aided by then touring guitarist Robert Smith, who adds lysergic colour to the shimmering Melt! and a muscular rendition of Nighshift". Legacy Steve Mason of the Beta Band listed Nocturne as one of his 14 Favourite Albums. He praised the guitars and the drums on the record: "Robert Smith's live playing on this is [...] superb. It's psychedelic [...], the sounds that he gets are unbelievable – I've never heard anyone get those sounds out of a guitar. [...] Budgie's drumming on this record is incredible. He's solid as a rock but really inventive and really tribal in places." Mason considered that "As a Banshees compilation album, it's a brilliant selection of what they've done". He explained he ended up sampling "a massive chunk" of Smith's guitar playing on "Painted Bird" for the Beta Band, and their song "Liquid Bird" – on their album Heroes to Zeros. "Pulled to Bits" was covered by the Mars Volta as the flip side of their 2008 single "Wax Simulacra". Track listing All songs by Siouxsie and the Banshees except 3, 11, and 15 by Siouxsie Sioux and Steven Severin and 2 and 14 by Lennon–McCartney. "Israel" (6:45) (Single) "Dear Prudence" (3:55) (Single) "Paradise Place" (4:28) (from Kaleidoscope) "Melt!" (3:48) (from A Kiss in the Dreamhouse) "Cascade" (4:35) (from A Kiss in the Dreamhouse) "Pulled to Bits" (4:03) (the b-side of "Playground Twist") "Night Shift" (6:27) (from Juju) "Sin in My Heart" (3:31) (from Juju) "Slowdive" (4:18) (from A Kiss in the Dreamhouse) "Painted Bird" (3:56) (from A Kiss in the Dreamhouse) "Happy House" (4:39) (from Kaleidoscope) "Switch" (6:35) (from The Scream) "Spellbound" (4:31) (from Juju) "Helter Skelter" (3:42) (from The Scream) "Eve White/Eve Black" (2:58) (the b-side of "Christine") "Voodoo Dolly" (8:42) (from Juju) DVD "Israel" "Cascade" "Melt!" "Pulled to Bits" "Night Shift" "Sin in My Heart" "Painted Bird" "Switch" "Eve White/Eve Black" "Voodoo Dolly" "Spellbound" "Helter Skelter" DVD Bonus Bonus 1: Play at Home ( a 45-minute show broadcast on Channel 4, also featuring the Creatures and the Glove) Bonus 2: Old Grey Whistle Test Bonus 3: "Dear Prudence" (promotional film) Personnel Siouxsie and the Banshees Siouxsie Sioux - vocals, guitar on "Sin in My Heart" and "Paradise Place" Steven Severin - bass guitar Budgie - drums, percussion Robert Smith - guitar Technical Mike Hedges - producer Siouxsie and the Banshees - producers Charts Certifications References Albums produced by Mike Hedges Live video albums 1983 live albums 1983 video albums Siouxsie and the Banshees live albums Polydor Records live albums Polydor Records video albums Geffen Records live albums Live albums recorded at the Royal Albert Hall	[ -0.0748438686132431, 0.020951660349965096, -0.28320541977882385, -0.07470018416643143, -0.40993279218673706, 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227837	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord%20President	Lord President	The title Lord President may refer to one of several offices: Lord President of the Council, the presiding officer of Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council Lord President of the Court of Session, the Chief Justice and Lord Justice General of Scotland Lord President of the Supreme Court, the title of the head of the judiciary (now Chief Justice) of Malaysia until 1994 Lord President of the Council of the North, the historical office of the English monarch's representative in the north of England Lord President of Munster Lord President of Connaught Lord President of Wales In fiction Lord President of the High Council of Time Lords, the most senior Time Lord in the fictional Doctor Who universe	[ -0.18938027322292328, 0.10507344454526901, 0.5496495366096497, -0.5175119638442993, -0.24610286951065063, -0.03348597511649132, 0.07514864951372147, 0.43308404088020325, -0.6621482372283936, -0.08611751347780228, 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