id
stringlengths 6
8
| url
stringlengths 31
167
| title
stringlengths 1
98
| text
stringlengths 26
185k
| embedding
sequence |
|---|---|---|---|---|
228753 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power%20%28international%20relations%29 | Power (international relations) | In international relations, power is defined in several different ways. Material definitions of state power emphasize economic and military power. Other definitions of power emphasize the ability to structure and constitute the nature of social relations between actors. Power is an attribute of particular actors in their interactions, as well as a social process that constitutes the social identities and capacities of actors.
International relations scholars use the term polarity to describe the distribution of power in the international system. Unipolarity refers to an international system characterized by one hegemon (e.g. United States in the post-Cold War period), bipolarity to an order with two great powers or blocs of states (e.g. the Cold War), and multipolarity refers to the presence of three or more great powers. Those states that have significant amounts of power within the international system are referred to as small powers, middle powers, regional powers, great powers, superpowers, or hegemons, although there is no commonly accepted standard for what defines a powerful state.
Entities other than states can have power in international relations. Such entities can include multilateral international organizations, military alliance organizations like NATO, multinational corporations like Wal-Mart, non-governmental organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church, or other institutions such as the Hanseatic League and technology companies like Facebook and Google.
History
Concepts of political power
Michael Barnett and Raymond Duvall define power as "the production, in and through social relations, of effects that shape the capacities of actors to determine their circumstances and fate." They reject definitions of power that conflate power as any and all effects because doing so makes power synonymous with causality. They also reject persuasion as part of the definition of power, as it revolves around actors freely and voluntarily changing their minds once presented with new information.
Political scientists, historians, and practitioners of international relations (diplomats) have used the following concepts of political power:
Power as a goal of states or leaders;
Power as a measure of influence or control over outcomes, events, actors and issues;
Power as victory in conflict and the attainment of security;
Power as control over resources and capabilities;
Power as status, which some states or actors possess and others do not.
Power as a goal
The primary usage of "power" as a goal in international relations belongs to political theorists, such as Niccolò Machiavelli and Hans Morgenthau. Especially among Classical Realist thinkers, power is an inherent goal of mankind and of states. Economic growth, military growth, cultural spread etc. can all be considered as working towards the ultimate goal of international power. The German military thinker Carl von Clausewitz is considered to be the quintessential projection of European growth across the continent. In more modern times, Claus Moser has elucidated theories centre of distribution of power in Europe after the Holocaust, and the power of universal learning as its counterpoint. Jean Monnet was a French left-wing social theorist, stimulating expansive Eurocommunism, who followed on the creator of modern European community, the diplomat and statesman Robert Schuman.
Power as influence
Political scientists principally use "power" in terms of an actor's ability to exercise influence over other actors within the international system. This influence can be coercive, attractive, cooperative, or competitive. Mechanisms of influence can include the threat or use of force, economic interaction or pressure, diplomacy, and cultural exchange.
Under certain circumstances, states can organize a sphere of influence or a bloc within which they exercise predominant influence. Historical examples include the spheres of influence recognized under the Concert of Europe, or the recognition of spheres during the Cold War following the Yalta Conference. The Eastern Bloc, the Western Bloc, and the Non-Aligned Movement were the blocs that arose out of the Cold War contest. Military alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact are another forum through which influence is exercised. However, "realist" theory attempted to maintain the balance of power from the development of meaningful diplomatic relations that can create a hegemony within the region. British foreign policy, for example, dominated Europe through the Congress of Vienna after the defeat of France. They continued the balancing act with the Congress of Berlin in 1878, to appease Russia and Germany from attacking Turkey. Britain has sided against the aggressors on the European continent—i.e. the German Empire, Nazi Germany, Napoleonic France or the Austrian Empire, known during the Great War as the Central Powers and, in World War II as the Axis Powers.
International orders have both a material and social component. Martha Finnemore argues that unipolarity does not just entail a material superiority by the unipole, but also a social structure whereby the unipole maintains its status through legitimation, and institutionalization. In trying to obtain legitimacy from the other actors in the international system, the unipole necessarily gives those actors a degree of power. The unipole also obtains legitimacy and wards off challenges to its power through the creation of institutions, but these institutions also entail a diffusion of power away from the unipole. David Lake has argued along similar lines that legitimacy and authority are key components of international order.
Susan Strange made a key contribution to International Political Economy on the issue of power, which she considered essential to the character and dynamics of the global economy. Strange was skeptical of static indicators of power, arguing that it was structural power that mattered. In particular, interactions between states and markets mattered. She pointed to the superiority of the American technology sector, dominance in services, and the position of the U.S. dollar as the top international currency as real indicators of lasting power. She distinguished between relational power (the power to compel A to get B to do something B does not want to do) and structural power (the power to shape and determine the structure of the global political economy). Political scientists Henry Farrell and Abraham L. Newman argue that state power is in part derived from control over important nodes in global networks of informational and financial exchange, which means that states can "weaponize interdependence" by fighting over control of these nodes.
Power as security
Power is also used when describing states or actors that have achieved military victories or security for their state in the international system. This general usage is most commonly found among the writings of historians or popular writers.
Power as capability
American author Charles W. Freeman, Jr. described power as the following:
Power is also used to describe the resources and capabilities of a state. This definition is quantitative and is most often used by geopoliticians and the military. Capabilities are thought of in tangible terms—they are measurable, weighable, quantifiable assets. A good example for this kind of measurement is the Composite Indicator on Aggregate Power, which involves 54 indicators and covers the capabilities of 44 states in Asia-Pacific from 1992 to 2012. Hard power can be treated as a potential and is not often enforced on the international stage.
Chinese strategists have such a concept of national power that can be measured quantitatively using an index known as comprehensive national power.
Michael Beckley argues that gross domestic product and military spending are imprecise indicators of power. He argues that better measurements of power should take into account "net" indicators of powers: "[Gross] indicators systematically exaggerate the wealth and military capabilities of poor, populous countries, because they tally countries’ resources without deducting the costs countries pay to police, protect, and serve their people. A country with a big population might produce vast output and field a large army, but it also may bear massive welfare and security burdens that drain its wealth and bog down its military, leaving it with few resources for power projection abroad."
Power as status
Definitions
Much effort in academic and popular writing is devoted to deciding which countries have the status of "power", and how this can be measured. If a country has "power" (as influence) in military, diplomatic, cultural, and economic spheres, it might be called a "power" (as status). There are several categories of power, and inclusion of a state in one category or another is fraught with difficulty and controversy. In his famous 1987 work, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, British-American historian Paul Kennedy charts the relative status of the various powers from AD 1500 to 2000. He does not begin the book with a theoretical definition of "great power"; however he lists them, separately, for many different eras. Moreover, he uses different working definitions of great power for different eras. For example;
Neorealist scholars frequently define power as entailing military capabilities and economic strength. Classical realists recognized that the ability to influence depended on psychological relationships that touched on ethical principles, legitimacy and justice, as well as emotions, leaders' skill and power over opinion.
Categories of power
In the modern geopolitical landscape, a number of terms are used to describe various types of powers, which include the following:
Superpower: In 1944, William T. R. Fox defined superpower as "great power plus great mobility of power" and identified three states, the British Empire, the Soviet Union and the United States. With the decolonisation of the British Empire following World War II, and then the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States has remained to be the sole superpower. China is now considered an emerging global superpower by many scholars.
Great power: In historical mentions, the term great power refers to the states that have strong political, cultural and economical influence over nations around them and across the world.
Middle power: A subjective description of influential second-tier states that could not quite be described as great or small powers. A middle power has sufficient strength and authority to stand on its own without the need of help from others (particularly in the realm of security) and takes diplomatic leads in regional and global affairs. Clearly not all middle powers are of equal status; some are members of forums such as the G20 and play important roles in the United Nations and other international organisations such as the WTO.
Small power: The International System is for the most part made up by small powers. They are instruments of the other powers and may at times be dominated; but they cannot be ignored.
Other categories
Regional power: This term is used to describe a nation that exercises influence and power within a region. Being a regional power is not mutually exclusive with any of the other categories of power. The majority of them exert a strategic degree of influence as minor or secondary regional powers. A primary regional power (like Australia) has often an important role in international affairs outside of its region too.
Cultural superpower: Refers to a country whose culture, arts or entertainment have worldwide appeal, significant international popularity or large influence on much of the world. Countries such as China, India, Italy, Japan, Spain, France, the United Kingdom, and the United States have often been described as cultural superpowers, although it is sometimes debated on which one meets such criteria. Unlike traditional forms of national power, the term cultural superpower is in reference to a nation's soft power capabilities.
Energy superpower: Describes a country that supplies large amounts of energy resources (crude oil, natural gas, coal, uranium, etc.) to a significant number of other states, and therefore has the potential to influence world markets to gain a political or economic advantage. Saudi Arabia and Russia, are generally acknowledged as the world's current energy superpowers, given their abilities to globally influence or even directly control prices to certain countries. Australia and Canada are potential energy superpowers due to their large natural resources.
Hard, soft and smart power
Some political scientists distinguish between two types of power: Hard and Soft. The former is coercive (example: military invasion) while the latter is attractive (example: broadcast media or cultural invasion).
Hard power refers to coercive tactics: the threat or use of armed forces, economic pressure or sanctions, assassination and subterfuge, or other forms of intimidation. Hard power is generally associated to the stronger of nations, as the ability to change the domestic affairs of other nations through military threats. Realists and neorealists, such as John Mearsheimer, are advocates of the use of such power for the balancing of the international system.
Joseph Nye is the leading proponent and theorist of soft power. Instruments of soft power include debates on cultural values, dialogues on ideology, the attempt to influence through good example, and the appeal to commonly accepted human values. Means of exercising soft power include diplomacy, dissemination of information, analysis, propaganda, and cultural programming to achieve political ends.
Others have synthesized soft and hard power, including through the field of smart power. This is often a call to use a holistic spectrum of statecraft tools, ranging from soft to hard.
See also
Balance of power in international relations
Global policeman
International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
Lateral pressure theory
National power
Peace through strength
Power Politics
Power (social and political)
Power transition theory
References
Further reading
Bennett, Andrew (2013). "The mother of all isms: Causal mechanisms and structured pluralism in International Relations theory." European Journal of International Relations.
Barnett, Michael; Duvall, Raymond (2005). "Power in International Politics". International Organization 59 (1): 39–75.
Geopolitical rivalry
Political history | [
-0.201705664396286,
-0.3365478813648224,
0.10234037786722183,
0.4426943063735962,
-0.3825489580631256,
-0.017540613189339638,
-0.09947091341018677,
-0.15017299354076385,
-0.30651938915252686,
-0.2720300555229187,
-0.5304227471351624,
0.518598198890686,
-0.26628997921943665,
0.4741353690624237,
0.024587273597717285,
0.39112377166748047,
0.31348347663879395,
0.6111118197441101,
-0.36009666323661804,
-0.16366828978061676,
0.03354359045624733,
0.4509923756122589,
0.48766449093818665,
-0.13242001831531525,
0.22993622720241547,
-0.3600149154663086,
-0.1617775857448578,
-0.09761259704828262,
0.07252243161201477,
0.4916940927505493,
0.19377247989177704,
0.11555434763431549,
-0.463804692029953,
0.24044343829154968,
-0.3867809474468231,
-0.3432416021823883,
-0.21350285410881042,
-0.4007079005241394,
-0.10217605531215668,
-0.6823951005935669,
0.11875294893980026,
-0.2619728744029999,
0.228815957903862,
0.3794850707054138,
-0.19311459362506866,
-0.2841529846191406,
-1.30951726436615,
0.031002653762698174,
-0.42667245864868164,
0.21746863424777985,
-0.7202252745628357,
0.15786194801330566,
0.1314457654953003,
0.3646465539932251,
-0.09319496154785156,
0.21230725944042206,
-0.2770547568798065,
0.4747195839881897,
0.12706363201141357,
-1.0593839883804321,
0.5450006127357483,
-0.04277018457651138,
0.2950223684310913,
0.247298002243042,
0.5527009963989258,
0.02355177327990532,
0.22989767789840698,
-0.04948366433382034,
-0.4297805428504944,
-0.4824012219905853,
-0.6474220752716064,
-0.46603313088417053,
-0.2614860236644745,
0.26459357142448425,
-0.8211566209793091,
-0.023369694128632545,
0.11087902635335922,
0.017063844949007034,
-0.09904349595308304,
0.05897725373506546,
-0.3478514850139618,
0.7223863005638123,
0.5971333384513855,
-0.8155173063278198,
0.3146834075450897,
-0.14170223474502563,
-0.09941335022449493,
0.5324835181236267,
-0.04644431546330452,
0.8787868022918701,
0.16699017584323883,
-0.011073319241404533,
0.5740011930465698,
0.3908301591873169,
-0.08198848366737366,
0.17001038789749146,
0.4034528136253357,
-0.4003728926181793,
-0.019742993637919426,
0.06216760352253914,
0.28359735012054443,
-0.3457001745700836,
0.14614708721637726,
-0.4667433202266693,
-0.21499694883823395,
-0.4439994692802429,
0.11310439556837082,
-0.42721906304359436,
0.18688087165355682,
-0.038392528891563416,
-0.7850655317306519,
0.06206604093313217,
-0.12893284857273102,
-0.0773453339934349,
-0.667668879032135,
-0.14656953513622284,
0.12513339519500732,
0.6088695526123047,
0.3493334949016571,
0.31082281470298767,
0.17698590457439423,
0.42972153425216675,
-0.03846071660518646,
0.03912785276770592,
0.05740106850862503,
-0.21213169395923615,
0.30550041794776917,
0.6793761849403381,
-0.35998865962028503,
-0.02458113618195057,
0.3937779366970062,
0.6147456169128418,
0.2994250953197479,
-0.11751517653465271,
-0.43681275844573975,
-0.3654612600803375,
0.45577874779701233,
0.3168144226074219,
0.16302697360515594,
-0.15792366862297058,
-0.6142097115516663,
-0.2816329896450043,
-0.37152981758117676,
-0.21246477961540222,
0.6935924291610718,
-0.1610480546951294,
0.20210230350494385,
-0.29469427466392517,
0.4257180094718933,
-0.02749546803534031,
-0.3455576002597809,
0.18536604940891266,
0.0072671594098210335,
0.38205602765083313,
0.013435994274914265,
-0.03652103990316391,
0.36256715655326843,
-0.3920060992240906,
-0.021634280681610107,
0.24919140338897705,
0.20113182067871094,
-0.3182002902030945,
0.06808167695999146,
0.0486874058842659,
-0.1306818425655365,
-0.5696784853935242,
0.4852844774723053,
0.4835786819458008,
0.2170465886592865,
0.0916745737195015,
-0.48981133103370667,
0.3270140588283539,
-0.42156538367271423,
0.21732023358345032,
0.08714505285024643,
-0.10000234097242355,
-0.07754600793123245,
0.3502769470214844,
0.6236239671707153,
0.1806546449661255,
-0.44492611289024353,
0.2684350609779358,
0.058510925620794296,
0.1473841369152069,
0.059615690261125565,
-0.20426972210407257,
0.5960544943809509,
-0.208634153008461,
0.07703688740730286,
-0.022994551807641983,
-0.42645660042762756,
-0.06632378697395325,
-0.13925309479236603,
-0.675849199295044,
0.9480379223823547,
-0.3221292197704315,
-0.7498577833175659,
0.464689701795578,
0.07258766889572144,
0.17101839184761047,
0.2822226285934448,
-0.5380206108093262,
-0.011718573980033398,
-0.3343350887298584,
-0.31492292881011963,
0.36577627062797546,
0.1830187290906906,
0.20987462997436523,
-0.3408549427986145,
0.2678043842315674,
-0.04264023154973984,
-0.3113149404525757,
0.2578295171260834,
-0.6140860915184021,
0.21104322373867035,
0.33879154920578003,
-0.5995111465454102,
0.20359128713607788,
0.19698064029216766,
0.29830875992774963,
0.9419392943382263,
0.21571826934814453,
0.11174316704273224,
0.7756550312042236,
-0.33883538842201233,
0.0022969283163547516,
0.36108678579330444,
0.5536584854125977,
0.373908668756485,
-0.3097514808177948,
-0.05118054896593094,
0.23116599023342133,
-0.06236185133457184,
-0.20270627737045288,
-0.31759554147720337,
-0.10293148458003998,
0.05013400316238403,
0.02784697338938713,
0.20218698680400848,
-0.4790632724761963,
0.32568222284317017,
0.6006684899330139,
-0.44343772530555725,
0.34548553824424744,
0.31441202759742737,
0.295369952917099,
-0.24974186718463898,
-0.057039570063352585,
-0.14445964992046356,
0.020315222442150116,
-0.2384323924779892,
0.46225103735923767,
0.633459746837616,
-0.4551110863685608,
-0.06387906521558762,
-0.4958949089050293,
-0.3827344477176666,
0.1807122379541397,
0.30199846625328064,
-0.0068921297788619995,
-0.043336451053619385,
-0.38719600439071655,
-0.36812928318977356,
-0.2003496289253235,
-0.0279739648103714,
-0.4293062388896942,
-0.7732780575752258,
-0.1288561075925827,
0.2980419993400574,
0.15041334927082062,
0.5454946160316467,
-0.046997662633657455,
-0.2847377061843872,
-0.42325109243392944,
-0.1736423820257187,
-0.5972715616226196,
0.37882572412490845,
-0.0013148104771971703,
-0.5230350494384766,
-0.6470074653625488,
0.32460206747055054,
0.48628368973731995,
0.6442278623580933,
-0.7144989967346191,
0.20815850794315338,
-0.3493058681488037,
0.0294675100594759,
-0.5013099908828735,
0.19262783229351044,
-0.4682066738605499,
-0.5115002393722534,
-0.429325670003891,
-0.037811122834682465,
-0.07711972296237946,
0.5000030994415283,
0.5579332113265991,
0.04097095504403114,
0.47912949323654175,
-0.20994967222213745,
-0.17596353590488434,
0.07926741987466812,
0.0737079530954361,
-0.6822108626365662,
-0.08860452473163605,
-0.057226479053497314,
-0.3374330997467041,
-0.16626565158367157,
0.34494873881340027,
-5.989603519439697,
-0.3411952257156372,
-0.16507232189178467,
0.17556026577949524,
-0.10467426478862762,
-0.1330895870923996,
0.45879411697387695,
0.032723575830459595,
-0.19601787626743317,
-0.09246572852134705,
-0.2915176749229431,
0.01180732250213623,
0.0672144740819931,
0.328246533870697,
0.5624422430992126,
0.5455904006958008,
0.9240217804908752,
-0.0890003964304924,
0.4855266213417053,
0.37193989753723145,
-0.5884593725204468,
0.042287420481443405,
0.08417447656393051,
0.5354389548301697,
0.1661047786474228,
-0.2358902543783188,
-0.13316625356674194,
-0.06945876032114029,
-0.35848382115364075,
-0.12873829901218414,
-0.3866948187351227,
-0.15542234480381012,
-0.3297436535358429,
-0.44978398084640503,
0.5253753662109375,
0.05701584741473198,
0.810492753982544,
-0.32020291686058044,
0.15850135684013367,
-0.5210797786712646,
-0.4353497624397278,
0.2684761583805084,
0.23222026228904724,
-0.053654417395591736,
0.3054278790950775,
-0.10917942970991135,
-0.305649995803833,
-0.3654414415359497,
-0.6227136850357056,
0.42395034432411194,
-0.6486974954605103,
0.21575339138507843,
0.7338002324104309,
-0.7659289836883545,
0.304089218378067,
0.18516398966312408,
0.7648037672042847,
0.14295512437820435,
-0.02049846760928631,
0.39890649914741516,
0.4211106598377228,
-0.45389312505722046,
0.40962713956832886,
-0.2694717347621918,
-0.16245311498641968,
0.32886138558387756,
-0.4577712416648865,
-0.5378969311714172,
0.5125346779823303,
-0.0021986691281199455,
-0.480602890253067,
0.2434716820716858,
0.4096280634403229,
-0.733594536781311,
0.004892417229712009,
-0.46535724401474,
0.11529519408941269,
0.4609770178794861,
0.845877468585968,
0.2127796709537506,
-0.4262532591819763,
-0.4073878526687622,
-0.4268406331539154,
0.1486891508102417,
0.13807454705238342,
-0.037490364164114,
-0.2359587401151657,
-0.18116968870162964,
-0.18657732009887695,
0.5954925417900085,
0.5444880127906799,
-0.03809724003076553,
0.3087995648384094,
0.48147162795066833,
0.6259062886238098,
0.4293502867221832,
0.09877388924360275,
0.12680990993976593,
0.20710356533527374,
-0.5169023871421814,
0.15588758885860443,
-0.4644143879413605,
-0.3828025758266449,
-0.2722805142402649,
0.028968384489417076,
0.050274014472961426,
-0.4736934304237366,
0.5373666882514954,
0.6944836974143982,
-0.4846372604370117,
0.06755010783672333,
0.15291588008403778,
-0.7377926707267761,
-0.23609884083271027,
0.4994679093360901,
0.648403525352478,
-0.9939847588539124,
1.2422387599945068,
0.4480290710926056,
-0.25450965762138367,
0.03489050269126892,
0.45261189341545105,
-0.14561299979686737,
-0.5027264356613159,
-0.5271832346916199,
-0.23097604513168335,
-0.4701911211013794,
0.13932006061077118,
-0.047085728496313095,
-0.03145326301455498,
0.13604708015918732,
0.6270843744277954,
0.2525746524333954,
-0.1343419849872589,
-0.05110759660601616,
-0.2618701159954071,
0.6793311238288879,
0.03223038837313652,
-0.33084842562675476,
-0.46942535042762756,
0.10191547870635986,
0.18202775716781616,
0.022839417681097984,
-0.21360830962657928,
0.7067115306854248,
0.05643827095627785,
-0.23921628296375275,
0.039208654314279556,
0.03361844643950462,
0.3789568841457367,
0.13160206377506256,
-0.38920724391937256,
0.5197796821594238,
-0.23953412473201752,
-0.17565470933914185,
-0.47447457909584045,
0.42253944277763367,
0.054390355944633484,
0.20034629106521606,
-0.27959778904914856,
0.10785604268312454,
-0.3003474771976471,
-0.985145092010498,
-0.03451753407716751,
0.5503779649734497,
0.00942027848213911,
-0.7748295068740845,
-0.2611373960971832,
-0.023523015901446342,
0.688227117061615,
-0.009304210543632507,
-0.3680233955383301,
-0.6708190441131592,
-0.3370264768600464,
0.17857366800308228,
-0.2580929398536682,
0.013611571863293648,
0.1642780303955078,
0.32080113887786865,
-0.2992720603942871,
0.22246848046779633,
-0.18718786537647247,
-0.467151939868927,
0.25098034739494324,
0.1842157393693924,
-0.1136149913072586,
-0.10980404168367386,
0.3253406584262848,
-0.38458627462387085,
-0.3169978857040405,
0.18098025023937225,
0.2833058834075928,
0.01121345441788435,
-0.04395245015621185,
0.10009510070085526,
0.008654267527163029,
0.319379597902298,
-0.2210063636302948,
-0.39125916361808777,
-0.6824345588684082,
0.3542376160621643,
0.433856338262558,
-0.6459492444992065,
-0.19448703527450562,
-0.1884496659040451,
-0.13540281355381012,
0.27132448554039,
0.3159361779689789,
-0.557463526725769,
0.026869438588619232,
-0.4814746081829071,
-0.0779218077659607,
-0.426613986492157,
0.03780309483408928,
-0.16591109335422516,
-0.009610838256776333,
0.18175819516181946,
-0.46755313873291016,
-0.4940888285636902,
-0.5500650405883789,
0.6078300476074219,
-0.359884113073349,
-0.374859482049942,
0.21708527207374573,
0.05774988234043121,
-0.30746984481811523,
0.534703254699707,
-0.37947192788124084,
0.8523050546646118,
-0.3618582487106323,
-0.43155744671821594,
0.2399153858423233,
-0.06099212169647217,
0.25117531418800354,
0.046298798173666,
0.02010399103164673,
-0.4128575921058655,
0.2428809255361557,
-0.3611978590488434,
-0.6262988448143005,
0.2008381485939026,
0.7720524072647095,
-0.02176472544670105,
-0.155021533370018,
0.3461172878742218,
0.3546265661716461,
0.5050910711288452,
-0.7579006552696228,
-0.381120890378952,
-0.35999640822410583,
-0.03528187423944473,
-0.4762437641620636,
-0.45850226283073425,
-0.08485257625579834,
0.5352999567985535,
-0.3688361942768097,
0.24222782254219055,
-0.6626220941543579,
0.08062232285737991,
0.33750370144844055,
-0.3380410671234131,
-0.3698975741863251,
-0.6184313297271729,
-0.24463815987110138,
0.39873450994491577,
0.32822784781455994,
-0.5150559544563293,
-0.1451054960489273,
0.3373357057571411,
-0.5932911038398743,
0.36645784974098206,
-0.2100629359483719,
0.017775416374206543,
0.28492894768714905,
0.6664010882377625,
-0.023461995646357536,
-0.18360936641693115,
0.21999458968639374,
-0.048913851380348206,
-0.2887640595436096,
0.011329487897455692,
0.30910518765449524,
0.4532633125782013,
-0.7532992362976074,
0.628408670425415,
-0.3409690260887146,
0.09435303509235382,
-0.29147714376449585,
-0.14925016462802887,
-0.01463639922440052,
-0.4984563887119293,
-0.18687036633491516,
0.15232618153095245,
0.3200097382068634,
-0.3654309809207916,
0.15755948424339294,
-0.21863411366939545,
-0.3682463467121124,
-0.25012069940567017,
-0.00873726699501276,
-0.5242084860801697,
0.43309372663497925,
-0.21816690266132355,
-0.3057212829589844,
0.5364137887954712,
0.1789904087781906,
0.07522059977054596,
-0.5222929120063782,
-0.0010019412729889154,
-0.5652291774749756,
0.22083134949207306,
0.10976354032754898,
0.10357091575860977,
0.39808353781700134,
-0.49163714051246643,
0.21093261241912842,
0.9439826011657715,
0.10250856727361679,
0.14480161666870117,
0.5448596477508545,
-0.1573019027709961,
-0.2632583975791931,
0.4542047083377838,
-0.3283541202545166,
0.028942929580807686,
0.43047600984573364,
-0.013890656642615795,
-0.2899715006351471,
-0.08038754761219025,
0.05530449375510216,
0.6463114023208618,
0.735725462436676,
-0.5550986528396606,
0.4656277596950531,
0.0636482834815979,
-0.6279994249343872,
0.1446305811405182,
0.3446184992790222,
-0.15638208389282227,
0.8597741723060608,
0.4908807575702667,
0.6360111832618713,
-0.14009569585323334,
0.4376293420791626,
-0.21623598039150238,
0.15524788200855255,
0.22063328325748444,
0.22537994384765625,
-0.3208572566509247,
0.6485647559165955,
0.17778457701206207,
-0.18676042556762695,
0.2891092598438263,
-0.38741546869277954,
-0.24616838991641998,
-0.563158392906189,
0.33639317750930786,
0.21943332254886627,
0.06878071278333664,
-0.47975173592567444,
0.09689829498529434,
0.655693531036377,
0.43215298652648926,
0.17012155055999756,
0.40549471974372864,
0.2551620900630951,
0.001263406709767878,
-0.5157909393310547,
-0.03007948212325573,
-0.05616619065403938,
0.024938764050602913,
0.5305657386779785,
-0.3614847660064697,
0.35617202520370483,
0.27504315972328186,
-0.1565481275320053,
0.6202394366264343,
0.32418325543403625,
-0.020247379317879677,
0.04457737132906914,
0.07475469261407852,
0.25804832577705383,
-0.45686063170433044,
-0.4605463147163391,
-0.04109366983175278,
0.15005624294281006,
0.0008538932306692004,
0.43991053104400635,
-0.389103502035141,
0.3708636462688446,
0.2013401985168457,
-0.14259149134159088,
-0.24887382984161377,
0.29882529377937317,
0.14622525870800018,
0.10912112891674042,
-0.5328104496002197,
0.609084963798523,
0.010211402550339699,
-0.2609140872955322,
0.16422465443611145,
0.1280808448791504,
0.0160648375749588,
0.1019551083445549,
-0.008217573165893555,
-0.24346518516540527,
-0.6552304029464722,
-0.4769301414489746,
-0.575688898563385,
0.22841514647006989,
0.4915621280670166,
-0.6058356761932373,
-0.06449167430400848,
0.49066394567489624,
-0.14306382834911346,
0.4274232089519501,
0.8330694437026978,
-0.16088652610778809,
0.497097909450531,
-0.2894769310951233,
-0.15211071074008942,
-0.08585647493600845,
0.011205083690583706,
0.44333815574645996,
-0.08095055818557739,
0.09405110031366348,
0.4954322874546051,
0.1827506124973297,
-0.8429499268531799,
0.2958960235118866,
-0.3961683511734009,
0.5649226307868958,
-0.3767144978046417,
0.28216588497161865,
-0.47132495045661926,
-0.010379699990153313,
-0.16749097406864166,
0.28905096650123596,
0.15859760344028473,
-0.3462892770767212,
-0.137970969080925,
-0.06553026288747787,
0.22687280178070068,
0.16227392852306366,
-1.0117486715316772,
-0.3085559010505676,
-0.36260294914245605,
-0.38744020462036133,
0.10066286474466324,
0.6138797998428345,
0.5108029246330261,
-0.23432935774326324,
0.36593520641326904,
-0.33192816376686096,
-0.17133627831935883,
0.37291160225868225,
0.2651577591896057,
-0.643988847732544,
-0.106940358877182,
0.26426467299461365
] |
228756 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottle%20variation | Bottle variation | Bottle variation is the degree to which different bottles, nominally of the same product, can have different taste, smell, etc.
There are many possible causes of bottle variation:
variation in the contents prior to packaging
variation in the packaging components
variation in the product and packaging processes
variation in storage, distribution, cold chain, etc.
variation in the quantity of contents
Wine
Different bottles, nominally of the same wine, can taste and smell different.
One factor is found in the variable oxygen transmission rate (OTR) of cork stoppers, which translates to a degree of bottle variation.
Before the advent of inexpensive stainless steel tanks, it was not customary to blend all the wine together and bottle it at once, a process called assemblage. Instead, the winemaker would take his or her siphon from barrel to barrel and fill the bottles from a single barrel at a time. Some traditional and/or idiosyncratic wineries still do this, including Château Musar. Also, buyers and sellers of bulk wine typically do not have access to a multi-million litre tank, and so often the wine will vary depending on which tank it came from.
Bottle variation that increases over time typically comes from the packaging. Exposure to heat or light can cause a wine to mature more quickly or even make it taste "cooked". Bottles aged in the chilly cellars of Sweden's alcohol monopoly are famous for tasting younger than the same wine stored at a more typical 13 °C (55 °F). Finally, not all corks seal equally well, and a faulty cork will allow air into the bottle, oxidizing it prematurely. However, a corked wine would be described as a simple fault rather than bottle variation, even though the corked bottle would be clearly different from a non-corked example.
Sometimes, it is not clear what causes the variation. Bottles stored together their entire lives, with no obvious faults, can taste completely different. Thus there is a saying, "There are no great old wines, only great bottles."
See also
Aging of wine
References
Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009,
Footnotes
Wine terminology
Packaging | [
0.3897083103656769,
0.34689629077911377,
-0.16321638226509094,
-0.1699555218219757,
-0.19747953116893768,
0.015591463074088097,
0.21342825889587402,
0.20810768008232117,
-0.16895627975463867,
-0.5101656317710876,
-0.12753425538539886,
0.07556509226560593,
-0.044113628566265106,
0.624528169631958,
-0.23425011336803436,
0.7708054184913635,
0.8726908564567566,
0.9213113188743591,
0.13305975496768951,
0.2242887020111084,
-0.30188846588134766,
0.06686156243085861,
-0.021458234637975693,
-0.6940082907676697,
-0.24873077869415283,
0.0667310580611229,
-0.05004628747701645,
-0.23103220760822296,
-0.1802019327878952,
0.23708279430866241,
0.1843687742948532,
1.270850658416748,
-0.03204715624451637,
0.0412999764084816,
0.13347038626670837,
-0.10799785703420639,
0.4600667953491211,
-0.32257065176963806,
0.18587030470371246,
-0.6006266474723816,
-0.16123799979686737,
-0.19055061042308807,
0.3291183412075043,
0.28786757588386536,
-0.32385706901550293,
-0.6214109063148499,
-1.5544527769088745,
0.1285991370677948,
-0.3606211245059967,
0.07043444365262985,
-0.0787920132279396,
-0.024660667404532433,
-0.07698960602283478,
0.26571372151374817,
-0.10768367350101471,
0.5188151597976685,
-0.4494520425796509,
0.32885244488716125,
0.3174865245819092,
-0.143014594912529,
0.18622247874736786,
-0.12685684859752655,
-0.4049244523048401,
-0.3352377414703369,
0.10424577444791794,
0.015169063583016396,
-0.056320689618587494,
0.20226295292377472,
-0.5513574481010437,
-0.13688424229621887,
-0.4642002284526825,
-0.12811946868896484,
0.5563983917236328,
-0.0280449241399765,
-0.2799224555492401,
0.7190914154052734,
-0.06362000852823257,
-0.038630738854408264,
0.08787275850772858,
-0.14851097762584686,
0.09694153070449829,
-0.10665324330329895,
0.17358969151973724,
-0.3046071529388428,
0.27452734112739563,
-0.08245943486690521,
-0.14382687211036682,
0.08179310709238052,
-0.3359527587890625,
0.5758074522018433,
0.13563737273216248,
-0.1257198452949524,
0.6573293805122375,
0.07657518237829208,
-0.35532182455062866,
-0.3498842716217041,
0.6339749693870544,
0.14454174041748047,
0.13658593595027924,
0.2553589940071106,
-0.19850391149520874,
0.03670383617281914,
0.4662708640098572,
0.2688722014427185,
-0.5937176942825317,
-0.198323592543602,
-0.47729137539863586,
-0.20493794977664948,
0.44295912981033325,
0.1117834523320198,
-0.5379822254180908,
0.6532853245735168,
0.09300155937671661,
0.560468852519989,
-0.6239044666290283,
-0.0005970222991891205,
0.0656239241361618,
0.08141618967056274,
-0.4087889790534973,
0.0017754887230694294,
-0.25801095366477966,
0.28535422682762146,
-0.11794155091047287,
-0.1334267258644104,
0.3466179370880127,
-0.04896934702992439,
0.05180417373776436,
0.009412027895450592,
-0.3812427520751953,
-0.28720033168792725,
0.10303781926631927,
0.5313231348991394,
-0.1482766717672348,
-0.14310233294963837,
-0.30298253893852234,
-0.2933772802352905,
0.4970734119415283,
0.02084307372570038,
0.36378392577171326,
-0.310137540102005,
-0.5830907225608826,
-0.04387228935956955,
-0.8347187042236328,
0.19640801846981049,
-0.060042910277843475,
0.3353073298931122,
0.008341043256223202,
-0.3005927503108978,
-0.4766002297401428,
-0.3884364366531372,
0.5865361094474792,
0.11171495169401169,
-0.024277394637465477,
0.050436653196811676,
0.21631547808647156,
0.12818826735019684,
-0.672336995601654,
-0.0900074765086174,
-0.16643033921718597,
-0.38365164399147034,
-0.12210486829280853,
0.33296266198158264,
-0.281459242105484,
0.03222115710377693,
0.27032193541526794,
-0.31240755319595337,
-0.36445173621177673,
0.8448277115821838,
-0.5126711130142212,
0.530302107334137,
0.16830894351005554,
0.24972906708717346,
0.17767788469791412,
-0.4632163941860199,
0.0042276885360479355,
0.5897242426872253,
0.4951055943965912,
0.6402480602264404,
0.7794541120529175,
0.18044732511043549,
-0.483881413936615,
0.7566747069358826,
0.20337523519992828,
-0.006703795865178108,
0.06394821405410767,
-0.037332933396101,
0.7528508901596069,
-0.38582247495651245,
-0.09791826456785202,
-0.3398142457008362,
-0.3506924510002136,
-0.4655373692512512,
-0.20323887467384338,
-0.25483664870262146,
0.6570571660995483,
0.16698428988456726,
-0.20003867149353027,
0.16099660098552704,
-0.08861958235502243,
0.041590265929698944,
-0.014711251482367516,
0.2825300693511963,
0.3154172897338867,
0.0629957988858223,
-0.5606448650360107,
0.48860809206962585,
0.3161461651325226,
-0.525583028793335,
0.24761410057544708,
0.5746982097625732,
0.5513368248939514,
-0.4123038947582245,
-0.03400031477212906,
-0.07210678607225418,
0.10382194072008133,
0.5877556800842285,
-0.3152412474155426,
-0.09831327944993973,
0.19893914461135864,
-0.1862286776304245,
0.18886913359165192,
0.06405103206634521,
0.23944340646266937,
0.3479192852973938,
-0.025215789675712585,
0.07848744839429855,
0.3883465826511383,
-0.40501898527145386,
0.7431741952896118,
-0.5692723393440247,
0.3150360584259033,
-0.29266536235809326,
0.11754117906093597,
-0.1783260703086853,
-0.24366383254528046,
-0.07781583815813065,
0.43434759974479675,
0.24458763003349304,
0.23047897219657898,
-0.5735576152801514,
-0.22199469804763794,
-0.05462690442800522,
-0.4905194640159607,
0.668552041053772,
-0.14982402324676514,
0.32286059856414795,
-0.32610222697257996,
0.4034156799316406,
-0.3189193606376648,
-0.4734649360179901,
1.005818247795105,
0.8160543441772461,
0.3067278563976288,
-0.23661457002162933,
0.4618820250034332,
-0.1636045277118683,
-0.10461869090795517,
-0.040299758315086365,
0.3930872678756714,
-0.13792197406291962,
-0.411462664604187,
0.43975189328193665,
0.565230131149292,
-0.27162835001945496,
-0.4390665292739868,
-0.31791186332702637,
-0.9866083264350891,
-0.5886026620864868,
-0.1988917738199234,
-0.2487737238407135,
0.18371179699897766,
0.16045482456684113,
-0.7762889266014099,
-0.14512848854064941,
-0.2882305085659027,
-0.099031962454319,
-0.10857974737882614,
0.03141113743185997,
-0.14498338103294373,
-0.4270390272140503,
0.21324557065963745,
0.14770320057868958,
0.36608925461769104,
-0.5821746587753296,
-0.42738547921180725,
-0.5703441500663757,
-0.2660159468650818,
-0.156855046749115,
0.047584474086761475,
-0.7797601819038391,
-0.347699910402298,
0.19825167953968048,
0.09860297292470932,
-0.00028014343115501106,
0.11106870323419571,
-0.0013223737478256226,
-0.18289411067962646,
0.4955628514289856,
0.6428945660591125,
0.12948353588581085,
0.08578439056873322,
0.1478787362575531,
-0.05258547142148018,
0.02643616311252117,
-0.16122309863567352,
-0.10045541822910309,
-0.3665474057197571,
0.30906498432159424,
-5.981914043426514,
-0.055596448481082916,
0.02431402914226055,
0.40467408299446106,
-0.08631297200918198,
-0.38785895705223083,
0.8928189277648926,
-0.2626771032810211,
-0.2910097539424896,
0.3547993004322052,
-0.11097318679094315,
0.2036108821630478,
-0.12760159373283386,
0.889866054058075,
0.6065083146095276,
-0.030396535992622375,
0.8043306469917297,
-0.2450685054063797,
0.10285307466983795,
0.6428481936454773,
-0.268233060836792,
0.287319540977478,
0.1208469420671463,
0.035898517817258835,
-0.010516613721847534,
0.06412672251462936,
-0.36007463932037354,
0.02996222861111164,
-1.1521351337432861,
0.07342837005853653,
-0.5999733209609985,
0.24526825547218323,
-0.16551131010055542,
-0.06854918599128723,
0.4125858545303345,
-0.04751350358128548,
-0.24350464344024658,
-0.25593164563179016,
0.22851276397705078,
-0.05696845427155495,
0.02380174770951271,
0.4980998635292053,
0.6035327911376953,
0.18541590869426727,
0.20299774408340454,
0.12648063898086548,
-0.13086026906967163,
-0.505766749382019,
-0.3088432550430298,
0.6899938583374023,
0.324048787355423,
-0.10341039299964905,
0.636669933795929,
0.050551462918519974,
0.011587056331336498,
0.06555991619825363,
0.36351728439331055,
-0.26167428493499756,
-0.29682573676109314,
-0.1807856559753418,
0.35491010546684265,
-0.941533088684082,
-0.14785505831241608,
-0.2989005148410797,
-0.19294793903827667,
-0.41531902551651,
-0.5135160684585571,
-0.2558485269546509,
0.4413946568965912,
0.18846666812896729,
-0.5156282186508179,
0.10693202167749405,
-0.33563432097435,
-0.4406145215034485,
0.11808664351701736,
-0.30097490549087524,
-0.2752383351325989,
0.09723098576068878,
0.3884449601173401,
0.3290695548057556,
-0.2028450071811676,
0.43545666337013245,
-0.18305166065692902,
0.14960210025310516,
0.006252622697502375,
-0.525597870349884,
-0.10940829664468765,
0.5937408804893494,
-0.24407905340194702,
-0.14442656934261322,
0.5873599052429199,
-0.05538831278681755,
0.12544798851013184,
-0.13452498614788055,
-0.09463809430599213,
0.2595662474632263,
0.34727320075035095,
0.6365693807601929,
0.111226387321949,
-0.17906028032302856,
0.6639541983604431,
-0.9342440962791443,
-0.3583872616291046,
-0.1478499472141266,
-0.43302589654922485,
0.09680170565843582,
-0.21880289912223816,
0.15719948709011078,
0.6603710651397705,
-0.3414326012134552,
0.054432228207588196,
0.40619105100631714,
-0.3004120886325836,
-0.30141592025756836,
0.35331329703330994,
0.034925077110528946,
-0.21766959130764008,
0.5109524130821228,
0.448728084564209,
-0.1459706723690033,
0.4958454370498657,
0.5381627082824707,
-0.4935285449028015,
-0.19989122450351715,
0.03340664133429527,
-0.5439321994781494,
-0.23928381502628326,
-0.42518723011016846,
-0.41687268018722534,
0.5980159640312195,
-0.04593247175216675,
0.08977609127759933,
0.290176659822464,
0.07323296368122101,
0.149396151304245,
0.06285540014505386,
0.10979947447776794,
0.19041772186756134,
-0.7700543403625488,
-0.6883062124252319,
0.4930976927280426,
-0.3698978126049042,
0.07475080341100693,
-0.02332356385886669,
0.5027089715003967,
0.48198702931404114,
-0.4099076986312866,
-0.3059062063694,
-0.13814064860343933,
0.5900339484214783,
0.028360364958643913,
-0.37643003463745117,
-0.2303576022386551,
-0.029703764244914055,
-0.0007086887490004301,
-0.13931508362293243,
0.06311975419521332,
0.6784960031509399,
0.38736483454704285,
-0.36978691816329956,
0.25281038880348206,
-0.33852049708366394,
-0.8935942053794861,
-0.27576059103012085,
-0.1351374238729477,
-0.1569841206073761,
-0.2738547623157501,
0.1578446477651596,
-0.09691136330366135,
1.2347007989883423,
-0.5411220192909241,
-0.0041358075104653835,
-0.739942193031311,
-0.26132822036743164,
0.18950556218624115,
0.21577893197536469,
0.40702325105667114,
-0.09032587707042694,
-0.3440178632736206,
-0.19966688752174377,
0.02421499788761139,
-0.13114094734191895,
-0.5318878293037415,
0.2679579555988312,
0.6501181721687317,
-0.12350216507911682,
-0.3485896587371826,
0.3691920042037964,
-0.06051924452185631,
-0.1487167328596115,
0.004276464227586985,
0.1871228814125061,
0.262872576713562,
-0.33182835578918457,
-0.30619627237319946,
-0.7633760571479797,
-0.5491870045661926,
0.5776911377906799,
-0.3637317717075348,
-0.0803491622209549,
0.677120566368103,
0.8239817023277283,
-0.38265368342399597,
0.4254925847053528,
0.4117601811885834,
-0.36224403977394104,
0.44325047731399536,
-0.13372299075126648,
-0.645255982875824,
0.15604086220264435,
-0.11457972973585129,
-0.8841577768325806,
-0.8999394178390503,
0.32046306133270264,
0.09095345437526703,
-0.34804025292396545,
-0.21816855669021606,
0.03300885111093521,
0.5845718383789062,
-0.21554873883724213,
0.4430128335952759,
-0.38494163751602173,
-0.34697553515434265,
0.15219725668430328,
-0.39716747403144836,
-0.018482785671949387,
0.3950386643409729,
-0.18948480486869812,
0.5149250030517578,
0.2172703891992569,
0.1378934681415558,
-0.2652866542339325,
0.034422051161527634,
0.446365088224411,
-0.42713484168052673,
0.27538833022117615,
-0.2099408656358719,
0.18426795303821564,
-0.21941058337688446,
-0.046095021069049835,
0.030833428725600243,
0.6469245553016663,
0.0635942593216896,
-0.455611914396286,
-0.9379345774650574,
0.035848237574100494,
0.568781316280365,
-0.48366543650627136,
-0.760751485824585,
-0.11482024937868118,
-0.05252848193049431,
-0.7357637882232666,
-0.0943024531006813,
-0.33563682436943054,
0.7319225072860718,
-0.1326981484889984,
-0.3038714826107025,
-0.3513941168785095,
0.14209884405136108,
0.5068172216415405,
0.020790036767721176,
-0.2813960611820221,
-0.11348576098680496,
-0.11762195080518723,
0.49838191270828247,
-0.10231907665729523,
-0.10621573030948639,
0.19911137223243713,
-0.08389349281787872,
-0.3158321976661682,
0.5184010863304138,
-0.020051034167408943,
0.5737842321395874,
0.5258937478065491,
0.41154101490974426,
-0.007211905438452959,
-0.4568348526954651,
-0.7881178855895996,
0.2615898847579956,
-0.4567468762397766,
-0.10127472877502441,
-0.8832144737243652,
-0.04527580738067627,
0.26928070187568665,
0.33253976702690125,
-0.0033380375243723392,
-0.18509052693843842,
-0.2131759524345398,
-0.6530362367630005,
-0.3098524510860443,
-0.24972572922706604,
0.564098596572876,
-0.14291657507419586,
0.12935225665569305,
-0.031116371974349022,
-0.1687079519033432,
0.31103450059890747,
0.6883934736251831,
-0.15358448028564453,
-0.07837258279323578,
-0.4854176342487335,
0.1843569576740265,
0.450509250164032,
-0.8292423486709595,
0.7289856672286987,
0.2732572555541992,
-0.16980710625648499,
-0.6944735050201416,
0.3173932731151581,
-0.37118932604789734,
0.5129154324531555,
0.3662610948085785,
-0.02167494222521782,
-0.002711197594180703,
0.34132328629493713,
-0.0961339920759201,
0.6059104800224304,
-0.5545026659965515,
0.370279997587204,
0.6360487937927246,
0.4923570156097412,
-0.500817060470581,
0.7847882509231567,
-0.1486007273197174,
-0.28158995509147644,
0.49425944685935974,
-0.21194826066493988,
-0.23568154871463776,
0.4068729877471924,
0.34107905626296997,
0.37067002058029175,
0.5603753328323364,
-0.1785842925310135,
-0.3059910237789154,
-0.2694675326347351,
-0.24081143736839294,
-0.13544800877571106,
-0.500363290309906,
-0.4640674293041229,
0.2605102062225342,
0.21522769331932068,
0.2883046865463257,
0.29776304960250854,
0.07966688275337219,
-0.10811339318752289,
0.34146323800086975,
-0.4129880368709564,
-0.33452528715133667,
0.08763610571622849,
0.24386638402938843,
-0.1466880887746811,
-0.42698484659194946,
0.030209900811314583,
0.037908609956502914,
0.0014552453067153692,
0.03545035049319267,
0.4405582547187805,
-0.5424738526344299,
-0.5629907250404358,
-0.04323824122548103,
-0.1050070971250534,
0.3118283748626709,
-0.20918355882167816,
-0.3232109546661377,
-0.020176570862531662,
-0.08456991612911224,
0.3533983528614044,
-0.2469581812620163,
-0.06163504719734192,
0.31724119186401367,
0.08004307001829147,
-0.19505755603313446,
-0.2956167459487915,
0.3720995783805847,
0.7274240851402283,
0.10661197453737259,
0.7431120872497559,
0.6019036769866943,
-0.28660091757774353,
0.29896339774131775,
-0.11083660274744034,
0.17178355157375336,
-0.3250749707221985,
0.01756199263036251,
-0.23175542056560516,
0.3395962119102478,
-0.23335297405719757,
0.28440651297569275,
-0.09834615886211395,
-0.08199659734964371,
0.21337029337882996,
-0.21761848032474518,
-0.07782136648893356,
0.09271176904439926,
-0.342629998922348,
-0.06223522126674652,
0.12878258526325226,
0.7754856944084167,
-0.01896105520427227,
-0.3735414743423462,
0.005794641096144915,
-0.5061191916465759,
0.22149880230426788,
0.46412739157676697,
-0.47165152430534363,
0.8602211475372314,
-0.34469860792160034,
0.26387807726860046,
-0.4623015224933624,
0.9883481860160828,
0.22342921793460846,
-0.47437241673469543,
-0.38089051842689514,
0.011403671465814114,
-0.3898457884788513,
-0.6018816232681274,
0.31265321373939514,
-0.5160357356071472,
-0.12471470981836319,
-0.9442122578620911,
-0.06500324606895447,
-0.17551201581954956,
0.4950178265571594,
-0.00366760091856122,
0.020056232810020447,
-0.10319158434867859,
-0.0008868303848430514,
0.539706826210022,
-0.4038526713848114,
0.43097957968711853,
-0.4968256950378418,
0.2796972095966339,
-0.42190971970558167,
0.3982287347316742,
-0.54611736536026,
0.029519738629460335,
0.31746143102645874,
0.20431295037269592,
0.47124987840652466,
0.20673012733459473,
0.1255921721458435,
-0.6174334287643433,
-0.06223445013165474,
-0.2857741713523865,
-0.3189750909805298,
0.01928519830107689,
0.2109828144311905,
0.19716788828372955,
-0.17420955002307892,
0.4250756502151489,
0.15752287209033966,
-0.4988594055175781,
0.02027166076004505,
0.15852083265781403,
-0.2142026722431183,
-0.1297534853219986,
0.0025364505127072334,
-0.370164692401886,
0.12533977627754211,
0.47544988989830017
] |
228761 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lido%20di%20Venezia | Lido di Venezia | The Lido, or Venice Lido (), is an barrier island in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy; it is home to about 20,400 residents. The Venice Film Festival takes place at the Lido late August/early September.
Geography
The Lido island is one of the two barrier islands of the Lagoon of Venice, the other is Pellestrina. They form the central part of the coastline of the lagoon on the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula of Cavallino/Punta Sabbioni forms the northern part and the peninsula of Sottomarina forms the southern part. The sea has access to the lagoon through three inlets between the islands and between the islands and the peninsulas. At the northern end of Lido there is the Lido inlet which separates it from Cavallino/Punta Sabbioni and at the southern end there is the Malamocco inlet which separates it from Pellestrina. These two inlets have been dredged to a greater depth to allow big ships through. The Malamocco inlet is the deepest one and is used by container ships and oil tankers to reach the commercial and industrial port of Marghera. The Lido inlet is the widest one (c.1 km) and is used by cruise ships to reach Venice.
Lido is a long and narrow island which gets wider in its northern tract. At least half the seaward coast has sandy beaches. Much of the beach at the town of Lido belongs to various hotels. There are large public beaches towards the northern and southern ends.
The island is home to a town and a village. The town is in the north. It is also called Lido (population 15,128 in 2019). Its neighbourhoods are San Nicolò, Santa Maria Elisabetta, on the lagoon side coast (the landing stage for the Venice ferry is in the former and the one for the water bus is in the latter), and La Favorita and Quattro Fontane, on the seaward coast. It developed in the 19th century as a tourist centre, both as a leisure seaside resort and as a balneotherapy resort. It has many 19th century villas built in Liberty style (the Italian version of Art Nouveau) and many hotels. It is famous for being the seat of the Venice Film Festival and for its grand hotels, such as the Grand Hotel des Bains, the Hotel Excelsior. and the Hotel Ausonia & Hungaria which have hosted celebrities, artists and writers, major businessmen, politicians and royalties. The Gran Viale Santa Maria Elisabetta (27 m wide and c. 700 m long) crosses the town from coast to coast and links the water bus landing stage to the beach.
The village of Malamocco (with a population of 1030 as of 2019) is on the lagoon side coast, in the central-southern part of the island. From the 12th century to the 19th century it was the only significant settlement on the island. It was built after the settlement of Metamaucum, which had been the second capital of the Duchy of Venetia, was submerged by a storm surge.
At the southern end of the islands there is Alberoni, an area of sand dunes. It has Venice's golf course and the Alberoni Dune Oasis which has one of the largest and best-preserved dune systems on the coasts of the Northern Adriatic Sea, with dunes up to 10 meters high, a large, c. 30 hectares, pine forest and unique species of flora and fauna.
History
Metamaucum
Metamaucum was one of the earliest settlements in the Lagoon of Venice. Its origins dated back to the Roman days. It became the second ducal seat of the duchy of Venetia (before the rise of Venice) when Teodato Ipato (742-55), the second doge, transferred it from Heraclea, to 811, when the doge Agnello Participazio (811-27) moved it to Rivoalto. It was temporarily occupied by Pepin of Italy when he tried to invade the lagoon in 810. It was destroyed by the doge Giovanni I Participazio (829–836) when he suppressed a rebellion based in Metamaucum. The settlement continued to be inhabited, but it was a shadow of its former self. Its decadence reached its peak when its priory was moved to the island of Murano (1080), the S.S. Leone e Basso nuns moved to the island of San Servolo (1109) and its diocese was moved to Chioggia between 1107 and 1110. In 1116 it was submerged as a result of an exceptional storm surge. According to the tradition, Metamaucum was on the seashore of the Lido island, rather than on its lagoon shore.
A new settlement was built on the lagoon shore of Lido, close to where Metamaucum had been. The existence of a Metamaucum Nova, which corresponds to today's Malamocco, was first attested in 1107.
Military island
Until the 19th century Lido's main role was a military one for the defence of the lagoon as it lies by the lido inlet, the widest point of entry of the lagoon and the one which is closest to Venice. It continued to have a military role until WW II. Prior to the 19th century it was also a scarcely populated island. In 1820 Lido has 814 inhabitants, 662 of whom lived in Malamocco, and 152 lived in San Nicolò.
In 600 a lookout tower was built at San Nicolò, at the northern end of Lido, on its lagoon side shore, to monitor enemy ships, particularly pirate ships, approaching the lagoon at the Lido inlet. In 1100 it was strengthened and developed into a fort under the doge Vitale I Michiel (1096-1102). This fort was later called Castel Vecchio (Old Castle).
In 1229 crossbow shooting ranges were created in areas of Venice for weekly exercises by men between the ages of 16 and 35. In 1229 a shooting range was established at San Nicolò. It hosted shooting contests at Christmas and Easter to make the exercises more interesting. Infantry, cavalry, and artillery units were also stationed in the area and foundries for armaments and munitions were built where the Jewish cemetery was later set up. In 1304 a militia was instituted. The sailing to Lido was also turned into a contest. The men rowed to the island on boats (called ganzaruoli) with 30-40 oarsmen boats which competed over who would get there first. This is the origin of the word regatta. The only establishment that sold wine at San Nicolò was closed during the contests. A lighthouse was also built close to the shooting range. A permanent garrison was set up. It served as rest area for troops which needed to briefly stop by. Wells to supply freshwater to ships that left the city were built.
In the mid-14th century tensions between Venice and the Republic of Genoa escalated due to their rivalry over supremacy of the naval routes and trading ports in the eastern Mediterranean . 1318. San Nicolò was bombed several times by a Genoese fleet.
In 1335 the Gagiandra (turtle in Venetian) was built. It was a platform for artillery which was placed in the Lido channel which went from the Lido inlet to Venice. It was broad and tapered at the stern and bow. It was covered by a metal plate which acted as a shield. The canons were sticking out of this shield. This gave it the appearance of the head, tail and legs of a turtle. The platform was placed between the Castel Vecchio (Old Castle) at San Nicolò and the Castel Novo (New Castle) on the Vignole island. These two islands and the island of Certosa formed the shores of the channel. An iron chain was placed across the channel. It was supported by the Gagiandra and two rafts placed midway between the "turtle" and the two shores. The chain was kept close to the surface of the water to prevent enemy ships to pass above it.
In 1379 Genoa attacked the lagoon in the War of Chioggia (1379–80). Two towers were built as platforms for crossbows and cannons at the Castel Vecchio and Novo forts (on the Lido and Vignole islands) on the two sides of the Lido channel, to further protect the entrance to the lagoon. Small boats which were chained together were placed between the two towers. Between them there were three ships with archers covered with fresh hides to protect them from fire. A ditch and earthen rampant strengthened with stone were created to protect the S. Nicoló abbey. Eventually Venice won the war.
In 1409 an admiralty was established at S. Nicolò. 1520 The Council of Ten build a building to house its offices and barracks for its officers who were entrusted with monitoring Lido, its fortresses, its inlet and the way the sea changed its beaches. This was called the Casa Rossa (Red House).
In the 16th century, with the Turkish conquests in south-eastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, which were a threat to the Venetian dominion in that part of the Mediterranean the Turks were also considered a threat to Venice itself.
Between 1543 and 1549 Castel Novo, on the Vignole island, was developed into the Sant’Andrea fort. Between 1546 and 1574 Castel Novo at San Nicolò was developed into the San Nicolò fort. Between 1569 and 1574 the latter was strengthened with a triple ditch. Artillery was placed on the seaward side. There were no batteries on the lagoon side in case the fortress was seized and the cannons would be used against the Sant’Andrea fort. The fort became a complex with the military headquarter of the Republic of Venice. The whole area became a c. 521 m long fortified citadel stretching along the lagoon coast with brick barriers and bastions, a dike and an earthen fore wall. It was later was extended towards the sea with angular barriers, six gates and underground exits on the sea beach side, towards the entrance to the Lido inlet. Inside the new fortification there were the old San Nicolò church and its convent and the adjacent Palazzo dei dieci/Casa Rossa at the back. In 1572 an Istrian stone bridge that looked like a triumphal arch over the dock was built to provide access to the citadel.
Large barracks for the troops, known as Saraglio, Quartier Grando or Palazzo dei Soldati (Stronghold, Large Quarters or Building of the Soldiers) were built between 1591 and 1594. It was an imposing building which provided lodgings for 2000 soldiers. It was the first true barracks in Europe, the first instance in which troops were lodged in peacetime. It was an important step towards the creation of a modern army as opposed to a mercenary army or a militia. It was built on the location where the crusaders had gathered before setting off for the fourth crusade. From 1600 the barracks hosted the Fanti da Mar (Infantrymen of the Sea), the first amphibian troops in history, a sort of precursor of today's marines.
In 1571 it was decided to build octagonal forts for artillery batteries on islets off the lagoon side shore of Lido. They were the Ottagono Campana (later called Abbandonato, abandoned octagon), between Malamocco and Alberoni (off the southern end of the Lido island) and the Ottagono Alberoni, by Alberoni and the northern end of the Malamocco inlet, the other point of access into the lagoon, where ships could turn towards Venice. The Ottagono di Poveglia (further north, on the Poveglia island, off Malamocco) acted as a reinforcement for the other two octagons further south. Two octagons were built off the Pellestrina island, the Ottagono San Pietro, at the northern end of the island and the southern end of the Malamocco inlet and the Ottagono Caroman, at the southern end of Pellestrina to guard the Chioggia inlet, the third entry point of the lagoon. In 1572, 75 artillery were supplied for the San Nicolò fort and 56 for Sant’Andrea.
San Nicolò was also where the soldiers and the ships for Venice's naval expeditions in the Adriatic Sea and the rest of the Mediterranean Sea gathered and set off from. Some of these were:
In 1000 the doge Pietro II Orseolo (991-1099) set off for a mission to Istria and Dalmatia which freed the northern Adriatic from the Narentine pirates. In 1099, 207 ships set off at the end of the first crusade to help the crusaders to consolidate their conquests. It defeated a fleet of their Genoese rivals off Rhodes. In 1124 a fleet sets off to free the King of Jerusalem who had been imprisoned in Tyre, Lebanon. It had 108 vessels, 40 galleys 40 supply ships and 28 ships with rams. It besieged and seized Tyre. In 1171 A fleet set off for a battle against the emperor Byzantine Emmanuel Kommenos who had the Venetians in Constantinople arrested. The fleet was defeated more by the plague that the Byzantines, who were was joined by the rival maritime republics of Genoa and Pisa. In 1202 the crusaders of the fourth crusade gathered at Lido in preparation to be taken to the East by Venetian ships. In 1690 Francesco Morosini set off for a campaign in the Peloponnese. He was elected as doge while away. He was met at Lido by the abbot while the senators waited for him of the bucintoro, the ceremonial boat of the doge. In 1784 there was a punitive expedition against the Barbary pirates.
Pope, emperor and the Peace of Venice
The emperor Frederick I, Barbarossa (reigned 1155-1190) conducted six military campaigns in Italy, which was under his Holy Roman Empire. Originally he wanted to confront the Norman Kingdom of Sicily in the south. However, his intervention in Italy was opposed by several Italian cities, particularly Milan, which he had partially destroyed during his second campaign. A dispute with Pope Alexander III (1159-1181) developed because Frederick endorsed antipope Victor IV, who had been elected in opposition to Alexander. Opposition against Frederick in northern Italy grew and the Lombard League, a league formed by several cities, fought him. Frederick was defeated at the Battle of Legnano in 1176. Preliminary peace negotiations took place at Anagni (the Peace of Anagni) in 1176. Negotiations involving all the concerned parties to reach a formal peace treaty took place in Venice where a conference was scheduled for July 1177. The doge Sebastiano Ziani (1172–78) was to act as an intermediary.
The pope arrived in Venice on 10 May 1177. Negotiations with the Lombard League and the king of Sicily started but they were taking a hard stance. Frederick was not allowed to go to Venice and waited for news in Ravenna. A pro-Frederick faction in Venice encouraged Frederick to come to Venice in defiance of the veto, but the emperor declined to do so without the doge's approval. Because of internal pressure, Ziani hesitated. The envoys of the League left Venice for Treviso in protest. The head of the Sicilian delegation threatened to leave and said that his king would take revenge on Venice breach of faith. This would have meant retaliation against Venetian traders in Sicily. The doge confirmed that Frederick would be allowed to enter Venice only after this received papal approval.
This situation highlighted the danger of a breakdown in the talks and negotiations proceeded more rapidly. On 23 July the agreement was completed. At the pope request, Venetian ships went to Chioggia to pick up the emperor, who was taken to Lido. Four cardinals went there to meet him there. Frederick recognised Alexander as the rightful pope and could now be allowed to enter Venice. Doge Ziani went to meet him at San Nicolò and took him to Venice with great pomp. A ceremony was held at St. Mark's basilica.
The Wedding to the Sea
In 1000 the doge Pietro II Orseolo (991-1009) set off for a mission to Istria and Dalmatia which freed the northern Adriatic from the Narentine pirates. Istria and Dalmatia accepted Venice's suzerainty. To celebrate this the Venetians celebrated with the Benedictio del Mare (Blessing of the Sea) ceremony, which was held annually until 1177. In that year, after Venice's mediation which led to the Peace of Venice, it was replaced by the Sposalizio col Mare (Wedding with the Sea) .
In this ceremony the doge sailed for Lido on the bucintoro (the doge's ceremonial ship) with the top clergy, the top officials of the Republic of Venice and ambassadors. This was followed by a large number of Venetians on various kinds of vessels. It was a festive parade. Between Lido and the Sant'Andrea fort (see above), where the Lagoon of Venice meets the Adriatic Sea, the doge took a golden ring which pope Alexander III had donated him. He then threw it into the sea. It was attached to a string so that it can be retrieved. The doge then recited "We marry thee, oh sea, in a sign of eternal domination." The ceremony ended in 1797 when the Republic fell with its conquest by Napoleon. It was performed on the first Sunday after ascension day.
The ceremony and fête was performed again in 1965 and in 1988. The latter was an initiative by private citizens and cultural and sport associations which wanted to relaunch the celebrations. The ceremony became permanent and is now led by the mayor of Venice
The ceremony was also associated with the Festa della Sensa (Fête of Ascension). In 1180 it developed into the Fiera della Sensa (Ascension Fair). There were acrobats, jugglers and minstrels in all the streets of Venice. There was a large market in St. Mark's Square. From 1307 the market had especially prepared stands which over time became increasingly decoratively elaborate. Goods of all kinds and from all over the world were displayed.
Murazzi
The engineer Bernardo Zendrini found that pozzolana mixed with chalk and sand was an efficient water-resistant binder. In 1737 he built a 2.5 m long test wall near Malamocco. Three years later it had withstood two winter storm surges (one of which had been one of the worst) without damage. This led to the building of the murazzi, imposing walls made with large blocks of Istrian stone to form a continuous sea defence on the barrier island of Pellestrina. Later murazzi were built at Lido as well, but here they were discontinuous. A previously unknown 350 m long test wall was brought to light by the seaward shore in 1980. It lies 380 m from the sea. This is because after the construction of the breakwater at San Nicolò (see below), sand has been accumulating on the sea shore in the northern part of the island, widening the beach.
Churches, monasteries convents and saints
In 887 the male Benedictine monastery of San Cipriano was founded in Malamocco on the initiative of doge Giovanni II Participazio. This was followed by the female monastery of Santi Leone and Basso. In 1108 San Cipriano was abandoned due to damage caused by the sea and daily ground collapses. The friars moved to the Murano island and set up a new monastery of S. Cipriano. In 1109, for the same reason, the nuns moved to a convent on the San Servolo island vacated by Benedictine monks who had moved to the monastery of Sant'Ilario near Fusina.
In 1045 the doge Domenico Contarini I (1043–71), the Patriarch of Grado and the bishop of Olivolo founded the church and convent of San Nicolò. The works for the church were completed in 1064. In 1053, the management of the church and convent was handed to the abbot of the Benedictine monastery of San Giorgio Maggiore. In 1098 some of relics three of saints from Myra (now Demre), west of the Chelidonia cape, Lydia, on the southern coast of what is now Turkey, were smuggled by a naval squadron which returned form the first crusade and placed in the San Nicolò church. The saints were Nicolò Major, his uncle Nicolò Minor and Theodoros. The church, which was small, was enlarged in 1134 and urns with the relics were moved from the crypt and put in three niches by the main altar. Between 1626 and 1634 the church was demolished and rebuilt, together with the bell tower, using material from the old church. In 1770 the Benedictines moved to San Giorgio Maggiore island because a 1768 law closed confraternities with less than 12 monks or friars. The building became a military quarter. The church remained open for worship. In 1938 it was granted to Franciscan friars.
The first record of the Abbey of San Leonardo between Alberoni and Malamocco dates to 1111. It was destroyed by fire, along with the whole of the Malamocco coast, during the War of Chioggia (1379–80). In 1407 there was a bequest for the rebuilding of the monastery. The church was rebuilt with funds from the patriarch of Venice. The church merged with the San Camillo hospital in 1928 and was demolished to enlarge the hospital.
In 1557 the parish church of Santa Maria Assunta church in Malamocco was rebuilt on top of old one, which dated to the 11th century.
In 1620 there was a request to build a church at Lido to replace the unauthorised oratory of Beata Vergine Visitante Santa Elisabetta (Blessed Visiting Virgin St. Elizabeth) to the south of San Nicolò, which was built by the locals because they found it difficult to reach their parish church of San Pietro di Castello on the island with the same name.
In 1627 the construction of the new church, now called Santa Maria Elisabetta, on top of the old oratory was completed. The patriarch of Venice granted it the title of parish church. It was the second parish church of Lido, after Santa Maria Assunta in Malamocco. In the 19th century, when the area became built up, it was named after this church.
Jewish and Protestant cemeteries
In 1386 the Jews were granted a plot of uncultivated land to develop the Jewish cemetery. The friars of the San Nicolò convent were opposed to this and claimed that they owned the land. A few years later to resolve this, the Jews paid a token rent. Consent was given and burials started in 1389. A Protestant cemetery was opened close to the Jewish one in 1674. A very small Catholic cemetery was opened in 1866 in front of the entrance of the Jewish one. In 1916 it was replaced by a new one. A new Jewish cemetery was also built. Its monumental entrance was completed in 1923. As a result, the Catholic cemetery lies between the old and new Jewish cemeteries.
19th century
The accumulation of sand carried by the sea at the Malamocco and Lido inlets made their navigability problematic. During second Napoleonic occupation (1806–14), it was decided to build breakwaters on the southern and northern shore of the Malamocco inlet. The latter was to be built at Alberoni, on the southern tip of Lido. However, the works were not completed due to the second Austrian occupation (1814–48). The Austrians disagreed with the French plans. The project was entrusted to the engineer Pietro Paleocapa. Works at Alberoni started in 1838 and were completed in 1845. Works on the southern breakwater at Santa Maria del Mare, on the Pellestrina island, started in 1853 and were completed in 1856. The object of the northern breakwater to keep the coastal current at bay and trap the sand it carried. That of the southern one was to channel the receding low tide water to make the inlet deeper through the force of the exit current.
In the late 18th century and in the 19th century, a number of poets and writers wrote about Lido. This made Lido an attractive destination for people from the European elites in their then fashionable journeys in Italy. In 1786 Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, the German poet and scientist, visited Lido and wrote about his experience there in this book about his journey in Italy. Lord Byron spent five years (1816–21) in Venice and liked to ride his horses at Lido from a hut he rented at Alberoni. In 1818 he was visited by Percy Bysshe Shelley. The two spent a couple of days at Lido. Shelley wrote a poem about this. Since Byron was a celebrity, this attracted tourists who hoped to meet the poet or get a glimpse of him at Lido. In 1830 James Fenimore Cooper, the author of The Last of the Mohicans, visited and described Lido and used Venice as the background for his novel The Bravo. In 1841 John Ruskin, the art critic who wrote about Venice and her art, also wrote about Lido. Other people who visited Lido and described it were and the French poet Theophile Gautier, in 1850, Herman Melville, the American novelist and poet, in 1857, and Hyppolyte Taine, the French critic and historian, in 1864. Henry James first arrived in Venice in 1869. He went to Lido 14 times. He wrote about Venice in some of his novels and one of them was set in Venice. The British poet and playwright Robert Browning went to Lido in 1888 and died in Venice nearly two months later.
Frederick William, the Duke of Brunswick (1771-1815) bought a plot of land at Lido, intending it to have his holiday home there. From 1879 queen Margherita of Savoy took her sickly son Victor Emmanuel III, the heir to the throne of the Kingdom of Italy on holiday at Lido, at the sea bathing facility of La Favorita. A royal chalet was arranged for her. In those days there was the belief that sea bathing had a curative or therapeutic value.
Tommaso Rima, a doctor at Venice's hospital, believed that bathing in the lagoon had therapeutic benefits for nervous illnesses, scrofulosis, rickets and skin disorders. In 1833 he set up a floating bathing facility at Punta della Dogana, opposite St Mark's. It consisted of two big rafts which created a pool with a grate at the bottom and which could be reassembled in the summer. There was a café and one could sunbathe. The idea of bathing therapy caught on. Gondolas were adapted for the purpose and inns set up pools with water drawn for the nearby canals which was warmed up. There was an idea that this kind of bathing in the Venetian winter was particularly therapeutic. In 1857 a booklet about this notion published.
The Lido's potential for tourism did not go unnoticed. In 1852 there was a proposal to set up two spas, one on the lagoon shore and one on the sea shore, but it was then thought that the lagoon water was less pure. In 1855 De la Hante, a Frenchman, set up a bathing resort in the La Favorita area, which was named after the villa of the archduke Maximillian of Austria (1832-1867) the brother of the emperor who was in charge of the Austrian dominions in northern Italy (1815–59) and spent some of his time in Venice. The resort had 70 rooms. In 1872 De la Hante bought the archduke's villa to convert it into a restaurant, café, casino and 70 rooms for an exclusive beach resort. However, he then sold it to the Lido Bathing Resort Society (see below).
In 1857 Giovanni Busetto, nicknamed Fisola, also opened a seaside resort. This consisted of wooden cabins on pilings over the beach with a common central area and two wings with 15 small rooms each. Separate cabins for the lower classes were planned. It was demolished by the Austrians in 1859 due to the Second Italian War of Independence against Austrian domination in northern Italy. In 1867, after Venice became part of Italy, the resort was reopened and expanded but was destroyed by a storm surge. It was reopened and expanded again in 1870. From 1867 to 1871 the number of bathers increased from 30 to 60 thousand.
In 1857 a summer shuttle service to and from Venice was set up. It consisted of large boats with four oarsmen which could carry 16 passengers. In 1858 the road from the church of Santa Maria Elisabetta, which was by the landing stage in the lagoon coast and lead to the seacoast, was widened and made suitable for vehicle traffic. It eventually came to be called Gran Viale Santa Maria Elisabetta (or just Gran Viale). It was widened again in 1888 and a horse-drawn omnibus which took tourists to the beach along the Gran Viale entered into service. In the same year the military steamship Alnoch, which could carry up to 200 passengers, was made available for linking Lido with Venice during the tourist season from 6 am to 9 pm. This was then extended to 4 am to 11 pm.
In 1872 a group of entrepreneurs set up the Società Civile dei Bagni di Lido (the Lido Bathing Resort Society). Its aim was to boost Lido's tourism potential. It bought the La Favorita villa, it reduced the number of its room to six to be used by queen Margaret. A large terrace which overlooked the sea was built. It could host 1500 people and had salons, café-restaurants, reading rooms and ballrooms, a telegraph and post office, medical assistance, a chemist and life guards with special lookout posts and boats. The group also wanted to promote sea bathing as a leisure activity as well as a therapeutic one. This idea was expounded by Paolo Mantegazza, a doctor who wrote about beaches and the sea as collective salons where people could rest and have fun.
The group planned more resorts and the urban development of the area between the landing stage of the lagoon side and the sea beach. This area came to be called Santa Maria Elisabetta. The project involved substantial land improvements and drainage on an island which was still largely rural and had areas of bog land and scattered dunes. A water drainage and sewer system was developed. The development was to have hospitality and entertainment facilities, residential areas, roads, gardens, woods, restaurants and cafes. Villas for wealthy bathers were built in Liberty style, the Italian version of Art Nouveau. The number of bathers increased from 60,000 in 1871 to 80,000 in 1872 to 160,000 in 1883.The number of small rooms for bathers increased to 600. They were equipped with facilities for seawater therapy with the spraying of rarefied water with compressed air.
In 1873 a steam navigation company was established. This was the birth of the Venetian waterbus, the service for the transport of people around the lagoon. It used steamboats which were smaller than the military one which had been used and thus allowed more frequent journeys. With regard to Lido, compared to oar boats, it shortened the time needed to reach Santa Maria Elisabetta from San Zaccaria (near St Mark's Square) dramatically, from one hour to ten minutes. In 1881 a regular time table with services every half an hour between 6 am and 12 pm was introduced. It entered into operation in 1882. In 1898 the Municipality of Venice took over the Grand Viale Santa Maria Elisabetta and widened it to 17 m to allow for a single-track horse-drawn tramway. The Bathing Resort Society was given permission to set this up in 1889 s up. It replaced the omnibus.
1885 a low-cost bathing resort for the lower classes with 150 small rooms was established. In 1887 and 1888 the bathing resort was expanded again and an electricity power plant was built. The first beach huts were installed for bathing and for "air sunlight and sand" therapy, which was popular among families. This development required the construction of a seafront boulevard. Further urbanisation took place and more villas were built. In 1889 an electric tramway line along the Gran Viale was introduced and from 1892 the Gran Viale had electric lighting during the tourist season. The number of tourists increased from 80,000 in 1872 to 160,000 in 1883.
The Ospizio Marino (Sea Nursing Home) opened in 1870. It was a hospital for poor children who suffered from scrofulosis, which affected especially children form deprived backgrounds, who needed heliotherapy. Experiments conducted in 1842 indicated that what was then called sea therapy was the required treatment. The hospital had 200 beds. It was expanded to 500 beds in 1873. After the opening of the Excelsior Hotel in 1908 it was planned to move the hospital elsewhere to make room next to the hotel and to move the sick away from it. This occurred in the 1920s.
The lido inlet had not used for navigation since 1724 because this was prevented by frequent sand accumulation. In 1866 the engineer Pietro Paleocapa submitted a plan to build two breakwaters to reopen the inlet, one on its northern shore (Punta Sabbioni) and the other on its southern shore (San Nicolò). They were to be 3,5 km and 2.85 km long respectively, extend in the direction of the Scirocco wind, give the inlet a width of 1 km and reach a depth of 8 m. In 1870 studies showed that similar works on the Malamocco inlet has been effective in preventing sand accumulation and that the sand was stopped by the northern breakwater. It accumulated by it. The project was approved in 1871. The works started in 1882. The San Nicolò breakwater was the first that was built. The works on both was completed in 1910 with the construction of a 26 m high lighthouse at Punta Sabbioni.
A theatre (Nuovo Teatro del Lido) which had 600 seats opened in 1892. A velodrome was opened in 1894, but cycling competitions were ended in 1896 due to high running costs. In 1911 it hosted period costume equestrian tournament which attracted a big crowd.
20th century
The expansion of the bathing resorts and of the urbanisation of the Santa Maria Elisabetta area continued. From 1900 to 1920 some 50 villas were built. In 1904 a horse-riding school was established. Over the decades it held several international contests and two world cups. The planning for a boulevard to connect Piazzale Santa Maria Elisabetta to San Nicolò started in 1905. An aquarium was opened next to the theatre in 1909. Both were later demolished.
Lido also became an island of grand hotels. The Grand Hotel Lido, in Piazzale Santa Maria Elisabetta, the square in front of the landing stage, was opened in 1900. It was demolished in the 1970s. In the same year the famous Grand Hotel des Bains was opened. The Hungaria Palace Hotel, later called Grand Hotel Ausonia & Hungaria, opened in 1907. It had 82 rooms furnished by Eugenio Quarti, a famous Milan furniture maker nicknamed prince of the ebanisti (carpenters who work with ebony). A maiolica mosaic with Renaissance motifs interpreted in liberty style
which made the hotel very distinctive was installed on its facade between 1914 and 1916. The Hotel Palace Excelsior opened in 1908.
In 1905 Gran Viale Santa Maria Elisabetta was widened again, to 27 m, to accommodate two tracks for an electric tramway.
In 1911, in an era when flying was new, a show of short flights which landed on the beach of the Excelsior was organised. Two flights from Venice to this beach were arranged later in the year. The last one attracted many people who paid tickets to get on the terrace of the hotel and crowded it. There was a lottery draw whose prize was a tour on the plane. More such flights were then organised. This helped to attract attention to the hotel. In 1914 the owner of the Excelsior opened a fun fair which was extremely successful. However, it was dismantled the next year because of WW I. Another one was opened in 1932 but it suffered the same fate because of WW II.
In 1919 woks started on a staircase to a votive temple (built between 1925 and 1928) dedicated to the Madonna of Victory and built for the remembrance of the fallen soldiers of WW I. The bodies of 3700 soldiers are kept here.
In the 1920s seaplanes became the next technological advance. A Frenchman organised an international competition, the Schneider International Cup, from 1920 to 1931. It was held at Lido in 1920, 1921 and 1927. It was extremely popular.
In 1919 it was decided that the Ospizio Marino (see above) was to remain open permanently and not just in the summer. Between 1922 and 1926 a new site for the hospital was built in the La Favorita area. It was now opened to adults as well. The centre for rehabilitation for children with rickets merged with this hospital in 1924. The Ospizio developed balneotherapy (bathing therapy) psammotherapy (hot sand baths) and sun therapy. In 1933 it was renamed Ospedale al Mare (Hospital at the Sea). It became a hospital of specialised excellence and the foremost thalassotherapy (the use of seawater for therapy) centre in Italy. In 1933 a church was opened in this complex.
In 1920 the Grand Hotel Company (CIGA) built a bagno popolare (low-cost bathing resort) and gave the municipality a large square to create a public playground. In 1923 another bagno popolare (later called zone A) was established next to the Ospizio Marino.
The Nicelli airport was developed during WW I for the defence of Venice. In 1926 it was converted to civilian use with the construction of a terminal. The first light was to Vienna and carried four passengers. By 1931 there were six routes. In 1935 a second terminal was built. By 1939 there were 23,285 passengers. The major European airlines operated here and the airport was the second most important one in Italy after Rome. During WW II much of its equipment was confiscated by the Germans, who also tried to destroy it. Operations resumed after the war. However, with the advent of bigger jet planes, the runway became too short. In 1961 the new Venice Marco Polo Airport was opened. The Nicelli airport only handled small private planes and hosted a school for pilots and parachutists. In 1994 the municipality of Venice set up a management firm to the restore the airport and relaunch economic activity in the area.
In 1930 the golf course at Alberoni was inaugurated. It was said that Henry Ford had been disappointed that Lido did not have a golf course. The area at the southern end of the island, which had sand dunes (sand would provide good drainage), trees and a former military fort and stables was chosen. Originally it had 9 holes. It was extended to 18 holes in 1951. The course is 6 km long. It hosted Italian opens in 1955, 1960 and 1974.
On 15–16 June 1934 Hitler went to Venice to meet Mussolini. He stayed at the Grand Hotel in Venice and Mussolini stayed at the Grand Hotel Excelsior. The two men met at the golf club at Alberoni.
Venice was the first city in the world to have a publicly owned and regulated casino. It opened in 1638. However, it was closed in 1774. In 1938 the casino (Palazzo del Casinò) at Lido was opened. This marked the return of legal gambling in Venice. It became a summer casino in 1946, when a winter venue was opened in Venice in what is now Ca’ Vendramin Calergi, formerly the last residence of Richard Wagner, who died there. The Palazzo del Casinò at Lido was closed in the 1990s when a new casino was opened at Ca’ Noghera in the mainland.
In 1946 and 1947 a motor race was held at the Lido circuit to relaunch tourism. Tazio Nuvolari came third in the second race. Lido hosted the road cycling world championship in 1952 and track cycling world championship in 1962. In the latter year the ice rink was opened. Prior to that the rich skated at an inner terrace of the Excelsior Hotel and the non-rich skated at a small garden by the casino.
In the 1960s, the improving post-war Italian economy created a real-estate boom in the island and many Venetians moved to Lido to benefit from its modern infrastructure.
The Venice Film Festival
Lido di Venezia is home to the Venice International Film Festival (Italian: Mostra Internazionale d'Arte Cinematografica della Biennale di Venezia, "International Exhibition of Cinematographic Art of the Venice Biennale"). It is the world's oldest film festival and one of the three most prestigious ones, together with the Cannes Film Festival and Berlin International Film Festival. These are sometimes called the "Big Three".
The film festival started in 1932. It was the idea of the then chair of the Venice Biennale who was worried about a decline in tourism at Lido due to the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and understood that cinema could help to alleviate this. It was successful. The prince Umberto di Savoia, the wife of the Prince of Wales, Winston Churchill, Henry Ford and film stars such as Greta Garbo and Clark Gable attended. Forty films from six countries were shown on the terrace of the Excelsior hotel. No awards were given, but an audience referendum chose which films and performances were the most praiseworthy.
The second festival was held in 1934. It was meant to be a biennial event but it became annual because of the success of the first one. There were some 20 awards, but there was no jury. Premiers were shown, which increased the prestige of the festival. So did a scandal caused by a Gustav Machaty's Ecstasy which showed the first scenes with a female nude in cinema history, which also launched the career of the actress Hedy Lammarr. This time the films were shown in the garden of the Excelsior hotel. In 1937 the venue of the festival was opened. It is the Palazzo del Cinema.
In 1939 the fascist government imposed the assignation of the awards to two propaganda films, a fascist one and a Nazi one. Because of this the Americans boycotted the 1940 festival. The 1940-41-42 editions are not listed as part of the festival because the government assumed total control of the screening of films and chose films from the “Rome-Berlin” axis. These festival were screened at two cinemas in Venice because the film hall was requisitioned. In 1943-45 the festival was suspended because of the war. It resumed in 1946. However, the French wanted their new festival, the Cannes Film Festival, to start at the same time as he Venice one. After negotiations it was decided that Cannes would run in the spring and Venice would start later, in late August. In 1946 and 1947 the festival was held in Venice because the film hall was requisitioned, this time by the American army. In the latter year the screenings took place at the Doge's Palace. The festival returned to the Lido in 1948. An arena for outdoors screenings was built outside the film hall. In 1949 the festival's award, which was called International Great Prize of Venice, was renamed St. Mark's Lion Prize. Later it was called the Golden Lion.
The Lido has also hosted numerous film-shoots. In 1971 the film Death in Venice (Morte a Venezia) directed by Luchino Visconti, starring Dirk Bogarde and Björn Andrésen, and based on the Death in Venice novel published in 1912 by Thomas Mann was screened. Both the novel and the film were set at lido and the Grand Hotel des Bains, where Thomas Mann stayed with his wife and brother in the summer of 1911. The novel was also turned into the Death in Venice opera by Benjamin Britten (his last opera) in 1973 and a ballet by John Neumeier in 2003.
Legacy
The term Lido, which originates from this island, forms the first part of the name of many seaside resorts in Italy and is used to refer to certain types of outdoor swimming pools, especially in Great Britain. It also the origin of the name "Lido deck" on a cruise ship.
Gallery
See also
List of islands of Italy
References
Further reading
External links
Satellite image of the Venetian Lido from Google Maps
Venice Lido Beaches
Lido di Venezia
The Venice Lido by Robin Saikia
Frazioni of the Metropolitan City of Venice
Geography of Venice
Islands of the Venetian Lagoon
Seaside resorts in Italy
Barrier islands | [
0.2996078431606293,
-1.1186707019805908,
0.622377336025238,
-0.301490843296051,
0.2837750315666199,
-0.2342490404844284,
-0.1943238079547882,
0.39371734857559204,
-0.38440507650375366,
-0.6565760374069214,
-0.1400505155324936,
0.23743051290512085,
-0.6018115878105164,
0.17189167439937592,
0.2765721082687378,
0.036131516098976135,
0.6239690780639648,
-0.07148092985153198,
0.7852482199668884,
-0.5900832414627075,
-0.3665090501308441,
-0.13357476890087128,
0.18537552654743195,
0.16736893355846405,
-0.3354332447052002,
-0.5814345479011536,
0.26841557025909424,
0.18270806968212128,
0.07998451590538025,
0.16895389556884766,
0.3540444076061249,
0.45760345458984375,
-0.2987503409385681,
-0.016942672431468964,
0.14293858408927917,
0.10427786409854889,
0.38497719168663025,
-0.7689568400382996,
-0.6812901496887207,
-0.05367603525519371,
-0.6200249195098877,
-0.023808082565665245,
0.0019185100682079792,
0.24007226526737213,
0.07682938128709793,
0.16014857590198517,
-0.6987246870994568,
0.6947736740112305,
-0.4111008942127228,
0.3885349929332733,
-0.37223508954048157,
0.19167248904705048,
-0.29002681374549866,
0.639303982257843,
-0.24783334136009216,
-0.07587078958749771,
-0.332030326128006,
-0.23351998627185822,
0.6100449562072754,
0.06634961068630219,
0.6178233027458191,
0.5412958264350891,
0.30086132884025574,
-0.43046772480010986,
0.3406413793563843,
0.11964284628629684,
0.3121360242366791,
0.10970737040042877,
-0.5283690094947815,
-0.3748788833618164,
-0.3604860305786133,
0.12187587469816208,
-0.1590183675289154,
-0.1965443193912506,
-0.6074355244636536,
-0.15653501451015472,
-0.32479575276374817,
-0.1391463428735733,
0.4062858521938324,
0.36901819705963135,
0.44186314940452576,
-0.06506995111703873,
0.6404592394828796,
-0.06932578980922699,
0.7095893025398254,
0.050422586500644684,
-1.1160141229629517,
-0.04419681802392006,
-0.260250449180603,
0.5286068916320801,
0.25681445002555847,
-0.4493175148963928,
0.7440497875213623,
-0.4104978144168854,
0.027044905349612236,
0.6816983222961426,
0.23868395388126373,
0.24588507413864136,
-0.07825389504432678,
0.31272077560424805,
-0.7149499654769897,
0.6426684260368347,
0.05592269450426102,
0.11147058755159378,
-0.3740496039390564,
-0.48790860176086426,
-0.5171495079994202,
-0.09354306757450104,
-0.32819780707359314,
0.2686915397644043,
-0.8409011960029602,
0.062188953161239624,
-0.6019101738929749,
-0.05509338155388832,
-0.4965057671070099,
-0.21092860400676727,
0.540189802646637,
0.48755931854248047,
-0.2016981691122055,
-0.2287973165512085,
0.6084402799606323,
-0.43582165241241455,
0.1709941327571869,
-0.2415713518857956,
-0.14943809807300568,
-0.1056789830327034,
0.6354084610939026,
0.1566525548696518,
-0.48301371932029724,
0.3766952157020569,
0.17639216780662537,
0.3120924234390259,
-0.3777467906475067,
0.49700164794921875,
0.15446774661540985,
-0.2634168565273285,
-0.2753037214279175,
0.298157274723053,
0.8910540342330933,
-0.13957832753658295,
-0.7629863619804382,
0.047771621495485306,
-0.6371700167655945,
0.409887433052063,
0.21766865253448486,
-0.13144834339618683,
-0.04840966314077377,
-0.11812903732061386,
-0.23517000675201416,
-0.5624251365661621,
0.024304747581481934,
-0.01923840306699276,
-0.11653245985507965,
-0.31075936555862427,
-0.5391151905059814,
-0.07126670330762863,
0.37770989537239075,
-0.18771541118621826,
-0.31074604392051697,
0.21783117949962616,
0.22991065680980682,
-0.061865292489528656,
0.40031278133392334,
0.8399946093559265,
0.5060521364212036,
-0.567049503326416,
0.16821131110191345,
0.02704455330967903,
0.5899617671966553,
0.5333016514778137,
0.17355866730213165,
0.06446005403995514,
0.4507245421409607,
-0.7285308241844177,
-0.31611859798431396,
-0.048042554408311844,
0.6215183138847351,
0.14146935939788818,
0.10510620474815369,
-0.4578584134578705,
-0.5554882884025574,
0.24395133554935455,
0.11696800589561462,
0.3355049788951874,
0.1691146045923233,
0.18375706672668457,
0.5146521925926208,
-0.0069425287656486034,
-0.2933700978755951,
-0.006233845837414265,
0.19675099849700928,
-0.6023099422454834,
0.13767528533935547,
0.12399764358997345,
0.6910359859466553,
0.10601649433374405,
0.03442700579762459,
0.7590686678886414,
0.018128734081983566,
0.26253220438957214,
-0.9101446866989136,
-0.020456336438655853,
0.7889271378517151,
0.17349103093147278,
-0.5101441144943237,
0.28393739461898804,
-0.041447754949331284,
-0.028263667598366737,
0.05915147811174393,
0.3639608919620514,
0.22351785004138947,
-0.5032742619514465,
0.4640604555606842,
-0.37526413798332214,
0.5094884634017944,
-0.42026522755622864,
-0.6246141195297241,
0.41579288244247437,
0.13712650537490845,
-0.20901355147361755,
0.2406391203403473,
0.42324188351631165,
-0.1717754304409027,
0.26397788524627686,
-0.10718187689781189,
0.8289438486099243,
0.03443347290158272,
0.2633710503578186,
0.1881513148546219,
-0.49772563576698303,
-0.3201315999031067,
-0.1085050106048584,
0.07054755091667175,
0.10631271451711655,
0.44526180624961853,
0.02106691338121891,
0.2718614935874939,
-0.6031332015991211,
0.4876340627670288,
-0.12520831823349,
0.026311859488487244,
-0.24556918442249298,
-0.3954215347766876,
0.04328382387757301,
0.5443268418312073,
0.5597147941589355,
0.6132222414016724,
0.6201770305633545,
-0.21388474106788635,
-0.06522133201360703,
0.43334102630615234,
0.023195886984467506,
0.1423417329788208,
0.3663922846317291,
0.9339859485626221,
-0.6620365977287292,
0.629607617855072,
-0.014444584026932716,
0.31598883867263794,
-0.5117330551147461,
-0.6043535470962524,
-0.3266598880290985,
0.32169482111930847,
-0.09565220773220062,
0.18171021342277527,
0.012570463120937347,
-0.40612050890922546,
-0.2742856740951538,
0.9689033031463623,
0.07337971776723862,
0.30881279706954956,
-0.07322977483272552,
-0.021608108654618263,
0.24762867391109467,
-0.7465375065803528,
0.3136923611164093,
0.006807840894907713,
-0.3298085629940033,
-0.23945173621177673,
-0.14382167160511017,
0.2887096107006073,
-0.21821239590644836,
-0.14849166572093964,
-1.0789164304733276,
-0.16328945755958557,
0.08708491176366806,
0.32620400190353394,
-0.3596133589744568,
0.06522353738546371,
-0.19785715639591217,
0.028937529772520065,
-0.43289312720298767,
-0.14817814528942108,
0.25344952940940857,
-0.26150694489479065,
-0.08590812981128693,
-0.31640055775642395,
0.40567901730537415,
0.796025812625885,
-0.6414156556129456,
-0.2482263594865799,
0.23650674521923065,
-0.31750985980033875,
0.01008819229900837,
-0.043195564299821854,
-0.22051972150802612,
0.020371416583657265,
0.2582158148288727,
-5.696785926818848,
0.8157849311828613,
-0.4380132257938385,
0.7813513278961182,
-0.4262275993824005,
-0.44832393527030945,
0.49334952235221863,
0.05652133375406265,
0.03283624351024628,
-0.35276708006858826,
-0.49901431798934937,
0.08304431289434433,
-0.07677610218524933,
0.5788909792900085,
-0.1271384209394455,
0.475242555141449,
0.18437227606773376,
-0.19697429239749908,
0.27287447452545166,
0.34227192401885986,
-0.5257797837257385,
0.5198380947113037,
0.27585476636886597,
0.09013921767473221,
0.20533359050750732,
0.31136998534202576,
-0.27803370356559753,
0.038853149861097336,
-0.9546575546264648,
-0.4699160158634186,
-0.14007696509361267,
-0.3904394209384918,
-0.11830680072307587,
-0.01889973133802414,
0.3077092468738556,
-0.1470295935869217,
0.44366782903671265,
0.2805887460708618,
0.30513912439346313,
-0.4191299080848694,
-0.14970730245113373,
0.5302526354789734,
-0.2930586636066437,
-0.42116305232048035,
0.3084723651409149,
-0.41171711683273315,
-0.2702842354774475,
-0.272907018661499,
-0.146453395485878,
1.041517734527588,
0.3030916452407837,
0.13372574746608734,
0.21999453008174896,
-0.12325354665517807,
0.06368473917245865,
-0.1835411936044693,
0.2643684148788452,
-0.4096789062023163,
-0.35981547832489014,
0.8490493893623352,
0.2675538957118988,
-0.10664830356836319,
-0.3187423050403595,
-0.45339012145996094,
-0.0812329351902008,
-0.07764845341444016,
-0.16039006412029266,
-0.31445401906967163,
0.03278205916285515,
0.8865230083465576,
0.25925278663635254,
0.6720591187477112,
-0.6989221572875977,
-0.7876243591308594,
-0.29226458072662354,
-0.026752930134534836,
-0.2762804925441742,
-0.22373461723327637,
0.4342106580734253,
0.13774700462818146,
-0.3470213711261749,
-0.27067938446998596,
-0.23352426290512085,
0.2270486056804657,
0.06253261119127274,
-0.5583368539810181,
0.18924283981323242,
-0.08101573586463928,
-0.3969815969467163,
-0.5165757536888123,
-0.04551289603114128,
-0.5774293541908264,
0.2712927460670471,
0.14400024712085724,
-0.5389983057975769,
0.7934218645095825,
-0.36463868618011475,
-0.12351229041814804,
0.5816357135772705,
-0.1345628947019577,
0.7694639563560486,
-0.0017139831325039268,
-0.7917582988739014,
0.3154047727584839,
-0.05763505399227142,
-0.2139245569705963,
0.09832166880369186,
0.7544884085655212,
0.26344412565231323,
-0.3801432251930237,
0.037248317152261734,
0.19713829457759857,
-0.4489513635635376,
-0.247005894780159,
1.0206644535064697,
-0.13892214000225067,
-0.36387115716934204,
0.6865012645721436,
0.012223412282764912,
-0.3974289894104004,
0.5191800594329834,
0.015478129498660564,
0.43024545907974243,
-0.3789544701576233,
-0.5317544341087341,
0.3890828490257263,
-0.2851681113243103,
0.33791452646255493,
-0.1327587366104126,
0.3572697937488556,
0.1929222047328949,
0.05522767826914787,
0.16173309087753296,
-0.504067599773407,
0.47600606083869934,
-0.4797305762767792,
-0.8006658554077148,
-0.6600993275642395,
0.17643196880817413,
0.07197663933038712,
0.2720980644226074,
-0.06848576664924622,
-0.03331643342971802,
-0.05644146353006363,
0.529339075088501,
0.17040303349494934,
-0.45174601674079895,
-0.39462119340896606,
-0.3552618622779846,
-0.1287856251001358,
-0.13694064319133759,
-0.4277433753013611,
-0.20644254982471466,
-0.36651700735092163,
-0.33089467883110046,
-0.22734670341014862,
0.4919373393058777,
0.4735717475414276,
0.35834968090057373,
-0.5116174221038818,
0.6016544699668884,
-0.5346587896347046,
-1.004640817642212,
0.13807395100593567,
0.30745744705200195,
-0.07080020755529404,
-0.4481119215488434,
-0.6880270838737488,
0.0265327300876379,
0.038794491440057755,
-0.08099808543920517,
-0.7684490084648132,
-0.051422398537397385,
-0.187639981508255,
-0.11696824431419373,
-0.24811720848083496,
-0.8144447207450867,
0.3121207654476166,
-0.40947064757347107,
-0.004931967239826918,
-0.08073429763317108,
-0.069535031914711,
-0.5475295186042786,
0.6491633057594299,
0.40799254179000854,
0.4479905962944031,
0.05639190226793289,
0.1884860098361969,
-0.20050179958343506,
-0.2657117545604706,
-0.28260040283203125,
0.2045249342918396,
-0.215173602104187,
0.25272491574287415,
-0.13154666125774384,
-1.0554249286651611,
0.2218402475118637,
-0.07331562787294388,
-0.43110647797584534,
0.10248418897390366,
-0.2145709991455078,
0.13886190950870514,
-0.4868609309196472,
0.08874019235372543,
0.01972496323287487,
0.05892981216311455,
0.7785720229148865,
0.4490125775337219,
-0.6307687759399414,
0.1463078409433365,
-0.4649968147277832,
-0.9250376224517822,
-0.12261802703142166,
0.29123494029045105,
-0.4948713183403015,
0.30482199788093567,
-0.220190167427063,
-0.21496203541755676,
-0.496765673160553,
-0.20797647535800934,
-0.2818060517311096,
-0.16546469926834106,
-0.4482964873313904,
-0.6601042747497559,
-0.0985846221446991,
0.4116731584072113,
0.2856541574001312,
-0.721777617931366,
0.21540606021881104,
-0.2157680243253708,
-0.11403495818376541,
0.08146899193525314,
0.4111429750919342,
0.1979207694530487,
-0.3945489227771759,
0.08960381150245667,
0.0020475187338888645,
-0.18575182557106018,
0.20266088843345642,
1.0389677286148071,
0.1632952094078064,
0.38679978251457214,
0.04467392712831497,
-0.4139843285083771,
0.48340263962745667,
0.7409151792526245,
-0.010339376516640186,
-0.2498055398464203,
-0.7245071530342102,
0.08925965428352356,
-0.1511831283569336,
0.5572918057441711,
-0.3467571437358856,
-0.33528733253479004,
0.6944318413734436,
-0.3791564404964447,
0.7165185213088989,
-0.23986800014972687,
-0.014257681556046009,
0.41874659061431885,
0.08388327807188034,
0.11334254592657089,
-0.03799526393413544,
0.4568778872489929,
0.8834545612335205,
-0.48417842388153076,
0.005547229200601578,
0.4310625195503235,
0.019484510645270348,
-0.20997917652130127,
-0.41109734773635864,
-0.1788010448217392,
0.5793302059173584,
0.15660227835178375,
-0.10539689660072327,
0.03610612452030182,
0.36862653493881226,
-0.31402942538261414,
0.006340192165225744,
-0.2193467915058136,
-0.6605352759361267,
0.11982247978448868,
-0.2803645133972168,
-0.1778993308544159,
-0.29277148842811584,
-0.038645148277282715,
-0.39032745361328125,
1.0279316902160645,
-0.6900286674499512,
0.24212975800037384,
0.4076777696609497,
-0.6526742577552795,
-0.2536380887031555,
-0.22508472204208374,
0.036661598831415176,
-0.23334777355194092,
-0.23396041989326477,
0.3413674533367157,
0.40285855531692505,
-0.17181053757667542,
-1.238870620727539,
0.6954758763313293,
0.03604970872402191,
-0.4798034429550171,
0.6206036806106567,
0.025988219305872917,
-0.3747631013393402,
-0.4012508690357208,
0.5082215666770935,
0.37236636877059937,
0.24734675884246826,
-0.1585678905248642,
-0.10865460336208344,
1.1129531860351562,
-0.2105066329240799,
0.5338780879974365,
0.5623089671134949,
0.09445583075284958,
0.23388314247131348,
0.07387661933898926,
-0.29130232334136963,
-0.03935004398226738,
0.00323375198058784,
0.537811815738678,
-0.3057447075843811,
-0.10399069637060165,
-0.23024658858776093,
-0.20244620740413666,
0.6080247759819031,
0.9685549139976501,
0.631477415561676,
-0.07501610368490219,
-0.1555224508047104,
0.7705524563789368,
-0.2751898169517517,
-0.16347715258598328,
0.026860147714614868,
-0.6575790047645569,
0.0985959842801094,
0.20626649260520935,
0.6061519384384155,
0.5384520888328552,
0.17906038463115692,
0.5772839784622192,
0.28484898805618286,
0.24776925146579742,
0.20095132291316986,
-0.1437344253063202,
-0.01534381415694952,
-0.20562857389450073,
0.27653613686561584,
0.38572821021080017,
0.23450106382369995,
0.26490283012390137,
-0.3294643461704254,
0.584801197052002,
0.2056656777858734,
-0.3380609154701233,
-0.8104945421218872,
-0.03395041823387146,
0.011974641121923923,
0.2510942220687866,
-0.24711951613426208,
0.10206194221973419,
-0.5397502779960632,
-0.02245354652404785,
0.03913060575723648,
-0.6933148503303528,
-0.018187280744314194,
-0.024425223469734192,
0.5184183716773987,
0.2988792359828949,
-0.46374714374542236,
-0.050341203808784485,
0.0972617119550705,
0.004812468308955431,
0.04482598975300789,
0.9101553559303284,
-0.1130753755569458,
-0.22704927623271942,
-0.4999721348285675,
0.5985935926437378,
0.11932217329740524,
0.150201216340065,
-0.1985655575990677,
-0.7231026291847229,
-0.08242814242839813,
-0.4370870292186737,
0.18499507009983063,
0.13466472923755646,
-0.939703106880188,
-0.5806295871734619,
-0.14509788155555725,
-0.1300116330385208,
-0.3206418454647064,
0.13298916816711426,
0.06384411454200745,
0.6473099589347839,
0.3571925461292267,
0.30341511964797974,
0.06788066029548645,
-0.019049618393182755,
-0.33120912313461304,
-0.007212148047983646,
-0.18916207551956177,
0.7918658256530762,
-0.11666138470172882,
-0.13304412364959717,
-0.08067145198583603,
0.33976536989212036,
0.4926460385322571,
0.251505047082901,
-0.15499189496040344,
0.9218453764915466,
-0.09596780687570572,
0.7934696078300476,
0.26513510942459106,
-0.3188387453556061,
-0.28726544976234436,
-0.4858069121837616,
0.12767131626605988,
-0.1258298009634018,
-0.2283252328634262,
-0.2730419337749481,
0.3124581277370453,
-0.417048841714859,
-0.1833176165819168,
-0.18217067420482635,
-0.4223072826862335,
0.250095009803772,
-0.41913342475891113,
0.3319503664970398,
-0.2741672098636627,
0.11257236450910568,
-0.8322935700416565,
0.07769932597875595,
0.28025999665260315,
-0.045571815222501755,
0.32386037707328796,
-0.3826037049293518,
0.23775552213191986,
0.012613298371434212,
0.1248818039894104,
0.03441813215613365,
0.5419921875,
-0.5216442346572876,
-1.0701465606689453,
-0.36566030979156494,
-0.04417000338435173,
-0.0890951156616211,
0.23310767114162445,
0.4619446098804474,
0.3776208758354187,
-0.1309317797422409,
-0.4624958336353302,
-0.4220676124095917,
0.30815523862838745,
-0.3742060959339142,
0.2580176591873169,
0.25922146439552307
] |
228766 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaston%20Briart | Gaston Briart | Gaston Briart was a Belgian geologist and mining engineer who worked and studied rock formations at Prince Léopold mine, Kipushi, Katanga, Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The mineral Briartite, discovered in Kipushi in 1965, is named in his honour.
References
J.J. Lhoest, Famous mineral localities: The Kipushi mine, Zaire in Mineralogical Record volume 26, Number 3: May–June 1995 p. 163
External links
Prince Léopold Mine
Belgian mining engineers
Belgian geologists | [
-0.23483005166053772,
1.0250619649887085,
-0.6346647143363953,
-0.02019486576318741,
-0.15972888469696045,
0.12376079708337784,
0.7049118280410767,
0.4358307123184204,
-0.31366869807243347,
-0.48542147874832153,
-0.40676766633987427,
0.32257941365242004,
0.06482090055942535,
0.9431175589561462,
0.2849770486354828,
0.36064624786376953,
-0.09208513051271439,
0.11030769348144531,
0.111452616751194,
-0.37062469124794006,
0.14907634258270264,
-0.6358009576797485,
0.3520564138889313,
-0.14807960391044617,
-0.0003079203306697309,
-0.35876357555389404,
0.36132970452308655,
0.7028132677078247,
0.5122406482696533,
-0.23090562224388123,
0.047497984021902084,
1.1569668054580688,
-0.3193192481994629,
-0.4685439169406891,
-0.5031251311302185,
0.35561618208885193,
0.4306807816028595,
-0.3680203855037689,
-0.027201024815440178,
-0.40163031220436096,
0.45291978120803833,
0.2284667044878006,
0.13711056113243103,
0.33127620816230774,
-0.4197603166103363,
-0.6734369397163391,
-1.3272818326950073,
0.16195183992385864,
-0.35792410373687744,
-0.749059796333313,
0.06823206692934036,
0.22633856534957886,
0.5579394102096558,
0.08146786689758301,
-0.2182922661304474,
0.7492247819900513,
-1.165520191192627,
0.256697416305542,
0.6559869050979614,
-0.2113882452249527,
0.1646144688129425,
0.07790519297122955,
-0.07705670595169067,
-0.07408472895622253,
0.03922070190310478,
0.7871344685554504,
-0.16645604372024536,
-0.07526939362287521,
-0.16071513295173645,
0.28722602128982544,
-0.35220810770988464,
-0.313103586435318,
0.9009234309196472,
0.5842697620391846,
-0.21995043754577637,
0.18274547159671783,
0.11743529140949249,
-0.22231213748455048,
-0.24752292037010193,
0.5957141518592834,
0.06758483499288559,
0.09794603288173676,
0.9941284656524658,
-0.2329813838005066,
0.5681455135345459,
0.5214805006980896,
-0.5216942429542542,
-0.11843365430831909,
-0.25084012746810913,
0.5063427090644836,
-1.304324746131897,
-0.6963176727294922,
0.33447104692459106,
0.2852867543697357,
0.11922518163919449,
-0.1261184960603714,
0.09420975297689438,
0.47131794691085815,
-0.26175907254219055,
0.8889171481132507,
0.07806321233510971,
0.2419406920671463,
0.14605551958084106,
0.5547444224357605,
-0.7696956992149353,
-0.04448356106877327,
-0.8839603662490845,
0.12717761099338531,
-0.2440648078918457,
-1.008563756942749,
-0.5998758673667908,
-0.18191836774349213,
-0.8124856948852539,
-0.05940897390246391,
0.023213215172290802,
0.1621047854423523,
0.6980836987495422,
-0.4444429874420166,
-0.11387988924980164,
-0.14278118312358856,
0.006970878224819899,
0.6292944550514221,
-0.24576015770435333,
0.19129374623298645,
-0.7869782447814941,
0.5388212203979492,
0.2098551094532013,
-0.0653042420744896,
-0.022515837103128433,
0.8232378363609314,
0.41056495904922485,
1.1131432056427002,
0.24703188240528107,
-0.6111668944358826,
-0.3813178539276123,
-0.7185783386230469,
0.05389423668384552,
0.1049199178814888,
-0.2484498918056488,
0.7308128476142883,
-0.4554821252822876,
-0.1808837503194809,
-1.2900713682174683,
0.5680663585662842,
0.31950074434280396,
-0.02998816967010498,
-0.06351013481616974,
-0.09726542979478836,
0.5319176912307739,
0.2777903974056244,
-0.033759959042072296,
-0.7460920810699463,
-0.09124934673309326,
0.09165944904088974,
-0.6397573351860046,
0.7093167304992676,
0.1537303626537323,
-0.10366524755954742,
0.8190544843673706,
0.3517245650291443,
0.006506254430860281,
0.4163094162940979,
0.005702999886125326,
0.538998007774353,
0.052151843905448914,
-0.04243906959891319,
0.07619212567806244,
0.12651585042476654,
-0.2940056025981903,
0.546857476234436,
-0.6710126399993896,
0.4483010470867157,
-0.2568212151527405,
-0.6124529838562012,
-0.09683062136173248,
-0.05175194889307022,
0.38724491000175476,
0.5337087512016296,
0.038861315697431564,
-0.5159210562705994,
-0.7093600630760193,
-0.2038596123456955,
-0.15895801782608032,
-0.2683299481868744,
0.7739129066467285,
0.04333089664578438,
0.9590709209442139,
0.09880844503641129,
-0.32521557807922363,
-0.18253836035728455,
-0.6571792364120483,
-1.1314290761947632,
0.6035342812538147,
-0.7481018900871277,
0.5651906728744507,
0.7302716970443726,
0.08209869265556335,
0.7026004791259766,
0.22002048790454865,
0.8527396321296692,
-0.21104460954666138,
-0.0674917995929718,
0.013677622191607952,
-0.08159235119819641,
-0.7409496903419495,
1.2658076286315918,
0.33625471591949463,
-0.2946797311306,
0.33699026703834534,
0.944603681564331,
0.6093332767486572,
-0.20930689573287964,
0.34743112325668335,
-0.3720177412033081,
-0.1559620499610901,
0.14474333822727203,
-0.19050590693950653,
0.2737405002117157,
-0.31833308935165405,
0.1254076063632965,
0.19455404579639435,
0.15521299839019775,
-0.213281512260437,
0.6855965256690979,
0.5432606339454651,
0.49341824650764465,
0.5199503302574158,
0.38665467500686646,
-0.009478739462792873,
-1.0265270471572876,
-0.1714615821838379,
-0.05284712836146355,
0.28943315148353577,
-0.4556947648525238,
-0.25872355699539185,
-0.24265417456626892,
-0.3363408148288727,
-0.8185503482818604,
-0.07638969272375107,
0.3042418658733368,
0.35815101861953735,
0.4448431134223938,
-0.902894139289856,
0.2815134823322296,
0.06269461661577225,
0.8745137453079224,
-0.01251648087054491,
0.4026302695274353,
-0.29361096024513245,
-0.023814255371689796,
0.5282568335533142,
0.7046635746955872,
-0.05635491758584976,
0.05125930905342102,
-0.21462319791316986,
0.08838991820812225,
0.3915654420852661,
0.08323468267917633,
0.03502706065773964,
-0.10773859918117523,
-0.07442587614059448,
-0.5488123893737793,
-0.018314331769943237,
0.5372927784919739,
-0.1295132339000702,
-1.0286900997161865,
-0.12104027718305588,
-0.35815954208374023,
0.4346036911010742,
-0.1982812136411667,
0.18053659796714783,
-0.23830220103263855,
-0.06477825343608856,
-0.3596092164516449,
0.6579686403274536,
0.24626047909259796,
-0.6854218244552612,
0.46190640330314636,
-1.0961990356445312,
-0.264920175075531,
0.3184790015220642,
1.046511173248291,
-0.4734138250350952,
0.18357017636299133,
-0.322844922542572,
-0.06673462688922882,
-0.04157252237200737,
0.11087441444396973,
0.23760002851486206,
-0.6996486186981201,
-0.07451067864894867,
-0.27794015407562256,
-0.4917917847633362,
0.2667156457901001,
-0.44838380813598633,
0.33136701583862305,
-0.325961172580719,
-0.7831223607063293,
0.4678724706172943,
-0.27735379338264465,
-0.838519275188446,
0.5616337060928345,
-0.8783736228942871,
-0.08955880254507065,
0.3334125578403473,
0.395628958940506,
-0.47576016187667847,
0.11468323320150375,
-4.808602333068848,
0.5398481488227844,
0.4411306381225586,
-0.24358348548412323,
-0.2888623774051666,
-0.14559538662433624,
0.5979998707771301,
0.03766416385769844,
-0.42455628514289856,
-0.18582819402217865,
-0.25495386123657227,
-0.5021646022796631,
-0.13265174627304077,
0.9801894426345825,
0.843291699886322,
0.838380753993988,
0.9765117764472961,
-0.1995052695274353,
0.4119163155555725,
0.033254947513341904,
-0.09047995507717133,
0.31906530261039734,
-0.5822328925132751,
0.1502135843038559,
0.5358936786651611,
0.30704033374786377,
0.47173580527305603,
0.08244293928146362,
-1.3035321235656738,
-0.23122191429138184,
0.054133616387844086,
-0.20989063382148743,
-0.10208724439144135,
-0.19789476692676544,
-0.13627097010612488,
-0.21310357749462128,
0.3673265874385834,
0.502962052822113,
0.3498350977897644,
-0.23164916038513184,
-0.6145415306091309,
0.19603778421878815,
-0.7027207016944885,
0.8675137162208557,
-0.07033336907625198,
-0.3959484100341797,
-1.2356549501419067,
0.013964617624878883,
0.018641458824276924,
0.7734804749488831,
-0.32453829050064087,
-0.297831267118454,
1.1792980432510376,
0.2331731915473938,
-0.0120778139680624,
-0.20418578386306763,
0.6849299073219299,
-0.2574070692062378,
-1.1058642864227295,
0.5419436097145081,
0.4208032190799713,
-0.40632250905036926,
0.7139145731925964,
-0.6528573036193848,
0.048871368169784546,
-0.3023757338523865,
-0.09624020010232925,
-0.2877485156059265,
-0.1710321456193924,
-0.11777187883853912,
-0.06347132474184036,
0.4286802411079407,
-0.6554489135742188,
-0.6983176469802856,
-0.5185174345970154,
-0.1349451243877411,
-0.43026113510131836,
-0.02996418997645378,
0.43593519926071167,
0.09211786091327667,
-0.22653505206108093,
-0.1986939162015915,
-0.2770998179912567,
0.9922809600830078,
-0.18164828419685364,
-0.06526243686676025,
0.06682493537664413,
0.33667078614234924,
-0.3910881578922272,
-0.3373352885246277,
-0.1679655760526657,
0.026013284921646118,
0.24878433346748352,
0.4891483187675476,
-0.15389350056648254,
0.014882180839776993,
0.30829647183418274,
-0.33511823415756226,
0.691493809223175,
-0.42252159118652344,
-0.14893750846385956,
-0.843812882900238,
0.1317049264907837,
-0.028275571763515472,
-0.2183436006307602,
-0.4652748107910156,
-0.01398854423314333,
0.3572829067707062,
0.17087900638580322,
0.6691121459007263,
-0.07758154720067978,
0.6709838509559631,
-0.28714627027511597,
0.5291900634765625,
0.932867169380188,
-0.08402037620544434,
-0.06826507300138474,
-0.12460357695817947,
0.6613577008247375,
0.08718506246805191,
0.07940565794706345,
0.5137654542922974,
0.19097454845905304,
-0.5436925888061523,
0.47638100385665894,
-0.40253716707229614,
0.8311309814453125,
-0.16316331923007965,
-1.0633487701416016,
-0.2898293435573578,
-0.4309597611427307,
0.2100561261177063,
-0.2896750271320343,
-0.1442626267671585,
0.5183252096176147,
-0.562343955039978,
-0.6582491397857666,
-0.9037637114524841,
0.535270094871521,
-0.09842117130756378,
0.24399544298648834,
-0.004112107213586569,
-0.33360856771469116,
0.6119248867034912,
0.5656775832176208,
0.6018698215484619,
0.45015498995780945,
0.08887185901403427,
-0.6275718808174133,
0.24525468051433563,
-0.4993327260017395,
-0.40131211280822754,
0.18017731606960297,
-0.6511401534080505,
-0.17784550786018372,
-0.0743272453546524,
-0.3659055531024933,
0.07465697079896927,
0.5115319490432739,
-0.008911476470530033,
0.2705633044242859,
-0.1899145394563675,
-0.6674062013626099,
0.7020875215530396,
0.5522398948669434,
-0.08205488324165344,
-0.14958877861499786,
-0.3129543662071228,
-0.41179925203323364,
1.0089462995529175,
-0.034425102174282074,
-0.3521837890148163,
-0.9003221392631531,
-0.4241102337837219,
-0.08290970325469971,
-0.2953573763370514,
-0.04910340905189514,
-0.03871643915772438,
0.1740708351135254,
-0.6682095527648926,
0.1274537891149521,
0.35466310381889343,
-0.2509341835975647,
0.546904444694519,
0.172503262758255,
-0.10171450674533844,
-0.7568458318710327,
0.041474346071481705,
-0.3051687479019165,
0.03273234888911247,
0.08719174563884735,
0.502600371837616,
0.19488196074962616,
0.7143262624740601,
0.061744917184114456,
-0.7255036234855652,
-0.03435293957591057,
0.22464635968208313,
0.2981005311012268,
-0.9622640013694763,
0.07974976301193237,
-0.023370251059532166,
0.018414968624711037,
0.5067808628082275,
0.4543493092060089,
-1.3028295040130615,
0.24297066032886505,
0.4071435332298279,
-0.8054441809654236,
0.520371675491333,
-0.6167318224906921,
-0.6480376720428467,
0.2527148127555847,
0.7030114531517029,
-0.5801084041595459,
-0.40887293219566345,
0.8059970140457153,
0.06757091730833054,
-0.5790871381759644,
-0.06957262009382248,
-0.303354412317276,
-0.2773997485637665,
-0.5747960209846497,
-0.4120488166809082,
-0.8352170586585999,
0.04274781048297882,
0.826004147529602,
0.19495390355587006,
0.5959421992301941,
-0.20994001626968384,
-0.5326257348060608,
-0.07665679603815079,
0.2658213675022125,
-0.21306097507476807,
-0.21712450683116913,
0.6490848660469055,
0.6356118321418762,
0.6526568531990051,
-0.32252880930900574,
-0.3337108790874481,
0.17500758171081543,
0.8253477811813354,
0.11686140298843384,
-0.5301249623298645,
0.05886213853955269,
-0.06532975286245346,
0.08218033611774445,
-0.019979797303676605,
-0.6308302879333496,
0.0425458624958992,
-0.12965275347232819,
-0.11989486962556839,
-1.16831636428833,
-0.2528044283390045,
0.8727774024009705,
0.20911690592765808,
-0.4699982702732086,
0.27293214201927185,
0.6741951704025269,
0.510644793510437,
-0.12353499978780746,
-0.13823047280311584,
-0.06612101942300797,
0.3380349576473236,
0.6016243100166321,
0.34421688318252563,
-0.17592251300811768,
-0.12241920828819275,
0.7263328433036804,
-0.6913508772850037,
0.05786709487438202,
-0.5510878562927246,
-0.6307823061943054,
0.17096149921417236,
-0.30609485507011414,
-0.058592185378074646,
0.40518760681152344,
-0.6701581478118896,
0.019540047273039818,
-0.6692147850990295,
-0.4163057208061218,
0.5786997079849243,
0.5650684833526611,
-0.03369186818599701,
0.2963251769542694,
-0.3234054148197174,
-0.5140180587768555,
0.15433315932750702,
-0.578750729560852,
-0.048003435134887695,
-0.7297552824020386,
-0.19723650813102722,
-0.4359322786331177,
-0.028576485812664032,
-0.023318767547607422,
0.4465065598487854,
-0.2821529805660248,
0.06139487773180008,
-0.15340556204319,
0.4236305356025696,
-0.5623127818107605,
1.191421389579773,
0.1945144534111023,
-0.2507688105106354,
0.8411296010017395,
0.2460252344608307,
0.518655002117157,
0.12340057641267776,
0.28142011165618896,
-0.2192450612783432,
-0.11486851423978806,
0.11327674239873886,
-0.6890866160392761,
0.47657039761543274,
-0.7760091423988342,
-0.20909908413887024,
0.46839120984077454,
-0.7347227931022644,
0.21794115006923676,
0.7088144421577454,
0.06663940846920013,
-0.3417913019657135,
0.8709579110145569,
-0.06554365903139114,
-0.05544649437069893,
1.6170507669448853,
-0.07241186499595642,
0.07561919093132019,
0.8308964371681213,
-0.31899958848953247,
-0.44617795944213867,
0.22852973639965057,
-0.9719623327255249,
0.4653339087963104,
-0.255329966545105,
0.16882961988449097,
0.02476021647453308,
-0.4428800046443939,
-0.05839107930660248,
0.33340945839881897,
-0.011832517571747303,
0.850390613079071,
-0.637076199054718,
-0.15755672752857208,
-0.48163801431655884,
0.2226034253835678,
-0.18575412034988403,
0.12368622422218323,
0.06842580437660217,
0.24643610417842865,
0.06493944674730301,
0.2835790812969208,
-0.12510812282562256,
-0.6793663501739502,
0.022222619503736496,
-0.14431175589561462,
0.03947555646300316,
-0.25029003620147705,
-0.6829320192337036,
-0.0008430386078543961,
0.14565251767635345,
-0.24845543503761292,
0.3532663583755493,
-0.013694684021174908,
-0.05889322981238365,
0.03562045842409134,
-0.28662893176078796,
-0.367572158575058,
0.1686306893825531,
0.4146461486816406,
0.5175521373748779,
-0.23238159716129303,
-0.02448507957160473,
0.68589186668396,
-0.03662397712469101,
-0.3247588574886322,
0.194424107670784,
-0.37354224920272827,
-0.3013313114643097,
0.006639490369707346,
-0.030970541760325432,
0.7226293683052063,
-0.2607216238975525,
0.4221249222755432,
0.02587828040122986,
-0.43114542961120605,
-0.0215846486389637,
0.7888929843902588,
0.4979659914970398,
-0.12875689566135406,
0.4714703857898712,
-0.25079160928726196,
-0.4650307893753052,
0.1699542999267578,
-0.6285873055458069,
-0.054200682789087296,
-0.7667154669761658,
0.591235876083374,
-0.10455019026994705,
-0.7992042899131775,
0.1062178909778595,
-0.08158691227436066,
0.017669567838311195,
-0.31135350465774536,
0.27206769585609436,
0.276568204164505,
-0.6781405210494995,
0.6879944801330566,
-0.8323078751564026,
0.38610512018203735,
0.14506210386753082,
-0.21644173562526703,
-0.63593989610672,
0.20895454287528992,
0.2506456971168518,
-0.5741009712219238,
-0.27334725856781006,
0.04568445682525635,
-0.3253699243068695,
-0.37771809101104736,
0.15901391208171844,
-0.4012107253074646,
0.1194719523191452,
0.6343477964401245,
-0.2232924848794937,
-0.6176464557647705,
0.10366319119930267,
-0.019456641748547554,
-0.1744714379310608,
0.11465968936681747,
0.5617705583572388,
-0.08439113199710846,
-0.7561814188957214,
0.18391168117523193,
-1.000454306602478,
-0.18756277859210968,
0.22375454008579254,
0.857124924659729,
0.16679565608501434,
-0.03440414369106293,
0.3539700210094452,
-0.6041109561920166,
0.5195143818855286,
0.6093670725822449,
-2.2545547485351562,
-0.19415973126888275,
-0.41824042797088623,
-0.2770524322986603,
-0.009899526834487915,
0.45624616742134094,
0.557308554649353,
0.14988695085048676,
0.38074934482574463,
-0.2931138575077057,
-0.13573969900608063,
-0.23212626576423645,
0.012822690419852734,
-1.1967569589614868,
0.46067628264427185,
-0.14630979299545288
] |
228770 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth%20Handler | Ruth Handler | Ruth Marianna Handler (née Mosko; November 4, 1916 – April 27, 2002) was an American businesswoman and inventor. She served as the president of the toy manufacturer Mattel Inc. In 1959, she invented the Barbie doll, which sold over a billion toys worldwide. She was the founder and president of the world's largest toy company, which at its peak had 18,000 employees and annual sales of over $300 million. In 1974, the Handlers were forced to resign from Mattel, and in 1978 Ruth Handler was convicted of false reporting to the Securities and Exchange Commission.
Early life
Handler was born Ruth Marianna Mosko in Denver, Colorado, to Polish-Jewish immigrants Ida Mosko (née Rubenstein) and Jacob Mosko. She married her high school boyfriend, Elliot Handler, and moved to Los Angeles in 1938. Her husband decided to make their furniture out of two newfound types of plastics, Lucite and Plexiglas. Ruth Handler suggested that he start doing this commercially and they began a furniture business. Ruth Handler worked as the sales force for the new business, landing contracts with Douglas Aircraft Company and others.
Formation of Mattel
Origin
Her husband Elliot Handler and his business partner Harold "Matt" Matson formed a small company to manufacture picture frames, calling it "Mattel" by combining part of their names ("Matt" and "Elliot"). Later, they began using scraps from the manufacturing process to make dollhouse furniture. The furniture was more profitable than the picture frames and it was decided to concentrate on toy manufacturing. The company's first big-seller was the "Uke-a-doodle", a toy ukulele.
Barbie
Ruth Handler claimed her daughter Barbara, pre-teen, played with paper dolls by pretending they were adults. Handler noticed that in such play, children would act out future events, rather than the present. Handler noted the limitations of the paper dolls, including how the paper clothing failed to attach well. She wanted to produce a three-dimensional plastic "paper doll" with an adult body and a wardrobe of fabric clothing, but her husband and Matson thought parents would not buy their children a doll with a voluptuous figure. While the Handler family was vacationing in Europe, Ruth Handler saw the West German Bild Lilli doll, an adult gag gift, in a Swiss shop and brought it home.
She reworked the design of the doll and named her Barbie after the Handlers' daughter, Barbara. Barbie debuted at the New York toy fair on March 9, 1959, but was not an immediate success. When Disney introduced The Mickey Mouse Club children's television show, Mattel invested heavily in television advertising. The TV commercials for the Barbie doll paid off and Barbie rocketed Mattel and the Handlers to fame and fortune. Subsequently, they would add a boyfriend for Barbie named Ken, after the Handlers' son, and many other characters to Barbie's world.
Later years
Handler was diagnosed with breast cancer in 1970. She had a modified radical mastectomy, which was often used at the time to combat the disease, and because of difficulties in finding a good breast prosthesis, she decided to make her own. With Peyton Massey, Ruth founded Ruthton Corp. which manufactured a more realistic version of a woman's breast, called "Nearly Me". She personally fitted one for then-first lady, Betty Ford.
In 1974, Handler resigned from Mattel after investigations of producing fraudulent financial reports. In 1978, Handler was charged with fraud and false reporting to the Securities and Exchange Commission. She pleaded no contest, was fined $57,000 and sentenced to 2,500 hours of community service. She blamed her illness for making her "unfocused" on her business.
Handler was credited as a writer of the 1987 film Barbie and the Rockers: Out of this World. Handler was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1997.
Handler died in California from complications of surgery for colon cancer on April 27, 2002, aged 85. Her husband Elliot died nine years later at the age of 95.
Sources:
1. Bellis, M. (2020, January 28). Biography of Ruth Handler, inventor of Barbie dolls.
ThoughtCo. Retrieved December 8, 2021, from https://www.thoughtco.com/history-of-barbie-dolls-1991344.
2. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (n.d.). Ruth Handler. Lemelson. Retrieved December
8, 2021, from https://lemelson.mit.edu/resources/ruth-handler.
3. Public Broadcasting Service. (n.d.). Who made America? | innovators | Ruth Handler. PBS.
Retrieved December 8, 2021, from https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/theymadeamerica/whomade/handler_hi.html.
4. Ruth Handler. Famous Women Inventors. (2008). Retrieved December 8, 2021, from
http://www.women-inventors.com/Ruth-Handler.asp.
References
Further reading
Forman-Brunell, Miriam. "Barbie in" LIFE": The Life of Barbie." Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth 2.3 (2009): 303-311. online
Gerber, Robin. Barbie and Ruth: The Story of the World's Most Famous Doll and the Woman Who Created Her. Harper/Collins, 2008.
Weissman, Kristin Noelle. Barbie: The Icon, the Image, the Ideal: An Analytical Interpretation of the Barbie Doll in Popular Culture (1999).
Wepman, Dennis. "Handler, Ruth" American National Biography (2000) online
External links
Ruth Handler Papers. Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe Institute, Harvard University.
Ruth Handler, Barbie Doll Invention
Altman, Julie."Ruth Mosko Handler." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 20 March 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. January 5, 2010
1916 births
2002 deaths
20th-century American inventors
American chief executives of manufacturing companies
American inventors
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American retail chief executives
American toy industry businesspeople
American women chief executives
Barbie
Businesspeople from Denver
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
Mattel people
Toy inventors
Women inventors
Burials at Hillside Memorial Park Cemetery | [
0.13409632444381714,
0.11132153868675232,
-0.6167111992835999,
0.051387932151556015,
0.34186533093452454,
0.7489476203918457,
0.29350921511650085,
-0.488012433052063,
0.12497122585773468,
0.01613832451403141,
0.08692985773086548,
0.028498422354459763,
0.0301224272698164,
0.27459701895713806,
-0.7529827356338501,
-0.3857618272304535,
-0.48809167742729187,
0.31621024012565613,
-0.14288049936294556,
0.07954607903957367,
-0.5253234505653381,
-0.8373208045959473,
-0.06910444051027298,
0.6756011843681335,
-0.39788636565208435,
0.31649890542030334,
-0.03768710047006607,
-0.7281378507614136,
0.2151622772216797,
0.11834286898374557,
-0.019432026892900467,
-0.20146535336971283,
0.5331395268440247,
-0.04506285861134529,
-0.3670441508293152,
0.622738242149353,
-0.5704272985458374,
0.3263273239135742,
-0.3297055959701538,
0.14543308317661285,
-0.6959400177001953,
0.6602640151977539,
-0.007915395312011242,
-0.10046160221099854,
-0.16076573729515076,
-0.06375570595264435,
-2.2948341369628906,
-0.0956747829914093,
-0.685401201248169,
-0.22267383337020874,
-0.38654059171676636,
0.11354486644268036,
0.6506927013397217,
0.4304599165916443,
0.0711255595088005,
0.2999700903892517,
-0.29159078001976013,
-0.07335623353719711,
-0.15978875756263733,
-0.1369275450706482,
0.29013705253601074,
-0.5527226328849792,
1.1113120317459106,
-0.41553932428359985,
0.6393090486526489,
0.25752928853034973,
0.2180401086807251,
0.33895188570022583,
-0.05039295181632042,
-0.5367446541786194,
0.06540597230195999,
0.3569662868976593,
0.3679124712944031,
-0.17025859653949738,
0.1827954202890396,
-0.6168948411941528,
0.3022662103176117,
-0.6364244818687439,
0.3681923747062683,
0.4236980378627777,
-0.1899661421775818,
-0.020099693909287453,
0.3048799932003021,
0.32433390617370605,
0.5565885901451111,
-0.12342463433742523,
-0.6948376893997192,
0.5672550201416016,
-0.4997723400592804,
-0.07015428692102432,
-0.40140414237976074,
-0.3676011562347412,
0.046531081199645996,
-0.16932223737239838,
-0.46741586923599243,
-0.14867904782295227,
0.20525780320167542,
0.12472999840974808,
-0.043738577514886856,
-0.408031165599823,
-0.327804833650589,
-0.25062963366508484,
0.09996943920850754,
-0.5162419676780701,
-0.263686865568161,
0.1219184622168541,
0.1581467241048813,
-0.8040580153465271,
0.3144189119338989,
0.11859838664531708,
-0.2057802826166153,
-0.2714478671550751,
-0.37421298027038574,
-0.2791054844856262,
-0.16602937877178192,
0.8779217600822449,
0.04919316619634628,
-0.6428444385528564,
-0.6539496779441833,
0.14423896372318268,
0.30474337935447693,
0.032949384301900864,
-0.08344928175210953,
-0.2209956794977188,
-0.27123621106147766,
0.03213620185852051,
0.08330481499433517,
0.42025089263916016,
-0.027614973485469818,
0.2711382806301117,
0.21005837619304657,
0.636987030506134,
0.07892382144927979,
-0.1896616667509079,
-0.4714866876602173,
0.35040348768234253,
0.21339604258537292,
0.06395387649536133,
-0.13262277841567993,
0.06517547369003296,
-0.37894517183303833,
0.32141873240470886,
-0.28504514694213867,
0.05989775061607361,
0.6431224346160889,
-0.38514113426208496,
0.13246889412403107,
0.060388170182704926,
-0.42366376519203186,
-0.32853901386260986,
-0.17421236634254456,
-0.07109232246875763,
0.2322167307138443,
-0.5905886292457581,
-0.30648180842399597,
0.3299541175365448,
0.5394797921180725,
0.6387388706207275,
0.2884935140609741,
-0.024516887962818146,
0.31471163034439087,
0.36489102244377136,
-0.5709861516952515,
0.47939029335975647,
0.13399019837379456,
-0.0028520359192043543,
0.5476873517036438,
0.2816469073295593,
-0.34209325909614563,
0.4051264226436615,
-0.06454367190599442,
-0.14499551057815552,
0.4185858368873596,
0.13697950541973114,
-0.29966041445732117,
0.5919729471206665,
0.24883516132831573,
0.012712174095213413,
0.4573490619659424,
-0.3748399019241333,
-0.28960204124450684,
0.14672797918319702,
-0.5803662538528442,
-0.055538520216941833,
0.4551354646682739,
-0.2316766232252121,
0.0006853251252323389,
-0.1802278310060501,
0.5619303584098816,
-0.45324447751045227,
-0.4981343150138855,
-0.37977373600006104,
-0.028666291385889053,
0.3889910578727722,
0.8180618286132812,
0.06530191749334335,
-0.18716804683208466,
0.8245910406112671,
-0.27636709809303284,
0.22500015795230865,
-0.3174266517162323,
-0.05189400911331177,
-0.04702399671077728,
-0.7893902659416199,
0.11044057458639145,
0.3918212056159973,
0.535304844379425,
-0.0011074738577008247,
-0.014752312563359737,
0.8118579983711243,
0.09468912333250046,
-0.6231878399848938,
0.47676753997802734,
0.6224797368049622,
-0.09267669916152954,
-0.44124510884284973,
-0.6401647329330444,
0.2298600822687149,
0.7024983167648315,
-0.18413060903549194,
0.41485467553138733,
0.48800715804100037,
-0.43460455536842346,
0.041070129722356796,
0.1052791178226471,
0.8661062717437744,
0.10191647708415985,
-0.5205034613609314,
0.4663441479206085,
-0.2668988108634949,
0.34890472888946533,
0.08987516164779663,
0.10530239343643188,
-0.755133330821991,
0.09931912273168564,
0.007939698174595833,
0.6021645665168762,
0.0019731619395315647,
0.5651523470878601,
-0.9165937304496765,
0.048009298741817474,
0.1722082495689392,
-0.36534684896469116,
0.21577006578445435,
-0.021431801840662956,
0.03281601890921593,
-0.0779205858707428,
-0.1939949095249176,
0.24783791601657867,
0.11908500641584396,
0.15493200719356537,
1.0800981521606445,
0.5881243944168091,
0.34605658054351807,
-0.14570361375808716,
-0.1357235461473465,
-0.4962988793849945,
0.36864596605300903,
1.5070157051086426,
0.5100701451301575,
1.0110783576965332,
0.35805219411849976,
0.2308199107646942,
0.21960195899009705,
0.28711819648742676,
-0.4724641442298889,
0.2511916160583496,
-0.4848329424858093,
0.46553006768226624,
0.22238805890083313,
0.6055368185043335,
-0.5490659475326538,
0.1267240196466446,
0.13269557058811188,
0.1412457525730133,
-0.35493946075439453,
-0.03965756669640541,
0.36919888854026794,
-0.7899448275566101,
-0.6159104704856873,
0.3641408085823059,
0.7839698195457458,
-0.07422090321779251,
-0.39504745602607727,
0.7370090484619141,
0.01980842836201191,
-0.054846350103616714,
-0.23218241333961487,
-0.036277733743190765,
0.07687396556138992,
-0.3084925711154938,
1.0322505235671997,
-0.6403393745422363,
0.01670595444738865,
-0.137910395860672,
0.6989561319351196,
-0.3333628475666046,
-0.39782989025115967,
-0.3425349295139313,
0.1449393928050995,
-0.2650437653064728,
0.594432532787323,
-0.2934878170490265,
0.12496843934059143,
0.08504577726125717,
0.34144777059555054,
0.5719507336616516,
-0.6567842364311218,
-5.396615505218506,
0.2989914119243622,
-0.26448574662208557,
-0.5201422572135925,
0.20219801366329193,
0.32734280824661255,
-0.024850616231560707,
0.25334933400154114,
0.044348787516355515,
-0.017111828550696373,
0.4991609454154968,
-0.18501943349838257,
-0.5308365821838379,
0.5795170068740845,
0.5624639987945557,
0.5219535231590271,
-0.03012434020638466,
0.11247391253709793,
-0.08087784796953201,
0.41974329948425293,
-0.1140136793255806,
-0.4305003881454468,
-0.3803190588951111,
0.14898943901062012,
-0.31061309576034546,
-0.5481804013252258,
-0.4299772381782532,
-0.27414894104003906,
-0.9064237475395203,
-0.4820116460323334,
-0.14942485094070435,
-0.23705622553825378,
-0.7448706030845642,
0.009229611605405807,
0.29568201303482056,
-0.4333901107311249,
0.7269614934921265,
-0.2394130825996399,
0.3524986207485199,
-0.41267770528793335,
0.27383092045783997,
0.3567063510417938,
-0.43924686312675476,
0.16749876737594604,
0.36795181035995483,
0.042168617248535156,
-0.41339412331581116,
0.06743531674146652,
-0.2661295533180237,
0.05780467018485069,
0.49092337489128113,
0.26918333768844604,
0.13080690801143646,
-0.19343137741088867,
0.09004072099924088,
0.018732896074652672,
0.028733504936099052,
-0.2964346706867218,
-0.8460881114006042,
0.2698756456375122,
0.2096509337425232,
-0.3077971041202545,
0.18600143492221832,
-0.2023826539516449,
-0.2276439368724823,
-0.2920982241630554,
0.01884078048169613,
-0.5076816082000732,
-0.40611758828163147,
-0.49529486894607544,
0.11261273175477982,
0.9358309507369995,
0.17944830656051636,
-1.5916924476623535,
-0.31872525811195374,
-0.42573750019073486,
0.0016197074437513947,
-0.3025314211845398,
-0.7342739701271057,
-0.11549775302410126,
0.26158857345581055,
-0.9923453330993652,
0.5442176461219788,
0.9784484505653381,
0.6707280874252319,
-0.14622381329536438,
-0.41127198934555054,
0.5415172576904297,
-0.802721381187439,
0.17498283088207245,
-0.3058139979839325,
0.1254948377609253,
0.05726100504398346,
-0.07005571573972702,
-0.08290816843509674,
-0.5166525840759277,
0.21293377876281738,
0.3407228887081146,
0.20247314870357513,
0.6030200123786926,
-1.0815479755401611,
-0.07650808990001678,
-0.1384374350309372,
-0.7047949433326721,
0.18454159796237946,
-0.1264454871416092,
-0.01090781670063734,
0.045159708708524704,
1.3490138053894043,
-0.26905539631843567,
-0.7594393491744995,
0.6468297839164734,
-0.12916889786720276,
-0.6570810675621033,
0.4327555000782013,
-0.07225053757429123,
0.12444299459457397,
0.30033352971076965,
0.32439231872558594,
0.13387653231620789,
0.017787504941225052,
0.45199257135391235,
-0.12428393959999084,
0.013742360286414623,
0.23521685600280762,
-0.3823484480381012,
0.29420191049575806,
-0.1454886496067047,
-0.5052435398101807,
0.2009025663137436,
-0.6992329955101013,
0.5757440328598022,
-0.20312216877937317,
0.084891676902771,
-0.16311392188072205,
0.3196161389350891,
-0.9645742177963257,
-0.030593808740377426,
-0.5782105922698975,
0.062268197536468506,
-0.12445501238107681,
0.14626480638980865,
0.029253143817186356,
0.018706703558564186,
-0.12944546341896057,
0.122901551425457,
0.1393582820892334,
0.2320498377084732,
-0.19694024324417114,
-0.1820940524339676,
-0.03628728166222572,
-0.1867254078388214,
0.31387537717819214,
-0.1975659281015396,
-0.38562726974487305,
-0.05141844227910042,
0.2666853368282318,
0.08508864045143127,
0.38501352071762085,
0.0072443727403879166,
-0.25996145606040955,
-0.14916886389255524,
-1.3303184509277344,
-0.08092433214187622,
-0.46338680386543274,
0.18656013906002045,
0.12831802666187286,
-0.1545903980731964,
-0.16775798797607422,
0.39130502939224243,
0.17973092198371887,
-0.7284735441207886,
-0.19344666600227356,
0.10665131360292435,
-0.11641804873943329,
0.6325204372406006,
-0.08193445950746536,
-0.4956182539463043,
-0.3793429732322693,
-0.15619948506355286,
0.3839454650878906,
-0.4740472137928009,
-0.8861462473869324,
-0.283327579498291,
0.39405128359794617,
-0.043318185955286026,
-0.14669115841388702,
-0.4901195168495178,
-0.08190331608057022,
0.17859318852424622,
-0.11552421748638153,
-0.4470641613006592,
0.44743072986602783,
0.4631494879722595,
-0.4907820522785187,
0.26034989953041077,
0.004761760123074055,
0.36997348070144653,
-0.6075714230537415,
-0.016929438337683678,
-0.7544993162155151,
0.503278911113739,
-0.49118632078170776,
-0.6302772164344788,
0.32932087779045105,
-1.2300328016281128,
-0.4495769739151001,
0.5466006398200989,
0.3341882526874542,
1.0838881731033325,
-0.2945959270000458,
0.0672348141670227,
0.039661843329668045,
0.11786014586687088,
-0.2964862287044525,
0.6398835778236389,
0.08451507985591888,
0.3234289586544037,
-0.2535320520401001,
-0.5823361277580261,
-0.7006082534790039,
0.06861317902803421,
-0.37885814905166626,
-0.4522641599178314,
-0.30827969312667847,
0.32288026809692383,
-0.2534485161304474,
0.4050804674625397,
0.7157540321350098,
-0.10523507744073868,
-0.38322558999061584,
-0.1306779980659485,
0.0030894617084413767,
-0.021413812413811684,
-0.2008122205734253,
-0.18376390635967255,
0.638282060623169,
0.5450634360313416,
-0.1382315307855606,
-0.374458909034729,
0.836478054523468,
0.5597242712974548,
0.056865010410547256,
0.41667109727859497,
0.42325928807258606,
0.38047781586647034,
-0.0669761449098587,
-0.5162131786346436,
-0.29393255710601807,
0.5154780745506287,
0.3835909068584442,
0.054053984582424164,
-0.5010190010070801,
-0.14507485926151276,
0.6879600882530212,
-0.16964878141880035,
0.015989389270544052,
0.07820232957601547,
0.2012103646993637,
-0.37239784002304077,
-0.1774229109287262,
0.45745381712913513,
-0.4029334485530853,
0.2649630904197693,
-0.13130629062652588,
0.6896998286247253,
-0.3345675468444824,
-0.04948778077960014,
0.05809332802891731,
-0.8568690419197083,
0.6267820000648499,
0.40423405170440674,
-0.364825963973999,
0.2285989224910736,
-0.16765578091144562,
0.3630037307739258,
0.0482168085873127,
-0.07210072129964828,
-0.08472011238336563,
-0.6624020338058472,
-0.7826208472251892,
-0.06007493659853935,
0.06377402693033218,
0.00501161627471447,
-0.2557806968688965,
-0.5205608010292053,
0.15771761536598206,
-0.5409116744995117,
-0.26388466358184814,
-0.05059613287448883,
-0.6321719288825989,
0.5420103669166565,
-0.34143075346946716,
-0.06484358757734299,
-0.3768790662288666,
-0.014755655080080032,
-0.03312632814049721,
0.7251409888267517,
0.2325742244720459,
-0.5020604729652405,
-0.4679605960845947,
0.08494796603918076,
0.31185197830200195,
-0.04271714389324188,
0.08805212378501892,
0.24914290010929108,
-0.2194920927286148,
-0.12167633324861526,
-0.5213860869407654,
0.6160164475440979,
0.22753077745437622,
-0.5252586007118225,
0.38925740122795105,
0.38044777512550354,
-0.7975055575370789,
-0.1511273980140686,
0.13287797570228577,
-0.6982805132865906,
-0.10679102689027786,
-0.04417460784316063,
-0.2510257661342621,
0.04898827150464058,
0.27532216906547546,
-0.20537415146827698,
-0.3934577405452728,
0.5590620040893555,
0.11838438361883163,
0.409627228975296,
-0.4491159915924072,
0.35776686668395996,
0.6892370581626892,
-0.026060208678245544,
0.17854376137256622,
0.16241095960140228,
0.3365168869495392,
-0.2962840795516968,
0.05252068489789963,
-0.48301053047180176,
0.10088016837835312,
0.2590867280960083,
-0.26980188488960266,
1.3119099140167236,
0.4846602976322174,
0.2981983721256256,
-0.48018062114715576,
0.17691951990127563,
-0.14910449087619781,
1.108217477798462,
-0.3140549063682556,
-0.3912535607814789,
0.40295296907424927,
-0.1341141313314438,
-0.37317588925361633,
-0.45891666412353516,
0.3754366934299469,
-0.015244666486978531,
1.1377760171890259,
-0.5176352262496948,
-0.15946093201637268,
0.2665005624294281,
-0.5484007000923157,
-0.7682164311408997,
1.2499696016311646,
0.20733170211315155,
0.12914294004440308,
-0.4653753638267517,
0.12542879581451416,
-0.9370865821838379,
0.16510532796382904,
-0.011206300929188728,
0.2266763299703598,
0.25060391426086426,
-0.36866313219070435,
0.6654087901115417,
0.4347865879535675,
0.6832327246665955,
0.5785924196243286,
-0.26979923248291016,
-0.20386579632759094,
0.058345336467027664,
-0.45681026577949524,
0.18330930173397064,
0.11040442436933517,
0.08858469128608704,
-0.0985778346657753,
-0.35025879740715027,
0.18097081780433655,
-0.021810036152601242,
0.30149590969085693,
-0.46530681848526,
0.4731123745441437,
-0.553297758102417,
-0.15373235940933228,
0.5161612629890442,
-0.25519922375679016,
0.6056883931159973,
-0.1460724174976349,
0.6107832789421082,
0.29894736409187317,
0.24564819037914276,
-0.6702833771705627,
0.6910433173179626,
0.08868808299303055,
0.019383534789085388,
-0.21038183569908142,
0.14612986147403717,
-0.11756628006696701,
0.11611174792051315,
-0.6158645749092102,
0.6218791604042053,
-0.20920869708061218,
-0.2106572389602661,
-0.2027435004711151,
0.1866290420293808,
-0.20367580652236938,
0.42510905861854553,
0.68788081407547,
0.36740848422050476,
-0.3761890232563019,
-0.6652308702468872,
0.20519070327281952,
-0.1759939193725586,
-0.23761820793151855,
-0.2946999967098236,
-0.11092005670070648,
0.5869742631912231,
-0.11100545525550842,
-0.3380013704299927,
-0.1445360779762268,
-0.22777841985225677,
-0.31600210070610046,
0.17166410386562347,
-0.34626802802085876,
-0.0668306052684784,
-0.032382287085056305,
-0.16512924432754517,
0.21891137957572937,
0.6477068066596985,
1.291601538658142,
-0.7145554423332214,
0.6240638494491577,
0.21241603791713715,
-0.2818187177181244,
-0.2765868306159973,
0.14970968663692474,
0.6490156054496765,
-0.10678110271692276,
-0.5560703277587891,
0.3519405126571655,
0.4746672809123993,
-1.1140886545181274,
-0.4918501675128937,
0.22541411221027374,
-0.2888473868370056,
0.3467991054058075,
0.21274112164974213,
0.20649895071983337,
-0.19067677855491638,
0.44641974568367004,
0.21696369349956512
] |
228771 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Second%20Mrs%20Tanqueray | The Second Mrs Tanqueray | The Second Mrs. Tanqueray is a problem play by Arthur Wing Pinero. It adopts the "Woman with a past" plot, popular in nineteenth century melodrama. The play was first produced in 1893 by the actor-manager George Alexander and despite causing some shock to his audiences by its scandalous subject it was a box-office success, and was revived in London and New York in many productions during the 20th century.
Background and first performance
The English dramatist Arthur Wing Pinero had won fame as a writer of farces and other comedies, including The Magistrate (1885), Dandy Dick (1887) and The Cabinet Minister (1890). Wishing to write about serious subjects, he wrote The Profligate (1889), in which past misdeeds come to haunt a seemingly respectable man. Pinero intended the central character to kill himself at the climax of the play, but the actor-manager John Hare persuaded him to tone down the ending to avoid alienating his respectable society audience.
When his next such drama – The Second Mrs Tanqueray – came to be produced, Pinero remained firm: the play would, and did, end in tragedy. While he was planning it, several plays of Henrik Ibsen were presented in London for the first time, regarded by much of polite society as avant garde, blunt and shocking. Seeing Ghosts led Pinero to reconsider his approach to playwriting, which now seemed old-fashioned by comparison. He was far from uncritical of Ibsen's plays, but recognised that if he was to be a serious dramatist he must treat social problems and human misconduct frankly.
The Second Mrs Tanqueray centred on "a woman with a past". Hare thought it too shocking for his audience and declined to present it. George Alexander, the actor-manager running the St James's Theatre, to whom Pinero then offered the play, said, "Sorry, I daren't do it". He had second thoughts, and accepted it. It was presented at the St James's on 27 May 1893. The cast was:
Aubrey Tanqueray – George Alexander
Sir George Orreyed, Bart – Adolphus Vane-Tempest
Captain Hugh Ardale – Ben Webster
Cayley Drummie – Cyril Maude (later Henry V. Esmond)
Frank Misquith, QC, MP – Nutcombe Gould (later H. H. Vincent)
Gordon Jayne, MD – Murray Hathorn
Morse – Alfred Holles
Lady Orreyed – Edith Chester
Mrs Cortelyon – Amy Roselle (later Charlotte Granville)
Paula – Mrs Patrick Campbell (later Charlotte Granville)
Ellean – Maude Millett
Source: The Era.
The piece was a box-office success and was still playing to full houses when Alexander, who disliked acting in long runs, closed the production in April 1894.
Plot
The play opens with a late night dinner between the widower Mr Tanqueray and some of his longtime professional friends. All are upper class members of British society, and the friends are disturbed when they learn of the forthcoming second marriage of Tanqueray to a Mrs Paula Jarman, a woman with a known sexual past.
As the play progresses we see the misery of the mismatched couple and their shared efforts to foster a bond between Tanqueray's young and impeccably proper daughter Ellean and her young unhappy stepmother. This is compromised when Mrs Tanqueray learns the identity of her stepdaughter's fiancé; he is the man who ruined her, years ago. She reveals her knowledge to her husband, who prevents the marriage and alienates his daughter. This alienation spreads and husband and wife, father and daughter, step-parent and child are all angered and alone. When the daughter learns the reasons behind her disappointment she is struck with pity and makes a speech about trying again with her stepmother, only to go to her and find her dead, evidently by suicide.
Revivals and adaptations
Madge Kendal and her husband W. H. Kendal took the play on tour in Britain, and then to Broadway where self-appointed guardians of morality condemned it, and audiences flocked to see it. There were London revivals in 1895 at the St James's, 1901 at the Royalty Theatre, 1903 at the New Theatre, 1913 at the St James's and 1922 at the Playhouse Theatre. Eleonora Duse appeared in an Italian adaptation in 1905, and the play was given in English in Paris in 1907 at the Théâtre Sarah-Bernhardt. The Internet Broadway Database records New York revivals in 1900, 1902, 1907, 1908, 1913 and 1924. More recently, the play has been revived in the West End with Eileen Herlie in the title role in 1950, and at the National Theatre in 1981, starring Felicity Kendal.
The play was adapted for the cinema in 1916, with Alexander in his original role. A later film version was released in 1952, with Pamela Brown as Paula and Hugh Sinclair as Tanqueray. The BBC has broadcast several radio adaptations of the play, starring Margaret Rawlings and Nicholas Hannen (1940), Coral Browne, Malcolm Keen and Jack Buchanan (1944), Joyce Redman and André Morell (1951), Gladys Cooper and André Morell (1954), Margaret Robertson and Tony Britton (1967) and Michelle Newell and Gary Bond (1992). A BBC television adaptation was broadcast in 1962, starring Elizabeth Sellars and Peter Williams.
Notes, references and sources
Notes
References
Sources
External links
Plays by Arthur Wing Pinero
1893 plays
British plays adapted into films
Plays set in the 19th century
West End plays | [
-0.5710731744766235,
0.22982344031333923,
-0.1810639202594757,
-0.16199560463428497,
-0.6383118033409119,
0.5082679390907288,
0.6112878918647766,
0.32680320739746094,
-0.5551100969314575,
-0.1515035629272461,
-0.11255516856908798,
0.1329602599143982,
-0.1198953241109848,
0.4493967890739441,
0.5704954266548157,
0.22128616273403168,
-0.39622625708580017,
0.7798660397529602,
0.006222663447260857,
-1.0976841449737549,
-0.34606269001960754,
-0.1878816783428192,
-0.01819108985364437,
-0.41499772667884827,
-0.26948967576026917,
0.5204805135726929,
0.27802756428718567,
0.19183911383152008,
0.28616565465927124,
-0.277741014957428,
-0.025076257064938545,
0.2906928062438965,
-0.561972975730896,
-0.22741955518722534,
-0.00906206015497446,
-0.0927087664604187,
0.3751649856567383,
-0.24971836805343628,
0.3590172529220581,
0.17920516431331635,
-0.1651431918144226,
0.5302388072013855,
0.33360397815704346,
0.23222005367279053,
0.029909148812294006,
-0.551923394203186,
-2.05045485496521,
-0.5678074359893799,
0.1285720020532608,
-0.5240605473518372,
0.32024145126342773,
-0.24502865970134735,
0.9219009876251221,
0.48734745383262634,
0.009778345003724098,
0.9780492186546326,
-0.9907577633857727,
0.596981406211853,
0.17599014937877655,
0.15059494972229004,
0.28440210223197937,
0.03375696390867233,
0.038533639162778854,
0.32589349150657654,
0.029631661251187325,
0.5296332836151123,
-0.19251061975955963,
0.7294803857803345,
-0.2792353332042694,
-0.011857451871037483,
-0.4740411639213562,
-0.48160651326179504,
0.6136364936828613,
0.21738630533218384,
-0.5725633502006531,
-0.20504961907863617,
0.16181494295597076,
-0.03988328203558922,
0.11057739704847336,
-0.18942740559577942,
0.03863406181335449,
0.2808164358139038,
0.29680877923965454,
0.0058793071657419205,
0.051101792603731155,
0.06633187085390091,
-0.34670642018318176,
-0.38982024788856506,
0.25590160489082336,
0.945593535900116,
-1.114281415939331,
0.3246452808380127,
0.11241832375526428,
0.3199666440486908,
0.22418378293514252,
0.29263240098953247,
0.44283393025398254,
-0.04877011850476265,
0.25438499450683594,
0.12304186820983887,
0.036009613424539566,
0.23726150393486023,
0.23394812643527985,
-0.20497682690620422,
-0.42739036679267883,
0.11089768260717392,
-0.798612117767334,
-0.7468740940093994,
-0.26457709074020386,
-1.8744378089904785,
0.07131621241569519,
0.1216239482164383,
-0.25737276673316956,
-0.3401542901992798,
-0.1975354254245758,
0.5794720649719238,
0.3187844455242157,
-0.42340534925460815,
-0.3908916413784027,
0.10044121742248535,
0.20498883724212646,
0.33300843834877014,
-0.4226919114589691,
-0.37050431966781616,
-0.6188876032829285,
0.41125625371932983,
0.3844664394855499,
-0.22629661858081818,
0.5887250304222107,
0.6826749444007874,
-0.05629176273941994,
1.1907179355621338,
-0.09127820283174515,
-0.13825684785842896,
0.20565272867679596,
-0.8684458136558533,
0.4276594817638397,
0.6775073409080505,
-0.11181825399398804,
0.17144538462162018,
-0.43565598130226135,
0.2391846925020218,
-2.4552412033081055,
-0.0631585642695427,
0.8268408179283142,
0.3317781984806061,
-0.6878619194030762,
-0.026790907606482506,
-0.09807508438825607,
0.5106693506240845,
-0.3093035817146301,
-0.21739353239536285,
-0.06760572642087936,
-0.07917710393667221,
-0.3472566604614258,
0.3457130491733551,
0.2433212399482727,
-0.5140251517295837,
0.4051154851913452,
0.6364423632621765,
-0.193400040268898,
0.03703390806913376,
0.4987090229988098,
0.28834041953086853,
0.10876360535621643,
0.4217529594898224,
0.27094370126724243,
-0.07966123521327972,
0.2347244918346405,
0.3529324233531952,
-0.4313049018383026,
-0.5434896945953369,
0.37142693996429443,
-0.6042521595954895,
0.08554044365882874,
0.20863410830497742,
0.19219627976417542,
0.6722310781478882,
-0.26932528614997864,
-0.6741942763328552,
-0.5831857323646545,
0.19501926004886627,
0.3013544976711273,
0.03748144209384918,
1.2077785730361938,
0.014943721704185009,
0.641101062297821,
-0.07059575617313385,
0.26474133133888245,
0.3771308958530426,
0.043570809066295624,
-0.30089858174324036,
0.030579445883631706,
0.06270838528871536,
0.4634745419025421,
0.42283526062965393,
0.43267667293548584,
-0.20333369076251984,
0.055216655135154724,
0.7894824147224426,
-0.06295837461948395,
-0.008751321583986282,
-0.1326986402273178,
-0.2603755593299866,
-0.31175675988197327,
2.6543691158294678,
0.345098614692688,
0.24029091000556946,
0.20867407321929932,
1.0429506301879883,
0.3222859501838684,
0.19020763039588928,
0.006434633396565914,
-0.23694437742233276,
0.18245536088943481,
-0.18073713779449463,
0.8890746235847473,
-0.3650549054145813,
0.29245221614837646,
-0.5491259098052979,
-0.046835534274578094,
0.05023333430290222,
0.013675945810973644,
0.3998212218284607,
-0.20260241627693176,
0.7307565212249756,
0.054706644266843796,
0.20578576624393463,
-0.5302765369415283,
-1.122429609298706,
0.31799566745758057,
0.3577391505241394,
0.19495001435279846,
0.3360362946987152,
-0.36866477131843567,
0.3074478209018707,
-0.5087928771972656,
-0.1913466453552246,
0.11049889028072357,
0.36223331093788147,
0.312286376953125,
0.34801483154296875,
-0.12932559847831726,
0.5484586954116821,
-0.8193191885948181,
0.6811253428459167,
0.10307969152927399,
0.025440828874707222,
0.12992583215236664,
-0.33790239691734314,
0.8799119591712952,
-0.03431443125009537,
0.5726143717765808,
-0.6883437037467957,
0.2809477150440216,
-0.009677211754024029,
0.03260741010308266,
0.006363262422382832,
-0.11316456645727158,
0.2355438470840454,
-0.4333350360393524,
0.1932915300130844,
-0.03484072908759117,
0.3968675434589386,
-0.15522941946983337,
-0.07068679481744766,
-0.5696213841438293,
-0.5715130567550659,
-0.03815605118870735,
-0.12797559797763824,
0.5689873695373535,
-0.10617978870868683,
-0.3444487154483795,
-3.7374134063720703,
0.4287491738796234,
0.47049710154533386,
0.037977125495672226,
0.6000435948371887,
-0.7488208413124084,
0.0009046971099451184,
0.518271267414093,
0.46838951110839844,
-0.49974435567855835,
0.5703543424606323,
-0.6185954213142395,
0.07691475003957748,
0.009835921227931976,
-0.3831483721733093,
-0.025021955370903015,
-0.3975405991077423,
0.09033150970935822,
-0.1867075264453888,
-0.24952828884124756,
0.14462663233280182,
-0.04985933005809784,
-0.02002492919564247,
-0.4124303460121155,
-0.1252264827489853,
0.24745309352874756,
-0.017564792186021805,
-0.09132000803947449,
0.2504331171512604,
-0.7848114371299744,
0.21619538962841034,
-0.06121662259101868,
-0.7423270344734192,
-0.3098721206188202,
0.4165303707122803,
-3.344634771347046,
0.049214787781238556,
-0.5478507876396179,
-0.3659650981426239,
-0.06401245296001434,
-0.3106466233730316,
0.6532749533653259,
-0.041348107159137726,
-0.6100589036941528,
0.42542019486427307,
0.1299733966588974,
0.17795713245868683,
-0.39249059557914734,
0.45242035388946533,
0.4675900936126709,
0.4686407148838043,
0.1202717199921608,
0.2401999831199646,
0.8049975633621216,
-0.17573371529579163,
-0.040015604346990585,
-0.1733126938343048,
-0.1960768848657608,
-0.32197508215904236,
0.7413575053215027,
0.5771179795265198,
-0.31065332889556885,
-0.3095032274723053,
-0.4676581919193268,
-0.3551468849182129,
-0.19322055578231812,
0.26546362042427063,
0.05292730778455734,
-0.1150253489613533,
-0.08230005949735641,
-0.2713625431060791,
0.09486488252878189,
0.3272838890552521,
0.5305747389793396,
-0.21107149124145508,
-0.41669362783432007,
0.4084864556789398,
-0.39875051379203796,
1.0102521181106567,
0.34568390250205994,
-0.4228411614894867,
-0.7679696083068848,
-0.552169144153595,
0.1734081506729126,
0.5710944533348083,
-0.7509629130363464,
-0.12010033428668976,
0.7668703198432922,
0.1934581845998764,
-0.0874507799744606,
-0.31657010316848755,
-0.0010903544025495648,
-0.508434534072876,
-0.23916612565517426,
-0.23096640408039093,
0.6950068473815918,
-0.6397867798805237,
0.6903302073478699,
-0.12127336859703064,
0.07185012847185135,
-0.29751041531562805,
0.2506279945373535,
0.10139457881450653,
0.3078206777572632,
0.3744560182094574,
-0.05027869716286659,
-0.04477426037192345,
0.20534248650074005,
-0.9055197238922119,
0.11494600772857666,
0.20146997272968292,
-0.07096526026725769,
0.5686002969741821,
0.45880836248397827,
-0.1661984622478485,
0.001992150442674756,
-0.4562422037124634,
-0.44531047344207764,
1.088745355606079,
0.14310407638549805,
-0.3856886029243469,
-0.25480329990386963,
0.07327305525541306,
-0.7754195332527161,
-0.19276446104049683,
-0.5333435535430908,
-0.3855895698070526,
0.06722448766231537,
0.6287283897399902,
0.09482086449861526,
-0.025880588218569756,
0.4826296865940094,
-0.8691837191581726,
0.10734692960977554,
-0.41774696111679077,
-0.5698157548904419,
-0.7336015701293945,
-0.6250177025794983,
-0.25621750950813293,
0.13653436303138733,
-0.4217188358306885,
-0.01148136891424656,
0.0871429517865181,
-0.7063247561454773,
-0.02596236951649189,
0.2524692714214325,
-0.05912863835692406,
-0.1797359585762024,
0.39240357279777527,
0.3012823760509491,
-0.32743704319000244,
-0.3909090459346771,
0.04913618415594101,
0.4514484405517578,
0.6321619153022766,
0.5621357560157776,
0.5810472965240479,
-0.006444131955504417,
0.3286375105381012,
-0.2068629264831543,
0.13264039158821106,
0.8052024841308594,
-0.34550008177757263,
-0.6131222248077393,
-0.15300776064395905,
0.06231648847460747,
-0.3913800120353699,
-0.46426621079444885,
-1.0126971006393433,
0.10219456255435944,
-0.33171477913856506,
-0.3361205756664276,
0.25420400500297546,
0.4405468702316284,
-0.33977028727531433,
0.12466951459646225,
-0.17035339772701263,
-0.2860715985298157,
-0.04187531769275665,
0.30541086196899414,
0.8233544826507568,
0.5926787257194519,
-0.13109177350997925,
-0.2697453498840332,
0.2115488052368164,
-0.5983372330665588,
-0.7434513568878174,
0.2984260022640228,
-0.7683736085891724,
-0.2959083318710327,
-0.45385485887527466,
-0.2523325979709625,
0.22856490314006805,
-0.3580051064491272,
0.18724425137043,
-0.24946913123130798,
0.26643720269203186,
-1.1885207891464233,
0.3377205729484558,
0.34430596232414246,
0.072290800511837,
-0.18037331104278564,
-0.2506498396396637,
-0.4815554916858673,
1.0187162160873413,
-0.2974855303764343,
-0.35406750440597534,
-0.19289882481098175,
-0.2633112370967865,
0.8357519507408142,
0.003027422120794654,
0.15028049051761627,
-0.023821361362934113,
0.17931130528450012,
-0.48946958780288696,
-0.2656717598438263,
0.31679099798202515,
-0.21887536346912384,
0.8384610414505005,
0.13149279356002808,
0.19143928587436676,
-0.3037225008010864,
-0.2082201987504959,
-0.3670728802680969,
0.35166507959365845,
-0.023729415610432625,
-0.09226726740598679,
0.5682951211929321,
0.36586323380470276,
-1.1338173151016235,
-0.03660892695188522,
-0.06488011032342911,
0.17527912557125092,
0.4410693049430847,
-0.44672155380249023,
0.28814899921417236,
0.59731525182724,
0.20053288340568542,
0.5171928405761719,
0.10178570449352264,
-0.8022821545600891,
0.21017970144748688,
0.17390887439250946,
-0.38198477029800415,
0.5177496075630188,
0.07457175850868225,
-0.17085343599319458,
0.39132845401763916,
0.4717074930667877,
-0.22214876115322113,
-0.7299510836601257,
0.32111379504203796,
0.4665535092353821,
0.053902074694633484,
-0.44916754961013794,
-0.005456994287669659,
-0.5663708448410034,
-0.43050462007522583,
0.24589234590530396,
-0.6639928817749023,
0.7315915822982788,
0.13096123933792114,
-0.8347326517105103,
0.648893415927887,
-0.5921909809112549,
-0.884315550327301,
0.28782954812049866,
0.3357275426387787,
-0.018841860815882683,
-0.04316726326942444,
-0.015573425218462944,
-0.1817896068096161,
0.4633867144584656,
0.16256877779960632,
0.1649569571018219,
0.5404557585716248,
0.27328726649284363,
0.1597938984632492,
-0.5208430290222168,
-0.5985696911811829,
0.38281750679016113,
-0.09335630387067795,
-0.5038139820098877,
0.11600381135940552,
0.33114585280418396,
-0.14834077656269073,
-0.4907129406929016,
-0.6284822225570679,
-0.428272545337677,
0.45117655396461487,
-0.17991331219673157,
-0.04349909722805023,
0.1907079517841339,
0.1727791279554367,
-0.04974572733044624,
0.18780799210071564,
0.32707592844963074,
-0.15920008718967438,
0.43391913175582886,
0.32495149970054626,
0.9024498462677002,
0.3388504683971405,
-0.5345429182052612,
0.21980713307857513,
0.17659826576709747,
-0.43825027346611023,
-0.3610094487667084,
-0.10162559896707535,
-0.30770519375801086,
-0.06355856359004974,
-0.08252149820327759,
-0.11226717382669449,
-0.5337483286857605,
0.3405655026435852,
-0.6454877257347107,
1.719167709350586,
0.26351451873779297,
0.5273606181144714,
-0.19880595803260803,
-0.1985369324684143,
-0.4760464131832123,
-0.1751285046339035,
-0.3401114046573639,
-0.6264579892158508,
0.3408396244049072,
0.3059300184249878,
-0.3923830986022949,
0.251020610332489,
0.2445610612630844,
0.20928402245044708,
0.4453832805156708,
-0.9337527751922607,
-0.7665459513664246,
-0.4322368800640106,
-0.20658303797245026,
-0.601249098777771,
1.0942896604537964,
0.03649938851594925,
0.3528379499912262,
0.31083986163139343,
0.29582640528678894,
0.22995518147945404,
-0.14311185479164124,
-0.23957669734954834,
-0.3520946204662323,
-0.14798399806022644,
-0.2564581334590912,
0.009392701089382172,
0.2603785991668701,
-0.4053817391395569,
-0.3696754276752472,
-0.05938667431473732,
-0.5509339570999146,
-0.226444810628891,
-0.19857260584831238,
0.14082203805446625,
-0.3490995764732361,
0.5974200367927551,
0.1151939257979393,
0.10947947949171066,
0.6575106978416443,
-0.6142078638076782,
0.034643109887838364,
0.16292960941791534,
-0.225868821144104,
-0.2102097123861313,
0.3390567898750305,
-0.3179442286491394,
0.5144756436347961,
-0.6141870021820068,
-0.12047823518514633,
0.06946256756782532,
-0.42426443099975586,
0.6386929750442505,
0.5127426385879517,
0.4499317407608032,
0.6397087574005127,
-0.03244530409574509,
-0.21214257180690765,
-0.05236462876200676,
0.44418781995773315,
-0.5538914203643799,
0.3014574646949768,
0.28872013092041016,
-0.3591160774230957,
0.13962213695049286,
0.36541062593460083,
0.12584637105464935,
-0.26507997512817383,
-0.3270314931869507,
0.4721450209617615,
0.4197869598865509,
-0.4565707743167877,
-0.44314631819725037,
-2.005831718444824,
-0.22281724214553833,
0.03382355347275734,
0.31372326612472534,
0.20483796298503876,
0.12826834619045258,
-0.5135408043861389,
0.08495394140481949,
0.12988978624343872,
-0.22811707854270935,
0.6778813004493713,
0.44889959692955017,
-0.09366780519485474,
0.40219923853874207,
-0.2163448929786682,
0.7907411456108093,
0.3151874244213104,
0.19321571290493011,
-0.5803219676017761,
0.012991547584533691,
-0.11588630080223083,
0.3059759736061096,
0.5036106109619141,
0.04623885825276375,
-0.6555908918380737,
0.4566400349140167,
-0.23657119274139404,
-0.04810291901230812,
0.3275684416294098,
0.3804391026496887,
-0.2737455368041992,
0.9659029245376587,
-0.13014452159404755,
-0.01983688957989216,
-0.123122937977314,
-0.7196804881095886,
0.02720891684293747,
-0.348938524723053,
0.4969572424888611,
0.09717576205730438,
0.02057211846113205,
-0.23636996746063232,
0.5807057023048401,
-0.1491893082857132,
-0.00872440729290247,
-0.47763651609420776,
0.7187275290489197,
-0.26225417852401733,
0.4162457585334778,
-0.3863585591316223,
0.2899329662322998,
-0.2429555505514145,
-0.1362648606300354,
-0.40730300545692444,
0.48245811462402344,
0.0923939123749733,
0.5035033822059631,
-0.15893696248531342,
-0.8326855301856995,
-0.036533139646053314,
0.13061778247356415,
0.16909827291965485,
-0.09027260541915894,
0.24463766813278198,
0.21368424594402313,
-0.5878652930259705,
-0.4938622713088989,
-0.6812729835510254,
-0.09907471388578415,
0.6533949971199036,
0.17004847526550293,
0.37857505679130554,
0.5904581546783447,
0.44715023040771484,
-0.3508594036102295,
0.5739327669143677,
0.5900973677635193,
-0.0022532371804118156,
0.2572692930698395,
0.5330426096916199,
0.19680362939834595,
-0.1773790866136551,
-0.37843525409698486,
0.7410553097724915,
0.11967061460018158,
-6.077747821807861,
-0.26512691378593445,
-0.26076024770736694,
-0.7630904316902161,
0.45274674892425537,
0.22152362763881683,
0.2063358873128891,
0.22957326471805573,
-0.39296627044677734,
-0.03635195642709732,
0.3065645396709442,
-0.20731480419635773,
-0.3078196346759796,
-0.609271228313446,
0.9331995844841003,
0.20512354373931885
] |
228774 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptameter | Heptameter | Heptameter is a type of meter where each line of verse contains seven metrical feet. It was used frequently in Classical prosody, and in English, the line was used frequently in narrative poetry since the Romantics. The meter is also called septenary, and this is the most common form for medieval Latin and vernacular verse, including the Ormulum. Its first use in English is possibly the Poema Morale of the twelfth/thirteenth century.
An example from Lord Byron's Youth and Age:
'Tis but as ivy-leaves around the ruin'd turret wreathe,
All green and wildly fresh without, but worn and gray beneath.
O could I feel as I have felt, or be what I have been,
Or weep as I could once have wept o'er many a vanish'd scene,-
As springs in deserts found seem sweet, all brackish though they be,
So midst the wither'd waste of life, those tears would flow to me!
An example from Edgar Allan Poe's Annabel Lee:
It was many and many a year ago, In a kingdom by the sea,
That a maiden there lived whom you may know by the name of Annabel Lee;
And this maiden she lived with no other thought than to love and be loved by me.
An example from Robert W. Service's The Cremation of Sam McGee:
Now Sam | McGee | was from Tenn|essee, | where the co|tton blooms | and blows.(A)
Why he left his home in the South to roam 'round the Pole, God only knows. (A)
He was always cold, but the land of gold seemed to hold him like a spell; (B)
Though he'd often say in his homely way that "he'd sooner live in hell." (B)
See also
Fourteener (poetry)
Archilochian
References
Types of verses | [
0.01542807836085558,
0.4653412997722626,
-0.27826476097106934,
0.09760278463363647,
-0.4510241150856018,
0.8019751310348511,
0.9812806248664856,
-0.08946406096220016,
-0.2379581332206726,
-0.599723219871521,
-0.28869420289993286,
-0.3756586015224457,
-0.34389728307724,
0.27184104919433594,
0.15126590430736542,
0.523628294467926,
0.502196192741394,
0.27256089448928833,
0.6719139814376831,
-0.06292182207107544,
-0.2499074637889862,
0.6855928301811218,
0.82317054271698,
-1.2710317373275757,
0.341392457485199,
-0.43088439106941223,
0.01849866844713688,
0.16528934240341187,
-0.21538834273815155,
-0.3956906199455261,
0.2144237607717514,
0.9841606020927429,
-0.053240351378917694,
-0.759894609451294,
0.38189905881881714,
-0.5959160923957825,
0.14705254137516022,
0.027815941721200943,
0.3130109906196594,
-0.9410607218742371,
-0.14778657257556915,
-0.5421574115753174,
0.35561129450798035,
-0.29666370153427124,
-0.33150506019592285,
-0.440258264541626,
-1.4704270362854004,
-0.07435666024684906,
-0.7977905869483948,
0.13108821213245392,
-0.549717903137207,
0.01726333238184452,
0.6840965747833252,
0.703255832195282,
0.23901702463626862,
0.9200800061225891,
-1.3210369348526,
0.13891597092151642,
0.642160952091217,
0.20168368518352509,
0.17553800344467163,
-0.12508341670036316,
-0.24694377183914185,
-0.06288034468889236,
0.2564769983291626,
0.5467629432678223,
-0.33923014998435974,
0.15012013912200928,
-0.02772044762969017,
0.2650483250617981,
-0.011669891886413097,
-0.3298826515674591,
-0.5015720129013062,
1.0249640941619873,
-0.3336096704006195,
-0.0996842160820961,
0.034809112548828125,
-0.3833845257759094,
0.2189311385154724,
-0.3488353490829468,
-0.5989564061164856,
0.5705570578575134,
0.36996251344680786,
0.17150525748729706,
0.010436511598527431,
0.16512927412986755,
-0.08857991546392441,
0.214060977101326,
-0.18282635509967804,
0.37329497933387756,
0.526526689529419,
-0.5515674352645874,
0.18364189565181732,
0.16273514926433563,
-0.6269170045852661,
-0.20710286498069763,
0.31152501702308655,
0.17060378193855286,
-0.00025840732268989086,
-0.07146433740854263,
0.3338240087032318,
0.3177782893180847,
0.8047478199005127,
-0.2125394493341446,
-0.3446143865585327,
-0.05369657278060913,
0.13364918529987335,
-0.7028466463088989,
0.8159246444702148,
-0.22032418847084045,
0.054229091852903366,
-0.017571991309523582,
0.03524698317050934,
0.23622947931289673,
-0.4767734408378601,
0.08645669370889664,
0.4675391614437103,
0.10636963695287704,
-0.33031898736953735,
0.011424732394516468,
-0.015790453180670738,
0.5839233994483948,
0.8375213146209717,
0.23015759885311127,
-0.5064377188682556,
-0.22180096805095673,
0.06309150904417038,
0.6488711833953857,
-0.2445669174194336,
0.3577920198440552,
0.12424352020025253,
0.555106520652771,
0.26843586564064026,
0.09497348964214325,
-0.2257053554058075,
-0.509161651134491,
0.5212286710739136,
0.13764560222625732,
0.46022337675094604,
0.7784267067909241,
-0.11870624125003815,
-0.4145955741405487,
-1.1715610027313232,
-0.35441145300865173,
0.2011684626340866,
-0.40017181634902954,
0.3141508400440216,
-0.4116258919239044,
-0.2509363889694214,
0.30939191579818726,
0.21593746542930603,
0.18880081176757812,
0.3627789318561554,
0.45135214924812317,
-0.3536730110645294,
0.01613600179553032,
0.5228495001792908,
0.5433643460273743,
-0.06779439002275467,
0.2714994251728058,
-0.6728178858757019,
0.2864362895488739,
-0.1975768506526947,
0.009497754275798798,
-0.10195430368185043,
-0.446180135011673,
0.5212482213973999,
0.4235823154449463,
-0.24359022080898285,
-0.04450555145740509,
-0.20177453756332397,
-0.26780393719673157,
0.41502845287323,
0.10282234102487564,
-0.03696022182703018,
-0.5763158798217773,
0.732153594493866,
0.36711186170578003,
0.5424457788467407,
-0.41646596789360046,
-0.7282475829124451,
0.4270046651363373,
0.5175402760505676,
-0.12705999612808228,
0.969395101070404,
0.009873568080365658,
0.23994852602481842,
0.4064147174358368,
-0.3300330936908722,
-0.9480094313621521,
-0.538910448551178,
-0.5062915086746216,
0.08184638619422913,
0.1613081693649292,
1.0560046434402466,
-0.07461252808570862,
-0.19606679677963257,
0.15189431607723236,
0.17763014137744904,
0.7749881744384766,
-0.08146880567073822,
-0.10940227657556534,
-0.2220192849636078,
0.3766025900840759,
0.307382732629776,
0.9389090538024902,
-0.17590180039405823,
0.3702812194824219,
0.16879263520240784,
0.04875204339623451,
0.02664860337972641,
-0.7287598252296448,
0.23290090262889862,
-0.5616546273231506,
-0.5189571976661682,
-0.13141126930713654,
-0.14966388046741486,
0.27164721488952637,
0.03552069514989853,
-0.4228963255882263,
0.5821790099143982,
-0.4874700605869293,
0.09173346310853958,
0.17571665346622467,
-0.683990478515625,
0.030659470707178116,
-0.05739076808094978,
0.10824846476316452,
-0.48909705877304077,
-0.6876629590988159,
-0.0626051127910614,
-0.681439995765686,
0.048592280596494675,
-0.7625377774238586,
-0.36603012681007385,
-0.16389548778533936,
-0.04890700429677963,
-0.35933947563171387,
0.9125068783760071,
-0.5485780239105225,
0.08405004441738129,
-0.34032613039016724,
-0.12335147708654404,
-0.12137988954782486,
0.03649728745222092,
0.14346939325332642,
-0.18988080322742462,
0.02641909569501877,
-0.4979551136493683,
0.0646863803267479,
-0.06596545875072479,
0.27937957644462585,
0.009281836450099945,
-0.5087903738021851,
-0.40568846464157104,
0.4515146315097809,
0.08581320196390152,
0.035841889679431915,
0.2776886820793152,
-0.0881057158112526,
-0.5739917159080505,
0.12438347935676575,
0.840056836605072,
-0.26253554224967957,
0.02699056640267372,
-0.41226837038993835,
-0.6326756477355957,
-0.6180039048194885,
0.4932442307472229,
-0.06114436313509941,
0.7244672775268555,
0.1142299696803093,
-0.6302354335784912,
-0.17721088230609894,
-0.18851108849048615,
-0.18089453876018524,
0.766993522644043,
-0.6202304363250732,
-1.1057310104370117,
-0.5437856912612915,
0.3895113170146942,
0.7102935910224915,
0.5050357580184937,
-0.44700902700424194,
-0.38295769691467285,
-0.40165314078330994,
1.0011560916900635,
-0.2222430258989334,
0.8620001673698425,
-0.3663370609283447,
-0.2547001838684082,
0.5521634221076965,
-0.2532954216003418,
-0.16675224900245667,
0.41521573066711426,
0.5666086673736572,
-0.008970873430371284,
-0.4579874575138092,
0.0837344229221344,
-0.15314926207065582,
-0.551665723323822,
-0.20163288712501526,
-0.4037042558193207,
0.15051423013210297,
-0.0379040390253067,
-0.33746734261512756,
-0.1855778694152832,
0.4076043665409088,
-5.203926086425781,
-0.041861243546009064,
-0.9151321053504944,
-0.49184080958366394,
0.33526524901390076,
0.8215649724006653,
0.7743158936500549,
-0.08265738189220428,
-0.43849945068359375,
-0.04802592471241951,
0.013958582654595375,
-0.314933717250824,
0.3690413534641266,
0.14456383883953094,
0.7035965919494629,
0.07095595449209213,
0.3337661027908325,
-0.1354844719171524,
0.22855119407176971,
0.2895730137825012,
0.22984594106674194,
0.25755810737609863,
0.1639222800731659,
0.4753533601760864,
0.4880158603191376,
-0.21848297119140625,
-0.08517543971538544,
0.18659113347530365,
-0.2300112098455429,
0.5374004244804382,
0.27233365178108215,
0.14482899010181427,
0.11023392528295517,
-0.6616689562797546,
-0.47586873173713684,
-0.12536709010601044,
0.4527958929538727,
0.02160133421421051,
0.33842960000038147,
-0.08268258720636368,
-0.1419883668422699,
0.4074065685272217,
0.28990933299064636,
-0.06055738776922226,
-0.11480385065078735,
0.34037667512893677,
-0.3837129473686218,
-0.22284682095050812,
-0.45345407724380493,
1.0458643436431885,
-0.23571926355361938,
0.032350823283195496,
0.4688209891319275,
-0.3884855806827545,
0.08091987669467926,
-0.13843229413032532,
0.3963625133037567,
-0.6088548302650452,
0.18676325678825378,
-0.17787376046180725,
0.6380774974822998,
-0.8594533801078796,
0.21237672865390778,
-0.7523117065429688,
0.0002816172200255096,
-0.8755629062652588,
-0.6154919266700745,
-0.08165595680475235,
0.351402223110199,
0.7568058371543884,
-0.6128984093666077,
0.39265429973602295,
-0.11359946429729462,
-0.49578121304512024,
0.30053338408470154,
-0.32303860783576965,
0.4745986759662628,
0.04593006148934364,
0.19996277987957,
0.006195218302309513,
-0.1011788547039032,
-0.5164840817451477,
-0.6372720003128052,
0.7345061898231506,
0.7816283702850342,
-0.44521665573120117,
-0.3263690173625946,
-0.0853184312582016,
-0.3950919508934021,
-0.27769359946250916,
1.3659071922302246,
-0.1281379610300064,
0.20529694855213165,
0.10749158263206482,
0.42173412442207336,
0.4719831049442291,
-0.1614648848772049,
-0.15283390879631042,
0.8678142428398132,
-0.6761903762817383,
0.09044153988361359,
-0.1834208369255066,
0.6172278523445129,
0.1525936871767044,
0.03193439170718193,
-0.27116659283638,
-1.0708537101745605,
0.29619866609573364,
0.6136537790298462,
-0.2263478934764862,
-0.1675933599472046,
-0.2494734227657318,
-0.08138477057218552,
-0.06683299690485,
-0.31814056634902954,
0.013507520779967308,
-0.5706676244735718,
0.47538790106773376,
0.3553408086299896,
0.3512915372848511,
0.1314534693956375,
0.04297543689608574,
-0.09147243201732635,
-0.387586385011673,
-0.5271047949790955,
-0.36096319556236267,
-0.1832214891910553,
0.0961138904094696,
-0.3322080671787262,
-0.39328324794769287,
0.7954527735710144,
0.008666078560054302,
-0.06072017177939415,
-0.08823300153017044,
-0.45444267988204956,
-0.25855550169944763,
-0.15925708413124084,
0.2863931655883789,
-0.21730755269527435,
-0.19731542468070984,
0.1979694366455078,
-0.7427107691764832,
-0.43777233362197876,
0.24669452011585236,
1.177187442779541,
0.12647093832492828,
0.22525770962238312,
-0.6117382645606995,
-1.0087753534317017,
0.9389485716819763,
0.4128837585449219,
-0.12309448421001434,
0.9991534352302551,
-0.8807603120803833,
0.0990724265575409,
0.07077784836292267,
-0.3254048526287079,
0.7151355743408203,
-0.19083601236343384,
-0.39402449131011963,
-0.6680590510368347,
0.38453325629234314,
-1.1341896057128906,
-0.33262261748313904,
-0.061887919902801514,
-0.64162677526474,
-0.7201446890830994,
-0.05406771972775459,
0.06370101869106293,
0.6338061094284058,
0.23939473927021027,
-0.6732354164123535,
-0.16559410095214844,
-0.35447192192077637,
0.105986088514328,
0.20238451659679413,
0.07655498385429382,
0.4100867211818695,
-0.16550050675868988,
-0.46659037470817566,
-0.4095526933670044,
-0.2593277394771576,
-0.4669956862926483,
0.556587815284729,
0.2705133259296417,
-0.3203136622905731,
0.04628007486462593,
-0.17283795773983002,
-0.8072618246078491,
0.003902969416230917,
0.2989853024482727,
-0.057746730744838715,
0.2805211842060089,
-0.4096893072128296,
-0.5254324674606323,
-0.40631914138793945,
0.14372646808624268,
0.8613342046737671,
-0.5015268325805664,
-0.6551918387413025,
0.6464970707893372,
0.728469967842102,
-0.42064377665519714,
0.4287970960140228,
0.403617799282074,
-1.13869047164917,
0.899892270565033,
-0.38551539182662964,
-0.4413870871067047,
0.5235669016838074,
-0.288934588432312,
-0.2690657675266266,
-0.3648485839366913,
-0.028081044554710388,
-0.5680343508720398,
-0.07557332515716553,
0.43176236748695374,
-0.21181811392307281,
0.08483109623193741,
-0.900483250617981,
0.6280219554901123,
-0.4461379647254944,
-0.7061873078346252,
-0.12084625661373138,
-0.0701519027352333,
-0.44442257285118103,
0.007338681258261204,
-0.3277612626552582,
0.5335521101951599,
-0.24904924631118774,
-0.1930752545595169,
-0.24689093232154846,
0.3645787835121155,
0.051959291100502014,
-0.3303344249725342,
-0.24920439720153809,
-0.8642940521240234,
-0.24635131657123566,
-0.07338710129261017,
0.35590770840644836,
0.6561537981033325,
0.7803370952606201,
0.32143521308898926,
-0.11378859728574753,
-0.6334807276725769,
0.042734935879707336,
0.38296839594841003,
-1.0894731283187866,
-0.42160433530807495,
0.4115905463695526,
0.4857103228569031,
-0.2750323712825775,
-0.6311302781105042,
-0.9110284447669983,
1.0142802000045776,
0.3109341263771057,
0.31487420201301575,
-0.19502981007099152,
0.6701802015304565,
0.3037357032299042,
0.11038311570882797,
-0.3924095928668976,
-0.4710424840450287,
-0.05708959326148033,
-0.2658384144306183,
-0.0831865668296814,
0.2028810828924179,
0.47217386960983276,
0.9397446513175964,
-0.8585745692253113,
-0.6308926343917847,
-0.3239859342575073,
-0.15836691856384277,
0.050293534994125366,
0.5158001184463501,
-0.06788335740566254,
-0.07726728916168213,
-0.33493465185165405,
-0.09635201841592789,
0.2084401398897171,
-0.06003232300281525,
0.03604976087808609,
-0.18469135463237762,
0.2668688893318176,
0.3562457859516144,
-0.0005911789485253394,
-0.07668162137269974,
-0.14211434125900269,
0.041807010769844055,
-0.2326841503381729,
-0.45499083399772644,
-0.22272178530693054,
0.12039472907781601,
0.8426006436347961,
-0.036649689078330994,
0.34901881217956543,
0.4821521043777466,
0.34953874349594116,
-0.25271013379096985,
-0.13135075569152832,
-0.13755406439304352,
0.3949492871761322,
0.3422580361366272,
-0.7700680494308472,
0.039868731051683426,
-0.10357849299907684,
0.35802605748176575,
-0.4082088768482208,
0.36183637380599976,
0.3793199062347412,
0.04661808907985687,
0.4132978022098541,
0.7819780707359314,
0.7468584775924683,
0.11329825967550278,
-0.6539856791496277,
0.20351363718509674,
0.1409805566072464,
0.3347003161907196,
0.3796800673007965,
-0.13890087604522705,
-0.6684799194335938,
0.7571366429328918,
-0.13159151375293732,
-0.5768418908119202,
0.3186147212982178,
-0.42663607001304626,
-0.19821076095104218,
0.18364089727401733,
0.2729792892932892,
0.7248427867889404,
0.38617876172065735,
-1.115018606185913,
-0.05426304414868355,
0.12077858299016953,
-0.4630003869533539,
0.07126858085393906,
-0.12638093531131744,
-0.45376700162887573,
0.6933027505874634,
0.6511980891227722,
-0.3434898853302002,
0.7118515968322754,
0.2865316867828369,
-0.36268240213394165,
-0.23744753003120422,
-0.24939973652362823,
-0.05148249492049217,
0.285786509513855,
-0.2026463747024536,
0.17817124724388123,
0.7922255992889404,
1.1355708837509155,
-0.24264216423034668,
0.3409881293773651,
-0.3361493647098541,
0.3809709846973419,
0.04780395328998566,
0.09138922393321991,
-0.13006937503814697,
-0.17090080678462982,
0.12909190356731415,
0.01697557605803013,
-0.3316041827201843,
0.09403368085622787,
0.49691930413246155,
0.3236180543899536,
-0.6621143817901611,
0.010033520869910717,
-0.07298919558525085,
0.4281246066093445,
0.4759483337402344,
-0.413056880235672,
0.4904765486717224,
0.04422866925597191,
0.11733362078666687,
0.28499549627304077,
-0.1177840530872345,
0.3015817403793335,
-0.43035703897476196,
-0.1845051348209381,
0.12129451334476471,
-0.11670683324337006,
-0.3938409686088562,
-0.531906247138977,
0.39597827196121216,
0.41826361417770386,
0.11801279336214066,
-0.4879721701145172,
-0.03389514610171318,
0.05851082131266594,
-0.16961753368377686,
-0.13658948242664337,
-0.5702533721923828,
-0.8971847891807556,
0.329706072807312,
-0.3777925968170166,
1.4366381168365479,
-0.2525496184825897,
-0.5848473310470581,
0.03041745536029339,
0.11976748704910278,
0.5058053731918335,
-0.23256337642669678,
-0.4297674894332886,
0.3980793356895447,
0.041060350835323334,
0.31521961092948914,
-0.3594770133495331,
0.10190723091363907,
1.036285400390625,
0.0751456469297409,
0.19525624811649323,
0.14183589816093445,
-0.14284498989582062,
-0.036729682236909866,
0.07947824895381927,
-0.8041567802429199,
0.24462373554706573,
-0.3812389671802521,
0.028691336512565613,
0.4488765001296997,
-0.3349057734012604,
0.08963935077190399,
-0.48451146483421326,
-0.5526810884475708,
0.5323957800865173,
0.5426796674728394,
-0.18115125596523285,
0.7735409140586853,
-0.5645833015441895,
0.12801535427570343,
-0.6869752407073975,
0.09231416136026382,
0.044897545129060745,
0.1007014587521553,
0.11686751246452332,
0.7835978865623474,
0.0026855063624680042,
-0.6484314799308777,
0.3704625368118286,
-0.0762748122215271,
-0.36418965458869934,
0.487030029296875,
-1.3426611423492432,
0.41397422552108765,
-0.8359023332595825,
-0.11697738617658615,
-0.5780792832374573,
0.25802943110466003,
0.7614088654518127,
-0.46354272961616516,
0.05056803300976753,
-0.10053398460149765,
0.22548291087150574,
-0.09014243632555008,
0.2939441204071045,
-0.46893516182899475,
0.16430743038654327,
0.7107064127922058
] |
228776 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicative%20conditional | Indicative conditional | In natural languages, an indicative conditional is a conditional sentence such as "If Leona is at home, she isn't in Paris", whose grammatical form restricts it to discussing what could be true. Indicatives are typically defined in opposition to counterfactual conditionals, which have extra grammatical marking which allows them to discuss eventualities which are no longer possible.
Indicatives are a major topic of research in philosophy of language, philosophical logic, and linguistics. Open questions include which logical operation indicatives denote, how such denotations could be composed from their grammatical form, and the implications of those denotations for areas including metaphysics, psychology of reasoning, and philosophy of mathematics.
Formal analyses
Early analyses identified indicative conditionals with the logical operation known as the material conditional. According to the material conditional analysis, an indicative "If A then B" is true unless A is true and B is not. Although this analysis covers many observed cases, it misses some crucial properties of actual conditional speech and reasoning.
One problem for the material conditional analysis is that it allows indicatives to be true even when their antecedent and consequent are unrelated. For instance, the indicative "If Paris is in France then trout are fish" is intuitively strange since the location of Paris has nothing to do with the classification of trout. However, since its antecedent and the consequent are both true, the material conditional analysis treats it as a true statement. Similarly, the material conditional analysis treats conditionals with false antecedents as vacuously true. For instance, since Paris is not in Australia, the conditional "If Paris is in Australia, then trout are fish" would be treated as true on a material conditional analysis. These arguments have been taken to show that no truth-functional operator will suffice as a semantics for indicative conditionals. In the mid-20th century, work by H.P. Grice, Frank Cameron Jackson, and others attempted to maintain the material conditional conditional as an analysis of indicatives' literal semantic denotation, while appealing to pragmatics in order to explain the apparent discrepancies.
Contemporary work in philosophical logic and formal semantics generally proposes alternative denotations for indicative conditionals. Proposed alternatives include analyses based on relevance logic, modal logic, probability theory, Kratzerian modal semantics, and dynamic semantics.
Psychology
Most behavioral experiments on conditionals in the psychology of reasoning have been carried out with indicative conditionals, causal conditionals, and counterfactual conditionals. People readily make the modus ponens inference, that is, given if A then B, and given A, they conclude B, but only about half of participants in experiments make the modus tollens inference, that is, given if A then B, and given not-B, only about half of participants conclude not-A, the remainder say that nothing follows (Evans et al., 1993). When participants are given counterfactual conditionals, they make both the modus ponens and the modus tollens inferences (Byrne, 2005).
See also
Counterfactual conditional
Logical consequence
Material conditional
Strict conditional
References
Further reading
Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The Rational Imagination: How People Create Counterfactual Alternatives to Reality. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Edgington, Dorothy. (2006). "Conditionals". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Zalta (ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/conditionals/.
Evans, J. St. B. T., Newstead, S. and Byrne, R. M. J. (1993). Human Reasoning: The Psychology of Deduction. Hove, Psychology Press.
Conditionals in linguistics
Logical connectives
Reasoning | [
-0.14523057639598846,
-0.16453638672828674,
-0.49034246802330017,
-0.408140629529953,
-0.43211182951927185,
0.3635775148868561,
0.7465534210205078,
0.446274071931839,
-0.11454065889120102,
-0.15840786695480347,
-0.635702908039093,
0.310292512178421,
-0.19082967936992645,
-0.1315324306488037,
0.09057562053203583,
0.4123038649559021,
0.9594451785087585,
0.2177657037973404,
0.5709929466247559,
-0.28794434666633606,
-0.17400243878364563,
0.35924533009529114,
-0.1767026036977768,
-0.13592272996902466,
0.5390061736106873,
-0.20570699870586395,
0.2106540948152542,
-0.03471739590167999,
-0.23440836369991302,
-0.30343249440193176,
-0.5708059668540955,
0.7897298336029053,
-0.14090211689472198,
-0.03980758786201477,
-0.15007051825523376,
-0.06717193871736526,
0.05514664575457573,
-0.4210183322429657,
-0.5505344867706299,
-0.42948994040489197,
-0.30823928117752075,
-0.2305944263935089,
0.19210675358772278,
-0.18026989698410034,
-0.5073665380477905,
-0.2646668255329132,
-0.992877185344696,
-0.20683103799819946,
-0.4009913206100464,
0.06627210974693298,
-0.3146241307258606,
0.20328590273857117,
0.2468370497226715,
0.6487756967544556,
-0.3136710822582245,
0.4252437353134155,
-1.134604573249817,
-0.07060245424509048,
0.5761038064956665,
-0.42595914006233215,
-0.045680932700634,
0.14261886477470398,
0.13180358707904816,
0.4320841431617737,
0.12013129144906998,
0.39902588725090027,
-0.4887707531452179,
0.007449261844158173,
-0.6510224342346191,
-0.4164121150970459,
-0.5238030552864075,
-0.5295366644859314,
-0.49085533618927,
0.15564273297786713,
-0.2965182363986969,
-0.46395689249038696,
-0.21942564845085144,
-0.08686742931604385,
-0.4656197726726532,
0.07798559963703156,
-0.22603711485862732,
0.2162671685218811,
0.4697013199329376,
-0.5242254734039307,
0.5515801906585693,
0.29367321729660034,
0.005969888065010309,
0.08833497762680054,
-0.44447994232177734,
0.3689984679222107,
0.6068890690803528,
0.18463300168514252,
-0.16375838220119476,
-0.4573185443878174,
-0.20715069770812988,
0.2124035805463791,
0.2778286933898926,
0.25473445653915405,
0.369176983833313,
0.3418126106262207,
-0.16444160044193268,
-0.23347961902618408,
0.7492371797561646,
-0.600021243095398,
-1.1202095746994019,
-0.4361989498138428,
-0.586353600025177,
-0.781417965888977,
-0.0111475745216012,
0.38366082310676575,
-0.11874020099639893,
0.3692990839481354,
0.326854407787323,
0.08944299817085266,
-0.7188106179237366,
-0.14509736001491547,
0.057108115404844284,
0.32828906178474426,
-0.2760706841945648,
-0.061208322644233704,
0.7429004907608032,
0.3146430253982544,
0.318301260471344,
0.24058030545711517,
-0.059798333793878555,
-0.10542705655097961,
0.24740488827228546,
0.6440330147743225,
-0.1588597148656845,
-0.07313226163387299,
-0.04813212528824806,
0.338082879781723,
0.29140910506248474,
0.32771316170692444,
-0.23509664833545685,
-0.06699028611183167,
0.13292281329631805,
-0.33509203791618347,
-0.22793185710906982,
0.6062189340591431,
-1.1134639978408813,
-0.2971354126930237,
-0.04021066799759865,
0.060772139579057693,
0.9496105909347534,
0.08808037638664246,
-0.31565529108047485,
0.3861786127090454,
0.20780807733535767,
0.17047762870788574,
0.23746134340763092,
-0.10358681529760361,
0.28891751170158386,
0.14174239337444305,
-0.21745198965072632,
0.5699414014816284,
0.3136139512062073,
0.6334531903266907,
-0.17253875732421875,
0.12169808149337769,
0.4809073507785797,
0.7012463808059692,
-0.10760920494794846,
0.1597459763288498,
0.6407538652420044,
-0.2684302031993866,
-0.2877354323863983,
0.1781236082315445,
0.03707578778266907,
0.31095173954963684,
0.019877450540661812,
-0.3993648886680603,
0.08436727523803711,
-0.664152979850769,
-0.4725397825241089,
-0.04440911486744881,
0.037728384137153625,
-0.47049668431282043,
0.9100391268730164,
-0.046113260090351105,
-0.530101478099823,
0.38978102803230286,
0.33821651339530945,
-0.7745023369789124,
-0.17581525444984436,
0.03087044134736061,
-0.4734664559364319,
-0.00034135248279199004,
0.08727726340293884,
-0.2688831090927124,
-0.35148659348487854,
-0.5367308855056763,
-0.44170331954956055,
-0.9885982275009155,
0.6885495781898499,
-0.3869091868400574,
-0.2481420487165451,
1.7242668867111206,
0.28527793288230896,
0.25332891941070557,
-0.00975644588470459,
-0.39760658144950867,
0.04814651980996132,
0.3678322434425354,
0.322157621383667,
0.6302566528320312,
-0.05297261103987694,
0.7911264300346375,
0.17411908507347107,
0.8075541853904724,
0.14793510735034943,
0.5155516266822815,
1.013409972190857,
-0.05888204649090767,
0.03767859563231468,
-0.05019363760948181,
-0.1921588033437729,
-0.24510785937309265,
-0.1271512806415558,
-0.048473019152879715,
0.8096471428871155,
-0.4785955250263214,
-0.041727446019649506,
0.5002590417861938,
-0.5115697383880615,
-0.07811282575130463,
0.3280315399169922,
0.1973225474357605,
0.3763662278652191,
-0.5176408886909485,
0.2685708999633789,
-0.20746256411075592,
0.3542930781841278,
-0.6826454401016235,
-0.12556542456150055,
0.4023427665233612,
0.15730607509613037,
-0.0643048956990242,
-0.31167635321617126,
-0.3897499144077301,
0.3515072762966156,
-0.1233074814081192,
0.12052929401397705,
0.503115177154541,
0.06358299404382706,
-0.33765408396720886,
0.3475247025489807,
0.40984413027763367,
-0.2635946273803711,
0.2295568436384201,
-0.2892281711101532,
0.15615032613277435,
-0.24196898937225342,
0.004012333229184151,
-0.33276668190956116,
0.0838773101568222,
-0.08885794132947922,
0.35803455114364624,
0.8958789110183716,
0.20067279040813446,
0.28585851192474365,
0.5271311402320862,
-0.02246532402932644,
-0.10443942993879318,
-0.10384424030780792,
-0.1507931500673294,
0.015799926593899727,
-0.06269960105419159,
0.4505827724933624,
1.0999183654785156,
0.16386710107326508,
-0.4637967348098755,
-0.6530674695968628,
0.4511958360671997,
-0.12385787814855576,
-0.3565194606781006,
0.15682868659496307,
0.789160430431366,
-0.83372563123703,
0.0908263623714447,
-0.47634628415107727,
-0.3815518319606781,
0.2082882970571518,
-1.0081851482391357,
-0.06698407977819443,
-0.9331607222557068,
0.27238741517066956,
-0.169070303440094,
-0.15325036644935608,
-0.27840521931648254,
0.3427569270133972,
-0.14902617037296295,
-0.2185479700565338,
-0.5286672115325928,
0.47654780745506287,
0.28451576828956604,
0.5016297101974487,
0.5296624302864075,
0.267626017332077,
-0.014272135682404041,
-0.0828615203499794,
-0.29352036118507385,
0.2101050466299057,
-0.3522462546825409,
0.19222170114517212,
0.1479230374097824,
0.3892049193382263,
0.10316058248281479,
-5.689818382263184,
-0.07001122832298279,
-0.4094029664993286,
-0.4137730002403259,
-0.12168747186660767,
0.3200353682041168,
0.861940324306488,
-0.13867542147636414,
-0.43343493342399597,
0.3395874798297882,
-0.06387486308813095,
-0.3866550922393799,
-0.40244418382644653,
0.8155269622802734,
0.6503767371177673,
-0.5154977440834045,
0.027593005448579788,
0.0861557275056839,
0.3159146308898926,
0.5192772746086121,
-0.3427935838699341,
0.515098512172699,
-0.10111270099878311,
0.8715288639068604,
-0.11580599844455719,
-0.18625813722610474,
-0.5888383388519287,
0.029289521276950836,
0.3876558542251587,
-0.4846022427082062,
0.22750231623649597,
-0.1293814778327942,
0.5084223747253418,
-0.710766613483429,
-0.2352929413318634,
0.1944359540939331,
0.2607841491699219,
0.14587220549583435,
0.2345006763935089,
-0.39951038360595703,
-0.1950875222682953,
0.47499024868011475,
0.21612906455993652,
0.5188202261924744,
-0.23668788373470306,
-0.2223290055990219,
-0.022590702399611473,
0.05638764426112175,
-0.42744776606559753,
0.4868551790714264,
-0.4257039427757263,
0.2853204309940338,
0.4045904278755188,
0.09049543738365173,
0.5591564774513245,
0.21621829271316528,
0.6691842675209045,
-0.24303406476974487,
-0.7169403433799744,
0.21757251024246216,
0.1259479820728302,
-0.794344961643219,
0.03879005089402199,
-0.7841049432754517,
0.7053706049919128,
-0.4352916181087494,
-0.75173020362854,
0.29345300793647766,
0.5374186038970947,
0.37514281272888184,
-0.3418719470500946,
-0.4168594777584076,
0.6512230634689331,
-0.9335434436798096,
0.21713568270206451,
-0.5512731671333313,
-0.09963705390691757,
-0.21672415733337402,
0.2845229506492615,
0.18584248423576355,
-0.2937689423561096,
0.33136042952537537,
-0.37553760409355164,
0.4184199571609497,
0.7721403241157532,
-0.1824810951948166,
0.19499117136001587,
0.12256137281656265,
-0.5879630446434021,
-0.023381736129522324,
0.8326531052589417,
0.005265780724585056,
0.14075124263763428,
0.08814261853694916,
-0.20647606253623962,
1.0157543420791626,
-0.018809327855706215,
-0.4245719313621521,
0.4872637391090393,
-0.38475820422172546,
-0.11730091273784637,
-0.14413349330425262,
-0.026931922882795334,
-0.2713939845561981,
0.04407280310988426,
0.5181972980499268,
-0.8924399018287659,
0.7563237547874451,
0.5491208434104919,
-0.21495795249938965,
0.16592909395694733,
0.2650700509548187,
-0.004980046767741442,
-0.375408798456192,
-0.109132319688797,
0.6558194160461426,
-0.3483242094516754,
0.6871585845947266,
0.4023890793323517,
0.3998588025569916,
-0.14747659862041473,
0.1914975494146347,
-0.6366651654243469,
0.10651969909667969,
-0.9527157545089722,
-0.21011264622211456,
-0.43804410099983215,
-0.12877881526947021,
-0.27671489119529724,
0.08192867040634155,
0.1737116575241089,
0.09826115518808365,
-0.07871221750974655,
-0.0741259753704071,
0.5075101852416992,
-0.2446201592683792,
0.34457293152809143,
0.36132028698921204,
0.34384337067604065,
-0.7191439270973206,
-0.286935418844223,
-0.48854780197143555,
-0.06390019506216049,
-0.1588476151227951,
0.2294066995382309,
-0.23930948972702026,
-0.04467632621526718,
-0.2919697165489197,
-0.5198479294776917,
0.6486541032791138,
0.49554452300071716,
-0.09418193250894547,
0.4491223990917206,
-0.5363744497299194,
-0.27359846234321594,
0.05695250630378723,
-0.20270788669586182,
-0.0561649352312088,
-0.17501766979694366,
0.09259752184152603,
0.2835206687450409,
-0.4131292402744293,
-0.6420491337776184,
-0.3807328939437866,
0.2033141702413559,
-0.6269184947013855,
-0.47677692770957947,
-0.14434978365898132,
-0.23608766496181488,
0.3297136723995209,
-0.5105679631233215,
-0.43851619958877563,
0.007197188679128885,
-0.2126876264810562,
0.6123578548431396,
-0.21283215284347534,
0.24097643792629242,
0.3585337996482849,
0.05765837803483009,
-0.1752515584230423,
0.38200798630714417,
-0.1881612092256546,
-0.26200538873672485,
0.22338810563087463,
0.6546762585639954,
-0.44333595037460327,
0.5487927198410034,
0.24374344944953918,
-0.25838321447372437,
-0.35735708475112915,
-0.15623439848423004,
0.13404689729213715,
0.8661237955093384,
-0.295245498418808,
-0.1022605374455452,
-0.28992822766304016,
-0.32119229435920715,
-0.19128946959972382,
-0.18624980747699738,
-0.3626532554626465,
0.09267661720514297,
0.09059423208236694,
-0.14144721627235413,
-0.16348110139369965,
-0.03265264257788658,
-0.43847891688346863,
0.5407446026802063,
0.07254883646965027,
-0.7140384316444397,
0.14628253877162933,
-0.3995131850242615,
-0.7058220505714417,
-0.43111714720726013,
-0.2946590185165405,
-0.22945135831832886,
0.227362260222435,
0.08250296115875244,
-0.4381565749645233,
-0.7931903004646301,
-0.17434245347976685,
0.33668234944343567,
-0.2513768672943115,
-0.5629783868789673,
-0.10718425363302231,
0.023542843759059906,
0.06575218588113785,
0.014276908710598946,
-0.6553508043289185,
1.2445566654205322,
-0.0856114998459816,
0.03432724252343178,
-0.3251809775829315,
0.5763288736343384,
0.05128966644406319,
-0.7847222089767456,
-0.5514551401138306,
-0.2021523267030716,
-0.15170292556285858,
-0.16619539260864258,
0.27108991146087646,
0.5134058594703674,
0.5691788196563721,
0.29455703496932983,
-0.8516212701797485,
-0.12598517537117004,
0.219734787940979,
0.6266039609909058,
-0.5887877941131592,
0.008614222519099712,
0.5040484666824341,
0.18824942409992218,
-0.06547992676496506,
-0.5080437064170837,
-0.3580719828605652,
0.5731501579284668,
-0.10147685557603836,
-0.4121875464916229,
0.014090095646679401,
-0.4086419343948364,
0.30645662546157837,
0.30888593196868896,
-0.7093899250030518,
-0.415592759847641,
0.3122972249984741,
-0.009832847863435745,
0.08918173611164093,
-0.17394186556339264,
0.32415756583213806,
0.1111554279923439,
-0.21042422950267792,
0.41033118963241577,
-0.5187563300132751,
0.053084976971149445,
0.14307044446468353,
0.6744893193244934,
-0.05275697633624077,
-0.26980164647102356,
0.01771649718284607,
-0.19296768307685852,
-0.2882113456726074,
-0.35461530089378357,
-0.23738636076450348,
0.14749103784561157,
-0.18693368136882782,
0.18467971682548523,
-0.39537814259529114,
-0.027784841135144234,
-0.3778059184551239,
-0.31985369324684143,
-0.18779796361923218,
-0.38986125588417053,
0.193276047706604,
-0.0751267820596695,
0.144636869430542,
-0.15189510583877563,
0.6400661468505859,
0.42726123332977295,
0.5564836263656616,
0.22204352915287018,
-0.3731120228767395,
-0.3477437496185303,
0.5864155888557434,
0.04412578418850899,
-0.3946869671344757,
-0.45569369196891785,
0.247203528881073,
0.5855808854103088,
-0.7806775569915771,
0.06141998991370201,
0.3453933596611023,
-0.1041879951953888,
0.37246477603912354,
0.8037548065185547,
0.20058101415634155,
0.23088231682777405,
0.14278140664100647,
0.34429630637168884,
-0.977033793926239,
-0.352721244096756,
0.2583882808685303,
0.39043107628822327,
-0.8313348889350891,
0.5278862714767456,
-0.05375159904360771,
-0.6355974078178406,
0.6044856905937195,
-0.4823401868343353,
0.04711995646357536,
-0.2508103549480438,
0.23837432265281677,
0.9538257718086243,
0.9583542943000793,
-0.33797186613082886,
0.2535891830921173,
-0.7388957738876343,
0.30122601985931396,
0.10844559222459793,
-0.8322432637214661,
0.21050816774368286,
0.19029949605464935,
0.4353269040584564,
0.49026650190353394,
-0.07321017235517502,
-0.34297728538513184,
-0.4659374952316284,
-0.16209988296031952,
0.8039617538452148,
0.49603718519210815,
-0.2970193028450012,
0.6291279792785645,
0.6388517618179321,
-0.007152223028242588,
0.6996017694473267,
-0.24864314496517181,
0.11391287297010422,
-0.08690102398395538,
-0.12963874638080597,
-0.5577590465545654,
-0.11547944694757462,
0.14013172686100006,
-0.45205268263816833,
-0.009208357892930508,
0.2776322066783905,
0.21735908091068268,
0.5113775730133057,
-0.2842976152896881,
0.6481269598007202,
0.058903053402900696,
0.3379075527191162,
-0.40943121910095215,
-0.03980544954538345,
0.4790979027748108,
-0.1943453699350357,
0.18631874024868011,
-0.0662938579916954,
-0.08080586045980453,
0.2034091204404831,
0.11049524694681168,
-0.2188907116651535,
-0.23058797419071198,
-0.6088383793830872,
0.12630455195903778,
-0.7159982323646545,
-0.10072401911020279,
-0.5492124557495117,
-0.1508983075618744,
-0.18014279007911682,
0.002245774492621422,
-0.38944533467292786,
0.29232197999954224,
-0.14661318063735962,
-0.44445112347602844,
0.12051918357610703,
-0.07693414390087128,
-0.05840037763118744,
0.021197589114308357,
0.06264422833919525,
0.5990281105041504,
0.36955687403678894,
0.08844343572854996,
0.30071160197257996,
0.28292012214660645,
0.1936640739440918,
-0.27243363857269287,
0.02870996482670307,
0.12480350583791733,
-0.21762984991073608,
-0.17005875706672668,
-0.8498002886772156,
0.321159303188324,
0.8312912583351135,
-0.31007787585258484,
0.09030632674694061,
0.5451786518096924,
0.5019475221633911,
0.40164464712142944,
0.5557296872138977,
-0.16127650439739227,
0.454664021730423,
-0.43680664896965027,
-0.05945640429854393,
-0.07554780691862106,
0.11430998891592026,
0.09263977408409119,
-0.3121695816516876,
0.12062443792819977,
-0.053261835128068924,
0.48392078280448914,
-0.6773781776428223,
0.0477239228785038,
-0.17178283631801605,
-0.17592096328735352,
0.13818015158176422,
0.14483407139778137,
-0.8545164465904236,
-0.16199685633182526,
-0.018772896379232407,
0.28191110491752625,
0.3431646525859833,
-0.3901229500770569,
-0.33756962418556213,
0.05942721664905548,
0.3445242941379547,
0.6220868229866028,
-0.30224376916885376,
0.5581374764442444,
-0.40649721026420593,
-0.8535903692245483,
-0.7851807475090027,
-0.44343724846839905,
0.41157060861587524,
-0.48194393515586853,
0.4034813940525055,
0.2146100252866745,
-0.638899564743042,
-0.202626571059227,
0.7906329035758972,
-0.6734323501586914,
-0.1678577959537506,
0.5735215544700623
] |
228783 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical%20biconditional | Logical biconditional | In logic and mathematics, the logical biconditional, sometimes known as the material biconditional, is the logical connective () used to conjoin two statements and to form the statement " if and only if ", where is known as the antecedent, and the consequent. This is often abbreviated as " iff ". Other ways of denoting this operator may be seen occasionally, as a double-headed arrow (↔ or ⇔ may be represented in Unicode in various ways), a prefixed E "Epq" (in Łukasiewicz notation or Bocheński notation), an equality sign (=), an equivalence sign (≡), or EQV. It is logically equivalent to both and , and the XNOR (exclusive nor) boolean operator, which means "both or neither".
Semantically, the only case where a logical biconditional is different from a material conditional is the case where the hypothesis is false but the conclusion is true. In this case, the result is true for the conditional, but false for the biconditional.
In the conceptual interpretation, means "All 's are 's and all 's are 's". In other words, the sets and coincide: they are identical. However, this does not mean that and need to have the same meaning (e.g., could be "equiangular trilateral" and could be "equilateral triangle"). When phrased as a sentence, the antecedent is the subject and the consequent is the predicate of a universal affirmative proposition (e.g., in the phrase "all men are mortal", "men" is the subject and "mortal" is the predicate).
In the propositional interpretation, means that implies and implies ; in other words, the propositions are logically equivalent, in the sense that both are either jointly true or jointly false. Again, this does not mean that they need to have the same meaning, as could be "the triangle ABC has two equal sides" and could be "the triangle ABC has two equal angles". In general, the antecedent is the premise, or the cause, and the consequent is the consequence. When an implication is translated by a hypothetical (or conditional) judgment, the antecedent is called the hypothesis (or the condition) and the consequent is called the thesis.
A common way of demonstrating a biconditional of the form is to demonstrate that and separately (due to its equivalence to the conjunction of the two converse conditionals). Yet another way of demonstrating the same biconditional is by demonstrating that and .
When both members of the biconditional are propositions, it can be separated into two conditionals, of which one is called a theorem and the other its reciprocal. Thus whenever a theorem and its reciprocal are true, we have a biconditional. A simple theorem gives rise to an implication, whose antecedent is the hypothesis and whose consequent is the thesis of the theorem.
It is often said that the hypothesis is the sufficient condition of the thesis, and that the thesis is the necessary condition of the hypothesis. That is, it is sufficient that the hypothesis be true for the thesis to be true, while it is necessary that the thesis be true if the hypothesis were true. When a theorem and its reciprocal are true, its hypothesis is said to be the necessary and sufficient condition of the thesis. That is, the hypothesis is both the cause and the consequence of the thesis at the same time.
Definition
Logical equality (also known as biconditional) is an operation on two logical values, typically the values of two propositions, that produces a value of true if and only if both operands are false or both operands are true.
Truth table
The following is truth table for (also written as , , or P EQ Q):
When more than two statements are involved, combining them with might be ambiguous. For example, the statement
may be interpreted as
,
or may be interpreted as saying that all are jointly true or jointly false:
As it turns out, these two statements are only the same—when zero or two arguments are involved. In fact, the following truth tables only show the same bit pattern in the line with no argument and in the lines with two arguments:
The left Venn diagram below, and the lines (AB ) in these matrices represent the same operation.
Venn diagrams
Red areas stand for true (as in for and).
Properties
Commutativity: Yes
Associativity: Yes
Distributivity: Biconditional doesn't distribute over any binary function (not even itself), but logical disjunction distributes over biconditional.
idempotency: No
Monotonicity: No
Truth-preserving: Yes
When all inputs are true, the output is true.
Falsehood-preserving: No
When all inputs are false, the output is not false.
Walsh spectrum: (2,0,0,2)
Nonlinearity: 0 (the function is linear)
Rules of inference
Like all connectives in first-order logic, the biconditional has rules of inference that govern its use in formal proofs.
Biconditional introduction
Biconditional introduction allows one to infer that if B follows from A and A follows from B, then A if and only if B.
For example, from the statements "if I'm breathing, then I'm alive" and "if I'm alive, then I'm breathing", it can be inferred that "I'm breathing if and only if I'm alive" or equivalently, "I'm alive if and only if I'm breathing." Or more schematically:
B → A
A → B
∴ A ↔ B
B → A
A → B
∴ B ↔ A
Biconditional elimination
Biconditional elimination allows one to infer a conditional from a biconditional: if A ↔ B is true, then one may infer either A → B, or B → A.
For example, if it is true that I'm breathing if and only if I'm alive, then it's true that if I'm breathing, then I'm alive; likewise, it's true that if I'm alive, then I'm breathing. Or more schematically:
A ↔ B
∴ A → B
A ↔ B
∴ B → A
Colloquial usage
One unambiguous way of stating a biconditional in plain English is to adopt the form "b if a and a if b"—if the standard form "a if and only if b" is not used. Slightly more formally, one could also say that "b implies a and a implies b", or "a is necessary and sufficient for b". The plain English "if'" may sometimes be used as a biconditional (especially in the context of a mathematical definition). In which case, one must take into consideration the surrounding context when interpreting these words.
For example, the statement "I'll buy you a new wallet if you need one" may be interpreted as a biconditional, since the speaker doesn't intend a valid outcome to be buying the wallet whether or not the wallet is needed (as in a conditional). However, "it is cloudy if it is raining" is generally not meant as a biconditional, since it can still be cloudy even if it is not raining.
See also
If and only if
Logical equivalence
Logical equality
XNOR gate
Biconditional elimination
Biconditional introduction
References
External links
Biconditional
Equivalence (mathematics) | [
0.08859501034021378,
0.14458434283733368,
-0.25741642713546753,
0.2513822019100189,
-0.26639679074287415,
-0.1062110885977745,
0.16734495759010315,
0.14020512998104095,
0.24790865182876587,
-0.0663488581776619,
-0.5815184116363525,
0.344431608915329,
-0.4992382824420929,
0.3439003825187683,
-0.21491554379463196,
0.3174489140510559,
0.639674186706543,
0.21244318783283234,
-0.028665577992796898,
-0.5161928534507751,
0.11424555629491806,
0.31729060411453247,
-0.4238756597042084,
-0.4338381290435791,
0.5576203465461731,
0.2258649319410324,
-0.04455753415822983,
-0.4471786320209503,
0.007127161603420973,
0.35284432768821716,
0.1962951123714447,
0.6400718688964844,
-0.17458662390708923,
0.19206199049949646,
0.13757236301898956,
0.26884254813194275,
0.3154307007789612,
-0.20050948858261108,
0.08109000325202942,
-0.36779510974884033,
0.620506227016449,
-0.04731181263923645,
0.28784677386283875,
0.09792345762252808,
-0.3957993984222412,
-0.37519732117652893,
-1.3456584215164185,
-0.18226851522922516,
-0.6667932271957397,
-0.24328774213790894,
-0.23780858516693115,
0.12519186735153198,
-0.16620615124702454,
0.9329217076301575,
-0.4098718464374542,
0.3471014201641083,
-0.3312739133834839,
-0.45795613527297974,
0.5198981165885925,
-0.45712998509407043,
0.29494374990463257,
0.651952862739563,
0.2678568363189697,
0.27532920241355896,
0.310222327709198,
0.6072382926940918,
-0.28849801421165466,
0.04662737995386124,
-0.6598994731903076,
-0.2427077740430832,
-0.6204781532287598,
0.044049687683582306,
-0.6134663224220276,
-0.10879169404506683,
0.0010402263142168522,
0.10289829224348068,
-0.4782843589782715,
-0.07743057608604431,
-0.24198535084724426,
-0.010169818997383118,
-0.4460386633872986,
0.6532085537910461,
0.130946084856987,
-0.4342351257801056,
0.5170301198959351,
0.03895552456378937,
-0.45944052934646606,
0.7644639015197754,
-0.7197195291519165,
0.545387864112854,
0.2852879464626312,
0.3102869987487793,
-0.24780943989753723,
-0.3608474135398865,
-0.1749511957168579,
0.012645076960325241,
0.3467325270175934,
-0.5004222989082336,
0.6574463844299316,
0.395550936460495,
0.11293473094701767,
-0.623745322227478,
0.4724797010421753,
-0.48305559158325195,
-0.6932881474494934,
-0.48102620244026184,
-0.5573802590370178,
-1.0482758283615112,
0.41602790355682373,
0.40992793440818787,
-0.3760123550891876,
0.3026134669780731,
0.13425827026367188,
-0.13500763475894928,
-0.7044005393981934,
-0.10383232682943344,
0.23585470020771027,
0.14855985343456268,
-0.23618656396865845,
0.19963911175727844,
-0.16073927283287048,
0.2376219481229782,
-0.21910585463047028,
0.21300092339515686,
0.4127522110939026,
-0.07490501552820206,
0.11182347685098648,
1.229650616645813,
-0.7103976011276245,
-0.1650533676147461,
-0.23106767237186432,
0.7294743657112122,
0.35587599873542786,
0.20340844988822937,
-0.3596814274787903,
-0.4499536454677582,
-0.3233734369277954,
-0.5149738788604736,
-0.26341062784194946,
0.3461996912956238,
-0.5047639608383179,
-0.17292459309101105,
0.006082778796553612,
-0.2803112864494324,
0.5112243890762329,
-0.0599408857524395,
-0.1644306629896164,
0.10716445744037628,
-0.06748799979686737,
0.4712696373462677,
-0.06329841166734695,
-0.12159943580627441,
-0.07141813635826111,
0.04633674398064613,
-0.4052202105522156,
-0.07116355001926422,
0.43522024154663086,
0.717494547367096,
-0.84627366065979,
0.23550911247730255,
-0.16615717113018036,
0.21487244963645935,
-0.13811643421649933,
-0.4032929539680481,
0.19990573823451996,
-0.4244159162044525,
0.23103830218315125,
0.1723651885986328,
-0.293507844209671,
0.18906714022159576,
0.03409843146800995,
-0.8480438590049744,
-0.2624739110469818,
0.011929797008633614,
-0.7256335020065308,
-0.2277241200208664,
0.1335967481136322,
-0.23071829974651337,
0.8709393739700317,
-0.22519807517528534,
-0.6305065751075745,
0.44386154413223267,
0.39195123314857483,
-0.30177897214889526,
0.10214325785636902,
0.20766538381576538,
-0.03926915302872658,
-0.45265528559684753,
0.10199174284934998,
-0.2804045081138611,
-0.11447056382894516,
-0.41769957542419434,
-0.2931399345397949,
-0.9219782948493958,
1.223201036453247,
0.17051833868026733,
-0.8239889740943909,
1.2030811309814453,
-0.42046836018562317,
0.15452948212623596,
0.0513329841196537,
0.06407307833433151,
0.027066534385085106,
0.09152925759553909,
0.13063423335552216,
0.8507970571517944,
0.6487098336219788,
0.2777811884880066,
-0.20924913883209229,
0.3540375530719757,
0.20488810539245605,
0.5482990145683289,
0.407396137714386,
-0.14086157083511353,
-0.04516427218914032,
-0.27002647519111633,
-0.5345752239227295,
0.1438196450471878,
0.19982802867889404,
-0.414951890707016,
1.0415903329849243,
-0.29623717069625854,
-0.18559452891349792,
0.013088368810713291,
-0.2878621220588684,
0.3794497847557068,
0.31148189306259155,
0.4305204153060913,
0.35016852617263794,
-0.09071537107229233,
0.2064007669687271,
-0.23442111909389496,
1.0011723041534424,
-0.0024595758877694607,
0.07862097024917603,
0.4021117091178894,
0.046488624066114426,
-0.09219276905059814,
0.24477744102478027,
-0.4088294804096222,
-0.03019987978041172,
0.5422757863998413,
-0.3650660812854767,
0.12412768602371216,
-0.0707378089427948,
0.024441838264465332,
-0.48652923107147217,
0.1651299148797989,
-0.2071540355682373,
0.17212849855422974,
-0.16997650265693665,
-0.34063398838043213,
0.4699574112892151,
-0.156126007437706,
0.0685737356543541,
0.2260228842496872,
-0.042434725910425186,
0.40551134943962097,
0.5946826338768005,
0.8401729464530945,
-0.14740198850631714,
-0.2565186619758606,
-0.30433323979377747,
-0.6157636642456055,
-0.7646928429603577,
-0.2304987609386444,
-0.5386925935745239,
0.42651504278182983,
0.1782972663640976,
0.92833411693573,
0.37644004821777344,
-0.3328218162059784,
-0.5907729268074036,
0.6342817544937134,
-0.6979007720947266,
-0.36692318320274353,
0.29963964223861694,
0.5011127591133118,
-1.083751916885376,
-0.16914662718772888,
-0.34132692217826843,
-0.013653432950377464,
0.33202823996543884,
-1.155745029449463,
0.015720395371317863,
-0.7527331113815308,
-0.13215607404708862,
-0.8454908132553101,
-0.3094506859779358,
-0.5340248942375183,
-0.09095204621553421,
0.417807012796402,
-0.11680109053850174,
-0.6752615571022034,
0.5431733131408691,
0.618974506855011,
0.2439248114824295,
0.1456676870584488,
-0.10706173628568649,
-0.22350303828716278,
-0.0609835721552372,
-0.27586087584495544,
0.14093714952468872,
0.32702404260635376,
0.703149676322937,
-0.028258051723241806,
0.24594710767269135,
0.24804486334323883,
-5.696213722229004,
0.26504838466644287,
-0.32884418964385986,
-0.0615888386964798,
0.14367587864398956,
0.16178008913993835,
0.5609742403030396,
-0.029446309432387352,
-0.2681182622909546,
0.2303752303123474,
-0.3528035283088684,
-0.2390769124031067,
-0.4182944595813751,
0.40170133113861084,
0.6765711903572083,
-0.2910609543323517,
0.4385962188243866,
0.07453083246946335,
0.20839379727840424,
0.9487816691398621,
-0.09815036505460739,
-0.03683672472834587,
0.11662621796131134,
0.18184910714626312,
-0.017158804461359978,
-0.06079433485865593,
-0.6022809743881226,
0.2815164029598236,
0.30917733907699585,
-0.14829963445663452,
0.09973538666963577,
0.03837500885128975,
0.11552456766366959,
-1.0062685012817383,
-0.050630297511816025,
0.33081692457199097,
0.2891418933868408,
0.16320300102233887,
-0.03692055493593216,
-0.10867379605770111,
0.22807204723358154,
0.7656480073928833,
0.5531162619590759,
-0.394488662481308,
0.5241321325302124,
-0.12188305705785751,
-0.028025971725583076,
-0.17587456107139587,
-0.5740033984184265,
0.6839169263839722,
-0.4371476173400879,
0.11362189054489136,
0.4028283655643463,
-0.5162579417228699,
0.5450681447982788,
-0.04733038693666458,
0.48588842153549194,
-0.6890168786048889,
-0.9965196847915649,
0.2281009405851364,
0.26656967401504517,
-0.6082528829574585,
0.2401711493730545,
-0.32585370540618896,
-0.6723490357398987,
-0.5687994956970215,
-0.8079728484153748,
0.05791764333844185,
0.9040349721908569,
0.48420092463493347,
-0.5268002152442932,
-0.1779966503381729,
0.47868403792381287,
-0.6717520356178284,
0.3564775884151459,
-0.13325272500514984,
-0.17622992396354675,
-0.20514024794101715,
0.08205799013376236,
0.3700401782989502,
-0.3009975552558899,
0.20489506423473358,
-0.6288616061210632,
0.6479642391204834,
0.6256986260414124,
0.1535334438085556,
-0.020589487627148628,
0.3330680727958679,
-0.8492984175682068,
-0.446231871843338,
0.2524722218513489,
0.2677951157093048,
0.2296319305896759,
0.4355018436908722,
0.0635732114315033,
0.24919918179512024,
0.1594693958759308,
0.3647673428058624,
0.3149435818195343,
-0.2305358499288559,
0.5047292709350586,
0.16527818143367767,
0.41674044728279114,
-0.5007985234260559,
0.18413947522640228,
-0.07679790258407593,
-0.33081063628196716,
0.44940540194511414,
0.03911404684185982,
0.19754432141780853,
-0.38812702894210815,
0.4970781207084656,
-0.4133000373840332,
-0.05118132010102272,
-0.14529873430728912,
0.6278725862503052,
-0.33915072679519653,
0.20958438515663147,
0.2781623601913452,
0.11519362777471542,
0.15118926763534546,
0.45493361353874207,
-0.2576540410518646,
-0.41334983706474304,
-1.1214430332183838,
-0.5082046389579773,
-0.46782565116882324,
-0.06985693424940109,
-0.2642187178134918,
-0.10245320200920105,
-0.16869233548641205,
0.4128571152687073,
0.10954161733388901,
-0.06089283525943756,
0.20257630944252014,
-0.268925279378891,
0.34598472714424133,
0.36198362708091736,
-0.44254422187805176,
-0.9985347390174866,
0.8457284569740295,
-0.279477059841156,
0.08238158375024796,
-0.28632739186286926,
0.1893017292022705,
-0.17913010716438293,
-0.2146102488040924,
-0.009081536903977394,
-0.36863183975219727,
0.44050201773643494,
0.14112217724323273,
-0.47236931324005127,
0.4608731269836426,
-0.39875608682632446,
-0.0022320717107504606,
0.45716172456741333,
0.11215613782405853,
0.30446404218673706,
0.4475144147872925,
-0.61101895570755,
-0.2439090758562088,
-0.012302665039896965,
-0.5830971598625183,
-0.5569588541984558,
0.24934498965740204,
0.19145293533802032,
-0.8108528256416321,
0.1332123875617981,
-0.3698955774307251,
0.35958313941955566,
-0.04176121577620506,
-0.1376950889825821,
0.35057857632637024,
0.03421313688158989,
0.10926283895969391,
0.35191527009010315,
0.6081862449645996,
-0.05776214972138405,
0.27711883187294006,
-0.1723664551973343,
0.18477849662303925,
-0.34009161591529846,
0.007739598397165537,
0.3023974597454071,
0.9478839635848999,
-0.6578480005264282,
0.28349801898002625,
0.4107789397239685,
-0.6207568645477295,
-0.45700863003730774,
0.6324562430381775,
-0.2844711244106293,
0.5133148431777954,
-0.2555205821990967,
-0.03954663127660751,
-0.17410480976104736,
0.3223462998867035,
0.6555507779121399,
0.013463672250509262,
-0.38027673959732056,
-0.17784570157527924,
0.40557968616485596,
-0.5115600228309631,
0.1474687159061432,
0.22621119022369385,
-0.41847726702690125,
0.218540221452713,
-0.2179851084947586,
-0.07349249720573425,
0.17948374152183533,
-0.12291237711906433,
-0.37022438645362854,
-0.41438546776771545,
-0.37988898158073425,
-0.06534163653850555,
0.22266852855682373,
0.12087623029947281,
-0.46556374430656433,
-0.1309138983488083,
-0.395234614610672,
0.43343695998191833,
-0.4239029586315155,
-0.12714914977550507,
-0.13012577593326569,
0.5313209295272827,
0.46664848923683167,
0.1530674695968628,
-0.1256939023733139,
0.5777871608734131,
0.004490679129958153,
-0.24582058191299438,
-0.6114106774330139,
-0.16472284495830536,
0.20855402946472168,
-0.26479247212409973,
-0.44239699840545654,
-0.5972427129745483,
0.35107964277267456,
-0.34026026725769043,
-0.7006163001060486,
0.12880009412765503,
0.29236847162246704,
0.4878665804862976,
-0.5158730149269104,
-0.6020453572273254,
0.046060893684625626,
0.7026503682136536,
-0.4260050654411316,
0.06436511874198914,
0.19724148511886597,
-0.2946886122226715,
0.19713598489761353,
-0.5881564617156982,
-0.24666111171245575,
0.6023374795913696,
0.7619971632957458,
-0.1935037225484848,
-0.2393682301044464,
-0.2769438326358795,
0.4341021776199341,
0.5054558515548706,
-0.3571016192436218,
-0.6315503716468811,
0.13949896395206451,
-0.35913780331611633,
0.09057284146547318,
0.030597159639000893,
0.20855732262134552,
-0.02857893519103527,
-0.36261752247810364,
0.19743916392326355,
-0.2571009397506714,
0.344160258769989,
0.40671637654304504,
0.28328952193260193,
0.12416746467351913,
-0.36255529522895813,
0.02175629511475563,
-0.47220444679260254,
0.17145296931266785,
-0.25538039207458496,
-0.4517543613910675,
-0.18000799417495728,
-0.33415907621383667,
-0.0821525976061821,
-0.20663517713546753,
0.27947476506233215,
-0.10376276820898056,
-0.217678964138031,
0.025080515071749687,
-1.073277473449707,
0.12245908379554749,
0.2143934667110443,
-0.4311155676841736,
-0.40486156940460205,
0.07013297826051712,
0.03959108516573906,
0.46255213022232056,
-0.3948546051979065,
-0.3035857677459717,
-0.6062886714935303,
-0.1550092250108719,
0.0345904640853405,
-0.4581702649593353,
0.224862739443779,
0.6136162281036377,
0.11288130283355713,
-0.3898119330406189,
0.09631478041410446,
0.522887647151947,
0.14945603907108307,
0.254696249961853,
0.3785206973552704,
-0.06651829183101654,
-0.031530894339084625,
-0.3762495219707489,
0.8458887934684753,
-0.5722488164901733,
0.11089898645877838,
0.328201025724411,
0.3398180902004242,
-0.6535966992378235,
0.33872678875923157,
-0.43240538239479065,
-0.4681950807571411,
0.3778308928012848,
0.03273720294237137,
-0.30700385570526123,
-0.6427203416824341,
0.21979385614395142,
0.7187629342079163,
0.10636928677558899,
-0.3673611581325531,
0.035409115254879,
-0.442944198846817,
-0.1712089478969574,
-0.12053139507770538,
-0.33975136280059814,
-0.11798640340566635,
0.7017068862915039,
0.38608187437057495,
0.6191820502281189,
-0.3397948741912842,
0.11127223819494247,
-0.24979643523693085,
0.019240299239754677,
0.41082438826560974,
0.4197108745574951,
-0.18083900213241577,
0.5052750110626221,
0.5186426043510437,
-0.21290190517902374,
0.32208865880966187,
-0.37984350323677063,
-0.02909853681921959,
-0.4291681945323944,
0.4756155014038086,
-0.23341213166713715,
0.00875633955001831,
0.21375049650669098,
-0.02239457704126835,
1.0663524866104126,
0.24813498556613922,
-0.2996162176132202,
0.35652777552604675,
-0.28195974230766296,
0.7949268221855164,
0.027574362233281136,
0.12140540778636932,
0.18612006306648254,
-0.40850114822387695,
0.3582424819469452,
-0.1935305893421173,
0.717453122138977,
-0.0695243626832962,
-0.030786434188485146,
0.10487227886915207,
0.8177512884140015,
-0.3537878096103668,
-0.13131071627140045,
0.3679829239845276,
-0.19373148679733276,
-0.6138150095939636,
-0.6742253303527832,
0.2463158369064331,
-0.24246074259281158,
0.3191850185394287,
0.07353945076465607,
-0.8585177659988403,
0.21917785704135895,
0.3516121804714203,
-0.32224103808403015,
-0.29287078976631165,
0.2005300670862198,
0.20019501447677612,
0.21827591955661774,
-0.2706647515296936,
1.2483477592468262,
0.2662358582019806,
-0.5228210091590881,
-0.2587076425552368,
-0.019600264728069305,
0.4611158072948456,
0.05681846663355827,
-0.3692815601825714,
-0.03046467900276184,
-0.011823571287095547,
0.6046731472015381,
-0.8381991386413574,
-0.0664847120642662,
0.4447253346443176,
-0.09302913397550583,
-0.12060428410768509,
0.5158886909484863,
0.13278599083423615,
0.30049657821655273,
1.0208373069763184,
-0.11944618076086044,
0.264165461063385,
0.1543094515800476,
-0.019614020362496376,
0.05573805794119835,
0.14564009010791779,
0.5350025296211243,
-0.41788649559020996,
-0.22187384963035583,
0.2127307653427124,
-0.009541952982544899,
-0.39171963930130005,
0.0504608079791069,
0.3040451407432556,
-0.4469497501850128,
0.3376155197620392,
0.4129660725593567,
-0.5091890692710876,
-0.7980969548225403,
-0.06229300796985626,
0.13409103453159332,
0.11153291165828705,
-0.4553389251232147,
-0.2566252648830414,
0.20170706510543823,
-0.41444671154022217,
0.42007923126220703,
-0.015246345661580563,
0.4997085630893707,
-0.30290257930755615,
-0.31052640080451965,
-0.428969144821167,
0.014705732464790344,
0.398983895778656,
-0.3335266709327698,
0.047004636377096176,
0.16921541094779968,
-0.6753786206245422,
-0.02065897546708584,
0.18598996102809906,
-0.18988285958766937,
-0.10179714113473892,
0.4002310633659363
] |
228787 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ensamma%20mamman | Ensamma mamman | Ensamma mamman ("single mom") is a Swedish comic strip created by Cecilia Torudd. Ensamma mamman first made a brief appearance in Dagens Nyheter in 1985. It was well received by the readers and returned in 1987 as a fixed feature. Torudd continued drawing it until 1991, when it was syndicated by Bull, and it has since been rerun in many newspapers. Ensamma mamman deals with a single mother and her two teenage children, her 14-year-old son Beppe and her daughter Mia, 17 years old.
Ensamma mamman received the Urhunden Prize by the Swedish Association for Promotion of Comics, in 1989.
Source
Swedish comic strips
1985 comics debuts
Comics about women
Gag-a-day comics
Female characters in comics
Comics set in Sweden
Comics characters introduced in 1985
Swedish comics characters | [
-0.05096348375082016,
0.17087087035179138,
0.11817020177841187,
-0.05244480073451996,
-0.6457229852676392,
0.03705645352602005,
0.8657191395759583,
0.26026493310928345,
-0.503928005695343,
0.25454092025756836,
-0.4915057122707367,
0.1019173189997673,
0.08266398310661316,
0.3644920289516449,
-0.3565036952495575,
-0.06894559413194656,
0.28240767121315,
1.4227312803268433,
-0.494521826505661,
-0.7891042828559875,
0.08933629095554352,
-0.7136772871017456,
0.8506850004196167,
-0.4510982632637024,
0.1581323891878128,
0.09501869231462479,
0.8754962086677551,
0.1828504204750061,
0.6946605443954468,
0.3403196334838867,
-0.2400757521390915,
0.2238691747188568,
0.4090649485588074,
-0.6807985901832581,
0.0010322934249415994,
0.22931188344955444,
-0.07315415143966675,
-0.2796410024166107,
-0.06307260692119598,
0.018771212548017502,
-0.17726130783557892,
-0.1922842264175415,
-0.22818848490715027,
-0.08653364330530167,
-0.04346027970314026,
-1.0313996076583862,
-1.6664328575134277,
0.3769529461860657,
-0.8168841004371643,
0.20166003704071045,
-0.3703051507472992,
0.3366566002368927,
-0.1200300082564354,
0.9690596461296082,
0.3730292320251465,
0.5697613954544067,
-0.7420348525047302,
0.1287747323513031,
0.009993531741201878,
0.5650860667228699,
0.42413875460624695,
0.15044811367988586,
-0.0064531657844781876,
-0.14235533773899078,
-0.009836392477154732,
0.3131386637687683,
0.17689499258995056,
0.2785875201225281,
0.019867951050400734,
-0.6624233722686768,
-0.12637069821357727,
-0.16351088881492615,
0.5338684916496277,
-0.42254194617271423,
-0.03229142725467682,
-0.16812753677368164,
0.20325316488742828,
-0.4077760875225067,
0.5156145095825195,
-0.3711184561252594,
0.16934233903884888,
-0.003101099282503128,
0.925986647605896,
0.6541175246238708,
0.5976640582084656,
-0.061029624193906784,
-0.33223503828048706,
-0.6989204287528992,
-0.6067972183227539,
0.6665315628051758,
-0.2277286797761917,
-0.40513020753860474,
0.5790174603462219,
0.6036281585693359,
0.49837005138397217,
0.12080716341733932,
-0.36182400584220886,
0.5097916722297668,
-0.19296251237392426,
0.8412675261497498,
0.2066199630498886,
0.7251308560371399,
0.3144790828227997,
-0.16118112206459045,
-0.3641953468322754,
-0.6810961365699768,
-0.22135910391807556,
-0.7189850807189941,
0.19370302557945251,
-0.2592628300189972,
-0.434637188911438,
-0.13656406104564667,
0.01800788938999176,
-0.15298576653003693,
0.22731298208236694,
0.6379121541976929,
0.11786822229623795,
-0.17622123658657074,
-0.4885404109954834,
0.7577440142631531,
-0.07202216237783432,
0.09028548747301102,
-0.005498155020177364,
-0.237206369638443,
0.0566411167383194,
0.1744786947965622,
-0.2869510054588318,
0.5203955173492432,
-0.30629077553749084,
0.7081511616706848,
0.011700325645506382,
0.6296626329421997,
-0.2495288848876953,
-0.1925872564315796,
0.4333096742630005,
-0.4894546866416931,
0.5503076910972595,
0.4188799262046814,
-0.07197193056344986,
0.018379228189587593,
-0.4458059072494507,
0.13684983551502228,
-0.5311327576637268,
-0.46228352189064026,
0.2951454222202301,
-0.4544283449649811,
-0.07624464482069016,
-0.4704171419143677,
-0.3214924931526184,
-0.2644677460193634,
0.17584170401096344,
-0.3679877817630768,
0.0891454666852951,
-0.5362962484359741,
-0.210398331284523,
0.6287513375282288,
0.11543408036231995,
0.07046075165271759,
0.13044989109039307,
0.36754024028778076,
0.18159739673137665,
0.2832010090351105,
-0.45747876167297363,
0.21263423562049866,
0.06678576022386551,
-0.23706020414829254,
0.46124067902565,
0.7998046875,
0.14474605023860931,
0.22273129224777222,
-0.09618426859378815,
0.3279626965522766,
0.2340608835220337,
-0.27227237820625305,
0.31250131130218506,
0.502429187297821,
1.0082473754882812,
0.2989174425601959,
-0.2254060059785843,
-0.44216346740722656,
-0.43005484342575073,
0.4678090214729309,
0.4017319679260254,
-0.1888698935508728,
0.44609057903289795,
0.31716063618659973,
0.5338261723518372,
0.3346974849700928,
-0.3906651437282562,
0.1494535356760025,
-0.7897211313247681,
-0.4895569086074829,
1.4482675790786743,
0.0685194656252861,
0.6103206872940063,
0.25091299414634705,
-0.6350308656692505,
1.0576694011688232,
0.13849839568138123,
0.6641730666160583,
-0.2782314419746399,
0.0021392730996012688,
0.7602422833442688,
-0.18499095737934113,
-0.23818695545196533,
0.7433875203132629,
-0.0682586207985878,
0.258585661649704,
-0.13750971853733063,
0.6340596079826355,
0.2968619167804718,
-0.8694562315940857,
0.6301339864730835,
0.13090363144874573,
-0.15854281187057495,
-0.33523663878440857,
-0.3933747708797455,
-0.06829313933849335,
0.075704425573349,
-0.06660038232803345,
0.38453447818756104,
0.08036725223064423,
-0.7429407238960266,
-0.3475171625614166,
0.2328382432460785,
0.3443918824195862,
0.5151126384735107,
0.036905866116285324,
0.7581499814987183,
-0.5593679547309875,
0.10789702832698822,
0.12785997986793518,
0.8012306690216064,
-0.002149085747078061,
-0.069028340280056,
0.23638871312141418,
-0.011396847665309906,
0.09538568556308746,
0.5089943408966064,
0.1283051073551178,
-0.06052115187048912,
0.5355262756347656,
-0.5692076683044434,
-0.050412386655807495,
0.26194310188293457,
0.7761477828025818,
-0.952817440032959,
0.2576400637626648,
-0.5668641328811646,
-0.2964613735675812,
0.5368484258651733,
-0.26683667302131653,
-0.172269806265831,
-0.3813791573047638,
0.07593203336000443,
-0.022567078471183777,
-0.1526535302400589,
-0.05845950171351433,
0.5677533149719238,
0.019096093252301216,
-0.4734134078025818,
-0.17161284387111664,
0.7484833002090454,
-0.07040631771087646,
-0.19845961034297943,
-0.36114320158958435,
-0.2220739871263504,
-0.2304842174053192,
0.4671051502227783,
0.18501286208629608,
-0.011297632940113544,
-0.2367727905511856,
-0.509886622428894,
0.2737596929073334,
0.3945469260215759,
-0.5671122074127197,
0.08451542258262634,
0.39894604682922363,
-0.6487696766853333,
-0.5619938969612122,
-0.0973917618393898,
1.1310265064239502,
0.13035742938518524,
-0.4393322765827179,
-0.8835790157318115,
-0.2640190124511719,
0.46827518939971924,
-0.10743491351604462,
-0.5164998173713684,
0.10971584171056747,
0.2740817666053772,
0.05770646780729294,
-0.4200122356414795,
-0.5839956998825073,
0.11608004570007324,
0.10185658931732178,
-0.4569031000137329,
0.3906926214694977,
-0.07991250604391098,
-0.025903191417455673,
0.0029677394777536392,
0.640095591545105,
-0.28881460428237915,
0.13169121742248535,
-0.05169045925140381,
0.4411775767803192,
-0.07498054206371307,
-0.3253030478954315,
-5.378092288970947,
0.02623016946017742,
-0.3842158019542694,
-0.3828323185443878,
-0.3298030495643616,
-0.15088008344173431,
0.8538456559181213,
-0.3837529420852661,
0.20699109137058258,
0.3447722792625427,
0.13965965807437897,
-0.08327986299991608,
0.4400821924209595,
0.5562725067138672,
0.11583880335092545,
-0.06066041439771652,
0.1556481570005417,
-0.03289500251412392,
0.1051548421382904,
0.09863460063934326,
0.07845129817724228,
-0.4011937379837036,
-0.359391987323761,
0.3235250413417816,
0.4189162850379944,
0.6090905666351318,
-0.03191740810871124,
-0.21172066032886505,
-0.7028508186340332,
0.2571395933628082,
0.20321078598499298,
-0.5614492297172546,
-0.21440500020980835,
-0.5531651377677917,
0.08613986521959305,
0.2125135064125061,
0.8378356695175171,
0.25843310356140137,
0.35429155826568604,
-0.18827421963214874,
0.3538573682308197,
-0.2681177258491516,
-0.01962754689157009,
-0.4521351754665375,
0.46997860074043274,
-0.4233431816101074,
-0.5121386647224426,
-0.3565187454223633,
-0.5955655574798584,
0.6734193563461304,
1.0615733861923218,
-0.3970409333705902,
0.12267102301120758,
0.15189911425113678,
-0.08657777309417725,
-0.18487343192100525,
-0.09236182272434235,
-0.08594782650470734,
-0.8204896450042725,
0.19343705475330353,
0.1430130898952484,
0.13856340944766998,
0.19377784430980682,
-1.0100786685943604,
-0.21300792694091797,
-0.20750093460083008,
-0.4887230098247528,
0.11054380983114243,
0.3384797275066376,
0.14087262749671936,
0.4207627475261688,
0.003492456628009677,
-0.24786792695522308,
-1.0682141780853271,
-0.005495297722518444,
-0.04797619953751564,
-0.37009957432746887,
0.020474053919315338,
-0.5579036474227905,
-0.06679031997919083,
0.316665917634964,
-0.6849406361579895,
-0.015135669149458408,
0.33461955189704895,
0.27576935291290283,
-0.8699148893356323,
-0.22357703745365143,
0.08065085858106613,
-0.41822177171707153,
-0.1837131381034851,
0.15185965597629547,
0.11039780080318451,
0.0011848449939861894,
0.6564764976501465,
0.15369099378585815,
0.20846864581108093,
0.29508858919143677,
-0.20210902392864227,
0.41631510853767395,
-0.37250903248786926,
0.27392470836639404,
-0.15807399153709412,
0.5503377318382263,
-0.3284660875797272,
-0.2003350704908371,
-0.25149595737457275,
-0.007537961937487125,
-0.09142635017633438,
0.03744681179523468,
-0.7013728022575378,
-0.4507168233394623,
-0.12285048514604568,
-0.3305310904979706,
-0.17500096559524536,
0.9908596277236938,
-0.4159638285636902,
-0.08161929249763489,
0.8336231708526611,
0.054430339485406876,
0.36471477150917053,
-0.562092125415802,
0.35878103971481323,
0.27354177832603455,
-0.6724292635917664,
-0.3578178584575653,
-0.12187235057353973,
0.1300308108329773,
0.3568372428417206,
0.01068942341953516,
0.18529386818408966,
-0.30378517508506775,
-0.03610130771994591,
0.2595018744468689,
-0.4855673015117645,
0.1098523736000061,
-0.7494688630104065,
-0.690302848815918,
0.3098614811897278,
-0.03478128835558891,
-0.44759219884872437,
0.9424859881401062,
-0.2955661714076996,
0.21643073856830597,
0.3905702531337738,
0.01856149733066559,
0.6375918984413147,
0.06306008249521255,
-0.33178186416625977,
-0.6307417154312134,
0.020865095779299736,
-0.9065051674842834,
-0.4395826458930969,
0.5822960734367371,
-1.0915769338607788,
-0.1669069081544876,
0.4997451603412628,
-0.5027198791503906,
0.39145275950431824,
-0.3422892987728119,
-0.3788628876209259,
-0.009677444584667683,
-1.0502493381500244,
-1.1718435287475586,
0.4039989411830902,
-0.03882810100913048,
0.3742353022098541,
-0.4817751348018646,
-0.6930060982704163,
-0.3739938735961914,
0.9204920530319214,
-0.09809330105781555,
0.19554403424263,
-0.11174630373716354,
-0.13907931745052338,
0.17651356756687164,
0.5127013325691223,
-0.0227645430713892,
-0.056056879460811615,
-0.10952822864055634,
-0.04692431911826134,
-0.1291157305240631,
0.4396347105503082,
0.274905800819397,
0.07452331483364105,
0.3959451913833618,
-0.03295884653925896,
-0.21918269991874695,
0.15849712491035461,
-1.1127375364303589,
-0.1590036004781723,
0.35751911997795105,
0.6301495432853699,
0.5487936735153198,
-0.3544350862503052,
-0.9266319274902344,
-0.644000768661499,
-0.342957079410553,
0.052084360271692276,
0.252506285905838,
-0.1018156111240387,
0.14777253568172455,
0.41091883182525635,
-0.24229179322719574,
0.8228524923324585,
0.7915102243423462,
-1.0478371381759644,
0.3134700059890747,
0.5191282629966736,
-0.6348724365234375,
0.6251330971717834,
-0.5891340374946594,
0.00895565003156662,
0.33843424916267395,
0.25185590982437134,
-0.4520447552204132,
-0.19491393864154816,
0.566259503364563,
-0.12141446769237518,
0.07805243879556656,
-0.6022883653640747,
-0.7906464338302612,
-0.6269403696060181,
-0.3654896318912506,
-0.12485524266958237,
-0.942620575428009,
-0.2359989881515503,
0.5988122224807739,
-0.7617751359939575,
0.7417879700660706,
-0.5502343773841858,
0.6147603392601013,
0.3916265070438385,
-0.13633352518081665,
-0.4169706106185913,
-0.6381170749664307,
-0.08731818944215775,
0.3050115704536438,
0.5702678561210632,
0.23440036177635193,
0.7352415919303894,
0.6769945621490479,
-0.014000358991324902,
0.21626193821430206,
-0.24386316537857056,
-0.16527892649173737,
0.3952780067920685,
0.1406264305114746,
-0.5307953357696533,
-0.5360900163650513,
0.30698224902153015,
-0.7650447487831116,
-0.671536386013031,
0.06621024012565613,
0.34889721870422363,
1.4041420221328735,
-0.6952759623527527,
-0.19377008080482483,
0.5768812894821167,
-0.12854917347431183,
0.2631896436214447,
0.14153939485549927,
0.09144333004951477,
-0.5689612030982971,
0.38000863790512085,
0.3928835391998291,
0.46674835681915283,
-0.07088469713926315,
-0.06282893568277359,
0.4864462912082672,
0.3682236075401306,
-0.083395816385746,
-0.13456594944000244,
0.7132874727249146,
0.5505005121231079,
-0.1612592339515686,
0.23787513375282288,
-0.13979630172252655,
-0.9645060896873474,
-0.05126206949353218,
-0.2300274521112442,
-0.37126973271369934,
0.10526107251644135,
-0.2555360198020935,
-0.36583250761032104,
0.10435504466295242,
-0.8620919585227966,
-0.12330926954746246,
0.08681796491146088,
-0.08737652748823166,
0.8682594299316406,
-0.2264043390750885,
0.5514681935310364,
0.33535128831863403,
0.11227014660835266,
0.2634623050689697,
0.3336039185523987,
-0.08520567417144775,
0.19043594598770142,
-0.21844729781150818,
-0.33554184436798096,
-0.23358632624149323,
-0.03338804841041565,
-0.3899978995323181,
0.1816689521074295,
0.13360998034477234,
0.2618134617805481,
-0.5813111066818237,
-0.29362377524375916,
-0.14073286950588226,
0.562889814376831,
-0.47822272777557373,
-0.22091323137283325,
-0.38734057545661926,
0.7752439379692078,
-0.12509138882160187,
-0.6382211446762085,
0.32477468252182007,
-0.4600973427295685,
-0.4151138663291931,
0.19782401621341705,
0.5276891589164734,
0.5091564059257507,
0.15141363441944122,
0.3953864276409149,
-1.1006789207458496,
0.8300497531890869,
0.044351737946271896,
-0.41057100892066956,
0.15298236906528473,
-0.5220633149147034,
0.17755794525146484,
-0.22828444838523865,
-0.5586777329444885,
0.9600113034248352,
0.006217805668711662,
-0.4074937701225281,
-0.14929835498332977,
-0.2314600944519043,
0.02532612904906273,
0.2853866219520569,
0.10374067723751068,
0.423539400100708,
-0.40921005606651306,
0.01631024293601513,
0.15691909193992615,
-0.4739595651626587,
0.11117611080408096,
0.15396754443645477,
0.5596595406532288,
-0.07935059070587158,
0.20375436544418335,
-0.38097208738327026,
0.28079935908317566,
-1.2588964700698853,
0.1896096169948578,
-0.21913352608680725,
-0.27792537212371826,
-0.7517662048339844,
-0.15869951248168945,
0.0046030390076339245,
-1.080773115158081,
-0.44714412093162537,
-0.4021089971065521,
0.20868580043315887,
0.010481384582817554,
-0.47856584191322327,
0.32678383588790894,
0.22916768491268158,
0.15261401236057281,
0.1667754054069519,
0.06882262974977493,
-0.2760958671569824,
-0.1459725797176361,
0.2462291121482849,
0.028508411720395088,
0.2831582725048065,
0.5194962024688721,
0.44305288791656494,
-0.35924476385116577,
0.1720309555530548,
-0.19142070412635803,
0.294819712638855,
0.06526939570903778,
-0.4802086055278778,
0.33951207995414734,
0.1693955659866333,
0.543114960193634,
0.18480521440505981,
0.19990640878677368,
-0.1879662424325943,
0.6984448432922363,
-0.08572383224964142,
-0.3626069128513336,
0.5754616856575012,
-0.6042802333831787,
-0.16767235100269318,
-0.4868479073047638,
0.7921292185783386,
0.11689157783985138,
-0.14576435089111328,
0.08077052980661392,
0.22681017220020294,
0.1806556135416031,
0.36668458580970764,
-0.22133757174015045,
0.5596966743469238,
0.41939350962638855,
0.23105064034461975,
-0.21866729855537415,
0.03857230767607689,
0.39477548003196716,
0.19286857545375824,
-0.04327293485403061,
-0.09117895364761353,
-0.3230932652950287,
-0.5603922009468079,
0.4417835474014282,
-0.5093340277671814,
-0.2217242270708084,
-0.14832329750061035,
0.2883094549179077,
-0.5341829061508179,
0.5840237140655518,
0.2644525170326233,
-0.25764206051826477,
-0.3148230314254761,
-0.44304826855659485,
-0.2610918879508972,
0.29678672552108765,
-0.4187898337841034,
-0.9050519466400146,
0.664541482925415,
-0.16085456311702728,
0.3235972225666046,
-0.34553539752960205,
0.7030693888664246,
0.3566852807998657,
0.10082047432661057,
0.4455251395702362,
-0.36599674820899963,
-0.02767033316195011,
-0.46570196747779846,
-0.17128966748714447,
0.010153185576200485,
-0.30522292852401733,
0.34068211913108826,
-0.10521139949560165,
0.40548592805862427,
-0.25779828429222107,
-0.6993820071220398,
-0.3335435092449188,
-0.3116374611854553,
-0.11344774067401886,
-0.12162237614393234,
-0.28402179479599,
-0.13911134004592896,
0.045774877071380615,
-0.47687017917633057,
0.05632282793521881,
-0.09442108124494553
] |
228791 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climm | Climm |
climm (previously mICQ) is a free CLI-based instant messaging client that runs on a wide variety of platforms, including AmigaOS, BeOS, Windows (using either Cygwin or MinGW), OS X, NetBSD/OpenBSD/FreeBSD, Linux, Solaris, HP-UX, and AIX.
Functionality
climm has many of the features the official ICQ client has, and more:
It has support for SSL-encrypted direct connection compatible with licq and SIM.
It supports OTR encrypted messages.
It is internationalized; German, English, and other translations are available, and it supports sending and receiving acknowledged and non-acknowledged Unicode-encoded messages (it even understands UTF-8 messages for message types the ICQ protocol does not use them for).
It is capable of running several UINs at the same time and is very configurable (e.g. different colors for incoming messages from different contacts or for different accounts).
Due to its command-line interface, it has good usability for blind users through text-to-speech interfaces or Braille devices.
climm also supports basic functionality of the XMPP protocol.
History
Climm was originally developed as mICQ by Matt D. Smith as public domain software. Starting with mICQ 0.4.8 it was licensed under the GPLv2, not much of the original PD code remained since then. All later additions were made by Rüdiger Kuhlmann, in particular, the support for the ICQ v8 protocol. mICQ was renamed to climm ("Command Line Interface Multi Messenger") with version change to 0.6. CLimm was relicensed to include the OpenSSL exception.
See also
Comparison of instant messaging clients
References
Notes
Andreas Kneib (Feb 2004) Der direkte Draht. ICQ in der Kommandozeile (Direct Line. ICQ in the command line), LinuxUser
Further reading
Jonathan Corbet (February 18, 2003) The trojaning of mICQ, lwn.net
External links
ICQ protocol page
Instant messaging clients for Linux
MacOS instant messaging clients
Windows instant messaging clients
Amiga instant messaging clients
Free instant messaging clients
Cross-platform software
Free software programmed in C
Public-domain software with source code | [
-0.35084933042526245,
0.14778542518615723,
0.7511640191078186,
0.12588807940483093,
0.25074294209480286,
-0.09903619438409805,
-0.06536916643381119,
0.47155287861824036,
-0.10588561743497849,
-0.28755244612693787,
-0.24089796841144562,
0.5880603194236755,
-0.575880765914917,
0.03467316925525665,
0.4570838212966919,
-0.3777434229850769,
0.10042442381381989,
0.5506520867347717,
0.013483223505318165,
-0.14440327882766724,
-0.15890948474407196,
-0.26694944500923157,
-0.14168095588684082,
-0.8738312125205994,
0.3917613923549652,
0.520481526851654,
0.13743138313293457,
0.31034111976623535,
-0.43083086609840393,
-0.03664354234933853,
0.33400237560272217,
0.35067108273506165,
0.3473265469074249,
-0.24546997249126434,
-0.11308043450117111,
-0.07330424338579178,
-0.20145556330680847,
0.6800912618637085,
0.04808157682418823,
-0.9584916830062866,
-0.19172903895378113,
-0.26331859827041626,
0.1179417297244072,
0.386771023273468,
-0.0502910390496254,
-0.07650849968194962,
-1.6020817756652832,
0.13699224591255188,
-0.7859871983528137,
-0.08573650568723679,
-1.2147644758224487,
0.4758280813694,
0.06369441002607346,
-0.19635064899921417,
0.7531987428665161,
-0.4807344079017639,
-0.2458641529083252,
-0.7141856551170349,
0.3469851016998291,
0.20355863869190216,
0.23206400871276855,
-0.15497884154319763,
-0.43563997745513916,
0.2349519282579422,
0.13473299145698547,
0.23745045065879822,
-0.2528223693370819,
-0.2173699289560318,
-0.693128764629364,
0.025327013805508614,
0.8129750490188599,
-0.06341094523668289,
-0.6146998405456543,
-0.05609503760933876,
0.40380194783210754,
0.3337218165397644,
-0.3161202073097229,
0.16939465701580048,
0.45426055788993835,
0.7018576860427856,
-0.09404381364583969,
0.6169114112854004,
0.8872627019882202,
-0.11864908784627914,
0.5843243598937988,
-0.24462777376174927,
-0.2418145388364792,
1.0666568279266357,
-0.6011595129966736,
0.5262762904167175,
-0.15045315027236938,
-0.0782550498843193,
0.2955026626586914,
0.5071061253547668,
0.6171123385429382,
-0.5356808304786682,
-0.35206758975982666,
0.03261421248316765,
0.03617791831493378,
0.2070024609565735,
0.12506802380084991,
0.04099543020129204,
-0.5346282720565796,
-0.38730624318122864,
-0.28672465682029724,
0.30099329352378845,
-0.8024386167526245,
-0.9886879324913025,
0.06250276416540146,
0.31068164110183716,
-0.08966239541769028,
0.07904722541570663,
0.3491813540458679,
-0.11275846511125565,
0.21080532670021057,
0.037595588713884354,
0.39078232645988464,
-0.14263662695884705,
0.5225203037261963,
0.2587876617908478,
0.4186197519302368,
0.9593176245689392,
0.52739018201828,
-0.20050868391990662,
0.06970090419054031,
0.35957881808280945,
0.37909743189811707,
0.47778114676475525,
0.06650612503290176,
0.4386196434497833,
0.23422375321388245,
0.9717057943344116,
0.905041515827179,
-0.29368969798088074,
0.21364714205265045,
-0.5856071710586548,
0.591132640838623,
-0.34241652488708496,
0.17872050404548645,
0.4847851097583771,
-0.13653869926929474,
-0.28137239813804626,
-0.4366646409034729,
-0.33599191904067993,
0.2812400162220001,
0.33407115936279297,
-0.1411760002374649,
-0.5053614974021912,
-0.14500953257083893,
-0.18400558829307556,
-0.2587633430957794,
0.46466386318206787,
-0.4272722899913788,
0.10250372439622879,
-0.2954264283180237,
0.8109948039054871,
0.16710571944713593,
-0.19449540972709656,
-0.15828271210193634,
-0.033607978373765945,
0.19516828656196594,
0.5957872867584229,
-0.6470547318458557,
-0.5701377987861633,
0.267728716135025,
-0.11972184479236603,
-0.2778463363647461,
0.24832378327846527,
0.49052128195762634,
-0.015119538642466068,
-0.12812145054340363,
0.1429433524608612,
-0.005111358594149351,
0.07770169526338577,
0.3310692310333252,
0.26022446155548096,
1.1033138036727905,
0.1050492599606514,
0.2549249529838562,
0.2378607839345932,
-0.4185270369052887,
0.1307152658700943,
-0.2316264510154724,
-0.3672575056552887,
0.16705422103405,
0.3034800887107849,
0.38518595695495605,
-0.2546309530735016,
-0.026226209476590157,
-0.34743356704711914,
-0.7804768681526184,
-0.797508180141449,
0.4781694710254669,
-0.6423178911209106,
1.0097239017486572,
-0.18153274059295654,
-0.787142276763916,
0.7131199836730957,
0.10799548029899597,
0.327518492937088,
0.0060690115205943584,
0.29944032430648804,
0.5961893200874329,
-0.4493376314640045,
-0.6496798396110535,
-0.28535157442092896,
0.02205069735646248,
-0.19364865124225616,
-0.8739542961120605,
0.45968708395957947,
-0.2530495822429657,
-0.1724427491426468,
0.1386159062385559,
-0.3867689371109009,
0.11120977997779846,
-0.4741179943084717,
-0.21906410157680511,
-0.2158762812614441,
-0.5258735418319702,
0.33456721901893616,
0.8720658421516418,
-0.43955913186073303,
-0.27972808480262756,
0.7913520932197571,
-0.7767067551612854,
0.5433799028396606,
0.5265451669692993,
0.028513899073004723,
0.8436933755874634,
0.11409139633178711,
-0.006161752622574568,
-0.13839541375637054,
-0.15736697614192963,
-1.3054765462875366,
-0.09864649921655655,
-0.2393537312746048,
0.5887770652770996,
-0.3053669333457947,
0.3446750342845917,
0.2212156504392624,
0.4329654574394226,
0.4634266793727875,
-0.6885904669761658,
-0.10195081681013107,
-0.05926494300365448,
-0.1844371259212494,
-0.30134573578834534,
0.16081087291240692,
-0.141274556517601,
0.05703166872262955,
0.6440135836601257,
0.5807761549949646,
-0.12108961492776871,
-0.5266942977905273,
0.237911194562912,
0.39408382773399353,
-0.2363130748271942,
0.25081881880760193,
-0.8500053882598877,
0.9232457876205444,
-0.6141945123672485,
-0.230769082903862,
-0.0038533536717295647,
0.23716440796852112,
-0.07871965318918228,
-0.780126690864563,
0.2057744562625885,
-0.247346892952919,
0.4273478090763092,
0.19694675505161285,
-0.04289424791932106,
-0.40749600529670715,
-0.33806636929512024,
0.4729592502117157,
-0.1903454065322876,
-0.43126022815704346,
0.09193725138902664,
-0.015845200046896935,
-0.6013721227645874,
-0.6072906255722046,
-0.040188804268836975,
0.5260751247406006,
0.45250412821769714,
-0.1468745470046997,
0.10433061420917511,
0.22938865423202515,
-0.06177985668182373,
-0.14027221500873566,
-0.3228132128715515,
-0.10089106112718582,
-0.12424786388874054,
0.3738444447517395,
-0.026567164808511734,
0.5353807210922241,
0.09892841428518295,
0.3432958722114563,
0.6294964551925659,
0.20976528525352478,
0.0529349222779274,
0.050121575593948364,
-0.019802536815404892,
0.5364044308662415,
-0.03640801087021828,
-0.3248031735420227,
0.2516334354877472,
-0.11754145473241806,
-0.48764652013778687,
-0.8304287195205688,
-5.648155689239502,
0.023033352568745613,
-0.36280062794685364,
-0.542417049407959,
0.15049563348293304,
0.3407975137233734,
0.3235855996608734,
-0.4653850495815277,
0.37837064266204834,
0.21488560736179352,
0.07218942046165466,
0.4251556992530823,
-0.06480982899665833,
-0.36164993047714233,
0.31522494554519653,
0.12243760377168655,
0.15747365355491638,
-0.39794668555259705,
0.3047181963920593,
-0.2472832351922989,
0.20245738327503204,
0.1842241734266281,
0.5998215675354004,
0.6111295819282532,
-0.09085193276405334,
-0.23578520119190216,
-0.5959925651550293,
-0.03721577674150467,
0.277041494846344,
-0.1834973245859146,
0.24486882984638214,
0.023416077718138695,
-0.27670401334762573,
-0.19031982123851776,
-0.3247794210910797,
0.0936114639043808,
0.49995437264442444,
0.2855052947998047,
0.1766066551208496,
-0.32487615942955017,
0.22551371157169342,
0.08293460309505463,
0.04862562194466591,
-0.47910192608833313,
0.30428430438041687,
-0.33924514055252075,
-0.15399086475372314,
0.009766156785190105,
-0.2532769739627838,
0.9013959765434265,
-0.5373463034629822,
-0.32416391372680664,
0.10474161058664322,
0.2564947307109833,
0.22282840311527252,
-0.3790617287158966,
0.08816205710172653,
0.029476068913936615,
-0.9329328536987305,
0.4213795065879822,
0.11127283424139023,
-0.3498604893684387,
-0.06770958006381989,
-1.0186160802841187,
-0.45670026540756226,
0.12083421647548676,
-0.8324976563453674,
-0.08164457976818085,
0.5224586129188538,
-0.07719702273607254,
-0.48352423310279846,
-0.08617142587900162,
-0.008170019835233688,
-0.8896626234054565,
0.8597099184989929,
-0.5128019452095032,
0.4109969735145569,
-0.006468703970313072,
-0.02352278307080269,
0.08815321326255798,
0.18931035697460175,
-0.2986994683742523,
-0.4239200949668884,
-0.022216953337192535,
-0.40091270208358765,
-0.6041788458824158,
-0.5014519095420837,
-0.15502171218395233,
0.016875946894288063,
-0.1471589207649231,
0.46975767612457275,
-0.6394930481910706,
0.23081637918949127,
0.18898315727710724,
0.6832854151725769,
0.135915607213974,
0.39116546511650085,
0.04859013855457306,
0.48515868186950684,
-0.36904120445251465,
0.91305011510849,
-0.009284507483243942,
-0.09519065916538239,
-0.6782093644142151,
-0.0011990139028057456,
-0.21550345420837402,
-0.8239338994026184,
-0.3774603307247162,
0.7199522852897644,
0.11735596507787704,
-0.26212042570114136,
-0.039744697511196136,
-0.5339802503585815,
-0.5282799005508423,
-0.22180171310901642,
0.41937562823295593,
-0.45473912358283997,
0.09783532470464706,
-0.0672726109623909,
0.12976379692554474,
-0.3325614929199219,
0.21744531393051147,
0.0807773545384407,
-0.1668521612882614,
-0.29722878336906433,
-0.28724372386932373,
0.4318805932998657,
0.06490685790777206,
-0.10411174595355988,
-0.4324114918708801,
0.015084055252373219,
-0.14059633016586304,
0.04267766699194908,
-0.09913069754838943,
0.0884387195110321,
-0.30694228410720825,
-0.43934914469718933,
0.21836026012897491,
0.44709980487823486,
-0.3340747356414795,
0.4017282724380493,
-0.3255453109741211,
-0.03859330341219902,
0.0625191256403923,
0.5138126015663147,
-0.1443055421113968,
-0.10287901759147644,
0.08713416755199432,
-0.4005487859249115,
0.708293616771698,
0.03433343768119812,
-0.14090140163898468,
0.4702889919281006,
-0.09793514758348465,
-0.6240226626396179,
0.23046156764030457,
0.04533645510673523,
0.5208078622817993,
0.34847769141197205,
-0.6369451284408569,
-0.33976832032203674,
0.2775406837463379,
-0.8996816873550415,
0.05874307081103325,
-0.133462056517601,
-0.1260707527399063,
-0.5818455219268799,
0.5472065806388855,
-0.27918878197669983,
-0.006234001833945513,
-0.32601991295814514,
0.02490212209522724,
-0.8209269046783447,
0.020171457901597023,
0.5235731601715088,
0.47935545444488525,
-0.0012699599610641599,
-0.2379714846611023,
0.5775573253631592,
0.29070261120796204,
-0.10798967629671097,
-0.48518434166908264,
0.15376156568527222,
-0.13165000081062317,
0.5064684152603149,
-0.6739039421081543,
-0.10611988604068756,
-0.1999133974313736,
0.30176007747650146,
-0.19552847743034363,
0.3704865574836731,
0.4072605073451996,
0.132955864071846,
-0.020309321582317352,
-0.13678616285324097,
-0.3978029787540436,
0.2340628206729889,
0.6355188488960266,
0.11168365180492401,
-0.7827881574630737,
0.008807584643363953,
0.32102420926094055,
-0.6751668453216553,
0.5795096158981323,
0.20511889457702637,
-0.7814550399780273,
-0.20256730914115906,
-0.5050225853919983,
-0.4897240698337555,
0.024446601048111916,
0.004531782120466232,
-0.28340908885002136,
0.30872973799705505,
0.10098911076784134,
-0.44341790676116943,
0.11821235716342926,
0.3193231523036957,
0.15801048278808594,
-0.43187862634658813,
-0.2911756634712219,
-0.6637890934944153,
-0.2304387390613556,
-0.07271415740251541,
0.07642500847578049,
-1.1039434671401978,
0.3701358735561371,
0.4996509850025177,
-0.330480694770813,
0.0592912919819355,
0.14872612059116364,
0.22258813679218292,
-0.2138061374425888,
0.39000606536865234,
0.0361301526427269,
-0.2512456476688385,
-0.3026784658432007,
-0.6464428305625916,
0.10557399690151215,
-0.3491993844509125,
-0.02862975187599659,
-0.13531866669654846,
0.56937575340271,
-0.23696798086166382,
-0.5699366927146912,
-0.4120478928089142,
0.4587049186229706,
0.05255268141627312,
-0.5897201895713806,
-0.7375245690345764,
0.1855919063091278,
0.5129790306091309,
-0.22154143452644348,
0.16094164550304413,
0.18215280771255493,
0.5394777059555054,
-0.08397234976291656,
-0.29255935549736023,
-0.4175151586532593,
0.07131768018007278,
-0.09388759732246399,
0.0794939249753952,
0.036283720284700394,
-0.39554211497306824,
0.6859890222549438,
0.33326229453086853,
0.308256596326828,
0.2618073523044586,
-0.8225295543670654,
0.6546456813812256,
-0.5023320913314819,
-0.04606380686163902,
-0.2307935506105423,
0.5782086849212646,
0.8578486442565918,
-0.1484704613685608,
-0.08648040890693665,
-0.2375088930130005,
-0.5765379071235657,
0.3449878394603729,
0.4951223134994507,
-0.5059950947761536,
-0.10862221568822861,
0.15297646820545197,
-0.3379863500595093,
0.7101335525512695,
-0.6159546375274658,
0.13915058970451355,
-0.10056830942630768,
0.25175046920776367,
-0.06342627108097076,
-0.6252559423446655,
1.0672270059585571,
-0.1688041090965271,
0.4521571099758148,
-0.2236017882823944,
0.10422468930482864,
0.10962320864200592,
0.08701229095458984,
-0.9358946681022644,
-0.06490367650985718,
-0.12755148112773895,
0.5776084065437317,
1.0164239406585693,
-0.8358800411224365,
0.24520817399024963,
0.06244152411818504,
-0.2194390594959259,
-0.10579803586006165,
-0.17873473465442657,
0.0493222139775753,
0.20761330425739288,
0.1045738235116005,
0.09748256951570511,
0.27991363406181335,
-0.26630860567092896,
-0.24630415439605713,
-0.047807253897190094,
-0.34249645471572876,
0.7725870609283447,
0.2938118577003479,
0.29275938868522644,
0.3620936870574951,
0.5842854380607605,
0.234811931848526,
-0.7097450494766235,
0.8693680167198181,
0.12001409381628036,
-0.13687948882579803,
0.4851452708244324,
-0.029826367273926735,
0.3727293312549591,
0.09929297864437103,
-0.3450470566749573,
-0.18109922111034393,
-0.07103021442890167,
-0.4489159882068634,
-0.033968742936849594,
0.5816010236740112,
-0.8919582962989807,
0.610100507736206,
0.4081045389175415,
0.4128625988960266,
-0.26092374324798584,
-0.1769084483385086,
-0.32615795731544495,
0.35773518681526184,
0.038981955498456955,
0.45306023955345154,
0.31776028871536255,
0.549689531326294,
0.4306758642196655,
-0.20124635100364685,
0.14313456416130066,
-0.5538892149925232,
-0.23725195229053497,
-0.5443548560142517,
0.11461794376373291,
-0.08354507386684418,
0.04889007285237312,
0.3825299143791199,
-0.24996501207351685,
0.3670579493045807,
0.2830296456813812,
0.10967618227005005,
-0.5652952194213867,
0.15811556577682495,
0.44552603363990784,
-0.2248433232307434,
0.24064408242702484,
0.19273869693279266,
-0.26106318831443787,
0.6305140256881714,
-0.3302757143974304,
1.0261895656585693,
-0.5203374624252319,
-0.6456183791160583,
0.33908817172050476,
0.26035842299461365,
-0.38258200883865356,
0.1275915950536728,
-0.1143096461892128,
-0.10208433121442795,
0.046385496854782104,
-0.13260845839977264,
0.32688790559768677,
-0.018397269770503044,
-0.09129983186721802,
0.14439481496810913,
0.10806593298912048,
-0.21652629971504211,
0.18569478392601013,
-0.42687854170799255,
-0.17615467309951782,
0.055420637130737305,
-0.06997653096914291,
0.04271451756358147,
-0.3204820454120636,
0.8473361730575562,
0.0900987908244133,
-0.31639614701271057,
0.11264287680387497,
0.6552207469940186,
0.1929725855588913,
0.1950380802154541,
-0.5429149270057678,
0.24750864505767822,
-0.5390291213989258,
-0.1722705066204071,
-0.891160249710083,
0.6232051253318787,
0.3953567445278168,
0.8562654256820679,
-0.046222854405641556,
-0.0910913348197937,
-0.35761401057243347,
0.17107658088207245,
0.47650453448295593,
0.014406080357730389,
-0.1723494976758957,
0.0068473233841359615,
-0.44136834144592285,
-0.05292712524533272,
0.4902026057243347,
-0.19214901328086853,
0.8076531887054443,
0.14512263238430023,
0.022330451756715775,
0.1686321496963501,
-0.1368875801563263,
0.30466899275779724,
-0.031648363918066025,
-0.321666419506073,
-0.14437083899974823,
0.7686564922332764,
-0.16975222527980804,
0.42031994462013245,
-0.5814579129219055,
0.6613293290138245,
0.41246962547302246,
-0.20714625716209412,
-0.05712194740772247,
-0.0428042896091938,
0.07043378055095673,
-0.1870616376399994,
-0.3778531551361084,
0.2080123871564865,
-0.0052285026758909225,
-0.7599065899848938,
-1.1163288354873657,
-0.098934106528759,
0.44577470421791077,
-0.8423786759376526,
-0.20404787361621857,
-0.6346654295921326,
0.5395119190216064,
0.39763322472572327,
-0.06732645630836487,
-0.41341933608055115,
-0.2572900652885437,
0.17312459647655487
] |
228796 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day%20trading | Day trading | Day trading is a form of speculation in securities in which a trader buys and sells a financial instrument within the same trading day, so that all positions are closed before the market closes for the trading day to avoid unmanageable risks and negative price gaps between one day's close and the next day's price at the open. Traders who trade in this capacity are generally classified as speculators. Day trading contrasts with the long-term trades underlying buy-and-hold and value investing strategies. It is made easier using day trading software.
Day traders generally use leverage such as margin loans; in the United States, Regulation T permits an initial maximum leverage of 2:1, but many brokers will permit 4:1 intraday leverage as long as the leverage is reduced to 2:1 or less by the end of the trading day. In the United States, based on rules by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority, people who make more than 3 day trades per 5-trading-day period are termed pattern day traders and are required to maintain $25,000 in equity in their accounts. However, a day trader with the legal minimum of $25,000 in their account can buy $100,000 (4× leverage) worth of stock during the day, as long as half of those positions are exited before the market close. Because of the high risk of margin use, and of other day trading practices, a day trader will often have to exit a losing position very quickly, in order to prevent a greater, unacceptable loss, or even a disastrous loss, much larger than their original investment, or even larger than their account value. Since margin interest is typically only charged on overnight balances, the trader may pay no interest fees for the margin loan, though still running the risk of margin calls. Margin interest rates are usually based on the broker's call rate.
Some of the more commonly day-traded financial instruments are stocks, options, currency (including cryptocurrency), contracts for difference, and futures contracts such as stock market index futures, interest rate futures, currency futures and commodity futures.
Day trading was once an activity that was exclusive to financial firms and professional speculators. Many day traders are bank or investment firm employees working as specialists in equity investment and investment management. Day trading gained popularity after the deregulation of commissions in the United States in 1975, the advent of electronic trading platforms in the 1990s, and with the stock price volatility during the dot-com bubble.
Some day traders use an intra-day technique known as scalping that usually has the trader holding a position for a few minutes or only seconds. Day trading is similar to swing trading, in which positions are held for a few days.
Day traders can be professionals that work for large financial institutions, are trained by other professionals or mentors, do not use their own capital, and receive a base salary of approximately $50,000 to $70,000 as well as the possibility for bonuses of 10%–30% of the profits realized. Individuals can day trade with as little as $100, or even less, with fractional shares.
Profitability and risks
Because of the nature of financial leverage and the rapid returns that are possible, day trading results can range from extremely profitable to extremely unprofitable; high-risk profile traders can generate either huge percentage returns or huge percentage losses.
Day trading is risky, and the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission has made the following warnings to day traders:
Be prepared to suffer severe financial losses
Day traders do not "invest"
Day trading is an extremely stressful and expensive full-time job
Day traders depend heavily on borrowing money or buying stocks on margin
Don't believe claims of easy profits
Watch out for "hot tips" and "expert advice" from newsletters and websites catering to day traders
Remember that "educational" seminars, classes, and books about day trading may not be objective
Check out day trading firms with your state securities regulator
Most traders who day trade lose money.
A 2019 research paper analyzed the performance of individual day traders in the Brazilian equity futures market. Based on trading records from 2012 to 2017, it was concluded that day trading is almost uniformly unprofitable:
An article in Forbes quoting someone from an educational trading website stated that "the success rate for day traders is estimated to be around only 10%, so ... 90% are losing money," adding "only 1% of [day] traders really make money."
Techniques
Day trading requires a sound and rehearsed method to provide a statistical edge on each trade and should not be engaged on a whim.
The following are several basic trading strategies by which day traders attempt to make profits. In addition, some day traders also use contrarian investing strategies (more commonly seen in algorithmic trading) to trade specifically against irrational behavior from day traders using the approaches below. It is important for a trader to remain flexible and adjust techniques to match changing market conditions.
Some of these approaches require short selling stocks; the trader borrows stock from their broker and sells the borrowed stock, hoping that the price will fall and they will be able to purchase the shares at a lower price, thus keeping the difference as their profit. There are several technical problems with short sales: the broker may not have shares to lend in a specific issue, the broker can call for the return of its shares at any time, and some restrictions are imposed in America by the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on short-selling (see uptick rule for details). Some of these restrictions (in particular the uptick rule) don't apply to trades of stocks that are actually shares of an exchange-traded fund (ETF).
Minimizing risk capital
Many successful day traders risk less than 1% to 2% of their account per trade.
Trend following
Trend following, or momentum trading, is a strategy used in all trading time-frames, assumes that financial instruments which have been rising steadily will continue to rise, and vice versa with falling. Traders can profit by buying an instrument which has been rising, or short selling a falling one, in the expectation that the trend will continue. These traders use technical analysis to identify trends.
Contrarian investing
Contrarian investing is a market timing strategy used in all trading time-frames. It assumes that financial instruments that have been rising steadily will reverse and start to fall, and vice versa. The contrarian trader buys an instrument which has been falling, or short-sells a rising one, in the expectation that the trend will change.
Range trading
Range trading, or range-bound trading, is a trading style in which stocks are watched that have either been rising off a support price or falling off a resistance price. That is, every time the stock hits a high, it falls back to the low, and vice versa. Such a stock is said to be "trading in a range", which is the opposite of trending. The range trader therefore buys the stock at or near the low price, and sells (and possibly short sells) at the high. A related approach to range trading is looking for moves outside of an established range, called a breakout (price moves up) or a breakdown (price moves down), and assume that once the range has been broken prices will continue in that direction for some time.
Scalping
Scalping was originally referred to as spread trading. Scalping is a trading style where small price gaps created by the bid–ask spread are exploited by the speculator. It normally involves establishing and liquidating a position quickly, usually within minutes or even seconds.
Scalping highly liquid instruments for off-the-floor day traders involves taking quick profits while minimizing risk (loss exposure). It applies technical analysis concepts such as over/under-bought, support and resistance zones as well as trendline, trading channel to enter the market at key points and take quick profits from small moves. The basic idea of scalping is to exploit the inefficiency of the market when volatility increases and the trading range expands. Scalpers also use the "fade" technique. When stock values suddenly rise, they short sell securities that seem overvalued.
Rebate trading
Rebate trading is an equity trading style that uses ECN rebates as a primary source of profit and revenue. Most ECNs charge commissions to customers who want to have their orders filled immediately at the best prices available, but the ECNs pay commissions to buyers or sellers who "add liquidity" by placing limit orders that create "market-making" in a security. Rebate traders seek to make money from these rebates and will usually maximize their returns by trading low priced, high volume stocks. This enables them to trade more shares and contribute more liquidity with a set amount of capital, while limiting the risk that they will not be able to exit a position in the stock.
Trading the news
The basic strategy of trading the news is to buy a stock which has just announced good news, or short sell on bad news. Such events provide enormous volatility in a stock and therefore the greatest chance for quick profits (or losses). Determining whether news is "good" or "bad" must be determined by the price action of the stock, because the market reaction may not match the tone of the news itself. This is because rumors or estimates of the event (like those issued by market and industry analysts) will already have been circulated before the official release, causing prices to move in anticipation. The price movement caused by the official news will therefore be determined by how good the news is relative to the market's expectations, not how good it is in absolute terms.
Price action trading
Price action trading relies on technical analysis but does not rely on conventional indicators. These traders rely on a combination of price movement, chart patterns, volume, and other raw market data to gauge whether or not they should take a trade. This is seen as a "minimalist" approach to trading but is not by any means easier than any other trading methodology. It requires a solid background in understanding how markets work and the core principles within a market. However, the benefit for this methodology is that it is effective in virtually any market (stocks, foreign exchange, futures, gold, oil, etc.).
Market-neutral trading
Market-neutral trading is a strategy that is designed to mitigate risk in which a trader takes a long position in one security and a short position in another security that is related.
Algorithmic trading
It is estimated that more than 75% of stock trades in United States are generated by algorithmic trading or high-frequency trading. The increased use of algorithms and quantitative techniques has led to more competition and smaller profits. Algorithmic trading is used by banks and hedge funds as well as retail traders. Retail traders can buy commercially available automated trading systems or develop their own automatic trading software.
Cost
Commission
Commissions for direct access trading, such as that offered by Interactive Brokers are calculated based on volume, and are usually 0.5 cents per share or $0.25 per futures contract. The more shares traded, the cheaper the commission. Most brokers in the United States, especially those that receive payment for order flow do not charge commissions.
Spread
The numerical difference between the bid and ask prices is referred to as the bid–ask spread. Most worldwide markets operate on a bid-ask-based system.
The ask prices are immediate execution (market) prices for quick buyers (ask takers) while bid prices are for quick sellers (bid takers). If a trade is executed at quoted prices, closing the trade immediately without queuing would always cause a loss because the bid price is always less than the ask price at any point in time.
The bid–ask spread is two sides of the same coin. The spread can be viewed as trading bonuses or costs according to different parties and different strategies. On one hand, traders who do NOT wish to queue their order, instead paying the market price, pay the spreads (costs). On the other hand, traders who wish to queue and wait for execution receive the spreads (bonuses). Some day trading strategies attempt to capture the spread as additional, or even the only, profits for successful trades.
Market data
Market data is necessary for day traders to be competitive. A real-time data feed requires paying fees to the respective stock exchanges, usually combined with the broker's charges; these fees are usually very low compared to the other costs of trading. The fees may be waived for promotional purposes or for customers meeting a minimum monthly volume of trades. Even a moderately active day trader can expect to meet these requirements, making the basic data feed essentially "free". In addition to the raw market data, some traders purchase more advanced data feeds that include historical data and features such as scanning large numbers of stocks in the live market for unusual activity. Complicated analysis and charting software are other popular additions. These types of systems can cost from tens to hundreds of dollars per month to access.
History
Before 1975, stockbrokerage commissions in the United States were fixed at 1% of the amount of the trade, i.e. to purchase $10,000 worth of stock cost the buyer $100 in commissions and same 1% to sell and traders had to make over 2% to cover their costs, which was not likely in a single trading day.
In 1975, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) made fixed commission rates illegal and commission rates dropped significantly.
Financial settlement periods used to be much longer. Before the early 1990s at the London Stock Exchange, for example, stock could be paid for up to 10 working days after it was bought, allowing traders to buy (or sell) shares at the beginning of a settlement period only to sell (or buy) them before the end of the period hoping for a rise in price. This activity was identical to modern day trading, but for the longer duration of the settlement period. But today, to reduce market risk, the settlement period is typically T+2 (two working days) and brokers usually require that funds are posted in advance of any trade. Reducing the settlement period reduces the likelihood of default, but was impossible before the advent of electronic ownership transfer.
Electronic communication networks
Electronic communication networks (ECNs), large proprietary computer networks on which brokers can list a certain amount of securities to sell at a certain price (the asking price or "ask") or offer to buy a certain amount of securities at a certain price (the "bid"), first became a factor with the launch of Instinet in 1969. However, at first, they generally offered better pricing to large traders.
The next important step in facilitating day trading was the founding in 1971 of NASDAQ - a virtual stock exchange on which orders were transmitted electronically. Moving from paper share certificates and written share registers to "dematerialized" shares, traders used computerized trading and registration that required not only extensive changes to legislation but also the development of the necessary technology: online and real time systems rather than batch; electronic communications rather than the postal service, telex or the physical shipment of computer tapes, and the development of secure cryptographic algorithms.
These developments heralded the appearance of "market makers": the NASDAQ equivalent of a NYSE specialist. A market maker has an inventory of stocks to buy and sell, and simultaneously offers to buy and sell the same stock. Obviously, it will offer to sell stock at a higher price than the price at which it offers to buy. This difference is known as the "spread". The market maker is indifferent as to whether the stock goes up or down, it simply tries to constantly buy for less than it sells. A persistent trend in one direction will result in a loss for the market maker, but the strategy is overall positive (otherwise they would exit the business). Today there are about 500 firms who participate as market makers on ECNs, each generally making a market in four to forty different stocks. Without any legal obligations, market makers were free to offer smaller spreads on electronic communication networks than on the NASDAQ.
After Black Monday (1987), the SEC adopted "Order Handling Rules" which required market makers to publish their best bid and ask on the NASDAQ.
Another reform made was the "Small-order execution system", or "SOES", which required market makers to buy or sell, immediately, small orders (up to 1,000 shares) at the market maker's listed bid or ask. The design of the system gave rise to arbitrage by a small group of traders known as the "SOES bandits", who made sizable profits buying and selling small orders to market makers by anticipating price moves before they were reflected in the published inside bid/ask prices. The SOES system ultimately led to trading facilitated by software instead of market makers via ECNs.
In the late 1990s, existing ECNs began to offer their services to small investors. New ECNs arose, most importantly Archipelago (NYSE Arca) Instinet, SuperDot, and Island ECN. Archipelago eventually became a stock exchange and in 2005 was purchased by the NYSE.
The ability for individuals to day trade via electronic trading platforms coincided with the extreme bull market in technological issues from 1997 to early 2000, known as the dot-com bubble. From 1997 to 2000, the NASDAQ rose from 1,200 to 5,000. Many naive investors with little market experience made huge profits buying these stocks in the morning and selling them in the afternoon, at 400% margin rates. An unprecedented amount of personal investing occurred during the boom and stories of people quitting their jobs to day trade were common.
In March 2000, this bubble burst, and many less-experienced day traders began to lose money as fast, or faster, than they had made during the buying frenzy. The NASDAQ crashed from 5000 back to 1200; many of the less-experienced traders went broke, although obviously it was possible to have made a fortune during that time by short selling or playing on volatility.
In parallel to stock trading, starting at the end of the 1990s, several new market maker firms provided foreign exchange and derivative day trading through electronic trading platforms. These allowed day traders to have instant access to decentralised markets such as forex and global markets through derivatives such as contracts for difference. Most of these firms were based in the UK and later in less restrictive jurisdictions, this was in part due to the regulations in the US prohibiting this type of over-the-counter trading. These firms typically provide trading on margin allowing day traders to take large position with relatively small capital, but with the associated increase in risk. The retail foreign exchange trading became popular to day trade due to its liquidity and the 24-hour nature of the market.
See also
Everything bubble
GameStop short squeeze
References
External links
U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission on day trading
Share trading | [
0.43307119607925415,
-0.3303097188472748,
0.0198515634983778,
0.21134787797927856,
0.4321356415748596,
-0.1652698516845703,
-0.476656973361969,
0.186308816075325,
-0.22758303582668304,
-0.3567807972431183,
-0.4240921437740326,
0.6853143572807312,
-0.41264232993125916,
0.5365831851959229,
0.04168548062443733,
0.2951734960079193,
0.28381022810935974,
-0.3520286977291107,
0.08378345519304276,
-0.3760455846786499,
-0.5542431473731995,
-0.29038727283477783,
-0.1455848217010498,
-0.4867122769355774,
0.31305617094039917,
-0.2345474660396576,
0.12754732370376587,
0.5496026873588562,
-0.16555187106132507,
-0.04942077770829201,
0.08673842251300812,
0.5652918815612793,
0.17854441702365875,
0.3099674880504608,
0.21961745619773865,
0.06913686543703079,
0.025673799216747284,
-0.5443437695503235,
-0.6417639851570129,
-0.6178339719772339,
-0.4702051877975464,
0.2882612645626068,
0.6501717567443848,
0.577634334564209,
-0.5202723145484924,
-0.39210131764411926,
-1.2472511529922485,
-0.5945369005203247,
-0.43745413422584534,
-0.45628297328948975,
-0.28606346249580383,
0.4667881429195404,
0.3122173845767975,
0.6312013864517212,
0.26273658871650696,
0.24635297060012817,
-0.30285176634788513,
0.03716999292373657,
-0.17061132192611694,
-0.4274313151836395,
0.7825725078582764,
-0.23903004825115204,
-0.019703948870301247,
0.45792317390441895,
0.21171599626541138,
-0.1845678687095642,
-0.04070908576250076,
-0.11267109215259552,
0.05124621093273163,
-0.2791801989078522,
-0.7405456304550171,
-0.3101847171783447,
-0.5957292318344116,
-0.3332206904888153,
-0.19515195488929749,
0.8564389944076538,
0.22226828336715698,
0.07283741235733032,
-0.1289660781621933,
0.05841032415628433,
-0.4071781635284424,
0.23506100475788116,
0.3895286023616791,
-0.31067752838134766,
0.6503907442092896,
-0.3754609227180481,
-0.31323671340942383,
0.23074094951152802,
-0.18718256056308746,
1.0498768091201782,
0.4148140549659729,
-0.3340330123901367,
0.22855648398399353,
-0.10166709870100021,
-0.8264771103858948,
0.16904044151306152,
0.3118942677974701,
-0.007675328757613897,
0.4445822238922119,
0.19109207391738892,
-0.14530028402805328,
-0.18968307971954346,
0.59449702501297,
0.3169097900390625,
0.3875333368778229,
0.12297580391168594,
-0.268381804227829,
-0.8423961400985718,
0.37155479192733765,
-0.1788921058177948,
-0.4807899296283722,
-0.012778696604073048,
0.5057561993598938,
0.13621924817562103,
-0.4423346221446991,
-0.029858533293008804,
-0.22299480438232422,
0.39480897784233093,
-0.2816314101219177,
-0.15854761004447937,
0.44372981786727905,
0.47237837314605713,
0.19794614613056183,
-0.04017085209488869,
-0.1741534024477005,
0.13578003644943237,
0.3379628360271454,
0.555778443813324,
-0.507359504699707,
-0.13114026188850403,
0.03232807666063309,
0.5970704555511475,
-0.24106642603874207,
-0.12322580069303513,
-0.2719411849975586,
-0.29720717668533325,
0.4377831220626831,
-0.09183719009160995,
0.7354426980018616,
-0.19200879335403442,
-0.39221179485321045,
-0.42801666259765625,
-0.1935875117778778,
0.10554316639900208,
0.020756592974066734,
-0.22603672742843628,
0.4636269807815552,
-0.6175314784049988,
-0.5187954306602478,
0.3483625054359436,
-0.33520323038101196,
0.12829115986824036,
-0.21826186776161194,
-0.008602083660662174,
-0.725361168384552,
-0.25580674409866333,
0.24270613491535187,
-0.4063734710216522,
-0.5043081641197205,
0.45742249488830566,
0.5372985005378723,
0.12553824484348297,
0.055449604988098145,
-0.05159362405538559,
0.08802482485771179,
-0.3713338375091553,
0.11444922536611557,
0.5177736282348633,
-0.13394464552402496,
-0.07726924121379852,
-0.10401683300733566,
0.5422337651252747,
0.3408423960208893,
-0.7468903064727783,
-0.17252512276172638,
0.758913516998291,
-0.20129352807998657,
0.20575062930583954,
1.3404935598373413,
0.12877804040908813,
-0.3764614760875702,
-0.00809597596526146,
0.5683945417404175,
-0.08788906782865524,
0.03165179118514061,
-0.23672029376029968,
-0.12282808870077133,
-0.011149979196488857,
0.26459622383117676,
-0.42846232652664185,
-0.3279682397842407,
0.17263388633728027,
-0.19522418081760406,
-0.863253116607666,
0.1881122887134552,
-0.3702095150947571,
-0.004296702332794666,
0.5598134398460388,
-0.07928602397441864,
-0.19765040278434753,
-0.21251645684242249,
0.20185638964176178,
-0.3468668460845947,
-0.24600376188755035,
-0.019176770001649857,
0.22235310077667236,
0.12157556414604187,
0.15888799726963043,
0.05686689913272858,
0.18215104937553406,
0.14231479167938232,
-0.6683083176612854,
0.25213518738746643,
-0.20201385021209717,
0.6842609643936157,
0.35967332124710083,
-0.47750672698020935,
0.6610755324363708,
-0.08570141345262527,
-0.056899551302194595,
0.6301416754722595,
0.32818835973739624,
-0.31075409054756165,
0.34324219822883606,
0.0116103021427989,
0.3660891354084015,
-0.24449899792671204,
-0.15820422768592834,
0.5664169788360596,
-0.8937157392501831,
0.14719940721988678,
0.36481013894081116,
0.5362971425056458,
-0.6216515898704529,
0.476094514131546,
-0.00044794136192649603,
-0.06767132133245468,
-0.4982803463935852,
-0.1437290459871292,
0.21188125014305115,
0.21877053380012512,
-0.010530705563724041,
-0.29219040274620056,
0.5893825888633728,
0.04449838399887085,
0.4186173975467682,
-0.013073871843516827,
0.4436623454093933,
-0.8652344346046448,
-0.2993110120296478,
0.6893019676208496,
0.30742570757865906,
0.204799085855484,
-0.41694533824920654,
-0.37429311871528625,
-0.5971769094467163,
-0.5467468500137329,
-0.17481940984725952,
0.2826213836669922,
-0.10366770625114441,
-0.056991927325725555,
-0.14279106259346008,
0.03339725360274315,
0.32190242409706116,
-0.23364153504371643,
-0.1601218730211258,
-0.531008780002594,
0.017108991742134094,
0.1953790932893753,
0.210349440574646,
0.8674405217170715,
0.11034725606441498,
-0.6631789803504944,
-0.05433908849954605,
-0.028707120567560196,
-0.8591721653938293,
0.4776194393634796,
-0.11261690407991409,
-0.237622931599617,
-0.4249889850616455,
0.10618618130683899,
0.10815365612506866,
0.5369879007339478,
-0.10749870538711548,
-0.32168981432914734,
-0.6166232228279114,
-0.060303665697574615,
0.1613820195198059,
0.1514061987400055,
0.03683037683367729,
-0.1279498040676117,
0.8854132890701294,
0.048981089144945145,
0.11573551595211029,
0.4598388671875,
0.23289601504802704,
-0.5350393056869507,
0.525758683681488,
0.26612773537635803,
-0.048025988042354584,
0.15488630533218384,
0.1203840896487236,
-0.059991054236888885,
-0.3884284794330597,
0.3773430585861206,
-0.4680650532245636,
-0.5486663579940796,
0.046093687415122986,
-5.835270881652832,
0.0238886047154665,
-0.10622130334377289,
-0.5415143370628357,
-0.16288691759109497,
-0.22877170145511627,
1.0930198431015015,
0.3601780831813812,
-0.16965994238853455,
0.011656229384243488,
-0.3080149292945862,
-0.7370070815086365,
-0.11862204223871231,
0.17988625168800354,
0.7894372344017029,
0.5141794681549072,
0.7439141869544983,
-0.2747723460197449,
0.4609867036342621,
0.43811991810798645,
-0.3896997570991516,
0.07174575328826904,
-0.0668373852968216,
0.8120028376579285,
-0.1051492765545845,
0.05214562639594078,
-0.49390852451324463,
-0.4227922558784485,
-0.24987688660621643,
0.03958358243107796,
-0.08131980150938034,
-0.3198133111000061,
-0.2442016899585724,
0.46287697553634644,
0.7078530788421631,
0.014675943180918694,
0.029609017074108124,
-0.0455431304872036,
-0.22020217776298523,
-0.1229100301861763,
0.2706981301307678,
0.8619025945663452,
-0.26090940833091736,
0.4811512231826782,
0.43874379992485046,
-0.20618228614330292,
-0.4591670632362366,
-0.015375164337456226,
-0.4739815294742584,
0.2662004232406616,
0.24620650708675385,
0.4212447702884674,
-0.03845013305544853,
-0.6837259531021118,
0.002452010056003928,
-0.12985320389270782,
0.005009853281080723,
-0.21992148458957672,
-0.24673597514629364,
0.47345274686813354,
-0.11583755165338516,
-0.5332456231117249,
0.4124492406845093,
-0.31379005312919617,
-0.38685861229896545,
-0.10098562389612198,
-0.4745389223098755,
-0.636471152305603,
1.062798023223877,
0.616987407207489,
-0.36106711626052856,
0.0875769630074501,
0.6301358342170715,
-0.722078800201416,
0.45371052622795105,
-0.0866413339972496,
0.029968155547976494,
0.09869825094938278,
0.9547721743583679,
-0.30740901827812195,
0.17666879296302795,
-0.27673983573913574,
0.49003615975379944,
-0.46665987372398376,
0.22691580653190613,
-0.7198408246040344,
-0.40240800380706787,
0.17657659947872162,
-0.3662697970867157,
-0.2521122694015503,
0.7010218501091003,
0.10803240537643433,
0.405239999294281,
-0.055174559354782104,
-0.22592200338840485,
0.4227410852909088,
0.24116484820842743,
0.020877288654446602,
0.18711794912815094,
-0.2691013514995575,
0.534935712814331,
-0.23539811372756958,
-0.24017494916915894,
-0.5914474129676819,
-0.4563782513141632,
0.21841883659362793,
-0.17790809273719788,
0.4008505642414093,
0.5017136931419373,
-0.04617461562156677,
0.2593573331832886,
0.6848101019859314,
-0.4601826071739197,
-0.14788024127483368,
0.040420614182949066,
0.2314305454492569,
-0.5771027207374573,
0.5060404539108276,
0.1432967483997345,
-0.2649085819721222,
-0.13702674210071564,
-0.5965797305107117,
-0.5703843235969543,
-0.3487411141395569,
-0.15156865119934082,
-0.3527330160140991,
-0.06520694494247437,
0.24479787051677704,
0.35090693831443787,
0.21065610647201538,
0.7715142369270325,
0.26306426525115967,
-0.5383769869804382,
-0.5902038216590881,
0.25255677103996277,
-0.47390109300613403,
0.018118398264050484,
0.0633125752210617,
0.09078500419855118,
0.13572466373443604,
0.32477250695228577,
-0.10140252113342285,
0.3135300278663635,
0.2775590121746063,
0.40100231766700745,
-0.35103678703308105,
0.007645845413208008,
-0.17858828604221344,
0.17591968178749084,
0.389694482088089,
-0.20010431110858917,
-0.26538529992103577,
0.24496997892856598,
-0.24245969951152802,
-0.16828522086143494,
-0.3917626440525055,
0.20918644964694977,
-0.24263004958629608,
0.041121866554021835,
-0.536561906337738,
0.18847768008708954,
0.06986303627490997,
-0.9052568674087524,
0.004081343300640583,
-0.24430151283740997,
0.0811208039522171,
-1.105322241783142,
0.27564334869384766,
-0.07538726180791855,
0.45672371983528137,
-0.30708980560302734,
-0.8251389265060425,
-0.02407597005367279,
-0.3690080940723419,
0.4643014967441559,
-0.1999617964029312,
0.05674967169761658,
0.0716908723115921,
0.20256175100803375,
-0.8154880404472351,
-0.20947585999965668,
-0.0732339471578598,
-0.6680779457092285,
0.0033729160204529762,
0.17591960728168488,
-0.11528116464614868,
0.05691093951463699,
0.576654851436615,
-0.08194080740213394,
0.05916973575949669,
0.5366900563240051,
0.4809788167476654,
0.5458573698997498,
0.1732075810432434,
0.6749947667121887,
-0.08376901596784592,
0.1852363646030426,
0.4904521405696869,
-0.5339038968086243,
-0.18380074203014374,
0.38597074151039124,
-0.18414349853992462,
-1.1262215375900269,
0.026995845139026642,
0.23298801481723785,
-0.08716030418872833,
0.48689085245132446,
0.1765557825565338,
0.061150308698415756,
0.03664703667163849,
-0.46686452627182007,
-0.3542811870574951,
-0.8342791795730591,
0.26833444833755493,
-0.1972326785326004,
0.002742951735854149,
-0.03449491783976555,
-0.4687240421772003,
0.2109280526638031,
0.2569170296192169,
0.9879778027534485,
-0.3284081816673279,
-0.6130222082138062,
0.1275091916322708,
-0.08574565500020981,
0.2966831624507904,
0.5446307063102722,
-0.27720099687576294,
0.12230532616376877,
0.16631603240966797,
-0.25028350949287415,
-0.31602469086647034,
-0.06859753280878067,
0.3377382159233093,
-0.25671568512916565,
0.19373230636119843,
-0.26614078879356384,
0.030967924743890762,
0.15011636912822723,
-0.06724760681390762,
-0.09689147770404816,
0.6871708035469055,
-0.05263002589344978,
-0.5966060161590576,
-0.26383474469184875,
0.4090903699398041,
0.5278127789497375,
-0.9562762379646301,
-0.349338173866272,
0.1370505392551422,
0.48762574791908264,
-0.2178248167037964,
-0.317557156085968,
0.1947108954191208,
-0.25880590081214905,
-0.1504327356815338,
-0.24215275049209595,
0.1260424703359604,
-0.2319720834493637,
0.40871661901474,
0.30522850155830383,
-0.3104041814804077,
-0.3994634747505188,
-0.5740955471992493,
1.0036269426345825,
0.464570015668869,
-0.4039858877658844,
0.0931566059589386,
-0.16379514336585999,
-0.08081630617380142,
0.07278472930192947,
-0.15297718346118927,
0.7641404271125793,
0.686160147190094,
0.8589311838150024,
-0.18512053787708282,
-0.08715900778770447,
-0.34054091572761536,
-0.6288007497787476,
-0.15042553842067719,
-0.32941269874572754,
-0.6892930269241333,
0.5456953048706055,
-0.21451881527900696,
0.29089924693107605,
-0.42053624987602234,
-0.1422560214996338,
-0.38597455620765686,
-0.5421746969223022,
-0.5692200064659119,
-0.054819270968437195,
0.32284361124038696,
0.06341488659381866,
0.381106972694397,
-0.565070390701294,
0.08701059222221375,
0.9792895913124084,
-0.10452930629253387,
0.2713111937046051,
0.5243459343910217,
0.1209435909986496,
0.6028987169265747,
0.34991946816444397,
-0.2630254030227661,
0.9110441207885742,
-0.09598410874605179,
-0.47476938366889954,
-0.5862805843353271,
0.13647674024105072,
-0.10113780945539474,
0.34821298718452454,
-0.06185319647192955,
-0.34744569659233093,
0.2780076861381531,
-0.42805179953575134,
-0.5345264673233032,
0.22486981749534607,
-0.0933983325958252,
0.45187997817993164,
0.16650524735450745,
0.375292032957077,
0.26794520020484924,
0.7687647342681885,
-0.19227810204029083,
0.19273173809051514,
0.02117517963051796,
0.2810342609882355,
0.34175431728363037,
0.2458006739616394,
-0.24780642986297607,
0.3699452877044678,
0.5268411636352539,
0.2681841552257538,
0.21085427701473236,
-0.3406655490398407,
-0.15704341232776642,
-0.1045311763882637,
-1.0230947732925415,
0.10456222295761108,
0.18040037155151367,
0.930866539478302,
-0.30219653248786926,
-0.08464045822620392,
0.15074522793293,
-0.06898420304059982,
0.13150687515735626,
0.6884519457817078,
0.06577113270759583,
-0.5899388790130615,
0.9508291482925415,
0.26743459701538086,
-0.22916151583194733,
0.3600585162639618,
-0.6172294616699219,
0.04857710003852844,
-0.4928334355354309,
0.2830028533935547,
0.22824761271476746,
-0.0020309968385845423,
-0.3051130473613739,
0.3497815728187561,
0.33246633410453796,
-0.07173308730125427,
-0.4484201967716217,
0.13148698210716248,
-0.20402337610721588,
0.23008659482002258,
-0.2143324762582779,
0.3333752453327179,
0.42825308442115784,
0.3413708806037903,
0.34832093119621277,
-0.25036096572875977,
0.553776741027832,
0.15461507439613342,
-0.24225634336471558,
0.39838913083076477,
0.6154884099960327,
0.13638833165168762,
0.30248135328292847,
-0.3526490330696106,
0.026830783113837242,
-0.9492934346199036,
0.03793605789542198,
-0.14413246512413025,
-0.24890965223312378,
-0.0644167885184288,
0.24148747324943542,
-0.9089932441711426,
-0.068430595099926,
0.14211240410804749,
-0.2779890298843384,
0.24981479346752167,
-0.36096417903900146,
-0.006111788097769022,
-0.38722482323646545,
-0.18473871052265167,
0.7738540172576904,
-0.15136201679706573,
0.05842921882867813,
-0.3591495156288147,
0.04149949923157692,
0.20449811220169067,
-0.1681244820356369,
-0.0919409841299057,
-0.031603168696165085,
-0.7033728957176208,
0.29022321105003357,
-0.7954811453819275,
0.6131567358970642,
0.3621222972869873,
-0.2682135999202728,
0.0397481732070446,
0.33981674909591675,
0.15774495899677277,
-0.09605897217988968,
0.3793242871761322,
-0.24525007605552673,
-0.1572231948375702,
-0.3369685113430023,
-0.278128445148468,
-0.11791693419218063,
0.05858897790312767,
-0.5169084072113037,
-0.232307568192482,
0.07394473254680634,
0.06136662885546684,
0.432443767786026,
-0.22507911920547485,
0.6473953127861023,
-0.28466400504112244,
-0.609810471534729,
-0.6266794800758362,
0.1641087830066681,
-0.40175485610961914,
-0.3193654417991638,
0.2795272767543793,
0.6939463019371033,
0.6559181809425354,
-0.4088963568210602,
0.5781382322311401,
0.0018063184106722474,
-0.040085319429636,
-0.42855125665664673,
-0.5869100093841553,
-0.0812191367149353,
-0.18531787395477295,
0.14406831562519073,
-0.704173743724823,
0.9195855259895325,
0.22179168462753296,
-0.24010875821113586,
-0.16139133274555206,
-0.07207787781953812,
-0.0023394462186843157,
-0.1028185561299324,
0.3170309066772461,
-0.5291873812675476,
-0.13053672015666962,
-0.14961570501327515
] |
228797 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Liberty%20Presbyterian%20Church%20%28ELPC%29 | East Liberty Presbyterian Church (ELPC) | East Liberty Presbyterian Church, sometimes referred to as the Cathedral of Hope, is in the East Liberty neighborhood of the East End of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. The current building is the fifth church building to occupy the site; the first was in 1819.
History
The congregation of the East Liberty Presbyterian Church was founded in 1819. The land on which the present church stands was donated by Jacob and Barbara Negley. An acre-and-a-half site, the congregation's first building was a brick school and meeting house of forty-four square feet. The first pastor of the congregation was the Reverend W.B. McIlvaine, who was called as pastor in 1829. His ministry of four decades began with his ordination and installation in April 1830.
The pastorate of Rev. McIlvaine saw 622 members added to the church, spurring plans for a larger church building. In 1847 Mrs. Negley, now a widow, donated an additional tract of land that includes the current South Highland Avenue frontage. Three thousand dollars was raised and the second church, measuring 70 by 50 feet and seating about 400, was erected. The Pennsylvania Railroad extension into Pittsburgh in 1853 caused the Village of East Liberty's population to grow. Eventually, the second church proved too small and discussions began again on the construction of a third building. The building of the third church was delayed by the Civil War, but in 1862, $13,000 was raised and the new church completed by 1864 at a total cost of $23,000.
In 1865, the church called an associate, the Rev. John Gillespie, a native of Scotland and graduate of the Western Theological Seminary. When Rev. McIlvaine retired in 1870, Gillespie assumed the role of pastor. Gillespie's ministry lasted 12 years. In 1882, the Reverend Benjamin L. Agnew, of Philadelphia, was called to succeed Gillespie, but resigned after sixteen months to accept another call in Philadelphia. In 1884, the church called the Reverend J.P.E. Kumler, of Cincinnati. The congregation grew again under Kumler's leadership and the congregation began to consider a fourth, and larger, church building. The fourth church was begun in 1887 and completed within a year.
In 1902, the Rev. Frank W. Sneed succeeded Kumler and served until 1920, when he resigned citing failing health. A vacancy of a year occurred until the Reverend Stuart Nye Hutchison was called as pastor in April, 1921. In 1918, when the congregation observed its one-hundredth anniversary, Andrew William Mellon and Richard Beatty Mellon, the grandsons of Jacob and Barbara Negley donated to the East Liberty congregation the plot of land on Whitfield Street. This final donation of land brought the entire square of East Liberty's center into church possession, which would later be filled with a fifth church, funded by Richard Beatty Mellon and Jennie King Mellon and in memory of their mothers.
The present building
The current church, designed by Ralph Adams Cram, is the fifth on its site. Construction began in 1931 and completed in 1935, funded entirely by Richard Beatty Mellon and his wife, Jennie King Mellon, in memory of their mothers, Sarah Jane Negley Mellon and Sarah Cordelia Smith King. Cram was most pleased with the result, calling it his Magnum Opus. Cram writes in 1935, "Seldom in the case of great churches are the architects permitted to see their highest ideals carried out after a complete and definitive fashion. Here the donors had a vision of adequacy and completeness...it is doubtful if there is anywhere in this country a church of similar magnitude where every detail of utility and artistic quality has been achieved in so full a degree."
Artists and craftsmen of the 1935 church
Architects
Cram and Ferguson, Boston, Mass.
Construction Engineers
James L. Stuart
Alexander R. Reed
Kenneth F. Craft
Scultpors and Modelers
John Angel, New York, NY
William F. Ross Company, East Cambridge, Mass.
Irving and Casson - A.H. Davenport Company, Boston, Mass.
Stained Glass
Charles J. Connick, Boston, Mass.
Reynolds, Francis and Rohnstock, Boston, Mass.
Wilbur H. Burnham, Boston, Mass.
Howard G. Wilbert, Pittsburgh, Penna.
Henry Lee Willet, Philadelphia, Penna.
Oliver Smith, Philadelphia, Penna.
The D'Ascenzo Studios, Philadelphia, Penna.
Stone Carvers
George Brown and Company, Newark, N.J.
Sichi and Fanfani, Washington, D.C.
Wood Workers
Alexander Howie, Incorporated, Cleveland, Ohio
R.E. Logan and Company, Pittsburgh, Penna.
Matthews Brothers Company, Bloomington, Ind.
Rockwood-Alabama Stone Company, Russelville, Ala.
Metal Workers
Edward F. Caldwell and Company, New York, N.Y.
Organs
The original pipe organ in the church was also a gift of Richard Mellon, and was built as Opus #884 by the Boston firm of Æolian-Skinner. The organ comprised eight divisions, including a six-rank string organ. It contained 6,944 pipes, a harp, and chimes. In 1972-73, the instrument was cleaned and improvements were made to the blowers. Over the following two years, revoicing work was done on several reed and principal stops by J. David Burger. Additions in the 1970s included two significant Memorial Stops. The first being the State Trumpet and the second being the Mounted Cornet. In 2007, the Indianapolis organ building firm of Goulding & Wood, Inc. installed a new organ composed of approximately 60% new pipework and 40% from the original organ. The instrument now contains 120 ranks, with restoration work still to be done on the two antiphonal divisions in the rear gallery.
The first organ in the chapel was built by the Austin Organ Company of Hartford, CT. This instrument had originally been installed in the fourth East Liberty building in 1919, a gift of Mrs. W.M. McKelvy, C. Lockhart McKelvy, and John E. McKelvy. The instrument consisted of sixty-three stops played by a four-manual console. By 1970, consideration was given whether to restore this instrument or purchase a new one. After much deliberation, a new pipe organ was purchased from the Austin Organ Company and installed in February of 1973. The new, and current, Austin is a three manual instrument of 36 ranks and played by a three-manual console. Notably, the organ case predates the 1919 Austin organ and is likely that of the 1888 organ built by Frank Roosevelt for the East Liberty Presbyterian congregation.
Art and architecture
Penn Avenue entrance
The Penn Avenue main entrance carvings represent the City of God (left) and the Tower of David (right).
Narthex
The narthex ceiling is copied from a model found in Cambridge University, England. The inner doors from narthex to nave are English oak. The windows in the south wall depict angels holding instruments of praise and the Scriptures. The windows, from the studios of Reynolds, Francis and Rohnstock, form a glass screen between the narthex and the nave. Within them is found the following symbols: chrysanthemum, thistle, star, fleur-de-lis, rose, and finally a budded cross. Th rose window above the west entrance is also by Reynolds, Francis and Rohnstock. The two windows on the north side of the narthex are by Howard G. Wilbert. The exterior doors of the main entrance are English oak; the interior doors are Siamese teak and weigh four tons.
Clerestory windows
The windows of the clerestory are by Charles J. Connick of Boston, Massachusetts. There are ten clerestory windows in two groups. The windows on the east side of the nave depict Old Testament scenes while the windows on the west side depict New Testament scenes.
Stained glass in the transepts
The large rose window in the east transept, the two small rose windows above the chancel organ cases, and the two small rose windows in each transept are by the D'Ascenzo Studios of Philadelphia. The large window depicts the Revelation 21; the figure of a woman representing the Holy City, the New Jerusalem.
The American Presbyterian History Window was designed by Henry Lee Willett and touches on nearly three centuries of Presbyterian history. The portrayals include Frances Makemie, William Tennent, Samuel Davies, John Witherspoon, John Cameron Lowrie, David Brainerd, Sheldon Jackson, John Joyce, Samuel Findley, Charles Hodge, Thomas Jonathan Jackson, and Robert Elliott Speer. As of 2021, the Church is considering the removal of the Thomas Jonathan Jackson panel due to his Confederate infamy and affiliation.
A single lancet panel, beneath the American Presbyterian History Window, is by Oliver Smith Studios. This window shows three scenes: the Haystack Prayer Meeting (considered the beginning of American Foreign Missions), John Eliot (Puritan Missionary), and Benjamin Franklin's Prayer in the Continental Congress.
Sculpture in the transepts
The Mellon coat-of-arms is mounted on the south wall of the east transept. A brief history of the East Liberty Presbyterian Church is also here inscribed, documenting the congregation's gratitude to the Mellons for their gift of the building. Five Christian virtues are carved as symbols on the west wall of the east transept on shields: Charity (a sheep), Wisdom (a serpent), Faith (a chalice and cross), Chastity (a phoenix), and Patience (a yoked ox). The shield of the Presbyterian Church is carved on the east wall of the nave.
Stained glass in the chancel
The chancel windows were designed by Wilbur Herbert Burnham of Boston, Massachusetts. The windows depict scenes of the life of Christ from the entry into Jerusalem to the Ascension. These scenes are purposefully not placed chronologically so that they cannot be viewed within the sequence of events as found in Gospel accounts. Four small rose windows highlight the importance of music in worship and portray King David (Psalmist), Giovanni Pierluigi Palestrina, Pope Gregory I (Gregorian chant), and Johann Sebastian Bach.
Sculpture in the chancel
A "sounding board" is mounted above the pulpit, which served, prior to modern microphone and speaker systems, to project the preacher's voice into the nave. The imposing reredos is constructed of Alabama limestone. The Last Supper, carved by John Angel, is regarded as one of the two outstanding achievements of his career (the other being the bronze doors of St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City). The scene was carved from a twenty-two ton rectangular block of Hauteville marble.
Elsewhere, the chancel features several types of marble. The red marble of the Communion Table was imported from Algeria. The chancel floor, formed into a geometrical design, is made of Hauteville marble from France, French Antique Rogue, Swiss Cipolin, Statuary White, Greek Verde Antique, Sarrancolin West, Campan Rubane, Red Levanto, Vermont Verde Antique and Swedish Green.
The Tower Bell
The central tower of the church is home to a bell cast by the Meneely Bell Foundry of Troy, NY. Weighing 2,760 pounds, it was donated by Barbara Negley in 1867. Its inscription reads: "Donated to the First Presbyterian Church of East Liberty by Mrs. B. A. Negley, in the 89th year of her age. Pastors - Rev. William B. McIlvaine, Rev. John Gillespie." Notable occasions on which the bell was rung include the Centennial of the Singing of the Declaration of Independence, the passing of the funeral train of Resident McKinley, and during the World War as a call to prayer.
Exterior lighting
As part of the church's 200th anniversary celebration, new exterior lighting was installed to highlight Ralph Adams Cram's architectural masterpiece. The final phase of this project was to illuminate the tower. The new tower lighting was debuted on May 4, 2019.
Trinity Chapel
Following the deaths of Richard Beatty and Jennie King Mellon in 1942, the Church Session voted to construct to them a memorial which became Trinity Chapel. The entrance to the chapel is half-way down the east aisle and marked, above the doorway, with a carved shield of the Trinity. The doors are Siamese teak. The interior carvings are inspired by Peter Paul Rubens and the windows by Wilbur H. Burnham. The chapel, designed as well by Cram, was erected at a cost of $120,000 and dedicated January 15, 1944.
Wayfarers' Chapel
Desiring to be conscious of those suffering the economic repercussions of the 1929 Great Depression, the congregation intended to use the Wayfarers' Chapel (located at the corner of Baum and Whitfield) for a ministry of social service. However, by the time the church was completed in 1935, the worst of the Great Depression was over and the Wayfarers' Chapel did not fulfill its intended use until many years later. Three windows in the chapel's interior are designed by Howard G. Wilbert and depict the Great Seal of the United Sates of America, The Crucifixion, and An angel holding the Gospel.
The Garth
The term "garth" comes from the Old English word "heard," or "yard." In the chapel side wall of the garth can be seen the cornerstones of the congregation's previous three church buildings from 1848, 1864, and 1887. The four sandstone columns, set in the north east corner, are from the 1887 church. As a reminder that the land of the Garth was once used as graveyard, the tombstone of John Spahr is erected. The Garth includes a pulpit and is used frequently by the church for services and other events.
References
Further reading
External links
East Liberty Presbyterian Church
East Liberty Presbyterian Church on Facebook
Hope Academy on Facebook
SAH Archipedia Building Entry
Churches in Pittsburgh
Presbyterian churches in Pennsylvania
Churches completed in 1935
20th-century Presbyterian church buildings in the United States
Pittsburgh History & Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmarks
Ralph Adams Cram church buildings
Gothic Revival church buildings in Pennsylvania | [
-0.06975960731506348,
0.10768314450979233,
0.36504998803138733,
-0.10970653593540192,
0.7591795921325684,
0.33469781279563904,
0.29749155044555664,
0.1092427521944046,
-0.11901098489761353,
-0.6628069877624512,
-0.1463795006275177,
0.04804374277591705,
-0.21793347597122192,
0.5200353264808655,
-0.3113749325275421,
0.6128097772598267,
0.7512480020523071,
0.9118105173110962,
-0.09813538193702698,
-0.6331415176391602,
-0.3486011028289795,
-0.5624152421951294,
0.5129145383834839,
0.6662849187850952,
-0.09448591619729996,
0.34456387162208557,
0.36684563755989075,
-0.711357593536377,
0.024978945031762123,
0.2149624526500702,
0.4488303065299988,
0.5411761403083801,
0.4251922070980072,
-0.4495832622051239,
0.1072840765118599,
-0.3732534945011139,
-0.2636699676513672,
-0.1161271184682846,
-0.25609704852104187,
-0.3855786919593811,
-0.20262163877487183,
-0.5352233648300171,
0.6014359593391418,
0.36189496517181396,
0.12349753081798553,
-0.6156719326972961,
-1.5279216766357422,
0.06610634177923203,
-0.9421346783638,
0.2026776224374771,
-0.30530181527137756,
-0.07395610213279724,
-0.19349262118339539,
0.4169391393661499,
-0.057793762534856796,
0.3267183303833008,
-1.2060275077819824,
0.06007978320121765,
0.3808594346046448,
-0.6751800775527954,
-0.4232523739337921,
0.03378685191273689,
0.3984583616256714,
0.23259428143501282,
0.3776762783527374,
-0.09293144941329956,
-0.19616955518722534,
0.257720947265625,
-0.3767036199569702,
-0.4737280011177063,
0.1375972032546997,
0.20694226026535034,
-0.48563480377197266,
-0.30576610565185547,
0.029518788680434227,
-0.17644354701042175,
-0.7414326071739197,
0.15854667127132416,
0.06623464822769165,
0.35181912779808044,
-0.21056628227233887,
0.3325580358505249,
0.1795470118522644,
0.4665987193584442,
-0.09305661916732788,
-0.08597540855407715,
-0.4745503067970276,
-0.041539669036865234,
0.08699217438697815,
0.5621759295463562,
-0.3121841549873352,
0.1294628381729126,
-0.19836485385894775,
0.29688575863838196,
0.0024152849800884724,
0.05969235301017761,
0.37244632840156555,
0.11615730077028275,
-0.6645058393478394,
0.7124232053756714,
0.11466701328754425,
0.4559398293495178,
-0.1958305835723877,
-0.24867716431617737,
-0.38781338930130005,
0.24724996089935303,
-0.04960810765624046,
-0.16863948106765747,
0.03846849128603935,
-0.22299791872501373,
-0.9428766965866089,
0.19639436900615692,
-0.35754337906837463,
-0.04714973270893097,
-0.05529076233506203,
0.18567371368408203,
0.9059726595878601,
-0.22335174679756165,
-0.4698980152606964,
-0.6681240797042847,
-0.18308156728744507,
0.9236782789230347,
0.18611599504947662,
0.6042899489402771,
0.17907945811748505,
0.27237021923065186,
0.22370290756225586,
0.9358060359954834,
-0.7335896492004395,
-0.15578414499759674,
0.16736668348312378,
0.22449803352355957,
0.4467916488647461,
-0.18376687169075012,
-0.16841614246368408,
-0.0670442208647728,
0.08799104392528534,
-0.30626431107521057,
0.7611918449401855,
0.7200204133987427,
-0.7520797252655029,
-0.4007939398288727,
0.20208436250686646,
-0.5595647096633911,
0.01664130762219429,
-0.5162951946258545,
-0.5678786635398865,
-0.35849127173423767,
0.04781445488333702,
0.02760961279273033,
0.7052794694900513,
0.09113547950983047,
-0.7146146893501282,
-0.13036444783210754,
-0.4027920961380005,
0.10597570240497589,
0.8264085054397583,
-0.27587971091270447,
0.12498828768730164,
0.6984035968780518,
-0.31146541237831116,
0.20853722095489502,
0.0846908837556839,
-0.270857036113739,
-0.061437055468559265,
0.30225738883018494,
0.2811426520347595,
-0.5653501152992249,
0.21136727929115295,
-0.0836116224527359,
-0.2346620112657547,
-0.32157355546951294,
0.12963224947452545,
0.46524032950401306,
0.20496901869773865,
-0.7645106911659241,
0.6392269134521484,
0.3935483694076538,
-0.3843762278556824,
-0.028588272631168365,
-0.7879055738449097,
0.31094375252723694,
0.08973908424377441,
-0.32004764676094055,
-0.007152521517127752,
0.24804125726222992,
-0.2519030272960663,
0.39425572752952576,
-0.0890996903181076,
-0.2410668134689331,
-0.48897966742515564,
-0.7115893363952637,
0.08731838315725327,
-0.33759328722953796,
1.3305141925811768,
-0.03222726657986641,
-0.2502470016479492,
-0.012794616632163525,
-0.2840521037578583,
0.031479835510253906,
-0.1263103485107422,
-0.5167502164840698,
0.6017762422561646,
0.21489661931991577,
-1.1507585048675537,
0.2611118257045746,
0.2186339795589447,
0.3307121694087982,
0.021451452746987343,
0.07240474224090576,
0.26587140560150146,
-0.3505653738975525,
0.18381141126155853,
0.8897297382354736,
0.1076652854681015,
-0.7412534356117249,
-0.27618423104286194,
-0.25922563672065735,
0.1656854897737503,
-0.15153342485427856,
0.9703210592269897,
-0.08672114461660385,
0.6847484707832336,
0.3443819284439087,
-0.36726731061935425,
-0.04987727105617523,
-0.09852637350559235,
0.16508007049560547,
0.25247594714164734,
0.48989489674568176,
-0.017124298959970474,
0.49350884556770325,
-0.2181805819272995,
-0.5756502151489258,
0.06710570305585861,
-0.40493902564048767,
-0.3752192258834839,
-0.18252433836460114,
0.38678431510925293,
-0.3065890371799469,
0.04541055113077164,
-0.5027803182601929,
-0.9310049414634705,
-0.11692262440919876,
0.7490721940994263,
0.05540229380130768,
-0.5127438306808472,
-0.08283455669879913,
0.16272076964378357,
0.03637989982962608,
-0.15204612910747528,
-0.012847745791077614,
0.7750476002693176,
-0.1290086805820465,
0.8474998474121094,
0.19000348448753357,
0.5634710788726807,
0.3723087012767792,
-0.14274929463863373,
0.26871055364608765,
-0.3467480540275574,
-0.41721174120903015,
0.037592243403196335,
-0.2805711328983307,
0.038339558988809586,
-0.07492071390151978,
-0.1430383175611496,
-0.13917052745819092,
0.870826244354248,
-0.12675780057907104,
0.22714190185070038,
0.031480591744184494,
-0.251107782125473,
0.16280753910541534,
-0.5569074749946594,
-0.14242306351661682,
-0.19256465137004852,
-0.172499418258667,
-0.23215758800506592,
-0.7755085229873657,
0.11989174038171768,
0.298964262008667,
0.21708835661411285,
-0.6890947222709656,
0.3450586497783661,
-0.060817766934633255,
-0.0003320811374578625,
-0.45837268233299255,
-0.8014059066772461,
-0.5452843904495239,
-0.3676578104496002,
0.054918352514505386,
0.18045230209827423,
0.061355236917734146,
0.7145877480506897,
0.4902697801589966,
0.7071871757507324,
-0.13825032114982605,
0.15448717772960663,
-0.20833206176757812,
-0.32902801036834717,
0.3228852152824402,
0.2469792515039444,
0.007149246521294117,
0.38904640078544617,
-0.3899891972541809,
0.0017157818656414747,
-0.15588803589344025,
-5.609640121459961,
0.4510725438594818,
-0.42620566487312317,
0.10267569869756699,
0.011651197448372841,
0.00883626937866211,
0.3862624168395996,
-0.4202564060688019,
0.3539213240146637,
-0.02866196259856224,
-0.3439880311489105,
-0.18830606341362,
0.3834333121776581,
0.07977986335754395,
0.7147139310836792,
0.7099395990371704,
0.20392176508903503,
-0.20870421826839447,
0.683951735496521,
-0.30749204754829407,
0.45517608523368835,
-0.12082650512456894,
-0.08547334372997284,
0.6944342851638794,
0.5615916848182678,
0.3092532157897949,
-0.33726727962493896,
0.03999847546219826,
-0.2959129214286804,
-0.1352878212928772,
0.33767202496528625,
0.048632003366947174,
-0.20329847931861877,
-0.7362862229347229,
-0.2003171443939209,
-0.4243655800819397,
0.23171134293079376,
-0.24123071134090424,
-0.11279605329036713,
-0.4429905414581299,
0.430715411901474,
0.04048345983028412,
-0.1893775761127472,
-0.19960393011569977,
-0.48367005586624146,
-0.19543500244617462,
-0.2347969114780426,
-0.4307529330253601,
-0.4423981010913849,
0.9615684747695923,
-0.21775706112384796,
0.027468333020806313,
1.0650023221969604,
0.08149833232164383,
0.3087829351425171,
-0.16255249083042145,
0.22046716511249542,
0.7043406367301941,
0.3336658477783203,
0.23103295266628265,
0.4108164608478546,
-0.3266391158103943,
-0.5190425515174866,
-0.24798062443733215,
-0.09879221767187119,
0.26813870668411255,
-0.1865144670009613,
0.3634188771247864,
0.2828853130340576,
0.21746262907981873,
-0.24921424686908722,
0.1679549515247345,
-0.6799529194831848,
-1.1256978511810303,
-0.10727600753307343,
-0.6596863269805908,
-0.47568830847740173,
0.0035927416756749153,
-0.36906278133392334,
0.2091497927904129,
-0.17449970543384552,
0.01789769157767296,
0.35007598996162415,
0.3603595197200775,
0.05510023236274719,
-0.0856783390045166,
-0.3986837863922119,
0.27119338512420654,
-0.23903697729110718,
-0.0472138412296772,
-0.12862424552440643,
-0.5290431976318359,
-0.07328061759471893,
0.06135718151926994,
0.4062935709953308,
0.0625692829489708,
0.6114136576652527,
0.5479738116264343,
-0.16242913901805878,
0.1408083587884903,
0.3347042202949524,
0.43182510137557983,
0.03829028829932213,
0.28562721610069275,
0.07524126023054123,
-0.5054053068161011,
-0.08795946836471558,
0.11417753994464874,
0.6888248920440674,
-0.1960536390542984,
0.22981245815753937,
-0.47787967324256897,
-0.04247470200061798,
-0.48039573431015015,
0.12045478820800781,
0.019999749958515167,
-0.1581076979637146,
0.4560120403766632,
0.1007036566734314,
-0.10733270645141602,
0.39209362864494324,
0.025834590196609497,
-0.04123350977897644,
0.39625415205955505,
-0.6959433555603027,
0.1787528246641159,
0.29392707347869873,
0.4021952152252197,
-0.5211178660392761,
0.1656574159860611,
0.3299752473831177,
0.05508212372660637,
0.3069380521774292,
0.18254217505455017,
0.0037527328822761774,
-0.044787000864744186,
0.30239859223365784,
-0.927498459815979,
0.035840269178152084,
0.23384715616703033,
0.02603277936577797,
0.09381740540266037,
-0.4693678021430969,
0.7431051731109619,
0.7123928666114807,
0.38339295983314514,
-0.2694566547870636,
0.12148992717266083,
-0.6700935959815979,
0.1808794140815735,
-0.21886545419692993,
0.2882908284664154,
0.7416658997535706,
-0.27494826912879944,
0.29068538546562195,
0.458652526140213,
0.12011322379112244,
-0.06037915125489235,
-0.4195754826068878,
0.017770633101463318,
0.056928250938653946,
0.36382248997688293,
-0.8015123605728149,
-0.42587634921073914,
0.49816569685935974,
-0.010231779888272285,
-0.6267352104187012,
0.13383862376213074,
-0.33884546160697937,
0.5355737805366516,
0.5005455613136292,
-0.3535229563713074,
-0.3281339108943939,
-0.27015939354896545,
0.49313899874687195,
0.12358363717794418,
0.16951775550842285,
-0.20142826437950134,
0.16816005110740662,
-0.15751634538173676,
-0.21173711121082306,
-0.03654169663786888,
-0.05854900926351547,
0.7284926772117615,
0.914434552192688,
-0.31851813197135925,
-0.4783293306827545,
-0.39820900559425354,
-0.06963436305522919,
0.06712823361158371,
0.2986740469932556,
-0.6926470994949341,
-0.4401162564754486,
0.0951046571135521,
-0.013681738637387753,
-0.4762108623981476,
0.300075888633728,
-0.7056408524513245,
-0.0360298752784729,
-0.42557162046432495,
-0.199638232588768,
-0.03009047731757164,
-0.6223890781402588,
0.6485941410064697,
-0.26130709052085876,
-0.23708868026733398,
1.0161418914794922,
0.21891050040721893,
-0.6531552076339722,
0.7997607588768005,
-0.15015913546085358,
-0.5449178218841553,
-0.0045776269398629665,
0.3131656348705292,
-0.4831045866012573,
0.1480647176504135,
0.05366691201925278,
-0.10698504745960236,
-0.8331879377365112,
-0.3823910057544708,
-0.108681820333004,
-0.13275785744190216,
0.026878444477915764,
-0.47298645973205566,
-0.20314380526542664,
0.4227907955646515,
-0.01551603339612484,
-1.050385594367981,
-0.08833248168230057,
-0.25411778688430786,
-0.6425285339355469,
0.07194569706916809,
0.12521077692508698,
0.0766051784157753,
-0.3772394061088562,
0.02348414435982704,
-0.6023967862129211,
-0.06380348652601242,
-0.15103501081466675,
0.15778003633022308,
-0.6599791646003723,
0.14921875298023224,
-0.12247736006975174,
-0.9121689796447754,
-0.008820603601634502,
0.27762916684150696,
0.36558797955513,
-0.17788463830947876,
-0.4762405753135681,
0.8812265396118164,
0.28039291501045227,
-0.2941388189792633,
-0.012493789196014404,
-0.8341435790061951,
0.18987374007701874,
-0.4282338321208954,
-0.34109988808631897,
0.027607055380940437,
-0.374990314245224,
-0.17514368891716003,
-0.15154021978378296,
-0.8982983231544495,
-0.35711991786956787,
0.41461652517318726,
0.18518567085266113,
0.27182137966156006,
-0.19222402572631836,
-1.0959187746047974,
0.13282422721385956,
-0.5664358735084534,
-0.007518378086388111,
-0.008127554319798946,
0.5301254391670227,
0.2884381115436554,
-0.5829096436500549,
0.08169295638799667,
-0.33822572231292725,
-0.606386125087738,
-0.32639941573143005,
0.364968478679657,
-0.5276970863342285,
0.06341831386089325,
-0.4397641718387604,
0.09304634481668472,
0.2072523534297943,
-0.3445984423160553,
-0.36367368698120117,
-0.10567855834960938,
-0.28506195545196533,
0.15430456399917603,
-0.5160828828811646,
-0.3494109809398651,
0.2657380998134613,
-0.503555178642273,
-0.12083637714385986,
0.13253705203533173,
0.6511978507041931,
-0.14794130623340607,
-0.1289978176355362,
-0.09082294255495071,
-0.6321558356285095,
1.2308892011642456,
0.15191669762134552,
-0.30511918663978577,
0.09889039397239685,
0.21743829548358917,
-0.02492055483162403,
0.21196992695331573,
-0.08212601393461227,
-0.41609400510787964,
0.07604459673166275,
0.06621431559324265,
0.6236591935157776,
0.8551095128059387,
-0.49996793270111084,
0.10458482056856155,
0.3152582347393036,
-0.15937696397304535,
0.2890982925891876,
0.3232526183128357,
-0.28419142961502075,
0.22073441743850708,
0.4839712083339691,
0.19890353083610535,
-0.3892199695110321,
0.5908203721046448,
-0.06716606020927429,
-0.27756282687187195,
0.009518197737634182,
0.7335004210472107,
0.3538130521774292,
0.04901351407170296,
-0.32722899317741394,
0.7033767700195312,
-0.43720924854278564,
-0.21462775766849518,
-0.24095597863197327,
-0.528681755065918,
-0.5991781949996948,
1.116054654121399,
0.1915878802537918,
0.5566837787628174,
0.190813809633255,
0.7510538697242737,
-0.2349192351102829,
-0.1955016851425171,
0.06231480464339256,
0.09861328452825546,
0.060520824044942856,
-0.19958747923374176,
0.11099784821271896,
-0.4014520049095154,
-0.07840503752231598,
-0.5156816244125366,
-0.13073667883872986,
0.3633691966533661,
0.458111047744751,
-0.23928941786289215,
0.5568049550056458,
0.37595662474632263,
-0.4946213960647583,
0.600432276725769,
0.6467822194099426,
-0.3694707453250885,
-0.23634347319602966,
-0.10330169647932053,
0.30896514654159546,
-0.683246374130249,
-0.32202211022377014,
0.7625765800476074,
0.21215830743312836,
0.33475932478904724,
-0.26382574439048767,
-0.07267984002828598,
0.3679672181606293,
0.7502388954162598,
0.38563209772109985,
0.20968829095363617,
0.21247802674770355,
0.48003116250038147,
-0.021311745047569275,
0.08810055255889893,
-0.038224957883358,
0.002754661487415433,
0.6814563274383545,
-0.06521522253751755,
0.1356087327003479,
0.32707467675209045,
-0.6202313899993896,
-0.28089261054992676,
0.3641630709171295,
-0.7177682518959045,
0.6502589583396912,
-0.4128958582878113,
0.22757449746131897,
0.26234111189842224,
0.22962965071201324,
0.5828509330749512,
0.23210136592388153,
0.7957282662391663,
-0.2934390604496002,
0.15553520619869232,
0.5481235980987549,
-0.04095367714762688,
-0.6114789843559265,
0.2816406488418579,
-0.01771451346576214,
0.08705426752567291,
-0.7136098146438599,
0.10737847536802292,
0.08356061577796936,
0.46659740805625916,
0.31483906507492065,
0.5363457202911377,
-0.24084800481796265,
0.22573620080947876,
0.8978736996650696,
0.09548186510801315,
-0.5799442529678345,
-0.43993881344795227,
-0.4230564534664154,
-0.3094880282878876,
0.29051291942596436,
0.5741021633148193,
0.18830937147140503,
-0.3615425229072571,
0.037572745233774185,
0.27535760402679443,
-0.37325236201286316,
0.4407881498336792,
0.4565596580505371,
-0.6635243892669678,
-0.2952658236026764,
0.7111876606941223,
-0.563112735748291,
0.08043222874403,
0.05907725542783737,
0.3166065514087677,
0.3199481964111328,
-0.40521329641342163,
-0.04468816891312599,
-0.5900757312774658,
-0.4334867298603058,
-0.20311923325061798,
0.32441800832748413,
0.5227296352386475,
-0.4676746726036072,
-0.6494351625442505,
-0.5822277665138245,
0.5447341203689575,
0.3759419322013855,
-0.959820032119751,
-0.11352883279323578,
-0.2296789437532425,
0.29571789503097534,
-0.519080400466919,
-0.006213171873241663,
0.29312562942504883,
0.5811622738838196,
-0.25203028321266174
] |
228798 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iguanodon | Iguanodon | Iguanodon ( ; meaning 'iguana-tooth'), named in 1825, is a genus of iguanodontian dinosaur. While many species have been classified in the genus Iguanodon, dating from the late Jurassic Period to the early Cretaceous Period of Asia, Europe, and North America, taxonomic revision in the early 21st century has defined Iguanodon to be based on one well-substantiated species: I. bernissartensis, which lived from the late Barremian to the earliest Aptian ages (Early Cretaceous) in Belgium, Germany, England, Spain, and possibly elsewhere in Europe, between about 126 and 122 million years ago. Iguanodon were large, bulky herbivores. Distinctive features include large thumb spikes, which were possibly used for defense against predators, combined with long prehensile fifth fingers able to forage for food.
The genus was named in 1825 by English geologist Gideon Mantell but discovered by William Harding Bensted, based on fossil specimens found in England and was given the species name I. anglicus. Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens, after Megalosaurus. Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus, it was one of the three genera originally used to define Dinosauria. The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group Iguanodontia, along with the duck-billed hadrosaurs. The taxonomy of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long-standing ones reassigned to other genera. In 1878 new, far more complete remains of Iguanodon were discovered in Belgium and studied by Louis Dollo. These were given the new species I. bernissartensis. In the early 21st century it became understood that the remains referred to Iguanodon in England belonged to four different species (including I. bernissartensis) that were not closely related to each other, which were subsequently split off into Mantellisaurus, Barilium and Hypselospinus. It was also found that the originally described type species of Iguanodon, I. anglicus was a nomen dubium, and not valid. Thus the name "Iguanodon" became fixed around the well known species based primarily on the Belgian specimens. In 2015, a second valid species, I. galvensis, was named, based on fossils found in the Iberian Peninsula.
Scientific understanding of Iguanodon has evolved over time as new information has been obtained from fossils. The numerous specimens of this genus, including nearly complete skeletons from two well-known bone beds, have allowed researchers to make informed hypotheses regarding many aspects of the living animal, including feeding, movement, and social behaviour. As one of the first scientifically well-known dinosaurs, Iguanodon has occupied a small but notable place in the public's perception of dinosaurs, its artistic representation changing significantly in response to new interpretations of its remains.
Discovery and history
Gideon Mantell, Sir Richard Owen, and the discovery of dinosaurs
The discovery of Iguanodon has long been accompanied by a popular legend. The story goes that Gideon Mantell's wife, Mary Ann, discovered the first teeth of an Iguanodon in the strata of Tilgate Forest in Whitemans Green, Cuckfield, Sussex, England, in 1822 while her husband was visiting a patient. However, there is no evidence that Mantell took his wife with him while seeing patients. Furthermore, he admitted in 1851 that he himself had found the teeth, although he had previously stated in 1827 that Mrs. Mantell had indeed found the first of the teeth later named Iguanodon. Other later authors agree that the story is not certainly false. It is known from his notebooks that Mantell first acquired large fossil bones from the quarry at Whitemans Green in 1820. Because also theropod teeth were found, thus belonging to carnivores, he at first interpreted these bones, which he tried to combine into a partial skeleton, as those of a giant crocodile. In 1821 Mantell mentioned the find of herbivorous teeth and began to consider the possibility that a large herbivorous reptile was present in the strata. However, in his 1822 publication Fossils of the South Downs he as yet did not dare to suggest a connection between the teeth and his very incomplete skeleton, presuming that his finds presented two large forms, one carnivorous ("an animal of the Lizard Tribe of enormous magnitude"), the other herbivorous.
In May 1822 he first presented the herbivorous teeth to the Royal Society of London but the members, among them William Buckland, dismissed them as fish teeth or the incisors of a rhinoceros from a Tertiary stratum. On 23 June 1823 Charles Lyell showed some to Georges Cuvier, during a soiree in Paris, but the famous French naturalist at once dismissed them as those of a rhinoceros. Though the very next day Cuvier retracted, Lyell reported only the dismissal to Mantell, who became rather diffident about the issue. In 1824 Buckland described Megalosaurus and was on that occasion invited to visit Mantell's collection. Seeing the bones on 6 March he agreed that these were of some giant saurian—though still denying it was a herbivore. Emboldened nevertheless, Mantell again sent some teeth to Cuvier, who answered on 22 June 1824 that he had determined that they were reptilian and quite possibly belonged to a giant herbivore. In a new edition that year of his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles Cuvier admitted his earlier mistake, leading to an immediate acceptance of Mantell, and his new saurian, in scientific circles. Mantell tried to corroborate his theory further by finding a modern-day parallel among extant reptiles. In September 1824 he visited the Royal College of Surgeons but at first failed to find comparable teeth. However, assistant-curator Samuel Stutchbury recognised that they resembled those of an iguana he had recently prepared, albeit twenty times longer.
In recognition of the resemblance of the teeth to those of the iguana, Mantell decided to name his new animal Iguanodon or 'iguana-tooth', from iguana and the Greek word ὀδών (odon, odontos or 'tooth'). Based on isometric scaling, he estimated that the creature might have been up to long, more than the length of Megalosaurus. His initial idea for a name was Iguana-saurus ('Iguana lizard'), but his friend William Daniel Conybeare suggested that that name was more applicable to the iguana itself, so a better name would be Iguanoides ('Iguana-like') or Iguanodon. He neglected to add a specific name to form a proper binomial, but one was supplied in 1829 by Friedrich Holl: I. anglicum, which was later amended to I. anglicus.
Mantell sent a letter detailing his discovery to the local Portsmouth Philosophical Society in December 1824, several weeks after settling on a name for the fossil creature. The letter was read to members of the Society at a meeting on 17 December, and a report was published in the Hampshire Telegraph the following Monday, 20 December, which announced the name, misspelled as "Iguanadon". Mantell formally published his findings on 10 February 1825, when he presented a paper on the remains to the Royal Society of London.
A more complete specimen of a similar animal was discovered in a quarry in Maidstone, Kent, in 1834 (lower Lower Greensand Formation), which Mantell soon acquired. He was led to identify it as an Iguanodon based on its distinctive teeth. The Maidstone slab was utilized in the first skeletal reconstructions and artistic renderings of Iguanodon, but due to its incompleteness, Mantell made some mistakes, the most famous of which was the placement of what he thought was a horn on the nose. The discovery of much better specimens in later years revealed that the horn was actually a modified thumb. Still encased in rock, the Maidstone skeleton is currently displayed at the Natural History Museum in London. The borough of Maidstone commemorated this find by adding an Iguanodon as a supporter to their coat of arms in 1949. This specimen has become linked with the name I. mantelli, a species named in 1832 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in place of I. anglicus, but it actually comes from a different formation than the original I. mantelli/I. anglicus material. The Maidstone specimen, also known as Gideon Mantell's "Mantel-piece", and formally labelled NHMUK 3741 was subsequently excluded from Iguanodon. It is classified as cf. Mantellisaurus by McDonald (2012); as cf. Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis by Norman (2012); and made the holotype of a separate species Mantellodon carpenteri by Paul (2012), but this is considered dubious and it is generally considered a specimen of Mantellisaurus
At the same time, tension began to build between Mantell and Richard Owen, an ambitious scientist with much better funding and society connections in the turbulent worlds of Reform Act-era British politics and science. Owen, a firm creationist, opposed the early versions of evolutionary science ("transmutationism") then being debated and used what he would soon coin as dinosaurs as a weapon in this conflict. With the paper describing Dinosauria, he scaled down dinosaurs from lengths of over , determined that they were not simply giant lizards, and put forward that they were advanced and mammal-like, characteristics given to them by God; according to the understanding of the time, they could not have been "transmuted" from reptiles to mammal-like creatures.
In 1849, a few years before his death in 1852, Mantell realised that iguanodonts were not heavy, pachyderm-like animals, as Owen was putting forward, but had slender forelimbs; however, his passing left him unable to participate in the creation of the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures, and so Owen's vision of the dinosaurs became that seen by the public for decades. With Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins, he had nearly two dozen lifesize sculptures of various prehistoric animals built out of concrete sculpted over a steel and brick framework; two iguanodonts (based on the Maidstone specimen), one standing and one resting on its belly, were included. Before the sculpture of the standing iguanodont was completed, he held a banquet for twenty inside it.
Bernissart mine discoveries and Dollo's new reconstruction
The largest find of Iguanodon remains to that date occurred on 28 February 1878 in a coal mine at Bernissart in Belgium, at a depth of , when two mineworkers, Jules Créteur and Alphonse Blanchard, accidentally hit on a skeleton that they initially took for petrified wood. With the encouragement of Alphonse Briart, supervisor of mines at nearby Morlanwelz, Louis de Pauw on 15 May 1878 started to excavate the skeletons and in 1882 Louis Dollo reconstructed them. At least 38 Iguanodon individuals were uncovered, most of which were adults. In 1882, the holotype specimen of I. bernissartensis became one of the first ever dinosaur skeletons mounted for display. It was put together in a chapel at the Palace of Charles of Lorraine using a series of adjustable ropes attached to scaffolding so that a lifelike pose could be achieved during the mounting process. This specimen, along with several others, first opened for public viewing in an inner courtyard of the palace in July 1883. In 1891 they were moved to the Royal Museum of Natural History, where they are still on display; nine are displayed as standing mounts, and nineteen more are still in the Museum's basement. The exhibit makes an impressive display in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, in Brussels. A replica of one of these is on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and at the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge. Most of the remains were referred to a new species, I. bernissartensis, a larger and much more robust animal than the English remains had yet revealed. One specimen, IRSNB 1551, was at first referred to the nebulous, gracile I. mantelli, but is currently referred to Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis. The skeletons were some of the first complete dinosaur skeletons known. Found with the dinosaur skeletons were the remains of plants, fish, and other reptiles, including the crocodyliform Bernissartia.
The science of conserving fossil remains was in its infancy, and new techniques had to be improvised to deal with what soon became known as "pyrite disease". Crystalline pyrite in the bones was being oxidized to iron sulphate, accompanied by an increase in volume that caused the remains to crack and crumble. When in the ground, the bones were isolated by anoxic moist clay that prevented this from happening, but when removed into the drier open air, the natural chemical conversion began to occur. To limit this effect, De Pauw immediately, in the mine-gallery, re-covered the dug-out fossils with wet clay, sealing them with paper and plaster reinforced by iron rings, forming in total about six hundred transportable blocks with a combined weight of a hundred and thirty tons. In Brussels after opening the plaster he impregnated the bones with boiling gelatine mixed with oil of cloves as a preservative. Removing most of the visible pyrite he then hardened them with hide glue, finishing with a final layer of tin foil. Damage was repaired with papier-mâché. This treatment had the unintended effect of sealing in moisture and extending the period of damage. In 1932 museum director Victor van Straelen decided that the specimens had to be completely restored again to safeguard their preservation. From December 1935 to August 1936 the staff at the museum in Brussels treated the problem with a combination of alcohol, arsenic, and 390 kilograms of shellac. This combination was intended to simultaneously penetrate the fossils (with alcohol), prevent the development of mold (with arsenic), and harden them (with shellac). The fossils entered a third round of conservation from 2003 until May 2007, when the shellac, hide glue and gelatine were removed and impregnated with polyvinyl acetate and cyanoacrylate and epoxy glues. Modern treatments of this problem typically involve either monitoring the humidity of fossil storage, or, for fresh specimens, preparing a special coating of polyethylene glycol that is then heated in a vacuum pump, so that moisture is immediately removed and pore spaces are infiltrated with polyethylene glycol to seal and strengthen the fossil.
Dollo's specimens allowed him to show that Owen's prehistoric pachyderms were not correct for Iguanodon. He instead modelled the skeletal mounts after the cassowary and wallaby, and put the spike that had been on the nose firmly on the thumb. His reconstruction would prevail for a long period of time, but would later be discounted.
Excavations at the quarry were stopped in 1881, although it was not exhausted of fossils, as recent drilling operations have shown. During World War I, when the town was occupied by German forces, preparations were made to reopen the mine for palaeontology, and Otto Jaekel was sent from Berlin to supervise. Just as the first fossiliferous layer was about to be uncovered, however, the German army surrendered and had to withdraw. Further attempts to reopen the mine were hindered by financial problems and were stopped altogether in 1921 when the mine flooded.
Turn of the century and the Dinosaur Renaissance
Research on Iguanodon decreased during the early part of the 20th century as World Wars and the Great Depression enveloped Europe. A new species that would become the subject of much study and taxonomic controversy, I. atherfieldensis, was named in 1925 by R. W. Hooley, for a specimen collected at Atherfield Point on the Isle of Wight.
Iguanodon was not part of the initial work of the dinosaur renaissance that began with the description of Deinonychus in 1969, but it was not neglected for long. David B. Weishampel's work on ornithopod feeding mechanisms provided a better understanding of how it fed, and David B. Norman's work on numerous aspects of the genus has made it one of the best-known dinosaurs. In addition, a further find of numerous disarticulated Iguanodon bones in Nehden, Nordrhein-Westphalen, Germany, has provided evidence for gregariousness in this genus, as the animals in this areally restricted find appear to have been killed by flash floods. At least 15 individuals, from long, have been found here, most of the individuals belong to the related Mantellisaurus (described as I. atherfieldensis, at that time believed to be another species of Iguanodon). but some are of I. bernissartensis.
One major revision to Iguanodon brought by the Renaissance would be another re-thinking of how to reconstruct the animal. A major flaw with Dollo's reconstruction was the bend he introduced into the tail. This organ was more or less straight, as shown by the skeletons he was excavating, and the presence of ossified tendons. In fact, to get the bend in the tail for a more wallaby or kangaroo-like posture, the tail would have had to be broken. With its correct, straight tail and back, the animal would have walked with its body held horizontal to the ground, arms in place to support the body if needed.
21st century research and the splitting of the genus
In the 21st century, Iguanodon material has been used in the search for dinosaur biomolecules. In research by Graham Embery et al., Iguanodon bones were processed to look for remnant proteins. In this research, identifiable remains of typical bone proteins, such as phosphoproteins and proteoglycans, were found in a rib. In 2007, Gregory S. Paul split I. atherfieldensis into a new, separate genus, Mantellisaurus which has been generally accepted. In 2009 fragmentary iguanodontid material was described from upper Barremian Paris Basin deposits in Auxerre, Burgundy. While not definitively diagnosable to the genus/species level, the specimen shares "obvious morphological and dimensional affinities" with I. bernissartensis.
In 2010, David Norman split the Valanginian species I. dawsoni and I. fittoni into Barilium and Hypselospinus respectively. After Norman 2010, over half a dozen new genera were named off English "Iguanodon" material. Carpenter and Ishida in 2010 named Proplanicoxa, Torilion and Sellacoxa while Gregory S. Paul in 2012 named Darwinsaurus, Huxleysaurus and Mantellodon and Macdonald et al. in 2012 named Kukufeldia. These species named after Norman 2010 are not considered valid and are considered various junior synonyms of Mantellisaurus, Barilium and Hypselospinus.
In 2011, a new genus Delapparentia was named for a specimen in Spain that was originally thought to belong to I. bernissartensis. The previous identification was subsequently reaffirmed in a new analysis of individual variation in the Belgian specimens, finding that the Delapparentia specimen was within the range of I. bernissartensis. In 2015 a new species of Iguanodon, I. galvensis, was named based on material including 13 juvenile (perinate) individuals found in the Camarillas Formation near Galve, Spain. In 2017 a new study was done of I. galvensis, with further evidence of distinctiveness from I. bernissartensis including several new autapomorphies. It was also found that the Delapparentia holotype (which is also from the Camarillas Formation) was not distinguishable from either I. bernissartensis or I. galvensis.
Description
Iguanodon were bulky herbivores that could shift from bipedality to quadrupedality. The only well-supported species, I. bernissartensis, is estimated to have weighed about 3.08 tonnes (3.4 tons) on average, and measured about long as an adult, with some specimens possibly as long as . These animals had large, tall but narrow skulls, with toothless beaks probably covered with keratin, and teeth like those of iguanas, but much larger and more closely packed.
The arms of I. bernissartensis were long (up to 75% the length of the legs) and robust, with rather inflexible hands built so that the three central fingers could bear weight. The thumbs were conical spikes that stuck out away from the three main digits. In early restorations, the spike was placed on the animal's nose. Later fossils revealed the true nature of the thumb spikes, although their exact function is still debated. They could have been used for defense, or for foraging for food. The little finger was elongated and dextrous, and could have been used to manipulate objects. The phalangeal formula is 2-3-3-2-4, meaning that the innermost finger (phalange) has two bones, the next has three, etc. The legs were powerful, but not built for running, and each foot had three toes. The backbone and tail were supported and stiffened by ossified tendons, which were tendons that turned to bone during life (these rod-like bones are usually omitted from skeletal mounts and drawings).
Iguanodon teeth are, as the name suggests, like those of an iguana, but larger. Unlike hadrosaurids, which had columns of replacement teeth, Iguanodon only had one replacement tooth at a time for each position. The upper jaw held up to 29 teeth per side, with none at the front of the jaw, and the lower jaw 25; the numbers differ because teeth in the lower jaw are broader than those in the upper. Because the tooth rows are deeply inset from the outside of the jaws, and because of other anatomical details, it is believed that, as with most other ornithischians, Iguanodon had some sort of cheek-like structure, muscular or non-muscular, to retain food in the mouth.
Classification and evolution
Iguanodon gives its name to the unranked clade Iguanodontia, a very populous group of ornithopods with many species known from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous. Aside from Iguanodon, the best-known members of the clade include Dryosaurus, Camptosaurus, Ouranosaurus, and the duck-bills, or hadrosaurs. In older sources, Iguanodontidae was shown as a distinct family. This family traditionally has been something of a wastebasket taxon, including ornithopods that were neither hypsilophodontids or hadrosaurids. In practice, animals like Callovosaurus, Camptosaurus, Craspedodon, Kangnasaurus, Mochlodon, Muttaburrasaurus, Ouranosaurus, and Probactrosaurus were usually assigned to this family.
With the advent of cladistic analyses, Iguanodontidae was traditionally construed was shown to be paraphyletic, and these animals are recognised to fall at different points in relation to hadrosaurs on a cladogram, instead of in a single distinct clade. Essentially, the modern concept of Iguanodontidae currently includes only Iguanodon. Groups like Iguanodontoidea are still used as unranked clades in the scientific literature, though many traditional iguanodontids are now included in the superfamily Hadrosauroidea. Iguanodon lies between Camptosaurus and Ouranosaurus in cladograms, and is probably descended from a camptosaur-like animal. At one point, Jack Horner suggested, based mostly on skull features, that hadrosaurids actually formed two more distantly related groups, with Iguanodon on the line to the flat-headed hadrosaurines, and Ouranosaurus on the line to the crested lambeosaurines, but his proposal has been rejected.
The cladogram below follows an analysis by Andrew McDonald, 2012.
Species
Because Iguanodon is one of the first dinosaur genera to have been named, numerous species have been assigned to it. While never becoming the wastebasket taxon several other early genera of dinosaurs (such as Megalosaurus) became, Iguanodon has had a complicated history, and its taxonomy continues to undergo revisions. Although Gregory Paul recommended restricting I. bernissartensis to the famous sample from Bernissart, ornithopod workers like Norman and McDonald have disagreed with Paul's recommendations, except exercising caution when accepting records of Iguanodon from France and Spain as valid.
I. anglicus was the original type species, but the lectotype was based on a single tooth and only partial remains of the species have been recovered since. In March 2000, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature changed the type species to the much better known I. bernissartensis, with the new holotype being IRSNB 1534. The original Iguanodon tooth is held at Te Papa Tongarewa, the national museum of New Zealand in Wellington, although it is not on display. The fossil arrived in New Zealand following the move of Gideon Mantell's son Walter there; after the elder Mantell's death, his fossils went to Walter.
Species currently accepted as valid
Only two species assigned to Iguanodon are still considered to be valid.
I. bernissartensis, described by George Albert Boulenger in 1881, is the type species for the genus. This species is best known for the many skeletons discovered in the Sainte-Barbe Clays Formation at Bernissart, but is also known from remains across Europe.
Delapparentia turolensis, named in 2011 based on a specimen previously assigned to Iguanodon bernissartensis, was argued to be distinct from the latter based on the relative height of its neural spines. However, a 2017 study noted that this is easily within the range of individual variation, and that the difference may also arise from D. turolensis being an adult older than other specimens of I. bernissartensis.
I. seelyi (also incorrectly spelled I. seeleyi), described by John Hulke in 1882, has also been synonymised with Iguanodon bernissartensis, though this is not universally accepted. Seelyi was discovered in Brook, on the Isle of Wight, and named after Charles Seely MP, Liberal politician and philanthropist, on whose estate it was found.
David Norman has suggested that I. bernissartensis includes the dubious Mongolian I. orientalis (see also below), but this has not been followed by other researchers.
I. galvensis, described in 2015, is based on adult and juvenile remains found in Barremian-age deposits in Teruel, Spain.
Reassigned species of Iguanodon
I. albinus (or Albisaurus scutifer), described by Czech palaeontologist Antonin Fritsch in 1893, is a dubious nondinosaurian reptile now known as Albisaurus albinus.
I. atherfieldensis, described by R.W. Hooley in 1925, was smaller and less robust than I. bernissartensis, with longer neural spines. It was renamed Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis in 2007. The Bernissart specimen RBINS 1551 was described as Dollodon bampingi in 2008, but McDonald and Norman returned Dollodon to synonymy with Mantellisaurus.
I. dawsoni, described by Lydekker in 1888, is known from two partial skeletons found in East Sussex, England, from the middle Valanginian-age Lower Cretaceous Wadhurst Clay. It is now the type species of Barilium.
I. exogyrarum was described by Fritsch in 1878. It is a nomen dubium based on very poor material and was renamed Ponerosteus in 2000.
I. fittoni was described by Lydekker in 1889. Like I. dawsoni, this species was described from the Wadhurst Clay of East Sussex. It is now the type species of Hypselospinus.
I. hilli, coined by Edwin Tully Newton in 1892 for a tooth from the early Cenomanian Upper Cretaceous Lower Chalk of Hertfordshire, has been considered an early hadrosaurid of some sort. However, recent work places it as indeterminate beyond Hadrosauroidea outside Hadrosauridae.
I. hoggi (also spelled I. boggii or hoggii), named by Owen for a lower jaw from the Tithonian–Berriasian-age Upper Jurassic–Lower Cretaceous Purbeck Beds of Dorset in 1874, has been reassigned to its own genus, Owenodon.
I. hollingtoniensis (also spelled I. hollingtonensis), described by Lydekker in 1889, has variously been considered a synonym of Hypselospinus fittoni or a distinct species assigned to the genus Huxleysaurus. A specimen from the Valanginian Wadhurst Clay Formation, variously assigned to I. hollingtoniensis and I. mantelli over the years, has an unusual combination of hadrosaurid-like lower jaw and very robust forelimb; Norman (2010) assigned this specimen to the species Hypselospinus fittoni, while Paul (2012) made it the holotype of a separate species Darwinsaurus evolutionis.
I. lakotaensis was described by David B. Weishampel and Philip R. Bjork in 1989. The only well-accepted North American species of Iguanodon, I. lakotaensis was described from a partial skull from the Barremian-age Lower Cretaceous Lakota Formation of South Dakota. Its assignment has been controversial. Some researchers suggest that it was more basal than I. bernissartensis, and related to Theiophytalia, but David Norman has suggested that it was a synonym of I. bernissartensis. Gregory S. Paul has since given the species its own genus, Dakotadon.
I. mantelli described by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in 1832, was based on the same material as I. anglicus and is an objective junior synonym of the latter. Several taxa, including the holotype of Mantellisaurus and Mantellodon, but also the dubious hadrosauroid Trachodon cantabrigiensis the hypsilophodont Hypsilophodon, and Valdosaurus, were previously mis-assigned to I. mantelli.
"I. mongolensis" is a nomen nudum from a photo caption in a book by Whitfield in 1992 of remains that would later be named Altirhinus.
I. orientalis, described by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1952, was based on poor material, but a skull with a distinctive arched snout that had been assigned to it was renamed Altirhinus kurzanovi in 1998. At the same time, I. orientalis was considered to be a nomen dubium because it cannot be compared to I. bernissartensis.
I. phillipsi was described by Harry Seeley in 1869, but he later reassigned it to Priodontognathus.
I. praecursor (also spelled I. precursor), described by E. Sauvage in 1876 from teeth from an unnamed Kimmeridgian (Late Jurassic) formation in Pas-de-Calais, France, is actually a sauropod, sometimes assigned to Neosodon, although the two come from different formations.
I. prestwichii (also spelled I. prestwichi), described by John Hulke in 1880, has been reassigned to Camptosaurus prestwichii or to its own genus Cumnoria.
I. suessii, described by Emanuel Bunzel in 1871, has been reassigned to Mochlodon suessi.
Species reassigned to Iguanodon
I. foxii (also spelled I. foxi) was originally described by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869 as the type species of Hypsilophodon; Owen (1873 or 1874) reassigned it to Iguanodon, but his assignment was soon overturned.
I. gracilis, named by Lydekker in 1888 as the type species of Sphenospondylus and assigned to Iguanodon in 1969 by Rodney Steel, has been suggested to be a synonym of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis, but is considered dubious nowadays.
I. major, a species named by Justin Delair in 1966, based on vertebrae from the Isle of Wight and Sussex originally described by Owen in 1842 as a species of Streptospondylus, S. major, is a nomen dubium.
I. valdensis, a renaming of Vectisaurus valdensis by Ernst van den Broeck in 1900.<ref>Van den Broeck, Ernst, 1900, "Les dépôts à iguanodons de Bernissart et leur transfert dans l'étage purbeckien ou aquilonien du Jurassique Supérieur" Bulletin de la Société Belge Géologique XIV Mem., 39–112</ref> Originally named by Hulke as a distinct genus in 1879 based on vertebral and pelvic remains, it was from the Barremian stage of the Isle of Wight. It was considered a juvenile specimen of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis, or an undetermined species of Mantellisaurus, but is indeterminate beyond Iguanodontia.
The nomen nudum "Proiguanodon" (van den Broeck, 1900) also belongs here.
Dubious species
I. anglicus, described by Friedrich Holl in 1829, is the original type species of Iguanodon, but, as discussed above, was replaced by I. bernissartensis. In the past, it has been spelled as I. angelicus (Lessem and Glut, 1993) and I. anglicum (Holl, 1829 emend. Bronn, 1850). It is possible teeth ascribed to this species belong to the genus now called Barilium. The name Therosaurus (Fitzinger, 1840), is a junior objective synonym, a later name for the material of I. anglicus.
I. ottingeri, described by Peter Galton and James A. Jensen in 1979, is a nomen dubium based on teeth from the possibly Aptian-age lower Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah.
Palaeobiology
Feeding
One of the first details noted about Iguanodon was that it had the teeth of a herbivorous reptile, although there has not always been consensus on how it ate. As Mantell noted, the remains he was working with were unlike any modern reptile, especially in the toothless, scoop-shaped form of the lower jaw symphysis, which he found best compared to that of the two-toed sloth and the extinct ground sloth Mylodon. He also suggested that Iguanodon had a prehensile tongue which could be used to gather food, like a giraffe. More complete remains have shown this to be an error; for example, the hyoid bones that supported the tongue are heavily built, implying a muscular, non-prehensile tongue used for moving food around in the mouth. The giraffe-tongue idea has also been incorrectly attributed to Dollo via a broken lower jaw.
The skull was structured in such a way that as it closed, the bones holding the teeth in the upper jaw would bow out. This would cause the lower surfaces of the upper jaw teeth to rub against the upper surface of the lower jaw's teeth, grinding anything caught in between and providing an action that is the rough equivalent of mammalian chewing. Because the teeth were always replaced, the animal could have used this mechanism throughout its life, and could eat tough plant material. Additionally, the front ends of the animal's jaws were toothless and tipped with bony nodes, both upper and lower, providing a rough margin that was likely covered and lengthened by a keratinous material to form a cropping beak for biting off twigs and shoots. Its food gathering would have been aided by its flexible little finger, which could have been used to manipulate objects, unlike the other fingers.
Exactly what Iguanodon ate with its well-developed jaws is not known. The size of the larger species, such as I. bernissartensis, would have allowed them access to food from ground level to tree foliage at high. A diet of horsetails, cycads, and conifers was suggested by David Norman, although iguanodonts in general have been tied to the advance of angiosperm plants in the Cretaceous due to the dinosaurs' inferred low-browsing habits. Angiosperm growth, according to this hypothesis, would have been encouraged by iguanodont feeding because gymnosperms would be removed, allowing more space for the weed-like early angiosperms to grow. The evidence is not conclusive, though. Whatever its exact diet, due to its size and abundance, Iguanodon is regarded as a dominant medium to large herbivore for its ecological communities. In England, this included the small predator Aristosuchus, larger predators Eotyrannus, Baryonyx, and Neovenator, low-feeding herbivores Hypsilophodon and Valdosaurus, fellow "iguanodontid" Mantellisaurus, the armoured herbivore Polacanthus, and sauropods like Pelorosaurus.
Posture and movement
Early fossil remains were fragmentary, which led to much speculation on the posture and nature of Iguanodon. Iguanodon was initially portrayed as a quadrupedal horn-nosed beast. However, as more bones were discovered, Mantell observed that the forelimbs were much smaller than the hindlimbs. His rival Owen was of the opinion it was a stumpy creature with four pillar-like legs. The job of overseeing the first lifesize reconstruction of dinosaurs was initially offered to Mantell, who declined due to poor health, and Owen's vision subsequently formed the basis on which the sculptures took shape. Its bipedal nature was revealed with the discovery of the Bernissart skeletons. However, it was depicted in an upright posture, with the tail dragging along the ground, acting as the third leg of a tripod.
During his re-examination of Iguanodon, David Norman was able to show that this posture was unlikely, because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons. To get the tripodal pose, the tail would literally have to be broken. Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable. For example, the hand is relatively immobile, with the three central fingers grouped together, bearing hoof-like phalanges, and able to hyperextend. This would have allowed them to bear weight. The wrist is also relatively immobile, and the arms and shoulder bones robust. These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours.
Furthermore, it appears that Iguanodon became more quadrupedal as it got older and heavier; juvenile I. bernissartensis have shorter arms than adults (60% of hindlimb length versus 70% for adults). When walking as a quadruped, the animal's hands would have been held so that the palms faced each other, as shown by iguanodontian trackways and the anatomy of this genus's arms and hands. The three-toed pes (foot) of Iguanodon was relatively long, and when walking, both the hand and the foot would have been used in a digitigrade fashion (walking on the fingers and toes). The maximum speed of Iguanodon has been estimated at , which would have been as a biped; it would not have been able to gallop as a quadruped.
Large three-toed footprints are known in Early Cretaceous rocks of England, particularly Wealden beds on the Isle of Wight, and these trace fossils were originally difficult to interpret. Some authors associated them with dinosaurs early on. In 1846, E. Tagert went so far as to assign them to an ichnogenus he named Iguanodon, and Samuel Beckles noted in 1854 that they looked like bird tracks, but might have come from dinosaurs. The identity of the trackmakers was greatly clarified upon the discovery in 1857 of the hind leg of a young Iguanodon, with distinctly three-toed feet, showing that such dinosaurs could have made the tracks. Despite the lack of direct evidence, these tracks are often attributed to Iguanodon. A trackway in England shows what may be an Iguanodon moving on all fours, but the foot prints are poor, making a direct connection difficult. Tracks assigned to the ichnogenus Iguanodon are known from locations including places in Europe where the body fossil Iguanodon is known, to Spitsbergen, Svalbard, Norway.
Thumb spike
The thumb spike is one of the best-known features of Iguanodon. Although it was originally placed on the animal's nose by Mantell, the complete Bernissart specimens allowed Dollo to place it correctly on the hand, as a modified thumb. (This would not be the last time a dinosaur's modified thumb claw would be misinterpreted; Noasaurus, Baryonyx, and Megaraptor are examples since the 1980s where an enlarged thumb claw was first put on the foot, as in dromaeosaurids.)
This thumb is typically interpreted as a close-quarter stiletto-like weapon against predators, although it could also have been used to break into seeds and fruits, or against other Iguanodon. One author has suggested that the spike was attached to a venom gland, but this has not been accepted, as the spike was not hollow, nor were there any grooves on the spike for conducting venom.
Possible social behaviour
Although sometimes interpreted as the result of a single catastrophe, the Bernissart finds instead are now interpreted as recording multiple events. According to this interpretation, at least three occasions of mortality are recorded, and though numerous individuals would have died in a geologically short time span (?10–100 years), this does not necessarily mean these Iguanodon were herding animals.
An argument against herding is that juvenile remains are very uncommon at this site, unlike modern cases with herd mortality. They more likely were the periodic victims of flash floods whose carcasses accumulated in a lake or marshy setting. The Nehden find, however, with its greater span of individual ages, more even mix of Dollodon or Mantellisaurus to Iguanodon bernissartensis, and confined geographic nature, may record mortality of herding animals migrating through rivers.
There is no evidence that Iguanodon was sexually dimorphic (with one sex appreciably different from the other). At one time, it was suggested that the Bernissart I. "mantelli", or I. atherfieldensis (Dollodon and Mantellisaurus, respectively) represented a sex, possibly female, of the larger and more robust, possibly male, I. bernissartensis. However, this is not supported today. A 2017 analysis showed that I. bernissartensis does exhibit a large level of individual variation in both its limbs (scapula, humerus, thumb claw, ilium, ischium, femur, tibia) and spinal column (axis, sacrum, tail vertebrae). Additionally, this analysis found that individuals of I. bernissartensis generally seemed to fall into two categories based on whether their tail vertebrae bore a furrow on the bottom, and whether their thumb claws were large or small.
Paleopathology
Evidence of a fractured hip bone was found in a specimen of Iguanodon, which had an injury to its ischium. Two other individuals were observed with signs of osteoarthritis as evidenced by bone overgrowths in their anklebones which are called osteophytes.
In popular culture
Since its description in 1825, Iguanodon has been a feature of worldwide popular culture. Two lifesize reconstructions of Mantellodon (considered Iguanodon at the time) built at the Crystal Palace in London in 1852 greatly contributed to the popularity of the genus. Their thumb spikes were mistaken for horns, and they were depicted as elephant-like quadrupeds, yet this was the first time an attempt was made at constructing full-size dinosaur models. In 1910 Heinrich Harder portrayed a group of Iguanodon in the classic German collecting cards about extinct and prehistoric animals "Tiere der Urwelt".
Several motion pictures have featured Iguanodon. In the 2000 Disney animated film Dinosaur, an Iguanodon named Aladar served as the protagonist with four other iguanodonts as other main and minor characters are Neera, Kron, Bruton and his scout Creto. A loosely related ride of the same name at Disney's Animal Kingdom is based around bringing an Iguanodon back to the present. Iguanodon is one of the three dinosaur genera that inspired Godzilla; the other two were Tyrannosaurus rex and Stegosaurus. Iguanodon has also made appearances in some of the many The Land Before Time films, as well as episodes of the television series.
Aside from appearances in movies, Iguanodon has also been featured on the television documentary miniseries Walking with Dinosaurs (1999) produced by the BBC (along with then-undescribed Dakotadon lakotaensis) and played a starring role in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's book, The Lost World as well as featuring in the 2015 documentary Dinosaur Britain. It also was present in Bob Bakker's Raptor Red (1995), as a Utahraptor prey item. A main belt asteroid, , has been named 9941 Iguanodon in honour of the genus.
Because it is both one of the first dinosaurs described and one of the best-known dinosaurs, Iguanodon has been well-placed as a barometer of changing public and scientific perceptions on dinosaurs. Its reconstructions have gone through three stages: the elephantine quadrupedal horn-snouted reptile satisfied the Victorians, then a bipedal but still fundamentally reptilian animal using its tail to prop itself up dominated the early 20th century, but was slowly overturned during the 1960s by its current, more agile and dynamic representation, able to shift from two legs to all fours.
References
External links
The Bernissart Iguanodons (Iguanodon'' herd found in Belgium).
Mantell's Iguanodon tooth in the collection of the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Iguanodonts
Early Cretaceous genus first appearances
Early Cretaceous genus extinctions
Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Europe
Fossils of Belgium
Fossils of Spain
Camarillas Formation
Fossil taxa described in 1825
Taxa named by Gideon Mantell
Ornithischian genera | [
-0.4716862440109253,
0.03299699351191521,
-0.9236504435539246,
0.30061811208724976,
-0.05789462476968765,
0.8109951615333557,
0.30533885955810547,
0.4712274968624115,
-0.24361780285835266,
-0.05395474284887314,
0.40070441365242004,
1.0042132139205933,
-0.12222975492477417,
0.41302981972694397,
-0.08231562376022339,
0.2254386842250824,
0.4276435077190399,
-0.06398259848356247,
0.10773467272520065,
-0.11317857354879379,
-0.1718837022781372,
-0.7880768179893494,
0.4090465307235718,
-0.052854035049676895,
0.18510350584983826,
-0.20058850944042206,
0.13707184791564941,
0.42260468006134033,
0.9015095233917236,
-0.18852315843105316,
-0.034100912511348724,
0.22166462242603302,
0.17902110517024994,
-0.18940317630767822,
-1.0098778009414673,
-0.2296803891658783,
-0.80547696352005,
-0.7606285214424133,
-0.25741538405418396,
-0.9481347799301147,
0.013271581381559372,
0.10473074018955231,
-0.42835482954978943,
0.9856144785881042,
-0.7318100333213806,
0.12556752562522888,
-1.286656141281128,
0.09214945882558823,
-0.6589282155036926,
0.15808843076229095,
-0.3334825038909912,
0.48561516404151917,
-0.029211346060037613,
0.266637921333313,
-0.118296779692173,
0.16382363438606262,
-1.0763360261917114,
-0.3167790472507477,
0.16460257768630981,
-0.04849287122488022,
-0.4252472519874573,
-0.02948618121445179,
0.1062609851360321,
-0.2532903254032135,
-0.18664246797561646,
0.9841587543487549,
0.27653464674949646,
0.4653097689151764,
-0.7863524556159973,
0.4597584307193756,
-0.7573051452636719,
-0.5817185640335083,
0.10778730362653732,
0.3153798580169678,
-0.34939420223236084,
-0.3056482672691345,
-0.4828908145427704,
0.12252574414014816,
0.9193422198295593,
-0.11809191107749939,
0.37807002663612366,
0.6330642104148865,
0.7310985326766968,
-0.6201810240745544,
-0.41486838459968567,
0.052244771271944046,
-0.49741601943969727,
0.2801015377044678,
-0.5600501894950867,
0.26548412442207336,
-0.6329131722450256,
-0.09037233889102936,
0.45284518599510193,
0.5410913825035095,
-0.35105258226394653,
-0.3178713321685791,
-0.162758007645607,
-0.05436310917139053,
0.3281831443309784,
-0.018567392602562904,
0.1342964768409729,
-0.19272099435329437,
-0.05122479796409607,
-0.025278007611632347,
-0.5651412606239319,
-0.2722979485988617,
-0.3776734471321106,
0.0667610764503479,
-0.6633225679397583,
0.06215975061058998,
-1.0983301401138306,
0.1551814079284668,
-0.2828565239906311,
-0.08067651093006134,
0.31874215602874756,
0.7270092368125916,
0.26365822553634644,
-0.7602638602256775,
-0.20188213884830475,
-0.7378422021865845,
-0.20473524928092957,
0.26330310106277466,
-0.09183954447507858,
0.21153245866298676,
-0.029115645214915276,
0.28726038336753845,
-0.12727274000644684,
0.5915848612785339,
-0.41523632407188416,
-0.08906156569719315,
0.0301811620593071,
0.9224479794502258,
0.3063913583755493,
-0.16215091943740845,
0.172381192445755,
-0.6575942635536194,
-0.28629326820373535,
0.14883296191692352,
0.21225769817829132,
0.07661696523427963,
-0.2654498815536499,
-0.45185863971710205,
-1.0181663036346436,
-0.13657362759113312,
0.40584462881088257,
-0.5338918566703796,
0.5139789581298828,
0.1814437359571457,
-0.31656286120414734,
-0.7515459060668945,
-0.18801742792129517,
-0.6165854334831238,
-0.3447662889957428,
0.13796918094158173,
0.30275240540504456,
0.18471960723400116,
-0.34615257382392883,
-0.6008508205413818,
0.5151615738868713,
-0.012233838438987732,
-0.17005270719528198,
-0.06011275574564934,
-0.6529648303985596,
0.1406078189611435,
0.14052169024944305,
-0.6133894324302673,
0.28952327370643616,
0.12087323516607285,
-0.08719905465841293,
0.3021658957004547,
-0.3019058108329773,
-0.3604857325553894,
0.25964075326919556,
0.2015659660100937,
-0.3917493224143982,
-0.25587573647499084,
0.32258138060569763,
0.05439582094550133,
0.5847679972648621,
0.11811110377311707,
-0.7066910266876221,
0.09935279190540314,
0.46748387813568115,
-0.22025461494922638,
0.16048061847686768,
0.3242200016975403,
0.43649721145629883,
0.6271598935127258,
0.3339729607105255,
-0.593214213848114,
-0.3482406735420227,
0.28840571641921997,
0.0649481788277626,
0.0549943745136261,
1.2809051275253296,
0.5886577367782593,
-0.5653079748153687,
0.047364670783281326,
-0.12675811350345612,
0.2788452208042145,
0.19840341806411743,
0.25866788625717163,
-0.08091230690479279,
-0.15025131404399872,
-0.24048231542110443,
0.12233516573905945,
0.22594521939754486,
0.07932781428098679,
0.3215191960334778,
0.3809918761253357,
-0.035267800092697144,
0.45715850591659546,
0.505610466003418,
-0.24172240495681763,
-0.022159600630402565,
0.22605854272842407,
-0.2213180661201477,
0.44565853476524353,
-0.09436208754777908,
-1.0306886434555054,
0.7000917792320251,
0.20894339680671692,
-0.13828347623348236,
0.185710147023201,
-0.11083324998617172,
0.4654930531978607,
0.670861005783081,
0.029722992330789566,
0.536249041557312,
-0.8273054957389832,
-0.4293738901615143,
0.07385644316673279,
0.49988046288490295,
-0.3655984103679657,
0.8646706342697144,
-0.2482350915670395,
-0.2874143123626709,
-1.0843894481658936,
0.6931483745574951,
0.08116678148508072,
0.10810120403766632,
0.005954541265964508,
-0.3852252960205078,
0.4257899224758148,
0.8804401159286499,
-0.4297286570072174,
0.5749790668487549,
0.30896618962287903,
-1.0547701120376587,
0.07839509844779968,
-0.4691318869590759,
0.7156932950019836,
0.551232099533081,
0.018672659993171692,
0.03125538304448128,
-0.24846795201301575,
0.7220634818077087,
0.006291624624282122,
-0.1485181748867035,
0.2946685254573822,
-0.16762405633926392,
0.7526662945747375,
0.14430035650730133,
0.3981356918811798,
0.04049134999513626,
0.07561173290014267,
-0.24023644626140594,
-0.20340223610401154,
0.5120435953140259,
-0.15740182995796204,
0.7083528637886047,
-0.029103469103574753,
-0.5188424587249756,
0.2001182734966278,
-0.3337740898132324,
0.11093930155038834,
-0.2871835231781006,
0.5383150577545166,
-0.7826858758926392,
-0.1872454732656479,
-0.04664766415953636,
1.0639220476150513,
-0.020140845328569412,
-0.596834123134613,
-0.2983477711677551,
-1.0994173288345337,
0.4774094223976135,
-0.899834394454956,
-0.30197590589523315,
-0.9991011023521423,
0.1887892633676529,
-0.051698483526706696,
-0.48016485571861267,
0.25483524799346924,
-0.7972181439399719,
-0.025342710316181183,
0.09768158197402954,
0.14410297572612762,
0.03063943237066269,
-0.6182171106338501,
-0.567769467830658,
0.2396201193332672,
-0.3091928958892822,
-0.1260349005460739,
0.5532733798027039,
0.1782461404800415,
0.5676437616348267,
-0.13086964190006256,
-5.183927059173584,
0.3457593619823456,
0.5053114891052246,
-0.0910651907324791,
-0.13863655924797058,
0.573280394077301,
0.246371790766716,
-0.03344312682747841,
-0.26394930481910706,
-0.6090384125709534,
0.16350053250789642,
-0.43441054224967957,
-0.15287300944328308,
0.07304161787033081,
-0.20650240778923035,
0.6105095148086548,
0.5113403797149658,
0.7449997067451477,
-0.6132402420043945,
0.3461712896823883,
-0.2012367844581604,
-0.6426040530204773,
0.32996922731399536,
0.1403776854276657,
0.3102110028266907,
-0.13663983345031738,
0.39044472575187683,
-0.3791615962982178,
-0.21480464935302734,
-0.05452721193432808,
-0.0921822115778923,
-0.11540132015943527,
-0.05392295867204666,
0.02081337571144104,
-0.131907120347023,
0.34851565957069397,
0.6649255752563477,
0.06547966599464417,
0.5034795999526978,
-0.32718077301979065,
-1.036442756652832,
0.16605791449546814,
0.08911597728729248,
0.028723139315843582,
0.35758906602859497,
-0.11320706456899643,
0.007292477414011955,
-0.84071284532547,
-0.5017526745796204,
0.774806022644043,
-0.00301725952886045,
0.11244788765907288,
0.16655462980270386,
0.9010185599327087,
0.6808897256851196,
0.4278363585472107,
0.7530040144920349,
0.2705811560153961,
-0.4241270422935486,
0.7903335690498352,
0.4821193516254425,
-0.042918574064970016,
-0.5718710422515869,
-1.0146336555480957,
0.4305907189846039,
0.05571325123310089,
-0.15548880398273468,
0.4709310233592987,
0.280352383852005,
0.4653485119342804,
0.07237917184829712,
0.7466302514076233,
-0.5332807898521423,
-0.928860068321228,
0.30953601002693176,
0.26014694571495056,
-0.23519311845302582,
-0.49804097414016724,
-0.8282405734062195,
0.03165373206138611,
0.1350897252559662,
-0.6170356869697571,
-0.14776766300201416,
0.5442231297492981,
0.006437832489609718,
-0.2753692865371704,
-0.06651149690151215,
-0.4124855399131775,
0.20165672898292542,
-0.11353525519371033,
0.06731593608856201,
0.1477259248495102,
0.5025784373283386,
0.15411925315856934,
0.3065640926361084,
0.6706594824790955,
0.2761962115764618,
0.6313074231147766,
0.41169241070747375,
-0.08488713949918747,
0.6651965379714966,
-0.2889809012413025,
0.34630200266838074,
0.45270588994026184,
0.17823703587055206,
-0.5231440663337708,
0.17838524281978607,
0.30564677715301514,
1.3414218425750732,
-0.289117693901062,
0.23061102628707886,
-0.5753201842308044,
-0.5360286235809326,
-0.3347828686237335,
0.09459108859300613,
-0.2697083055973053,
0.06950551271438599,
-0.09104829281568527,
1.2460291385650635,
-0.2645930349826813,
0.27422958612442017,
0.45991960167884827,
-0.39463114738464355,
-0.646596372127533,
-0.14793802797794342,
0.06295651942491531,
0.44201555848121643,
0.4307233691215515,
-0.7324892282485962,
-0.9219990372657776,
-0.338340699672699,
0.30015072226524353,
-0.42519670724868774,
0.5893020033836365,
-0.10782913118600845,
0.07409140467643738,
-0.5133455395698547,
-0.596544623374939,
-0.0578039325773716,
0.08346550166606903,
-0.19644135236740112,
-0.6297085285186768,
-0.35285475850105286,
-0.04922804981470108,
0.6898102760314941,
0.33636996150016785,
0.023184722289443016,
-0.11733072251081467,
-0.45913779735565186,
1.0049643516540527,
0.018588516861200333,
-0.5962591767311096,
0.4343560039997101,
0.20507198572158813,
-0.017220711335539818,
0.3716847002506256,
0.6250635981559753,
0.05132962763309479,
-0.3044896125793457,
-0.5394679307937622,
0.010548192076385021,
0.019457954913377762,
-0.17965953052043915,
0.24080665409564972,
0.702174723148346,
0.6634333729743958,
-0.517228901386261,
-1.0165214538574219,
-0.218885600566864,
-0.02505083754658699,
0.16909587383270264,
-0.1741933971643448,
-0.6160696148872375,
-0.43918007612228394,
-0.05093323066830635,
-0.34986692667007446,
-0.25649866461753845,
0.3446269631385803,
-0.36624675989151,
-0.15353596210479736,
0.38080137968063354,
0.30341050028800964,
0.25412797927856445,
-0.09380467236042023,
0.6308789253234863,
-0.7153796553611755,
-0.443382203578949,
0.1157991886138916,
-0.6645520925521851,
0.11309032142162323,
0.30607303977012634,
0.12222379446029663,
0.34718814492225647,
0.0436503104865551,
-0.22386854887008667,
0.3810265064239502,
-0.009820650331676006,
-0.24480977654457092,
-0.03790599852800369,
-0.60161954164505,
-0.6237663626670837,
0.06362495571374893,
-0.012653918005526066,
0.1625070720911026,
0.682625949382782,
-0.21861867606639862,
0.4863664507865906,
-0.2572631537914276,
-0.17479246854782104,
0.5505494475364685,
0.004563209600746632,
-0.859527587890625,
-0.16614989936351776,
0.5755102038383484,
0.5263352394104004,
0.16083472967147827,
0.614973783493042,
0.02677707001566887,
-0.7325567007064819,
-0.34050554037094116,
0.11570166796445847,
-0.10455653071403503,
0.010342552326619625,
-0.4802285134792328,
-0.2402881532907486,
0.7425304651260376,
0.17580388486385345,
0.40257617831230164,
0.3921044170856476,
-0.29344820976257324,
-0.14376157522201538,
-0.46796903014183044,
0.17992959916591644,
-0.031249184161424637,
-0.5813026428222656,
-0.056688010692596436,
0.38188230991363525,
0.15731453895568848,
-0.3379939794540405,
-0.1582888513803482,
0.435543030500412,
1.2731279134750366,
0.31589171290397644,
0.43663516640663147,
-0.18310873210430145,
-0.5005561113357544,
0.07733292877674103,
0.13076889514923096,
-0.0896129161119461,
0.03241947665810585,
0.04141141101717949,
-0.31955140829086304,
-1.0221927165985107,
-0.07800132036209106,
0.2654832899570465,
-0.1944160759449005,
0.14592009782791138,
0.2806042730808258,
-0.1297387331724167,
-0.11209402978420258,
0.16149640083312988,
0.48968762159347534,
-0.35206636786460876,
-0.22559601068496704,
-0.22909033298492432,
-0.410971462726593,
-0.6820108294487,
0.18035480380058289,
0.6542626619338989,
-0.5592254996299744,
0.05124770104885101,
-0.21832166612148285,
0.32835590839385986,
-0.05383513122797012,
-0.5035857558250427,
0.05911308899521828,
0.2948151230812073,
-0.9644871354103088,
0.4507025480270386,
0.3462519347667694,
-0.6605486869812012,
0.503117024898529,
-0.014026746153831482,
-0.2990279495716095,
-0.38084837794303894,
0.010938312858343124,
-0.7107734680175781,
-0.38908037543296814,
0.05133109912276268,
-0.2872360646724701,
-0.2291281372308731,
-0.2795488238334656,
0.13104243576526642,
-0.5201597213745117,
-0.20574530959129333,
0.09055402874946594,
-0.4595635235309601,
0.743937611579895,
-0.4716748297214508,
0.6332286596298218,
-0.22150187194347382,
0.9489617347717285,
0.41211098432540894,
-0.21404428780078888,
0.37475645542144775,
0.11493126302957535,
-0.564275860786438,
0.354696661233902,
0.14293693006038666,
-0.7113322615623474,
0.2909700274467468,
-0.05534806475043297,
-0.09774157404899597,
0.7494490146636963,
-0.704799234867096,
0.1750105768442154,
0.6531652212142944,
-0.6495335102081299,
-0.20494458079338074,
0.5799638032913208,
0.22431422770023346,
0.23500871658325195,
-0.14513644576072693,
-0.18299177289009094,
0.09059907495975494,
-0.0422215573489666,
-0.9470666646957397,
-0.020804330706596375,
0.1305318921804428,
1.1527847051620483,
0.6812617778778076,
-0.24394859373569489,
-0.5140421390533447,
0.6269262433052063,
-0.08375723659992218,
-0.27954673767089844,
0.14906518161296844,
-0.5608591437339783,
-0.39633867144584656,
1.5401479005813599,
0.8146131634712219,
0.6713190078735352,
-0.21332351863384247,
0.19280317425727844,
-0.12001335620880127,
0.4594034254550934,
-0.2689586579799652,
-0.13178937137126923,
0.48748084902763367,
0.2128664255142212,
0.3777638375759125,
-0.06874024868011475,
0.8265928030014038,
-0.3154657781124115,
0.09350204467773438,
-0.009477052837610245,
-0.08046586811542511,
-0.32269784808158875,
-0.4314887523651123,
-0.03309498354792595,
-0.5972692966461182,
0.8176116347312927,
0.8639334440231323,
-0.24984820187091827,
-0.4599696099758148,
0.6420323252677917,
-0.48316410183906555,
0.3256600797176361,
-0.03974691405892372,
0.32874298095703125,
0.3905125856399536,
0.07571369409561157,
-0.12618336081504822,
-0.15401089191436768,
0.18570385873317719,
0.6714144349098206,
-0.32566037774086,
0.5864449739456177,
-0.44833609461784363,
0.20355962216854095,
-0.3558117747306824,
-0.26575636863708496,
-0.40125802159309387,
0.07884834706783295,
0.2732565104961395,
-0.25720539689064026,
0.050659745931625366,
0.4587908983230591,
0.5255653858184814,
-0.38027188181877136,
-0.048346176743507385,
-0.7517392039299011,
-0.08860888332128525,
0.35350051522254944,
-0.5314980745315552,
-0.34713348746299744,
-0.28398817777633667,
0.7577028274536133,
0.3591436743736267,
-0.03578129783272743,
0.35686272382736206,
-0.1799856573343277,
-0.4155195653438568,
-0.20796500146389008,
0.0662865862250328,
0.4971476197242737,
-0.19463218748569489,
0.4040392339229584,
-1.3293312788009644,
-0.18950863182544708,
0.5221593976020813,
0.042308274656534195,
-0.24135179817676544,
0.1820300817489624,
-0.18250051140785217,
-0.10254723578691483,
0.8937435746192932,
-0.41639482975006104,
-0.7316047549247742,
-0.2883055508136749,
0.2589741051197052,
-0.228642538189888,
-0.666130542755127,
0.08935488015413284,
-0.1404569000005722,
-0.3803090751171112,
0.08015801012516022,
-0.0790499746799469,
-1.0035654306411743,
0.25523993372917175,
0.18691018223762512,
0.01664654165506363,
-0.4720960855484009,
-0.10387111455202103,
-0.5806705951690674,
-0.24193638563156128,
1.157162070274353,
1.0780963897705078,
-0.08144114166498184,
0.025779806077480316,
0.3869972229003906,
-0.2115263193845749,
0.3558402955532074,
0.5753445625305176,
-0.20041856169700623,
-0.5299004316329956,
-0.03147320821881294,
-0.8337353467941284,
-0.5033373236656189,
-0.23606395721435547,
0.49452507495880127,
0.29924026131629944,
0.15748994052410126,
0.05830686539411545,
-0.3679639995098114,
-0.19938522577285767,
-0.14477814733982086,
-0.3171537518501282,
0.15142709016799927,
0.08476928621530533
] |
228806 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantification | Quantification | Quantification may refer to:
Quantification (science), the act of counting and measuring
Quantification (machine learning), the task of estimating class prevalence values in unlabelled data
Quantifier (linguistics), an indicator of quantity
Quantifier (logic) | [
0.36544540524482727,
-0.18069319427013397,
-0.6877037286758423,
0.7667366862297058,
-0.24032747745513916,
0.24527737498283386,
0.31677675247192383,
-0.05303007364273071,
-0.12145862728357315,
-0.5276637077331543,
-0.325246661901474,
0.3210081458091736,
-0.30012115836143494,
0.21735858917236328,
0.07341679185628891,
0.21901489794254303,
0.548983633518219,
0.28536534309387207,
-0.3821452856063843,
-0.07898390293121338,
-0.3468432128429413,
0.2052430808544159,
-0.5131129622459412,
-0.8941212296485901,
0.14078503847122192,
0.08177057653665543,
0.025008659809827805,
0.1626160442829132,
-0.055274829268455505,
0.17536522448062897,
-0.197859525680542,
0.6406139731407166,
-0.3297673463821411,
0.27429863810539246,
-0.06271938234567642,
0.15673856437206268,
0.13298745453357697,
0.1613660305738449,
0.015947924926877022,
-0.5669209361076355,
0.2366730123758316,
-0.12570402026176453,
-0.0031465289648622274,
-0.06771975755691528,
-1.01808762550354,
-0.5565910339355469,
-1.9837669134140015,
-0.4507545232772827,
-0.683615505695343,
-0.049922384321689606,
-0.23205655813217163,
-0.05872660502791405,
-0.26464414596557617,
0.518718957901001,
-0.45276835560798645,
0.20248684287071228,
-0.6771905422210693,
-0.5644153356552124,
0.8706342577934265,
-0.2373255044221878,
0.5456628203392029,
-0.1677045077085495,
0.04495624825358391,
-0.11004920303821564,
0.2646079361438751,
0.15822961926460266,
-0.06955152004957199,
0.12585845589637756,
-0.5036768913269043,
-0.7030723094940186,
-0.15951880812644958,
-0.5442593693733215,
-0.4848411977291107,
0.30751127004623413,
-0.5510545372962952,
0.4465916156768799,
-0.011444106698036194,
-0.10400988161563873,
-0.48462510108947754,
-0.017873452976346016,
-0.7415187358856201,
0.5362755656242371,
0.8754848837852478,
-0.8320708274841309,
0.6542608141899109,
0.16183491051197052,
-0.3079192042350769,
0.9480862021446228,
-0.7058005928993225,
0.6028450131416321,
0.8129816651344299,
-0.1326158046722412,
0.3468865752220154,
-0.10087208449840546,
-0.01810024119913578,
0.8475114703178406,
0.6943603157997131,
-0.26344090700149536,
0.42633765935897827,
0.11303677409887314,
-0.07371989637613297,
-0.4430229663848877,
0.35796377062797546,
-0.26144012808799744,
-0.4785761833190918,
-0.1976710855960846,
-0.07651900500059128,
-0.4172839820384979,
-0.05418038368225098,
-0.05397168919444084,
-0.6887584924697876,
0.35142815113067627,
0.0029688519425690174,
0.26393046975135803,
-0.8020616173744202,
0.06926550716161728,
0.5133212208747864,
0.6612085103988647,
-0.5389219522476196,
0.34553661942481995,
-0.051673755049705505,
0.2905406057834625,
0.5258932709693909,
-0.10814335197210312,
-0.047187689691782,
0.36418819427490234,
0.5403933525085449,
0.9075618386268616,
0.0870446115732193,
0.023760627955198288,
-0.041494570672512054,
0.6536926627159119,
0.5747072100639343,
0.09016898274421692,
-0.1136198565363884,
-0.627826452255249,
-0.06421122699975967,
-0.2340879738330841,
0.0589972622692585,
-0.18533703684806824,
-0.23475641012191772,
-0.29008883237838745,
-0.6191692352294922,
0.0666785016655922,
0.3992982506752014,
-0.4800802767276764,
-0.3951593339443207,
-0.10897103697061539,
0.17809027433395386,
0.4486166834831238,
-0.03582539036870003,
0.22086772322654724,
-0.06704036146402359,
-0.3658289611339569,
-0.08233585953712463,
-0.04877028241753578,
0.05908481031656265,
0.26182231307029724,
-0.24881045520305634,
0.5545581579208374,
-0.18304017186164856,
0.12468977272510529,
-0.5854552388191223,
-0.3828064203262329,
0.008226458914577961,
-0.7879608273506165,
0.3835250735282898,
0.7223157286643982,
-0.24714039266109467,
0.016446556895971298,
-0.10609971731901169,
-0.6563113331794739,
-0.013158501125872135,
0.2825663685798645,
0.019365154206752777,
0.18166550993919373,
-0.19557857513427734,
-0.06620950996875763,
0.5700276494026184,
-0.027563003823161125,
-0.6000275611877441,
0.020821303129196167,
0.5785585045814514,
-0.3765243589878082,
0.7060724496841431,
-0.31911686062812805,
0.10043051838874817,
-0.04477197304368019,
0.15856920182704926,
-0.5126760601997375,
-0.46855026483535767,
0.22809810936450958,
0.24676328897476196,
-0.9651736617088318,
0.9462856650352478,
0.028074195608496666,
-0.17727626860141754,
0.8148208260536194,
-0.08197330683469772,
-0.1144503504037857,
0.11425767838954926,
-0.5315959453582764,
0.388643741607666,
0.13655510544776917,
-0.36968615651130676,
0.5376036763191223,
0.0017092494526878,
0.05146918445825577,
-0.736406683921814,
0.3110733926296234,
0.4983268678188324,
-0.11472555249929428,
-0.03508578985929489,
-0.4756554663181305,
0.030558403581380844,
0.17143502831459045,
-0.6524389386177063,
0.45064279437065125,
-0.0016201483085751534,
-0.554064929485321,
0.6298254132270813,
-0.4996088445186615,
-0.30420881509780884,
-0.048602037131786346,
-0.4908241033554077,
0.3091077208518982,
0.5434767603874207,
0.36210179328918457,
1.3680280447006226,
-1.1082099676132202,
-0.01803903467953205,
-0.07946818321943283,
0.45414644479751587,
-0.36053523421287537,
-0.025349007919430733,
0.6145186424255371,
0.1844765841960907,
0.02494107186794281,
0.26147961616516113,
-0.5633013248443604,
0.11162719130516052,
0.006393080577254295,
-0.1517108529806137,
0.12039882689714432,
0.5102353692054749,
0.2164846509695053,
-0.008523923344910145,
-0.021538114175200462,
-0.730417013168335,
0.09636320918798447,
0.16320456564426422,
0.7990232110023499,
0.10937280207872391,
-0.42667356133461,
0.1913725733757019,
-0.34195420145988464,
0.01854841038584709,
0.03239519149065018,
0.3112044036388397,
0.37153637409210205,
-0.23872876167297363,
0.0338299497961998,
-0.005160566885024309,
-0.20012789964675903,
-0.30241745710372925,
-0.5182222723960876,
-0.4262036979198456,
0.005061912350356579,
0.1540023386478424,
0.5695271492004395,
0.5188316702842712,
-0.03918761759996414,
-0.1501438319683075,
0.2191620022058487,
-0.5956149101257324,
-0.8924729228019714,
0.657855749130249,
0.3573974370956421,
-0.7870509028434753,
-0.6141377687454224,
-0.08509855717420578,
-0.21553935110569,
0.5878835916519165,
-0.33597469329833984,
0.2288290411233902,
-0.9008328914642334,
-0.16666282713413239,
-0.46192532777786255,
0.13708749413490295,
-0.23973284661769867,
-0.449677437543869,
0.6289072036743164,
0.032987330108881,
-0.2144860178232193,
0.299623042345047,
0.11157975345849991,
-0.08155790716409683,
-0.02072853222489357,
0.06215648725628853,
-0.23488296568393707,
-0.5503668785095215,
0.26560670137405396,
-0.08597080409526825,
-0.05375617370009422,
-0.30308017134666443,
-0.19714616239070892,
0.06564699113368988,
0.7979868054389954,
-5.637578964233398,
0.3363112807273865,
-0.083458311855793,
0.20957498252391815,
-0.42947083711624146,
0.2003687620162964,
0.8399816751480103,
0.12485486268997192,
-0.5121996998786926,
0.05169482156634331,
0.10518296808004379,
0.06428501009941101,
-0.056670185178518295,
0.7228926420211792,
0.5822692513465881,
-0.43681877851486206,
0.085114985704422,
-0.08613596856594086,
-0.10402459651231766,
0.6674061417579651,
-0.060668088495731354,
0.24378295242786407,
0.0230341088026762,
0.8576565384864807,
-0.23128604888916016,
-0.10072609782218933,
-0.5849125981330872,
0.6877347826957703,
-0.29467788338661194,
-0.2600770890712738,
-0.08198756724596024,
-0.21134300529956818,
-0.04339683800935745,
-0.3722286820411682,
-0.27526649832725525,
0.37642911076545715,
0.5283419489860535,
0.21181339025497437,
-0.31547361612319946,
-0.6787919998168945,
-0.19666199386119843,
0.6882889866828918,
-0.028692789375782013,
-0.011247783899307251,
0.3427107334136963,
0.3882572054862976,
-0.145450159907341,
0.26194140315055847,
-0.3400926887989044,
0.14099422097206116,
-0.6011337637901306,
0.008045361377298832,
-0.1663883626461029,
-0.42237231135368347,
0.00493963249027729,
-0.3780210316181183,
0.523899495601654,
0.07398825883865356,
-0.5004491806030273,
0.4831655025482178,
0.5977597236633301,
-0.48603877425193787,
0.28648874163627625,
-0.44857126474380493,
-0.5637305378913879,
0.16451343894004822,
-0.8871387243270874,
-0.24948638677597046,
0.44908127188682556,
0.19212156534194946,
-0.5069225430488586,
0.43779581785202026,
0.5111460089683533,
-0.4148781895637512,
0.21887317299842834,
-0.3801960051059723,
-0.10676632076501846,
0.08134539425373077,
0.3140687644481659,
0.6245678067207336,
-0.4024049639701843,
-0.9159465432167053,
-0.011942905373871326,
0.271592378616333,
0.38327619433403015,
-0.005527920089662075,
-0.3241296410560608,
-0.026895057410001755,
-0.30430588126182556,
-0.34507060050964355,
0.4636392593383789,
-0.0142076900228858,
0.33320626616477966,
0.46949878334999084,
0.33513712882995605,
0.4127257168292999,
0.48603978753089905,
0.11932694166898727,
0.4407218396663666,
-0.048218339681625366,
0.44143083691596985,
-0.6560043692588806,
0.08677922189235687,
-0.5440389513969421,
0.04817210137844086,
-0.04551512002944946,
-0.6995227336883545,
0.5870083570480347,
0.8690230250358582,
-0.8234942555427551,
-0.03595962002873421,
0.7391520738601685,
-0.5085293054580688,
-0.13790002465248108,
0.24820366501808167,
0.2518477141857147,
-0.7816179990768433,
0.35153794288635254,
0.7843336462974548,
-0.04996240511536598,
0.129045307636261,
0.13455773890018463,
-0.24003981053829193,
-0.03374027833342552,
-0.4140224754810333,
-0.4915499687194824,
0.03136246278882027,
0.345049649477005,
0.011602286249399185,
-0.27048829197883606,
0.17750641703605652,
0.4933244585990906,
0.05065757408738136,
-0.010840733535587788,
0.4291703701019287,
-0.9959478378295898,
-0.0172241423279047,
0.4638524353504181,
-0.039324212819337845,
-0.7490338087081909,
1.1541557312011719,
-0.2728385925292969,
0.27023372054100037,
0.26666203141212463,
0.43180128931999207,
-0.05156698450446129,
-0.04105876758694649,
-0.5206212997436523,
-0.2662223279476166,
0.2198365479707718,
0.14016354084014893,
-0.30925238132476807,
0.46004000306129456,
-0.5705293416976929,
0.11703832447528839,
0.24466164410114288,
0.48929256200790405,
-0.07847309857606888,
0.13722418248653412,
-0.7221165895462036,
0.0912443995475769,
0.3004462420940399,
-0.9250849485397339,
-0.5711123943328857,
0.31927937269210815,
0.22564831376075745,
-1.2121037244796753,
0.29270026087760925,
0.29172012209892273,
0.3380131125450134,
-0.11590206623077393,
-0.5682119131088257,
-0.3511766791343689,
-0.20915141701698303,
-0.11514779925346375,
0.3334735631942749,
0.37802040576934814,
0.45476004481315613,
-0.26958394050598145,
0.1473519504070282,
0.24646446108818054,
-0.40417441725730896,
-0.4949718117713928,
0.554297685623169,
0.9508665800094604,
0.37212637066841125,
0.3803710341453552,
0.5991674065589905,
-0.7134194374084473,
0.039426498115062714,
0.22137686610221863,
0.0663173571228981,
0.15966683626174927,
0.2826773226261139,
0.1188073605298996,
-0.535561740398407,
0.2027784287929535,
0.37325963377952576,
0.16294904053211212,
-0.1306712031364441,
0.18526984751224518,
0.7472314834594727,
-0.3561667501926422,
-0.11884309351444244,
0.3933294415473938,
-0.555091381072998,
0.32349273562431335,
-0.20109352469444275,
-0.48995083570480347,
0.09915999323129654,
-0.6946711540222168,
-0.24964851140975952,
-0.38733214139938354,
-0.4011128842830658,
0.15376119315624237,
-0.35112467408180237,
0.14749276638031006,
-0.6017022132873535,
-0.060739099979400635,
-0.288025438785553,
0.8518187403678894,
0.2154570072889328,
0.036493126302957535,
0.15146884322166443,
0.20134836435317993,
-0.1235521137714386,
0.23550763726234436,
-0.2866777777671814,
0.20783725380897522,
-0.03120007924735546,
-0.41195234656333923,
0.04333571344614029,
0.07593449205160141,
0.7978513240814209,
-0.60791015625,
-0.3837093710899353,
-0.09816740453243256,
0.5164424777030945,
-0.018183721229434013,
-0.7196837067604065,
0.31295210123062134,
0.2303381860256195,
-0.21326641738414764,
-0.44225937128067017,
-0.14712344110012054,
0.22587580978870392,
0.4781743288040161,
-0.5667631030082703,
-0.4471203088760376,
0.09410873055458069,
-0.27671337127685547,
-0.11110252141952515,
-0.6521205306053162,
0.10670792311429977,
0.8236477971076965,
0.22064325213432312,
-0.3291816711425781,
-0.9724621176719666,
0.07150988280773163,
0.16650062799453735,
0.2569282054901123,
-0.31269511580467224,
-0.45231667160987854,
-0.055940985679626465,
0.36179113388061523,
0.2240164875984192,
-0.2235434204339981,
0.42102503776550293,
0.5848211050033569,
-0.6756287217140198,
-0.05526869371533394,
-0.531316876411438,
-0.019310295581817627,
0.8153534531593323,
0.5757137537002563,
-0.30360937118530273,
-0.13640844821929932,
0.06313661485910416,
-0.6536405682563782,
-0.12578727304935455,
-0.015121242962777615,
-0.28787851333618164,
0.2787933647632599,
-0.37304532527923584,
0.014692719094455242,
-0.139088973402977,
0.37573832273483276,
-0.13541723787784576,
-0.322883665561676,
0.022292517125606537,
-0.5554682016372681,
0.022990262135863304,
-0.04972104728221893,
0.0413573794066906,
-0.2762831151485443,
0.09986019134521484,
0.2281617522239685,
0.27920210361480713,
0.07035689800977707,
-0.19200372695922852,
-0.3938188850879669,
0.08345644921064377,
0.3272242844104767,
-1.005743145942688,
0.6781628727912903,
-0.13438430428504944,
0.22558176517486572,
-0.3344923257827759,
-0.30120259523391724,
-0.05344994366168976,
0.008206718601286411,
0.5345661640167236,
0.3388095200061798,
0.1871904730796814,
0.11220034956932068,
-0.2849089801311493,
0.36977866291999817,
-0.35021916031837463,
0.8130331039428711,
0.09180888533592224,
-0.1604289412498474,
0.2007017284631729,
0.9138054251670837,
-0.14891581237316132,
-0.7623005509376526,
0.6092525124549866,
0.10035332292318344,
0.32594215869903564,
0.18131999671459198,
0.1787053346633911,
0.6876685619354248,
0.3559609353542328,
-0.3595948815345764,
0.3479475677013397,
-0.48715654015541077,
-0.5456437468528748,
0.3733833134174347,
0.021405210718512535,
0.12398006021976471,
0.4631691575050354,
0.5855201482772827,
0.5650589466094971,
-0.19444628059864044,
0.2708476483821869,
-0.21482691168785095,
0.271850049495697,
-0.03006635047495365,
0.34184542298316956,
0.08613178133964539,
0.012711210176348686,
0.11632631719112396,
0.17413964867591858,
0.819694995880127,
-0.24580226838588715,
0.08125623315572739,
-0.3896501064300537,
0.1429966241121292,
-0.6068015694618225,
-0.2959175705909729,
-0.034769490361213684,
-0.12209713459014893,
0.5467672944068909,
0.013370631262660027,
0.036184582859277725,
0.15868185460567474,
0.06863369792699814,
0.5887159109115601,
0.10017025470733643,
0.30931830406188965,
0.14725850522518158,
0.30949774384498596,
0.31643161177635193,
-0.022853657603263855,
0.5879133939743042,
0.342255175113678,
-0.23143558204174042,
0.19729137420654297,
0.4753228724002838,
-0.07784963399171829,
-0.484725683927536,
0.1920865774154663,
0.039556387811899185,
0.0031805383041501045,
-0.516292929649353,
0.5639137625694275,
-0.1548333317041397,
0.18568556010723114,
0.15697801113128662,
-0.6383720636367798,
0.4674375653266907,
-0.18617407977581024,
-0.5227388739585876,
0.2062162458896637,
-0.34023579955101013,
-0.3897864818572998,
0.49161773920059204,
-0.1823595017194748,
0.6471084356307983,
-0.20946680009365082,
-0.4052879512310028,
-0.3390558362007141,
0.06575381010770798,
0.2734450399875641,
-0.30753734707832336,
-0.6125298142433167,
0.22035399079322815,
-0.31731322407722473,
0.19614768028259277,
-0.802860677242279,
0.4617360830307007,
0.8800768256187439,
-0.6196040511131287,
-0.4227639138698578,
0.1749313920736313,
-0.23509536683559418,
-0.1123109683394432,
0.1327008455991745,
-0.14295092225074768,
0.039914730936288834,
0.013915437273681164,
-0.37702155113220215,
-0.032954685389995575,
0.5618187189102173,
-0.07357030361890793,
-0.34924012422561646,
0.05117158591747284,
0.12038282305002213,
0.07414427399635315,
-0.3509383201599121,
0.09836948662996292,
-0.49611538648605347,
0.42095091938972473,
-0.3277575373649597,
0.22908452153205872,
-0.5005266666412354,
-0.15643006563186646,
0.08113681524991989,
0.15819117426872253,
0.25696802139282227,
-0.23548680543899536,
-0.13791783154010773,
-0.027493711560964584,
0.1235596314072609,
0.35387736558914185,
-0.7488371133804321,
1.1113100051879883,
-0.38913482427597046,
-0.4103725552558899,
-0.2730787992477417,
0.27272018790245056,
0.36357390880584717,
-0.14183492958545685,
-0.529380738735199,
-0.4228350520133972,
-0.6944071650505066,
0.4079688787460327,
0.6405532360076904,
-0.41232573986053467,
-0.20194192230701447,
0.44179895520210266
] |
228811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tikhon%20of%20Zadonsk | Tikhon of Zadonsk | Tikhon of Zadonsk (secular name Timofey Savelyevich Sokolov, ; 1724–1783) was a Russian Orthodox bishop and spiritual writer whom the Eastern Orthodox Church glorified (canonized) as a saint.
Born in the village of Korotsko, in the Novgorod region of Russia, he was tonsured as a monk at the age of thirty-four and later consecrated Bishop of Voronezh. He served as bishop for a little under seven years and retired to the monastery of Zadonsk because of poor health. He lived there until he died.
On May 14, 1846, during the construction of the new cathedral at Zadonsk, Tikhon's relics were uncovered and reported to be incorrupt. His relics were kept in Zadonsk. It was reported that many miracles occurred near his relics, so the Russian Orthodox Church made him a saint in 1861. His feast day is celebrated on August 13, Julian calendar (August 26, Gregorian Calendar). Another feast day, the Uncovering of the Relics of Saint Tikhon of Zadonsk, was instituted to be celebrated annually on May 14.
The life and works of Tikhon inspired Dostoevsky, who reflected them in the character of Bishop Tikhon in the novel Demons (1871-1872) and in the characters of Alyosha Karamazov and of the Elder Zosima in The Brothers Karamazov (1879-1880).
Sayings
"Try to know yourself, your own wickedness. Think on the greatness of God and your wretchedness. Meditate on the suffering of Christ, the magnitude of Whose love and suffering surpass our understanding. Ascribe the good that you do to God alone. Do not think about the sin of a brother but about what in him is better than in yourself .... Flee from glory, honors and praise, but if this is impossible, be sorry that such is your lot. Be benevolent to people of low origin. Be freely and willingly obedient not only to those above you but to those below .... The lowlier we are in spirit, the better we know ourselves, and without humility we cannot see God."
"Just as the body has an ear, so also does the soul. Not everybody has an ear that is open, nor does every soul. God commands the soul: do not kill, do not steal, do not commit adultery, turn away from evil and do good, etc. The soul whose ears are open, hears and listens to God speaking and does what God commands. Truly, such a soul cannot but hear God and obey His commandments if it has its ears open. Men listen and carry out the commands of earthly kings and lesser authorities, and will not a soul listen to God speaking if it has its ears open? Of course ! And with what fervor and delight will it not listen and say to Him: Ready is my heart, O God, ready is my heart (Ps. 107:2 LXX)
"For love does not seek its own, it labors, sweats, watches to build up the brother: nothing is inconvenient to love, and by the help of God it turns the impossible into the possible .... Love believes and hopes .... It is ashamed of nothing. Without it, what is the use of prayer? What use are hymns and singing? What is the use of building and adorning churches? What is mortification of the flesh if the neighbor is not loved? Indeed, all are of no consequence .... As an animal cannot exist without bodily warmth, So no good deed can be alive without true love; it is only the pretence of a good deed."
References
Published works
St Tikhon of Zadonsk - Journey To Heaven- Counsels on the particular duties of every Christian 1870,
External links
Tikhon of Zadonsk article from OrthodoxWiki
St Tikhon. Bishop of Voronezh and Wonderworker of Zadonsk and All Russia Orthodox icon and synaxarion
1724 births
1783 deaths
18th-century Christian mystics
18th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops
18th-century Russian people
Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church
Eastern Orthodox mystics
People from Valdaysky District
Russian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Russian Orthodox monks
Wonderworkers
Bishops in the Russian Empire
Monks of the Russian Empire | [
-0.5179922580718994,
0.5670139789581299,
-0.40523815155029297,
-0.11192068457603455,
-0.45300382375717163,
0.9067425727844238,
1.027895450592041,
0.0824744924902916,
-0.40908804535865784,
-0.07135775685310364,
-0.40028926730155945,
0.14988601207733154,
-0.4750746488571167,
0.49987268447875977,
-0.27706247568130493,
0.40364453196525574,
0.3940357565879822,
0.004297608509659767,
-0.7167164087295532,
-0.049538835883140564,
0.1415349543094635,
0.0034943860955536366,
0.41249969601631165,
-0.0053589800372719765,
-0.10441448539495468,
0.05480055883526802,
0.18590086698532104,
-0.2695240080356598,
-0.48276713490486145,
0.3058209717273712,
-0.4602701961994171,
0.6304342150688171,
0.21901492774486542,
-0.20957991480827332,
-0.6107861399650574,
0.4051763117313385,
-0.19544841349124908,
-0.4886997938156128,
-0.22421693801879883,
-0.12448970228433609,
0.2113441824913025,
0.524541974067688,
0.08087944239377975,
0.10874196887016296,
-0.05994727835059166,
-0.28474316000938416,
-1.0468366146087646,
0.3188832402229309,
-0.5150125026702881,
-0.8133906126022339,
-0.019281789660453796,
0.25983065366744995,
0.30239683389663696,
-0.011692200787365437,
-0.8768162727355957,
0.6321597099304199,
-1.1641874313354492,
-0.058426711708307266,
0.6085323691368103,
0.18586458265781403,
0.4809909164905548,
0.18223315477371216,
0.7148001790046692,
-0.09283338487148285,
0.33436712622642517,
-0.3749387562274933,
-0.589584231376648,
0.5802642703056335,
-0.33235830068588257,
-0.5258035063743591,
-0.4751719534397125,
0.3651049733161926,
0.1579788774251938,
0.29266002774238586,
0.21308685839176178,
-0.6078073382377625,
-0.18315984308719635,
0.15243148803710938,
0.5727940797805786,
-0.024586491286754608,
-0.3170420527458191,
0.02967698872089386,
0.5189841985702515,
0.6177688837051392,
0.12077853828668594,
-0.5068264007568359,
-0.10651275515556335,
0.18370680510997772,
-0.3854590058326721,
0.4522755444049835,
0.7571143507957458,
-0.34601667523384094,
0.7428377270698547,
-0.5216550827026367,
-0.03747699409723282,
0.19849973917007446,
-0.6427222490310669,
0.31949055194854736,
-0.47886815667152405,
-0.3872026205062866,
-0.03844895958900452,
0.6404243111610413,
-0.24110077321529388,
-0.002594643272459507,
-0.1698741912841797,
-0.3295278549194336,
-0.1061677634716034,
0.40459686517715454,
0.5448524355888367,
0.05329887568950653,
-0.7206181287765503,
0.10697480291128159,
-0.7672275900840759,
0.27698683738708496,
0.008293516933918,
0.2614361047744751,
0.07756920158863068,
-1.1998226642608643,
-0.48595646023750305,
-0.4621232748031616,
-0.05731503292918205,
0.5298978090286255,
0.2134641855955124,
-0.0424751453101635,
-0.16340358555316925,
-0.5362516641616821,
0.3717917799949646,
0.40473076701164246,
-0.7904119491577148,
0.2247062772512436,
-0.22916735708713531,
1.0323618650436401,
-0.12030080705881119,
-0.207871675491333,
0.18554578721523285,
-0.11573704332113266,
0.2476554960012436,
-0.09993496537208557,
-0.6013960242271423,
0.559623658657074,
-0.30831870436668396,
0.1242089495062828,
-0.7031334042549133,
0.3496267795562744,
0.16222621500492096,
-0.28900715708732605,
0.3455844819545746,
-0.2396615594625473,
-0.23637622594833374,
-0.27717623114585876,
-0.40587377548217773,
0.25302109122276306,
-0.06526511907577515,
-0.09326793253421783,
-0.42282822728157043,
0.4450153410434723,
0.5401580333709717,
-0.2476431429386139,
0.4278915822505951,
0.013349325396120548,
0.44239094853401184,
-0.025802716612815857,
0.025359774008393288,
0.02167023904621601,
-0.2081066220998764,
-0.715173602104187,
0.3001179099082947,
0.09059429913759232,
-0.44663113355636597,
-0.7339257001876831,
-0.2900462746620178,
0.1341271996498108,
-0.01850280910730362,
0.11661985516548157,
-0.013397888280451298,
0.6873497366905212,
0.5816303491592407,
0.35900115966796875,
0.13626202940940857,
-0.856907069683075,
-0.6507889628410339,
0.080931656062603,
-0.30917152762413025,
0.22050634026527405,
0.3709915280342102,
0.8058405518531799,
0.4012519121170044,
0.3074963390827179,
0.4655250310897827,
-0.2679443657398224,
-0.23303553462028503,
-0.6687959432601929,
0.002604071516543627,
0.34015658497810364,
1.1376090049743652,
0.6436310410499573,
-0.29975026845932007,
-0.31016701459884644,
0.1781533658504486,
0.8698562979698181,
-0.2560969591140747,
-0.5620730519294739,
-0.5816608667373657,
0.2699905037879944,
0.36403951048851013,
0.3507272005081177,
-0.3569739758968353,
0.12376587837934494,
0.6299953460693359,
0.46919965744018555,
0.5947635173797607,
-0.9837345480918884,
0.7683296203613281,
-0.020222727209329605,
-0.4689764082431793,
-0.06812416017055511,
-0.6321218609809875,
0.03649526089429855,
0.11369700729846954,
-0.2629556357860565,
0.28535163402557373,
-0.032563675194978714,
-0.02114732749760151,
0.772646963596344,
-0.18594256043434143,
0.4919928014278412,
-0.4933030903339386,
0.13331472873687744,
-0.09439650923013687,
-0.4006734788417816,
-0.9713765978813171,
-0.09343530237674713,
0.28116360306739807,
0.1500435769557953,
0.1436350792646408,
-0.12292013317346573,
-0.27365079522132874,
-0.42544373869895935,
0.4417831599712372,
-0.21566271781921387,
0.0837876945734024,
0.230142280459404,
0.5243620872497559,
0.1450662910938263,
0.3254539370536804,
0.5889808535575867,
-0.11446268856525421,
-0.34553682804107666,
-0.2070353627204895,
-0.17891694605350494,
-0.09082593023777008,
0.28488144278526306,
-0.10888560861349106,
0.11098286509513855,
0.22257877886295319,
-0.30449825525283813,
0.6912002563476562,
-0.36986806988716125,
-0.5013790726661682,
-0.018827863037586212,
0.4946301579475403,
-0.0910549983382225,
-0.01575060933828354,
0.05396643653512001,
0.1453508734703064,
-0.4270574450492859,
0.1858849823474884,
-0.0008070802432484925,
0.8727535605430603,
-0.3922829031944275,
0.32765474915504456,
-0.5027793049812317,
-0.20803149044513702,
0.20964157581329346,
0.058344874531030655,
-0.8015021681785583,
0.16479448974132538,
0.06097322702407837,
-0.07804698497056961,
-0.8794111013412476,
-0.5695632696151733,
0.761201798915863,
-0.17301590740680695,
0.2917998433113098,
-0.5368478894233704,
-0.2591697573661804,
-0.31687334179878235,
-0.5022038221359253,
0.4727020859718323,
-0.2831190228462219,
0.027191828936338425,
0.18301844596862793,
0.17245079576969147,
0.2304704189300537,
-0.447149395942688,
0.6077455282211304,
-0.6034926772117615,
-0.4201974868774414,
0.22686560451984406,
-0.33932358026504517,
-1.0752148628234863,
-0.24245281517505646,
-0.24905556440353394,
0.015656279399991035,
0.5220188498497009,
-0.19251340627670288,
-0.5120753645896912,
0.3430323004722595,
-5.561808109283447,
0.4008232057094574,
0.043624527752399445,
-0.10517174750566483,
0.30759596824645996,
0.16382066905498505,
0.2249108850955963,
-0.004381722304970026,
-0.23053404688835144,
-0.0973096564412117,
-0.20404919981956482,
-0.4932747185230255,
-0.5055919885635376,
0.1501867175102234,
0.7202625870704651,
0.3928872048854828,
0.2330482006072998,
0.07523126900196075,
0.01991415210068226,
-0.14573943614959717,
0.14649011194705963,
-0.179856538772583,
-0.03433341905474663,
0.7773647904396057,
0.9326057434082031,
0.8594401478767395,
-0.0805574432015419,
0.2518770396709442,
-0.9041626453399658,
0.12234910577535629,
-0.12967726588249207,
-0.039893146604299545,
-0.11884073913097382,
0.461834192276001,
0.452841579914093,
-0.37186914682388306,
0.5726683735847473,
0.7633280754089355,
0.27829426527023315,
-0.001537084230221808,
-0.1972760409116745,
-0.14864806830883026,
-0.35915929079055786,
0.15137730538845062,
0.15053413808345795,
-0.20026347041130066,
-0.5213319659233093,
0.23643718659877777,
-0.7415921092033386,
0.2721651494503021,
0.259115606546402,
-0.29899266362190247,
-0.3289817273616791,
-0.3625224828720093,
0.4820186495780945,
0.07408659160137177,
0.39962729811668396,
0.10448984056711197,
-0.1226513609290123,
0.3397303521633148,
0.5806588530540466,
0.006104571279138327,
0.07127423584461212,
-0.18958774209022522,
0.25003570318222046,
0.03124224580824375,
-0.02069190703332424,
-0.24317792057991028,
-0.11259928345680237,
0.030414897948503494,
-0.4399368464946747,
1.4918620586395264,
-0.5291451811790466,
-0.979179859161377,
-0.3692895770072937,
-0.06140822544693947,
-0.7696197628974915,
-0.050305142998695374,
-0.4172156751155853,
0.48563387989997864,
-0.43442630767822266,
-0.5245323181152344,
0.019395267590880394,
1.0105535984039307,
0.4772806465625763,
0.34865379333496094,
-0.1610526442527771,
0.2946365773677826,
-0.19248703122138977,
-0.14487949013710022,
0.27601516246795654,
-0.5480072498321533,
0.1737731695175171,
0.010046753101050854,
-0.10196627676486969,
0.013299920596182346,
-0.1895167976617813,
0.24234722554683685,
0.15081802010536194,
0.3068527579307556,
0.20470304787158966,
0.0932488664984703,
0.3752081096172333,
-0.3770020306110382,
0.44360116124153137,
-0.2091144621372223,
-0.03713635727763176,
0.17542782425880432,
1.167311668395996,
0.4141644537448883,
0.07648026943206787,
0.4560493528842926,
-0.18769854307174683,
-0.8875820636749268,
0.44498011469841003,
-0.2814757823944092,
0.5994372963905334,
0.7290946245193481,
0.2649748921394348,
0.4090385437011719,
0.17829206585884094,
0.21810390055179596,
-0.6893071532249451,
-0.1423039585351944,
-0.37966275215148926,
0.16356046497821808,
0.01655188575387001,
0.11668533831834793,
0.22818529605865479,
-0.18997317552566528,
0.18736213445663452,
0.08151089400053024,
-0.06227137893438339,
-0.2279873788356781,
-0.041314758360385895,
-0.2766428589820862,
-0.3882792890071869,
-1.2724519968032837,
-0.2066461145877838,
-0.0828530415892601,
-0.06558554619550705,
-0.1014399453997612,
0.15410107374191284,
0.8800698518753052,
0.38042575120925903,
0.2004878968000412,
-0.0010752620873972774,
0.19631345570087433,
0.04124798998236656,
0.32918164134025574,
-0.10711841285228729,
-0.22526346147060394,
0.7057214379310608,
-0.16641996800899506,
-0.13377396762371063,
0.15651394426822662,
-0.10731702297925949,
0.28280946612358093,
-0.10326376557350159,
0.41531825065612793,
-0.05885104462504387,
-0.579896867275238,
-0.9667534828186035,
-0.3751285672187805,
0.30894020199775696,
-0.4536973834037781,
-0.9935777187347412,
-0.32544612884521484,
0.17742501199245453,
0.9387837648391724,
0.33893412351608276,
-0.5384748578071594,
-0.920208752155304,
0.15996240079402924,
0.37885746359825134,
-0.14485138654708862,
0.422098308801651,
0.18891607224941254,
-0.3310774266719818,
-0.07487662881612778,
0.2654196619987488,
-0.30149394273757935,
-0.280277281999588,
0.35447630286216736,
0.4304865300655365,
0.33009475469589233,
-0.3689529299736023,
-0.009804646484553814,
-0.16035844385623932,
-0.2824702858924866,
-0.18786604702472687,
-0.0907941535115242,
-0.6811784505844116,
0.11699680238962173,
0.5743584632873535,
-0.4455143213272095,
0.2222190946340561,
0.30862176418304443,
0.4039319157600403,
-0.03419647365808487,
0.19587837159633636,
0.3573511838912964,
-0.511455237865448,
-0.29039570689201355,
0.10413309931755066,
-0.8788224458694458,
1.0026264190673828,
0.11194062978029251,
-0.10338234901428223,
0.3971952199935913,
-0.1388922482728958,
-0.5785363912582397,
-0.41466495394706726,
0.41879916191101074,
-0.0049843997694551945,
0.1404673159122467,
0.2189054787158966,
-0.22512707114219666,
-0.5494225025177002,
-0.6386515498161316,
-0.5240199565887451,
-0.07261817157268524,
-0.10914799571037292,
-0.08037365972995758,
-0.21892273426055908,
-0.03220771625638008,
0.4104670584201813,
-0.14472682774066925,
-0.048626597970724106,
-0.2143869698047638,
-0.07806538790464401,
-0.09977570176124573,
-0.00002786914774333127,
-0.34692513942718506,
-0.10248401761054993,
-0.47512608766555786,
0.8147629499435425,
-0.12670935690402985,
-0.19839175045490265,
-0.19349870085716248,
0.5079460740089417,
0.7108426094055176,
-0.3553010821342468,
0.07860220223665237,
0.1204916462302208,
0.18098323047161102,
0.30442339181900024,
0.2561487555503845,
0.15643607079982758,
-0.02842126414179802,
0.2499193400144577,
-0.038991425186395645,
-0.8669666051864624,
-0.4594239890575409,
0.7138606905937195,
-0.8485140800476074,
-0.4281498193740845,
0.5104889869689941,
0.3009199798107147,
0.34607353806495667,
0.22534608840942383,
0.157307431101799,
0.2531677782535553,
-0.2973042130470276,
-0.12334578484296799,
0.28836607933044434,
-0.08100039511919022,
0.21816328167915344,
-0.3845732808113098,
-0.3787536323070526,
-0.5071925520896912,
-0.9537614583969116,
0.3138931691646576,
0.24359767138957977,
-0.6260820627212524,
-0.08960923552513123,
-0.12284888327121735,
0.21923361718654633,
0.23024709522724152,
0.2250896543264389,
-1.135572075843811,
-0.34297817945480347,
-0.17303913831710815,
-0.1104993000626564,
-0.3242292106151581,
-0.6412079334259033,
-0.060009390115737915,
0.1144179180264473,
-0.005829960573464632,
0.1994900107383728,
-0.8580725193023682,
-0.20131035149097443,
-0.10143733769655228,
0.0547187402844429,
-0.11058465391397476,
-0.4155937135219574,
-0.2376997023820877,
0.4008302688598633,
-0.29120558500289917,
-0.048341915011405945,
-0.40105780959129333,
0.5900193452835083,
0.544011116027832,
-0.24767310917377472,
0.9362741112709045,
0.6665047407150269,
-0.2121593952178955,
0.25158968567848206,
-0.9539201855659485,
-0.24786560237407684,
0.5325336456298828,
0.2708416283130646,
0.25188955664634705,
0.2815064489841461,
-0.3935714066028595,
-0.36333897709846497,
0.48224931955337524,
-0.059159744530916214,
-0.3551216125488281,
-0.07390578091144562,
0.4325437843799591,
0.3884449005126953,
0.16251260042190552,
-0.18614399433135986,
0.03785082697868347,
0.40657588839530945,
-0.20684213936328888,
-0.0672367736697197,
0.19275027513504028,
0.37314221262931824,
-0.14826500415802002,
0.2815759479999542,
-0.7698567509651184,
0.6684850454330444,
0.5797454118728638,
-0.5170638561248779,
0.10069001466035843,
-0.3679389953613281,
-0.12153186649084091,
0.6139786839485168,
0.11515484005212784,
0.6912997364997864,
-0.8040743470191956,
0.5128411054611206,
-0.2599567174911499,
0.33915209770202637,
0.15668444335460663,
0.42818841338157654,
-0.12667255103588104,
0.11802905797958374,
0.405658096075058,
0.16937288641929626,
-0.04019152373075485,
-0.4765992760658264,
0.14416058361530304,
0.14039018750190735,
0.2941180467605591,
-0.437259703874588,
-0.09430595487356186,
-0.16457904875278473,
0.06560270488262177,
0.11348187178373337,
0.5531682968139648,
-0.22086483240127563,
0.20579297840595245,
0.3733922839164734,
0.06257449090480804,
-0.9504295587539673,
0.22538875043392181,
-0.3430415093898773,
0.019295252859592438,
-0.3075007200241089,
0.10997826606035233,
0.22014833986759186,
0.2763054668903351,
0.2531439960002899,
0.8705416321754456,
0.2597595155239105,
-0.021059192717075348,
-0.13928727805614471,
-0.41899731755256653,
0.4842034578323364,
-0.037959497421979904,
-0.40912097692489624,
0.5560432076454163,
0.2538682818412781,
0.3046380281448364,
-0.3018985688686371,
0.270877480506897,
-0.24391798675060272,
-0.24467971920967102,
-0.5777861475944519,
-0.29723596572875977,
0.26276156306266785,
-0.5940209627151489,
-0.09142538905143738,
-0.4026232063770294,
0.5824652910232544,
-0.01970737800002098,
0.2249910831451416,
0.06088373064994812,
-0.48712605237960815,
0.19562065601348877,
0.0675787404179573,
-0.5018476843833923,
-0.14657217264175415,
-0.2607724070549011,
0.0020696003921329975,
-1.0861241817474365,
0.42166295647621155,
0.10426519811153412,
0.10289137065410614,
-0.5762977600097656,
0.1234358623623848,
-0.2752135694026947,
0.004388830624520779,
0.7654455304145813,
-0.1570529192686081,
0.3377167284488678,
-0.5396636128425598,
0.1390032023191452,
-0.31150245666503906,
0.25429797172546387,
0.37971368432044983,
-0.2924964427947998,
-0.047198645770549774,
0.2645373046398163,
0.1669236570596695,
-0.4309658706188202,
0.1467932164669037,
-0.36895981431007385,
-0.061611469835042953,
-0.3474051356315613,
0.0782584547996521,
0.09542984515428543,
-0.3733188807964325,
1.0167884826660156,
0.5383532643318176,
0.009907856583595276,
-0.9059270024299622,
0.703751802444458,
-0.09270977228879929,
-0.08859361708164215,
0.7375114560127258,
0.09571937471628189,
-0.0132679408416152,
-0.5591030120849609,
-0.41918930411338806,
-0.027374712750315666,
0.47214630246162415,
0.5630675554275513,
0.0051100351847708225,
0.3293294906616211,
-0.7573724985122681,
0.2555241584777832,
-0.27009499073028564,
0.3821028769016266,
-0.2609241306781769,
0.45500996708869934,
0.28615665435791016
] |
228812 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berwyn%20range | Berwyn range | The Berwyn range (Welsh: Y Berwyn or Mynydd y Berwyn) is an isolated and sparsely populated area of moorland in the northeast of Wales, roughly bounded by Llangollen in the northeast, Corwen in the northwest, Bala in the southwest, and Oswestry in the southeast.
Description
The area is wild and largely vegetated by heather about one metre thick, with some acidic grassland and bracken. It is not very popular for hill-walking or scrambling since the peaks are lower than those in nearby Snowdonia. However, the topmost peaks are rugged and have a distinctive character. Nearby towns include Llangollen and Corwen, which are popular tourist destinations.
The main summits are Cadair Berwyn at above sea level, Moel Sych at and Cadair Bronwen at above sea level.
The Berwyn range is crossed to the southwest by the B4391 Milltir Cerrig mountain pass at an elevation of .
Cadair Berwyn is the highest point in the Berwyn range, and the highest point in Wales outside the National Parks. Cadair Bronwyn and Foel Cedig to the west are the two Marilyns that form the Berwyn range.
The mountain lies on main ridge of the Berwyn range which runs north–south. The eastern side of the ridge is characterised by steep drops and crags including Craig Berwyn north of the summit and Craig y Llyn to the south. Craig y Llyn forms the headwall of a cwm, and it is to this that the word cadair (chair in Welsh) presumably refers. Further north along the ridge is Cadair Bronwen, whilst to south the ridge continues to Moel Sych (Welsh pronunciation: [ˈmɔil ˈsɨːx], meaning "dry hill").
It is often reported that Moel Sych, along the ridge, is of equal height, but Cadair Berwyn's spot height on the Ordnance Survey maps, where the trig point stands, is not the true summit. Cadair Berwyn's summit, south of the trig point, is three metres taller than Moel Sych. This summit is listed as Cadair Berwyn New Top on the Nuttall list.
Several other summits in the area are listed as Hewitts or Nuttalls, including Foel Wen ([ˈvɔil ˈwɛn], Welsh for white hill) and Mynydd Tarw ([ˈmɐnɨð ˈtæɾu], bull mountain).
The summit lies on the border between Powys and Denbighshire, and is the highest point in Denbighshire. The northern end of Craig Berwyn is the highest point in Wrexham county borough.
History
There is a standing stone in the area, located near the summit between Cadair Berwyn and Tomle. This was re-erected in June 2008 by High Sports. The standing stone can be found at SJ080337[2].
The Berwyn range also played its part in causing King Henry II of England to turn back during his invasion of Gwynedd in 1165. Rather than taking the usual route along the northern coastal plain, his army invaded from Oswestry and took a route over the Berwyns. The English invasion faced an alliance of Welsh princes led by King Owain Gwynedd, but there was little fighting – endless days of heavy rain forced the English to retreat.
Supposed UFO crash
At 8.38 pm on 23 January 1974, an earthquake of magnitude 3.5 was felt over a wide area of north Wales and as far as Liverpool. Since earthquakes are uncommon in the UK, it was not generally recognized for what it was, and since a number of unusual lights in the sky had been observed the same evening, it was considered possible that an aircraft had crashed, or a meteorite had impacted. Further confusion was caused by lights seen on the Berwyn Mountains, which subsequently turned out to have belonged to poachers.
Ecology
The area supports substantial populations of upland birds including raptors, such as the hen harrier (Circus cyaneus), merlin (Falco columbarius), and peregrine (Falco peregrinus) (about 14–18 breeding pairs of each species, 1%–2% of the total British population), and for this reason it is a Special Protection Area classified in accordance with the European Union's Birds Directive. Much of the area is also designated a national nature reserve and a Site of Special Scientific Interest and forms part of the Berwyn and South Clwyd Mountains Special Area of Conservation. Other wildlife include short-eared owl, raven, buzzard, polecat and golden plover.
Etymology
The scholar T. Gwynn Jones suggested that a possible origin of the term "Berwyn" was "Bryn(iau) Gwyn (ap Nudd)", where the Middle Welsh word "bre" (hill) had mutated to Ber + Gwyn, Gwyn ap Nudd being the mythological King of the Tylwyth Teg (Fair Folk, or fairies). A more likely etymology is "bar" (summit, crest) + "gwyn" (white), with the "a" in "bar" showing i-affection as a result of the "y" in "gwyn", therefore changing from "a" to "e"; the word also shows soft mutation of the letter "g" (which is deleted under soft mutation).
Peaks
References
Landforms of Denbighshire
Landforms of Wrexham County Borough
Landforms of Powys
Landforms of Gwynedd
Mountain ranges of Wales
National nature reserves in Wales
Special Protection Areas in Wales
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Clwyd
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in East Gwynedd
Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Montgomery
Paranormal places in the United Kingdom | [
0.0792950689792633,
0.5835163593292236,
0.26927894353866577,
-1.4100286960601807,
0.12580138444900513,
0.46596309542655945,
0.6269142627716064,
0.17230187356472015,
0.3817841410636902,
-0.25506114959716797,
-0.42567554116249084,
0.8243963718414307,
0.09797105193138123,
0.1838788092136383,
-1.0905267000198364,
0.5597637891769409,
0.40896135568618774,
0.28797775506973267,
0.2659498453140259,
-0.22541064023971558,
0.2719350755214691,
-0.6152100563049316,
-0.24546265602111816,
-0.17346680164337158,
0.02818887121975422,
0.013635251671075821,
0.6750195026397705,
0.7626574039459229,
0.49263110756874084,
-0.066416896879673,
0.004538359586149454,
0.6639013886451721,
-0.5665764808654785,
-0.5266264081001282,
0.01955210231244564,
0.41547971963882446,
0.4416661560535431,
-0.5702751874923706,
-0.7116526365280151,
-0.4781641662120819,
0.08623004704713821,
-0.0328449122607708,
-0.23533979058265686,
0.38651371002197266,
-0.7545139789581299,
-0.21361275017261505,
-1.3258206844329834,
0.32786062359809875,
-0.10468178242444992,
-0.1839386522769928,
-1.6194179058074951,
0.7020720839500427,
-0.23609785735607147,
0.14729517698287964,
0.8839592933654785,
-0.16080927848815918,
-0.5508122444152832,
-0.4589742422103882,
0.8335345983505249,
0.28715500235557556,
-0.021500928327441216,
0.6982449293136597,
-0.12698806822299957,
-0.10740143805742264,
-0.6024047136306763,
-0.1722337305545807,
-0.36476457118988037,
0.38677340745925903,
-0.23259037733078003,
-0.4158391058444977,
-0.5916107892990112,
-0.02538253553211689,
-0.07999539375305176,
0.05184057727456093,
-0.5213268399238586,
0.4322981834411621,
0.02516522817313671,
-0.26909199357032776,
-0.0174651388078928,
0.08581143617630005,
0.9270526766777039,
0.1006743535399437,
0.838547945022583,
0.007355986163020134,
0.3486294746398926,
0.13527324795722961,
-0.8487452268600464,
0.07751545310020447,
-0.6964326500892639,
0.42897331714630127,
-0.1673561930656433,
-0.3520773649215698,
-0.3860774636268616,
-0.07760285586118698,
0.11823353916406631,
-0.39814311265945435,
0.4710479974746704,
0.12005995213985443,
-0.042391300201416016,
0.2535091042518616,
-0.04829917103052139,
0.48757871985435486,
0.2861538231372833,
-0.6369866728782654,
-1.0442092418670654,
0.26296934485435486,
-0.3923707604408264,
-0.45023512840270996,
0.05725042149424553,
0.1713900864124298,
-0.629364013671875,
0.05896138772368431,
0.09452181309461594,
0.5217670202255249,
0.387662798166275,
0.27352210879325867,
0.2673165202140808,
0.08746345341205597,
0.034495241940021515,
0.07146771997213364,
0.4993276596069336,
1.318942666053772,
-0.3172379732131958,
0.041364654898643494,
0.25692418217658997,
0.3262782394886017,
-0.0956900343298912,
-0.05929890275001526,
-0.3866081237792969,
0.2274942398071289,
0.2322465181350708,
0.44236281514167786,
0.3223348557949066,
-0.3578380048274994,
0.23404082655906677,
-0.43073704838752747,
0.49930137395858765,
-0.48340684175491333,
0.5740365982055664,
0.8673648238182068,
-0.8095646500587463,
0.11637669056653976,
-0.2186775952577591,
-0.1524834930896759,
0.8164313435554504,
-0.18581509590148926,
-0.11897546797990799,
-0.7914535403251648,
-0.26367223262786865,
0.22532646358013153,
0.44302088022232056,
-0.11621461063623428,
-0.0098025007173419,
-0.1640200912952423,
-0.46833086013793945,
-0.11659523099660873,
0.2337677925825119,
0.11442050337791443,
-0.05251399427652359,
-0.3662995398044586,
0.22148554027080536,
0.13816489279270172,
0.36007341742515564,
0.0888955295085907,
0.28704795241355896,
-0.1018872857093811,
0.5814113616943359,
-0.28182315826416016,
0.1301422268152237,
0.6969718337059021,
-0.4678412973880768,
-0.3135337233543396,
0.8752577304840088,
-0.025553174316883087,
-0.024249715730547905,
-0.18313375115394592,
0.8312154412269592,
0.6842848658561707,
-0.10854724049568176,
-0.14141589403152466,
-0.7487028241157532,
-0.11007259041070938,
0.537399172782898,
0.14475494623184204,
-0.19889818131923676,
-0.015759630128741264,
0.32321909070014954,
0.0033368985168635845,
-0.45920976996421814,
-0.23383939266204834,
-0.2209857702255249,
-0.5397316813468933,
0.9067564606666565,
-0.45970845222473145,
0.9178416728973389,
-0.24574732780456543,
0.2826996147632599,
0.2883906364440918,
-0.3061710596084595,
0.7675054669380188,
-0.10410590469837189,
-0.6522141098976135,
0.5087120532989502,
-0.22993984818458557,
-0.22931063175201416,
0.16575279831886292,
0.4701717495918274,
-0.04820464551448822,
0.25459036231040955,
-0.12960007786750793,
-0.06670792400836945,
0.046768348664045334,
0.035560011863708496,
0.14689520001411438,
-0.19964653253555298,
-0.2556086480617523,
0.25010040402412415,
0.14021052420139313,
0.3374161422252655,
-0.20457753539085388,
0.4213446080684662,
0.6938724517822266,
-0.4276171922683716,
-0.3065826892852783,
0.04655572026968002,
-0.08318320661783218,
0.2706512212753296,
0.14741596579551697,
0.24363718926906586,
-0.4857110381126404,
-0.031786732375621796,
-0.26624178886413574,
-0.22533521056175232,
-0.2376520186662674,
0.6613803505897522,
-0.2831404209136963,
-0.5874360799789429,
-0.1750277429819107,
0.2842639088630676,
-1.124563217163086,
-0.25538158416748047,
-0.08766231685876846,
-0.438050776720047,
0.2688209116458893,
-0.1006440594792366,
0.9189357757568359,
0.3219154179096222,
0.8350409865379333,
-0.4614599645137787,
0.20519357919692993,
-0.1054457277059555,
0.2203216552734375,
0.3384924829006195,
-0.04774682596325874,
0.2755098342895508,
0.03680649772286415,
0.04414840415120125,
-0.0101584168151021,
0.4394611418247223,
0.20730113983154297,
-0.2841089963912964,
-0.1472369283437729,
-0.01454110722988844,
0.8367140293121338,
-0.12351126968860626,
-0.7237697243690491,
-0.0034191494341939688,
-0.9037869572639465,
-0.09800966829061508,
0.01924275979399681,
-0.19673223793506622,
-0.4223348796367645,
-0.05548059567809105,
0.4946887493133545,
-0.036148928105831146,
0.4497275948524475,
0.279825359582901,
-0.6043220162391663,
-0.7246004939079285,
0.3642585873603821,
0.594305694103241,
0.8229796290397644,
0.16829217970371246,
-0.02013792097568512,
-0.4629226326942444,
0.04352623596787453,
0.4716326892375946,
-0.10346444696187973,
-0.1744491010904312,
-0.14097890257835388,
-0.22035393118858337,
0.5029348731040955,
0.47052067518234253,
0.6154596209526062,
-0.7114127278327942,
0.33048853278160095,
0.02579640969634056,
-0.23681415617465973,
0.1327430009841919,
-0.5244837999343872,
-0.45399248600006104,
0.6594425439834595,
-0.4582796096801758,
0.1417677253484726,
0.34908008575439453,
0.0054995035752654076,
-0.6083321571350098,
0.20804399251937866,
-5.263084411621094,
0.745815634727478,
-0.17731820046901703,
-0.6105942726135254,
0.5149925947189331,
-0.14028124511241913,
-0.45393338799476624,
-0.4800715744495392,
-0.11922091245651245,
-0.4012923836708069,
0.418336421251297,
-0.36563029885292053,
0.1527501344680786,
0.7788095474243164,
0.8740039467811584,
0.3496790826320648,
0.2572941780090332,
0.3597961664199829,
0.3372265100479126,
0.3173212707042694,
0.15884535014629364,
-0.7254251837730408,
-0.44193241000175476,
0.22928418219089508,
-0.015969397500157356,
0.3830386996269226,
0.11624334007501602,
-0.5525383949279785,
-0.7565720677375793,
-0.1429055780172348,
0.32322660088539124,
-0.28236597776412964,
0.25073477625846863,
0.45408931374549866,
-0.3428080379962921,
0.7410978674888611,
0.37686023116111755,
0.06618719547986984,
0.8894647359848022,
-0.6743568181991577,
0.0010169018059968948,
1.0249377489089966,
-0.18888093531131744,
-0.12640957534313202,
0.3785366415977478,
-0.6797770857810974,
-0.6051662564277649,
0.049122948199510574,
0.2711852192878723,
0.7156010270118713,
0.07308616489171982,
0.08627118915319443,
0.4698558449745178,
-0.2941983938217163,
0.09255543351173401,
0.3282105326652527,
0.1324739158153534,
-0.4201622009277344,
-0.32593652606010437,
0.6898378729820251,
0.2507806122303009,
-0.22766231000423431,
-0.2628464996814728,
-0.41513168811798096,
0.397803395986557,
-0.4941538870334625,
-0.32736271619796753,
-0.07763984799385071,
0.2939261496067047,
-0.1361245959997177,
-0.026523267850279808,
-0.17386159300804138,
-0.5667861700057983,
-0.7959915995597839,
-0.13952390849590302,
-0.5135924816131592,
-0.21330398321151733,
-0.09148617833852768,
0.2775086760520935,
0.19532887637615204,
-0.24669983983039856,
-0.20432135462760925,
0.5176496505737305,
0.45400843024253845,
0.40179872512817383,
-0.6110988259315491,
-0.33741337060928345,
-0.0966145247220993,
0.311360239982605,
-0.9773924350738525,
0.6628992557525635,
-0.842587411403656,
0.46288999915122986,
0.05846914276480675,
-0.007862568832933903,
0.6473393440246582,
0.13484133780002594,
0.2788996398448944,
0.6290046572685242,
0.005492302589118481,
0.6154609322547913,
-0.4202209711074829,
0.4264991283416748,
0.24574051797389984,
-0.23633258044719696,
-0.25977176427841187,
0.05382849648594856,
0.3994329571723938,
0.5323899388313293,
-0.41490089893341064,
0.21309423446655273,
-0.023341383785009384,
-0.25227126479148865,
-0.3095325529575348,
-0.060549236834049225,
-0.38622647523880005,
-0.5705815553665161,
0.40265053510665894,
0.4371378421783447,
0.321509450674057,
0.014545025303959846,
0.3713887631893158,
-0.06791064143180847,
-0.24515382945537567,
-0.23679527640342712,
-0.4717811942100525,
0.41037851572036743,
0.05664103850722313,
-0.6882452964782715,
0.3163779377937317,
0.10953307896852493,
-0.0013831874821335077,
0.38737621903419495,
0.16447046399116516,
0.13213467597961426,
-0.10743100941181183,
-0.2449791431427002,
-0.3557576835155487,
0.016004007309675217,
0.13344623148441315,
-0.0247971061617136,
0.05716090649366379,
0.09251099824905396,
0.3222576379776001,
-0.08816060423851013,
0.3631882667541504,
-0.2699413299560547,
-0.24852310121059418,
-0.8721535205841064,
0.4648723602294922,
-0.06610184162855148,
0.6125434637069702,
-0.6309372186660767,
-0.6668282151222229,
0.10135357081890106,
-0.22894427180290222,
-0.3742245137691498,
0.48355668783187866,
0.21940593421459198,
-0.4349557161331177,
-0.11148243397474289,
0.03102806769311428,
-0.6717175245285034,
0.261274129152298,
0.659304141998291,
-0.24804890155792236,
-0.31761375069618225,
-0.19461238384246826,
-0.15730518102645874,
0.5982977151870728,
-0.04412679746747017,
-0.8740922212600708,
-0.44113045930862427,
-0.3003866374492645,
-0.35216978192329407,
0.10829267650842667,
-0.5286983847618103,
0.0016297399997711182,
-0.2948439121246338,
-0.2607555091381073,
-0.3503851294517517,
-0.04919470474123955,
0.03160266950726509,
0.08412796258926392,
0.4269842207431793,
-0.6105594635009766,
-0.9599165320396423,
-0.02797238714993,
0.19153645634651184,
-0.6822496652603149,
0.8924400806427002,
-0.6045214533805847,
0.6521794199943542,
0.5879960656166077,
-0.15447482466697693,
-0.45227929949760437,
0.5081857442855835,
0.4681727886199951,
-0.08078453689813614,
-0.7099254131317139,
-0.2175762802362442,
-0.09248548746109009,
-1.1208962202072144,
0.3813278079032898,
0.45528239011764526,
-0.7005581259727478,
0.4082649052143097,
0.16599039733409882,
-0.7934273481369019,
0.5243338942527771,
-0.786709725856781,
-0.8497169613838196,
0.22238470613956451,
0.39604929089546204,
-0.35128578543663025,
-0.2178012579679489,
0.2187288999557495,
-0.12957803905010223,
-0.4135030210018158,
-0.7285380959510803,
0.08396841585636139,
-0.708188533782959,
-0.1061534434556961,
0.07183271646499634,
-0.6474787592887878,
0.14261400699615479,
0.32439011335372925,
-0.2137848436832428,
0.5708439350128174,
-0.33128517866134644,
-0.2763654887676239,
0.40555551648139954,
0.6140679717063904,
0.3331117331981659,
-0.10319016128778458,
0.012913662940263748,
-0.13811346888542175,
-0.20721565186977386,
0.49009448289871216,
0.8584936261177063,
0.6335392594337463,
1.1885396242141724,
0.3514353036880493,
0.28682729601860046,
-0.2600005269050598,
-0.06496097147464752,
0.024748023599386215,
-0.7270762920379639,
-0.60585618019104,
-0.10604531317949295,
0.08308780193328857,
0.09962387382984161,
-0.5531208515167236,
-0.004606106784194708,
0.5796807408332825,
-0.21150168776512146,
-0.041630759835243225,
0.03236775100231171,
0.41943734884262085,
0.5458986759185791,
0.6295424103736877,
-0.16114626824855804,
-0.0603797547519207,
0.2660315930843353,
0.6657476425170898,
-0.6928499341011047,
-0.24115554988384247,
-0.5192287564277649,
0.6309516429901123,
-0.15543724596500397,
0.19554506242275238,
-0.04629004746675491,
0.03260969743132591,
0.1606895923614502,
0.20890925824642181,
-0.2931591868400574,
0.007937136106193066,
-0.969962477684021,
-0.17871642112731934,
-0.2041665017604828,
-0.7579950094223022,
-0.01834837719798088,
0.3557356894016266,
-0.3855409324169159,
-0.11959068477153778,
-0.5637763738632202,
0.1214112937450409,
-0.6365096569061279,
-0.3223070502281189,
-0.1420735865831375,
0.2678447663784027,
-0.17188286781311035,
-0.4246300756931305,
-0.40721359848976135,
-0.028618579730391502,
0.3544768989086151,
-0.30081409215927124,
0.4855113625526428,
-0.5257518887519836,
-0.03411133214831352,
-0.4814314544200897,
0.6193838119506836,
-0.5658613443374634,
-0.7459890246391296,
0.014694271609187126,
-0.24029579758644104,
0.21305374801158905,
-0.3117204010486603,
0.24441130459308624,
-0.29706886410713196,
-0.2055223137140274,
0.621101975440979,
0.22804130613803864,
1.1407493352890015,
-0.5971489548683167,
0.1826045960187912,
0.6000407338142395,
-0.6256555318832397,
0.40931689739227295,
0.8701847791671753,
-0.010947955772280693,
-0.20293058454990387,
0.3363366425037384,
0.5228235125541687,
-0.13040708005428314,
1.1900583505630493,
-0.3731546700000763,
-0.05412454158067703,
-0.2608804702758789,
0.3180077373981476,
-0.04535098373889923,
-0.42097485065460205,
-0.13136006891727448,
0.7791085243225098,
-0.588818371295929,
-0.5947807431221008,
0.22949565947055817,
-0.44824710488319397,
0.03717833384871483,
-0.0014115694211795926,
-0.014307244680821896,
0.49128687381744385,
0.0510663241147995,
-0.3257717788219452,
-0.19435079395771027,
0.058660756796598434,
0.04432244598865509,
0.3425491154193878,
0.031451266258955,
-0.13875314593315125,
0.48092585802078247,
-0.42860108613967896,
0.4894425868988037,
-0.5797068476676941,
0.13850408792495728,
0.39062342047691345,
-0.16928499937057495,
-0.12290491163730621,
-1.1870297193527222,
0.4169747233390808,
0.15343627333641052,
0.16642355918884277,
0.3265498876571655,
-0.5032915472984314,
-0.18850398063659668,
-0.07198520004749298,
0.03624515235424042,
-0.824698805809021,
0.14162896573543549,
0.6410571932792664,
0.32575830817222595,
0.36747631430625916,
-0.4893190860748291,
-0.3693619966506958,
-0.19095174968242645,
0.14635606110095978,
-0.03193771839141846,
0.4411473572254181,
0.4671698212623596,
-0.15763501822948456,
0.1093490868806839,
-0.07267262786626816,
-0.18889659643173218,
-0.6505812406539917,
0.7027356624603271,
-0.42585134506225586,
-0.17284205555915833,
-0.12346981465816498,
-0.7211825251579285,
-0.46196508407592773,
0.025592200458049774,
-0.16576263308525085,
-0.3837990462779999,
-0.3225473463535309,
-0.6699891090393066,
-0.5129553079605103,
0.303753525018692,
0.9728655815124512,
0.382135808467865,
0.08127794414758682,
0.8154146075248718,
0.5144234299659729,
-0.3483598232269287,
0.11231794953346252,
0.19661138951778412,
0.45085763931274414,
-0.2288256734609604,
0.3159359097480774,
-0.14104236662387848,
0.3278988003730774,
0.6405705809593201,
0.11042837798595428,
0.33449751138687134,
0.4744132161140442,
-0.2457973062992096,
0.2951863706111908,
0.5392399430274963,
0.19624106585979462,
0.029577696695923805,
-1.1826932430267334,
0.8582348823547363,
-0.03756402060389519,
0.2058793008327484,
0.36405864357948303,
0.20340178906917572,
0.12323625385761261,
0.5211794972419739,
0.18919596076011658,
-0.6100818514823914,
0.5021048784255981,
0.5267253518104553,
-0.5421115756034851,
-0.6545644402503967,
0.4603666067123413,
-0.7524123787879944,
-0.3586399555206299,
0.5050649642944336,
0.52482008934021,
-0.3078194260597229,
-0.24266210198402405,
-0.19353389739990234,
-0.3762039542198181,
0.7421231269836426,
0.14404667913913727,
-0.13919222354888916,
-0.2991727590560913,
-0.4460175037384033,
-0.8637968301773071,
-1.223793387413025,
0.29868167638778687,
0.3098539710044861,
-0.7475447058677673,
-0.10612710565328598,
0.12623874843120575,
-0.3847460448741913,
-0.8097761273384094,
0.20932291448116302,
-0.5901281237602234,
0.18386289477348328,
0.12195491045713425
] |
228813 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyllene%20Tider | Gyllene Tider | Gyllene Tider (; "Golden Times") was a Swedish pop group fronted by Roxette singer, guitarist and songwriter Per Gessle. They were one of the best-selling Swedish bands ever and have had numerous hits in Scandinavia, starting with the break-through song "Flickorna på TV2" in 1980. The band earned legendary status in Sweden based on their power pop, catchy choruses and lyrics about life in a small town.
History
In 1977, Per Gessle met Mats Persson, a member of the band Audiovisuellt Angrepp, forming the duo "Grape Rock". Later Micke Syd Andersson, Anders Herrlin and Göran Fritzon joined and the quintet was born. The group's name was changed to "Gyllene Tider", alluding to Mott the Hoople's song "The Golden Age of Rock 'n' Roll". In 1980, the LP Gyllene Tider was released, becoming a huge success in Sweden. "Flickorna på TV2" ("The girls on TV2") was the album's biggest hit.
The second album, released in 1981 under the name Moderna Tider (Modern Times), also enjoyed huge success, and was followed by a record-breaking national tour. The following year Puls (Pulse) was released, including the hits "Sommartider" ("Summer times") and "Flickan i en Cole-Porter-sång" ("The girl in a Cole Porter song"). In March 1985 Gyllene Tider officially broke up after releasing their only album in English; "The Heartland Cafe'". Per Gessle continued with a solo-career and formed Roxette with Marie Fredriksson in 1986.
After the break-up several platinum-selling compilation albums were released and a number of live reunions have taken place, starting with the immensely popular Återtåget tour in 1996. In 2004, the band celebrated its twenty-fifth anniversary with the first new album in over 20 years and a huge summer tour in July and August. The tour, called GT25, was a massive success, being the biggest tour in Scandinavia ever and the second largest of all time in the whole of Europe, gathering well over half a million people all over Sweden. When they performed at Ullevi stadium in Gothenburg on 7 August 2004 during the GT25, 58,984 fans watched the concert live, breaking the record set by Bruce Springsteen, and the performance was later broadcast on TV4.
Gyllene Tider reunited again on 14 August 2010 as a surprise encore during Roxette's concert in Halmstad, both bands' hometown. They performed a three-song set, featuring the songs "Juni, Juli, Augusti", "Sommartider", and "När alla vännerna gått hem", with Marie Fredriksson and the rest of the Roxette band joining them on stage for the last number. In January 2013, the group announced a new album and summer tour in Sweden, both called "Dags att tänka på refrängen". The album was released on 24 April 2013; the 19-show sell-out tour started on 5 July 2013 in Halmstad and ended on 10 August in Halmstad.
In January 2019, Gyllene Tider announced a farewell tour to celebrate 40 years which took place in Sweden and Norway in the summer of 2019. The tour started on 4 July in Halmstad, Sweden, and ended there on 10 August as well.
Their final album Samma skrot och korn was released on 14 June 2019.
Discography
Albums
Studio albums
Others
Modern Times (1982) - Never released
Heartland (special US release, containing 6 tracks from The Heartland Café. (Release credited to Roxette)
Live albums
Compilation albums
EPs
1978 Gyllene Tider (EP) (aka "Billy" and "the yellow EP")
1981 Swing&Sweet (Bonus-EP) included with the first copies of the album Moderna Tider with four cover versions of international hits: Gyllene tider för rock 'n' roll (Golden Age of Rock'n'Roll - Mott the Hoople), Vill ha ett svar (I Need to Know - Tom Petty), Och jorden den är rund (And Your Bird Can Sing - The Beatles) and Ge mig inte det där (Girl Don't Tell Me - The Beach Boys).
DVD and VHS
1997 Återtåget (documentary from TV4, live and interviews )
2004 Karaoke Hits!
2004 Parkliv! <small>(concert/documentary from 1981 filmed by Lasse Hallström, released on DVD 2004)</small>
2004 GT25 Live! (live at Ullevi 2004)
2013 Live sommaren 2013
2019 GT40 Live Ullevi'' (live at Ullevi 2019) (Also on BD).
Singles
Notes
References
External links
Gyllene Tider(Official)
Gyllene Tider.com - Elektroniska Tider (With full discography and info)
Musical groups established in 1977
Musical groups disestablished in 1985
Per Gessle
Swedish pop music groups
Swedish musical groups
1977 establishments in Sweden
1985 disestablishments in Sweden
Culture in Halmstad | [
-0.41438353061676025,
0.00879605207592249,
0.15401902794837952,
-0.04642889276146889,
-0.7594243884086609,
0.4132367968559265,
0.2872183918952942,
-0.025611933320760727,
-0.9197962284088135,
0.14021803438663483,
0.08593595772981644,
0.2168555110692978,
-0.4155978560447693,
0.6063526272773743,
-0.6405311226844788,
0.17922966182231903,
0.22415608167648315,
0.5917384028434753,
-0.16083814203739166,
-0.18800301849842072,
0.33761534094810486,
-0.09037157148122787,
0.36594125628471375,
-0.4486321806907654,
0.2056414783000946,
-0.575000524520874,
-0.3891647756099701,
0.07311742752790451,
0.3704499900341034,
-0.06950654834508896,
0.3505888283252716,
0.6126338243484497,
0.24871347844600677,
0.15773527324199677,
-0.37764817476272583,
0.19618844985961914,
0.05058018118143082,
0.27762141823768616,
-0.14361561834812164,
-0.5134528279304504,
-0.12304610013961792,
-0.6153737306594849,
0.048362065106630325,
0.14906354248523712,
-0.0611957311630249,
-0.9568109512329102,
-1.5120031833648682,
0.6061760187149048,
-0.870515763759613,
0.2089236080646515,
-0.5985690355300903,
0.8592446446418762,
-0.07402709871530533,
0.7971507906913757,
0.2751524746417999,
0.17674468457698822,
-0.3322717249393463,
0.4541754722595215,
-0.18371614813804626,
0.10573762655258179,
0.9056099653244019,
-0.1872469037771225,
0.03662120923399925,
-0.904064416885376,
0.08942551165819168,
0.36574026942253113,
0.44359710812568665,
0.0406743660569191,
0.1560567319393158,
-1.1040332317352295,
-0.39554959535598755,
0.5357760787010193,
0.16375580430030823,
0.10118041187524796,
-0.007259638048708439,
-0.1137758195400238,
0.48999714851379395,
-0.45944085717201233,
0.5685715079307556,
-0.20685353875160217,
0.4456081986427307,
0.13602280616760254,
0.9626361727714539,
0.45355719327926636,
-0.12821899354457855,
-0.31718817353248596,
0.14950859546661377,
-0.06659743934869766,
-0.7917866110801697,
-0.1749827265739441,
-0.49183735251426697,
-0.5581542253494263,
0.913995623588562,
0.41664567589759827,
0.06790930032730103,
0.2795597016811371,
0.07153668254613876,
0.3466487228870392,
-0.18728680908679962,
0.678402304649353,
-0.21538826823234558,
0.3097023665904999,
-0.3214787244796753,
-0.09478025138378143,
-0.6675206422805786,
-0.11772235482931137,
0.09720001369714737,
-0.11969339102506638,
-0.03841220960021019,
-0.38767173886299133,
-0.6142684817314148,
0.06849285215139389,
-0.36171072721481323,
0.2190922647714615,
0.2595846354961395,
0.1961670070886612,
0.09523918479681015,
-0.4485090672969818,
-0.14295631647109985,
0.5912344455718994,
0.2946234345436096,
-0.44916075468063354,
0.0717611089348793,
-0.10298129916191101,
-0.09865620732307434,
0.5030845999717712,
-0.0646485760807991,
0.28128939867019653,
-0.21090053021907806,
0.19678576290607452,
-0.0805535614490509,
0.38463231921195984,
-0.6549753546714783,
-0.12153211236000061,
0.11423135548830032,
-0.42673540115356445,
0.5346653461456299,
0.48569414019584656,
0.2327914535999298,
0.853596031665802,
-0.3056821823120117,
-0.27811792492866516,
-0.7672099471092224,
-0.6283860802650452,
0.6831393837928772,
-0.8406314849853516,
-0.05021202564239502,
-0.1033245325088501,
-0.6066679954528809,
-0.3604188561439514,
0.5391665697097778,
-0.20947371423244476,
0.019396094605326653,
-0.07599832862615585,
-0.4242420792579651,
0.1509937196969986,
-0.2963916063308716,
0.19072328507900238,
0.2629091739654541,
0.41908663511276245,
0.2062719464302063,
0.7391592264175415,
-0.06205620989203453,
0.10723651945590973,
0.20242469012737274,
-0.2851586937904358,
0.21099846065044403,
0.8025724291801453,
-0.4199577569961548,
-0.07746478170156479,
-0.07992127537727356,
-0.02071228437125683,
0.0919795110821724,
0.8276776075363159,
-0.45376741886138916,
1.2316550016403198,
0.7290569543838501,
0.27346569299697876,
-0.3787902891635895,
-0.17042042315006256,
-0.7185000777244568,
0.4693168103694916,
0.5687419176101685,
-0.4269060790538788,
-0.11334381252527237,
0.5103971362113953,
0.2072615921497345,
0.24976639449596405,
0.12269006669521332,
-0.47641080617904663,
-0.8167120218276978,
-0.1640254706144333,
0.5439630150794983,
0.6746164560317993,
0.8067840933799744,
0.04506325721740723,
0.05662577226758003,
0.18118809163570404,
-0.5719538331031799,
0.3847936987876892,
0.09152839332818985,
-0.5411604046821594,
0.37377235293388367,
-0.6648712158203125,
0.28742125630378723,
0.1177186593413353,
-0.1499788761138916,
-0.388027548789978,
-0.3893815279006958,
0.3159860074520111,
-0.4182884991168976,
-0.4531997740268707,
0.7403821349143982,
0.011091317050158978,
-0.5908960700035095,
-0.17919646203517914,
-0.3185797333717346,
0.013033160008490086,
0.16078564524650574,
-0.15021421015262604,
0.44166386127471924,
0.6258397102355957,
-0.2188607156276703,
-0.002835125895217061,
0.4859805703163147,
0.32017090916633606,
0.20822669565677643,
0.21675719320774078,
-0.19441065192222595,
0.08154071122407913,
-0.07200612127780914,
0.31732484698295593,
0.8484904766082764,
-0.22732457518577576,
0.09094420820474625,
-0.08294454216957092,
-0.04701409116387367,
0.4616405963897705,
0.4123642146587372,
-0.4860469102859497,
0.35746699571609497,
0.2890397906303406,
-0.9011391997337341,
0.8875620365142822,
-0.02730092778801918,
0.5324223041534424,
-0.8438030481338501,
0.10034274309873581,
-0.5406420230865479,
-0.501192569732666,
0.1481611281633377,
0.25480687618255615,
-0.34829288721084595,
0.1471313089132309,
0.0930999293923378,
0.000912079238332808,
0.3677615523338318,
-0.03965048864483833,
0.6508932709693909,
0.32481649518013,
-0.019297780469059944,
-0.7126240134239197,
0.8186103105545044,
0.05296735092997551,
0.23946766555309296,
0.05832763388752937,
0.0778479278087616,
-0.3637564778327942,
0.7725662589073181,
0.14283180236816406,
-0.4477112591266632,
0.49444252252578735,
-0.19550809264183044,
0.5388000011444092,
-0.24930112063884735,
-0.19596818089485168,
-0.3779381215572357,
-0.4868072271347046,
-0.46609899401664734,
-0.37391701340675354,
0.6388189792633057,
0.6528277397155762,
0.37162643671035767,
-0.6343713402748108,
-0.5673128366470337,
-0.5315209031105042,
-0.15529286861419678,
-0.16420717537403107,
0.47250255942344666,
-0.18927042186260223,
-0.14961285889148712,
0.1836574375629425,
-0.9642248749732971,
-0.6080718636512756,
0.2464204877614975,
0.2582021951675415,
0.1180511862039566,
0.6578461527824402,
0.17613646388053894,
0.4855559468269348,
-0.36696404218673706,
-0.01929607056081295,
-0.016244137659668922,
0.3127313554286957,
0.2933363914489746,
-0.6407195329666138,
-0.018861237913370132,
-0.01785033568739891,
-5.360064506530762,
0.22857986390590668,
0.20872008800506592,
-0.475591242313385,
-0.3844358026981354,
0.1989278346300125,
0.4093508720397949,
-0.5555694103240967,
0.5583286285400391,
-0.4000202715396881,
0.04311099275946617,
-0.07943696528673172,
-0.6409088969230652,
0.8491000533103943,
0.21245713531970978,
0.5723140239715576,
0.5090421438217163,
0.3010033369064331,
0.0860423669219017,
-0.1997561901807785,
0.38308608531951904,
-0.5037505030632019,
-0.489195853471756,
0.5237312912940979,
0.2601410150527954,
0.16716374456882477,
0.3136565685272217,
-0.6973253488540649,
-1.234682321548462,
0.34805533289909363,
-0.1442306637763977,
0.05341458320617676,
-0.004700680263340473,
-0.7176576852798462,
0.766228437423706,
0.3582136929035187,
0.36059194803237915,
0.27029499411582947,
0.10659348219633102,
-0.6344037055969238,
0.1377425640821457,
0.6110446453094482,
-0.16307523846626282,
-0.23398247361183167,
0.35567331314086914,
0.2860985994338989,
-0.07230179011821747,
0.1906808465719223,
-0.8526607751846313,
1.1714136600494385,
0.09254448860883713,
-0.5391833782196045,
0.2540108561515808,
-0.6735594868659973,
-0.1310756802558899,
0.5104434490203857,
-0.2599514126777649,
-0.22376427054405212,
-0.6196074485778809,
0.12319498509168625,
0.6587644219398499,
0.19443385303020477,
-0.30190709233283997,
-0.35990768671035767,
-0.7103585600852966,
-1.0744730234146118,
-0.19747640192508698,
0.15748851001262665,
0.3163016736507416,
-0.19500358402729034,
0.8091790676116943,
0.3664110600948334,
0.23499536514282227,
-1.1543629169464111,
-0.3109743595123291,
-0.6418249011039734,
-0.493549644947052,
-0.20500634610652924,
0.25323617458343506,
0.42522239685058594,
-0.08009903877973557,
0.016126977279782295,
-0.3085814118385315,
0.3372287452220917,
0.13853777945041656,
-0.554049015045166,
0.2128448486328125,
-0.48528429865837097,
-0.5649113059043884,
-0.21637898683547974,
0.010583749040961266,
-0.9617626667022705,
0.16307666897773743,
0.6986944079399109,
0.16210941970348358,
1.0969014167785645,
-0.2514469623565674,
0.25892096757888794,
0.234382763504982,
-0.1275794953107834,
0.7680724859237671,
-0.023892654106020927,
0.784645676612854,
0.10239537060260773,
0.01845383457839489,
-0.3750417232513428,
-0.563469648361206,
-0.6194936037063599,
0.2604990303516388,
-0.43383848667144775,
0.5590109825134277,
-0.06929641216993332,
-0.18965768814086914,
-0.8143637180328369,
1.0355170965194702,
-0.48843008279800415,
-0.18805162608623505,
1.201064944267273,
0.8033161759376526,
-0.5042034983634949,
-0.1864967942237854,
0.1332879662513733,
-0.20201431214809418,
-0.5611060857772827,
-0.5557109713554382,
0.24129624664783478,
-0.22692617774009705,
0.36205556988716125,
-0.2244502305984497,
0.6036561727523804,
-0.17463849484920502,
-0.214214026927948,
-0.3723545968532562,
-0.5430498123168945,
0.17824101448059082,
-0.593468189239502,
-0.28002700209617615,
0.16833160817623138,
-0.5429835915565491,
-0.3468760550022125,
0.09916529804468155,
-0.14850972592830658,
-0.04983407258987427,
0.4045902490615845,
0.15792447328567505,
0.6197715997695923,
0.1087433323264122,
-0.22958515584468842,
-0.19554264843463898,
0.1919904500246048,
-0.3439481556415558,
0.4242282509803772,
0.5370350480079651,
-1.1366461515426636,
0.08378392457962036,
-0.025392858311533928,
-0.04047819972038269,
0.06815323233604431,
-0.31139492988586426,
-0.3430697023868561,
-0.15569773316383362,
-0.6016443967819214,
-1.042539119720459,
0.0666382685303688,
-0.16774597764015198,
-0.19219554960727692,
-0.21656154096126556,
-0.45299065113067627,
-0.25656265020370483,
0.6793392896652222,
-0.13182903826236725,
-0.4299910366535187,
-0.28692376613616943,
-0.27487441897392273,
-0.13660991191864014,
0.5737976431846619,
-0.10147445648908615,
-0.41180679202079773,
0.11333725601434708,
-0.14389802515506744,
-0.6427708268165588,
0.16014929115772247,
-0.43651965260505676,
0.5773690342903137,
0.2552984952926636,
-0.6406277418136597,
-0.6035810112953186,
-0.3699708878993988,
-0.7143551111221313,
0.02849055826663971,
0.5956005454063416,
0.3254927694797516,
0.11263937503099442,
-0.1174948588013649,
-0.6344839334487915,
-0.9555577635765076,
-0.8801806569099426,
0.5705127716064453,
0.49406081438064575,
-0.1801457703113556,
-0.1328977644443512,
0.5193904638290405,
0.25639140605926514,
0.27682796120643616,
0.7076458930969238,
-0.7207712531089783,
0.360249400138855,
-0.08151475340127945,
-0.7107605934143066,
0.8845445513725281,
-1.0305119752883911,
-0.2616013288497925,
0.1478666365146637,
0.6047824025154114,
0.06151708960533142,
0.020758073776960373,
0.08441972732543945,
-0.34503617882728577,
-0.505980372428894,
-0.390232652425766,
-0.4057745337486267,
-0.2425432801246643,
-0.791259229183197,
-0.29431501030921936,
-0.5282354950904846,
-0.5485119223594666,
0.05124904587864876,
-0.21397538483142853,
0.4685352146625519,
-0.2443300038576126,
0.6077991127967834,
0.04498778283596039,
0.38284891843795776,
0.11538270115852356,
-0.3523750901222229,
0.08162470161914825,
0.37126994132995605,
0.23954175412654877,
0.9537830948829651,
0.9910222291946411,
0.798806369304657,
-0.07578612118959427,
-0.44153863191604614,
-0.2090316116809845,
-0.02082141302525997,
0.36128756403923035,
0.4601035416126251,
-0.21487894654273987,
0.018785076215863228,
0.1675136238336563,
-0.4230406582355499,
-0.17661601305007935,
-0.1308916062116623,
-0.09049839526414871,
0.7771195769309998,
-1.4685848951339722,
0.26743435859680176,
0.21462376415729523,
0.16690143942832947,
-0.15205876529216766,
0.0913371816277504,
0.20886117219924927,
-0.754749596118927,
0.06974165141582489,
0.07623723149299622,
0.587530255317688,
-0.3134278953075409,
0.5375612378120422,
0.2874964773654938,
0.25698432326316833,
-0.4271524250507355,
-0.12143740057945251,
0.47717469930648804,
-0.2559713125228882,
-0.3430858552455902,
0.19318947196006775,
0.17898881435394287,
-0.3242887854576111,
0.27866166830062866,
0.11601759493350983,
-0.22849056124687195,
-0.027471020817756653,
-0.021438049152493477,
-0.3120303750038147,
0.16022241115570068,
-0.8031426072120667,
-0.47904258966445923,
-0.41848376393318176,
-0.1464480757713318,
0.1694093942642212,
0.22384247183799744,
0.30709704756736755,
0.5930126309394836,
0.2876235544681549,
0.055635351687669754,
0.648311972618103,
0.0147344209253788,
0.3378600776195526,
-0.4094657599925995,
0.046503931283950806,
-0.15574583411216736,
-0.26506540179252625,
0.21703869104385376,
-0.6549777388572693,
0.06053769588470459,
-0.23327918350696564,
0.2535320520401001,
-0.4050177335739136,
-0.18587732315063477,
0.4693685472011566,
0.027974138036370277,
0.08769960701465607,
-0.6839824318885803,
0.759528398513794,
-0.5700526833534241,
-0.35993194580078125,
0.37128394842147827,
-0.16153034567832947,
0.2146647423505783,
0.3540153205394745,
0.1704360693693161,
0.0059387218207120895,
0.18341903388500214,
0.4412226676940918,
0.31529802083969116,
0.36321553587913513,
0.3987041413784027,
0.4220207929611206,
-0.21791714429855347,
0.22134611010551453,
0.08538292348384857,
-0.6464718580245972,
-0.4470655918121338,
0.3569658398628235,
-0.14753203094005585,
-0.5725950598716736,
-0.2656584084033966,
-0.10846417397260666,
-0.49942025542259216,
0.886406660079956,
0.3845241665840149,
-0.21428291499614716,
0.11459747701883316,
-0.21382223069667816,
0.16977514326572418,
-0.07595355063676834,
-0.35810720920562744,
0.042330581694841385,
0.16525490581989288,
-0.26885324716567993,
0.5202246308326721,
-0.2280600666999817,
0.02017214149236679,
-1.0417293310165405,
0.7229334712028503,
-0.09113772958517075,
0.124770388007164,
-0.4883175194263458,
-0.17165108025074005,
0.18496443331241608,
0.029698079451918602,
-0.2851726710796356,
-0.045133255422115326,
0.04879053309559822,
-0.10483941435813904,
-0.290479451417923,
0.02252640202641487,
0.11290694028139114,
-0.133567214012146,
-0.10285023599863052,
0.25023001432418823,
-0.20706500113010406,
-0.08357587456703186,
-0.033236585557460785,
-0.2298712134361267,
-0.005237582139670849,
0.662155032157898,
0.17248934507369995,
0.10522983968257904,
0.2660609185695648,
-0.3077797591686249,
0.7842162251472473,
0.04554479196667671,
-0.25627756118774414,
-0.1937253475189209,
-0.23704968392848969,
0.23518162965774536,
0.10237031430006027,
-0.012075219303369522,
0.030636321753263474,
1.0916271209716797,
-0.6994441151618958,
-0.2684999406337738,
0.08610497415065765,
-0.5997331738471985,
-0.02905893139541149,
0.3231182396411896,
0.9544388651847839,
0.37915751338005066,
0.05960908904671669,
0.1178339347243309,
0.4225671887397766,
-0.10120775550603867,
0.3932201564311981,
-0.11930932849645615,
0.2637399435043335,
-0.5390586853027344,
0.18712200224399567,
0.4422842264175415,
0.3942570388317108,
-0.14950107038021088,
-0.36102303862571716,
-0.03965575993061066,
0.518822968006134,
-0.7233601212501526,
-0.47574368119239807,
0.770382821559906,
0.04086676985025406,
-0.48083916306495667,
0.12688256800174713,
-0.06248161569237709,
0.4331664741039276,
0.2211015820503235,
0.09270733594894409,
0.008188191801309586,
0.31422317028045654,
-0.5135273337364197,
0.050540972501039505,
0.34145721793174744,
0.42032724618911743,
-0.03789518401026726,
0.15948952734470367,
0.04095817357301712,
-0.3903801739215851,
-0.4705045223236084,
-0.07581035047769547,
-0.2733266055583954,
-0.6104867458343506,
0.11301915347576141,
0.25877198576927185,
0.6660383343696594,
-0.30230778455734253,
0.3750190734863281,
0.5649513602256775,
0.3670322895050049,
0.12147611379623413,
0.055364299565553665,
0.4353480339050293,
-0.7638521790504456,
-0.10658350586891174,
0.35881632566452026,
-0.531594455242157,
0.2838069498538971,
-0.06027989462018013,
0.23284438252449036,
-0.6531873941421509,
0.2082900106906891,
-0.5313814878463745,
0.41693344712257385,
-0.6611489653587341
] |
228816 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patriarch%20Tikhon%20of%20Moscow | Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow | Tikhon of Moscow (, – ), born Vasily Ivanovich Bellavin (), was a bishop of the Russian Orthodox Church (ROC). On 5 November 1917 (OS) he was selected the 11th Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia, after a period of about 200 years of the Synodal rule in the ROC. He was canonised as a confessor by the ROC in 1989.
Early life
From 1878 to 1884, Bellavin studied at the Pskov Theological Seminary. In 1888, at the age of 23, he graduated from the Saint Petersburg Theological Academy as a layman. He then returned to the Pskov Seminary and became an instructor of Moral and Dogmatic Theology. In 1891, at the age of 26, he took monastic vows and was given the name Tikhon in honor of St. Tikhon of Zadonsk. Tikhon was consecrated Bishop of Lublin on 19 October 1897.
Bishop in the United States
On 14 September 1898, he was appointed Bishop of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. He went to the United States, and eventually became a naturalized American citizen. The peripatetic bishop visited emerging Orthodox emigrant communities in various American cities, including New York City, Chicago and the coal and steel-making cities in Pennsylvania and Ohio.
As head of the ROC diocese in North America, in 1900 he reorganized the diocese and changed its name from the "Of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska" to "Diocese of the Aleutian Islands and North America". He had two auxiliary bishops in the United States: Bishop Innocent (Pustynsky) in Alaska, and St. Raphael (Hawaweeny) in Brooklyn. On 22 May 1901, he blessed the cornerstone for St. Nicholas Cathedral in New York City (fundraising for which had begun in 1894 and to which Tsar Nicholas II contributed $5,000 in 1900) in a great ceremony attended by New York Mayor Seth Low, Russian diplomats and sailors, and enthusiastic worshippers. He celebrated the first liturgy in the new building's basement on July 20, 1902, and in the main hall on November 10, 1902. Tikhon was also involved in building other churches in North America, and establishing a dialog with Greek Orthodox churches in America. On 9 November 1902, he consecrated the church of St. Nicholas in Brooklyn for Syrian Antiochian Orthodox immigrants.
While in the United States, Tikhon became aware of the country's tradition of religious diversity, as well as the growing ecumenical and Pan-Slav movements, and the needs of a wide variety of eastern and southern European immigrants. Before his arrival, in 1890, a delegation of Carpatho-Rusyns also had approached the Russian consul in San Francisco and requested a bishop, since the Latin Catholic archbishop of Minnesota, John Ireland was attempting to force their assimilation, although Byzantine Rite Catholics had previously been accorded certain dispensations from the Roman Rite practices of the Latin Church. Their Byzantine (Ruthenian) Catholic priest, Alexis Toth, was formally accepted into the Russian Orthodox Church in 1892. In 1900, Tikhon attended the consecration of Reginald Heber Weller as coadjutor bishop for the Episcopal Diocese of Fond du Lac, though he was not one of the consecrating bishops (all Episcopalians). More Byzantine Catholics joined the Eastern Orthodox fold, especially priests after 1907, when Pope Pius X published Ea Semper, restricting their previously recognized right to ordain married men.
In 1905, the title of Archbishop was bestowed on him, and he moved his formal residence and diocesan office from San Francisco to New York. In June 1905, the new archbishop gave his blessing for the establishment of a monastery in Pennsylvania, St. Tikhon's Monastery which in the 1930s supported the founding of Saint Tikhon's Orthodox Theological Seminary. On The Holy Trinity Russian (Greek) Orthodox church was consecrated in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, on the corner of McKenzie Street and Manitoba Avenue by the new Archbishop Tikhon, Head of the Russian Orthodox Mission in North America and soon to become Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia. Ukrainian teachers studying at the Ruthenian Training School sang at the consecration ceremony.
Return to Russia and restoration of the Patriarchate
In 1907, Tikhon returned to Russia, having been appointed to the See of Yaroslavl. On 22 December 1913, he was transferred to the diocese of Vilno in Lithuania.
However, the First World War and the Russian Revolution created turmoil in his native land. On 21 June 1917, the Diocesan Congress of clergy and laity elected Tikhon the ruling bishop of Moscow. On 14 August 1917 (OS), Tikhon was raised to the dignity of Metropolitan of Moscow. On the next day, the Local Council of the ROC, the first such convention since the late 17th century, opened in Moscow. The council's major decision that passed on 28 October 1917, days after the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd, was to restore the Patriarchy in the ROC. On 5 November 1917, after his election by vote as one of the three candidates for the reinstated Moscow Patriarchate, Metropolitan Vladimir of Kiev announced that Metropolitan Tikhon had been selected for the position after a drawing of lots as the new Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia.
Patriarchate
During the Russian Civil War the patriarch, like the entire Russian Church, was widely considered anti-Bolshevik and many bishops were exiled, imprisoned or even executed by the new regime. Tikhon openly condemned the killings of the tsar's family in 1918, and protested against violent attacks by the Bolsheviks on the church. In 1920, he granted autonomy to what became the Orthodox Church in America and other dioceses of the Church of Russia that were cut off from the governance of the highest church authority (i.e. the patriarch), until such time as normal relations with the highest church authority could be resumed.
In November 1921, many of the Russian bishops, who had fled Russia in 1919–1920, had gathered in Sremski Karlovci, Serbia, and adopted a number of anti-Bolshevik statements; in May the following year Tikhon and his Synod formally dissolved the exile group, which nevertheless continued to exist as a separate Russian ecclesiastical entity, viewed as schismatic by the Moscow Patriarchate until 2007.
In 1922 Russia was afflicted with mass famine. The Communist government used the situation to confiscate ecclesiastical property and to accuse the patriarch of being a saboteur. From April 1922 until June 1923 he resided under house arrest in Donskoy Monastery. His public protest against nationalization of Church property was reframed as a criminal act. This caused international resonance and several countries sent formal protest notes to the Soviet government.
Under pressure from the authorities, Tikhon issued several messages to the believers in which he stated in part that he was "no longer an enemy to the Soviet power". Textual analysis of these messages shows considerable similarity with a number of documents exchanged in the Politburo on the "Tikhon's Affair". Despite his declaration of loyalty, he continued to enjoy the trust of the Orthodox community in Russia. In 1923 Tikhon was "deposed" by a Soviet-sponsored council of the so-called Living Church, which decreed that he was "henceforth a simple citizen—Vasily Bellavin." This deposition has never been recognized as an act of the Russian Orthodox Church, and is therefore considered invalid by both the Russian Orthodox Church, and the Russian Federation.
Death
In 1924 the patriarch fell ill and was hospitalized. On 5 April 1925, he served his last Divine Liturgy, and died two days later, 25 March (OS)/7 April, the Feast of the Annunciation. He was buried on 12 April in the winter church of Donskoy Monastery in Moscow. From the time of his death, he was widely considered a martyr or confessor for the faith.
Canonization
Tikhon was glorified (canonized) a saint by the Synod of Bishops of the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia in conjunction with the great glorification of the New Martyrs and Confessors of the Soviet Yoke on . He was later glorified by the Moscow Patriarchate during the Bishop's Council of 9–11 October 1989. This later canonization process is generally considered an example of the thaw in church–Soviet relations during the Glasnost era. The American Episcopal Church along with the Anglican Church in North America remember Tikhon with a feast day on their liturgical calendars on the anniversary of his death, April 7.
St Tikhon's relics were believed lost, but on 19 February 1992 his coffin was found in a hidden crypt in the Donskoy Monastery and on 22 February, the coffin was opened and his relics were discovered to be almost entirely incorrupt. The relics were placed in a reliquary and on , fifty bishops solemnly transferred them to the Katholikon (main church) of the Donskoy Monastery in a place of honour by the soleas (close to the sanctuary).
See also
Anti-religious campaign during the Russian Civil War
Persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union
Religion in the Soviet Union
USSR anti-religious campaign (1921–1928)
List of American Eastern Orthodox saints
Notes
References
External links
Biography of St. Tikhon by the Orthodox Church in America
Glorification of St Tikhon, the Apostle to America
Orthodox Icon of St. Tikhon with scenes from his life
Patriarch Tikhon's Ordeal, Moscow's Cathedral of Christ the Savior, 244–266
Fall of Tikon article from Time Magazine, 12 May 1923. Broken link. There is no such article for May 1923.
Saint Patriarch Tikhon – His Missionary Legacy to Orthodox America article from the periodical Orthodox America.
On the Triumph of Orthodoxy a homily by Tikhon.
Hieromartyr Tikhon, Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Detailed biography.
1865 births
1925 deaths
Metropolitans and Patriarchs of Moscow
American saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Russian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church
Primates of the Orthodox Church in America
Victims of anti-religious campaign in the Soviet Union
Eastern Orthodox missionaries
Russian monarchists
20th-century Eastern Orthodox martyrs
20th-century Christian saints
Anglican saints
Russian anti-communists | [
-0.6289950609207153,
0.7223674654960632,
-0.12846529483795166,
-0.10811365395784378,
-0.5804848074913025,
0.48390501737594604,
0.8655758500099182,
-0.28217485547065735,
-0.4672585725784302,
-0.10162536799907684,
-0.48924872279167175,
0.35874682664871216,
-0.7060737609863281,
0.43628445267677307,
-0.2820291221141815,
0.2952025234699249,
0.7726594805717468,
0.3235366642475128,
-0.8734107613563538,
-0.6252069473266602,
0.06752736121416092,
0.03343406319618225,
0.5240288376808167,
0.06570746004581451,
-0.10022633522748947,
0.17906194925308228,
0.16498883068561554,
0.0898640975356102,
-0.6722162365913391,
0.7324326038360596,
-0.10807814449071884,
1.0123023986816406,
0.08618395030498505,
-0.23087871074676514,
-0.43966156244277954,
0.3598860204219818,
0.3756771385669708,
-0.16802477836608887,
-0.40231046080589294,
0.02733154594898224,
0.3647311329841614,
0.19218282401561737,
0.11048318445682526,
0.17056968808174133,
-0.2762943208217621,
-0.553539514541626,
-1.3676183223724365,
0.26070553064346313,
-0.12266123294830322,
-0.4705938994884491,
-0.17869755625724792,
0.016428707167506218,
0.020470211282372475,
0.028498245403170586,
-0.040209971368312836,
0.5504422783851624,
-1.4975075721740723,
0.08943338692188263,
0.32449764013290405,
0.25054922699928284,
0.10817836225032806,
0.35059669613838196,
0.2457117885351181,
0.3020493686199188,
0.5905333757400513,
-0.3665229380130768,
-0.371369332075119,
0.23393209278583527,
-0.28266146779060364,
-0.4040597677230835,
-0.4091753661632538,
0.45235052704811096,
0.28756898641586304,
-0.15944811701774597,
0.2937241792678833,
-0.681318461894989,
-0.6036588549613953,
0.3219660818576813,
0.6666504144668579,
0.3725552558898926,
-0.20842289924621582,
0.09790296107530594,
0.5413175225257874,
0.36591529846191406,
-0.22624853253364563,
-0.42365220189094543,
-0.1403142362833023,
0.16138695180416107,
-0.4602605104446411,
0.5019201040267944,
0.6013721227645874,
0.032159917056560516,
0.6379527449607849,
-0.008478708565235138,
0.1053607240319252,
0.06565402448177338,
-0.5683151483535767,
0.3981117606163025,
-0.2242659330368042,
-0.13485996425151825,
0.054134219884872437,
0.5426121354103088,
-0.23406797647476196,
-0.6097812652587891,
-0.4054238498210907,
-0.6122307777404785,
-0.052244219928979874,
0.6950749158859253,
-0.1429499089717865,
0.21436090767383575,
-1.0941890478134155,
0.18091420829296112,
-0.2873319387435913,
-0.05758528411388397,
0.07803227007389069,
0.0762193575501442,
0.192437544465065,
-0.8122113347053528,
-0.4071032702922821,
-0.2033582329750061,
-0.02102520875632763,
0.5628921389579773,
-0.026262734085321426,
0.4290223717689514,
-0.010217322036623955,
-0.25832071900367737,
0.3363577127456665,
1.0439012050628662,
-0.46721649169921875,
0.2434854358434677,
-0.34917861223220825,
1.1748148202896118,
-0.4400147497653961,
0.09431704133749008,
0.028422432020306587,
-0.5146843791007996,
0.35265886783599854,
-0.3208335340023041,
-0.06355272233486176,
0.4907515048980713,
-0.9224526882171631,
-0.2920325696468353,
-0.29273301362991333,
0.15960237383842468,
-0.0069982195273041725,
-0.18133006989955902,
0.12634414434432983,
0.06926039606332779,
-0.14248058199882507,
0.21240730583667755,
-0.036861032247543335,
0.17277206480503082,
-0.3694522976875305,
-0.10868024826049805,
-0.31418803334236145,
0.2183838039636612,
0.7339370846748352,
-0.21856220066547394,
0.10074235498905182,
0.053189001977443695,
0.022124238312244415,
-0.23928366601467133,
0.08734495937824249,
0.11810071766376495,
-0.0014487920561805367,
-0.308563232421875,
0.08406534045934677,
0.06493578106164932,
-0.41926369071006775,
-0.7427497506141663,
-0.4478505253791809,
0.20583420991897583,
-0.3890845477581024,
-0.09397012740373611,
0.14531493186950684,
0.43157505989074707,
0.8004507422447205,
0.13395537436008453,
-0.3615911304950714,
-1.0056648254394531,
-0.6444242596626282,
-0.14589115977287292,
0.028825797140598297,
0.1892412304878235,
0.6250678300857544,
0.7432597279548645,
0.4708493947982788,
0.6975252032279968,
0.24589227139949799,
-0.7985202074050903,
-0.2982301712036133,
-0.45545828342437744,
0.14204706251621246,
0.00871308334171772,
1.0024479627609253,
0.08312677592039108,
-0.23973923921585083,
-0.37335431575775146,
0.18048952519893646,
1.3704571723937988,
0.12150220572948456,
-0.327406108379364,
-0.3870570957660675,
0.5880977511405945,
0.10872067511081696,
0.5828913450241089,
-0.42605799436569214,
0.07737883180379868,
0.6443063616752625,
1.1394708156585693,
0.5170098543167114,
-0.952663004398346,
0.4417477250099182,
0.3179556131362915,
-0.3897254765033722,
-0.03886808827519417,
-0.5333479046821594,
-0.35061928629875183,
-0.09317661076784134,
-0.2562675476074219,
0.7077639102935791,
0.5012221336364746,
0.2063276767730713,
0.6137683391571045,
-0.5379514694213867,
0.253423273563385,
-0.40482592582702637,
0.29391250014305115,
-0.3526540994644165,
-0.3465641438961029,
-0.28435125946998596,
0.2891678810119629,
0.2927001118659973,
0.05796412378549576,
0.037895165383815765,
-0.3336212635040283,
0.03325670212507248,
-0.35635361075401306,
0.40168821811676025,
-0.020706895738840103,
-0.2520889639854431,
0.21092873811721802,
0.37565845251083374,
0.6006165742874146,
0.2088201642036438,
0.42263832688331604,
-0.2827306091785431,
-0.301774263381958,
-0.4165838658809662,
-0.18543407320976257,
0.21275214850902557,
-0.235396608710289,
0.12558814883232117,
0.03745822235941887,
0.16758404672145844,
0.17376798391342163,
0.5138439536094666,
0.03706929832696915,
-0.7001131772994995,
0.20114600658416748,
0.30173245072364807,
0.06836027652025223,
-0.027293985709547997,
-0.04038871452212334,
-0.2407708764076233,
-0.13682325184345245,
0.3174583315849304,
0.06576703488826752,
0.7755159735679626,
-0.17032477259635925,
0.15790832042694092,
-0.5215889811515808,
-0.9676029682159424,
0.11015549302101135,
0.028809668496251106,
-0.889010488986969,
-0.5289634466171265,
0.3886220157146454,
-0.027397818863391876,
-0.6771538257598877,
-0.08558454364538193,
0.6592041254043579,
-0.23126240074634552,
0.1567639261484146,
-0.5615279078483582,
-0.07808279246091843,
-0.48424822092056274,
-0.7176513671875,
0.5391255021095276,
-0.418762743473053,
-0.23888011276721954,
0.24291399121284485,
0.14136117696762085,
-0.14524050056934357,
-0.30823951959609985,
0.7080954313278198,
-0.2828826904296875,
-0.2909240126609802,
0.31662213802337646,
-0.04608293995261192,
-0.873500645160675,
-0.40723612904548645,
0.5825024843215942,
0.10640344768762589,
0.4322637617588043,
0.006077921949326992,
-0.4198850393295288,
0.19145067036151886,
-5.452106952667236,
-0.1715041697025299,
-0.45975279808044434,
-0.04275470972061157,
0.20307162404060364,
-0.051272545009851456,
0.5148248672485352,
-0.197607159614563,
0.44091928005218506,
-0.1332942247390747,
-0.055854517966508865,
0.14220955967903137,
0.04816003516316414,
0.29269111156463623,
0.8199410438537598,
0.32439327239990234,
0.451867014169693,
-0.3246130049228668,
0.3335602283477783,
-0.4284983277320862,
0.011628962121903896,
-0.06459672749042511,
0.11141866445541382,
0.4976184666156769,
0.8536000847816467,
0.7266086935997009,
0.06825713068246841,
0.3028741478919983,
-0.9005547165870667,
-0.7166423797607422,
-0.6682125329971313,
0.021163031458854675,
0.09026595205068588,
-0.15942782163619995,
0.2014465481042862,
-0.13867676258087158,
0.8767837285995483,
0.7935460209846497,
0.15783613920211792,
-0.10627490282058716,
0.05975782871246338,
-0.38352149724960327,
-0.20090289413928986,
0.09240352362394333,
-0.2681717872619629,
-0.4922213554382324,
-0.6073605418205261,
0.22884424030780792,
-0.39543527364730835,
0.5024486184120178,
0.1187066063284874,
0.021065544337034225,
0.1294844150543213,
-0.19533999264240265,
0.2918533980846405,
-0.10550019145011902,
0.6916747093200684,
0.02410583756864071,
-0.5376327037811279,
0.2633470296859741,
0.47197556495666504,
-0.3752897083759308,
0.02909671887755394,
-0.4066748023033142,
0.6927928924560547,
0.046836428344249725,
-0.21255025267601013,
0.13942255079746246,
-0.01637083664536476,
-0.16166910529136658,
-0.39406633377075195,
0.9074729084968567,
-0.29519250988960266,
-0.8160061836242676,
-0.005239658989012241,
0.13932526111602783,
-0.6638644933700562,
0.1326230764389038,
-0.6124584078788757,
0.021983232349157333,
-0.46551087498664856,
-0.496780127286911,
-0.1668558418750763,
1.0699846744537354,
0.36643052101135254,
0.7125460505485535,
-0.19513039290905,
0.39693447947502136,
-0.20174917578697205,
-0.08833985030651093,
0.5371781587600708,
-1.004454255104065,
0.13848717510700226,
0.4396016299724579,
0.14880748093128204,
-0.044271234422922134,
-0.012093883007764816,
0.2521536946296692,
0.06519033014774323,
0.2672295570373535,
0.19257289171218872,
-0.15490804612636566,
0.16723984479904175,
-0.6162487268447876,
0.18296648561954498,
-0.4386387765407562,
-0.4413330554962158,
0.33983561396598816,
0.719939112663269,
0.07243930548429489,
0.3964241147041321,
0.039545413106679916,
-0.19377879798412323,
-0.8842920064926147,
0.6008844971656799,
-0.32430604100227356,
0.28695276379585266,
0.7911521792411804,
0.03090347722172737,
0.6694222092628479,
-0.15982946753501892,
0.06309478729963303,
-0.4545251727104187,
0.2238142490386963,
-0.5577908158302307,
0.3344970941543579,
0.07199662178754807,
0.10740172863006592,
-0.04513338580727577,
-0.046322762966156006,
-0.13127480447292328,
0.5957436561584473,
0.26739391684532166,
-0.11262966692447662,
-0.32415255904197693,
-0.16306351125240326,
-0.22802883386611938,
-0.8661714792251587,
0.1804027110338211,
-0.30404457449913025,
0.03731963410973549,
-0.3098222613334656,
-0.3228444755077362,
0.9522502422332764,
0.16000187397003174,
0.6531912684440613,
0.1462477594614029,
0.19291192293167114,
0.03276209905743599,
0.8903747797012329,
-0.04717298224568367,
-0.3942718505859375,
0.6751053333282471,
-0.009116686880588531,
-0.21261577308177948,
0.40936389565467834,
-0.02956199273467064,
0.07568629831075668,
-0.24582993984222412,
0.1960752159357071,
-0.12556469440460205,
-0.4648236632347107,
-0.5731562972068787,
-0.4055510461330414,
0.6934938430786133,
-0.09721644222736359,
-0.732806921005249,
-0.5596529841423035,
-0.4532812535762787,
1.2360767126083374,
0.2589785158634186,
-0.1992587149143219,
-1.04575777053833,
0.04069837927818298,
0.2844928801059723,
0.16686974465847015,
0.5804579854011536,
0.3636849522590637,
-0.42488089203834534,
-0.17834995687007904,
0.5499069690704346,
-0.10953570157289505,
0.04353879764676094,
0.9144201874732971,
0.5103587508201599,
0.5141478180885315,
-0.5852939486503601,
-0.6802625060081482,
-0.20142577588558197,
-0.06655909866094589,
-0.06187352165579796,
0.07983238250017166,
-0.7353802919387817,
-0.13240495324134827,
0.28999119997024536,
-0.48381030559539795,
0.3549470901489258,
-0.18117640912532806,
0.3092713952064514,
0.04999791085720062,
0.27739217877388,
0.5526642203330994,
-0.28671690821647644,
-0.006558375898748636,
-0.11263757199048996,
-0.8008701205253601,
0.5914124846458435,
0.43948063254356384,
-0.029192879796028137,
0.09157906472682953,
-0.12335729598999023,
-0.7537136673927307,
-0.16577564179897308,
0.3462553918361664,
-0.568362295627594,
-0.19973601400852203,
0.39711639285087585,
0.13434764742851257,
-0.7777892351150513,
-0.7900902628898621,
-0.25952279567718506,
-0.1848471611738205,
-0.22411099076271057,
-0.2500869929790497,
-0.14736011624336243,
-0.24054870009422302,
0.6048958897590637,
-0.05374717712402344,
-0.0007380477618426085,
-0.24449899792671204,
0.17072932422161102,
-0.05919736996293068,
-0.31814801692962646,
-0.15702931582927704,
-0.4491826891899109,
-0.3164787292480469,
0.36666831374168396,
0.3598135709762573,
-0.08369295299053192,
-0.25124064087867737,
0.5150346159934998,
0.8261469602584839,
-0.13458053767681122,
-0.5465223789215088,
-0.06099763512611389,
-0.056254349648952484,
0.029264995828270912,
-0.03254338726401329,
0.03493596985936165,
0.6184448003768921,
0.021711478009819984,
0.013010237365961075,
-0.8160623908042908,
-0.32291263341903687,
0.5650627613067627,
-0.562214732170105,
-0.04676351696252823,
0.5030497908592224,
0.14264348149299622,
0.2336631566286087,
-0.35344600677490234,
-0.011029623448848724,
-0.1895948201417923,
-0.1416093111038208,
0.11217821389436722,
0.7245110869407654,
0.0328294076025486,
0.13680757582187653,
-0.23564961552619934,
-0.15002921223640442,
-0.6919184327125549,
-0.8001680374145508,
0.12101300060749054,
0.28766611218452454,
-0.8398904800415039,
0.386038213968277,
-0.04639907553792,
0.02936779521405697,
0.4467441737651825,
0.13939659297466278,
-1.0901154279708862,
-0.16358041763305664,
-0.21166910231113434,
-0.3465821146965027,
-0.14281226694583893,
-0.6629399657249451,
0.07928895205259323,
0.06989700347185135,
-0.15508832037448883,
0.1121634766459465,
-0.5236234664916992,
-0.745121419429779,
-0.5732395052909851,
0.008995885029435158,
-0.1824420988559723,
-0.3988739550113678,
-0.012347356416285038,
0.388474702835083,
-0.409151166677475,
0.046583980321884155,
-0.6010277271270752,
0.6634353399276733,
0.14572107791900635,
-0.27203863859176636,
0.43879595398902893,
0.8563104271888733,
0.039770279079675674,
0.05216351896524429,
-0.8876286149024963,
-0.12455221265554428,
0.626056969165802,
0.07764764875173569,
0.26273074746131897,
0.15808171033859253,
-0.42823877930641174,
0.0053409552201628685,
0.4345056414604187,
-0.05202054604887962,
-0.5081989765167236,
-0.3104441463947296,
0.5752424001693726,
0.20091348886489868,
-0.1836688369512558,
0.021201256662607193,
-0.1503565013408661,
0.6345300078392029,
-0.2927218973636627,
-0.34527039527893066,
0.4567256271839142,
0.1822117418050766,
0.10786153376102448,
0.7276688814163208,
-1.1606659889221191,
0.6095032095909119,
0.28676244616508484,
-0.6383583545684814,
-0.03859097138047218,
-0.5791162252426147,
0.04585316777229309,
0.5542894601821899,
0.46056729555130005,
1.1724371910095215,
-1.074622392654419,
0.34803199768066406,
-0.25341668725013733,
0.3914494216442108,
-0.38799527287483215,
0.3650578260421753,
-0.02850792370736599,
0.1743147224187851,
0.25523698329925537,
-0.41641587018966675,
-0.10615292936563492,
-0.4828824996948242,
-0.07469609379768372,
-0.004285124596208334,
0.15274740755558014,
-0.6779926419258118,
0.10968921333551407,
-0.31023138761520386,
-0.44616609811782837,
-0.4404950737953186,
0.2663756012916565,
0.2018926590681076,
0.4678344130516052,
0.43593156337738037,
0.5855562686920166,
-0.7838819622993469,
0.2865653336048126,
-0.2586236894130707,
0.12122364342212677,
-0.4755551815032959,
0.21175003051757812,
0.38168278336524963,
0.04745107144117355,
0.4995959401130676,
0.6967176198959351,
-0.22783705592155457,
-0.011833306401968002,
-0.014447237364947796,
-0.3333416283130646,
0.3654248118400574,
-0.09462609887123108,
-0.5734922289848328,
-0.12975312769412994,
0.21238669753074646,
-0.036733776330947876,
0.07518118619918823,
-0.211275115609169,
-0.12413036823272705,
-0.08082271367311478,
-0.4541803300380707,
-0.36858320236206055,
0.18336793780326843,
-0.705410897731781,
-0.08966295421123505,
-0.5101557970046997,
0.19249677658081055,
0.2938234806060791,
0.3453446328639984,
0.0806635245680809,
-0.28912046551704407,
0.6153708696365356,
0.15739880502223969,
-0.27729007601737976,
0.20147445797920227,
-0.20888717472553253,
-0.542447030544281,
-0.8458119630813599,
0.18858908116817474,
-0.028838053345680237,
-0.10000045597553253,
-0.28515926003456116,
0.2808058261871338,
-0.00034628191497176886,
0.30642688274383545,
0.401207834482193,
-0.4892941415309906,
0.09982819855213165,
-0.04042333364486694,
-0.00012063598842360079,
-0.553327202796936,
0.15368783473968506,
0.5448039174079895,
-0.1101120188832283,
-0.19548188149929047,
0.25618594884872437,
0.32672354578971863,
-0.41499561071395874,
0.11977950483560562,
-0.3092019557952881,
0.1428496092557907,
0.08916936069726944,
-0.01629566214978695,
0.009719659574329853,
0.20158922672271729,
0.6432198286056519,
0.8485006093978882,
0.4215537905693054,
-0.7022034525871277,
0.33194875717163086,
0.18446843326091766,
0.12404889613389969,
1.1426916122436523,
0.19913490116596222,
0.1513236165046692,
-0.8285163640975952,
-0.6032830476760864,
-0.4253806173801422,
0.25382715463638306,
0.6001423001289368,
-0.19791948795318604,
0.2818939983844757,
-0.5860808491706848,
0.4328692555427551,
-0.35498252511024475,
0.273009717464447,
-0.5797032713890076,
0.5824503898620605,
0.1201101690530777
] |
228817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L.%20Neil%20Smith | L. Neil Smith | Lester Neil Smith III (May 12, 1946 – August 27, 2021), better known as L. Neil Smith, was an American libertarian science fiction author and political activist. His works include the trilogy of Lando Calrissian novels, all published in 1983: Lando Calrissian and the Mindharp of Sharu, Lando Calrissian and the Flamewind of Oseon, and Lando Calrissian and the Starcave of ThonBoka. He also wrote the novels Pallas, The Forge of the Elders, and The Probability Broach, each of which won the Libertarian Futurist Society's annual Prometheus Award for best libertarian science fiction novel. In 2016, Smith received a Special Award for Lifetime Achievement from the Libertarian Futurist Society.
Early life
Smith was born in Denver, Colorado on May 12, 1946. His father was an Air Force officer, and his childhood was spent in various places including Waco, McQueenie, and La Porte, Texas; Salina, Kansas; Sacramento, California; and Gifford, Illinois (all before he completed fifth grade) and then St. John's, Newfoundland and Ft. Walton Beach, Florida, where he graduated from high school.
Writing career
Several of his works constitute the North American Confederacy series:
The Probability Broach (1980) is an alternate history novel in which history has taken a different turn because a single word in the Declaration of Independence was changed. The United States has become replaced by a minarchist/libertarian society, the North American Confederacy, in this parallel universe, also known to science fiction fans as the Gallatin Universe because of the pivotal role of Albert Gallatin during the point of divergence in 1794. The antagonists of the series are styled Federalists, or sometimes "Hamiltonians", after the historical political party of George Washington and Alexander Hamilton. In 2004, a graphic novel version was released, illustrated by Scott Bieser.
The Venus Belt (1980) takes place in outer space and discusses other settlements in the Gallatin Universe solar system. The Federalists are attempting to base a new civilization in interstellar space, kidnapping and enslaving a quarter of a million women as breeding stock from the anti-libertarian timeline from which the viewpoint character of The Probability Broach had escaped, with a plan to someday return in force to take over both of the alternate versions of Earth discovered by way of the P'wheet/Thorens probability broach.
Their Majesties' Bucketeers (1981) is a pastiche of the Sherlock Holmes tales by Arthur Conan Doyle, introducing the Lamviin, a trilaterally symmetrical race of aliens native to the arid planet of Sodde Lydfe. Their Majesties' Bucketeers introduces characters who later interact with others in the Gallatin Universe.
The Nagasaki Vector (1983) is written from the perspective of a time traveler who is shifted from yet another alternative probability line into the Gallatin Universe by the nuclear explosion over Nagasaki (on August 9, 1945) during World War II.
In Tom Paine Maru (1984), entrepreneurs of the Confederacy travel from world to world, exploring the various kinds of messes made by the Federalists who had been shifted back in time and scattered at random over the universe at the conclusion of The Venus Belt. The Federalists had created dozens of colonies, all of which had suffered disaster and retrogression under Federalist rule. Smith uses this device to criticize non-libertarian forms of government.
In The Gallatin Divergence (1985), a time-traveling Federalist woman wants to change history but is opposed by the protagonists of The Probability Broach. As these two forces clash, history is once again altered and yet another timeline is created.
The American Zone (2001), the most recent entry in the series, is a direct sequel to The Probability Broach concerned with the refugees from various anti-libertarian versions of the United States who take up residence in the Confederacy, and the response of the Confederacy to terrorist violence.
Three novels constitute the Lando Calrissian (Star Wars) series. The novels are set in the Star Wars expanded universe, between the events of the Star Wars films Revenge of the Sith and Episode IV: A New Hope, and concerned con-artist Lando Calrissian, first introduced in the film The Empire Strikes Back as an associate of Han Solo and previous owner of the Millennium Falcon. The three novels were collected as The Lando Calrissian Adventures Omnibus Edition (1994).
Lando Calrissian and the Mindharp of Sharu (July 1983), the first novel in the series, follows Calrissian as he wins a droid, Vuffi Raa, in a sabacc game, but must travel to the Rafa system to claim it, where he is forced by Rokur Gepta into a quest for an ancient artifact.
Lando Calrissian and the Flamewind of Oseon (October 1983), picks up with Calrissian and Vuffi Raa some time later, having started a freight business. Calrissian is invited to a high-stakes sabacc game in the Oseon system, where circumstances require him to assist in a drug sting, while defending against Rokur Gepta's revenge.
In Lando Calrissian and the Starcave of ThonBoka (December 1983), Calrissian and Vuffi Raa assist a persecuted alien race facing starvation instigated by the Centrality, and learn about Vuffi's origins.
Other works:
Pallas is the first installment of what Smith has called "The Ngu Family Saga", a planned four-volume series. Pallas is the story of Emerson Ngu, a boy who lives in a dystopian socialist commune in a crater on the asteroid Pallas. Emerson secretly builds a crystal radio and is astonished to learn of the world outside the commune. Escaping, he discovers that the rest of Pallas is a libertarian utopia. Unable to forget his semi-enslaved family—whose "workers' paradise" is slowly starving to death—he designs a cheap but durable gun (because the libertarians on Pallas, to their shame, did not have a domestic firearms industry), and sets about liberating his former commune. At the same time, he must learn the skills necessary for life in the outside world. The novel thus functions both as a bildungsroman and a story of political revolution.
Ceres is the second work in "The Ngu Family Saga," completed on December 25, 2004, planned to be followed by Ares, both set in the Pallas universe and being funded by private investors. The Ceres Project was organized by Alan R. Weiss, a friend of Neil's. After efforts to find a publisher for Ceres proved fruitless, Smith published the novel online, beginning on March 23, 2009, one chapter being added each week.
The Mitzvah, a novel about a Catholic priest who is a pacifist and influenced by socialist values of the 1960s. His world is shattered when he learned the German immigrant parents he grew up with adopted him, and that his true parents were a Jewish couple who were murdered in the Holocaust.
Politics
Smith joined the Libertarian Party in 1972 (just after its beginnings in 1971). He served on the Platform Committee in 1977 and 1979, and in 1978 ran for the state legislature in Colorado, losing to Ronald Strahle by 10,895 votes to 1,925.
In 1999, Smith announced that he would run for president in 2000 as an independent if his supporters would gather 1,000,000 online petition signatures asking him to run. After failing to achieve even 1,500 signatures, his independent campaign quietly died. He next tried an abortive run for the Libertarian Party nomination, which ended almost as quickly when, in the California primary, Harry Browne overwhelmingly defeated him, 71% to 9%.
Although Browne was chosen by the party's 2000 national convention, Smith, because of a dispute between the Libertarian Party's national organization and its Arizona affiliate, appeared as the Libertarian Party candidate for president on the Arizona ballot. He and running mate Vin Suprynowicz received 5,775 votes in the national election, less than 0.01% of the vote. Shortly thereafter, Smith's supporters announced a new 1,000,000-signature petition drive; however, in late 2003, with the new drive once again failing to achieve even a small fraction of that total, Smith announced that he would not pursue another political office.
Smith endorsed the Free State Project and Badnarik's campaign for president in 2004.
Smith is the founder of, and regularly contributed essays to The Libertarian Enterprise, an anarcho-capitalist and paleolibertarian journal.
Published works
Fiction
Coordinated Arm series
The Wardove (1986)
Henry Martyn (1989)
Bretta Martyn (1997) (sequel to Henry Martyn, connects to The Wardove)
Phoebus Krumm (2009) (online comic with art by Scott Bieser, sequel to Bretta Martyn, hardcopy edition in November 2010)
Forge of the Elders Series
Blade of p'Na (2016)
Contact and Commune (1990)
Converse and Conflict (1990)
Forge of the Elders (2000) [comprising the previous two books plus a previously-unpublished third book]
Lando Calrissian (Star Wars) series
Lando Calrissian and the Mindharp of Sharu (1983)
Lando Calrissian and the Flamewind of Oseon (1983)
Lando Calrissian and the Starcave of ThonBoka (1983)
Omnibus edition The Lando Calrissian Adventures (1994)
Ngu Family Saga
Pallas (1993)
Ceres (2009)
North American Confederacy series
The Probability Broach (1979, unexpurgated edition 1996, graphic novel 2004)
The Nagasaki Vector (1983)
The American Zone (2001)
The Venus Belt (1980)
Their Majesties' Bucketeers (1981)
Tom Paine Maru (1984)
The Gallatin Divergence (1985)
Brightsuit MacBear (1988) [first in new series set in NAC universe]
Taflak Lysandra (1989) [second in new series set in NAC universe]
Stand-alone works
The Crystal Empire (1986)
Hope (2001; with Aaron S. Zelman)
The Mitzvah (1999; with Aaron S. Zelman)
Roswell, Texas (2006) (online comic with art by Scott Bieser, hardcopy edition in June 2008)
Timepeeper (2008) (online comic with art by Sherard Jackson)
Sweeter Than Wine (2011)
Non-fiction
Lever Action (2001)
Down With Power (2013)
See also
References
External links
"My Political Plans", an essay by Smith
Advocates for Self-Government page on Smith
L. Neil Smith at Random, Web log
Roswell, Texas new on-line comic by Neil.
Asteroids in Science Fiction
LibraryThing author profile
Author’s Biography as of May 12, 2007
1946 births
2021 deaths
Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election
20th-century American essayists
20th-century American male writers
20th-century American novelists
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American short story writers
21st-century American essayists
21st-century American male writers
21st-century American novelists
21st-century American short story writers
American alternate history writers
American gun rights activists
American male essayists
American male novelists
American male short story writers
American political writers
American science fiction writers
Colorado Libertarians
Novelists from Colorado
Writers from Denver | [
0.262119323015213,
0.21452105045318604,
-0.2674143314361572,
-0.6269403696060181,
0.10396595299243927,
0.3846690058708191,
0.2127165049314499,
0.3653319478034973,
-0.4165436923503876,
-0.3545663356781006,
-0.13565918803215027,
0.5830890536308289,
-0.36158496141433716,
0.5000358819961548,
-0.2013193666934967,
0.5867450833320618,
-0.08675691485404968,
0.33740419149398804,
-0.4335119128227234,
-0.023852571845054626,
0.18752892315387726,
-0.7882786989212036,
0.4481354057788849,
0.6482977271080017,
0.29727697372436523,
0.8449946045875549,
-0.29533642530441284,
-0.23049576580524445,
0.3970155417919159,
0.9219574928283691,
0.4362347722053528,
0.33069854974746704,
0.7901582717895508,
-0.39440858364105225,
-0.33107566833496094,
-0.25810936093330383,
0.02935958094894886,
-0.012208966538310051,
0.1547538787126541,
0.5627328753471375,
0.3909607529640198,
0.13041363656520844,
0.2143588811159134,
-0.028243912383913994,
-0.2314428836107254,
-0.49701258540153503,
-2.028834581375122,
-0.2791460454463959,
-0.5930811166763306,
-0.5804470181465149,
0.17829130589962006,
0.038518182933330536,
0.0112853879109025,
0.12468326091766357,
0.09616262465715408,
0.6089915037155151,
-0.2907484769821167,
-0.10817591100931168,
0.33422768115997314,
-0.1797695904970169,
0.4429468512535095,
-0.4400395154953003,
0.47733211517333984,
0.2474895417690277,
0.3228153884410858,
0.22267131507396698,
-0.09612720459699631,
0.3570243716239929,
-0.589034378528595,
-0.4776538014411926,
0.04276570305228233,
0.6678771376609802,
0.6603255867958069,
0.24264919757843018,
0.08277801424264908,
0.3127917945384979,
-0.6374629735946655,
0.1681988537311554,
0.2593768537044525,
0.039911605417728424,
0.1103997454047203,
-0.2525743246078491,
0.05004752054810524,
0.4730471074581146,
0.06583350151777267,
0.2116401493549347,
-0.611350953578949,
0.1204894483089447,
0.340647429227829,
0.8167855739593506,
-0.3823520839214325,
-0.11532139778137207,
-0.22698642313480377,
0.07708456367254257,
-0.012998872436583042,
-0.2999373972415924,
-0.18179665505886078,
0.4479295313358307,
-0.27740946412086487,
-0.6109930276870728,
0.14766617119312286,
0.6524975299835205,
0.24250812828540802,
-0.36439335346221924,
-0.7979879379272461,
0.1972382366657257,
0.0931330993771553,
-0.15122731029987335,
-0.31488683819770813,
-0.840940535068512,
-0.8291762471199036,
0.24376751482486725,
-0.09774727374315262,
-0.1245497316122055,
-0.08097566664218903,
0.5563739538192749,
0.14449270069599152,
-0.9348848462104797,
-0.04960787296295166,
0.07367652654647827,
-0.5043515563011169,
0.43039578199386597,
-0.28091269731521606,
0.5956264138221741,
-0.09483324736356735,
0.38067832589149475,
-0.1471112072467804,
0.27165353298187256,
0.2665955126285553,
-0.20900790393352509,
0.8246782422065735,
0.8365553021430969,
-0.2456998974084854,
-0.006334252189844847,
-0.2474818229675293,
-0.05586235597729683,
0.4584737718105316,
-0.10984921455383301,
-0.2455810159444809,
-0.3679892420768738,
-0.7540459036827087,
-0.02684073895215988,
-0.4683998227119446,
-0.07012372463941574,
0.33152997493743896,
0.10165098309516907,
0.26307377219200134,
-0.24654871225357056,
-0.07783720642328262,
-0.2321491688489914,
0.25321048498153687,
-0.2764849066734314,
0.17917431890964508,
-1.0130341053009033,
0.07615550607442856,
0.5988399386405945,
0.20890799164772034,
-0.3909153640270233,
0.40982162952423096,
0.4322241544723511,
-0.3139180839061737,
0.29000124335289,
-0.08853454887866974,
0.23293215036392212,
0.3607800602912903,
-0.33020761609077454,
0.3668520748615265,
-0.8353284001350403,
-0.39807289838790894,
-0.06803550571203232,
-0.3333885967731476,
0.44358521699905396,
0.14287762343883514,
-0.4445814788341522,
0.3885842561721802,
-0.2093956023454666,
0.5328617691993713,
0.2039111852645874,
0.062396805733442307,
-0.7097415924072266,
-0.49625253677368164,
0.08667824417352676,
0.3464370667934418,
0.09118261188268661,
0.37359052896499634,
-0.053734298795461655,
0.665374755859375,
-0.003226215485483408,
0.6192114949226379,
0.0007296090479940176,
-0.7001602649688721,
-0.7530884742736816,
0.4218979477882385,
0.07632297277450562,
0.6333223581314087,
0.12021481245756149,
0.23586547374725342,
0.630714476108551,
-0.028565241023898125,
1.1582891941070557,
-0.09865766763687134,
-0.2947390675544739,
0.17024245858192444,
-0.6387215852737427,
-0.6433502435684204,
0.9207758903503418,
0.1902182400226593,
0.11895013600587845,
-0.050377313047647476,
0.9535154700279236,
0.6514927744865417,
-0.7100432515144348,
-0.5324810147285461,
0.3946947753429413,
-0.09782066196203232,
-0.5901085734367371,
0.08054537326097488,
-0.1429099589586258,
0.0855511799454689,
-0.3006322979927063,
0.3753606379032135,
0.27207767963409424,
-0.5073240995407104,
0.4964909553527832,
-0.14759361743927002,
1.1070036888122559,
-0.08880960941314697,
-0.20010346174240112,
-0.26794567704200745,
-0.19151237607002258,
-0.0938059538602829,
-0.45549675822257996,
-0.7709729671478271,
0.1428959220647812,
0.11065850406885147,
0.3378389775753021,
-0.17031826078891754,
-0.5904186964035034,
0.4251651167869568,
-0.23679502308368683,
0.8799486756324768,
-0.43278178572654724,
-0.5181680917739868,
-0.21616525948047638,
-0.016274934634566307,
0.20029254257678986,
-0.27751222252845764,
-0.11593696475028992,
0.13232168555259705,
0.1820431500673294,
0.09863109141588211,
0.25151243805885315,
0.2375955879688263,
0.0326242633163929,
0.03452681377530098,
0.07301384210586548,
-0.24457603693008423,
0.23891137540340424,
0.48987770080566406,
-0.268014132976532,
-0.37228313088417053,
-0.20374281704425812,
0.5318134427070618,
-0.16890783607959747,
-0.6220784783363342,
-0.26946866512298584,
-0.32483890652656555,
0.30430442094802856,
0.07752629369497299,
-0.38452383875846863,
0.1691250056028366,
-0.2391320914030075,
0.16072894632816315,
-0.5217428207397461,
0.01849578134715557,
-0.1655501425266266,
0.18885961174964905,
-0.24361759424209595,
-0.7419283390045166,
-0.8446833491325378,
1.0643807649612427,
0.6241096258163452,
0.25847458839416504,
0.0633796975016594,
-0.43697214126586914,
0.017756570130586624,
-0.49212557077407837,
-0.1450669765472412,
-0.00022168738360051066,
-0.4623335301876068,
-0.1745784878730774,
-0.09102188050746918,
-0.7600660920143127,
0.1393222212791443,
-0.09524522721767426,
0.7385901212692261,
-0.013258475810289383,
-0.754381537437439,
0.29787692427635193,
-0.23995645344257355,
-0.2564440071582794,
0.4613257050514221,
-0.16434048116207123,
-0.0870901569724083,
0.41875505447387695,
0.10756333917379379,
-0.050524286925792694,
-0.16968150436878204,
-5.347597122192383,
0.5854163765907288,
-0.18387821316719055,
-0.42122140526771545,
0.7430844902992249,
-0.22110551595687866,
0.4832428991794586,
-0.2104070633649826,
0.48956191539764404,
-0.10342812538146973,
0.010455882176756859,
-0.5070669054985046,
-0.05455056205391884,
0.022721534594893456,
0.588401198387146,
0.5751307606697083,
0.6772599816322327,
-0.040927108377218246,
0.6087242960929871,
0.3119140863418579,
0.6815605759620667,
-0.3832836151123047,
-0.5308642983436584,
0.20823371410369873,
0.05352695658802986,
1.0033214092254639,
0.2399260401725769,
0.024422192946076393,
-1.0579538345336914,
-0.26202452182769775,
-0.2760922908782959,
0.12806524336338043,
-0.2356606125831604,
-0.14054307341575623,
-0.5259476900100708,
-0.6213034987449646,
0.4717540740966797,
0.0893341600894928,
0.7049222588539124,
-0.403765469789505,
-0.06387767195701599,
-0.14879436790943146,
-0.8483204245567322,
-0.37719854712486267,
0.12373452633619308,
0.1331222951412201,
-0.5765971541404724,
-0.21671098470687866,
-0.13867183029651642,
0.131227046251297,
0.15268264710903168,
-0.24867255985736847,
0.03898284584283829,
0.23572658002376556,
0.13286210596561432,
-0.039623137563467026,
-0.04808824136853218,
0.4269169867038727,
-0.9590186476707458,
0.3091372847557068,
0.6600699424743652,
-0.6828128695487976,
0.36455684900283813,
-0.05615917593240738,
0.10595370084047318,
-0.3894086480140686,
0.1488613784313202,
-0.7303615808486938,
0.5863154530525208,
0.05862824618816376,
0.3481587767601013,
0.6702237725257874,
0.21975427865982056,
-0.771274209022522,
0.004424152430146933,
-0.19219839572906494,
-0.38330480456352234,
0.42814895510673523,
-0.6613328456878662,
-0.04127850383520126,
0.22080238163471222,
-0.39426085352897644,
0.2181149274110794,
0.8673121333122253,
0.2114224135875702,
-0.007847830653190613,
-0.5267779231071472,
0.2701564431190491,
-0.6266105771064758,
0.2763807475566864,
-0.20017269253730774,
-0.29073649644851685,
-0.11533712595701218,
0.31621208786964417,
-0.4267747104167938,
-0.1442158967256546,
0.47582194209098816,
0.34385502338409424,
0.26950928568840027,
-0.08874110877513885,
-0.10504728555679321,
-0.9481823444366455,
-0.03854450583457947,
-0.6444617509841919,
0.21456626057624817,
-0.3595871329307556,
0.1888473480939865,
0.4274525046348572,
0.4184519350528717,
0.16350263357162476,
0.3820231258869171,
-0.07673909515142441,
-0.14473135769367218,
-0.07325700670480728,
0.8262853622436523,
-0.6380046010017395,
-0.07089825719594955,
0.30101022124290466,
0.3342357873916626,
0.3858416974544525,
-0.27208513021469116,
0.5600048899650574,
-0.22811368107795715,
-0.4552120268344879,
0.0048718927428126335,
-0.5118083953857422,
0.545244574546814,
-0.2261495292186737,
-1.1255791187286377,
0.007023741491138935,
0.11275089532136917,
0.4547257423400879,
0.6764239072799683,
-0.27359259128570557,
-0.5245670080184937,
-0.6087762713432312,
-0.5338420271873474,
-0.3328985273838043,
0.14586472511291504,
0.07645899802446365,
-0.2152370810508728,
0.28094491362571716,
0.1212531328201294,
0.15435266494750977,
0.3943791687488556,
0.9716045260429382,
0.317263126373291,
-0.1935349553823471,
-0.38244202733039856,
-0.0011240384774282575,
0.23644617199897766,
-0.7809750437736511,
0.41420498490333557,
-0.6640906929969788,
-0.06398371607065201,
0.5600351691246033,
-0.4911345839500427,
-0.19734668731689453,
-0.28751227259635925,
-0.49941492080688477,
-0.22106923162937164,
0.26584818959236145,
-1.109765887260437,
0.2360987365245819,
0.3742923140525818,
-0.021179404109716415,
-0.019080553203821182,
-0.13144715130329132,
-0.6687484979629517,
1.0039702653884888,
0.27995312213897705,
-0.9566249251365662,
-0.8810014724731445,
0.10396529734134674,
0.19667206704616547,
0.15048079192638397,
0.5158476233482361,
-0.5837382674217224,
0.47725072503089905,
0.24257411062717438,
0.042726002633571625,
-0.17271506786346436,
-0.17706024646759033,
0.5687208771705627,
0.5032897591590881,
-0.14907482266426086,
-0.704724133014679,
-0.546215295791626,
-0.4822002053260803,
0.39173075556755066,
0.35855066776275635,
-0.6405184268951416,
0.6124230623245239,
0.529350757598877,
-0.17996081709861755,
0.20863403379917145,
0.3782268464565277,
-0.23270080983638763,
0.33334317803382874,
-0.42876487970352173,
-0.27854663133621216,
1.1465213298797607,
-0.16316568851470947,
-0.027201052755117416,
-0.03454349562525749,
-1.0065313577651978,
-0.11537913978099823,
0.18967300653457642,
-0.3848266005516052,
0.15988615155220032,
-0.35956209897994995,
-0.18745271861553192,
0.37230056524276733,
0.46710658073425293,
-0.060722749680280685,
0.05276772007346153,
0.4424072802066803,
0.15973490476608276,
-0.09487267583608627,
-1.070618987083435,
0.24851274490356445,
-0.9397584795951843,
-0.4431518316268921,
-0.3039093017578125,
-0.48959270119667053,
0.9020225405693054,
-0.6094288229942322,
-0.6026008725166321,
1.12050461769104,
-0.10144985467195511,
-0.7965137958526611,
-0.45142537355422974,
0.10244083404541016,
0.7052310109138489,
-0.0284663587808609,
0.5591629147529602,
-0.1472717970609665,
0.6732064485549927,
0.1375943422317505,
-0.2643338143825531,
0.6324597001075745,
0.9333152770996094,
0.42975685000419617,
-0.4964103698730469,
-0.21086429059505463,
0.28627583384513855,
0.24589379131793976,
-0.14575859904289246,
-0.26550838351249695,
0.16299599409103394,
0.25727611780166626,
-0.5814954042434692,
-0.05223601311445236,
-0.3178085684776306,
1.2011991739273071,
-0.288658082485199,
-0.34970447421073914,
-0.3402354419231415,
-0.035437263548374176,
0.1558782458305359,
-0.38854366540908813,
0.35638442635536194,
-0.03933347016572952,
0.32151710987091064,
0.757739245891571,
0.8589897155761719,
-0.7961612939834595,
-0.005422049202024937,
0.3710152208805084,
-0.24589021503925323,
-0.6551021933555603,
-0.010848810896277428,
-0.1740538477897644,
0.44049227237701416,
-0.1402519941329956,
0.05630813539028168,
0.2359178513288498,
-0.45496249198913574,
0.09721764177083969,
-0.6387553811073303,
-0.755005419254303,
0.19780240952968597,
0.6614992618560791,
0.03595804423093796,
0.018891718238592148,
-0.6459766030311584,
-0.8328776955604553,
-0.12252333760261536,
-0.43566378951072693,
-0.27624186873435974,
-0.3907652795314789,
-0.051005344837903976,
-0.5449631810188293,
-0.05353605002164841,
-0.5416614413261414,
0.22901049256324768,
0.07888583093881607,
0.16114914417266846,
-0.16095981001853943,
0.15512137115001678,
-0.7128037214279175,
0.6184314489364624,
-0.05529940128326416,
-0.008306760340929031,
0.6692256331443787,
-0.10241977125406265,
-0.24063467979431152,
-0.11191584914922714,
0.5640257000923157,
-0.14528068900108337,
0.5971605181694031,
0.21729761362075806,
0.13591720163822174,
0.4438105523586273,
-0.8645460605621338,
-0.32410159707069397,
-0.23604537546634674,
0.05539742112159729,
-0.10293702036142349,
0.21879121661186218,
-0.14251722395420074,
0.5321871638298035,
0.597772479057312,
0.2484288364648819,
-0.14041222631931305,
0.9035626649856567,
0.20989467203617096,
-0.08757337927818298,
0.7089554667472839,
0.27974680066108704,
-0.04663512110710144,
-0.44410452246665955,
-0.25405630469322205,
0.9710527658462524,
0.18603140115737915,
-0.34063521027565,
0.39654964208602905,
-0.7616297602653503,
-0.007777153514325619,
0.6805941462516785,
0.44287946820259094,
1.1916491985321045,
0.08586292713880539,
0.06313222646713257,
-0.03201671689748764,
-0.38237446546554565,
-0.1200927346944809,
0.6176944375038147,
0.41271016001701355,
-0.43046072125434875,
-0.35590505599975586,
-0.1746417135000229,
-0.14756189286708832,
-0.8478531837463379,
-0.015533074736595154,
0.09454086422920227,
-0.019795464351773262,
-0.8792009353637695,
-0.3559924364089966,
-0.7879745364189148,
0.011026146821677685,
-0.43353378772735596,
1.1092721223831177,
0.009983989410102367,
0.04404609277844429,
-0.6180931329727173,
0.03292030096054077,
-0.3779061436653137,
0.23909755051136017,
0.7296270132064819,
0.46637052297592163,
0.032174669206142426,
0.12449302524328232,
0.7536486387252808,
0.40417584776878357,
0.296001672744751,
0.3731997311115265,
-0.3276374936103821,
-0.504941999912262,
0.12186722457408905,
0.3692154586315155,
-0.45126277208328247,
-0.3926044702529907,
-0.35832151770591736,
-0.010760865174233913,
-0.29559680819511414,
-0.2567286193370819,
0.19364343583583832,
0.3849596381187439,
-0.11055171489715576,
0.6625974178314209,
-0.6305701732635498,
-0.2682919204235077,
0.8609251379966736,
-0.12452500313520432,
0.14579413831233978,
-0.6361191868782043,
0.5613089203834534,
0.3539794385433197,
0.3779652714729309,
-0.033393148332834244,
-0.1461264044046402,
0.5916447043418884,
-0.06682705134153366,
-0.04509686306118965,
-0.33491718769073486,
-0.19604669511318207,
0.11587277799844742,
-0.4064134955406189,
0.30234748125076294,
0.11853212118148804,
0.027372412383556366,
-0.37499433755874634,
0.28341254591941833,
-0.34016701579093933,
-0.07206006348133087,
0.2691795527935028,
-0.24971848726272583,
-0.18389137089252472,
-0.38152575492858887,
-0.49334657192230225,
-0.5843327641487122,
0.07766998559236526,
0.76309734582901,
0.16640730202198029,
0.04897324740886688,
-0.06972033530473709,
0.22560358047485352,
-0.14659717679023743,
0.6088799834251404,
0.05611064285039902,
0.2121736854314804,
-0.40945202112197876,
-0.5819901823997498,
0.18315593898296356,
-0.5180838108062744,
0.504928469657898,
0.6769707798957825,
0.5036799907684326,
-0.31440412998199463,
0.22660420835018158,
-0.5606328248977661,
-0.09109500050544739,
-0.008921108208596706,
-0.7374746203422546,
-0.4427362084388733,
0.14328449964523315,
-0.8878706097602844,
0.49081531167030334,
0.5854958891868591,
-0.43105894327163696,
-0.18668752908706665,
0.11386843770742416,
0.15861865878105164,
0.18721918761730194,
0.09734135121107101,
-0.30250295996665955,
-0.1711954027414322,
0.1650117188692093,
-0.32033681869506836
] |
228822 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20133 | New Jersey Route 133 | Route 133 (also known as the Hightstown Bypass) is a short state freeway located entirely in East Windsor Township, Mercer County, New Jersey in the United States. The route runs as a four-lane bypass of Hightstown from County Route 571 (CR 571) at Windsor Center Drive to the New Jersey Turnpike / Interstate 95 (I-95) at exit 8. Originally, Route 133 did not have any direct connections to any other limited access roads until a new Turnpike interchange opened in January 2013.
The plans for the original bypass of Hightstown originated in 1929, when locals looked for a way to remove traffic from downtown. The New Jersey State Legislature followed up in 1938 by designating a new spur off of State Highway Route 31 (then part of U.S. Route 206 or US 206), State Highway Route 31A as a freeway from Princeton to the Jersey Shore. During the 1970s, the highway proposed as Route 92 gained momentum, running from Princeton (at Interstate 95's proposed Somerset Freeway) all the way to Route 33 at Hightstown. However, after several setbacks, Route 92 was moved northward in 1988 and the bypass was truncated to a short portion of highway bypassing Hightstown. Construction on the new $57 million USD Route 133 commenced on September 20, 1996 by Schiavone Construction Company and was completed and opened on November 30, 1999.
Route description
Route 133 begins at an at-grade intersection with CR 571 (Princeton–Hightstown Road) in East Windsor. The intersection includes a jughandle for eastbound traffic to use to access the highway. After the jughandle allowing westbound CR 571 traffic to access Windsor Center Drive which continues southwest from the freeway, Route 133 begins to progress its way northward as a four-lane freeway, crossing through surroundings of trees and open fields. Along a large bend, the highway turns eastward, paralleling to CR 571 to the south and CR 535 (Old Trenton Road) to the north. Passing to the southeast of a McGraw Hill Financial office building, Route 133 curves to the southeast through fields and crosses over the locally maintained One Mile Road heading eastbound and interchanges westbound. Heading eastbound, the on-ramp to Route 133 from One Mile Road merges in, and the highway continues, passing to the north of homes and commercial buildings through East Windsor.
A short distance later, Route 133 crosses over Rocky Brook. The highway's surroundings then change drastically, with residential homes surrounding the freeway in each direction (though blocked from view by trees and sound barriers). A short distance later, Route 133 crosses over U.S. Route 130 (US 130) with a cloverleaf interchange with some movements missing. After US 130, the highway continues eastward, crossing over CR 539 (North Main Street). The highway crosses the right-of-way of the historic Camden & Amboy railroad; there is no bridge over the trackbed that is abandoned only a short few feet to the north and a few miles south around the Hightstown area. Route 133 turns to the southeast once again, continuing to the south of a condominium complex. Leaving the condos behind, the highway turns southward through lands and runs parallel to the south of Cranbury Station Road. Route 133 continues southward, crossing over Wyckoff Mills Road, which serves as the southern terminus of Cranbury Station Road. As the road parallels Wyckoff Mills Road, the four-lane freeway continues eastward, crossing over the twelve lanes of the New Jersey Turnpike (I-95). (The Route 133 bridge over the Turnpike was built with provisions for the New Jersey Turnpike to be widened with additional sets of three lanes in each direction, which was completed in November 2014.) To the south of Wyckoff Mills Road, Route 133 continues as a four-lane freeway. Soon after, Route 133 turns southward, heading away from Wyckoff Mills Road and reaches a single-point urban interchange with Route 33. The mainline of Route 133 becomes the jurisdiction of the New Jersey Turnpike Authority as it passes over Route 33 and heads underneath Milford Road before ending at the toll plaza for exit 8 of the Turnpike. The roadway past the toll plaza becomes part of the trumpet interchange for the Turnpike.
History
Route 92, the original proposal
The original conception for a bypass of Hightstown date back to 1929, when local members of community brought up the thought for a solution to relieve traffic on current-day CR 571 away from the downtown. However, nothing was ever produced, until 1938, when the New Jersey State Legislature brought forth the designation of State Highway Route 31A, a modern expressway crossing from the borough of Princeton eastward to Hightstown and further to the Atlantic Ocean along current-day Route 33. In 1950, governor Alfred E. Driscoll exercised the need for the statewide expressway, citing that "it is unwise to expect city streets to bear the brunt of through, truck and passenger traffic." However, State Highway Route 31A was decommissioned in the 1953 state highway renumbering to a short portion of highway in West Windsor as Route 64.
During the 1950s, the New Jersey State Highway Department released plans to construct the Princeton–Hightstown Bypass, a long, four-lane freeway connecting US 206 in the Montgomery Township community of Skillman to Route 33 in East Windsor Township. The freeway, designated as Route 92, was to connect US 206 with Route 27, US 1, and US 130, Route 33 and the New Jersey Turnpike. While the eastern terminus was to be at the New Jersey Turnpike, the western terminus of Route 92 was to be at an interchange with the Somerset Freeway (I-95) near Rocky Hill. Although plans for Route 92 remained, the Somerset Freeway proposal was decommissioned in 1982, leaving open funds for use on other projects. The New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) suggested serving funds to the Route 92 project along with five other transportation projects. The project was working on its final studies and proposals in 1986, which was the year new interstates could be proposed to the Federal Highway Administration, however, the portion west of US 1 was dropped from the plans a year later.
The down-scaled route
After Route 92 was shifted northward by NJDOT due to the belief that it would better serve residents further north, the proposal went into shadows. In 1994, six years after plans changed for the Route 92 Freeway, NJDOT revived the plans, attempting to build the freeway from Princeton to Hightstown. However, the next year, the plan had to be altered due to public opposition from the communities of Princeton and Plainsboro. This plan was to construct a bypass of Hightstown and East Windsor, now designated as Route 133. The bid for the construction of the new four-lane freeway was accepted from the Schiavone Construction Company in 1996 for a cost of $57 million (1996 USD). Design began that June and construction of the new freeway started on September 20. The project was constructed as New Jersey's first Modified-Design Build freeway, which helped save money and costs for construction, reducing 26 months off the average construction time for the style of freeway. On November 30, 1999, the roadway, which was completed, was opened to commuter traffic, over a year later than originally estimated (July 1998). Part of this delay was due to passage of Hurricane Floyd over the region during September 1999, whose heavy rains resulted in substantial erosion at the project site. At the time of the opening, the freeway carried a speed limit; this was increased to in August 2001.
Connection to New Jersey Turnpike
On December 31, 2006, the New Jersey Turnpike Authority released its proposals regarding interchange 8 of the New Jersey Turnpike and its possible replacement. The current interchange 8 would be demolished and replaced with a new interchange. The new exit 8 would end at the intersection with Route 33, Milford Road, and the Route 133 bypass (on the east side of the expressway, instead of the west). This new exit 8 would grant direct access to the bypass (without going through any traffic lights), as well as to Route 33, using grade-separated interchanges. The new toll gate would feature a total of 12 booths at the toll gate. The second option would be a grade-separated diamond interchange would be constructed, which would lead the ramps towards Route 33. At the intersection with Route 33 and the interchange ramps (from the turnpike and 133), a traffic signal would be built underneath the exit 8 ramps/Route 133. In lieu of a connector road, a jughandle would be built on Route 33 west. This would intersect at Route 33 (with a traffic light) and become the relocated Milford Road (after crossing Route 33).
The third option was an unusual cloverleaf interchange would be built in lieu of a diamond interchange. After exiting the turnpike from the toll gate, a ramp on the right would lead to Milford Road or Route 33. The mainline of the Turnpike ramp would cross over 33 and turn into Route 133. A relocated Milford Road would be built across from Monmouth Street (CR 633) and Route 33 (without connecting Monmouth and Milford) towards the intersection with the current Milford Road and Daniel Street. The new Milford would cross over the turnpike ramps. A leaf would be built from the turnpike ramp approaching the exit 8 toll gate, which would connect to Milford Road. An entrance ramp would be constructed from Milford Road to the exit 8 toll gate. Traveling north on Milford Road, a ramp would be constructed, which would diverge into two ways; one way would merge into the turnpike ramp heading towards Route 133, and the other would intersect at a new traffic light at Route 33, east of the current Route 33/133/Milford Road intersection.
Ultimately, the Turnpike Authority chose the first option for the interchange. But the connector road was eliminated and an exit ramp from the new tollgate to Milford Road south was added to the proposal.
The new exit 8 interchange and toll plaza partially opened in January 2013 with a combination of some temporary and some permanent ramps connecting to the Turnpike, at which point the old interchange was closed, though the old interchange remains in use to access an maintenance depot. The new overpass crossing over Route 33 was opened in September 2013, followed by completion of the interchange by 2014.
Exit list
See also
County Route 522, a four-lane road from US 130 west to US 1 in the same general corridor as Route 92
References
External links
The Roads of Metro New York – NJ 133 Freeway
1976 Mercer County map
Hightstown Bypass Study
Eastbound and westbound video tours of Route 133
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 133
Transportation in Mercer County, New Jersey
133
Limited-access roads in New Jersey
Freeways in the United States
East Windsor, New Jersey | [
-0.426017701625824,
-0.5174615979194641,
0.19349707663059235,
0.13650234043598175,
0.42272236943244934,
-0.06953484565019608,
0.4257422089576721,
-0.02809266559779644,
0.146161749958992,
-0.4396498501300812,
-0.10312408208847046,
0.22051015496253967,
-0.17856784164905548,
-0.5063078999519348,
-0.4813835918903351,
0.3773690164089203,
0.602313220500946,
0.47721874713897705,
0.3244466781616211,
-0.8783690333366394,
-0.15226830542087555,
0.2966984510421753,
0.25465378165245056,
0.42060354351997375,
-0.7601414918899536,
0.022451700642704964,
0.22735977172851562,
-0.031529612839221954,
0.4681440591812134,
0.25577592849731445,
-0.007803292945027351,
0.3572169244289398,
0.1629922091960907,
-0.34685131907463074,
0.5751437544822693,
-0.6266650557518005,
0.13137458264827728,
-0.7947489023208618,
-0.011355284601449966,
-0.33994704484939575,
-0.6431514024734497,
0.13309825956821442,
-0.4150550365447998,
0.04434775933623314,
0.3831368684768677,
0.026383809745311737,
-0.5673498511314392,
0.7371541857719421,
-0.8629550337791443,
-0.6215753555297852,
-0.6575030088424683,
1.0006252527236938,
-0.5466017127037048,
0.8246954083442688,
0.5861477851867676,
-0.040739506483078,
-0.7517816424369812,
-0.2819361686706543,
0.9673806428909302,
0.06463055312633514,
0.14188425242900848,
0.6159141659736633,
-0.6660850644111633,
0.30325889587402344,
0.1960146278142929,
0.43518298864364624,
-0.08844345808029175,
0.9069550633430481,
-0.313226580619812,
-0.614495575428009,
-0.011102277785539627,
-0.19289672374725342,
0.14060631394386292,
-0.02965143695473671,
0.06579478830099106,
-0.2708240747451782,
-0.26933032274246216,
-0.05595419555902481,
-0.40979936718940735,
-0.05852425470948219,
-0.12956148386001587,
0.1453387439250946,
0.6206805109977722,
0.22877076268196106,
0.9119534492492676,
0.2904151380062103,
-0.4834999740123749,
0.035107437521219254,
-0.19656413793563843,
0.06279333680868149,
-1.0770483016967773,
0.7625178098678589,
0.11316005140542984,
-0.027979500591754913,
0.12728750705718994,
0.23073460161685944,
-0.3553737699985504,
-0.02159590646624565,
0.4521764814853668,
0.49712562561035156,
0.45540547370910645,
0.8623837232589722,
0.42768317461013794,
-0.9746909737586975,
-1.1262296438217163,
0.2120552659034729,
0.2143600583076477,
-0.014157901518046856,
0.23544107377529144,
0.25148919224739075,
-1.1017886400222778,
-0.47384247183799744,
-1.0215270519256592,
-0.03573625907301903,
0.26877230405807495,
0.36797675490379333,
0.3677377998828888,
-0.7816660404205322,
-0.5156615972518921,
-0.5945590138435364,
-0.19266876578330994,
0.3062264025211334,
0.023873327299952507,
0.5675599575042725,
0.5894164443016052,
0.3963911831378937,
0.4043861925601959,
0.13939659297466278,
0.6119582056999207,
0.3257930874824524,
0.12389572709798813,
0.7992663383483887,
-0.12305743992328644,
0.020156143233180046,
-0.4184921681880951,
-0.7315428853034973,
-0.15975897014141083,
1.0200471878051758,
0.3251468539237976,
0.22180752456188202,
-0.9927480816841125,
-0.6826987862586975,
0.6490715742111206,
-0.4012869894504547,
0.1877286434173584,
0.4147934913635254,
-0.1740889549255371,
-0.37242916226387024,
0.029469480738043785,
0.08741924911737442,
0.5767713189125061,
-0.14865463972091675,
-0.4887554347515106,
-0.5607694387435913,
-0.24097730219364166,
0.4792415499687195,
0.9979641437530518,
0.8059021830558777,
-0.23926745355129242,
0.1520540863275528,
0.13767695426940918,
0.5788711905479431,
0.6722231507301331,
0.601703941822052,
0.955769419670105,
0.37794503569602966,
0.15274126827716827,
-0.4525633752346039,
1.084031105041504,
-0.17753484845161438,
-0.45626726746559143,
-0.6194062829017639,
0.5419757962226868,
-0.6644787192344666,
0.35014086961746216,
-0.006302262656390667,
0.7534999847412109,
-0.11868446320295334,
0.4829922914505005,
-0.2514401972293854,
-0.5520117878913879,
0.08862831443548203,
0.5126568078994751,
0.01397350337356329,
0.13553518056869507,
-0.6801447868347168,
0.025715285912156105,
0.19518719613552094,
-0.5306389927864075,
-0.039797063916921616,
-0.3022473156452179,
-0.5056894421577454,
0.4554675817489624,
-0.8879335522651672,
0.7377031445503235,
0.3726195693016052,
-0.09009630233049393,
1.1488722562789917,
-0.28936612606048584,
0.3809705078601837,
-0.251513808965683,
-0.9522345066070557,
1.0038655996322632,
0.2585545480251312,
-0.43714454770088196,
0.5925136804580688,
0.38722261786460876,
-0.04365433380007744,
0.20206351578235626,
0.052629511803388596,
0.16358938813209534,
-0.8158043622970581,
-0.13951709866523743,
-0.02003110945224762,
-0.11496319621801376,
-0.5588394999504089,
-0.19048580527305603,
0.012912618927657604,
-0.03643257915973663,
-0.21489231288433075,
0.9470425248146057,
-0.13810919225215912,
0.39291465282440186,
0.2711923122406006,
-0.31389349699020386,
0.9439377188682556,
-0.3560270071029663,
0.7701008319854736,
0.22982066869735718,
0.12266372889280319,
-0.3786175847053528,
0.03387738764286041,
-0.32728683948516846,
-0.3361387550830841,
0.14705434441566467,
-0.03873810917139053,
-0.13014882802963257,
-0.5056464672088623,
0.5615253448486328,
-0.9742472171783447,
-0.3570629060268402,
0.3047836124897003,
-0.8520318865776062,
-0.17656433582305908,
0.6983177661895752,
0.5378997921943665,
0.08046342432498932,
-0.2609926760196686,
0.2004256397485733,
0.07597363740205765,
-0.5262829661369324,
0.08454844355583191,
0.03578267991542816,
0.16750964522361755,
0.08235760033130646,
0.2321637123823166,
-0.0691021978855133,
0.2222074270248413,
0.5693820714950562,
0.2906075716018677,
-0.2934105098247528,
0.1110943853855133,
-0.05322980135679245,
0.22943049669265747,
-0.21676024794578552,
-0.4412675201892853,
0.11533111333847046,
-0.7088580131530762,
0.7483035922050476,
-0.17364048957824707,
-0.21866969764232635,
-0.6339656114578247,
-0.16588194668293,
-0.45105987787246704,
0.009548751637339592,
0.3662908971309662,
-0.05765198916196823,
-0.2065102458000183,
-0.5435055494308472,
0.21005557477474213,
0.35978493094444275,
0.8772825598716736,
0.5389863848686218,
-0.3360711932182312,
0.2111217975616455,
0.16905947029590607,
0.6838792562484741,
0.17627917230129242,
-0.7337948083877563,
-0.4694652855396271,
-0.4376930892467499,
-0.38768866658210754,
-0.3411065638065338,
1.0824036598205566,
0.5710368156433105,
0.4406695067882538,
-0.26794126629829407,
-0.12670569121837616,
0.684269368648529,
-0.6075145602226257,
0.08507083356380463,
0.5459676384925842,
-0.2896573543548584,
-0.06909127533435822,
-0.45343446731567383,
-0.2971785366535187,
-0.08627235889434814,
-0.6842594742774963,
-4.801253318786621,
1.0855175256729126,
-0.3902466893196106,
0.1211739107966423,
-0.04295019060373306,
-0.08566838502883911,
0.02986769564449787,
-0.5661630034446716,
0.1971714347600937,
-0.06286696344614029,
0.2722574472427368,
-0.5195979475975037,
0.1805441677570343,
0.4093974232673645,
0.03994142636656761,
0.18197551369667053,
0.09948763251304626,
-0.41856345534324646,
1.0629355907440186,
-0.25111284852027893,
0.17852401733398438,
-0.06107717752456665,
-0.3611106872558594,
-0.8132730722427368,
0.5997493267059326,
0.14258109033107758,
-0.7468624711036682,
0.3484175503253937,
-0.3542407751083374,
0.017009709030389786,
0.5990497469902039,
-0.5360438227653503,
-0.13473553955554962,
-0.42753472924232483,
-0.24840781092643738,
-0.6140000224113464,
0.050493765622377396,
-0.43950819969177246,
0.2252676635980606,
-0.6422593593597412,
-0.016100050881505013,
0.9887280464172363,
-0.06837350130081177,
-0.37545984983444214,
0.5186077952384949,
0.0005622633616439998,
-0.27366089820861816,
-0.03076866827905178,
0.16027943789958954,
0.4681280255317688,
0.7025814056396484,
0.45411619544029236,
0.7774937152862549,
-0.23144562542438507,
-0.19176261126995087,
-0.31793567538261414,
-0.05329713225364685,
-0.11153756827116013,
-0.6763284206390381,
0.4319104850292206,
0.16203303635120392,
-0.6820385456085205,
-0.6586253046989441,
-0.26108071208000183,
0.2565673589706421,
-0.15905240178108215,
0.05974214896559715,
-0.07456208020448685,
0.18651331961154938,
0.05263000354170799,
-0.1964946836233139,
0.34925204515457153,
-0.08335292339324951,
-0.9151666164398193,
0.40699124336242676,
-0.7547614574432373,
-1.1160215139389038,
0.3741239905357361,
-0.2648928165435791,
-0.5796757936477661,
0.16122670471668243,
0.10858530551195145,
-0.15834276378154755,
0.576990008354187,
0.6036130785942078,
0.09415558725595474,
-0.20144692063331604,
0.4029961824417114,
-0.41674017906188965,
-0.16697418689727783,
0.14699861407279968,
-0.1595580279827118,
0.24387109279632568,
-0.39079520106315613,
0.0023504619020968676,
0.3335266411304474,
-0.2477262318134308,
0.5741246342658997,
-0.2342166155576706,
0.0901477113366127,
0.6421493887901306,
-0.38932064175605774,
0.10412806272506714,
-0.2474915087223053,
-0.6028295159339905,
-0.5154078006744385,
0.0749257355928421,
0.45664772391319275,
0.6399478316307068,
-0.4601787030696869,
-0.9582363963127136,
-0.47621476650238037,
-0.5632294416427612,
-0.6743199825286865,
0.6009642481803894,
-0.35826337337493896,
-0.28340035676956177,
0.24311676621437073,
0.4599587321281433,
-0.18618802726268768,
0.12783809006214142,
1.1687171459197998,
0.4526793956756592,
-0.16939190030097961,
-0.9525343179702759,
-0.1244068369269371,
0.31486186385154724,
0.6658940315246582,
0.1255597323179245,
-0.06754333525896072,
-0.21882036328315735,
0.3304539620876312,
-0.08786920458078384,
-0.3131438195705414,
-0.29310715198516846,
-0.040910281240940094,
-0.3023214042186737,
-0.14817364513874054,
-0.31860780715942383,
0.5726861357688904,
-0.12920761108398438,
-0.07417654246091843,
0.10103839635848999,
0.3556954860687256,
0.47866132855415344,
0.2983144223690033,
0.5090183615684509,
-0.05818655714392662,
-1.3687442541122437,
0.05820281803607941,
-0.10101977735757828,
-0.12672944366931915,
-0.33040231466293335,
-0.347317099571228,
0.12377797067165375,
0.060987286269664764,
-0.12539711594581604,
-0.49362558126449585,
0.5496870875358582,
-0.19276519119739532,
0.5759927034378052,
0.48237404227256775,
-0.1586713045835495,
0.4785119593143463,
-0.17972521483898163,
0.49522557854652405,
-0.0006963859777897596,
-0.9411269426345825,
-0.7717111706733704,
0.5736736059188843,
0.09799662977457047,
-0.7439079880714417,
-0.3516034185886383,
-0.8872432112693787,
0.24136321246623993,
0.18753297626972198,
-0.1367942839860916,
-0.35018935799598694,
-0.09283450245857239,
0.28399038314819336,
0.44029009342193604,
-0.7911697626113892,
-0.45583292841911316,
0.8675739169120789,
0.8396782875061035,
-0.8687363862991333,
-0.652773916721344,
-0.09005116671323776,
-0.027926618233323097,
0.10554187744855881,
0.020695148035883904,
-1.098819613456726,
0.223824143409729,
0.01971413940191269,
-0.04874807596206665,
-1.074425458908081,
0.4994371831417084,
0.03273870050907135,
-0.9596090316772461,
-0.5811262726783752,
0.01694505475461483,
0.6518411040306091,
-0.7433872818946838,
0.8108996748924255,
0.3435654938220978,
-0.23345588147640228,
0.19671055674552917,
0.12643559277057648,
-0.7457336187362671,
1.1266957521438599,
-0.23474200069904327,
-0.923771858215332,
0.8111574649810791,
-0.23761530220508575,
-0.3636297583580017,
0.5408044457435608,
-0.34415289759635925,
-0.16538245975971222,
-0.2595588266849518,
-0.6638363599777222,
-0.364257276058197,
-0.4155229926109314,
0.12353600561618805,
-0.7027223110198975,
-0.540596604347229,
0.44010040163993835,
0.26377540826797485,
-1.3137975931167603,
1.071336030960083,
-0.4590797424316406,
-0.4010002613067627,
-0.545574963092804,
0.46601688861846924,
0.10434969514608383,
-0.21251723170280457,
-0.3806437849998474,
-0.7456879615783691,
-0.22981177270412445,
0.5210817456245422,
0.8806518912315369,
0.01439576968550682,
0.3667663633823395,
-0.5068483352661133,
-0.364734411239624,
0.009660952724516392,
0.48060399293899536,
0.9363491535186768,
-0.17912207543849945,
-0.47993454337120056,
-0.0665871724486351,
0.43349942564964294,
-0.2726508378982544,
-0.7820037603378296,
0.33254122734069824,
1.6592586040496826,
-0.607248067855835,
-0.10527604818344116,
-0.5210759043693542,
0.22075799107551575,
-0.28745293617248535,
-0.22018954157829285,
-0.5311213731765747,
0.27551326155662537,
0.15193809568881989,
0.6498782634735107,
-0.5403229594230652,
0.07720620185136795,
-0.4675356149673462,
0.42225027084350586,
-0.40228739380836487,
-0.17978836596012115,
-0.503034770488739,
0.009265528991818428,
-0.14165084064006805,
-0.9960444569587708,
0.02705756388604641,
0.2976668179035187,
-0.7672368288040161,
0.42974796891212463,
-0.5030493140220642,
-0.7046767473220825,
0.11390332877635956,
-0.42899787425994873,
0.4397604465484619,
-0.16682152450084686,
0.1635192483663559,
0.10405422002077103,
0.08905626833438873,
-0.15716861188411713,
0.7528337240219116,
-0.37888431549072266,
-0.3452650010585785,
-0.6140424013137817,
-0.6829476356506348,
-0.17823678255081177,
0.3317900002002716,
-0.059190016239881516,
0.5080181360244751,
0.11033789068460464,
-0.6358739137649536,
-0.9827287793159485,
0.6629834175109863,
-0.3311588168144226,
-0.3768419027328491,
-0.2717055380344391,
0.5638103485107422,
0.029225345700979233,
0.025380373001098633,
0.8460145592689514,
0.13665106892585754,
0.010724668391048908,
-0.15758416056632996,
1.009440541267395,
1.2569282054901123,
-0.06114587560296059,
0.4877021610736847,
0.2256266176700592,
-0.5464255213737488,
-0.48767712712287903,
0.10712133347988129,
-0.28522440791130066,
0.5254873037338257,
0.70177161693573,
0.8139917850494385,
-0.5747078657150269,
1.3665584325790405,
-0.06374360620975494,
-0.5351207852363586,
-0.15747198462486267,
0.19958896934986115,
0.2271130532026291,
-0.6071314215660095,
-0.9473960995674133,
0.47405603528022766,
0.1256723254919052,
-0.2039857655763626,
0.03125457093119621,
-0.7609500885009766,
0.2603438198566437,
0.7882412075996399,
-0.08696738630533218,
0.0995672270655632,
0.32055166363716125,
0.3402065336704254,
-0.2310096025466919,
0.18328669667243958,
0.05295094475150108,
0.07599596679210663,
0.2178286463022232,
-0.5722596645355225,
0.003962014801800251,
0.41887548565864563,
-0.3423139154911041,
-0.05302097648382187,
-0.17290636897087097,
0.4763057231903076,
-0.21068374812602997,
0.11136814206838608,
0.11342404037714005,
-0.15309323370456696,
0.4421669542789459,
0.5514106750488281,
0.2406497299671173,
-0.6011856198310852,
-0.49566033482551575,
-0.6879996061325073,
0.3505084216594696,
-0.13302507996559143,
-0.10431333631277084,
0.5986961126327515,
-0.2369513213634491,
0.7618663907051086,
-0.44861990213394165,
-0.05979739502072334,
-0.46180105209350586,
-0.062489334493875504,
-0.24605786800384521,
0.610221266746521,
0.11075637489557266,
0.5895536541938782,
-0.19297805428504944,
0.01731671392917633,
-0.07914408296346664,
-0.5235155820846558,
-0.3850289285182953,
-0.23471318185329437,
-0.10177958756685257,
-0.30966413021087646,
-0.5434101819992065,
-0.3508603274822235,
-0.4870072901248932,
0.010333310812711716,
-0.3696860074996948,
0.5417371392250061,
-0.2057569921016693,
0.0587480366230011,
0.2285948246717453,
1.2320256233215332,
0.4708718955516815,
0.38679614663124084,
0.7303148508071899,
0.3489311933517456,
-0.314098984003067,
0.7095794081687927,
-0.49932894110679626,
0.5672730207443237,
-0.32342079281806946,
-0.05099209025502205,
-0.3601148724555969,
0.5894930362701416,
0.47147560119628906,
0.5458563566207886,
-0.16735365986824036,
0.03827647492289543,
0.17855966091156006,
0.7481544613838196,
-0.13130861520767212,
-0.00443286495283246,
-0.608006477355957,
-0.3373406231403351,
0.2939329445362091,
-0.4915113151073456,
0.3507404625415802,
0.2282281517982483,
-0.14483428001403809,
-0.1865209937095642,
0.07945476472377777,
0.04980604723095894,
0.1612219661474228,
0.0906115472316742,
0.4356539845466614,
-0.8779255747795105,
-0.32532599568367004,
0.17063231766223907,
-0.25376588106155396,
0.4984167218208313,
0.526325523853302,
0.45702552795410156,
1.1339739561080933,
0.049163710325956345,
0.45338258147239685,
-0.136862114071846,
0.32851317524909973,
-0.13128730654716492,
0.4094366431236267,
0.03144228830933571,
-0.3288123607635498,
-0.42630624771118164,
-0.6807624697685242,
0.5501799583435059,
-0.5595435500144958,
-0.259846568107605,
0.68995600938797,
-0.33815598487854004,
0.2458716183900833,
-0.3334502875804901,
-0.18049606680870056,
0.035375285893678665,
-0.06396504491567612,
-0.18289771676063538
] |
228823 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Adams%20Cram | Ralph Adams Cram | Ralph Adams Cram (December 16, 1863 – September 22, 1942) was a prolific and influential American architect of collegiate and ecclesiastical buildings, often in the Gothic Revival style. Cram & Ferguson and Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson are partnerships in which he worked. Together with the architect Richard Upjohn and artist John LaFarge, he is honored on December 16 as a feast day in the Episcopal Church of the United States. Cram was a fellow of the American Institute of Architects.
Early life
Cram was born on December 16, 1863, at Hampton Falls, New Hampshire, to William Augustine and Sarah Elizabeth Cram. He was educated at Augusta, Hampton Falls, Westford Academy, which he entered in 1875, and Phillips Exeter Academy.
At age 18, Cram moved to Boston in 1881 and worked for five years in the architectural office of Rotch & Tilden, after which he left for Rome to study classical architecture. From 1885 to 1887, he was art critic for the Boston Transcript. During an 1887 Christmas Eve mass in Rome, he had a dramatic conversion experience. For the rest of his life, he practiced as a fervent Anglo-Catholic who identified as high-church Anglican. In the 1890s, Cram was a key figure in "social-controversial-inspirational" groups including the Pewter Mugs and the Visionists.
In 1900, Cram married Elizabeth Carrington Read at New Bedford, Massachusetts. She was the daughter of Clement Carrington Read and his wife. Read had served as a captain in the Confederate Army during the American Civil War. Elizabeth and Ralph had three children, Mary Carrington Cram, Ralph Wentworth Cram and Elizabeth Strudwick Cram. The family burial site is at the St. Elizabeth's Memorial Churchyard. The churchyard is adjacent to St Elizabeth's Chapel, which Cram designed.
Career
Cram and business partner Charles Wentworth started business in Boston in April 1889 as Cram and Wentworth. They had landed only four or five church commissions before they were joined by Bertram Goodhue in 1892 to form Cram, Wentworth and Goodhue. Goodhue brought an award-winning commission in Dallas (never built) and brilliant drafting skills to the Boston office.
Wentworth died in 1897 and the firm's name changed to Cram, Goodhue & Ferguson to include draftsman Frank Ferguson. Cram and Goodhue complemented each other's strengths at first but began to compete, sometimes submitting two differing proposals for the same commission. The firm won design of the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1902, a major milestone in their career. They set up the firm's New York office, where Goodhue would preside, leaving Cram to operate in Boston. He designed the sanctuary for the First Unitarian Society in Newton which represents elements of his signature ecclesiastical style and was built in 1905. From 1907 to 1909 Cram was the editor of Christian Art.
Cram's acceptance of the Cathedral of St. John the Divine commission in 1911 (on Goodhue's perceived territory) heightened the tension between the two. Architectural historians have attributed most of their projects to one partner or the other, based on the visual and compositional style, and the location. The Gothic Revival Saint Thomas Church was designed by them both in 1914 on Manhattan's Fifth Avenue. It is the last example of their collaboration, and the most integrated and strongest example of their work together.
Goodhue began his solo career on August 14, 1913. Cram and Ferguson continued with major church and college commissions through the 1930s. Particularly important work includes the original campus of Rice University, Houston, as well as the library and first city hall of that city. Also notable is Cram's first church in the Boston area, All Saints, Dorchester. The successor firm is HDB/Cram and Ferguson of Boston.
A leading proponent of disciplined Gothic Revival architecture in general and Collegiate Gothic in particular, Cram is most closely associated with Princeton University, where he served as supervising architect from 1907 to 1929, during a period of major construction. The university awarded him a Doctor of Letters for his achievements. In 1907, he served as chairman of the American Institute of Architects' Committee on Education.
For seven years he headed the Architectural Department at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Through the 1920s Cram was a public figure and frequently mentioned in the press. The New York Times called him "one of the most prominent Episcopalian laymen in the country". His work was part of the architecture event in the art competition at the 1928 Summer Olympics.
He made news with his defense of Al Smith during his electoral campaign, when anti-Catholic rhetoric was used, saying "I... express my disgust at the ignorance and superstition now rampant and in order that I may go on record as another of those who, though not Roman Catholics, are nevertheless Americans and are outraged by this recrudescence of blatant bigotry, operating through the most cowardly and contemptible methods."
In around 1932, he designed the Desloge Chapel in St. Louis, MO, the Gothic chapel designed to echo the contours of the St. Chapelle in Paris. Desloge Chapel, which is associated with the Firmin Desloge Hospital and St. Louis University, in 1983, was declared a landmark by the Missouri Historical Society. In 1938, he was elected into the National Academy of Design as an Associate Academician.
Views
Modernism
As an author, lecturer, and architect, Cram propounded the view that the Renaissance had been, at least in part, an unfortunate detour for western culture. Cram argued that authentic development could come only by returning to Gothic sources for inspiration, as his "Collegiate Gothic" architecture did, with considerable success. For his Rice University buildings, he favored a medieval north Italian Romanesque style, more in keeping with Houston's hot, humid climate.
A modernist in many ways, he designed Art Deco landmarks of great distinction, including the Federal Building skyscraper in Boston and numerous churches. For example, his design of the tower of the East Liberty Presbyterian Church, Pittsburgh, was inspired by the Empire State Building. His work at Rice was as modernist as medieval in inspiration. His administration building, his secular masterwork, has been compared by Shand-Tucci to Frank Lloyd Wright's work, particularly in the way its dramatic horizontality reflects the surrounding prairies.
The architectural historian Sandy Isenstadt wrote in a review of Cram's biography that "... (modernist) disdain (of Cram) turned out to be modernism's loss". Peter Cormack, director of London's William Morris Gallery, said regarding the critical neglect of Cram's work that it was "a phenomenon which has significantly distorted the study of America's modern architectural history... (Cram) deserves the same kind of international--and domestic--recognition accorded (all too often uncritically) to his contemporary Frank Lloyd Wright".
Politics
Cram argued that the United States would be better off under a constitutional monarchy. He lays out some of his monarchist beliefs in his work Invitation to Monarchy, which appeared in The American Mercury in 1936.
Religion
Raised Unitarian, Cram converted to Anglo-Catholicism after a youthful visit to Rome. He later joined The Episcopal Church in the United States upon returning to his home country. Throughout his life, Cram was devoted to liturgical and devotional practices revived by Anglo-Catholicism, including the cultus of King Charles the Martyr. He, along with other Anglo-Catholics, viewed Anglicanism as a "branch" of the one true Church, alongside the Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy, and hoped for eventual unification with Rome.
Cram also co-founded the American branches of the Society of King Charles the Martyr and the Order of the White Rose. Traveling through Europe, Cram also befriended Catholic writers Hilaire Belloc and G.K. Chesterton, whom have been accredited with influencing his views. He later became involved with a number of American Roman Catholic enterprises and co-founded the Catholic magazine Commonweal. Cram accepted papal primacy and frequently defended Catholicism against American anti-Catholic prejudice, though he never converted to the religion itself.
Selected works
Residences
The Birches, Garrison, New York, 1882
House of the Rising Sun, 657 Highland Avenue, Fall River, Massachusetts, 1890. Designed for Unitarian missionary Reverend Arthur May Knapp (1841–1921), it was inspired by a Japanese Pagoda.
Rehoboth, Chappaqua, New York, 1891–92
Richmond Court, Brookline, Massachusetts, 1896
Watkins Manor House, Winona, Minnesota, 1924–27
Moonstone Cottage 559 York St, York Harbor, ME
Churches and religious buildings
All Saints' Church, Ashmont, Massachusetts, 1892
Christ Church, Hyde Park, Massachusetts 1892
Church of St. John the Evangelist, Boston, Massachusetts, 1892
Lady Chapel, Church of the Advent, Boston, Massachusetts, 1894
Phillips Church, Exeter, New Hampshire, 1897
All Saints Parish, Brookline, Massachusetts, 1898
Emmanuel Church, Newport, Rhode Island, 1900
Calvary Episcopal Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1904
Holy Cross Monastery, West Park, New York, with Henry Vaughan, 1904
All Saints' Chapel, Sewanee: The University of the South, Sewanee, Tennessee, begun 1904, completed 1959
La Santisima Trinidad pro-cathedral, Havana, Cuba, 1905
Saint Thomas Church, New York City, 1905–13
First Unitarian Society, Newton, Massachusetts, 1905–06
Westminster Presbyterian Church, Springfield, IL, 1906
St. Andrew's Episcopal Church, Denver, CO, 1907
Cathedral Church of Saint Paul, Detroit, Michigan, 1908
St. Philip's Church, Durham, North Carolina, 1908
Russell Sage Memorial Church, Far Rockaway, New York, 1908-10
House of Hope Presbyterian Church, St. Paul, Minnesota, 1909–14
St. Florian Church, Hamtramck, Michigan, 1910, expanded by Cram 1928
All Saints Cathedral, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1910
Park Avenue Christian Church, New York City, 1911
Church of the Covenant in the University Circle neighborhood of Cleveland, Ohio, 1911
Cathedral of St. John the Divine, New York City, design taken over by Cram in 1911, unfinished
All Souls Congregational Church, Bangor, Maine, 1912
remodeling of Richard Upjohn's Grace Church, Providence, Rhode Island, 1912
Saint Paul's Episcopal Parish, Malden, Massachusetts, begun 1913, unfinished
Fourth Presbyterian Church, Chicago, Illinois, 1914
Nave extension and Lady Chapel of Trinity Church, Princeton, Princeton, New Jersey, 1914.
Chapel of St. Anne, Arlington, Massachusetts, 1915
Sacred Heart Cathedral, Dodge City, Kansas (1916)
All Saints Church, Peterborough, New Hampshire, ca 1916-20
First Universalist Church, Somerville, Massachusetts, 1916-23
Chapel of Mercersburg Academy, Mercersburg, Pennsylvania, 1916–28
Cole Memorial Chapel, Wheaton College, Norton, Massachusetts, 1917
Trinity Episcopal Church, Houston, Texas, 1919
Calvary Episcopal Church, Americus, Georgia 1919–21
St. Mark's Episcopal Pro-Cathedral, Hastings, Nebraska, 1921–29
Saint James Church, Lake Delaware, New York, 1922.
First Presbyterian Church, Lexington, Kentucky 1922
The First Presbyterian Church, Tacoma, Washington, 1923
Sacred Heart Church, Jersey City, New Jersey, 1923
St. James' Episcopal Church, New York City, rebuilt, 1924
First Presbyterian Church, Utica, New York, 1924
Pine Street Presbyterian Church, Harrisburg, PA, 1926
Westminster Presbyterian Church, Dayton, Ohio 1926
First Presbyterian Church, Lincoln, Nebraska, 1925–27
Chapel at St. George's School, Newport, Rhode Island, 1928
Holy Rosary Roman Catholic Church, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1928
First Presbyterian Church, Glens Falls, New York, 1928
St. Paul's Episcopal Church, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, 1928
Concordia Lutheran Church, Louisville, Kentucky, 1930
Knowles Memorial Chapel, on the campus of Rollins College, Winter Park, Florida, 1931–32
Christ Church United Methodist, New York City, 1931–33
Chancel, Brown Memorial Presbyterian Church, Baltimore, Maryland, 1931
Cathedral of Hope, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1932–35
Christ Episcopal Church tower addition, Blacksburg Historic District, Blacksburg, Virginia, 1934
Conventual Church of St. Mary and St. John, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1936
Monastery and chapel at the Society of St. John the Evangelist, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1936
All Saints Episcopal Church, Winter Park, Florida, 1941
Libraries & academic buildings
Public Library, Fall River, Massachusetts 1899
Boston Public Library, Parker Hill Branch, Roxbury, Massachusetts 1931
Deborah Cook Sayles Public Library, Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 1899
The Mather School, Dorchester, Massachusetts, 1905
Hunt Memorial Library, Nashua, New Hampshire, 1906
Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Virginia, 1906–28
Mary K. Benedict Hall
Fletcher Hall
Mary Harley Student Health and Counseling Center
Mary Helen Cochran Library
Masters Hall, The Masters School, Dobbs Ferry, New York, 1921
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, 1911–28
Princeton University Graduate College, 1911–13
Cleveland Tower, 1917
Princeton University Chapel, 1928
Rothschild Memorial Archway, 1929-1930
Campbell Hall
McCormick Hall
University of Richmond, Richmond, Virginia, 1911–14
Ryland Hall,
Jeter Hall
North Court
Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts, 1910–22
Chapin Hall
Stetson Hall
Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire
Academy Building, 1914
other buildings
Rice University, Houston, Texas, 1910–16
Lovett Hall (Administration Building)
Mechanical Laboratory
Campus master plan
Lucius Beebe Memorial Library, Wakefield, Massachusetts, 1922
The Choate School, Wallingford, Connecticut, 1924–28
St. Andrews Chapel (now Seymour St. John Chapel)
Archbold Infirmary, 1928 (now Archbold House)
Julia Ideson Building of the Houston Public Library, Houston, Texas, 1926
Doheny Library, Campus of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 1931
Bell Tower, Dwight Morrow High School, Englewood, New Jersey, 1932
Saint Mary's Academy, Glens Falls, New York, 1932
Wheaton College (Massachusetts), Upper Campus
Sweet Briar College, Sweet Briar, Virginia, Campus
South Dining Hall, University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Indiana, 1927
Other buildings
Virginia War Memorial Carillon, Byrd Park, Richmond, Virginia, 1932
U.S. Post Office and Courthouse aka J.W. McCormack Post Office and Courthouse, Boston, Massachusetts, 1933
buildings at the Aisne-Marne American Cemetery and Memorial, Belleau, France, 1937
buildings at the Oise-Aisne American Cemetery and Memorial, Fère-en-Tardenois, Aisne department, France, c. 1937
New England Mutual Life Insurance Building, Boston, Massachusetts, 1941
Cram & Ferguson, after Cram's death
Berkeley Building, Boston, Massachusetts, 1947
Marsh Chapel of Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts, 1950
St. Luke's Methodist Church (Monticello, Iowa), 1950
Publications
Cram wrote numerous publications and books on issues in architecture and religious devotion. Titles include:
Impressions of Japanese Architecture, The Baker & Taylor Company, 1905
Heart of Europe, MacMillan & Co. London, 1916 325pgs.
The Substance of Gothic, Marshall Jones Company, Boston, 1917
Farm Houses Manor Houses Minor Chateaux Small Churches in Normandy and Brittany, The Architectural Book Publishing Company, Paul Wenzel and Maurice Krakow, 1917Sins Of The Fathers, Marshall Jones Company, Boston, 1918Gold, Frankincense, and Myrrh, 1919Walled Towns, Marshall Jones Company, Boston, 1919Towards the Great Peace, Marshall Jones Company, Boston, 1922My Life in Architecture, Little, Brown, and Company, Boston, 1936
Cram also wrote fiction. A number of his stories, notably "The Dead Valley", were published in a collection entitled Black Spirits and White (Stone & Kimball, 1895). The collection has been called "one of the undeniable classics of weird fiction". H. P. Lovecraft wrote, "In 'The Dead Valley' the eminent architect and mediævalist Ralph Adams Cram achieves a memorably potent degree of vague regional horror through subtleties of atmosphere and description."
Professional memberships
Cram was a
Fellow of the:
Boston Society of Architects.
American Institute of Architects.
North British Academy of Arts.
Royal Geographical Society of London.
American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
Member of the:
American Federation of Arts.
Architectural Association of London.
Member of the clubs
Puritan Club (Boston).
Century Association (New York).
Veneration
Cram, together with the architect Richard Upjohn and artist John LaFarge, is honored on December 16 as a feast day on the liturgical calendar of the Episcopal Church (USA).
See also
List of covers of Time magazine (1920s)
References
Further reading
External links
.Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.
Why We Do Not Behave Like Human Beings, essay by Cram
Cram & Ferguson Architects
Book review of The Architecture of Ralph Adams Cram'' by Ethan Anthony
1863 births
1942 deaths
American Neoclassical architects
Gothic Revival architects
American ecclesiastical architects
Architects of cathedrals
Architects of Roman Catholic churches
Architects from Boston
Architects from New Hampshire
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
National Academy of Design associates
Architecture of Phillips Exeter Academy
American Anglo-Catholics
American Episcopalians
American expatriates in Italy
People from Hampton Falls, New Hampshire
University of Notre Dame people
19th-century American architects
20th-century American architects
Fellows of the Medieval Academy of America
Contributors to the Catholic Encyclopedia
Olympic competitors in art competitions
American monarchists | [
-0.044996459037065506,
1.0883325338363647,
-0.6987601518630981,
-0.2580488622188568,
0.7813299298286438,
0.6503247618675232,
0.6628552079200745,
0.0832711011171341,
-0.4199780821800232,
-0.5717037320137024,
-0.4127030074596405,
0.299678236246109,
-0.43639859557151794,
0.5228127837181091,
-0.41972845792770386,
0.2655448615550995,
-0.22359468042850494,
-0.13596883416175842,
-0.19052770733833313,
-0.1464949995279312,
-0.27114251255989075,
-0.7161995768547058,
0.277998685836792,
-0.08719996362924576,
-0.45898181200027466,
0.3615143299102783,
0.13814233243465424,
-0.37639206647872925,
-0.005390428472310305,
0.17798222601413727,
0.35119691491127014,
0.2442883551120758,
0.4153483510017395,
-0.7407655119895935,
-0.40786436200141907,
-0.16956444084644318,
0.08121264725923538,
-0.5576436519622803,
0.0009958274895325303,
0.1726953536272049,
0.16831979155540466,
-0.06372424960136414,
0.3599078953266144,
0.09310822188854218,
-0.14391912519931793,
-0.269603967666626,
-1.8267748355865479,
-0.2808092534542084,
-1.7260918617248535,
-0.516020655632019,
-0.5287079811096191,
0.3306168019771576,
0.411724328994751,
0.19505536556243896,
-0.3141433596611023,
0.5181131958961487,
-0.31211429834365845,
0.26368188858032227,
0.26700329780578613,
-0.413016140460968,
0.11454324424266815,
-0.03553013131022453,
0.648965060710907,
0.2723754048347473,
0.19700807332992554,
0.23294870555400848,
-0.2723430395126343,
-0.09321142733097076,
-0.11881387233734131,
0.16448940336704254,
0.24124276638031006,
0.39661237597465515,
0.2739187180995941,
0.06920348107814789,
0.20410273969173431,
-0.2321115881204605,
0.2354935109615326,
-0.29110342264175415,
-0.45203378796577454,
-0.0768980160355568,
0.008281600661575794,
-0.4455862045288086,
0.31640440225601196,
0.716602087020874,
-0.01795879751443863,
0.13292592763900757,
-0.46469220519065857,
0.0065872520208358765,
-0.1557411253452301,
0.5557050704956055,
-0.4666825532913208,
0.10760729014873505,
-0.19939422607421875,
0.45741820335388184,
0.18640388548374176,
-0.021559784188866615,
0.18766014277935028,
0.42201605439186096,
-0.6149275898933411,
0.26352301239967346,
-0.0813104435801506,
0.385802298784256,
0.15647950768470764,
0.07513265311717987,
0.1582871824502945,
-0.01555019523948431,
0.07671153545379639,
-0.340016633272171,
-0.38515913486480713,
0.07914853096008301,
-0.5991064310073853,
0.14830166101455688,
0.12984786927700043,
0.1467454582452774,
-0.10365346074104309,
0.21619084477424622,
0.45931488275527954,
-0.7974274754524231,
-0.8911150693893433,
-0.5070946216583252,
-0.5758379101753235,
0.24329224228858948,
-0.2510123550891876,
0.09207511693239212,
-0.7572450637817383,
0.30557781457901,
0.17827963829040527,
0.4996282756328583,
-0.55854731798172,
-0.035473987460136414,
0.48480144143104553,
0.7937390804290771,
0.30213961005210876,
-0.25032299757003784,
-0.5917814373970032,
-0.06322021782398224,
-0.09333518892526627,
-0.08670440316200256,
-0.0030315311159938574,
0.57401043176651,
-0.4458698630332947,
-0.4799709916114807,
0.3103061020374298,
-0.2237098217010498,
0.4224218428134918,
-0.8545065522193909,
0.4851243793964386,
0.11619390547275543,
-0.2956281900405884,
0.4336445927619934,
0.49892565608024597,
0.6144001483917236,
0.045640334486961365,
-0.4945549964904785,
0.3270857334136963,
0.7187405228614807,
0.7297831177711487,
0.14041435718536377,
-0.07079584151506424,
0.04045107588171959,
-0.37080398201942444,
0.23918519914150238,
-0.3258141279220581,
-0.007787201087921858,
0.28476664423942566,
0.348394513130188,
0.2911589741706848,
-0.4208037257194519,
-0.3663838803768158,
0.24171166121959686,
-0.5473774671554565,
-0.6270902752876282,
0.28202617168426514,
-0.2792837619781494,
-0.3041571378707886,
-0.30866071581840515,
1.1021833419799805,
0.3745746612548828,
0.4496675133705139,
-0.7060613632202148,
-0.68077552318573,
-0.12096720188856125,
0.40089571475982666,
0.4788447618484497,
0.46066996455192566,
0.010893247090280056,
0.21623608469963074,
-0.05553128570318222,
0.25231629610061646,
-0.4797678291797638,
-0.368840754032135,
-0.7079780697822571,
-0.31444504857063293,
-0.7076542377471924,
1.0147258043289185,
0.4648350775241852,
-0.6948021650314331,
0.4441814124584198,
-0.047044169157743454,
0.6146126985549927,
0.07489001750946045,
-0.12489955872297287,
-0.17516770958900452,
-0.22170524299144745,
-0.044501423835754395,
0.14508557319641113,
0.6428986191749573,
0.32320377230644226,
-0.01531995553523302,
0.22118845582008362,
0.9788067936897278,
-0.6883731484413147,
0.06421142816543579,
0.7477584481239319,
-0.5710591077804565,
-1.2336291074752808,
-0.29615893959999084,
-0.044100336730480194,
0.5129926204681396,
-0.5690725445747375,
1.02925443649292,
-0.028402836993336678,
0.04735269024968147,
1.0731502771377563,
0.12747198343276978,
0.4873504638671875,
-0.7988804578781128,
-0.0411197692155838,
0.1539188176393509,
-0.172384575009346,
0.40985286235809326,
0.313475638628006,
0.3040320575237274,
-0.8030970692634583,
0.17783913016319275,
-0.11459804326295853,
-0.09942211210727692,
-0.19783082604408264,
0.5877731442451477,
-0.5622049570083618,
-0.49628153443336487,
-0.025897296145558357,
-0.6486702561378479,
-0.15653280913829803,
0.15212282538414001,
-0.3890564441680908,
-0.37147390842437744,
-0.6319223642349243,
-0.49128857254981995,
0.38578686118125916,
0.24854779243469238,
0.374654084444046,
0.5636855959892273,
0.17407938838005066,
0.06776154041290283,
0.07715936750173569,
0.4442765712738037,
-0.04373856261372566,
-0.12835130095481873,
0.04218728095293045,
-0.023293733596801758,
-0.11846573650836945,
0.14038491249084473,
-0.0753447487950325,
0.10932239145040512,
-0.7161053419113159,
0.44615408778190613,
-0.1488327533006668,
-0.05599413067102432,
0.21489469707012177,
-0.6151373982429504,
-0.4989129304885864,
-0.20356181263923645,
0.5811703205108643,
0.09508777409791946,
-0.3197852671146393,
-0.4365880787372589,
0.1333836019039154,
-0.8311471343040466,
-0.6647598147392273,
0.08046503365039825,
0.8358827829360962,
-0.613518476486206,
-0.19825266301631927,
0.1149030476808548,
-0.204902783036232,
-0.03451500087976456,
-0.7449358701705933,
-0.47923943400382996,
0.07656918466091156,
-0.29365313053131104,
0.9309437870979309,
-0.4604308009147644,
0.12268160283565521,
-0.156362846493721,
0.8482300043106079,
-0.1211194097995758,
-1.5181763172149658,
-0.18602344393730164,
-0.28965604305267334,
-0.5809669494628906,
-0.0664156973361969,
0.08633244037628174,
0.6065866351127625,
0.49650612473487854,
0.4688926339149475,
-0.24891218543052673,
-0.23615272343158722,
-5.017495632171631,
-0.152681365609169,
-0.014636983163654804,
-0.6667331457138062,
0.09281396865844727,
0.2005119025707245,
0.2923385202884674,
-0.3520945906639099,
-0.11345622688531876,
-0.5894100666046143,
0.46899643540382385,
-0.21876589953899384,
0.005470565985888243,
0.9462879300117493,
0.31396758556365967,
0.4194103181362152,
1.1405713558197021,
0.07618092745542526,
0.16493234038352966,
-0.1536230444908142,
0.6271325945854187,
-0.818972647190094,
-0.18062731623649597,
0.05855949595570564,
0.581970751285553,
-0.15863363444805145,
-0.444600373506546,
0.37405481934547424,
-0.6896054744720459,
-0.08377726376056671,
0.6837257146835327,
0.22288966178894043,
-0.3473467528820038,
0.12042340636253357,
-0.07097963988780975,
0.10965157300233841,
0.4205569624900818,
0.5910893082618713,
-0.3864278495311737,
0.04370119422674179,
0.5606637001037598,
-0.08523718267679214,
-1.0043846368789673,
-0.19347473978996277,
-0.1766914278268814,
-0.756636917591095,
-0.33113881945610046,
-0.015122185461223125,
-0.5733851194381714,
0.7408308386802673,
0.6524189710617065,
0.5954232215881348,
0.6434674859046936,
0.8709293603897095,
0.0835239440202713,
0.062380269169807434,
0.6424911022186279,
-0.20800645649433136,
-1.3009772300720215,
-0.03361492604017258,
0.46410852670669556,
-0.32569095492362976,
0.07109440863132477,
-0.6305043697357178,
-0.1663433313369751,
-0.34444332122802734,
-0.5178777575492859,
0.0259387344121933,
0.04963059350848198,
-0.033560384064912796,
0.012567793019115925,
1.0265580415725708,
0.13011899590492249,
-1.3078598976135254,
-0.02196323312819004,
-0.5771454572677612,
0.43387964367866516,
-0.4352387487888336,
-0.6604514718055725,
-0.4352782070636749,
0.05986252799630165,
-0.5258336067199707,
-0.07609698176383972,
1.011165976524353,
1.0826046466827393,
0.7251989841461182,
-0.46689462661743164,
0.6506146788597107,
-1.0014687776565552,
-0.03803682699799538,
0.15556935966014862,
-0.26737961173057556,
-0.0347510427236557,
-0.04916385933756828,
0.6457362771034241,
0.20052827894687653,
0.012228867039084435,
0.25973814725875854,
0.9383264780044556,
0.028030583634972572,
-0.7705317139625549,
0.1900060772895813,
-0.2445479780435562,
-0.3651694655418396,
0.11941023170948029,
-0.3397981822490692,
-0.1070450022816658,
0.16446934640407562,
0.7957974076271057,
0.7995385527610779,
-0.1900472640991211,
0.1401318609714508,
-0.4668024480342865,
0.006560143083333969,
0.10054610669612885,
-0.14249110221862793,
0.5624405741691589,
0.5128642916679382,
0.40565744042396545,
-0.23879341781139374,
0.18062230944633484,
0.2626405358314514,
0.007119264453649521,
0.1981993168592453,
0.38266658782958984,
-0.43693581223487854,
-0.011422320269048214,
0.4260495603084564,
-0.6934611797332764,
-0.06799054890871048,
0.03731490671634674,
0.7065396308898926,
-0.17791695892810822,
0.46811437606811523,
-0.6980373859405518,
0.5433036088943481,
-0.5041267275810242,
-0.5210707783699036,
-0.7046263217926025,
-0.11299005150794983,
0.3482738435268402,
0.3483988642692566,
-0.12577791512012482,
0.036060016602277756,
0.5718356966972351,
0.37138816714286804,
0.4702949821949005,
0.32334104180336,
-0.6144800186157227,
-0.03826015815138817,
-0.8081498146057129,
-0.616543710231781,
-0.18434007465839386,
-0.5071415901184082,
-0.19698560237884521,
0.2542122006416321,
-0.45531854033470154,
0.38818415999412537,
-0.17629742622375488,
0.34193533658981323,
-0.05566231161355972,
0.6664673686027527,
-0.9068847298622131,
-0.8349976539611816,
-0.29684072732925415,
0.5196664929389954,
-0.3008757531642914,
0.612360954284668,
-1.062483787536621,
0.6310611367225647,
0.5361016392707825,
-0.08751606941223145,
-0.6010172963142395,
-0.5020648241043091,
0.5222136974334717,
0.2978968918323517,
0.10796176642179489,
-0.5068130493164062,
0.1613893061876297,
0.05505363643169403,
-0.2734229564666748,
-0.17498166859149933,
-0.4985884130001068,
-0.5036136507987976,
0.9565525054931641,
-0.3308662176132202,
-0.785262405872345,
-0.6113170981407166,
0.11159829795360565,
-0.4443327784538269,
-0.06759151071310043,
-1.056828260421753,
0.6712387800216675,
0.8686209321022034,
0.37321361899375916,
-0.24096359312534332,
0.3431689441204071,
0.14040309190750122,
-0.01459004171192646,
-0.4983919560909271,
-0.38926228880882263,
0.10350172966718674,
-0.44743451476097107,
0.10761750489473343,
-0.04661363363265991,
-1.295011281967163,
0.32016992568969727,
-0.3067012131214142,
-0.09568619728088379,
0.6420420408248901,
-0.14129675924777985,
-0.2893166244029999,
0.1950407326221466,
0.16889235377311707,
-0.45443642139434814,
0.06374681740999222,
0.2660693824291229,
0.4850001931190491,
-0.8497709631919861,
-0.30744412541389465,
-0.37257254123687744,
0.20099519193172455,
-0.12190032005310059,
-0.04013505578041077,
-0.8651736974716187,
-0.24136687815189362,
-0.14902640879154205,
0.05725524201989174,
0.3955894708633423,
-0.2159545123577118,
0.253704696893692,
-0.34261810779571533,
-0.1523885726928711,
0.18982353806495667,
0.6406096816062927,
-0.3959089517593384,
0.3930967152118683,
-0.22065944969654083,
-0.5097019672393799,
0.04872523248195648,
0.002378838835284114,
1.316213846206665,
0.6759722828865051,
0.06628920882940292,
0.06505287438631058,
0.35517510771751404,
0.515138566493988,
0.3295574486255646,
0.01585092581808567,
0.6343210935592651,
0.27791696786880493,
-0.30025777220726013,
-0.5985023379325867,
-0.1488131731748581,
0.35497531294822693,
0.17331743240356445,
-0.579039454460144,
0.14692363142967224,
0.32562774419784546,
-0.18595504760742188,
-0.0887845829129219,
0.030333390459418297,
-0.09660644829273224,
0.32816487550735474,
-0.1562509536743164,
-0.053299419581890106,
0.022014115005731583,
-0.015654705464839935,
0.48873385787010193,
-0.2876710295677185,
0.01013602688908577,
-0.1779002994298935,
-0.3609423041343689,
0.25604137778282166,
-0.44121894240379333,
0.2242925465106964,
-0.1025652289390564,
-0.6179282665252686,
0.783622682094574,
-0.3405363857746124,
-1.0046944618225098,
0.14872507750988007,
-0.24755090475082397,
-0.17555935680866241,
-0.29512402415275574,
-0.5148962736129761,
-0.11269185692071915,
-0.3291817009449005,
-0.1902686506509781,
-0.23444564640522003,
-1.1390492916107178,
0.49619126319885254,
-0.41158387064933777,
0.2401936948299408,
-0.7911453247070312,
0.46723708510398865,
-0.01356992032378912,
1.0065263509750366,
-0.40961405634880066,
0.17662735283374786,
-0.527411699295044,
0.5131406188011169,
0.3138792812824249,
-0.44435957074165344,
0.31594401597976685,
-0.18921828269958496,
-0.2221766859292984,
0.04306473210453987,
-0.16330674290657043,
0.27796944975852966,
0.25467872619628906,
-0.1279139220714569,
0.7264682650566101,
0.7071635723114014,
-0.4768768846988678,
0.09864936023950577,
0.8417524695396423,
-0.4117836058139801,
-0.696143627166748,
-0.0175358634442091,
0.0726766511797905,
-0.016925064846873283,
0.570996880531311,
-0.4905979037284851,
0.33522936701774597,
0.6534568667411804,
-0.18949751555919647,
-0.3655821979045868,
-0.42921411991119385,
0.49681714177131653,
0.47116708755493164,
-0.6619102358818054,
-0.2699218988418579,
0.4775223135948181,
-0.13444456458091736,
-0.46684449911117554,
-0.6289936304092407,
-0.19669325649738312,
-0.4782990515232086,
0.08033745735883713,
0.4824960231781006,
0.5272727012634277,
0.3301510512828827,
0.5136114358901978,
-0.20692060887813568,
-0.43841299414634705,
0.2860966920852661,
0.8945242762565613,
-0.28897348046302795,
-0.14533834159374237,
0.2863001525402069,
0.28953129053115845,
0.45319923758506775,
-0.2930712103843689,
-0.017972664907574654,
-0.32334208488464355,
0.47539934515953064,
0.30228301882743835,
0.021626092493534088,
-0.12555021047592163,
-0.5190417170524597,
-0.6594643592834473,
1.164124608039856,
-0.6111692190170288,
-0.43177202343940735,
-0.30712953209877014,
-0.0863577127456665,
-0.0628708228468895,
-0.4565865695476532,
0.8279685378074646,
-0.43357497453689575,
0.16964051127433777,
-0.31256574392318726,
1.047888994216919,
-0.10549677908420563,
0.4208172857761383,
0.7285812497138977,
0.34638646245002747,
0.06631585210561752,
-0.22348162531852722,
-0.31614941358566284,
-0.5622392892837524,
-0.12124340981245041,
-0.165466770529747,
0.2707096040248871,
-0.14226025342941284,
0.516211748123169,
0.5687190890312195,
0.05912777781486511,
-0.5596770644187927,
0.453347772359848,
-0.007091710343956947,
0.05856473371386528,
0.47680193185806274,
-0.11291825771331787,
0.24548186361789703,
0.03089703805744648,
0.9083728790283203,
0.33533811569213867,
0.3725244402885437,
-0.21041031181812286,
0.07578225433826447,
0.2129668891429901,
-0.08901599794626236,
-0.5845484137535095,
-0.3840961754322052,
-0.4739370346069336,
0.34735408425331116,
-0.8648532629013062,
0.6221701502799988,
-0.42016395926475525,
0.45272257924079895,
-0.6464928388595581,
0.7131454944610596,
-0.7456459999084473,
-0.23198752105236053,
0.4353821873664856,
0.2006494402885437,
-0.1905038207769394,
-0.05950312688946724,
0.4882168769836426,
0.26105016469955444,
0.3598618805408478,
0.07580921798944473,
0.13837029039859772,
-0.0006330927135422826,
0.41620922088623047,
-0.381390243768692,
0.28216126561164856,
0.14971856772899628,
0.2900114357471466,
-0.29593798518180847,
-0.23737488687038422,
0.4866385757923126,
-0.6121751666069031,
-0.08136317133903503,
0.15701323747634888,
0.9392520189285278,
0.28844478726387024,
-0.8504250049591064,
0.3769857585430145,
-0.5130542516708374,
-0.290017694234848,
-0.06323686987161636,
0.5262726545333862,
0.40461498498916626,
0.37087681889533997,
-0.05584358423948288,
0.4444187581539154,
0.5835491418838501,
-0.03149883821606636,
-1.0611196756362915,
0.670191764831543,
-0.10955097526311874,
0.5959163308143616,
-0.25097033381462097,
0.037277787923812866,
0.20740222930908203,
0.11798196285963058,
0.29160425066947937
] |
228824 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teenage%20pregnancy | Teenage pregnancy | Teenage pregnancy, also known as adolescent pregnancy, is pregnancy in a female under the age of 20, according to the WHO. Pregnancy can occur with sexual intercourse after the start of ovulation, which can be before the first menstrual period (menarche) but usually occurs after the onset of periods. In well-nourished girls, the first period usually takes place around the age of 12 or 13.
Pregnant teenagers face many of the same pregnancy related issues as other women. There are additional concerns for those under the age of 15 as they are less likely to be physically developed to sustain a healthy pregnancy or to give birth. For girls aged 15–19, risks are associated more with socioeconomic factors than with the biological effects of age. Risks of low birth weight, premature labor, anemia, and pre-eclampsia are connected to biological age, as they are observed in teen births even after controlling for other risk factors, such as access to prenatal care.
Teenage pregnancies are associated with social issues, including lower educational levels and poverty. Teenage pregnancy in developed countries is usually outside of marriage and is often associated with a social stigma. Teenage pregnancy in developing countries often occurs within marriage and half are planned. However, in these societies, early pregnancy may combine with malnutrition and poor health care to cause medical problems. When used in combination, educational interventions and access to birth control can reduce unintended teenage pregnancies.
In 2015, about 47 females per 1,000 had children well under the age of 20. Rates are higher in Africa and lower in Asia. In the developing world about 2.5 million females under the age of 16 and 16 million females 15 to 19 years old have children each year. Another 3.9 million have abortions. It is more common in rural than urban areas. Worldwide, complications related to pregnancy are the most common cause of death among females 15 to 19 years old.
Definition
The age of the mother is determined by the easily verified date when the pregnancy ends, not by the estimated date of conception. Consequently, the statistics do not include pregnancies that began at age 19, but that ended on or after the woman's 20th birthday. Similarly, statistics on the mother's marital status are determined by whether she is married at the end of the pregnancy, not at the time of conception.
History
Teenage pregnancy (with conceptions normally involving girls between age 16 and 19), was far more normal in previous centuries, and common in developed countries in the 20th century. Among Norwegian women born in the early 1950s, nearly a quarter became teenage mothers by the early 1970s. However, the rates have steadily declined throughout the developed world since that 20th century peak. Among those born in Norway in the late 1970s, less than 10% became teenage mothers, and rates have fallen since then.
In the United States, the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Act of 1996 included the objective of reducing the number of young Black and Latina single mothers on welfare, which became the foundation for teenage pregnancy prevention in the United States and the founding of the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, now known as Power to Decide.
Effects
According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), "Pregnancies among girls less than 18 years of age have irreparable consequences. It violates the rights of girls, with life-threatening consequences in terms of sexual and reproductive health, and poses high development costs for communities, particularly in perpetuating the cycle of poverty." Health consequences include not yet being physically ready for pregnancy and childbirth leading to complications and malnutrition as the majority of adolescents tend to come from lower-income households. The risk of maternal death for girls under age 15 in low and middle income countries is higher than for women in their twenties. Teenage pregnancy also affects girls' education and income potential as many are forced to drop out of school which ultimately threatens future opportunities and economic prospects.
Several studies have examined the socioeconomic, medical, and psychological impact of pregnancy and parenthood in teens. Life outcomes for teenage mothers and their children vary; other factors, such as poverty or social support, may be more important than the age of the mother at the birth. Many solutions to counteract the more negative findings have been proposed. Teenage parents who can rely on family and community support, social services and child-care support are more likely to continue their education and get higher paying jobs as they progress with their education.
A holistic approach is required in order to address teenage pregnancy. This means not focusing on changing the behaviour of girls but addressing the underlying reasons of adolescent pregnancy such as poverty, gender inequality, social pressures and coercion. This approach should include "providing age-appropriate comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, investing in girls' education, preventing child marriage, sexual violence and coercion, building gender-equitable societies by empowering girls and engaging men and boys and ensuring adolescents' access to sexual and reproductive health information as well as services that welcome them and facilitate their choices".
In the United States one third of high school students reported being sexually active. In 2011–2013, 79% of females reported using birth control. Teenage pregnancy puts young women at risk for health issues, economic, social and financial issues.
Teenager
Being a young mother in a first world country can affect one's education. Teen mothers are more likely to drop out of high school. One study in 2001 found that women that gave birth during their teens completed secondary-level schooling 10–12% as often and pursued post-secondary education 14–29% as often as women who waited until age 30.
Young motherhood in an industrialized country can affect employment and social class. Teenage women who are pregnant or mothers are seven times more likely to commit suicide than other teenagers.
According to the National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, nearly 1 in 4 teen mothers will experience another pregnancy within two years of having their first. Pregnancy and giving birth significantly increases the chance that these mothers will become high school dropouts and as many as half have to go on welfare. Many teen parents do not have the intellectual or emotional maturity that is needed to provide for another life. Often, these pregnancies are hidden for months resulting in a lack of adequate prenatal care and dangerous outcomes for the babies. Factors that determine which mothers are more likely to have a closely spaced repeat birth include marriage and education: the likelihood decreases with the level of education of the young woman – or her parents – and increases if she gets married.
Child
Early motherhood can affect the psychosocial development of the infant. The children of teen mothers are more likely to be born prematurely with a low birth weight, predisposing them to many other lifelong conditions. Children of teen mothers are at higher risk of intellectual, language, and socio-emotional delays. Developmental disabilities and behavioral issues are increased in children born to teen mothers. One study suggested that adolescent mothers are less likely to stimulate their infant through affectionate behaviors such as touch, smiling, and verbal communication, or to be sensitive and accepting toward their needs. Another found that those who had more social support were less likely to show anger toward their children or to rely upon punishment.
Poor academic performance in the children of teenage mothers has also been noted, with many of the children being held back a grade level, scoring lower on standardized tests, and/or failing to graduate from secondary school. Daughters born to adolescent parents are more likely to become teen mothers themselves. Sons born to teenage mothers are three times more likely to serve time in prison.
Medical
Maternal and prenatal health is of particular concern among teens who are pregnant or parenting. The worldwide incidence of premature birth and low birth weight is higher among adolescent mothers. In a rural hospital in West Bengal, teenage mothers between 15 and 19 years old were more likely to have anemia, preterm delivery, and a baby with a lower birth weight than mothers between 20 and 24 years old.
Research indicates that pregnant teens are less likely to receive prenatal care, often seeking it in the third trimester, if at all. The Guttmacher Institute reports that one-third of pregnant teens receive insufficient prenatal care and that their children are more likely to have health issues in childhood or be hospitalized than those born to older women.
In the United States, teenage Latinas who become pregnant face barriers to receiving healthcare because they are the least insured group in the country.
Young mothers who are given high-quality maternity care have significantly healthier babies than those who do not. Many of the health-issues associated with teenage mothers appear to result from lack of access to adequate medical care.
Many pregnant teens are at risk of nutritional deficiencies from poor eating habits common in adolescence, including attempts to lose weight through dieting, skipping meals, food faddism, snacking, and consumption of fast food.
Inadequate nutrition during pregnancy is an even more marked problem among teenagers in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy result in the deaths of an estimated 70,000 teen girls in developing countries each year. Young mothers and their babies are also at greater risk of contracting HIV. The World Health Organization estimates that the risk of death following pregnancy is twice as high for girls aged 15–19 than for women aged 20–24. The maternal mortality rate can be up to five times higher for girls aged 10–14 than for women aged 20–24. Illegal abortion also holds many risks for teenage girls in areas such as sub-Saharan Africa.
Risks for medical complications are greater for girls aged under 15, as an underdeveloped pelvis can lead to difficulties in childbirth. Obstructed labour is normally dealt with by caesarean section in industrialized nations; however, in developing regions where medical services might be unavailable, it can lead to eclampsia, obstetric fistula, infant mortality, or maternal death. For mothers who are older than fifteen, age in itself is not a risk factor, and poor outcomes are associated more with socioeconomic factors rather than with biology.
Economics
The lifetime opportunity cost caused by teenage pregnancy in different countries varies from 1% to 30% of the annual GDP (30% being the figure in Uganda). In the United States, teenage pregnancy costs taxpayers between $9.4 and $28 billion each year, due to factors such as foster care and lost tax revenue. The estimated increase in economic productivity from ending teenage pregnancy in Brazil and India would be over $3.5 billion and $7.7 billion respectively.
Less than one third of teenage mothers receive any form of child support, vastly increasing the likelihood of turning to the government for assistance. The correlation between earlier childbearing and failure to complete high school reduces career opportunities for many young women. One study found that, in 1988, 60% of teenage mothers were impoverished at the time of giving birth. Additional research found that nearly 50% of all adolescent mothers sought social assistance within the first five years of their child's life. A study of 100 teenaged mothers in the UK found that only 11% received a salary, while the remaining 89% were unemployed. Most British teenage mothers live in poverty, with nearly half in the bottom fifth of the income distribution.
Risk factors
Culture
Rates of teenage pregnancies are higher in societies where it is traditional for girls to marry young and where they are encouraged to bear children as soon as they are able. For example, in some sub-Saharan African countries, early pregnancy is often seen as a blessing because it is proof of the young woman's fertility. Countries where teenage marriages are common experience higher levels of teenage pregnancies. In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage and pregnancy is more common in traditional rural communities than in cities. Many teenagers are not taught about methods of birth control and how to deal with peers who pressure them into having sex before they are ready. Many pregnant teenagers do not have any cognition of the central facts of sexuality.
Economic incentives also influence the decision to have children. In societies where children are set to work at an early age, it is economically attractive to have many children.
In societies where adolescent marriage is less common, such as many developed countries, young age at first intercourse and lack of use of contraceptive methods (or their inconsistent and/or incorrect use; the use of a method with a high failure rate is also a problem) may be factors in teen pregnancy. Most teenage pregnancies in the developed world appear to be unplanned. Many Western countries have instituted sex education programs, the main objective of which is to reduce unplanned pregnancies and STIs. Countries with low levels of teenagers giving birth accept sexual relationships among teenagers and provide comprehensive and balanced information about sexuality.
Teenage pregnancies are common among Romani people because they marry earlier.
Other family members
Teen pregnancy and motherhood can influence younger siblings. One study found that the younger sisters of teen mothers were less likely to emphasize the importance of education and employment and more likely to accept human sexual behavior, parenting, and marriage at younger ages. Younger brothers, too, were found to be more tolerant of non-marital and early births, in addition to being more susceptible to high-risk behaviors. If the younger sisters of teenage parents babysit the children, they have an increased probability of getting pregnant themselves. Once an older daughter has a child, parents often become more accepting as time goes by. A study from Norway in 2011 found that the probability of a younger sister having a teenage pregnancy went from 1:5 to 2:5 if the elder sister had a baby as a teenager.
Sexuality
In most countries, most males experience sexual intercourse for the first time before their 20th birthday. Males in Western developed countries have sex for the first time sooner than in undeveloped and culturally conservative countries such as sub-Saharan Africa and much of Asia.
In a 2005 Kaiser Family Foundation study of US teenagers, 29% of teens reported feeling pressure to have sex, 33% of sexually active teens reported "being in a relationship where they felt things were moving too fast sexually", and 24% had "done something sexual they didn’t really want to do". Several polls have indicated peer pressure as a factor in encouraging both girls and boys to have sex. The increased sexual activity among adolescents is manifested in increased teenage pregnancies and an increase in sexually transmitted diseases.
Role of drug and alcohol use
Inhibition-reducing drugs and alcohol may possibly encourage unintended sexual activity. If so, it is unknown if the drugs themselves directly influence teenagers to engage in riskier behavior, or whether teenagers who engage in drug use are more likely to engage in sex. Correlation does not imply causation. The drugs with the strongest evidence linking them to teenage pregnancy are alcohol, cannabis, "ecstasy" and other substituted amphetamines. The drugs with the least evidence to support a link to early pregnancy are opioids, such as heroin, morphine, and oxycodone, of which a well-known effect is the significant reduction of libido – it appears that teenage opioid users have significantly reduced rates of conception compared to their non-using, and alcohol, "ecstasy", cannabis, and amphetamine using peers.
Early puberty
Girls who mature early (precocious puberty) are more likely to engage in sexual intercourse at a younger age, which in turn puts them at greater risk of teenage pregnancy.
Lack of contraception
Adolescents may lack knowledge of, or access to, conventional methods of preventing pregnancy, as they may be too embarrassed or frightened to seek such information. Contraception for teenagers presents a huge challenge for the clinician. In 1998, the government of the UK set a target to halve the under-18 pregnancy rate by 2010. The Teenage Pregnancy Strategy (TPS) was established to achieve this. The pregnancy rate in this group, although falling, rose slightly in 2007, to 41.7 per 1,000 women. Young women often think of contraception either as 'the pill' or condoms and have little knowledge about other methods. They are heavily influenced by negative, second-hand stories about methods of contraception from their friends and the media. Prejudices are extremely difficult to overcome. Over concern about side-effects, for example weight gain and acne, often affect choice. Missing up to three pills a month is common, and in this age group the figure is likely to be higher. Restarting after the pill-free week, having to hide pills, drug interactions and difficulty getting repeat prescriptions can all lead to method failure.
In the US, according to the 2002 National Survey of Family Growth, sexually active adolescent women wishing to avoid pregnancy were less likely than older women to use contraceptives (18% of 15–19-year-olds used no contraceptives, versus 10.7% for women aged 15–44). More than 80% of teen pregnancies are unintended. Over half of unintended pregnancies were to women not using contraceptives, most of the rest are due to inconsistent or incorrect use. 23% of sexually active young women in a 1996 Seventeen magazine poll admitted to having had unprotected sex with a partner who did not use a condom, while 70% of girls in a 1997 PARADE poll claimed it was embarrassing to buy birth control or request information from a doctor.
The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health surveyed 1027 students in the US in grades 7–12 in 1995 to compare the use of contraceptives among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics. The results were that 36.2% of Hispanics said they never used contraception during intercourse which is a high rate compared to 23.3% of Black teens and 17.0% of White teens who also did not use contraceptives during intercourse
In a 2012 study, over 1,000 females were surveyed to find out factors contributing to not using contraception. Of those surveyed, almost half had been involved in unprotected sex within the previous three months. These women gave three main reasons for not using contraceptives: trouble obtaining birth control (the most frequent reason), lack of intention to have sex, and the misconception that they "could not get pregnant".
In a study for the Guttmacher Institute, researchers found that from a comparative perspective, however, teenage pregnancy rates in the US are less nuanced than one might initially assume. "Since timing and levels of sexual activity are quite similar across [Sweden, France, Canada, Great Britain, and the US], the high U.S. rates arise primarily because of less, and possibly less-effective, contraceptive use by sexually active teenagers." Thus, the cause for the discrepancy between rich nations can be traced largely to contraceptive-based issues.
Among teens in the UK seeking an abortion, a study found that the rate of contraceptive use was roughly the same for teens as for older women.
In other cases, contraception is used, but proves to be inadequate. Inexperienced adolescents may use condoms incorrectly, forget to take oral contraceptives, or fail to use the contraceptives they had previously chosen. Contraceptive failure rates are higher for teenagers, particularly poor ones, than for older users. Long-acting contraceptives such as intrauterine devices, subcutaneous contraceptive implants, and contraceptive injections (such as Depo-Provera and combined injectable contraceptive), which prevent pregnancy for months or years at a time, are more effective in women who have trouble remembering to take pills or using barrier methods consistently.
According to Encyclopedia of Women's Health, published in 2004, there has been an increased effort to provide contraception to adolescents via family planning services and school-based health, such as HIV prevention education.
Sexual abuse
Studies from South Africa have found that 11–20% of pregnancies in teenagers are a direct result of rape, while about 60% of teenage mothers had unwanted sexual experiences preceding their pregnancy. Before age 15, a majority of first-intercourse experiences among females are reported to be non-voluntary; the Guttmacher Institute found that 60% of girls who had sex before age 15 were coerced by males who on average were six years their senior. One in five teenage fathers admitted to forcing girls to have sex with them.
Multiple studies have indicated a strong link between early childhood sexual abuse and subsequent teenage pregnancy in industrialized countries. Up to 70% of women who gave birth in their teens were molested as young girls; by contrast, 25% of women who did not give birth as teens were molested.
In some countries, sexual intercourse between a minor and an adult is not considered consensual under the law because a minor is believed to lack the maturity and competence to make an informed decision to engage in fully consensual sex with an adult. In those countries, sex with a minor is therefore considered statutory rape. In most European countries, by contrast, once an adolescent has reached the age of consent, he or she can legally have sexual relations with adults because it is held that in general (although certain limitations may still apply), reaching the age of consent enables a juvenile to consent to sex with any partner who has also reached that age. Therefore, the definition of statutory rape is limited to sex with a person under the minimum age of consent. What constitutes statutory rape ultimately differs by jurisdiction (see age of consent).
Dating violence
Studies have indicated that adolescent girls are often in abusive relationships at the time of their conceiving. They have also reported that knowledge of their pregnancy has often intensified violent and controlling behaviors on part of their boyfriends. Girls under age 18 are twice as likely to be beaten by their child's father than women over age 18. A UK study found that 70% of women who gave birth in their teens had experienced adolescent domestic violence. Similar results have been found in studies in the US. A Washington State study found 70% of teenage mothers had been beaten by their boyfriends, 51% had experienced attempts of birth control sabotage within the last year, and 21% experienced school or work sabotage.
In a study of 379 pregnant or parenting teens and 95 teenage girls without children, 62% of girls aged 11–15 and 56% of girls aged 16–19 reported experiencing domestic violence at the hands of their partners. Moreover, 51% of the girls reported experiencing at least one instance where their boyfriend attempted to sabotage their efforts to use birth control.
Socioeconomic factors
Teenage pregnancy has been defined predominantly within the research field and among social agencies as a social problem. Poverty is associated with increased rates of teenage pregnancy. Economically poor countries such as Niger and Bangladesh have far more teenage mothers compared with economically rich countries such as Switzerland and Japan.
In the UK, around half of all pregnancies to under 18 are concentrated among the 30% most deprived population, with only 14% occurring among the 30% least deprived. For example, in Italy, the teenage birth rate in the well-off central regions is only 3.3 per 1,000, while in the poorer Mezzogiorno it is 10.0 per 1,000. Similarly, in the US, sociologist Mike A. Males noted that teenage birth rates closely mapped poverty rates in California:
* per 1,000 women aged 15–19
Teen pregnancy cost the US over $9.1 billion in 2004, including $1.9 billion for health care, $2.3 billion for child welfare, $2.1 billion for incarceration, and $2.9 billion in lower tax revenue.
There is little evidence to support the common belief that teenage mothers become pregnant to get benefits, welfare, and council housing. Most knew little about housing or financial aid before they got pregnant and what they thought they knew often turned out to be wrong.
Childhood environment
Girls exposed to abuse, domestic violence, and family strife in childhood are more likely to become pregnant as teenagers, and the risk of becoming pregnant as a teenager increases with the number of adverse childhood experiences. According to a 2004 study, one-third of teenage pregnancies could be prevented by eliminating exposure to abuse, violence, and family strife. The researchers note that "family dysfunction has enduring and unfavorable health consequences for women during the adolescent years, the childbearing years, and beyond." When the family environment does not include adverse childhood experiences, becoming pregnant as an adolescent does not appear to raise the likelihood of long-term, negative psychosocial consequences. Studies have also found that boys raised in homes with a battered mother, or who experienced physical violence directly, were significantly more likely to impregnate a girl.
Studies have also found that girls whose fathers left the family early in their lives had the highest rates of early sexual activity and adolescent pregnancy. Girls whose fathers left them at a later age had a lower rate of early sexual activity, and the lowest rates are found in girls whose fathers were present throughout their childhood. Even when the researchers took into account other factors that could have contributed to early sexual activity and pregnancy, such as behavioral problems and life adversity, early father-absent girls were still about five times more likely in the US and three times more likely in New Zealand to become pregnant as adolescents than were father-present girls.
Low educational expectations have been pinpointed as a risk factor. A girl is also more likely to become a teenage parent if her mother or older sister gave birth in her teens. A majority of respondents in a 1988 Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies survey attributed the occurrence of adolescent pregnancy to a breakdown of communication between parents and child and also to inadequate parental supervision.
Foster care youth are more likely than their peers to become pregnant as teenagers. The National Casey Alumni Study, which surveyed foster care alumni from 23 communities across the US, found the birth rate for girls in foster care was more than double the rate of their peers outside the foster care system. A University of Chicago study of youth transitioning out of foster care in Illinois, Iowa, and Wisconsin found that nearly half of the females had been pregnant by age 19. The Utah Department of Human Services found that girls who had left the foster care system between 1999 and 2004 had a birth rate nearly three times the rate for girls in the general population.
Media influence
A study conducted in 2006 found that, adolescents who were more exposed to sexuality in the media were also more likely to engage in sexual activity themselves. According to Time, "teens exposed to the most sexual content on TV are twice as likely as teens watching less of this material to become pregnant before they reach age 20".
Prevention
Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control appear to reduce unplanned teenage pregnancy. It is unclear which type of intervention is most effective.
In the US free access to a long acting form of reversible birth control along with education decreased the rates of teen pregnancies by around 80% and the rate of abortions by more than 75%. Currently there are four federal programs aimed at preventing teenage pregnancy: Teen Pregnancy Prevention (TPP), Personal Responsibility Education Program (PREP), Title V Sexual Risk Avoidance Education, and Sexual Risk Avoidance Education.
Education
The Dutch approach to preventing teenage pregnancy has often been seen as a model by other countries. The curriculum focuses on values, attitudes, communication and negotiation skills, as well as biological aspects of reproduction. The media has encouraged open dialogue and the health-care system guarantees confidentiality and a non-judgmental approach.
In the United States, only 39 states and the District of Columbia out of the 50 states require some form of sex education of HIV education. Out of these 39 states and the District of Columbia, only 17 states require that the sexual education provided be medically accurate, and only 3 states prohibit a program from promoting sexual education in a religious way. These three states include California, Colorado, and Louisiana. Additionally, 19 of those 39 states stress the importance of only having sex when in a committed marriage. From this data, 11 states currently have no requirement for sexual education for any years of schooling, meaning these 11 states may have no sexual education at all. This could also mean these states are allowed to teach sexual education in anyway they would like, including in medically inaccurate ways. This point is also valid for those 22 states that do not require sexual education to be medically accurate. Comprehensive sexual education has been proven to work to reduce the risk of teen pregnancies. Without a nationwide mandate for medically accurate programs, teenagers in the United States are at risk for missing out on valuable information that can protect them. It is unfair to expect teenagers to make educated decisions about sex that can lead to teen pregnancy when they have never been properly educated about the issue. A program developed by experts in public health and sexual education titled National Sexuality Education Standards, is a valuable resource that describes what the minimum requirements of sexual education should be across the nation. Giving teenagers the tools that are outlined in that roadmap would have positive effects, as it gives teenagers the resources to make educated decisions. Currently, there is not a national implementation of this program in the United States.
Teen pregnancy can be reduced by sex education as a study in 55 US counties (out of 2,927 counties) showed. The study used federal funded sex education programs as a proxy for sex education, but provided no details about funding levels, the number of students reached, or the amount of time spent on sex education. Nevertheless, the reduction of teenage births (not pregnancy) was significant, at 3% reduction, indicating that an increase in funding, education, or reach could increase teenage pregnancy even further. Although 3% sounds like a small number, given a teenage girl population of 10 million females aged 15-19 (in 2020), and ~190,000 teenage births per year, a 3% reduction would translate to about 6000 prevented teenage births per year when extrapolated to the whole nation.
Abstinence only education
Some schools provide abstinence-only sex education. Evidence does not support the effectiveness of abstinence-only sex education. It has been found to be ineffective in decreasing HIV risk in the developed world, and does not decrease rates of unplanned pregnancy when compared to comprehensive sex education. It does not decrease the sexual activity rates of students, when compared to students who undertake comprehensive sexual education classes.
Public policy
Canada
In 2018, Québec's Institut national de santé publique (INSPQ) began implementing adjustments to the Protocole de contraception du Québec (Québec Contraception Protocol). The new protocol allows registered nurses to prescribe hormonal birth control, an IUD or emergency birth control to women, as long as they comply with prescribed standards in the Prescription infirmière : Guide explicatif conjoint, and are properly trained in providing contraceptives. In 2020, Québec will offer online training to registered nurses, provided by the Ordre des infirmières et infirmiers du Québec (OIIQ). Nurses that do not have training in the areas of sexually transmitted and blood borne infections may have to take additional online courses provided by the INSPQ.
United States
In the US, one policy initiative that has been used to increase rates of contraceptive use is Title X. Title X of the Family Planning Services and Population Research Act of 1970 () provides family planning services for those who do not qualify for Medicaid by distributing "funding to a network of public, private, and nonprofit entities [to provide] services on a sliding scale based on income." Studies indicate that, internationally, success in reducing teen pregnancy rates is directly correlated with the kind of access that Title X provides: “What appears crucial to success is that adolescents know where they can go to obtain information and services, can get there easily and are assured of receiving confidential, nonjudgmental care, and that these services and contraceptive supplies are free or cost very little.” In addressing high rates of unplanned teen pregnancies, scholars agree that the problem must be confronted from both the biological and cultural contexts.
On September 30, 2010, the US Department of Health and Human Services approved $155 million in new funding for comprehensive sex education programs designed to prevent teenage pregnancy. The money is being awarded "to states, non-profit organizations, school districts, universities and others. These grants will support the replication of teen pregnancy prevention programs that have been shown to be effective through rigorous research as well as the testing of new, innovative approaches to combating teen pregnancy." Of the total of $150 million, $55 million is funded by Affordable Care Act through the Personal Responsibility Education Program, which requires states receiving funding to incorporate lessons about both abstinence and contraception.
Developing countries
In the developing world, programs of reproductive health aimed at teenagers are often small scale and not centrally coordinated, although some countries such as Sri Lanka have a systematic policy framework for teaching about sex within schools. Non-governmental agencies such as the International Planned Parenthood Federation and Marie Stopes International provide contraceptive advice for young women worldwide. Laws against child marriage have reduced but not eliminated the practice. Improved female literacy and educational prospects have led to an increase in the age at first birth in areas such as Iran, Indonesia, and the Indian state of Kerala.
Other
A team of researchers and educators in California have published a list of "best practices" in the prevention of teen pregnancy, which includes, in addition to the previously mentioned concepts, working to "instill a belief in a successful future", male involvement in the prevention process, and designing interventions that are culturally relevant.
Prevalence
In reporting teenage pregnancy rates, the number of pregnancies per 1,000 females aged 15 to 19 when the pregnancy ends is generally used.
Worldwide, teenage pregnancy rates range from 143 per 1,000 in some sub-Saharan African countries to 2.9 per 1,000 in South Korea. In the US, 82% of pregnancies in those between 15 and 19 are unplanned. Among OECD developed countries, the US, the UK and New Zealand have the highest level of teenage pregnancy, while Japan and South Korea have the lowest in 2001. According to the UNFPA, “In every region of the world – including high-income countries – girls who are poor, poorly educated or living in rural areas are at greater risk of becoming pregnant than those who are wealthier, well-educated or urban. This is true on a global level, as well: 95 per cent of the world’s births to adolescents (aged 15–19) take place in developing countries. Every year, some 3 million girls in this age bracket resort to unsafe abortions, risking their lives and health.”
According to a 2001 UNICEF survey, in 10 out of 12 developed nations with available data, more than two thirds of young people have had sexual intercourse while still in their teens. In Denmark, Finland, Germany, Iceland, Norway, the UK and the US, the proportion is over 80%. In Australia, the UK and the US, approximately 25% of 15-year-olds and 50% of 17-year-olds have had sex. According to the Encyclopedia of Women's Health, published in 2004, approximately 15 million girls under the age of 20 in the world have a child each year. Estimates were that 20–60% of these pregnancies in developing countries are mistimed or unwanted.
Save the Children found that, annually, 13 million children are born to women aged under 20 worldwide, more than 90% in developing countries. Complications of pregnancy and childbirth are the leading cause of mortality among women aged 15–19 in such areas.
Sub-Saharan Africa
The highest rate of teenage pregnancy in the world is in sub-Saharan Africa, where women tend to marry at an early age. In Niger, for example, 87% of women surveyed were married and 53% had given birth to a child before the age of 18. A recent study found that socio-cultural factors, economic factors, environmental factors, individual factors, and health service-related factors were responsible for the high rates of teenage pregnancy in Sub-Saharan Africa.
India
In the Indian subcontinent, early marriage sometimes results in adolescent pregnancy, particularly in rural regions where the rate is much higher than it is in urbanized areas. Latest data suggests that teen pregnancy in India is high with 62 pregnant teens out of every 1,000 women. India is fast approaching to be the most populous country in the world by 2050 and increasing teenage pregnancy, an important factor for the population rise, is likely to aggravate the problems.
Asia
The rates of early marriage and pregnancy in some Asian countries are high. In recent years, the rates have decreased sharply in Indonesia and Malaysia, although it remains relatively high in the former. However, in the industrialized Asian nations such as South Korea and Singapore, teenage birth rates remain among the lowest in the world.
Australia
In 2015, the birth rate among teenage women in Australia was 11.9 births per 1,000 women. The rate has fallen from 55.5 births per 1,000 women in 1971, probably due to ease of access to effective birth control, rather than any decrease in sexual activity.
Europe
The overall trend in Europe since 1970 has been a decreasing total fertility rate, an increase in the age at which women experience their first birth, and a decrease in the number of births among teenagers. Most continental Western European countries have very low teenage birth rates. This is varyingly attributed to good sex education and high levels of contraceptive use (in the case of the Netherlands and Scandinavia), traditional values and social stigmatization (in the case of Spain and Italy) or both (in the case of Switzerland).
On the other hand, the teen birth rate is very high in Bulgaria and Romania. As of 2015, Bulgaria had a birth rate of 37/1.000 women aged 15–19, and Romania of 34. The teen birth rate of these two countries is even higher than that of underdeveloped countries like Burundi and Rwanda.
Many of the teen births occur in Roma populations, who have an occurrence of teenage pregnancies well above the local average.
United Kingdom
The teen pregnancy rate in England and Wales was 23.3 per 1,000 women aged 15 to 17. There were 5,740 pregnancies in girls aged under 18 in the three months to June 2014, data from the Office for National Statistics shows. This compares with 6,279 in the same period in 2013 and 7,083 for the June quarter the year before that. Historically, the UK has had one of the highest teenage pregnancy and abortion rates in Western Europe.
There are no comparable rates for conceptions across Europe, but the under-18 birth rate suggests England is closing the gap. The under-18 birth rate in 2012 in England and Wales was 9.2, compared with an EU average of 6.9. However, the UK birth rate has fallen by almost a third (32.3%) since 2004 compared with a fall of 15.6% in the EU. In 2004, the UK rate was 13.6 births per 1,000 women aged 15–17 compared with an EU average rate of 7.7.
United States
In 2001, the teenage birth rate in the US was the highest in the developed world, and the teenage abortion rate is also high. In 2005 in the US, the majority (57%) of teen pregnancies resulted in a live birth, 27% ended in an induced abortion, and 16% in a fetal loss. The US teenage pregnancy rate was at a high in the 1950s and has decreased since then, although there has been an increase in births out of wedlock. The teenage pregnancy rate decreased significantly in the 1990s; this decline manifested across all racial groups, although teenagers of African-American and Hispanic descent retain a higher rate, in comparison to that of European-Americans and Asian-Americans. The Guttmacher Institute attributed about 25% of the decline to abstinence and 75% to the effective use of contraceptives. While in 2006 the US teen birth rate rose for the first time in fourteen years, it reached a historic low in 2010: 34.3 births per 1,000 women aged 15–19. As of 2017, the birth rate for teen pregnancy from girls ages 15-19 was at 18.8 per 1,000 women between this age group. Given a teenage girl population of 10 million females (aged 15-19, in 2020), this would translate to ~190,000 births per year.
The Latina teenage pregnancy rate is 75% higher pregnancy rate than the national average.
The latest data from the US shows that the states with the highest teenage birthrate are Mississippi, New Mexico and Arkansas while the states with the lowest teenage birthrate are New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Vermont.
Canada
The Canadian teenage birth trended towards a steady decline for both younger (15–17) and older (18–19) teens in the period between 1992 and 2002; it further dropped by a factor of more than 2-fold between 2000 and 2020 (from 20.1 per 1000 women in 2000 to 8.4 in 2020).
Teenage fatherhood
In some cases, the father of the child is the husband of the teenage girl. The conception may occur within wedlock, or the pregnancy itself may precipitate the marriage (the so-called shotgun wedding). In countries such as India, the majority of teenage births occur within marriage.
In other countries, such as the US and Ireland, the majority of teenage mothers are not married to the father of their children. In the UK, half of all teenagers with children are lone parents, 40% are cohabitating as a couple and 10% are married. Teenage parents are frequently in a romantic relationship at the time of birth, but many adolescent fathers do not stay with the mother and this often disrupts their relationship with the child. US surveys tend to under-report the prevalence of teen fatherhood.
In many cases, "teenage father" may be a misnomer. Studies by the Population Reference Bureau and the National Center for Health Statistics found that about two-thirds of births to teenage girls in the US are fathered by adult men aged over 20. The Guttmacher Institute reports that over 40% of mothers aged 15–17 had sexual partners three to five years older and almost one in five had partners six or more years older. A 1990 study of births to California teens reported that the younger the mother, the greater the age gap with her male partner. In the UK, 72% of jointly registered births to women aged under 20, the father is over 20, with almost 1 in 4 being over 25.
Society and culture
Politics
Some politicians condemn pregnancy in unmarried teenagers as a drain on taxpayers, if the mothers and children receive welfare payments and social housing from the government.
See also
List of youngest birth mothers
Precocious puberty
Pregnancy over age 50
Pregnancy school
Reproductive coercion
Sexual abstinence
Single parent
References
Further reading
External links
Teenage pregnancies and obstetric outcome
Teen Pregnancy, a special issue from the Journal of Applied Research on Children (2011)
Adolescent sexuality
Youth
Motherhood
Pediatric gynecology
Puberty | [
-0.11937496811151505,
-0.11305683851242065,
-0.3866094946861267,
-0.0567685104906559,
0.42428886890411377,
0.20351140201091766,
0.3590456545352936,
0.5447655320167542,
-0.4535944163799286,
0.08100288361310959,
-0.48272863030433655,
0.1624327003955841,
-0.009108604863286018,
-0.031127018854022026,
-0.31346210837364197,
0.22466512024402618,
0.5565588474273682,
0.7538096308708191,
0.5435779690742493,
-0.756327211856842,
-0.6295703649520874,
-0.6892756223678589,
0.0635969340801239,
-0.36237233877182007,
0.2697591781616211,
-0.8492549061775208,
0.4289047420024872,
-0.8289181590080261,
0.3116854429244995,
-0.8218971490859985,
-0.2777019739151001,
0.0956704318523407,
0.32612791657447815,
0.2048499435186386,
0.041114941239356995,
0.4558175504207611,
-0.32205405831336975,
-0.3021187484264374,
-0.3014925420284271,
-0.375771701335907,
-0.7902687788009644,
-0.4331129193305969,
-0.14751353859901428,
-0.0667179524898529,
-0.013295240700244904,
-0.5849796533584595,
-1.2748769521713257,
0.1335512399673462,
0.3359185457229614,
0.005745811387896538,
-0.4016340672969818,
0.3142567574977875,
0.1578555852174759,
-0.4149315059185028,
0.14201702177524567,
-0.15125469863414764,
-0.7167903184890747,
-0.20546792447566986,
-0.1338299810886383,
0.029413094744086266,
0.876837968826294,
-0.3931339979171753,
0.15094828605651855,
-0.0192265547811985,
0.5101204514503479,
0.019521361216902733,
0.2330636978149414,
0.6055024266242981,
-0.19986265897750854,
-0.8128707408905029,
-0.8681636452674866,
-0.22292707860469818,
-0.08022558689117432,
-0.34988126158714294,
-0.326030433177948,
0.3664334714412689,
-0.23111553490161896,
0.03352104872465134,
0.51821368932724,
-0.08816666901111603,
-0.06175856292247772,
0.6459898948669434,
-0.06658397614955902,
-0.053241193294525146,
0.3200133144855499,
0.04116420820355415,
-0.017840707674622536,
0.9671441912651062,
0.4645531475543976,
0.7229487299919128,
0.31124231219291687,
0.7917335629463196,
0.8109129667282104,
-0.00421900162473321,
0.013109162449836731,
0.17690491676330566,
-0.15494020283222198,
0.5378358364105225,
0.25298503041267395,
-0.09829626977443695,
0.4763273596763611,
0.10975394397974014,
0.09878521412611008,
-0.3846617639064789,
-0.085462786257267,
-0.07257924973964691,
0.39396247267723083,
-0.07134178280830383,
-0.05879047513008118,
-0.2989014685153961,
-0.11632923036813736,
0.35243818163871765,
-0.30303534865379333,
0.2332964986562729,
-0.5550056099891663,
0.834773063659668,
0.17442628741264343,
-0.15861497819423676,
-0.14625410735607147,
-0.43753698468208313,
-0.7033275961875916,
-0.6617203950881958,
-0.6098144054412842,
-0.10697290301322937,
0.10149255394935608,
0.6325784921646118,
0.1368115097284317,
0.14070504903793335,
-0.3294191062450409,
-0.22698484361171722,
-0.07437837868928909,
0.681551456451416,
0.037491701543331146,
-0.04486417397856712,
-0.2629617750644684,
0.07444079965353012,
0.0048048910684883595,
0.2666291296482086,
1.6154723167419434,
0.16096746921539307,
-0.6974517107009888,
-0.41673627495765686,
-0.5373358726501465,
0.2592710852622986,
0.3017199635505676,
-0.15027481317520142,
-0.08865972608327866,
-0.13913267850875854,
-0.44403982162475586,
0.18142446875572205,
-0.03220880776643753,
-0.36519187688827515,
0.020885372534394264,
0.04109758883714676,
-0.0631549283862114,
-0.35638925433158875,
0.16230998933315277,
-0.17025557160377502,
-0.08349056541919708,
0.06876768916845322,
0.2965329587459564,
0.46213972568511963,
-0.28418049216270447,
0.11161057651042938,
-0.1540253758430481,
-0.1719791144132614,
0.6058193445205688,
0.30231204628944397,
0.24436354637145996,
-0.22756734490394592,
-0.2982022762298584,
-0.0205216221511364,
0.2010476291179657,
-0.5331586003303528,
-0.19596223533153534,
0.1665240228176117,
-0.08807065337896347,
0.2655201554298401,
0.4715024530887604,
0.37435024976730347,
-0.49121883511543274,
0.6447573900222778,
0.328438937664032,
0.10210137814283371,
0.09628335386514664,
-0.1897020787000656,
0.11541064828634262,
0.025021880865097046,
-0.7020546793937683,
-0.057366546243429184,
-0.32739537954330444,
-0.15234825015068054,
0.4098636507987976,
0.10948655009269714,
0.5042786598205566,
-0.4681577980518341,
0.07683267444372177,
1.3932702541351318,
-0.1736684888601303,
0.24678581953048706,
-0.016154540702700615,
0.3340763449668884,
0.49270591139793396,
0.11637936532497406,
-0.9813845157623291,
0.1313641220331192,
0.4563891291618347,
-0.014754433184862137,
0.3895358443260193,
0.41566723585128784,
-0.01359958853572607,
0.31499654054641724,
0.1485447883605957,
-0.5318993926048279,
0.24232394993305206,
0.22209633886814117,
0.0040069082751870155,
0.18425241112709045,
0.2828681468963623,
-0.05451386049389839,
0.4501371681690216,
-0.23605479300022125,
0.22579433023929596,
0.12557579576969147,
0.14334535598754883,
0.5178337097167969,
-0.08559629321098328,
0.16366548836231232,
0.28367146849632263,
-0.32455745339393616,
0.03055638261139393,
0.3911133110523224,
0.709187388420105,
0.36040040850639343,
-0.2178557813167572,
0.6599088311195374,
-0.36197835206985474,
-0.25765687227249146,
-0.586111307144165,
-0.07517723739147186,
0.45968642830848694,
0.9131142497062683,
-0.1446530818939209,
0.4572214186191559,
-0.1564720869064331,
-0.12459374219179153,
-0.12768934667110443,
0.2966444492340088,
-0.2774885892868042,
0.037052758038043976,
0.04106331244111061,
0.34703537821769714,
0.42346900701522827,
0.10183067619800568,
0.017520714551210403,
-0.5782029032707214,
-0.17516958713531494,
0.309691458940506,
0.6545345783233643,
-0.39061033725738525,
-0.023006727918982506,
0.25666192173957825,
0.7802257537841797,
0.480559766292572,
-0.40495193004608154,
0.11012225598096848,
-0.6295441389083862,
-0.5842726230621338,
-0.18280835449695587,
0.1382017731666565,
0.5348365306854248,
0.018452292308211327,
-1.036895990371704,
-0.024753287434577942,
0.33301499485969543,
0.09520981460809708,
0.10855510085821152,
-0.08402079343795776,
-0.0017279647290706635,
0.09125858545303345,
0.5363544821739197,
0.21111062169075012,
0.4554426670074463,
-1.101297378540039,
-0.41256922483444214,
-0.5186407566070557,
-0.04564138501882553,
0.08766833692789078,
0.23333904147148132,
-0.7376754283905029,
-0.9088366031646729,
-0.05096246302127838,
-0.023389942944049835,
0.1702038049697876,
0.4427442252635956,
0.10805518180131912,
-0.10554993152618408,
1.1512060165405273,
0.9798259139060974,
0.3078954517841339,
-0.08750744163990021,
-0.06968526542186737,
-0.49465158581733704,
-0.22883443534374237,
0.11066533625125885,
0.04299561679363251,
0.3326580226421356,
-0.24096305668354034,
-5.589107513427734,
-0.10357175767421722,
-0.2315981537103653,
-0.6529555320739746,
-0.25254687666893005,
-0.17467351257801056,
0.8790004849433899,
-0.912077784538269,
-0.3220614790916443,
0.4377549886703491,
-0.021295595914125443,
0.20210522413253784,
0.04560144618153572,
-0.011486873030662537,
-0.29014191031455994,
0.07364585250616074,
0.29643362760543823,
-0.11242754012346268,
0.2549489736557007,
0.6556380391120911,
0.09243281185626984,
0.4859258532524109,
-0.6305568814277649,
-0.27626365423202515,
0.2902700901031494,
0.0673808678984642,
0.41569438576698303,
-0.5854618549346924,
-0.9665713310241699,
0.04960836097598076,
0.004548275843262672,
-0.12674732506275177,
0.47705307602882385,
0.3082161247730255,
-0.2634739875793457,
0.3944074511528015,
0.7197575569152832,
0.12604673206806183,
0.5702957510948181,
-0.24420112371444702,
-0.3575287163257599,
-0.07882782071828842,
-0.04996223375201225,
0.5172834992408752,
-0.10778170824050903,
-0.23425284028053284,
0.025302840396761894,
-0.6450083255767822,
-0.06555342674255371,
0.7182174324989319,
0.3362070322036743,
-0.010081437416374683,
0.017709264531731606,
-0.1401749551296234,
-0.0896204486489296,
0.6215320229530334,
-0.3430838882923126,
-0.06483016163110733,
-0.39906078577041626,
-0.06033572182059288,
0.20572027564048767,
-0.24921563267707825,
0.16946755349636078,
-0.49214932322502136,
-0.14458566904067993,
-0.38939228653907776,
-0.30582374334335327,
-0.5411259531974792,
0.37939149141311646,
0.44507017731666565,
-0.08986376971006393,
-0.0008947622263804078,
0.4783436954021454,
-0.6983789801597595,
-0.16851301491260529,
-0.5942839980125427,
-0.3317849636077881,
0.18401426076889038,
-0.4374181926250458,
-0.8395800590515137,
-0.267891526222229,
0.17045104503631592,
-0.017019733786582947,
0.5043424367904663,
0.25752022862434387,
-0.4657938480377197,
0.40332117676734924,
0.06662023812532425,
-0.3256438076496124,
-0.22579272091388702,
0.28672632575035095,
0.022274937480688095,
0.08433191478252411,
-0.06397778540849686,
-0.1061168760061264,
0.7194831967353821,
-0.256957083940506,
0.6088987588882446,
0.3874890208244324,
-0.473292738199234,
0.1862788051366806,
0.04198635369539261,
-0.5085087418556213,
-0.751274585723877,
-0.660614013671875,
-0.2653125524520874,
0.05268966034054756,
-0.03644045442342758,
0.22251971065998077,
-0.7197824120521545,
0.33551234006881714,
0.2892940044403076,
-0.6344291567802429,
-0.5521989464759827,
-0.21329286694526672,
-0.028276532888412476,
-0.2072821408510208,
1.2521132230758667,
0.7746449708938599,
0.2796534299850464,
0.24823255836963654,
-0.11014512181282043,
-0.6097962260246277,
0.2556273937225342,
0.5728338956832886,
-0.40810146927833557,
0.1698262095451355,
0.07474154978990555,
-0.255557119846344,
0.38743332028388977,
0.25217539072036743,
0.5239174365997314,
0.16306181252002716,
-0.1517491191625595,
-0.10102419555187225,
-0.21301625669002533,
-0.298194020986557,
0.3103410005569458,
-0.4452647864818573,
-0.13607677817344666,
-0.045502182096242905,
0.25663110613822937,
-0.021492602303624153,
0.1592375785112381,
0.025627706199884415,
-0.15769438445568085,
-0.1456119269132614,
-0.06391899287700653,
-0.4092220664024353,
0.10463672131299973,
-0.040301915258169174,
-0.7328878045082092,
0.3004193902015686,
-0.1021500751376152,
-0.34594494104385376,
0.1286965310573578,
0.6406714916229248,
0.5833961963653564,
-0.736954927444458,
-0.1509515792131424,
-0.09467599540948868,
-0.3754264712333679,
-0.7279663681983948,
-0.00864940881729126,
0.18503409624099731,
0.4260809123516083,
0.06389427930116653,
-0.25126707553863525,
-0.664320707321167,
0.9932160377502441,
0.03354640305042267,
-0.7041242122650146,
-0.22441422939300537,
-0.44932669401168823,
0.3025430738925934,
0.010609500110149384,
-0.06876477599143982,
-0.15579839050769806,
-0.13689619302749634,
-0.07577299326658249,
-0.10259722918272018,
-0.3092174530029297,
-0.2788626253604889,
0.8499206900596619,
0.16897571086883545,
0.21308855712413788,
-0.43455150723457336,
-0.617424488067627,
-0.7274336814880371,
-0.04384190961718559,
-0.09406818449497223,
-0.29928940534591675,
0.6853848099708557,
-0.0819629356265068,
-0.3074090778827667,
0.10127823054790497,
-0.9284411668777466,
0.5150159597396851,
0.22937200963497162,
0.4315473139286041,
0.1425006240606308,
0.03523561358451843,
-0.36222729086875916,
0.08244989812374115,
0.25669825077056885,
-0.3654700517654419,
-0.06147300451993942,
-0.08185823261737823,
-0.6890389323234558,
0.35426437854766846,
-0.312976598739624,
-0.7422219514846802,
-0.10347222536802292,
0.7079614400863647,
-0.09153769165277481,
0.29304438829421997,
-0.8067446351051331,
-0.6593258380889893,
-0.11567753553390503,
0.2979995310306549,
0.3265938460826874,
-0.10989871621131897,
-0.32022911310195923,
0.15509472787380219,
-0.22792692482471466,
-0.3073343336582184,
0.4968334436416626,
-1.2085720300674438,
1.1175867319107056,
0.25895246863365173,
0.16977834701538086,
-0.2677086889743805,
0.258880078792572,
0.1201789602637291,
-0.5030049085617065,
-0.6240876317024231,
0.09397619217634201,
0.025258921086788177,
0.42908620834350586,
0.30062299966812134,
0.012057007290422916,
0.47086426615715027,
-0.2223220020532608,
-0.4958135783672333,
-0.3707306385040283,
-0.0637742280960083,
0.26407721638679504,
-0.4087429940700531,
-0.5337554216384888,
0.9871015548706055,
0.27362462878227234,
-0.15635733306407928,
-0.05570388212800026,
-0.11059296131134033,
0.20013226568698883,
0.30750125646591187,
-0.04550282657146454,
-0.5578981041908264,
-0.3337312638759613,
0.06710419058799744,
0.4418046474456787,
-0.07921403646469116,
-0.5243630409240723,
0.44344648718833923,
0.8154162168502808,
0.05944259464740753,
-0.06764480471611023,
0.5079393982887268,
-0.05733732879161835,
0.18870148062705994,
-0.05824127420783043,
-0.08934584259986877,
0.7098550200462341,
0.24052582681179047,
-0.06183499097824097,
0.2092563807964325,
-0.0020649174693971872,
-0.16900670528411865,
0.3346271812915802,
0.3672250807285309,
-0.1184389665722847,
-0.1327122151851654,
0.49702024459838867,
-0.30988430976867676,
0.7493994832038879,
-0.031180234625935555,
0.22755953669548035,
-0.11821805685758591,
-0.665401041507721,
0.29461410641670227,
0.7296954393386841,
0.018028488382697105,
-0.606969952583313,
0.24600106477737427,
-0.1212119311094284,
0.6251990795135498,
-0.08725552260875702,
0.26289963722229004,
-0.41222307085990906,
-0.5072386264801025,
-0.5281343460083008,
0.38868823647499084,
0.10442084819078445,
0.012796301394701004,
0.13200700283050537,
0.10673870146274567,
-0.2324942946434021,
-0.524455189704895,
0.21546655893325806,
0.25681769847869873,
0.21081849932670593,
-0.003093488048762083,
0.41788968443870544,
0.6600685119628906,
-0.5552693605422974,
0.14665433764457703,
-0.039089322090148926,
-0.11433164775371552,
-0.19273138046264648,
0.007253675255924463,
0.4563494920730591,
0.1847570538520813,
0.22724220156669617,
-0.5717141628265381,
0.27123966813087463,
0.14664678275585175,
0.3217563331127167,
0.38029026985168457,
0.5383044481277466,
0.07597615569829941,
0.29144594073295593,
-0.177480548620224,
0.31036460399627686,
1.2637029886245728,
0.25592678785324097,
-0.4077644646167755,
0.16769269108772278,
-1.0361758470535278,
-0.5906712412834167,
0.8693887591362,
1.2581672668457031,
-0.02164546400308609,
0.07345091551542282,
0.26023659110069275,
0.23858828842639923,
0.8333643078804016,
0.7987271547317505,
0.24227488040924072,
0.05048461630940437,
-0.09426377713680267,
0.7587172985076904,
-0.7175983190536499,
-0.061606839299201965,
0.315130352973938,
-0.012886809185147285,
-0.3694688081741333,
0.2693449854850769,
-0.5316011309623718,
-0.5200436115264893,
-0.4383101165294647,
-0.31924793124198914,
0.21089854836463928,
0.533571183681488,
-0.0119192935526371,
0.9873232841491699,
-0.6500430703163147,
0.5624476075172424,
0.06506416946649551,
0.1562729775905609,
-0.2867085635662079,
0.6323223114013672,
-0.2737431526184082,
-0.789889931678772,
-0.29621708393096924,
0.5285617113113403,
0.03372849151492119,
-0.16570250689983368,
0.32555729150772095,
-0.6221132278442383,
-0.33683785796165466,
-0.6069155335426331,
-0.20101171731948853,
0.20813430845737457,
-0.08584269136190414,
-0.6122646927833557,
-0.2426721155643463,
0.08550328761339188,
-0.09827055037021637,
-0.6639741659164429,
0.1332167536020279,
0.08332385122776031,
-0.18208442628383636,
0.22844919562339783,
-0.20484064519405365,
-0.42715057730674744,
-0.0749085545539856,
0.32902052998542786,
0.4704066812992096,
0.2678527534008026,
0.38075557351112366,
-0.3045230805873871,
0.10656387358903885,
-0.884103536605835,
-0.06076234579086304,
-0.7601462602615356,
0.6116620302200317,
-0.21332243084907532,
0.24985191226005554,
-0.4515010714530945,
0.161634162068367,
0.5980405211448669,
0.3158779740333557,
-0.09975464642047882,
0.5344786047935486,
0.11371419578790665,
0.7348070740699768,
0.8365495800971985,
-0.8320828676223755,
-0.1986541450023651,
-0.5905823111534119,
-0.2768470346927643,
-0.43678009510040283,
-0.33190882205963135,
0.27650442719459534,
-0.8773393034934998,
0.3165819048881531,
0.05807963386178017,
0.06455861777067184,
-0.43941670656204224,
0.3279644846916199,
-0.73947674036026,
0.12114004790782928,
-0.10944929718971252,
0.3566227853298187,
-0.5576043725013733,
-0.4885540306568146,
0.46110817790031433,
-0.2171425223350525,
0.539715051651001,
-0.11508925259113312,
0.537056028842926,
-0.5574778914451599,
0.04883617162704468,
0.04192545264959335,
-0.2130936086177826,
-0.5694534778594971,
-0.2671779990196228,
-0.28743797540664673,
-0.17533594369888306,
-0.8819660544395447,
-0.33403581380844116,
-0.1713385134935379,
0.15325109660625458,
-0.2506512999534607,
-0.3248574733734131,
-0.3869515657424927,
0.14518940448760986,
-0.6576526761054993,
-0.4309925138950348,
0.11974941939115524
] |
228826 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenney%20Jones | Kenney Jones | Kenneth Thomas Jones (born 16 September 1948) is an English drummer best known for his work in the groups Small Faces, Faces, and the Who. Jones was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2012 as a member of Small Faces/Faces.
Biography
Early life
Jones was born in Whitechapel, London, England.
Small Faces to the Faces
Having previously been in a band with Ronnie Lane, Jones was one of the founding members of the English rock group Small Faces. Active from 1965 to 1969, Small Faces were part of the Mod trend of the 1960s. Their hits included "All or Nothing", "Sha-La-La-La-Lee", "Itchycoo Park" and "Tin Soldier".
In 2007, Small Faces were honoured by Westminster Council with a commemorative plaque placed at what was Don Arden's offices in Carnaby Street, the band's "spiritual home". Jones himself unveiled the plaque. In a BBC interview, Jones said: "To honour the Small Faces after all these years is a terrific achievement. I only wish that Steve Marriott, Ronnie Lane and Don Arden were here to enjoy this moment with me". Since the death of Jimmy Winston in September 2020, Jones and Rick Wills are the sole surviving members of the Small Faces.
In 2004 The Observer listed the Small Faces' 1968 release Ogdens' Nut Gone Flake one of the "top British albums of all time".
After the departure of lead singer/guitarist Steve Marriott in 1969, the group recruited singer Rod Stewart and guitarist Ronnie Wood to replace Marriott. Both were formerly from the Jeff Beck Group. The band changed its name to the Faces, as the original name was associated with the small stature of its members, and Stewart and Wood did not fit the description. Jones remained with the band until its dissolution in late 1975, recording four studio albums and a live album with them.
The Who
In November 1978, Jones was invited by guitarist Pete Townshend and manager Bill Curbishley to join The Who, replacing their original drummer Keith Moon, who had died of a drug overdose in September. He was invited, in part, because the band had been friendly with him from his days with the Small Faces (he and Moon were friends and were together on the last night of Moon's life in 1978, as part of the viewing party put together by Paul McCartney for The Buddy Holly Story), and because he had played with Townshend, Roger Daltrey and John Entwistle on the Tommy soundtrack. He played on the albums Face Dances and It's Hard and also played on the soundtrack for Daltrey's film McVicar, as well as on the band's tours from 1979 to 1982. Jones played with the band at Live Aid in 1985. Jones' final appearance as a regular member of the Who was when the group received a lifetime achievement award at the 1988 British Phonographic Industry awards ceremony. He was frequently at odds with Daltrey, who felt that Jones' drumming style was not right for the band (Jones's playing was usually straighter and less frenetic than Moon's), but Daltrey has denied having anything personal against Jones or his drumming. Jones was replaced by Simon Phillips for the Who's 1989 reunion tour. In an April 2011 special edition of Uncut magazine, Townshend said that Jones was a good choice for the band.
Kenney Jones reunited with The Who on 14 June 2014 at the Rock n Horsepower benefit concert held at his Hurtwood Polo Club. The band performed for an event set up by Jones to benefit Prostate Cancer UK, an organization that promotes awareness of the disease that Jones has. It was the first time that he had appeared onstage with Townshend and Daltrey since 1988. Sharing the bill were contemporaries such as Jeff Beck, Procol Harum and Mike Rutherford.
The Law
Jones formed partnerships with former Free, Bad Company, and The Firm singer Paul Rodgers in the early 1990s, forming a band called The Law.
The Jones Gang
In 2001, Jones formed a new band; over several months, the line-up solidified to include Rick Wills and Robert Hart. In 2005, The Jones Gang released their debut album, Any Day Now.
Guest appearances
Jones has been featured on recordings as a guest drummer on many recording sessions, including appearances on albums by Rod Stewart, The Rolling Stones, Ronnie Wood, Roger Daltrey, Andy Fairweather-Low, Joan Armatrading, Keith Moon, Marsha Hunt, Mike Batt, Pete Townshend, Chuck Berry, Jerry Lee Lewis, David Essex, John Lodge and Wings. He was also on a Top of the Pops performance with Status Quo, performing their 1986 hit single, "Red Sky".
Outside music
Outside of music, Jones is a fan of polo. He has become an accomplished polo player and is the owner of Hurtwood Park Polo Club, in Ewhurst, Surrey.
On behalf of Small Faces and in memory of his late colleagues Steve Marriott and Ronnie Lane, Jones established a children's charity, the Small Faces Charitable Trust, in 1999.
Jones is a supporter of the Conservative Party, and recorded a song called "Mr Brown" written by Robert Hart, criticising the tax policies of the then Chancellor of Exchequer Gordon Brown. He has also performed in support of the Countryside Alliance.
Jones' memoir, Let the Good Times Roll: My Life in Small Faces, Faces, and The Who, was released in September 2018 ().
Personal life
Jones has six children. He is married to the former model Jayne Andrew, the mother of four of his children. In September 2013 he was diagnosed with prostate cancer, for which he was treated with brachytherapy.
Jones stated that he "virtually taught" Zak Starkey, son of Ringo Starr, how to play drums. Jones was close friends with Starkey's parents. After replacing Moon in The Who, Jones gave Starkey one of Moon's old drum kits. In 1996, Starkey would become The Who's touring drummer.
References
External links
Official Kenney Jones website
Official Small Faces website
The Faces official site
Kenney Jones' Small Faces Charitable Trust
1948 births
Living people
English rock drummers
Small Faces members
English polo players
The Who members
People from Stepney
Musicians from London
British rhythm and blues boom musicians
Faces (band) members
English session musicians
The Law (English band) members | [
-0.07109849900007248,
0.4280719459056854,
-0.8808909058570862,
-0.7242575287818909,
0.4198691248893738,
0.9679533243179321,
0.4418095648288727,
-0.39543047547340393,
-0.616391122341156,
-0.37331458926200867,
0.05411793291568756,
1.0601837635040283,
-0.41986173391342163,
-0.31250324845314026,
-0.5160841345787048,
0.09825019538402557,
-0.023877689614892006,
-0.928078830242157,
-0.49652740359306335,
-0.3455469608306885,
0.5269392132759094,
-0.17760585248470306,
-0.07057439535856247,
0.051770422607660294,
-0.32758161425590515,
0.6187850832939148,
-0.3187562823295593,
-0.27358314394950867,
0.34116870164871216,
-0.352695107460022,
0.28885290026664734,
0.4854282736778259,
0.7318341732025146,
-0.5540956258773804,
-0.1353698968887329,
0.5292962193489075,
-0.4070075750350952,
-0.2812907099723816,
-0.11375616490840912,
0.25395652651786804,
-0.055039700120687485,
-0.1826474815607071,
-0.20711760222911835,
0.3914809226989746,
-0.4348718523979187,
0.05976777523756027,
-1.0360246896743774,
0.601948618888855,
-0.28725937008857727,
-0.33861473202705383,
-0.34654536843299866,
0.3397311866283417,
0.15137583017349243,
-0.14941982924938202,
0.501841127872467,
-0.4548639953136444,
0.1676730066537857,
0.3064970374107361,
-0.20582053065299988,
-0.5173468589782715,
-0.5227928757667542,
-0.5330086350440979,
0.025331808254122734,
-0.7519615888595581,
-0.12936750054359436,
0.22872565686702728,
0.4628947079181671,
0.20699909329414368,
-0.012583964504301548,
0.40798109769821167,
0.08963766694068909,
0.45879825949668884,
-0.26953962445259094,
-0.05514970049262047,
0.06592398136854172,
0.1056288406252861,
0.5527940392494202,
-0.6643704175949097,
-0.3290528953075409,
0.9836372137069702,
0.2853597402572632,
-0.8910496234893799,
0.8247509002685547,
0.7150182723999023,
-0.15307901799678802,
-0.4280989170074463,
-0.9209426641464233,
1.0042401552200317,
-0.8171393871307373,
0.5857303738594055,
-0.4510534405708313,
-1.0146985054016113,
0.032667193561792374,
0.07191766053438187,
-0.1684759259223938,
0.39097392559051514,
-0.09891514480113983,
0.19217100739479065,
0.8387836813926697,
-0.09496630728244781,
0.44783341884613037,
-0.5804203748703003,
-0.10417836904525757,
-0.39232394099235535,
-0.7393202185630798,
-0.2291029542684555,
-0.0022364668548107147,
-0.3439534306526184,
-0.1235460489988327,
-0.11736103147268295,
-0.6153839826583862,
0.25556227564811707,
0.2179022580385208,
0.19096116721630096,
0.4836868345737457,
0.317231148481369,
-0.14982591569423676,
-0.46730321645736694,
-0.648964524269104,
0.07168617844581604,
0.3040088415145874,
0.14244967699050903,
-0.05866154283285141,
0.47826531529426575,
-1.1063798666000366,
0.23469975590705872,
-0.022375697270035744,
-0.0017840511864051223,
-0.10689845681190491,
-0.24465411901474,
-0.0920337587594986,
0.9344390034675598,
0.24754749238491058,
-0.37962689995765686,
-0.05361923202872276,
0.45608219504356384,
-0.27097222208976746,
0.2093680053949356,
-0.029013056308031082,
0.6006011962890625,
0.33651185035705566,
0.12131134420633316,
-0.491934210062027,
-0.5187077522277832,
0.2048080563545227,
-0.4930843710899353,
-0.5407969951629639,
-0.05043851584196091,
0.2972671091556549,
0.13362470269203186,
0.665419340133667,
0.19055381417274475,
0.33816981315612793,
-0.5901864171028137,
-0.6152679920196533,
0.32720690965652466,
-0.279501348733902,
-0.4253555238246918,
0.071954146027565,
-0.44816088676452637,
0.42152830958366394,
-0.36391758918762207,
-0.43766018748283386,
0.3267862796783447,
0.4279481768608093,
0.0822555422782898,
0.002738752169534564,
-0.5102180242538452,
0.08590196818113327,
-0.25599125027656555,
0.28537946939468384,
-0.05607277899980545,
0.9408811330795288,
-0.20267550647258759,
0.1298438459634781,
-0.4429185688495636,
0.9218440651893616,
0.6789865493774414,
0.5580289363861084,
-0.10155826807022095,
-0.7324076890945435,
-1.1704370975494385,
0.1829317957162857,
-0.10946885496377945,
0.720832884311676,
0.16981078684329987,
0.4238920509815216,
-0.10562881827354431,
0.5265515446662903,
0.14383260905742645,
-0.6770520806312561,
-0.4615676999092102,
0.5340497493743896,
-0.5779376029968262,
0.4541957676410675,
0.381470650434494,
0.15046456456184387,
0.09777175635099411,
0.30425211787223816,
0.7095120549201965,
0.40105125308036804,
0.09800879657268524,
0.27930977940559387,
-0.13609865307807922,
0.09748481959104538,
-0.028025023639202118,
0.8756521940231323,
-0.1191137507557869,
-0.07959520071744919,
0.527955949306488,
0.33373162150382996,
-0.8745577931404114,
-0.22904999554157257,
0.5165593028068542,
-0.33262860774993896,
-0.6515729427337646,
-0.3936818540096283,
-0.19226592779159546,
0.10349822789430618,
-0.26758819818496704,
0.6029490828514099,
0.777999997138977,
-0.0017504889983683825,
0.45030900835990906,
-0.5092347264289856,
1.2673782110214233,
0.024451790377497673,
0.03430349379777908,
0.14303675293922424,
-1.0899702310562134,
0.20045959949493408,
0.533409595489502,
0.31160715222358704,
-0.22774629294872284,
0.30513128638267517,
0.04452354460954666,
0.798794150352478,
-0.3505624532699585,
0.05586986988782883,
-0.7319394946098328,
0.25161901116371155,
-0.19061815738677979,
-0.5876259803771973,
0.1092824935913086,
0.2613665759563446,
0.48081493377685547,
0.21630121767520905,
-0.11567752808332443,
-0.3978997766971588,
0.23797941207885742,
-0.027421101927757263,
0.612251877784729,
1.5107035636901855,
-0.15813982486724854,
-0.0171147882938385,
0.35874468088150024,
0.3551434576511383,
-0.11272523552179337,
0.23121605813503265,
0.7276484370231628,
-0.005249952431768179,
0.049536820501089096,
0.277195006608963,
0.22960922122001648,
-0.6012741327285767,
-1.1624094247817993,
0.066022127866745,
-0.4666074812412262,
0.5215184092521667,
-0.41212305426597595,
0.3924119472503662,
0.07432416081428528,
-0.2017625868320465,
0.815335750579834,
0.21637274324893951,
0.513232946395874,
-0.1267174631357193,
-0.5334497690200806,
0.4537593722343445,
-1.0299229621887207,
0.889094889163971,
1.1591622829437256,
-0.1897057294845581,
-0.4249242842197418,
-0.1720002293586731,
0.7616472840309143,
-0.6665242314338684,
-0.596603274345398,
0.41752246022224426,
-0.3597695231437683,
-0.6806473731994629,
1.1667014360427856,
-0.15501341223716736,
0.5385974049568176,
0.4001600444316864,
-0.07441098988056183,
-0.4115866422653198,
-0.8138160109519958,
-0.24967657029628754,
0.017439840361475945,
-0.15014083683490753,
0.5632523894309998,
-0.4135749042034149,
-0.050258275121450424,
0.25052523612976074,
0.10585638880729675,
-0.2927321791648865,
-0.5862467288970947,
-4.938680648803711,
-0.18082015216350555,
0.42054784297943115,
-0.22294291853904724,
0.6065690517425537,
0.29937487840652466,
0.16093270480632782,
-0.48077377676963806,
0.26018795371055603,
-0.7289890646934509,
-0.5814921259880066,
0.1496841460466385,
-0.2987654507160187,
0.8743806481361389,
0.05137486755847931,
0.129807710647583,
0.01670483499765396,
-0.5208611488342285,
0.5461031794548035,
-0.17067143321037292,
0.46804624795913696,
-0.11381083726882935,
-0.11290032416582108,
0.008176161907613277,
-0.5284878611564636,
-0.0365757942199707,
-0.054902222007513046,
-0.5392872095108032,
-1.0311529636383057,
-0.1566847264766693,
-0.23752248287200928,
0.007392180617898703,
-0.7633841633796692,
-0.1067279502749443,
-0.44403374195098877,
-0.32440927624702454,
0.22835789620876312,
-0.5479278564453125,
-0.03504950925707817,
-1.0476419925689697,
0.018297266215085983,
0.1382175087928772,
-0.047289978712797165,
-0.037213996052742004,
0.4491574764251709,
0.0881691724061966,
-0.16239342093467712,
-0.85113924741745,
-0.3065139055252075,
0.7598458528518677,
0.5512222051620483,
-0.0502077117562294,
0.429769903421402,
-0.5633164644241333,
-0.25091007351875305,
-0.4810146987438202,
0.3427532911300659,
0.15684926509857178,
-0.11769543588161469,
0.4285810589790344,
0.31151843070983887,
-0.4613508880138397,
-0.4086892306804657,
-0.2944035828113556,
-0.3345157504081726,
-0.23864269256591797,
0.1394651085138321,
0.48283031582832336,
0.8930550217628479,
-0.7446812987327576,
0.2947157621383667,
0.276822954416275,
0.14747215807437897,
-1.187827706336975,
-0.1903400868177414,
0.425182044506073,
0.22367534041404724,
0.14474663138389587,
-0.5302554368972778,
-0.48243793845176697,
-0.39450305700302124,
-0.6078782677650452,
0.616982102394104,
0.2922893464565277,
-0.14919832348823547,
-0.5192335844039917,
-0.8574060797691345,
0.576519787311554,
0.156631201505661,
-0.5212615132331848,
0.5883496999740601,
-0.42943546175956726,
0.1665102243423462,
-0.044438138604164124,
0.9136943221092224,
0.3311630189418793,
0.5256854891777039,
0.8181450366973877,
0.532109260559082,
0.49129873514175415,
-0.5858079791069031,
-0.5231553316116333,
0.3046616315841675,
-0.8223236799240112,
-0.32393696904182434,
0.29058682918548584,
-0.05212686210870743,
-0.1603630781173706,
0.8029216527938843,
0.28537529706954956,
0.6188755631446838,
-0.21964429318904877,
-0.8394954800605774,
-0.025516610592603683,
-0.14529696106910706,
-0.8992270827293396,
0.23011071979999542,
0.09410908073186874,
0.09316828101873398,
0.32583266496658325,
-0.3503425717353821,
0.5424466729164124,
-0.16985288262367249,
0.1824169009923935,
0.503092348575592,
0.059669483453035355,
0.32431912422180176,
0.2468644678592682,
0.05864981934428215,
-0.06038186699151993,
-0.4365861713886261,
1.018105149269104,
-0.16881656646728516,
0.20933379232883453,
0.31653285026550293,
-0.130630224943161,
-0.7135362029075623,
0.39443498849868774,
0.2195315808057785,
0.6169602274894714,
0.5570194721221924,
-0.5901259779930115,
0.7347293496131897,
0.20018194615840912,
0.38192009925842285,
0.5044699311256409,
0.12674622237682343,
0.15066292881965637,
-0.19914177060127258,
0.6141504049301147,
0.43463656306266785,
-0.1312444806098938,
0.10822514444589615,
-0.9644487500190735,
-0.2015395313501358,
0.3213139474391937,
-0.7237412333488464,
-0.19758838415145874,
-0.4096110761165619,
-0.3379470109939575,
0.2837359309196472,
-0.4171738028526306,
-0.7112875580787659,
-0.312353253364563,
0.5898199677467346,
0.5851720571517944,
-0.32988500595092773,
-0.48066285252571106,
-0.20840826630592346,
0.7103681564331055,
-0.24364398419857025,
-0.2633383572101593,
-0.366996705532074,
-0.4389681816101074,
0.10869057476520538,
-0.26569539308547974,
-0.1709481179714203,
0.051487673074007034,
0.006338881328701973,
0.022378386929631233,
-0.05485690012574196,
0.28400859236717224,
-0.9037399291992188,
-0.35153311491012573,
0.15119697153568268,
-0.6587715744972229,
-1.1459468603134155,
-0.5452309846878052,
0.28765130043029785,
-0.628714919090271,
-0.08292410522699356,
-0.38116902112960815,
-0.11581622809171677,
0.6447309851646423,
0.3454398512840271,
-0.17848259210586548,
0.2156805694103241,
0.05501179397106171,
-0.08992860466241837,
-0.4591193199157715,
0.2723974287509918,
-0.5399503111839294,
-0.5815793871879578,
-0.228157177567482,
0.735585629940033,
-0.901216447353363,
0.14489127695560455,
-0.15342722833156586,
-0.3631245493888855,
0.24578119814395905,
-0.39038026332855225,
-0.2689465284347534,
-0.28541773557662964,
-0.07332633435726166,
-0.541215717792511,
0.0412919819355011,
0.28484904766082764,
0.14109981060028076,
-0.14826735854148865,
-0.22956211864948273,
-0.433915913105011,
0.14765816926956177,
0.10872013121843338,
0.6270105242729187,
-0.5255774259567261,
-0.8187575340270996,
0.26151514053344727,
0.09135442227125168,
0.46773236989974976,
-0.16066306829452515,
-0.13535426557064056,
-0.010065367445349693,
-0.012830144725739956,
0.5663951635360718,
-0.6563856601715088,
-0.05294305086135864,
0.2176615595817566,
0.41611310839653015,
0.6808082461357117,
0.12256387621164322,
0.5328823328018188,
1.0339587926864624,
0.056149423122406006,
0.05518040806055069,
-0.2394283413887024,
-0.2598973512649536,
0.7423007488250732,
-0.16445110738277435,
0.21213769912719727,
0.14458993077278137,
0.519517719745636,
0.4589499235153198,
-0.07472612708806992,
-0.33919402956962585,
0.43768370151519775,
-0.7254000306129456,
-0.16484281420707703,
-0.8404896855354309,
0.3425070643424988,
-0.18017010390758514,
0.349645733833313,
-0.13063007593154907,
0.513152003288269,
-0.7258428335189819,
-0.006953252479434013,
0.5426435470581055,
-0.3362188935279846,
-0.35762304067611694,
0.5115159153938293,
-1.3616052865982056,
-0.8350884318351746,
0.07879749685525894,
-0.13107889890670776,
0.7305762767791748,
0.1215866431593895,
0.15321460366249084,
0.41994044184684753,
-0.3012177646160126,
0.15889444947242737,
-0.0018353464547544718,
-0.21368397772312164,
0.4706156253814697,
0.32789433002471924,
-0.32338592410087585,
0.24437087774276733,
-0.12593884766101837,
-0.11017608642578125,
-0.5627155900001526,
0.5619338750839233,
-0.09160491079092026,
-0.19539983570575714,
0.3270852267742157,
-0.2341892123222351,
0.8302587270736694,
-0.3566221594810486,
-0.42095747590065,
0.10754427313804626,
0.7383415699005127,
-0.25812315940856934,
0.05620350316166878,
0.03261922299861908,
0.5541064739227295,
0.21381667256355286,
-0.0751335620880127,
0.36239609122276306,
0.455349862575531,
0.03864477574825287,
-1.3155333995819092,
-0.36693277955055237,
0.5985347032546997,
0.4746575653553009,
-0.6230849027633667,
0.004056136589497328,
0.31173866987228394,
-0.609332799911499,
0.23406864702701569,
0.9345301389694214,
-0.894340455532074,
0.30450233817100525,
0.20851518213748932,
-0.3343791961669922,
0.3016831874847412,
0.3737183213233948,
0.4600914716720581,
0.38237524032592773,
0.823305070400238,
0.13862596452236176,
-0.3888605237007141,
-0.11709905415773392,
0.5186973810195923,
-0.25384294986724854,
0.17020507156848907,
0.14142242074012756,
0.3722487986087799,
-0.18194155395030975,
-0.46037614345550537,
0.02938826195895672,
-0.1583322137594223,
0.11077895760536194,
0.3795985281467438,
-0.03301459550857544,
0.09357322007417679,
0.06290550529956818,
0.11725158989429474,
0.5555785298347473,
0.3455345332622528,
0.09087298810482025,
0.20425722002983093,
-0.3464133143424988,
-0.1239916980266571,
0.2481323927640915,
-0.10428918153047562,
0.05228475481271744,
-0.4371049106121063,
0.26925110816955566,
0.0748424381017685,
-0.02973458543419838,
-0.34883105754852295,
-0.2138223499059677,
0.6066932678222656,
0.5674840211868286,
-0.3855854868888855,
1.190495252609253,
0.029292689636349678,
-0.4194847047328949,
-0.277263343334198,
-0.6419069766998291,
-0.3893318772315979,
0.44259268045425415,
0.6652282476425171,
-0.23723213374614716,
0.08601395040750504,
-0.4562215209007263,
0.12168018519878387,
-0.38880613446235657,
-1.0233697891235352,
0.457019180059433,
0.20399796962738037,
-0.6865168213844299,
-0.3343854248523712,
-0.3098185658454895,
-0.0714135617017746,
-0.8720494508743286,
-0.3405211567878723,
0.3223772644996643,
-0.3605727553367615,
-0.3002530634403229,
0.077299565076828,
-1.1226446628570557,
-0.02419457957148552,
0.29083696007728577,
-0.9090136289596558,
-0.6240473389625549,
-0.12796518206596375,
-0.8199142813682556,
-0.6316725611686707,
0.26816025376319885,
0.8249561190605164,
0.8136088252067566,
0.5485383868217468,
0.5682244896888733,
0.008545651100575924,
0.1764260083436966,
0.21947090327739716,
-0.021329691633582115,
0.058026500046253204,
-0.6905180215835571,
-0.11544902622699738,
-0.5485125184059143,
0.82045978307724,
0.4707763195037842,
0.5840579271316528,
-0.519569456577301,
0.5908886194229126,
-0.6298747062683105,
0.328504741191864,
0.2233986109495163,
-0.021246224641799927,
0.21395230293273926,
-0.04507897049188614,
0.22728797793388367,
0.2559317350387573,
0.3411808907985687,
-0.18752539157867432,
-0.04070066660642624,
0.1413789838552475,
0.5477126836776733,
-0.37433135509490967,
-0.1502542495727539,
0.9963384866714478,
-0.40718311071395874,
0.37011393904685974,
-0.4956918954849243,
-0.47015994787216187,
-0.9494796395301819,
-1.0900827646255493,
0.7362909913063049,
0.7296591997146606,
0.15657272934913635,
0.048928722739219666,
0.7731861472129822,
0.5619136691093445,
0.28843265771865845,
0.7905692458152771,
-0.3836977779865265,
0.11646813154220581,
-0.5189473628997803,
-0.5286933183670044,
-0.32627925276756287,
0.35216090083122253,
0.4675874710083008,
-0.5788852572441101,
-0.17189939320087433,
-0.6182860732078552,
-0.12859389185905457,
-0.3712199032306671,
0.10436105728149414,
0.4257388114929199,
0.29551732540130615,
-0.4352874755859375
] |
228828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehouse | Lifehouse | Lifehouse may refer to:
Music
Lifehouse (band), an American rock band
Lifehouse (album) (2005), the band's self-titled album
Lifehouse (rock opera), a rock opera by the British rock band The Who, spread across numerous albums
The Lifehouse Method, a defunct (in 2008) Internet site related to the Lifehouse rock opera by The Who
Other
Lifehouse (novel) (1982), a science-fiction novel by Spider Robinson; third in the trilogy Mindkiller, Time Pressure and Lifehouse
See also | [
0.4431401193141937,
0.2060168832540512,
-0.545571506023407,
-0.020332252606749535,
0.3302498161792755,
0.3007625341415405,
0.2340862900018692,
-0.32181575894355774,
-0.31387415528297424,
-0.16229954361915588,
-0.2048102170228958,
0.5789059996604919,
-0.14378014206886292,
0.07684437185525894,
-0.10912752151489258,
0.014004108496010303,
0.5082471966743469,
0.011073232628405094,
-0.6521597504615784,
-0.4333631098270416,
-0.19574052095413208,
0.23252518475055695,
0.46799445152282715,
-0.1344364434480667,
-0.43822404742240906,
0.1768263429403305,
-0.07507574558258057,
-0.06841523200273514,
0.13594773411750793,
0.30829474329948425,
-0.18636317551136017,
0.22379276156425476,
0.44032537937164307,
-0.34335920214653015,
0.2415560781955719,
-0.07398944348096848,
-0.5164434313774109,
-0.16619597375392914,
-0.3139743208885193,
-0.7871990203857422,
0.36036646366119385,
-0.20321696996688843,
0.15002694725990295,
0.5774539113044739,
-0.34315863251686096,
0.4868120849132538,
-1.2412443161010742,
0.09049946069717407,
-0.8719859719276428,
0.6562477946281433,
0.23256200551986694,
0.2498272806406021,
0.5315183997154236,
0.26819735765457153,
0.14799384772777557,
-0.02697627805173397,
-0.22387945652008057,
-0.136374369263649,
-0.1537904143333435,
-0.5899561047554016,
0.06572666764259338,
0.04627424478530884,
0.16892080008983612,
0.043263692408800125,
-0.19575423002243042,
-0.24784797430038452,
0.1216447651386261,
0.20657773315906525,
-0.07565876841545105,
-0.14399486780166626,
0.023476717993617058,
-0.37536871433258057,
0.13537289202213287,
0.077268585562706,
-0.18069256842136383,
-0.2886706292629242,
0.2430810034275055,
-0.4219163954257965,
0.43405741453170776,
0.41055792570114136,
-0.06549077481031418,
0.41642171144485474,
0.8180238604545593,
0.0481145903468132,
-0.10575153678655624,
-0.32547637820243835,
-0.2967991828918457,
0.22014740109443665,
-0.36182931065559387,
0.04048161953687668,
-0.1889367252588272,
-0.8127264380455017,
0.6796442270278931,
0.4378181993961334,
0.23551002144813538,
0.2613564133644104,
0.2545216381549835,
0.060686398297548294,
-0.1576438546180725,
0.3468096852302551,
-0.07864253222942352,
0.02394247241318226,
-0.2408250868320465,
-0.10970375686883926,
-0.17035220563411713,
-0.09713512659072876,
-0.024372858926653862,
-0.11454343050718307,
0.029318703338503838,
0.2657424509525299,
-0.012280298396945,
0.7258162498474121,
-0.2605767548084259,
0.4771711230278015,
0.14391295611858368,
0.08999642729759216,
-0.2530285716056824,
-0.3509626090526581,
-0.5260216593742371,
0.21215929090976715,
0.23536089062690735,
0.35743892192840576,
0.3709154427051544,
0.0856127217411995,
0.09859669953584671,
0.12068551778793335,
0.609836757183075,
0.09525100886821747,
-0.41118136048316956,
-0.24764516949653625,
-0.0662519782781601,
0.8817144632339478,
-0.09308023750782013,
-0.13833346962928772,
0.035335659980773926,
0.24405962228775024,
0.28800326585769653,
0.04868386313319206,
-0.05586712434887886,
0.5293502807617188,
-0.3949057459831238,
-0.41686567664146423,
-0.46399644017219543,
-0.056097984313964844,
0.4166731834411621,
-0.4146515130996704,
-0.08135264366865158,
0.011167892254889011,
-0.018506566062569618,
-0.5444104671478271,
-0.2787580192089081,
-0.06316914409399033,
-0.5617994070053101,
-0.39319339394569397,
0.22862176597118378,
-0.12192663550376892,
0.10214783251285553,
-0.035338252782821655,
0.33169132471084595,
-0.30129650235176086,
0.11725666373968124,
0.4507548213005066,
-0.31668028235435486,
-0.11218858510255814,
0.39113542437553406,
-0.10597692430019379,
-0.13611061871051788,
0.1982000321149826,
-0.10761674493551254,
-0.20497994124889374,
-0.36220085620880127,
0.021293170750141144,
-0.25582003593444824,
0.2996816039085388,
-0.08743907511234283,
0.229129821062088,
1.2249784469604492,
0.4824177622795105,
0.17528074979782104,
0.19105012714862823,
-0.46734827756881714,
-0.00007947687117848545,
-0.24689382314682007,
-0.8917908072471619,
-0.18322177231311798,
-0.1278979331254959,
0.19121433794498444,
0.37316620349884033,
0.5627618432044983,
0.24626125395298004,
-0.4813593626022339,
-0.060221899300813675,
0.6663473844528198,
-0.4916163682937622,
1.3102614879608154,
0.001992043573409319,
-0.3894777297973633,
0.7369914054870605,
0.1253037452697754,
0.057694073766469955,
0.20957797765731812,
0.30853071808815,
0.2487058788537979,
-0.16770194470882416,
-0.32510533928871155,
-0.2935972511768341,
0.18003809452056885,
-0.3832733631134033,
-0.3125351667404175,
-0.2068982869386673,
0.4887639582157135,
0.1411859542131424,
0.6318185925483704,
0.18367645144462585,
0.000465646997326985,
-0.37530335783958435,
-0.5794607996940613,
0.3524068593978882,
-0.23444606363773346,
-0.5670840740203857,
0.8627163171768188,
-0.21542617678642273,
0.3679838180541992,
0.0068986318074166775,
-0.0939902812242508,
0.9784619212150574,
0.125131756067276,
-0.13290469348430634,
0.9280098080635071,
-0.39440664649009705,
-0.14964275062084198,
0.7991918921470642,
-0.3565092086791992,
0.0669562816619873,
0.37032365798950195,
0.9490311741828918,
0.30164673924446106,
-0.5543373227119446,
0.15708589553833008,
-0.32743504643440247,
0.1303703635931015,
-0.2127498984336853,
-0.8153231143951416,
0.40075328946113586,
0.4589312970638275,
-0.11822661757469177,
-0.24767854809761047,
0.13455142080783844,
-0.5263625979423523,
0.3169587254524231,
0.1827334314584732,
0.7619912624359131,
0.24291837215423584,
0.4157062768936157,
0.2363458275794983,
0.059564948081970215,
-0.24110138416290283,
-0.09471370279788971,
0.02725997380912304,
0.12852630019187927,
-0.4149489104747772,
0.01865820400416851,
0.26306772232055664,
0.13780786097049713,
0.03962968662381172,
-0.6133871674537659,
-0.36649975180625916,
-0.6819966435432434,
0.24966740608215332,
0.4185428023338318,
0.04905414953827858,
0.3653930127620697,
-0.9910943508148193,
0.5746486783027649,
-0.07916638255119324,
-0.34665167331695557,
-0.12333094328641891,
0.023470362648367882,
0.06584509462118149,
-0.7142845392227173,
-0.3141961097717285,
0.8515661358833313,
0.6755610704421997,
-0.41457968950271606,
0.020435836166143417,
0.05020064860582352,
0.1296270787715912,
-0.07687317579984665,
-0.3022475838661194,
-0.1187424287199974,
-0.4508126974105835,
-0.0561567023396492,
0.19419915974140167,
-0.2707962691783905,
0.27182328701019287,
0.253675252199173,
0.3802535831928253,
-0.08188688009977341,
-0.37643226981163025,
0.32915249466896057,
-0.20997706055641174,
-0.043269287794828415,
0.2011643797159195,
0.04158032685518265,
0.6510609984397888,
-0.1420590877532959,
0.019876772537827492,
-0.386618047952652,
-6.0605669021606445,
0.04748014733195305,
-0.1754559725522995,
-0.1107926145195961,
-0.010037008672952652,
0.090715192258358,
0.43766945600509644,
-0.453631192445755,
-0.0951688140630722,
-0.49988749623298645,
-0.6466245055198669,
0.42293915152549744,
0.44095730781555176,
0.5984867811203003,
0.1786305159330368,
0.13444961607456207,
-0.38926154375076294,
0.18577776849269867,
-0.46829020977020264,
-0.07366852462291718,
0.027132734656333923,
0.2655438482761383,
0.20630495250225067,
0.2813376486301422,
0.02007962204515934,
0.35177290439605713,
-0.17880366742610931,
0.20511320233345032,
0.03512866050004959,
0.06040206179022789,
0.05180461332201958,
-0.16965319216251373,
0.037322625517845154,
-0.637170135974884,
0.04909928888082504,
0.07191646099090576,
0.21355082094669342,
0.41579028964042664,
0.7125591039657593,
-0.34624290466308594,
0.11707357317209244,
0.28813454508781433,
0.009698438458144665,
-0.7690357565879822,
-0.062373775988817215,
-0.13393564522266388,
-0.20457413792610168,
0.3157971501350403,
-0.37869173288345337,
0.9044727087020874,
0.07459985464811325,
-0.5713161826133728,
0.6049439311027527,
0.43701979517936707,
0.07599938660860062,
-0.36689236760139465,
0.2847490906715393,
0.3386736810207367,
0.008244955912232399,
0.1102626621723175,
0.06320714205503464,
-0.3992652893066406,
-0.16329795122146606,
-0.7608484029769897,
-0.2753952145576477,
-0.20841515064239502,
-0.6211469173431396,
0.1390886902809143,
0.4334760904312134,
0.21964730322360992,
0.0560087151825428,
-0.4351155161857605,
0.27873048186302185,
-1.1604889631271362,
-0.3201289474964142,
-0.1667468547821045,
0.012392514385282993,
-0.13963477313518524,
-0.11614953726530075,
0.36882761120796204,
-0.1241791769862175,
-0.19220630824565887,
-0.3171144425868988,
-0.5328141450881958,
-0.1432715654373169,
-0.686058759689331,
-0.5370287895202637,
0.052635349333286285,
-0.7600027918815613,
0.4661884903907776,
0.3551933169364929,
-0.2736330032348633,
0.02726278081536293,
0.5334776639938354,
0.7819896340370178,
0.4355977773666382,
0.30514606833457947,
0.4321567416191101,
0.4342207908630371,
0.1653352528810501,
0.46798285841941833,
-0.3132628798484802,
0.5343462824821472,
-0.44453883171081543,
0.06414827704429626,
-0.1799996942281723,
-0.3569610118865967,
-0.22055017948150635,
0.7488841414451599,
-0.22459465265274048,
-0.11819463223218918,
-0.15434685349464417,
-0.10387515276670456,
-0.7801278233528137,
0.3531307578086853,
-0.2871688902378082,
-0.0009867161279544234,
0.30286267399787903,
0.599789023399353,
-0.10700611770153046,
0.04546292498707771,
0.09758409112691879,
0.006245588418096304,
-0.30367714166641235,
-0.005636774003505707,
0.2271881103515625,
0.37260082364082336,
0.03825528547167778,
0.34653475880622864,
0.24934890866279602,
-0.034585125744342804,
0.19917753338813782,
0.07485731691122055,
0.2987363338470459,
0.16319769620895386,
-0.21229614317417145,
-0.6706283688545227,
-0.13891397416591644,
-0.014449670910835266,
0.07476509362459183,
0.33484846353530884,
-0.595562219619751,
-0.08878348767757416,
0.43924158811569214,
0.16898255050182343,
0.7007318139076233,
-0.04220793768763542,
-0.13337242603302002,
0.07927051186561584,
0.3369283080101013,
-0.29750221967697144,
0.11108829826116562,
0.6699597835540771,
-0.23818905651569366,
-0.028106987476348877,
-0.157582625746727,
-0.1152031347155571,
-0.21321189403533936,
-0.30954083800315857,
0.043251268565654755,
0.17701199650764465,
-0.6631978154182434,
-0.8046801686286926,
-0.28399577736854553,
-0.3378050625324249,
0.5444645881652832,
0.14980913698673248,
-0.502400279045105,
-0.17872627079486847,
-0.15945526957511902,
0.036595024168491364,
-0.02896437793970108,
-0.09753341972827911,
-0.1315026581287384,
0.32226014137268066,
0.3171362280845642,
-0.20226773619651794,
-0.31970009207725525,
0.34355005621910095,
-0.16892975568771362,
0.1218547448515892,
-0.26932182908058167,
-0.052122216671705246,
-0.12614378333091736,
0.6845258474349976,
-0.5482367873191833,
0.021559396758675575,
-0.1423114538192749,
-0.3849385976791382,
0.16912877559661865,
-0.2612341344356537,
0.3439691364765167,
0.3149048984050751,
0.08885399997234344,
0.15753290057182312,
-0.5275937914848328,
-0.08229226619005203,
-0.09799301624298096,
0.26599404215812683,
-0.32416078448295593,
0.30134153366088867,
-0.19076961278915405,
-0.33668074011802673,
-0.2922201454639435,
0.6227285861968994,
-0.9412260055541992,
-0.016849415376782417,
-0.7131189107894897,
-0.2916056215763092,
0.038718435913324356,
-0.22659116983413696,
0.11174621433019638,
0.15986983478069305,
-0.07372336089611053,
-0.2990235984325409,
-0.02936127968132496,
0.03432568535208702,
-0.39839616417884827,
-0.8604289293289185,
-0.26205670833587646,
0.22416935861110687,
0.3633381426334381,
-0.29194316267967224,
0.15954750776290894,
-0.4434022009372711,
-0.08750998228788376,
0.37328383326530457,
-0.9914208054542542,
-0.24377910792827606,
-0.11724583059549332,
-0.09475109726190567,
0.26245710253715515,
-0.28234222531318665,
-0.7439743280410767,
-0.5584992170333862,
-0.2606770396232605,
0.2050950676202774,
-0.31821975111961365,
-0.054279349744319916,
0.33954769372940063,
0.5137946009635925,
0.6416328549385071,
-0.22523681819438934,
-0.6197832226753235,
0.03531733900308609,
0.3341620862483978,
0.31677889823913574,
-0.07776432484388351,
-0.3682937026023865,
0.013264408335089684,
0.21177268028259277,
-0.33052316308021545,
0.09770061075687408,
-0.5389999747276306,
0.7252655029296875,
-0.879269003868103,
-0.04980029538273811,
-0.5025151968002319,
0.17490509152412415,
0.11825401335954666,
0.19757184386253357,
0.17336341738700867,
-0.4191555082798004,
-0.2951444387435913,
0.39311158657073975,
0.22306856513023376,
-0.07401718199253082,
-0.5206714868545532,
-0.03366246074438095,
-0.57472825050354,
0.4330735504627228,
0.8139334321022034,
0.13248659670352936,
0.18273510038852692,
0.12653937935829163,
-0.024950943887233734,
-0.12518861889839172,
-0.6739259362220764,
0.30353716015815735,
-0.02800067886710167,
-0.08158602565526962,
0.10758215934038162,
-0.7359685897827148,
-0.2919901907444,
0.17083673179149628,
-0.22634531557559967,
0.19456332921981812,
-0.7540928721427917,
0.18147537112236023,
-0.2169710099697113,
0.04489559680223465,
-0.2764023244380951,
0.379081666469574,
0.30133238434791565,
0.18479052186012268,
0.4185223877429962,
0.01855354569852352,
-0.2876550853252411,
0.23371778428554535,
-0.15924255549907684,
-0.518134593963623,
0.15350432693958282,
0.34233078360557556,
-0.2679794430732727,
0.38969507813453674,
-0.06107700616121292,
-0.03425903618335724,
-0.23208898305892944,
-0.6484997272491455,
0.09144771099090576,
0.6676315665245056,
-0.021322205662727356,
-0.11901038140058517,
0.45854368805885315,
-0.0649135410785675,
0.04648847505450249,
0.3832624852657318,
-0.5166085958480835,
0.6726245284080505,
0.11728186160326004,
0.5541488528251648,
0.4016440212726593,
0.8646976351737976,
0.09294523298740387,
0.3413398861885071,
-0.28381699323654175,
-0.48789480328559875,
-0.4141919016838074,
0.2095395028591156,
0.16648289561271667,
1.2502102851867676,
-0.10076938569545746,
-0.29001107811927795,
0.702901303768158,
-0.5972453355789185,
-0.002467396901920438,
-0.03044893406331539,
-0.08145805448293686,
-0.7368100881576538,
0.43778637051582336,
0.38034912943840027,
-0.04716067388653755,
-0.1336091160774231,
0.07566900551319122,
-0.09145841002464294,
0.5146803855895996,
0.02892266772687435,
-0.09414930641651154,
-0.25103068351745605,
0.2455536425113678,
-0.002895451383665204,
0.24262511730194092,
-0.02345367893576622,
-0.6035001277923584,
-0.10447568446397781,
-0.07279497385025024,
0.421866238117218,
-0.19762732088565826,
0.14805538952350616,
0.16527734696865082,
-0.34664714336395264,
0.37454476952552795,
-0.1911490112543106,
0.14596514403820038,
0.16451860964298248,
0.09442850947380066,
-0.09391240030527115,
-0.39111819863319397,
-0.15153545141220093,
-0.197059765458107,
-0.05080852657556534,
0.08261020481586456,
-0.49451178312301636,
-0.12595528364181519,
-0.22993618249893188,
-0.1939925253391266,
0.7114431262016296,
0.7906887531280518,
0.2898785173892975,
-0.147450253367424,
-0.14941218495368958,
-0.26676231622695923,
-0.06900783628225327,
-0.21141724288463593,
0.33939018845558167,
-0.454913854598999,
0.32786256074905396,
0.29826125502586365,
-0.33709728717803955,
-0.265044242143631,
0.12790514528751373,
-0.9522560238838196,
-0.23691362142562866,
0.040550921112298965,
-0.2490643709897995,
-0.1110653281211853,
0.07913744449615479,
0.7071499824523926,
0.09171944111585617,
0.49277806282043457,
-0.08812933415174484,
-0.03746028617024422,
0.20573066174983978,
0.5389059782028198,
-0.8223916888237,
0.5487650632858276,
-0.7222322821617126,
-0.17160844802856445,
-0.8610597252845764,
0.6178769469261169,
0.2317035049200058,
0.5727863311767578,
-0.09796833246946335,
0.27788621187210083,
-0.18792633712291718,
0.25832584500312805,
0.23552067577838898,
0.15234088897705078,
0.15769873559474945,
-0.2973203957080841,
-0.21891459822654724,
0.3994138538837433,
0.2891964912414551,
0.3739706873893738,
-0.362604022026062,
-0.27986210584640503,
-0.19142727553844452,
-0.3188803195953369,
-0.2431633025407791,
0.4282204508781433,
0.17125281691551208,
-0.0023042564280331135,
-0.10450932383537292,
0.29063865542411804,
-0.2925538122653961,
-0.17539651691913605,
0.2390574961900711,
0.22970636188983917,
-0.03328961879014969,
-0.4413595199584961,
-0.10008227825164795,
0.06062311679124832,
-0.2916661202907562,
0.20363062620162964,
-0.6196842789649963,
0.3706497550010681,
0.6188582181930542,
-0.3759554922580719,
-0.5823593139648438,
0.047177497297525406,
0.21301159262657166,
-0.4283556640148163,
0.23362699151039124,
-0.5735920667648315,
0.10242991149425507,
-0.054161444306373596,
0.07297597080469131,
0.1516537219285965,
0.22243505716323853,
-0.2089490294456482
] |
228830 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zak%20Starkey | Zak Starkey | Zak Richard Starkey (born 13 September 1965) is an English rock drummer. He is the son of The Beatles drummer Ringo Starr (real name Richard Starkey), and has performed and recorded with English rock band The Who since 1996. He is also the third drummer to have appeared with English rock band Oasis. In 2020, he became the drummer for Casbah Club after the band reunited after a twelve-year hiatus. Other musicians and bands he has worked with include Johnny Marr, Paul Weller, The Icicle Works, The Waterboys, ASAP, The Lightning Seeds, John Entwistle and Sshh Liguz.
Early life
Zak Richard Starkey was born on 13 September 1965, at Queen Charlotte's and Chelsea Hospital in Hammersmith, London, the son of The Beatles' drummer Ringo Starr (Richard Starkey) and Maureen Starkey, Starr's first wife. He grew up at Sunny Heights at St George's Hill in Surrey and Tittenhurst Park at Sunninghill, Berkshire and attended Highgate School in London until 1981.
At the age of eight, Starkey was given a drum kit by The Who's drummer, Keith Moon. Moon (known to young Zak as "Uncle Keith") was one of his father's closest friends and Starkey's godfather. Although they never sat together at a drum kit, Moon discussed drumming with him as a boy. The drum kit was later sold at Sotheby's for £12,000.
Starkey subsequently began teaching himself to play the drums. His father gave him only one lesson, but discouraged his growing interest because of the desire not to see him in the same business. Although Starr has praised his son's abilities, he had always regarded him as a future lawyer or doctor. Starr's close friend, Kenney Jones, drummer for The Faces and Moon's replacement in The Who, stated that he "virtually taught" the young Starkey to play drums. By the age of twelve, Starkey was performing in pubs as a member of the garage band The Next. After Moon's death, Jones gifted the teenage Starkey a white drum kit formerly owned by Moon, which had been kept in storage by The Who.
Career
Spencer Davies, Eddie Hardin, John Entwhistle and the Icicle Works
In the early 1980s, Starkey appeared with a re-formed Spencer Davis Group. On 22 January 1985, he married Sarah Menikides. Their daughter Tatia was born on 6 September 1985. Shortly after his marriage, Starkey recorded a musical version of Wind in the Willows with Eddie Hardin. He briefly joined The Semantics, replacing founding drummer Jody Spence, during the recording process for their album Powerbill, which ended up being unreleased except in Japan. He joined the band when they moved from Nashville to Los Angeles, and played in some shows and some recording sessions, but the band broke up less than a year after he joined.
He played on John Entwistle's solo album The Rock (released in 1996). Starkey replaced Chris Sharrock as the drummer in the Icicle Works in 1989, leaving the band the next year without appearing on any recordings with them. A B-side later issued by founder member Ian McNabb, featured him on drums and is presumed to date from his tenure with the group. Starkey also played on the 1989 album Silver and Gold, a solo work released by Iron Maiden guitarist Adrian Smith.
Ringo Starr and the All-Star Band
In 1985, he joined his father on Sun City by Artists United Against Apartheid and during 1992 and 1995, Starkey toured with Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band, having previously guested on the band's 1989 tour. Starkey performed at Ringo Starr's 70th birthday party on 7 July 2010 at Radio City Music Hall in New York City. He joined his father and guest stars Yoko Ono, Nils Lofgren, Steven Van Zandt and Jeff Lynne for "With a Little Help from My Friends" and "Give Peace a Chance".
The Who 1996–present
In 1994, he joined John Entwistle and Roger Daltrey of The Who on a tour entitled "Daltrey Sings Townshend", which had developed from a two-night performance at Carnegie Hall to celebrate Daltrey's fiftieth birthday. In 1996, Starkey left his band Face, to work with The Who on their Quadrophenia tour. He received good reviews in this role and was praised by the music press for his strong drumming presence, without trying to emulate the band's original drummer Keith Moon. Both Townshend and Daltrey stated that Starkey was the best match for the band since the death of Keith Moon.
On 20 October 2001, he performed with The Who at the Concert for New York City at Madison Square Garden. This was heralded as The Who's "comeback" performance and they stole the show. Rolling Stone called their performance "one of the 50 moments that changed rock and roll". It was also one of John Entwistle's final appearances with the band.
On 7 February 2010, Starkey appeared with The Who during the half-time show of Super Bowl XLIV at the Sun Life Stadium, Miami, Florida.
Starkey was not available to record for most of The Who's 2006 album Endless Wire, as he had been on the road with Oasis and only had time to play on one track. However, he did join The Who for The Who Tour 2006-2007 in support of the album, during which they headlined at Glastonbury Festival in 2007. The tour finished at the Hartwall Areena in Helsinki, Finland on 9 July 2007. Pete Townshend's official website stated that Starkey was afterwards invited to become a full member of The Who, stating: "Some of you may have noticed in one of my recent diary postings that I welcomed Zak into The Who as a permanent member. This is something he doesn't feel he needs or wants. Let's just say that the door is always open to this amazing musician and whenever we can, we will always try to make it possible for Zak to work with The Who in the future." On 12 July 2008, Starkey played drums for the Who at the 3rd annual VH1 Rock Honors, which celebrated the band's long career.
On 30 March 2010, he played with the band during their performance of Quadrophenia at the Royal Albert Hall in aid of the Teenage Cancer Trust.
On 12 August 2012, he played with The Who at the finale of the 2012 Summer Olympics closing ceremony and later that year, on 12 December, he joined them at 12-12-12: The Concert for Sandy Relief. Starkey also joined The Who on their 2012–13 Quadrophenia and More tour, but he had to back out in February 2013 when he developed tendonitis. Scott Devours, the drummer on Roger Daltrey's Use It or Lose It tour, was called in to take over on drums for the remainder of the tour and therefore appeared on the Quadrophenia Live in London album instead of Starkey but he re-joined The Who for their tour of North America. in July 2015 and other shows during this year as part of The Who Hits 50! tour, which had started in 2014. This tour went on to include The Who at Desert Trip concert at Coachella Festival in California on 28 June 2015. Starkey also appeared with the Who when they performed as the headline act at the Glastonbury Festival.
In September 2016, Starkey was interviewed by Rolling Stone about the new covers album he was working on with Sharna Liguz, compiled with songs that had influenced them. They recorded these with the original members from each of the relevant bands. Funding for album's ten tracks was raised by a crowdfunding campaign through the Pledgemusic site. Under the name SSHH, Starkey and Liguz also recorded other tracks.
1996–2003 Johnny Marr & The Healers
In 2000, Starkey was a founding member of Johnny Marr & The Healers, although their first album, Boomslang, would not be released for another three years. On 14 April 2001, he featured in both of the backing bands for the "Steve Marriott Tribute Concert", in which he appeared along with Rick Wills, Rabbit Bundrick, Bobby Tench, Noel Gallagher and Paul Weller.
Oasis 2004–2009
During 2004, Starkey joined the Britpop band Oasis and was also featured on two tracks included on The Who's biographic album, The Who: Then and Now. In May 2005, Noel Gallagher revealed to the BBC that Starkey had participated in the recording sessions for Don't Believe the Truth. Starkey had recorded all but one track of these sessions which were originally called "Mucky Fingers" and were also for an official promotional video for the album. After the completion of these sessions Starkey stated: "It was amazing. They're all singers, they're all guitar players, they're all songwriters, they're all producers and they're all drummers."
He travelled as a sideman on the year-long Oasis tour that followed and appeared in promotional videos for the associated singles. Despite this, he was not an official member of the band and rarely appeared with them in promotions. In April 2005, Noel Gallagher confirmed that he had been invited to be their official drummer and added that this could not materialize before his current working engagements with The Who were completed in mid-2007. Their former drummer also had to be "paid out" contractually out of the band. On 14 February 2007, Starkey appeared with Oasis when they received the BRIT Award for outstanding contribution to music.
His participation in the making of the Oasis album, Dig Out Your Soul, was confirmed on 11 December 2007, when the official Oasis website published a picture of him with the other band members. However, it was announced that he would not perform on the Dig Out Your Soul Tour after falling out with Noel Gallagher subsequently departing in 2008 and was replaced by Chris Sharrock. A year later he recalled that playing with them was "massive" and called the band "some of the smartest musicians I've ever met".
Penguins Rising
In 2008, Starkey formed the band Penguins Rising which had previously been called Penguin, along with his partner Sharna Liguz. The band's original line up also included his daughter Tatia. Penguins Rising went on to support Kasabian and Beady Eye on their respective tours. They released an album entitled Pengu!ns 'Hatemale' in 2011.
Jamaica and Reggae albums 2016-present
Starkey went onto build a studio in Ocho Rios and formed the in-house recording group with Sshh Liguz, Sly & Robbie, Tony Chin, Cyril Neville and Robbie Lyn. In 2016 he launched the record label Trojan Jamaica based on the island, co-funded by BMG Rights Management. The Trojan name was licensed for use from the Trojan Records label. The label was formed with a mandate to reflect music from Jamaica along with soul and blues from America. Recording on Trojan Jamaica and with the roles of co-producer and guitarist he is credited on the albums 'Red Gold Green & Blue', 'Red Gold Green & Blue RMXZ' both released in 2019. in 2020 'RGGB RMXZ' was released and 'Got To Be Tough' by Toots & The Maytals followed the same year. This won a Grammy for Best Reggae Album that year. At this time Starkey and his partner's band Shhh appeared at the invitation of the Peter Tosh Museum in Kingston, Jamaica, performing their version of 'Get Up Stand Up' (featuring Soul Syndicate and Eddie Vedder).
Associated acts
The Icicle Works (1988)
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band (1992–1995)
The Semantics (1993–1996)
The Who (1996–present)
John Entwistle (1986–1997)
The Lightning Seeds (1997–2000)
Johnny Marr and the Healers (2000–2003)
Oasis (2004–2008)
Discography
Artists United Against Apartheid Sun City (1985)
Roger Daltrey Under a Raging Moon (1985)
Eddie Hardin Wind in the Willows (1985)
Mike d'Abo Indestructable (1987)
ASAP Silver and Gold (1989)
Pete York Super Drumming II (1989)
Ringo Starr Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band (1990)
Ringo Starr Ringo Starr and His All-Starr Band Volume 2: Live from Montreux (1993)
Tony Martin Back Where I Belong (1992)
Moody Marsden band Never Turn our back on the Blues (1992)
Robert Hart Robert Hart (1992)
Eikichi Yazawa Anytime Woman(1992)
The Semantics Powerbill (1996)
John Entwistle The Rock (1996)
Simon Townshend Among Us (1996)
Ringo Starr Ringo Starr and His Third All-Starr Band Volume 1 (1996)
Eddie Hardin Wizard's Convention, Vol. 2 (1997)
Sean Lennon - Into the Sun (1998)
The Lightning Seeds Tilt (1999)
Sasha Surfin' on a Backbeat (2001)
Johnny Marr and the Healers Boomslang (2003)
The Who Then and Now (2004)
Oasis Don't Believe the Truth (2005)
The Who Endless Wire (2006)
Broken English The Rough with the Smooth (2007)
Oasis Dig Out Your Soul (2008)
The Who Who (2019)
Toots and the Maytals Got to Be Tough (2020)
References
External links
1965 births
Living people
ASAP (band) members
English rock drummers
Oasis (band) members
People educated at Highgate School
People from Chipping Barnet
People from Finchley
People from Hammersmith
People from Sunninghill
People from Weybridge
Ringo Starr family
Ringo Starr
The Best (band) members
The Icicle Works members
The Lightning Seeds members
The Who members
Ringo Starr & His All-Starr Band members | [
-0.11328455805778503,
0.5289028286933899,
-1.0316256284713745,
-0.8613083362579346,
0.6278188824653625,
0.7702706456184387,
0.20041123032569885,
-0.4916978180408478,
-0.13949421048164368,
0.036744799464941025,
0.005647315643727779,
0.9418562650680542,
-0.49496394395828247,
-0.3958005905151367,
-0.3805377781391144,
0.18614482879638672,
-0.22033429145812988,
-0.6370665431022644,
-0.3033532500267029,
-0.17620299756526947,
0.8613998889923096,
0.10938610136508942,
-0.05760521814227104,
0.13645808398723602,
-0.28192541003227234,
0.7514925599098206,
-0.10097485035657883,
0.1866336166858673,
-0.03545941784977913,
-0.7703456282615662,
0.31989678740501404,
0.4649706184864044,
0.7074925303459167,
-1.193786859512329,
-0.1651393324136734,
0.4896870255470276,
-0.2973724901676178,
-0.0722445622086525,
-0.3254755735397339,
0.19215364754199982,
-0.16694195568561554,
0.06920280307531357,
0.220821350812912,
0.32119542360305786,
-0.3707543611526489,
0.2072473019361496,
-1.2786948680877686,
0.3875812292098999,
-0.3293513059616089,
-0.6890037655830383,
0.2811373472213745,
0.12462355941534042,
-0.13482792675495148,
0.08508974313735962,
0.5434368252754211,
-0.7907986640930176,
0.02508368529379368,
0.20583589375019073,
-0.5950253009796143,
-0.48948734998703003,
-0.3539557158946991,
-0.34899279475212097,
-0.3648844361305237,
-0.8978990316390991,
0.24960462749004364,
0.14851723611354828,
0.510017991065979,
0.30670279264450073,
0.08254864066839218,
0.02878907136619091,
-0.10664623230695724,
0.3394598364830017,
0.09692797064781189,
-0.3875618577003479,
-0.0711190477013588,
0.2545664608478546,
0.3246786892414093,
-0.33505991101264954,
-0.39657583832740784,
0.594883143901825,
0.22375886142253876,
-0.3545624613761902,
1.2192447185516357,
0.32684800028800964,
-0.06475307792425156,
0.28523725271224976,
-0.6474236249923706,
0.7849440574645996,
-0.9318798780441284,
0.7729593515396118,
-0.3913372755050659,
-0.6506080031394958,
0.3818449079990387,
0.6033481359481812,
0.18657827377319336,
-0.0791301354765892,
-0.32426148653030396,
0.6581717133522034,
0.5667239427566528,
0.14274270832538605,
0.24105101823806763,
-0.3801247477531433,
0.5208098888397217,
-0.45995011925697327,
-0.19334042072296143,
-0.6089643239974976,
0.10680606216192245,
0.0709170550107956,
-0.5752881765365601,
-0.19514364004135132,
-0.38765081763267517,
0.1972612738609314,
0.38820359110832214,
-0.32785508036613464,
0.2737220227718353,
0.7391652464866638,
-0.197840616106987,
-0.288170725107193,
-0.5416085720062256,
0.037835050374269485,
0.49933764338493347,
0.43370816111564636,
-0.0049284398555755615,
0.467343807220459,
-1.0921251773834229,
-0.23853260278701782,
0.29846036434173584,
0.12804217636585236,
-0.4843175709247589,
0.05311289057135582,
-0.1323150098323822,
1.01500403881073,
0.04001239687204361,
-0.017604388296604156,
-0.387491375207901,
0.08517634123563766,
-0.055017195641994476,
0.02549820765852928,
0.1503981649875641,
0.8006953597068787,
0.16033831238746643,
0.2811209559440613,
-0.727676272392273,
-0.12125236541032791,
-0.1576509028673172,
-0.25131094455718994,
-0.32222306728363037,
0.033876266330480576,
0.47681158781051636,
0.2484298050403595,
0.03742772713303566,
0.8881587386131287,
-0.5624759197235107,
-0.672081708908081,
-0.7148855924606323,
0.8269290328025818,
0.20579275488853455,
-0.5958937406539917,
0.22836263477802277,
-0.360042929649353,
0.22369951009750366,
-0.2054825723171234,
-0.3640807271003723,
0.36341392993927,
0.7242262959480286,
-0.05804041400551796,
0.1940930038690567,
-0.38410812616348267,
0.37448835372924805,
-0.1642322838306427,
-0.1995496302843094,
0.14174361526966095,
0.24167537689208984,
-0.00035908803693018854,
-0.2762327790260315,
0.10008592903614044,
0.8111734986305237,
0.4730933904647827,
0.24204649031162262,
-0.015002365224063396,
-0.4271290898323059,
-1.1876081228256226,
0.054216157644987106,
0.15723775327205658,
1.2976166009902954,
-0.2905828058719635,
0.4848996102809906,
-0.48030033707618713,
0.6330587267875671,
-0.20621421933174133,
-0.586793839931488,
-0.4269734025001526,
0.3393401503562927,
-0.09181192517280579,
0.553493082523346,
0.1769883632659912,
-0.4289099872112274,
0.16909264028072357,
0.8026503920555115,
0.577927827835083,
-0.22092488408088684,
-0.3046555817127228,
-0.2544059455394745,
-0.6856536269187927,
0.23908402025699615,
0.31699338555336,
0.9690412282943726,
-0.6083351969718933,
-0.005586973391473293,
0.2840368151664734,
0.243325874209404,
-1.1155718564987183,
0.05081206560134888,
0.6301014423370361,
-0.42245781421661377,
-0.7221812605857849,
-0.3879198729991913,
-0.33463436365127563,
0.21578659117221832,
-0.5691529512405396,
0.9997504949569702,
0.6448821425437927,
-0.0025615687482059,
0.5043361186981201,
0.007241705898195505,
1.1657071113586426,
-0.12147708237171173,
0.012697458267211914,
-0.1594354808330536,
-0.39535948634147644,
0.060521449893713,
0.6009161472320557,
0.18474313616752625,
-0.15275172889232635,
0.6287689208984375,
0.4559045732021332,
0.3748031556606293,
-0.18153144419193268,
-0.6181784272193909,
-0.34522712230682373,
0.3909711241722107,
0.15046089887619019,
-0.2655887007713318,
-0.05800391733646393,
-0.04737693816423416,
0.4602220952510834,
0.8353615403175354,
0.06191100552678108,
-0.7606214284896851,
0.8198534846305847,
-0.5145251750946045,
0.2606211304664612,
0.6990525126457214,
-0.08493617922067642,
-0.3169812858104706,
0.40085524320602417,
0.18742254376411438,
-0.03196078911423683,
-0.0405544713139534,
0.5297120213508606,
0.324677973985672,
0.2759324312210083,
0.06751643121242523,
-0.04441829025745392,
-0.578806459903717,
-0.19443151354789734,
0.2904423773288727,
-0.24616973102092743,
1.0160051584243774,
-0.33980950713157654,
0.6053316593170166,
0.264514297246933,
0.2667770981788635,
0.6956265568733215,
-0.20955410599708557,
0.15610116720199585,
0.03266928717494011,
-0.7163371443748474,
0.6443067193031311,
-1.0048989057540894,
0.4975952208042145,
1.2506023645401,
0.2217177152633667,
-0.32500818371772766,
-0.0095739820972085,
0.2914803624153137,
0.168143630027771,
-0.01008281297981739,
0.2796036899089813,
-0.18216511607170105,
-0.6554197072982788,
0.7213888764381409,
-0.1713135689496994,
0.556244432926178,
-0.21963870525360107,
-0.13520364463329315,
-0.15679866075515747,
-0.6902103424072266,
-0.03428273648023605,
-0.1971197873353958,
-0.369423508644104,
-0.0618571974337101,
-0.46794945001602173,
0.21829059720039368,
0.7629024982452393,
-0.39748233556747437,
-0.2882082760334015,
-0.7245000600814819,
-5.116830348968506,
0.006056926213204861,
0.5905972719192505,
-0.157267227768898,
0.37099507451057434,
0.7665126323699951,
-0.10534866899251938,
-0.6739935278892517,
-0.08728410303592682,
-0.7607682347297668,
-0.5903924703598022,
0.2027890831232071,
-0.03869982436299324,
0.169745534658432,
0.281925767660141,
-0.021655956283211708,
0.08027839660644531,
-0.3139165937900543,
0.32259753346443176,
-0.2970200777053833,
-0.04885043576359749,
-0.4877297878265381,
0.06939654052257538,
-0.41819053888320923,
-0.39193499088287354,
0.23954492807388306,
-0.5134444236755371,
-0.06990973651409149,
-0.563612163066864,
-0.5327895879745483,
0.08440828323364258,
0.05793223902583122,
-1.0444374084472656,
-0.5773004293441772,
0.254626601934433,
-0.29304611682891846,
0.4179847836494446,
0.5323322415351868,
0.34003156423568726,
-0.6487401723861694,
0.7727530002593994,
0.15216797590255737,
-0.24279333651065826,
-0.027929136529564857,
0.4344845414161682,
-0.010156432166695595,
-0.29720979928970337,
-0.5692235827445984,
-0.31505662202835083,
0.7729882597923279,
0.5246387124061584,
-0.28764280676841736,
0.41619086265563965,
0.0075139617547392845,
-0.03066571243107319,
-0.1411258578300476,
0.41837361454963684,
0.25169646739959717,
-0.0011100630508735776,
0.4525534510612488,
0.10126586258411407,
-0.6290512084960938,
-0.025716684758663177,
-0.30312320590019226,
-0.23567961156368256,
-0.28530311584472656,
-0.13580870628356934,
0.6481354832649231,
0.5540252327919006,
-0.14765222370624542,
-0.14402659237384796,
-0.37706828117370605,
0.6369146108627319,
-1.3252230882644653,
-0.29327088594436646,
-0.4979933798313141,
0.25291940569877625,
0.07557213306427002,
-0.908750057220459,
0.09072910994291306,
-0.13298571109771729,
-0.8793161511421204,
0.4061046242713928,
0.0065149725414812565,
0.20572388172149658,
-0.3284405469894409,
-0.7294320464134216,
0.7163637280464172,
-0.1515289843082428,
-0.4419853985309601,
-0.2710076570510864,
-0.311323881149292,
0.057288747280836105,
-0.33310094475746155,
0.6192313432693481,
-0.03723084554076195,
0.4275068938732147,
0.20671391487121582,
0.6878113150596619,
0.7724649310112,
-0.27088072896003723,
-0.26188352704048157,
0.1429491937160492,
-0.8761687874794006,
-0.14166058599948883,
-0.24538184702396393,
-0.03263802081346512,
0.20227301120758057,
0.7545081377029419,
0.06222350522875786,
0.22817666828632355,
0.481919527053833,
-0.8337380886077881,
-0.2891514301300049,
-0.3511981964111328,
-0.2548235356807709,
-0.3570713400840759,
-0.3711501955986023,
0.012129509821534157,
0.4019171893596649,
-0.7017655372619629,
0.05578431487083435,
0.027111656963825226,
0.5041073560714722,
0.6583214998245239,
-0.04097875952720642,
0.0697106346487999,
0.2065403163433075,
-0.00723740691319108,
0.06820396333932877,
-0.5256748795509338,
0.6229091286659241,
-0.2800108790397644,
0.2746809124946594,
-0.12043291330337524,
-0.0867096334695816,
-1.2093379497528076,
0.09164271503686905,
0.37551090121269226,
0.3084161579608917,
0.384610116481781,
-0.5480329394340515,
0.5512197017669678,
0.1539309322834015,
0.23739542067050934,
0.04466567933559418,
-0.24169011414051056,
0.2286059409379959,
-0.05554601922631264,
0.20207247138023376,
0.2243836373090744,
0.1955340951681137,
0.19021829962730408,
-0.8898624181747437,
-0.31215953826904297,
1.0786709785461426,
-0.4577409029006958,
0.10958857834339142,
-0.7295688986778259,
-0.47333988547325134,
0.3345522880554199,
-0.7029215693473816,
-0.7467048764228821,
0.02996402233839035,
0.2514411211013794,
0.04036565124988556,
-0.35448551177978516,
-0.25648263096809387,
-0.5100785493850708,
0.07960102707147598,
-0.4962480664253235,
-0.6538990139961243,
0.01935773715376854,
-0.6624669432640076,
-0.35973626375198364,
-0.3046169877052307,
0.2882850170135498,
-0.31297075748443604,
-0.1192365288734436,
-0.3399835526943207,
-0.10941331833600998,
0.5807742476463318,
-0.6325994729995728,
-0.18493591248989105,
-0.057506442070007324,
-0.08488213270902634,
-0.8499765992164612,
-0.48007887601852417,
0.1319674402475357,
-0.15681922435760498,
-0.16984467208385468,
-0.3231096565723419,
0.19670115411281586,
0.4314107298851013,
0.18243834376335144,
-0.3175762891769409,
0.34406018257141113,
0.5592981576919556,
-0.3330135941505432,
-0.4714745879173279,
0.7708016037940979,
-0.7066289186477661,
-0.27823901176452637,
0.023331593722105026,
0.05312703922390938,
-0.9187949299812317,
0.27793338894844055,
0.08141274005174637,
-0.5524474382400513,
0.2794300317764282,
-0.1951116919517517,
-0.31882792711257935,
-0.4049828350543976,
0.45225122570991516,
-0.5507451295852661,
0.04476194083690643,
0.10923582315444946,
0.5552763938903809,
-0.2074674814939499,
-0.04903244599699974,
-0.5943722128868103,
0.20559082925319672,
0.08133719116449356,
0.18587006628513336,
-0.5044910907745361,
-0.4173395335674286,
0.291567325592041,
0.19376131892204285,
0.3785794973373413,
-0.20638680458068848,
-0.30836647748947144,
-0.09413399547338486,
-0.2234295755624771,
0.27705347537994385,
-0.10450565814971924,
0.22305583953857422,
-0.11911957710981369,
0.5322489142417908,
-0.39407017827033997,
-0.09018980711698532,
0.6071274876594543,
1.1620841026306152,
0.617114245891571,
0.008481725119054317,
-0.32137319445610046,
0.1915232092142105,
0.47996941208839417,
0.056352511048316956,
-0.17453818023204803,
0.36816948652267456,
0.8154954314231873,
0.1992732733488083,
-0.5746797323226929,
0.24802371859550476,
0.6950512528419495,
-0.5822843313217163,
-0.20479853451251984,
-0.6143684983253479,
0.12052349001169205,
-0.011497294530272484,
0.4379402697086334,
-0.22626887261867523,
0.6536527872085571,
-0.07642757147550583,
-0.26959702372550964,
0.26373645663261414,
-0.4440591633319855,
-0.6016157865524292,
-0.06894849240779877,
-1.0410150289535522,
-0.42897456884384155,
-0.12132338434457779,
-0.23139658570289612,
0.2547474503517151,
0.12706398963928223,
0.5342029333114624,
0.6431640386581421,
-0.48976850509643555,
0.0017084857681766152,
0.3848695755004883,
0.1620105504989624,
-0.13696064054965973,
0.10923290997743607,
-0.6459247469902039,
0.0070166983641684055,
0.15752923488616943,
0.2670353949069977,
-0.6219724416732788,
0.1582806408405304,
0.14350347220897675,
-0.08840640634298325,
-0.4177233874797821,
-0.13938570022583008,
-0.2690247893333435,
-0.18497642874717712,
-0.04070363566279411,
-0.09135803580284119,
0.8083975911140442,
0.010557481087744236,
-0.32640546560287476,
0.3308100700378418,
0.5141620635986328,
0.42531338334083557,
-0.09278921782970428,
0.1275704950094223,
0.17966334521770477,
-0.37333446741104126,
-0.8600675463676453,
-0.13865602016448975,
0.056382715702056885,
0.31994763016700745,
-0.26281410455703735,
0.04551362618803978,
0.1240822821855545,
-0.6132531762123108,
-0.016253259032964706,
0.8134362697601318,
-0.4537557065486908,
0.4764277935028076,
0.23441959917545319,
-0.25684815645217896,
-0.4009172320365906,
0.2588486671447754,
0.026638230308890343,
0.5915518999099731,
0.8207203149795532,
0.2982219159603119,
-0.47472745180130005,
0.1267276406288147,
0.33369946479797363,
0.04456299915909767,
0.3723699152469635,
-0.02442333474755287,
0.14170698821544647,
0.1172000989317894,
-0.5218805074691772,
0.042593736201524734,
0.11386102437973022,
0.10875573754310608,
0.6089460849761963,
-0.10742508620023727,
0.6340011358261108,
-0.21867604553699493,
0.6325650811195374,
0.4581753611564636,
-0.14473260939121246,
0.29979121685028076,
0.23886719346046448,
-0.5933244824409485,
0.20449213683605194,
-0.0548311211168766,
0.32847338914871216,
-0.06385844200849533,
-0.47473251819610596,
0.30299994349479675,
-0.3964858651161194,
0.5552510619163513,
-0.34689977765083313,
0.010360314510762691,
0.16550806164741516,
0.902325451374054,
-0.12168023735284805,
1.3273416757583618,
0.4964557886123657,
-0.5016342997550964,
-0.6551126837730408,
-0.23182892799377441,
-0.5948081612586975,
0.1888275444507599,
0.6102681159973145,
0.6221129298210144,
0.6413689851760864,
-0.3810984194278717,
0.5695416331291199,
0.006687140557914972,
0.1509028971195221,
-0.26532888412475586,
0.021560484543442726,
-0.5793902277946472,
-0.19923949241638184,
-0.4732956886291504,
-0.17170029878616333,
-0.3076058328151703,
0.277875691652298,
0.3975682556629181,
-0.5402360558509827,
-0.39109575748443604,
-0.015510495752096176,
-0.8182103633880615,
0.15292122960090637,
0.05792272090911865,
-0.5180158019065857,
-0.4081375300884247,
-0.40798017382621765,
-0.8375158309936523,
-0.7951488494873047,
0.13307279348373413,
0.32353276014328003,
0.20847545564174652,
0.5798566937446594,
0.34778717160224915,
0.7648024559020996,
0.589203417301178,
-0.016418050974607468,
-0.14704643189907074,
0.23777028918266296,
-1.1153931617736816,
-0.18256928026676178,
-0.5179004073143005,
0.7090597152709961,
0.4583054482936859,
0.28360602259635925,
-0.35064277052879333,
0.3919483423233032,
-0.3552039861679077,
0.9364900588989258,
0.44615644216537476,
-0.34554749727249146,
0.4871414303779602,
0.03705192729830742,
0.26421836018562317,
0.09139487892389297,
0.39079493284225464,
-0.06850001215934753,
0.038247156888246536,
0.1956116110086441,
0.5411041378974915,
-0.009800273925065994,
-0.17566168308258057,
0.9572175741195679,
-0.09847458451986313,
-0.10303130000829697,
-0.5457350611686707,
-0.32683607935905457,
-0.49040111899375916,
-1.3964725732803345,
0.4141600728034973,
0.3544861376285553,
0.2212877720594406,
-0.5080978870391846,
0.8499250411987305,
0.7277626395225525,
-0.06841319799423218,
-0.0037662445101886988,
-0.29950448870658875,
-0.08483555167913437,
-1.0798380374908447,
-0.7182294130325317,
-0.2633189260959625,
-0.06117546185851097,
0.5809553265571594,
-0.4930163621902466,
0.14565125107765198,
-0.930750846862793,
0.1001320332288742,
-0.06542283296585083,
0.15844376385211945,
0.5874156951904297,
0.27643680572509766,
-0.7478224635124207
] |
228836 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Decline%20%28EP%29 | The Decline (EP) | The Decline is an EP by NOFX. It was released on November 23, 1999. The CD version consisted of only the 18-minute title track, but the vinyl included a different version of "Clams Have Feelings Too" (from Pump Up the Valuum) on the B-side. The Decline is largely a satire of American politics and law, with an overwhelming concern for blind behaviors of the masses, such as complacency, indifference, gun violence, drug-use, and conformity, as well as destruction of constitutional rights, and condemnation of the religious right. Although the lyrics are somewhat disjointed, they all refer back to the unifying theme of the "decline" of America. The trombone is played by Lars Nylander of Skankin' Pickle.
According to the band,
The first 155 copies were pressed on clear vinyl, a version which is no longer available.
The first 1 min and 20 seconds of a live version of The Decline is played as an encore after "Stickin' In My Eye" on They've Actually Gotten Worse Live! (2007) before being faded out. A DVD featuring a live performance of The Decline was released on September 12, 2012.
In 2016, an orchestral arrangement was released as part of the Mild in the Streets: Fat Music Unplugged compilation album, recorded by Baz and His Orchestra. Additionally, a video of the performance has been released. In 2019 NOFX and Baz's Orchestra recorded a live version while performing at the Red Rocks Amphitheatre in Morrison, Colorado and it was subsequently published in 2020.
See also
Punk ideology
References
NOFX EPs
Fat Wreck Chords EPs
1999 EPs
Albums produced by Ryan Greene | [
0.07725110650062561,
0.08835414052009583,
0.21696411073207855,
0.3091992735862732,
-0.1941499263048172,
0.4157947897911072,
0.22333547472953796,
0.037364207208156586,
0.08708981424570084,
-0.29737547039985657,
0.31749072670936584,
0.838687539100647,
-0.37283074855804443,
-0.07422161102294922,
0.04989341273903847,
-0.009086842648684978,
-0.03702745959162712,
0.48574942350387573,
0.10333453118801117,
-0.43677279353141785,
-0.11663587391376495,
0.05053691565990448,
0.5014647245407104,
-0.30343300104141235,
-0.1768995225429535,
0.16912001371383667,
-0.08073290437459946,
0.28004324436187744,
-0.07726970314979553,
0.12169364839792252,
0.06907141208648682,
0.5978626608848572,
0.18293103575706482,
-0.6090063452720642,
-0.02078494429588318,
0.13630618155002594,
0.24135085940361023,
-0.11295648664236069,
-0.2954070568084717,
-0.21630053222179413,
-0.23017708957195282,
-0.1823274791240692,
0.028783340007066727,
0.4086363911628723,
0.03537944704294205,
-0.45666664838790894,
-1.897492527961731,
0.004495978355407715,
-0.5404368042945862,
-0.16087868809700012,
-0.07924707978963852,
0.34631451964378357,
0.0517125129699707,
0.15604384243488312,
-0.21253058314323425,
-0.16919225454330444,
-0.43344616889953613,
0.12315183877944946,
-0.39663225412368774,
-0.011131993494927883,
0.2683437466621399,
-0.21516939997673035,
-0.07029173523187637,
-0.4172884225845337,
-0.04594876989722252,
-0.35936465859413147,
0.07720092684030533,
1.1602846384048462,
-0.09124109148979187,
-0.26285117864608765,
-0.040166184306144714,
-0.3414745628833771,
-0.05828147381544113,
-0.30260321497917175,
-0.019919265061616898,
-0.20561207830905914,
0.15711110830307007,
0.07481804490089417,
0.3515501916408539,
0.25357601046562195,
0.40792372822761536,
0.11682648211717606,
1.328226089477539,
0.12220273911952972,
0.08574044704437256,
-0.03519643470644951,
0.1468002200126648,
0.6864800453186035,
-0.5267581939697266,
0.08824028819799423,
-0.5365806221961975,
-0.6964915990829468,
0.728442370891571,
0.35877323150634766,
0.38394901156425476,
0.026502590626478195,
-0.1366237998008728,
0.2962430715560913,
0.2327311784029007,
0.41907280683517456,
0.33953768014907837,
0.3147006928920746,
-0.291461318731308,
-0.5522452592849731,
-0.2680518925189972,
-0.5872175693511963,
-0.39988991618156433,
-0.34628552198410034,
0.2874687910079956,
-1.1514811515808105,
-0.1772439330816269,
0.5862666368484497,
-0.374127596616745,
-0.12410563230514526,
-0.017328700050711632,
0.5371261835098267,
0.17448899149894714,
0.140114888548851,
-0.12120729684829712,
-0.016286810860037804,
0.28507447242736816,
0.5551804304122925,
0.13815239071846008,
0.3832715153694153,
-0.19926679134368896,
0.6229105591773987,
0.32899075746536255,
0.11548200249671936,
-0.33607617020606995,
0.5799270272254944,
-0.09214508533477783,
0.3923940658569336,
-0.4265359342098236,
-0.27452120184898376,
0.03513894975185394,
-0.8046159744262695,
0.534328043460846,
0.2913644015789032,
0.2918950617313385,
0.13290059566497803,
-0.3938831090927124,
-0.22291991114616394,
-1.5893912315368652,
0.04521612077951431,
0.13824863731861115,
0.29637080430984497,
-0.9873459935188293,
0.4181656241416931,
-0.6225740313529968,
-0.059691037982702255,
0.11522084474563599,
-0.40241292119026184,
-0.5992287993431091,
0.42113053798675537,
-0.6144947409629822,
0.18974009156227112,
0.6573636531829834,
-0.3582090735435486,
0.04306734353303909,
0.08893387019634247,
0.32051122188568115,
0.6459370851516724,
0.0860217809677124,
0.38761666417121887,
0.5324636697769165,
-0.32237789034843445,
0.32598763704299927,
-0.3000674843788147,
0.28601783514022827,
-0.34210795164108276,
-0.5077667236328125,
0.34414124488830566,
-0.1393354833126068,
-0.01992686837911606,
0.4893089234828949,
-0.13796478509902954,
0.795962929725647,
0.4667837619781494,
0.02208392322063446,
0.09247970581054688,
-0.5243169665336609,
-0.2850278317928314,
0.42522382736206055,
-0.5367497205734253,
0.2334332913160324,
0.22782915830612183,
0.3454744517803192,
0.34291595220565796,
0.33370959758758545,
-0.10802414268255234,
-0.5636641979217529,
-0.005594595335423946,
0.9647143483161926,
-0.09399989247322083,
0.44379839301109314,
-0.25805795192718506,
-0.2456120252609253,
0.12229669094085693,
0.1351127177476883,
0.3255477845668793,
-0.06843174993991852,
-0.61800616979599,
0.5058315396308899,
0.12447013705968857,
-0.23538221418857574,
1.5548574924468994,
-0.17651744186878204,
-0.18319615721702576,
-0.15244071185588837,
0.4953063726425171,
0.027148906141519547,
-0.43045303225517273,
0.2097557634115219,
0.29479309916496277,
0.14981725811958313,
-0.3433968722820282,
-0.0879867747426033,
-0.18320472538471222,
-0.010476810857653618,
0.13280260562896729,
0.6554964780807495,
0.6444990634918213,
-0.046732619404792786,
-0.04821038246154785,
0.1601889282464981,
1.0150638818740845,
0.508529543876648,
-0.29351580142974854,
0.16258534789085388,
-0.5479186773300171,
-0.057926081120967865,
0.6437026858329773,
-0.1929766684770584,
0.13423879444599152,
0.38942286372184753,
0.3073810935020447,
-0.08994874358177185,
-0.08743182569742203,
-0.15844334661960602,
-0.5847253203392029,
0.6567097306251526,
-0.21576093137264252,
-0.032961275428533554,
0.6078072786331177,
0.23736220598220825,
0.2374734729528427,
0.21898779273033142,
0.09865731745958328,
-0.7220876216888428,
-0.2602139413356781,
0.1373644471168518,
0.3323807120323181,
0.24466069042682648,
-0.20640450716018677,
-0.002981968689709902,
0.22816169261932373,
0.29031607508659363,
0.014393240213394165,
-0.30331680178642273,
0.1426001638174057,
-0.16774317622184753,
0.06879496574401855,
0.4129430055618286,
0.19002851843833923,
0.5800631642341614,
-0.3129837214946747,
-0.5489097833633423,
-0.37985315918922424,
0.23736846446990967,
-0.23336981236934662,
0.24781571328639984,
0.010859294794499874,
-0.6399544477462769,
-0.88875412940979,
-0.33986398577690125,
-0.06874281167984009,
-0.23777422308921814,
0.08987655490636826,
-0.1998458355665207,
-0.7459763884544373,
0.43606480956077576,
0.7409455180168152,
0.47026821970939636,
-0.04647733271121979,
-0.325332373380661,
0.09067627787590027,
0.5672152042388916,
-0.31129881739616394,
0.08200469613075256,
-0.23798425495624542,
-0.15868259966373444,
-0.2243504375219345,
0.0429023802280426,
0.021704083308577538,
0.02612084150314331,
-0.35296812653541565,
0.0673205703496933,
-0.03523682430386543,
0.12780261039733887,
0.11407015472650528,
0.16486753523349762,
-0.23310254514217377,
-0.3754832446575165,
-0.30111321806907654,
0.20039090514183044,
-0.38188162446022034,
-0.1458650380373001,
-0.26466432213783264,
-5.760194778442383,
0.2628716826438904,
0.3094349801540375,
0.4249712824821472,
0.24238139390945435,
-0.3332711160182953,
0.45641857385635376,
-0.3236611783504486,
-0.29677265882492065,
-0.1501971334218979,
-0.7605032324790955,
0.3605186343193054,
0.18733413517475128,
0.2744198441505432,
-0.013758241198956966,
0.10120709985494614,
-0.04094658046960831,
-0.2715766727924347,
0.6100712418556213,
0.276225209236145,
-0.15197375416755676,
0.25879883766174316,
-0.12188316881656647,
0.10840190201997757,
-0.12711292505264282,
0.8811014294624329,
-0.18232522904872894,
0.2527434229850769,
-0.6133455634117126,
0.5244064331054688,
0.3564731776714325,
-0.12912777066230774,
-0.09448666870594025,
-0.5900401473045349,
-0.3279678523540497,
0.22116971015930176,
0.23367929458618164,
0.29872819781303406,
0.1717633605003357,
-0.15147623419761658,
-0.37164583802223206,
0.34187084436416626,
-0.07659903168678284,
0.16664230823516846,
0.49508923292160034,
0.4830301105976105,
-0.48757317662239075,
-0.28648942708969116,
-0.3028959035873413,
1.073035717010498,
0.2521861791610718,
-0.7307357788085938,
0.329850435256958,
-0.0897558256983757,
0.17097485065460205,
0.09856297820806503,
0.13370381295681,
0.2542475163936615,
0.3466113805770874,
0.3751106858253479,
0.4904749393463135,
-0.42483338713645935,
-0.1936342716217041,
-0.2720254361629486,
-0.1988992691040039,
-0.47892725467681885,
0.6576852798461914,
0.04406534135341644,
0.3254886269569397,
-0.007829013280570507,
-0.014666580595076084,
0.1278914213180542,
0.016060149297118187,
-1.2485603094100952,
-0.28858017921447754,
-0.3196757137775421,
-0.6548281311988831,
0.13254165649414062,
0.06638264656066895,
-0.2543690800666809,
0.1528710573911667,
-0.1502629816532135,
0.04816146939992905,
0.168782040476799,
-0.44757869839668274,
-0.32028886675834656,
-0.04582282528281212,
0.056063469499349594,
-0.0004853483405895531,
0.0691402330994606,
-0.004932477604597807,
-0.4885437488555908,
-0.06936690956354141,
-0.17569658160209656,
0.28529849648475647,
0.7536581754684448,
0.5747413635253906,
0.0016651253681629896,
0.11883161962032318,
0.11257157474756241,
0.36805275082588196,
-0.15142974257469177,
-0.19231551885604858,
-0.47076210379600525,
-0.5999056100845337,
-0.5798486471176147,
-0.4119015634059906,
0.42493653297424316,
0.019422151148319244,
-0.7109792232513428,
0.5310685634613037,
0.006923258770257235,
-0.21999339759349823,
-0.9062551856040955,
0.5359846949577332,
0.02699093334376812,
-0.41276344656944275,
-0.051351699978113174,
0.34781697392463684,
-0.2002902776002884,
0.03575483337044716,
0.4083164930343628,
0.04984533041715622,
0.0681493878364563,
-0.6058157086372375,
0.513813316822052,
-0.0255658570677042,
0.4920971393585205,
0.08438502252101898,
0.5383807420730591,
0.029182065278291702,
0.07605568319559097,
-0.23798707127571106,
-0.1634736955165863,
0.27376386523246765,
-0.8484452962875366,
0.01986793242394924,
-0.02193525619804859,
0.013230598531663418,
-0.2260669767856598,
-0.08272582292556763,
-0.3278923034667969,
-0.15645740926265717,
0.7071319818496704,
0.6730571389198303,
0.34632185101509094,
0.3797624409198761,
-0.5695092678070068,
-0.40614619851112366,
0.22517067193984985,
0.3379579186439514,
-0.20994111895561218,
0.9514884948730469,
-0.546341598033905,
0.037496116012334824,
0.3439197540283203,
0.11126112192869186,
-0.1952865719795227,
-0.5518395304679871,
-0.5018138289451599,
0.06167399510741234,
-0.28386804461479187,
-1.0841318368911743,
-0.34294453263282776,
-0.03675499185919762,
-0.13440385460853577,
0.0368972010910511,
-0.6703062653541565,
-0.297625869512558,
-0.11866214126348495,
-0.37218940258026123,
-0.3560098111629486,
-0.0996028259396553,
-0.41228508949279785,
0.616763174533844,
-0.24538792669773102,
-0.33464542031288147,
0.038998089730739594,
0.3908136785030365,
-0.5305956602096558,
-0.6142317056655884,
0.15353812277317047,
-0.4323727786540985,
-0.06282814592123032,
0.599919319152832,
-0.42993801832199097,
-0.47228193283081055,
-0.4379090368747711,
-0.14690053462982178,
0.1441318243741989,
-0.2992504835128784,
0.0552302822470665,
0.41315439343452454,
-0.10505568981170654,
-0.37411385774612427,
-0.7541404366493225,
-0.11402025818824768,
0.07658490538597107,
-0.11774913221597672,
-0.3860071301460266,
0.5299804210662842,
0.2493690699338913,
0.2922094762325287,
0.4123033285140991,
0.4136947691440582,
-0.47295090556144714,
0.5227397680282593,
0.06914366781711578,
-0.8013006448745728,
0.09487723559141159,
-0.05481497570872307,
-0.7754943370819092,
-0.16087086498737335,
0.5957428812980652,
-0.10518956929445267,
-0.37729087471961975,
-0.16325174272060394,
-0.11264046281576157,
-0.3594505488872528,
-0.2047230303287506,
0.0034435733687132597,
0.2601204514503479,
-0.4092853367328644,
0.2038624882698059,
-0.8866633772850037,
-0.06317424029111862,
0.3184010684490204,
-0.2065904289484024,
0.6459523439407349,
-0.06933218985795975,
-0.18846316635608673,
0.34349045157432556,
0.4674031436443329,
0.1909206062555313,
-0.2590677738189697,
0.42971527576446533,
-0.498675674200058,
0.601361095905304,
-0.2973322570323944,
0.5279927849769592,
-0.07097788155078888,
0.256549209356308,
0.061347637325525284,
-0.6102136969566345,
-0.3021380305290222,
-0.06246063858270645,
0.04655073210597038,
-0.3509763181209564,
-0.44168341159820557,
0.24881711602210999,
0.13666702806949615,
0.12753412127494812,
-0.42455995082855225,
-0.6471943259239197,
0.5016276240348816,
-0.686704695224762,
-0.25298693776130676,
-0.4726942479610443,
-0.3536989986896515,
-0.11583709716796875,
0.19468379020690918,
-0.040402136743068695,
-0.16017624735832214,
0.21804587543010712,
0.5493197441101074,
0.19479253888130188,
0.42902088165283203,
-0.09269068390130997,
0.10047707706689835,
0.037118569016456604,
-0.48530468344688416,
0.2231200486421585,
0.19810788333415985,
0.4289792478084564,
0.12788014113903046,
0.15416759252548218,
-0.293410986661911,
-0.3716108798980713,
-0.2854005992412567,
0.08268370479345322,
1.145830750465393,
-0.1221206933259964,
0.1467134803533554,
-0.3067750930786133,
0.08968902379274368,
-0.42251235246658325,
0.08113397657871246,
-0.05111105367541313,
0.3126039505004883,
0.19542063772678375,
0.06505521386861801,
-0.249982088804245,
-0.047488629817962646,
-0.14864091575145721,
0.4052587151527405,
0.3439709544181824,
-0.2397100180387497,
-0.03252065181732178,
0.11730623245239258,
-0.13103634119033813,
-0.20916062593460083,
0.49714478850364685,
0.1599617451429367,
0.15229123830795288,
-0.0007392625557258725,
-0.23335620760917664,
0.18377751111984253,
-0.157387837767601,
-0.442961186170578,
0.5637071132659912,
-0.1672249585390091,
0.2747095227241516,
0.09414536505937576,
0.8406336307525635,
-0.277140349149704,
0.4237145781517029,
0.35268622636795044,
-0.3482486605644226,
-0.0015589536633342505,
-0.06267419457435608,
0.0810977965593338,
0.3715159296989441,
0.5911301970481873,
0.3792361915111542,
-0.378255695104599,
-0.05832493305206299,
-0.0052547878585755825,
0.39503106474876404,
0.8964800834655762,
0.20659926533699036,
0.6805692315101624,
0.3175704777240753,
-0.029606206342577934,
0.5291799902915955,
-0.041346773505210876,
0.07353886216878891,
0.49320873618125916,
-0.13054519891738892,
-0.07221045345067978,
0.5234871506690979,
0.067538321018219,
0.05186240002512932,
0.34116441011428833,
0.12432342767715454,
-0.16426056623458862,
0.3043160140514374,
-0.31448572874069214,
0.19083169102668762,
0.7873270511627197,
-0.19618287682533264,
-0.06164497509598732,
-0.13560214638710022,
-0.4881463050842285,
-0.7443163394927979,
0.08521740138530731,
-0.18302519619464874,
0.2595887780189514,
-0.20061394572257996,
-0.3352085053920746,
-1.0498621463775635,
-0.060159824788570404,
-0.11051780730485916,
-0.5266110301017761,
0.06760746240615845,
-0.2566932141780853,
-0.19276981055736542,
0.38357013463974,
-0.15106801688671112,
-0.05162723362445831,
0.2826526463031769,
0.36635348200798035,
0.19676324725151062,
0.7118024826049805,
0.3177088797092438,
0.20446304976940155,
0.3347060978412628,
-0.1638479232788086,
0.740665078163147,
-0.19775539636611938,
0.19532322883605957,
-0.46343809366226196,
0.20852136611938477,
-0.17697054147720337,
0.14313310384750366,
0.14129243791103363,
-0.012421480379998684,
-0.20752932131290436,
0.18013036251068115,
-0.39425307512283325,
-0.4064793884754181,
-0.16657014191150665,
-0.5427054166793823,
-0.039564747363328934,
0.018151067197322845,
-0.19920764863491058,
-0.3383699357509613,
0.3442035913467407,
0.4609057903289795,
-0.11999791860580444,
0.3710702061653137,
-0.05130145698785782,
-0.10719691216945648,
-0.17859603464603424,
-0.005778461694717407,
-0.1807619333267212,
0.7416343688964844,
-0.8197475671768188,
-0.17856448888778687,
-0.5837195515632629,
0.7076756954193115,
0.30493786931037903,
0.15038453042507172,
-0.061033695936203,
0.9016217589378357,
-0.4225488007068634,
-0.24163305759429932,
0.011582457460463047,
-0.16317731142044067,
-0.392987996339798,
-0.1148974820971489,
-0.16519255936145782,
-0.1548871546983719,
0.6002511978149414,
0.5549759864807129,
-0.3364516496658325,
-0.2308407425880432,
0.050875224173069,
0.12813884019851685,
0.07708749920129776,
0.2416549026966095,
-0.008847557008266449,
-0.5601974725723267,
-0.06251736730337143,
-0.4578879773616791,
-0.43189018964767456,
0.053623031824827194,
0.2742093801498413,
0.11372233182191849,
0.6381067633628845,
0.10426273196935654,
-0.07504890859127045,
-0.37754887342453003,
0.122683584690094,
0.16345618665218353,
-2.4967827796936035,
-0.12216246873140335,
-0.47265204787254333,
-0.585809588432312,
-0.5758426785469055,
-0.14025689661502838,
0.2877274751663208,
-0.07935477793216705,
0.27919161319732666,
-0.08500363677740097,
0.02643086202442646,
0.006179105956107378,
0.3486363887786865,
-0.015189454890787601,
-0.29070648550987244,
-0.4685018062591553
] |
228839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blazar | Blazar | A blazar is an active galactic nucleus (AGN) with a relativistic jet (a jet composed of ionized matter traveling at nearly the speed of light) directed very nearly towards an observer. Relativistic beaming of electromagnetic radiation from the jet makes blazars appear much brighter than they would be if the jet were pointed in a direction away from Earth. Blazars are powerful sources of emission across the electromagnetic spectrum and are observed to be sources of high-energy gamma ray photons. Blazars are highly variable sources, often undergoing rapid and dramatic fluctuations in brightness on short timescales (hours to days). Some blazar jets exhibit apparent superluminal motion, another consequence of material in the jet traveling toward the observer at nearly the speed of light.
The blazar category includes BL Lac objects and optically violently variable (OVV) quasars. The generally accepted theory is that BL Lac objects are intrinsically low-power radio galaxies while OVV quasars are intrinsically powerful radio-loud quasars. The name "blazar" was coined in 1978 by astronomer Edward Spiegel to denote the combination of these two classes.
In visible-wavelength images, most blazars appear compact and pointlike, but high-resolution images reveal that they are located at the centers of elliptical galaxies.
Blazars are important topics of research in astronomy and high-energy astrophysics. Blazar research includes investigation of the properties of accretion disks and jets, the central supermassive black holes and surrounding host galaxies, and the emission of high-energy photons, cosmic rays, and neutrinos.
In July 2018, the IceCube Neutrino Observatory team traced a neutrino that hit its Antarctica-based detector in September 2017 to its point of origin in a blazar 3.7 billion light-years away. This was the first time that a neutrino detector was used to locate an object in space.
Structure
Blazars, like all active galactic nuclei (AGN), are thought to be ultimately powered by material falling onto a supermassive black hole at the center of the host galaxy. Gas, dust and the occasional star are captured and spiral into this central black hole, creating a hot accretion disk which generates enormous amounts of energy in the form of photons, electrons, positrons and other elementary particles. This region is relatively small, approximately 10−3 parsecs in size.
There is also a larger opaque toroid extending several parsecs from the black hole, containing a hot gas with embedded regions of higher density. These "clouds" can absorb and re-emit energy from regions closer to the black hole. On Earth, the clouds are detected as emission lines in the blazar spectrum.
Perpendicular to the accretion disk, a pair of relativistic jets carries highly energetic plasma away from the AGN. The jet is collimated by a combination of intense magnetic fields and powerful winds from the accretion disk and toroid. Inside the jet, high energy photons and particles interact with each other and the strong magnetic field. These relativistic jets can extend as far as many tens of kiloparsecs from the central black hole.
All of these regions can produce a variety of observed energy, mostly in the form of a nonthermal spectrum ranging from very low-frequency radio to extremely energetic gamma rays, with a high polarization (typically a few percent) at some frequencies. The nonthermal spectrum consists of synchrotron radiation in the radio to X-ray range, and inverse Compton emission in the X-ray to gamma-ray region. A thermal spectrum peaking in the ultraviolet region and faint optical emission lines are also present in OVV quasars, but faint or non-existent in BL Lac objects.
Relativistic beaming
The observed emission from a blazar is greatly enhanced by relativistic effects in the jet, a process called relativistic beaming. The bulk speed of the plasma that constitutes the jet can be in the range of 95%–99% of the speed of light, although individual particles move at higher speeds in various directions.
The relationship between the luminosity emitted in the rest frame of the jet and the luminosity observed from Earth depends on the characteristics of the jet. These include whether the luminosity arises from a shock front or a series of brighter blobs in the jet, as well as details of the magnetic fields within the jet and their interaction with the moving particles.
A simple model of beaming illustrates the basic relativistic effects connecting the luminosity in the rest frame of the jet, Se, and the luminosity observed on Earth, So: So is proportional to Se × D2, where D is the doppler factor.
When considered in much more detail, three relativistic effects are involved:
Relativistic aberration contributes a factor of D2. Aberration is a consequence of special relativity where directions which appear isotropic in the rest frame (in this case, the jet) appear pushed towards the direction of motion in the observer's frame (in this case, Earth).
Time dilation contributes a factor of D+1. This effect speeds up the apparent release of energy. If the jet emits a burst of energy every minute in its own rest frame, this release would be observed on Earth as much more frequent, perhaps every ten seconds.
Windowing can contribute a factor of D−1 and then works to decrease boosting. This happens for a steady flow because there are then D fewer elements of fluid within the observed window, as each element has been expanded by factor D. However, for a freely propagating blob of material, the radiation is boosted by the full D+3.
Example
Consider a jet with an angle to the line of sight θ = 5° and a speed of 99.9% of the speed of light. The luminosity observed from Earth is 70 times greater than the emitted luminosity. However, if θ is at the minimum value of 0° the jet will appear 600 times brighter from Earth.
Beaming away
Relativistic beaming also has another critical consequence. The jet which is not approaching Earth will appear dimmer because of the same relativistic effects. Therefore, two intrinsically identical jets will appear significantly asymmetric. In the example given above any jet where θ > 35° will be observed on Earth as less luminous than it would be from the rest frame of the jet.
A further consequence is that a population of intrinsically identical AGN scattered in space with random jet orientations will look like a very inhomogeneous population on Earth. The few objects where θ is small will have one very bright jet, while the rest will apparently have considerably weaker jets. Those where θ varies from 90° will appear to have asymmetric jets.
This is the essence behind the connection between blazars and radio galaxies. AGN which have jets oriented close to the line of sight with Earth can appear extremely different from other AGN even if they are intrinsically identical.
Discovery
Many of the brighter blazars were first identified, not as powerful distant galaxies, but as irregular variable stars in our own galaxy. These blazars, like genuine irregular variable stars, changed in brightness on periods of days or years, but with no pattern.
The early development of radio astronomy had shown that there are many bright radio sources in the sky. By the end of the 1950s, the resolution of radio telescopes was sufficient to identify specific radio sources with optical counterparts, leading to the discovery of quasars. Blazars were highly represented among these early quasars, and the first redshift was found for 3C 273, a highly variable quasar which is also a blazar.
In 1968, a similar connection was made between the "variable star" BL Lacertae and a powerful radio source VRO 42.22.01. BL Lacertae shows many of the characteristics of quasars, but the optical spectrum was devoid of the spectral lines used to determine redshift. Faint indications of an underlying galaxy—proof that BL Lacertae was not a star—were found in 1974.
The extragalactic nature of BL Lacertae was not a surprise. In 1972 a few variable optical and radio sources were grouped together and proposed as a new class of galaxy: BL Lacertae-type objects. This terminology was soon shortened to "BL Lacertae object", "BL Lac object" or simply "BL Lac". (The latter term can also mean the original individual blazar and not the entire class.)
, a few hundred BL Lac objects were known. One of the closest blazars is 2.5 billion light years away.
Current view
Blazars are thought to be active galactic nuclei, with relativistic jets oriented close to the line of sight with the observer.
The special jet orientation explains the general peculiar characteristics: high observed luminosity, very rapid variation, high polarization (compared to non-blazar quasars), and the apparent superluminal motions detected along the first few parsecs of the jets in most blazars.
A Unified Scheme or Unified Model has become generally accepted, where highly variable quasars are related to intrinsically powerful radio galaxies, and BL Lac objects are related to intrinsically weak radio galaxies. The distinction between these two connected populations explains the difference in emission line properties in blazars.
Other explanations for the relativistic jet/unified scheme approach which have been proposed include gravitational microlensing and coherent emission from the relativistic jet. Neither of these explains the overall properties of blazars. For example, microlensing is achromatic. That is, all parts of a spectrum would rise and fall together. This is not observed in blazars. However, it is possible that these processes, as well as more complex plasma physics, can account for specific observations or some details.
Examples of blazars include 3C 454.3, 3C 273, BL Lacertae, PKS 2155-304, Markarian 421, Markarian 501 and S5 0014+81. Markarian 501 and S5 0014+81 are also called "TeV Blazars" for their high energy (teraelectron-volt range) gamma-ray emission.
In July 2018, a blazar called TXS 0506+056 was identified as source of high-energy neutrinos by the IceCube project.
See also
Galaxy formation and evolution
List of plasma physics articles
Seyfert galaxy
Notes
External links
AAVSO High Energy Network
Blazar Monitoring List, Purdue University
Expanding Gallery of Hires Blazar Images
NASA:Blazars Artist Conception Video
NASA Cosmic Fog
NASA Gamma Ray Census
Video May 13 2013, NASA's Fermi Shows How Active Galaxies Can Be-Blazars
TED talk on blazars by Jedidah Isler
Active galaxy types | [
-0.09433255344629288,
0.0747857317328453,
0.22450120747089386,
-0.009198176674544811,
-0.048572950065135956,
-0.26277410984039307,
-0.3467229902744293,
0.6263222694396973,
-0.41209152340888977,
-0.07319105416536331,
-0.9158298373222351,
-0.1536819338798523,
-0.5871389508247375,
0.357851505279541,
0.3458465337753296,
0.18469306826591492,
0.30692997574806213,
0.2078368216753006,
-0.45357728004455566,
-0.484616219997406,
0.4060840308666229,
0.0023034641053527594,
0.30772674083709717,
0.020358627662062645,
0.8284846544265747,
-0.22172358632087708,
-0.08877861499786377,
0.11744888871908188,
0.38641348481178284,
0.4710789918899536,
-0.22103655338287354,
0.36970919370651245,
0.05766664072871208,
-0.03924993425607681,
0.40029406547546387,
0.01997770182788372,
-0.306020051240921,
0.2559185028076172,
-0.55492103099823,
-0.540680468082428,
0.13617321848869324,
-0.02846471406519413,
0.07743887603282928,
0.2707132399082184,
-0.8095866441726685,
-0.3593660891056061,
-1.4807153940200806,
0.6071951389312744,
-0.2962161898612976,
-0.009152271784842014,
0.2044307291507721,
0.3960983157157898,
0.07306909561157227,
0.5364493131637573,
-0.4370136260986328,
0.12993380427360535,
-0.40500107407569885,
-0.1552654504776001,
0.30164316296577454,
-0.5534568428993225,
0.5632386207580566,
-0.09813372045755386,
-0.14257311820983887,
-0.10380815714597702,
0.1724398285150528,
0.09130576997995377,
-0.04088897258043289,
-0.3512474000453949,
-0.28752073645591736,
-0.45991387963294983,
-0.20811453461647034,
-0.03186221793293953,
-0.01623179204761982,
-0.09290134906768799,
-0.7905898094177246,
-0.11030550301074982,
0.22242029011249542,
0.01218849141150713,
-0.369517058134079,
0.13353748619556427,
-0.37889882922172546,
0.16304874420166016,
0.07815486192703247,
0.31262731552124023,
-0.14850692451000214,
0.2097279280424118,
-0.981638491153717,
0.19350971281528473,
-0.33296823501586914,
0.600594699382782,
-0.17484481632709503,
-0.4003874659538269,
0.5173530578613281,
0.43514004349708557,
0.3465481400489807,
-0.14380459487438202,
0.39003419876098633,
-0.39293238520622253,
0.011791965924203396,
0.03995085507631302,
-0.3705404996871948,
0.22663339972496033,
0.6788021922111511,
0.2125765085220337,
-0.21319501101970673,
0.10801367461681366,
0.20593920350074768,
-0.2595302164554596,
-0.08758636564016342,
-0.3549209535121918,
-0.3337170481681824,
-0.2988429069519043,
-0.45328590273857117,
0.030742961913347244,
-0.3622060716152191,
-0.30391520261764526,
0.059182703495025635,
-0.12920759618282318,
0.3358496427536011,
0.14176984131336212,
0.2880710959434509,
1.338262677192688,
0.06662945449352264,
-0.12776599824428558,
-0.016771964728832245,
0.13123489916324615,
0.8026427030563354,
0.20004817843437195,
-0.8923372030258179,
0.5415284037590027,
-0.11517579108476639,
0.33602017164230347,
-0.18444563448429108,
0.7072238922119141,
-0.17311988770961761,
-0.37674859166145325,
0.2851952314376831,
-0.28676798939704895,
0.3413894772529602,
0.5699774026870728,
-0.5345286130905151,
-0.4109131395816803,
-0.3256722390651703,
-0.15467695891857147,
0.7114357948303223,
-0.602342963218689,
-0.28533750772476196,
-0.5398916602134705,
-0.12704217433929443,
-0.2492588609457016,
-0.5384575128555298,
0.034298837184906006,
-0.1516934186220169,
-0.03872787579894066,
-0.2817431092262268,
-0.42879632115364075,
-0.005213840864598751,
0.0625777393579483,
-0.4473477303981781,
0.25432899594306946,
0.009189213626086712,
0.3879029452800751,
-0.12406404316425323,
-0.18131013214588165,
-0.09365091472864151,
0.06792577356100082,
0.5082536935806274,
0.3790924549102783,
-0.17269982397556305,
-0.11947636306285858,
-0.04002102464437485,
0.00868714414536953,
0.3229532539844513,
-0.027762768790125847,
-0.45811721682548523,
0.0587671734392643,
0.96708744764328,
-0.14176203310489655,
0.27997690439224243,
-0.1054275780916214,
-0.3609602749347687,
-0.1474350541830063,
-0.02413409948348999,
0.10216757655143738,
-0.45379912853240967,
-0.2403964102268219,
0.22999705374240875,
0.24184653162956238,
0.01402159035205841,
0.34108996391296387,
-0.2854893207550049,
0.13880574703216553,
0.011441796086728573,
-0.35182875394821167,
0.9032377004623413,
-0.4985215961933136,
-0.22647632658481598,
0.5103759765625,
0.010144545696675777,
0.3243052065372467,
-0.7465534210205078,
0.1883893758058548,
0.43168067932128906,
-0.23134875297546387,
0.08786218613386154,
0.07364040613174438,
0.3955025374889374,
0.37888091802597046,
0.13229401409626007,
-0.204860121011734,
0.33575835824012756,
-0.1803792417049408,
0.40876954793930054,
-0.1737585961818695,
0.08984468132257462,
-0.08544103056192398,
-0.953892707824707,
0.6877659559249878,
-0.5012437105178833,
0.19330908358097076,
0.8864625692367554,
-0.3836524784564972,
-0.4343678951263428,
-0.2053370475769043,
-0.2909906506538391,
0.6898654699325562,
0.5034664869308472,
0.016403164714574814,
0.30360203981399536,
-0.7052881717681885,
0.5825139284133911,
-0.43154287338256836,
-0.18504035472869873,
-0.008064063265919685,
-0.7354556322097778,
0.31661906838417053,
0.22570624947547913,
-0.34258395433425903,
0.2166157066822052,
-0.3097090423107147,
-0.36181437969207764,
0.5098764300346375,
-0.4762337803840637,
0.16474269330501556,
-0.15328863263130188,
-0.11246240139007568,
0.0841095820069313,
0.29749950766563416,
-0.10454448312520981,
0.42519477009773254,
-0.701331377029419,
0.07756888121366501,
-0.16943803429603577,
-0.20702169835567474,
0.19934861361980438,
0.06103342026472092,
-0.2160220444202423,
0.26850131154060364,
0.6818193197250366,
-0.007863235659897327,
-0.14366653561592102,
-0.17158997058868408,
0.12295132130384445,
0.2102622538805008,
-0.4166207015514374,
-0.7301768660545349,
-0.10503460466861725,
0.28258466720581055,
0.4411473572254181,
0.6128897666931152,
0.24174705147743225,
0.01615753024816513,
-0.04843535274267197,
-0.054449353367090225,
0.06003691628575325,
-0.5240797400474548,
0.6056748628616333,
0.174341082572937,
-0.029191333800554276,
-0.09171102195978165,
-0.21179071068763733,
0.3538166582584381,
0.4675540030002594,
-0.02313266322016716,
0.025532972067594528,
0.006720845587551594,
0.5737573504447937,
-0.12105301022529602,
0.014294580556452274,
0.06862865388393402,
-0.6349030137062073,
0.06217494234442711,
-0.3320437967777252,
0.1784300059080124,
-0.0938258171081543,
0.6171098947525024,
0.2702523171901703,
-0.243817538022995,
-0.33238375186920166,
-0.1398511379957199,
-0.5227689743041992,
0.329082727432251,
-0.6814518570899963,
0.10915232449769974,
0.30256110429763794,
-0.0554373674094677,
-0.6449527144432068,
0.5971701741218567,
-6.144387722015381,
0.591356098651886,
-0.2265104353427887,
-0.3810361921787262,
-0.370231032371521,
0.4709106683731079,
0.22017554938793182,
-0.23336781561374664,
-0.06172836199402809,
0.06865406781435013,
-0.5405789017677307,
-0.13238881528377533,
-0.5593268871307373,
0.48248812556266785,
0.5525915622711182,
0.33907145261764526,
-0.4197292625904083,
0.22868703305721283,
-0.19060055911540985,
0.2304372787475586,
-0.0080241858959198,
-0.0894206315279007,
-0.022731013596057892,
0.11724042147397995,
0.16418498754501343,
0.05235452577471733,
-0.2295595109462738,
-0.12014687061309814,
0.3438410460948944,
-0.0654698833823204,
0.4357192814350128,
-0.13992618024349213,
-0.3266889750957489,
-0.6450520157814026,
0.26545828580856323,
0.28218376636505127,
0.5765104293823242,
-0.2247236669063568,
0.23925615847110748,
0.22799018025398254,
0.13195274770259857,
0.7361748218536377,
-0.25125670433044434,
-0.42791035771369934,
0.3317442238330841,
-0.2539313733577728,
-0.31236356496810913,
0.22283180058002472,
-0.36028793454170227,
0.15066520869731903,
0.04941025376319885,
-0.4450685977935791,
-0.20879216492176056,
-0.2537413239479065,
-0.029702287167310715,
0.24947896599769592,
0.09320744127035141,
-0.008232408203184605,
-0.44527140259742737,
-0.2188209444284439,
0.37535062432289124,
0.10472632199525833,
-0.26334547996520996,
-0.04012766852974892,
-0.10059215873479843,
0.06863866746425629,
-0.491956889629364,
-0.186834916472435,
1.153281807899475,
0.09373798966407776,
0.10651077330112457,
-0.09721547365188599,
-0.057007431983947754,
-0.8164425492286682,
-0.043539613485336304,
-0.27633151412010193,
-0.1304502934217453,
0.041852083057165146,
-0.18445953726768494,
0.281792014837265,
-0.16478173434734344,
-0.03082052432000637,
0.09370893239974976,
-0.6192516088485718,
-0.1405617743730545,
-0.3124752938747406,
-0.5009740591049194,
0.29286032915115356,
-0.5703782439231873,
0.09521621465682983,
0.48424214124679565,
-0.3888435363769531,
0.3338737189769745,
-0.026835009455680847,
0.4973149001598358,
-0.16066999733448029,
-0.33528926968574524,
-0.4159560799598694,
0.8204129338264465,
0.325593501329422,
0.6003105640411377,
-0.12905384600162506,
0.1638898104429245,
-0.5061005353927612,
-0.3906199634075165,
0.4159201979637146,
-0.5765085220336914,
0.6084461212158203,
0.3159080445766449,
0.30798012018203735,
0.12485522776842117,
0.4948292076587677,
-0.014200005680322647,
-0.16178682446479797,
0.5919421911239624,
0.07154153287410736,
-0.2909257709980011,
0.4957624673843384,
0.34944552183151245,
-0.26556751132011414,
-0.3476018011569977,
0.009981037117540836,
-0.8848366737365723,
0.10743398219347,
-0.31479302048683167,
-0.10684318095445633,
-0.05789555609226227,
0.38367077708244324,
0.1991570144891739,
-0.22772715985774994,
0.2504958510398865,
0.18567021191120148,
0.21484658122062683,
-0.1422816514968872,
0.510237455368042,
-0.30333057045936584,
-0.18664751946926117,
0.04908503592014313,
0.48709845542907715,
-0.36211487650871277,
0.19940826296806335,
-0.09366187453269958,
0.567606508731842,
0.09584218263626099,
0.24775269627571106,
0.28888916969299316,
-0.11559320241212845,
-0.0999707505106926,
-0.027409758418798447,
-0.05538289621472359,
0.31992995738983154,
0.05832590162754059,
-0.10200605541467667,
-0.4170152544975281,
-0.28579461574554443,
-0.17672482132911682,
0.43584731221199036,
-0.09953928738832474,
0.6093814969062805,
-0.32278531789779663,
0.643427848815918,
-0.09056347608566284,
-1.138533115386963,
-0.023500878363847733,
-0.1564626842737198,
-0.06198123097419739,
-0.11430666595697403,
-0.12166141718626022,
-0.03017164021730423,
0.2793494462966919,
-0.28708288073539734,
-0.8058467507362366,
-0.24941080808639526,
-0.2952583134174347,
-0.03502437844872475,
0.1400398313999176,
-0.09432823210954666,
-0.4581664800643921,
0.24385663866996765,
-0.19365058839321136,
-0.11905796825885773,
0.0005329094128683209,
-0.021490704268217087,
0.5846832990646362,
0.21792614459991455,
-0.1876399964094162,
-0.15491953492164612,
0.2948512136936188,
0.013124153949320316,
-0.746076762676239,
0.2726207375526428,
0.23185227811336517,
0.028503069654107094,
0.18933258950710297,
0.20322957634925842,
-0.4009968042373657,
-0.37671783566474915,
0.8408353924751282,
-0.0927165150642395,
-0.11048445850610733,
-0.1492544263601303,
-0.3051424026489258,
-0.6345530152320862,
0.4451862573623657,
0.27096325159072876,
0.08484722673892975,
-0.17466819286346436,
-0.08607369661331177,
0.0612570196390152,
0.02051842212677002,
-0.2934889495372772,
-0.3261644244194031,
0.13609527051448822,
0.6778877973556519,
-0.11383327841758728,
0.7496362924575806,
-0.244338721036911,
-0.014371644705533981,
0.01749863475561142,
0.0457039549946785,
-0.07100595533847809,
0.1651771515607834,
-0.16296622157096863,
-0.28857430815696716,
-0.03906097635626793,
0.6585859656333923,
0.3707354962825775,
-0.3438222408294678,
0.07445701956748962,
-0.049140747636556625,
0.0010379621526226401,
0.032823868095874786,
-0.41131266951560974,
-0.27958470582962036,
-0.22262905538082123,
-0.27991440892219543,
-0.1881737858057022,
-0.4166528880596161,
0.395707368850708,
0.16310158371925354,
0.4950646162033081,
0.24828462302684784,
-0.12293412536382675,
0.42239105701446533,
-0.00558679923415184,
0.5034458041191101,
0.455750972032547,
-0.33871278166770935,
-0.5223981738090515,
-0.1574423909187317,
0.12991878390312195,
-0.6285140514373779,
-0.18703462183475494,
0.1624576598405838,
0.588492751121521,
0.1761336624622345,
-0.2849023640155792,
0.053774986416101456,
0.03452210873365402,
0.27940085530281067,
0.14447885751724243,
-0.08376771211624146,
-0.3264221251010895,
-0.03901495039463043,
-0.2065260410308838,
0.000895940640475601,
-0.270067423582077,
-0.03511353209614754,
0.2391677349805832,
-0.13640424609184265,
0.7075076699256897,
0.21167632937431335,
0.5958912372589111,
0.4622724950313568,
0.3315300941467285,
0.2509431540966034,
-0.053191348910331726,
0.09648046642541885,
-0.31401529908180237,
0.3548399806022644,
-0.6729464530944824,
0.20973895490169525,
0.059903692454099655,
-0.4124101400375366,
0.7305801510810852,
-0.3531191349029541,
0.38586166501045227,
0.05333683639764786,
-0.19708791375160217,
0.13435983657836914,
-0.536847710609436,
0.11093437671661377,
-0.16480553150177002,
-0.10471756756305695,
-0.1411033421754837,
-0.04925726354122162,
0.2075880616903305,
-0.21980100870132446,
0.0661923810839653,
0.07506398856639862,
-0.8811653256416321,
-0.0016786898486316204,
0.14411908388137817,
-0.8039762377738953,
0.4295787811279297,
-0.538166344165802,
0.3693489730358124,
-0.1887718141078949,
-0.12447803467512131,
-0.5479819178581238,
-0.1809784471988678,
-0.13382290303707123,
-0.21949835121631622,
0.48657187819480896,
-0.6323187947273254,
0.29372987151145935,
0.37174347043037415,
-0.2499254047870636,
0.6392102837562561,
0.44235140085220337,
0.24702800810337067,
0.5149105191230774,
-0.12333633750677109,
-0.18005922436714172,
-0.40823376178741455,
-0.2662535607814789,
0.2479798048734665,
-0.1599358469247818,
-0.6516074538230896,
0.028496896848082542,
0.7510878443717957,
0.11602220684289932,
-0.12262282520532608,
0.5921200513839722,
-0.4369468688964844,
-0.13641224801540375,
0.41943004727363586,
-0.372088760137558,
-0.801572322845459,
0.3387730121612549,
0.1506863236427307,
0.7722822427749634,
-0.3155442774295807,
0.17078356444835663,
-0.25831902027130127,
-0.1894272416830063,
0.5373561382293701,
0.679280698299408,
-0.06488367915153503,
0.46846485137939453,
-0.13914607465267181,
0.01022202055901289,
-0.08913881331682205,
0.07767891883850098,
0.22983099520206451,
-0.2933991849422455,
0.6840020418167114,
-0.1804366558790207,
-0.4849016070365906,
-0.39193254709243774,
-0.37909919023513794,
1.0300456285476685,
0.3755929172039032,
0.14154678583145142,
-0.06909943372011185,
-0.2518576383590698,
-0.4892239272594452,
-0.3433597683906555,
0.09442438185214996,
-0.15552620589733124,
0.04777132347226143,
0.3630376160144806,
-0.22343266010284424,
0.29109030961990356,
-0.24675171077251434,
0.03444903343915939,
-0.25468704104423523,
0.6731248497962952,
-0.07886677235364914,
-0.038946039974689484,
0.19777937233448029,
0.011902551166713238,
-0.06741563975811005,
-0.3012428283691406,
0.1974414885044098,
-0.11190058290958405,
0.036802273243665695,
-0.08980441838502884,
0.07436494529247284,
0.15094932913780212,
0.20430868864059448,
-0.33803790807724,
0.22223980724811554,
0.04894993454217911,
0.11422085016965866,
0.05500582233071327,
0.02913777530193329,
0.31962963938713074,
-0.06183521822094917,
0.1171528697013855,
0.10405274480581284,
0.02526613511145115,
-0.08839098364114761,
0.06108260154724121,
-0.42783015966415405,
0.004910674877464771,
-0.0037422103341668844,
0.1520773321390152,
-0.6109498739242554,
0.7440546751022339,
0.8699889779090881,
-0.6877368092536926,
-0.38771936297416687,
0.470427542924881,
0.6140711307525635,
0.5082409977912903,
0.34329327940940857,
-0.03717067837715149,
0.033858124166727066,
-0.23841173946857452,
0.3347899317741394,
-0.2240726202726364,
0.07209743559360504,
0.16422738134860992,
0.16133607923984528,
-0.36967650055885315,
0.5229374170303345,
-0.29729700088500977,
-0.33929285407066345,
0.10064683854579926,
0.4324991703033447,
-0.18893146514892578,
-0.3335301876068115,
0.669625461101532,
-0.2997662425041199,
-0.8690868020057678,
0.22685019671916962,
0.17862381041049957,
0.23594065010547638,
-0.3201061487197876,
0.09645816683769226,
0.1563464105129242,
-0.16763636469841003,
-0.40093404054641724,
0.042463019490242004,
0.12348988652229309,
0.23346370458602905,
-0.009854613803327084,
-0.3365209698677063,
0.5024437308311462,
-0.30094921588897705,
-0.3226848840713501,
0.09348566085100174,
0.02025781013071537,
-0.06605219095945358,
-0.11077309399843216,
0.09462350606918335,
-0.01471450924873352,
0.010766634717583656,
0.018025096505880356
] |
228840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extracellular%20matrix | Extracellular matrix | In biology, the extracellular matrix (ECM) is a three-dimensional network consisting of extracellular macromolecules and minerals, such as collagen, enzymes, glycoproteins and hydroxyapatite that provide structural and biochemical support to surrounding cells. Because multicellularity evolved independently in different multicellular lineages, the composition of ECM varies between multicellular structures; however, cell adhesion, cell-to-cell communication and differentiation are common functions of the ECM.
The animal extracellular matrix includes the interstitial matrix and the basement membrane. Interstitial matrix is present between various animal cells (i.e., in the intercellular spaces). Gels of polysaccharides and fibrous proteins fill the interstitial space and act as a compression buffer against the stress placed on the ECM. Basement membranes are sheet-like depositions of ECM on which various epithelial cells rest. Each type of connective tissue in animals has a type of ECM: collagen fibers and bone mineral comprise the ECM of bone tissue; reticular fibers and ground substance comprise the ECM of loose connective tissue; and blood plasma is the ECM of blood.
The plant ECM includes cell wall components, like cellulose, in addition to more complex signaling molecules. Some single-celled organisms adopt multicellular biofilms in which the cells are embedded in an ECM composed primarily of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).
Structure
Components of the ECM are produced intracellularly by resident cells and secreted into the ECM via exocytosis. Once secreted, they then aggregate with the existing matrix. The ECM is composed of an interlocking mesh of fibrous proteins and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs).
Proteoglycans
Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) are carbohydrate polymers and mostly attached to extracellular matrix proteins to form proteoglycans (hyaluronic acid is a notable exception; see below). Proteoglycans have a net negative charge that attracts positively charged sodium ions (Na+), which attracts water molecules via osmosis, keeping the ECM and resident cells hydrated. Proteoglycans may also help to trap and store growth factors within the ECM.
Described below are the different types of proteoglycan found within the extracellular matrix.
Heparan sulfate
Heparan sulfate (HS) is a linear polysaccharide found in all animal tissues. It occurs as a proteoglycan (PG) in which two or three HS chains are attached in close proximity to cell surface or ECM proteins. It is in this form that HS binds to a variety of protein ligands and regulates a wide variety of biological activities, including developmental processes, angiogenesis, blood coagulation, and tumour metastasis.
In the extracellular matrix, especially basement membranes, the multi-domain proteins perlecan, agrin, and collagen XVIII are the main proteins to which heparan sulfate is attached.
Chondroitin sulfate
Chondroitin sulfates contribute to the tensile strength of cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and walls of the aorta. They have also been known to affect neuroplasticity.
Keratan sulfate
Keratan sulfates have a variable sulfate content and, unlike many other GAGs, do not contain uronic acid. They are present in the cornea, cartilage, bones, and the horns of animals.
Non-proteoglycan polysaccharide
Hyaluronic acid
Hyaluronic acid (or "hyaluronan") is a polysaccharide consisting of alternating residues of D-glucuronic acid and N-acetylglucosamine, and unlike other GAGs, is not found as a proteoglycan. Hyaluronic acid in the extracellular space confers upon tissues the ability to resist compression by providing a counteracting turgor (swelling) force by absorbing significant amounts of water. Hyaluronic acid is thus found in abundance in the ECM of load-bearing joints. It is also a chief component of the interstitial gel. Hyaluronic acid is found on the inner surface of the cell membrane and is translocated out of the cell during biosynthesis.
Hyaluronic acid acts as an environmental cue that regulates cell behavior during embryonic development, healing processes, inflammation, and tumor development. It interacts with a specific transmembrane receptor, CD44.
Proteins
Collagen
Collagens are the most abundant protein in the ECM. In fact, collagen is the most abundant protein in the human body and accounts for 90% of bone matrix protein content. Collagens are present in the ECM as fibrillar proteins and give structural support to resident cells. Collagen is exocytosed in precursor form (procollagen), which is then cleaved by procollagen proteases to allow extracellular assembly. Disorders such as Ehlers Danlos Syndrome, osteogenesis imperfecta, and epidermolysis bullosa are linked with genetic defects in collagen-encoding genes. The collagen can be divided into several families according to the types of structure they form:
Fibrillar (Type I, II, III, V, XI)
Facit (Type IX, XII, XIV)
Short chain (Type VIII, X)
Basement membrane (Type IV)
Other (Type VI, VII, XIII)
Elastin
Elastins, in contrast to collagens, give elasticity to tissues, allowing them to stretch when needed and then return to their original state. This is useful in blood vessels, the lungs, in skin, and the ligamentum nuchae, and these tissues contain high amounts of elastins. Elastins are synthesized by fibroblasts and smooth muscle cells. Elastins are highly insoluble, and tropoelastins are secreted inside a chaperone molecule, which releases the precursor molecule upon contact with a fiber of mature elastin. Tropoelastins are then deaminated to become incorporated into the elastin strand. Disorders such as cutis laxa and Williams syndrome are associated with deficient or absent elastin fibers in the ECM.
Extracellular vesicles
In 2016, Huleihel et al., reported the presence of DNA, RNA, and Matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) within ECM bioscaffolds. MBVs shape and size were found to be consistent with previously described exosomes. MBVs cargo includes different protein molecules, lipids, DNA, fragments, and miRNAs. Similar to ECM bioscaffolds, MBVs can modify the activation state of macrophages and alter different cellular properties such as; proliferation, migration and cell cycle. MBVs are now believed to be an integral and functional key component of ECM bioscaffolds.
Cell adhesion proteins
Fibronectin
Fibronectins are glycoproteins that connect cells with collagen fibers in the ECM, allowing cells to move through the ECM. Fibronectins bind collagen and cell-surface integrins, causing a reorganization of the cell's cytoskeleton to facilitate cell movement. Fibronectins are secreted by cells in an unfolded, inactive form. Binding to integrins unfolds fibronectin molecules, allowing them to form dimers so that they can function properly. Fibronectins also help at the site of tissue injury by binding to platelets during blood clotting and facilitating cell movement to the affected area during wound healing.
Laminin
Laminins are proteins found in the basal laminae of virtually all animals. Rather than forming collagen-like fibers, laminins form networks of web-like structures that resist tensile forces in the basal lamina. They also assist in cell adhesion. Laminins bind other ECM components such as collagens and nidogens.
Development
There are many cell types that contribute to the development of the various types of extracellular matrix found in the plethora of tissue types. The local components of ECM determine the properties of the connective tissue.
Fibroblasts are the most common cell type in connective tissue ECM, in which they synthesize, maintain, and provide a structural framework; fibroblasts secrete the precursor components of the ECM, including the ground substance. Chondrocytes are found in cartilage and produce the cartilaginous matrix. Osteoblasts are responsible for bone formation.
Physiology
Stiffness and elasticity
The ECM can exist in varying degrees of stiffness and elasticity, from soft brain tissues to hard bone tissues. The elasticity of the ECM can differ by several orders of magnitude. This property is primarily dependent on collagen and elastin concentrations, and it has recently been shown to play an influential role in regulating numerous cell functions.
Cells can sense the mechanical properties of their environment by applying forces and measuring the resulting backlash. This plays an important role because it helps regulate many important cellular processes including cellular contraction, cell migration, cell proliferation, differentiation and cell death (apoptosis).
Inhibition of nonmuscle myosin II blocks most of these effects, indicating that they are indeed tied to sensing the mechanical properties of the ECM, which has become a new focus in research during the past decade.
Effect on gene expression
Differing mechanical properties in ECM exert effects on both cell behaviour and gene expression. Although the mechanism by which this is done has not been thoroughly explained, adhesion complexes and the actin-myosin cytoskeleton, whose contractile forces are transmitted through transcellular structures are thought to play key roles in the yet to be discovered molecular pathways.
Effect on differentiation
ECM elasticity can direct cellular differentiation, the process by which a cell changes from one cell type to another. In particular, naive mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been shown to specify lineage and commit to phenotypes with extreme sensitivity to tissue-level elasticity. MSCs placed on soft matrices that mimic brain differentiate into neuron-like cells, showing similar shape, RNAi profiles, cytoskeletal markers, and transcription factor levels. Similarly stiffer matrices that mimic muscle are myogenic, and matrices with stiffnesses that mimic collagenous bone are osteogenic.
Durotaxis
Stiffness and elasticity also guide cell migration, this process is called durotaxis. The term was coined by Lo CM and colleagues when they discovered the tendency of single cells to migrate up rigidity gradients (towards more stiff substrates) and has been extensively studied since. The molecular mechanisms behind durotaxis are thought to exist primarily in the focal adhesion, a large protein complex that acts as the primary site of contact between the cell and the ECM. This complex contains many proteins that are essential to durotaxis including structural anchoring proteins (integrins) and signaling proteins (adhesion kinase (FAK), talin, vinculin, paxillin, α-actinin, GTPases etc.) which cause changes in cell shape and actomyosin contractility. These changes are thought to cause cytoskeletal rearrangements in order to facilitate directional migration.
Function
Due to its diverse nature and composition, the ECM can serve many functions, such as providing support, segregating tissues from one another, and regulating intercellular communication. The extracellular matrix regulates a cell's dynamic behavior. In addition, it sequesters a wide range of cellular growth factors and acts as a local store for them. Changes in physiological conditions can trigger protease activities that cause local release of such stores. This allows the rapid and local growth factor-mediated activation of cellular functions without de novo synthesis.
Formation of the extracellular matrix is essential for processes like growth, wound healing, and fibrosis. An understanding of ECM structure and composition also helps in comprehending the complex dynamics of tumor invasion and metastasis in cancer biology as metastasis often involves the destruction of extracellular matrix by enzymes such as serine proteases, threonine proteases, and matrix metalloproteinases.
The stiffness and elasticity of the ECM has important implications in cell migration, gene expression, and differentiation. Cells actively sense ECM rigidity and migrate preferentially towards stiffer surfaces in a phenomenon called durotaxis. They also detect elasticity and adjust their gene expression accordingly which has increasingly become a subject of research because of its impact on differentiation and cancer progression.
In the brain, where hyaluronan is the main ECM component, the matrix display both structural and signaling properties. High-molecular weight hyaluronan acts as a diffusional barrier that can modulate diffusion in the extracellular space locally. Upon matrix degradation, hyaluronan fragments are released to the extracellular space, where they function as pro-inflammatory molecules, orchestrating the response of immune cells such as microglia.
Cell adhesion
Many cells bind to components of the extracellular matrix. Cell adhesion can occur in two ways; by focal adhesions, connecting the ECM to actin filaments of the cell, and hemidesmosomes, connecting the ECM to intermediate filaments such as keratin. This cell-to-ECM adhesion is regulated by specific cell-surface cellular adhesion molecules (CAM) known as integrins. Integrins are cell-surface proteins that bind cells to ECM structures, such as fibronectin and laminin, and also to integrin proteins on the surface of other cells.
Fibronectins bind to ECM macromolecules and facilitate their binding to transmembrane integrins. The attachment of fibronectin to the extracellular domain initiates intracellular signalling pathways as well as association with the cellular cytoskeleton via a set of adaptor molecules such as actin.
Clinical significance
Extracellular matrix has been found to cause regrowth and healing of tissue. Although the mechanism of action by which extracellular matrix promotes constructive remodeling of tissue is still unknown, researchers now believe that Matrix-bound nanovesicles (MBVs) are a key player in the healing process. In human fetuses, for example, the extracellular matrix works with stem cells to grow and regrow all parts of the human body, and fetuses can regrow anything that gets damaged in the womb. Scientists have long believed that the matrix stops functioning after full development. It has been used in the past to help horses heal torn ligaments, but it is being researched further as a device for tissue regeneration in humans.
In terms of injury repair and tissue engineering, the extracellular matrix serves two main purposes. First, it prevents the immune system from triggering from the injury and responding with inflammation and scar tissue. Next, it facilitates the surrounding cells to repair the tissue instead of forming scar tissue.
For medical applications, the required ECM is usually extracted from pig bladders, an easily accessible and relatively unused source. It is currently being used regularly to treat ulcers by closing the hole in the tissue that lines the stomach, but further research is currently being done by many universities as well as the U.S. Government for wounded soldier applications. As of early 2007, testing was being carried out on a military base in Texas. Scientists are using a powdered form on Iraq War veterans whose hands were damaged in the war.
Not all ECM devices come from the bladder. Extracellular matrix coming from pig small intestine submucosa are being used to repair "atrial septal defects" (ASD), "patent foramen ovale" (PFO) and inguinal hernia. After one year, 95% of the collagen ECM in these patches is replaced by the normal soft tissue of the heart.
Extracellular matrix proteins are commonly used in cell culture systems to maintain stem and precursor cells in an undifferentiated state during cell culture and function to induce differentiation of epithelial, endothelial and smooth muscle cells in vitro. Extracellular matrix proteins can also be used to support 3D cell culture in vitro for modelling tumor development.
A class of biomaterials derived from processing human or animal tissues to retain portions of the extracellular matrix are called ECM Biomaterial.
In plants
Plant cells are tessellated to form tissues. The cell wall is the relatively rigid structure surrounding the plant cell. The cell wall provides lateral strength to resist osmotic turgor pressure, but it is flexible enough to allow cell growth when needed; it also serves as a medium for intercellular communication. The cell wall comprises multiple laminate layers of cellulose microfibrils embedded in a matrix of glycoproteins, including hemicellulose, pectin, and extensin. The components of the glycoprotein matrix help cell walls of adjacent plant cells to bind to each other. The selective permeability of the cell wall is chiefly governed by pectins in the glycoprotein matrix. Plasmodesmata (singular: plasmodesma) are pores that traverse the cell walls of adjacent plant cells. These channels are tightly regulated and selectively allow molecules of specific sizes to pass between cells.
In Pluriformea and Filozoa
The extracellular matrix functionality of animals (Metazoa) developed in the common ancestor of the Pluriformea and Filozoa, after the Ichthyosporea diverged.
History
The importance of the extracellular matrix has long been recognized (Lewis, 1922), but the usage of the term is more recent (Gospodarowicz et al., 1979).
See also
Anoikis
Interstitium
Perineuronal net
Temporal feedback
References
Further reading
Extracellular matrix: review of its roles in acute and chronic wounds
Usage of Extracellular Matrix from pigs to regrow human extremities
Sound Medicine - Heart Tissue Regeneration - July 19 interview discussing ECM and its uses in cardiac tissue repair (requires MP3 playback).
Matrices (biology)
Tissues (biology) | [
0.24954023957252502,
0.34429073333740234,
0.28462284803390503,
0.2922697365283966,
0.3397819697856903,
0.07245948910713196,
-0.36955705285072327,
0.4610620141029358,
-0.3067423403263092,
-0.6775983572006226,
-0.17116807401180267,
0.006693194154649973,
-0.7499777674674988,
0.22934071719646454,
0.4439443349838257,
0.31910330057144165,
0.6189872622489929,
0.5888087153434753,
0.1269111931324005,
-0.19420674443244934,
-0.32787004113197327,
0.051902782171964645,
0.7078693509101868,
0.2189670354127884,
0.2444404661655426,
-0.6358270049095154,
0.06766306608915329,
-0.02800724469125271,
0.1273794323205948,
-0.23493129014968872,
-0.3392234742641449,
0.30907142162323,
-0.26374903321266174,
0.12777024507522583,
0.2809661328792572,
-0.09282252192497253,
-0.7058701515197754,
0.07025608420372009,
-0.20700567960739136,
-0.5733907222747803,
0.14416182041168213,
0.08617216348648071,
-0.16315433382987976,
0.5574949979782104,
-0.9046284556388855,
-0.12272688001394272,
-0.7848784327507019,
0.8406373858451843,
-0.9065890312194824,
0.42727720737457275,
-0.18188728392124176,
0.20143195986747742,
0.45635053515434265,
0.24319927394390106,
0.025319818407297134,
0.3376041650772095,
-0.433057576417923,
0.04942775517702103,
0.35256606340408325,
-0.6406139731407166,
-0.03087521530687809,
0.18973854184150696,
-0.2251117080450058,
-0.0899241715669632,
0.23533663153648376,
0.010026545263826847,
0.2588692605495453,
-0.7272095084190369,
-0.27448830008506775,
-0.3638870120048523,
-0.22812658548355103,
-0.13600276410579681,
0.07572484016418457,
0.481418639421463,
-0.582504391670227,
-0.6586114168167114,
0.030016619712114334,
-0.1558585911989212,
-0.2155933976173401,
0.06340286135673523,
-0.3872503638267517,
1.0173836946487427,
0.01961391232907772,
0.24443811178207397,
0.39629682898521423,
0.0845954567193985,
-1.1550531387329102,
0.3868701159954071,
-0.6025816202163696,
0.30962222814559937,
0.009856120683252811,
0.32625502347946167,
0.5789638161659241,
0.34813985228538513,
0.4970269501209259,
-0.4473262429237366,
0.18939949572086334,
-0.482292503118515,
0.08491367101669312,
0.5533347129821777,
-0.3258148729801178,
-0.07246042042970657,
0.1877780258655548,
-0.5818430185317993,
-0.3070183992385864,
0.17635709047317505,
-0.16186054050922394,
0.150920569896698,
-0.16034696996212006,
0.2585541009902954,
-0.31725218892097473,
-0.10952290147542953,
-0.42244306206703186,
0.035536300390958786,
0.12822307646274567,
0.11703918129205704,
-0.1285080909729004,
-0.5213385820388794,
-0.4785720705986023,
-0.06653513759374619,
-0.004209645092487335,
1.1850043535232544,
0.16772004961967468,
-0.18210694193840027,
-0.23157331347465515,
-0.05153191089630127,
-0.05062844976782799,
-0.12738020718097687,
-0.6958175897598267,
0.5172446370124817,
0.18855170905590057,
0.9565269947052002,
-0.16518597304821014,
0.5193539261817932,
-0.13096238672733307,
-0.4008619785308838,
0.040699444711208344,
0.4983607828617096,
0.6540223360061646,
-0.020796440541744232,
-0.8092878460884094,
-0.8928020000457764,
0.04633033648133278,
-0.0782666951417923,
0.6004853844642639,
-1.169310450553894,
0.2799796164035797,
-0.6019260287284851,
-0.08231411129236221,
-0.24740485846996307,
-0.03866616263985634,
-0.32866328954696655,
-0.1296377182006836,
-0.48667606711387634,
-0.3616868257522583,
0.3320125639438629,
0.5882862210273743,
0.15281228721141815,
-0.06219010800123215,
0.20534302294254303,
0.2511100769042969,
-0.031220540404319763,
-0.40017056465148926,
-0.47090718150138855,
-0.17214812338352203,
-0.023891150951385498,
0.8855211138725281,
0.6758463382720947,
0.4363667070865631,
0.41258612275123596,
-0.0447966568171978,
-0.38338524103164673,
0.24168506264686584,
-0.13007305562496185,
-0.8130865693092346,
-0.3782857358455658,
0.4487627148628235,
0.2534221410751343,
0.3183963894844055,
-0.24954238533973694,
-0.6607186198234558,
0.192551389336586,
0.2644101083278656,
-0.5715475678443909,
-0.1361183077096939,
-0.35355281829833984,
0.6348298192024231,
-0.08660498261451721,
-0.2672889828681946,
0.010718868114054203,
0.06561435759067535,
-0.23338215053081512,
0.019860846921801567,
-0.6294457316398621,
1.393319010734558,
-0.4942213296890259,
-0.5245440006256104,
0.7520761489868164,
-0.008616148494184017,
-0.022465771064162254,
-0.3544570505619049,
0.044726625084877014,
0.14301356673240662,
-0.7545262575149536,
0.303387850522995,
0.08000250160694122,
0.6774726510047913,
-0.3995555639266968,
0.24483874440193176,
-0.21655195951461792,
0.383073627948761,
0.15834295749664307,
0.46894335746765137,
-0.3856845498085022,
0.6621694564819336,
-0.693256139755249,
-0.6720089316368103,
0.6699329614639282,
-0.9675288200378418,
0.014006853103637695,
1.0716309547424316,
-0.20661954581737518,
0.16202321648597717,
0.6495004892349243,
-0.4526965320110321,
0.8238317966461182,
0.20548906922340393,
-0.08088737726211548,
0.7854729890823364,
-0.2586611211299896,
0.2538772225379944,
-0.703834056854248,
0.0363069511950016,
0.008988229557871819,
-0.6299343705177307,
0.07961181551218033,
0.6311565637588501,
0.21067990362644196,
-0.06604104489088058,
-0.35387516021728516,
-0.16218824684619904,
0.3806445598602295,
-0.9083536267280579,
-0.5263841152191162,
-0.05488986149430275,
-0.5922746658325195,
-0.03129477798938751,
-0.0781935602426529,
-0.6462293863296509,
0.11585163325071335,
-0.5431379079818726,
-0.33609166741371155,
0.17239885032176971,
0.010921486653387547,
0.43468761444091797,
-0.49639156460762024,
0.10970475524663925,
0.3021344244480133,
0.06615114212036133,
0.07405611872673035,
0.02887088432908058,
-0.1752447932958603,
0.09686354547739029,
-0.10801567137241364,
-0.5505839586257935,
-0.4520428776741028,
0.21896618604660034,
-0.4912857115268707,
0.8141063451766968,
1.075758934020996,
1.0452330112457275,
0.18922637403011322,
-0.7346817851066589,
0.23101936280727386,
0.3183121979236603,
-0.8540078997612,
0.47010642290115356,
0.17406393587589264,
-0.14885903894901276,
-0.43431559205055237,
-0.27687329053878784,
0.5653394460678101,
0.40548834204673767,
0.13496381044387817,
0.10746008902788162,
-0.5463273525238037,
-0.34717047214508057,
-0.3244534730911255,
0.2763209044933319,
-0.2037188559770584,
-0.2774401009082794,
0.3698028028011322,
-0.38792285323143005,
-0.42895182967185974,
-0.0616755448281765,
0.7076788544654846,
0.2587890625,
-0.341930627822876,
0.11474746465682983,
-0.08329877257347107,
-0.2546928822994232,
-0.04358143359422684,
-0.2310197502374649,
0.2518156170845032,
0.17390848696231842,
0.103970006108284,
0.09955625981092453,
0.6725195646286011,
-5.457536220550537,
0.1790747493505478,
0.1348227709531784,
-0.19481723010540009,
0.7367954254150391,
0.15510152280330658,
0.3980126678943634,
0.5139871835708618,
0.13411487638950348,
-0.2985835075378418,
-0.431802898645401,
-0.009797990322113037,
-0.12270458787679672,
0.49500009417533875,
0.5522733926773071,
0.15162695944309235,
0.31098297238349915,
0.3325672149658203,
0.13407181203365326,
0.1944139152765274,
-0.37962082028388977,
-0.44773221015930176,
0.22396138310432434,
0.4613165855407715,
-0.2399805635213852,
-0.22854100167751312,
-0.7786351442337036,
-0.04234598949551582,
0.09662296622991562,
-0.16474224627017975,
-0.5080857872962952,
-0.9029103517532349,
0.3724508285522461,
-0.9175907969474792,
0.4611724019050598,
0.4780530333518982,
-0.12761259078979492,
0.21831896901130676,
0.22989898920059204,
-0.9667741060256958,
-0.0290810689330101,
0.7570604085922241,
-0.28217992186546326,
-0.30284664034843445,
0.656101644039154,
-0.15268518030643463,
-0.5012244582176208,
0.11136814206838608,
-0.2362217903137207,
0.8761492967605591,
-0.1775582879781723,
0.40996095538139343,
0.8656413555145264,
-0.12036814540624619,
0.5106388330459595,
0.18730591237545013,
0.5748035311698914,
0.17772835493087769,
-0.3417263627052307,
-0.2763611376285553,
0.1688922494649887,
-0.3948157727718353,
-0.44070717692375183,
-0.026156093925237656,
-0.2938102185726166,
-0.16819129884243011,
-1.0400859117507935,
-0.07899565249681473,
0.7788679599761963,
-0.07110219448804855,
-0.24379032850265503,
0.10867315530776978,
-0.07488191872835159,
-0.37399300932884216,
0.34563392400741577,
-0.19866777956485748,
0.5757719874382019,
-0.4430425763130188,
0.5664506554603577,
-0.03626289963722229,
-0.6766312122344971,
0.24617734551429749,
-0.34113800525665283,
-0.03763113543391228,
0.0558527447283268,
-0.40274667739868164,
-0.21003267168998718,
-0.2324436604976654,
-0.9285390377044678,
0.14589932560920715,
0.4555455446243286,
-0.005043191369622946,
0.3636644780635834,
0.9611716270446777,
0.5752934217453003,
-0.5319027900695801,
0.10093601793050766,
0.1845911145210266,
0.8519342541694641,
-0.04691394791007042,
1.1926664113998413,
-0.02218087762594223,
-0.22270803153514862,
-0.7674360871315002,
-0.535037100315094,
-0.11169281601905823,
-0.8706052303314209,
0.42780980467796326,
0.008437851443886757,
-0.02650490030646324,
-0.4809313416481018,
0.6722090840339661,
-0.10437290370464325,
-0.853026270866394,
0.40641316771507263,
0.1954852044582367,
-0.6424567103385925,
0.23318880796432495,
0.9101275205612183,
-0.1550370305776596,
-0.12428316473960876,
0.05903923884034157,
0.1553504765033722,
0.3985722064971924,
-0.06475835293531418,
0.02487853728234768,
0.3446926474571228,
0.277087539434433,
-0.2898420989513397,
-0.8369577527046204,
0.7849614024162292,
0.44965776801109314,
-0.32361820340156555,
-0.12003850936889648,
0.11528115719556808,
-0.09709296375513077,
-0.04718342423439026,
0.32374221086502075,
-0.04972659796476364,
-0.7572345733642578,
0.6073853373527527,
-0.6845381855964661,
0.05858625844120979,
-0.02823551930487156,
-0.109336256980896,
0.23635780811309814,
-0.31781381368637085,
0.4799337387084961,
-0.11176163703203201,
0.3701438903808594,
0.24370253086090088,
-0.20521493256092072,
0.15457649528980255,
-0.08779523521661758,
0.1661539226770401,
-0.36671480536460876,
0.4106139540672302,
-0.21445295214653015,
0.5828520655632019,
-0.8004595041275024,
0.40468868613243103,
0.305057555437088,
-0.4235363304615021,
0.2858096957206726,
-0.7860224843025208,
-0.1991623491048813,
-0.19935491681098938,
-0.27808940410614014,
-0.10529657453298569,
0.4868147075176239,
-0.013553611934185028,
0.0336616188287735,
-0.637066125869751,
-0.47429922223091125,
-0.4591982364654541,
-0.19501252472400665,
-0.3324396312236786,
0.14640125632286072,
-0.014224245212972164,
-0.21747267246246338,
0.3380873501300812,
-0.5872403383255005,
-0.025444796308875084,
0.02928808331489563,
0.5518897771835327,
-0.16517160832881927,
0.4025634825229645,
-0.1569828987121582,
-0.2577614486217499,
-0.541301965713501,
0.21115455031394958,
-0.026439780369400978,
0.27088069915771484,
-0.44528546929359436,
0.05551305040717125,
0.27721190452575684,
-0.1804908812046051,
0.5922266244888306,
-0.0042066737078130245,
-0.3904900550842285,
-0.10726391524076462,
0.44358885288238525,
-1.0211189985275269,
0.3113546371459961,
0.481694757938385,
-0.11065143346786499,
-0.13223180174827576,
0.11010641604661942,
0.2129744440317154,
0.006667771842330694,
-0.6159554719924927,
0.16207042336463928,
-0.2183552384376526,
0.31807616353034973,
-0.2466135323047638,
0.4311840534210205,
0.10548246651887894,
-0.20862942934036255,
-0.25289949774742126,
0.32868292927742004,
0.07322321087121964,
0.37965506315231323,
0.4933277666568756,
0.1925446093082428,
0.06511631608009338,
0.32250720262527466,
0.48229333758354187,
-0.015200559049844742,
-0.36118796467781067,
-0.15406641364097595,
-0.01650829426944256,
-0.45226168632507324,
-0.2505596876144409,
-0.11560487002134323,
0.018430475145578384,
-0.015212553553283215,
0.14403678476810455,
-0.13806508481502533,
0.08635591715574265,
0.3200301229953766,
0.11433375626802444,
0.8753544688224792,
-0.49288731813430786,
-0.13405738770961761,
0.2827129065990448,
1.0314912796020508,
0.11808767914772034,
-0.7063490748405457,
-0.39884790778160095,
-0.30071860551834106,
0.7585440278053284,
-0.7987512350082397,
0.10077967494726181,
0.14459343254566193,
0.8345797061920166,
-0.23150768876075745,
-0.0404144823551178,
-0.305978000164032,
0.17444032430648804,
0.10806215554475784,
-0.3504234254360199,
-0.8680798411369324,
-0.13017138838768005,
0.07091649621725082,
0.25545406341552734,
-0.355290949344635,
-0.16609756648540497,
0.20513266324996948,
0.0952850878238678,
-0.1306789517402649,
0.5714871287345886,
0.35007110238075256,
0.1749102622270584,
0.15825150907039642,
-0.020425565540790558,
0.13163821399211884,
0.22229455411434174,
-0.2816984951496124,
0.028092486783862114,
-0.3095255494117737,
-0.9257650375366211,
0.07036083191633224,
0.1956205666065216,
0.024914303794503212,
0.4402046203613281,
-0.8650203347206116,
0.2663933336734772,
-0.008796768262982368,
-0.1248549073934555,
-0.26851147413253784,
-0.40771523118019104,
-0.38786736130714417,
-0.0025501789059489965,
-0.33578112721443176,
0.21247898042201996,
0.08000185340642929,
0.1098891943693161,
0.3540961444377899,
0.23782148957252502,
0.2675395905971527,
-0.9722472429275513,
0.5168165564537048,
0.07880695164203644,
-0.7373929023742676,
0.06740953028202057,
0.3933756649494171,
0.021678686141967773,
-0.6117273569107056,
-0.748779296875,
-0.063184954226017,
0.08270540833473206,
-0.1653328537940979,
-0.05053851753473282,
0.12282751500606537,
-0.2990571856498718,
-0.06608384102582932,
0.28475862741470337,
-0.8607618808746338,
0.46116864681243896,
0.4059140980243683,
-0.08179173618555069,
0.1487780660390854,
-0.07792540639638901,
0.14620083570480347,
-0.04308151826262474,
0.24399907886981964,
0.4951851963996887,
-0.02969244122505188,
-0.9258745312690735,
0.45757660269737244,
0.8793877959251404,
0.3912402391433716,
-0.47983628511428833,
0.33317914605140686,
-0.16142041981220245,
-0.38927626609802246,
0.20204706490039825,
-0.4250882863998413,
-0.3314357399940491,
1.1336594820022583,
-0.15174072980880737,
0.9668207764625549,
-0.7663808465003967,
0.14617960155010223,
-0.06172692030668259,
0.15802673995494843,
0.0329742431640625,
-0.21710674464702606,
-0.5699949860572815,
0.5518550276756287,
0.25228291749954224,
-0.47532108426094055,
0.22374311089515686,
0.37034764885902405,
-0.30883780121803284,
-0.35551244020462036,
1.16041100025177,
-0.47155851125717163,
-0.0739343985915184,
-0.0374976210296154,
-0.5833954811096191,
0.6313797831535339,
0.3115023076534271,
0.3106231987476349,
-0.1284899115562439,
-0.25616520643234253,
0.10651203244924545,
-0.7238343358039856,
0.09201303869485855,
-0.4010838270187378,
0.24572935700416565,
0.8895523548126221,
-0.8171155452728271,
-0.09512178599834442,
-0.4124514162540436,
-0.1741015613079071,
0.020240016281604767,
0.4848688244819641,
0.23422835767269135,
0.17440636456012726,
0.05836310610175133,
0.20176120102405548,
0.11305893212556839,
-1.0600004196166992,
-0.30677011609077454,
-0.22505433857440948,
0.09007514268159866,
0.07845810800790787,
0.34184885025024414,
0.6284696459770203,
0.5350929498672485,
-0.7631387710571289,
0.6645461916923523,
-0.22387126088142395,
0.11513783782720566,
0.2941248118877411,
-0.16313320398330688,
1.0013920068740845,
0.4499167501926422,
-0.027827877551317215,
-0.1750376969575882,
0.8361586928367615,
-0.07757443934679031,
0.24620585143566132,
-0.38088423013687134,
0.33346667885780334,
-0.6777732968330383,
-0.4923308789730072,
-0.6530646681785583,
0.13679242134094238,
0.8896343111991882,
-0.5415390729904175,
-0.3442527651786804,
0.08044459670782089,
0.42333662509918213,
0.566197395324707,
0.052525658160448074,
-0.3853006064891815,
0.29987430572509766,
0.11381684988737106,
0.19917818903923035,
0.01730249635875225,
0.1886368691921234,
0.16130515933036804,
-0.4433111846446991,
0.009443361312150955,
0.5970831513404846,
0.4237593114376068,
-0.5868483185768127,
0.41085538268089294,
-0.3643684685230255,
0.3560183644294739,
-0.790461003780365,
0.47101104259490967,
-0.28309792280197144,
0.022505981847643852,
-0.26173135638237,
-0.023990018293261528,
0.16739314794540405,
-0.5250695943832397,
0.015624873340129852,
0.3065115511417389,
0.12839555740356445,
-0.26936596632003784,
-0.10843878984451294,
0.12783750891685486,
-0.3426254689693451,
-0.21901850402355194,
-0.5975048542022705,
-0.005944422911852598,
0.3289989233016968,
-0.870138943195343,
0.30406591296195984,
0.07709311693906784,
-0.3598356544971466,
0.4326779544353485,
-0.06630493700504303,
-0.04101572185754776,
0.08506596088409424,
0.6631677746772766
] |
228845 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective%20tissue | Connective tissue | Connective tissue is one of the many basic types of animal tissue, along with epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue. In embryology it develops from the mesoderm. Connective tissue is found in between other tissues everywhere in the body, including the nervous system. The three outer membranes (the meninges) that envelop the brain and spinal cord are composed of dense inert connective tissue.
All connective tissue consists of three main components: fibers (elastic and collagen fibers), ground substance and cells. Not all authorities include blood or lymph as connective tissue because they lack the fiber component. All are immersed in the body water. The cells of connective tissue include fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells and leucocytes.
The term "connective tissue" (in German, Bindegewebe) was introduced in 1830 by Johannes Peter Müller. The tissue was already recognized as a distinct class in the 18th century.
Types
Connective tissue can be broadly classified into connective tissue proper and special connective tissue. Connective tissue proper consists of loose connective tissue and dense connective tissue (which is further subdivided into dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues.) Loose and dense connective tissue are distinguished by the ratio of ground substance to fibrous tissue. Loose connective tissue has much more ground substance and a relative lack of fibrous tissue, while the reverse is true of dense connective tissue. Dense regular connective tissue, found in structures such as tendons and ligaments, is characterized by collagen fibers arranged in an orderly parallel fashion, giving it tensile strength in one direction. Dense irregular connective tissue provides strength in multiple directions by its dense bundles of fibers arranged in all directions.
Special connective tissue consists of reticular connective tissue, adipose tissue, cartilage, bone, and blood. Other kinds of connective tissues include fibrous, elastic, and lymphoid connective tissues. Fibroareolar tissue is a mix of fibrous and areolar tissue. Fibromuscular tissue is made up of fibrous tissue and muscular tissue. New vascularised connective tissue that forms in the process of wound healing is termed granulation tissue.
Type I collagen is present in many forms of connective tissue, and makes up about 25% of the total protein content of the mammalian body.
Bone & cartilage can also be grouped into supportive connective tissue. Blood and lymph are fluid connective tissues.
Characteristics
The ground substance is a clear, colorless, and viscous fluid containing glycosaminoglycans and proteoglycans allowing fixation of Collagen fibers in intercellular spaces. Examples of non-fibrous connective tissue include adipose tissue (fat) and blood. Adipose tissue gives "mechanical cushioning" to the body, among other functions. Although there is no dense collagen network in adipose tissue, groups of adipose cells are kept together by collagen fibers and collagen sheets in order to keep fat tissue under compression in place (for example, the sole of the foot). Both the ground substance and proteins (fibers) create the matrix for connective tissue.
Function
Connective tissue has a wide variety of functions that depend on the types of cells and the different classes of fibers involved. Loose and dense irregular connective tissue, formed mainly by fibroblasts and collagen fibers, have an important role in providing a medium for oxygen and nutrients to diffuse from capillaries to cells, and carbon dioxide and waste substances to diffuse from cells back into circulation. They also allow organs to resist stretching and tearing forces. Dense regular connective tissue, which forms organized structures, is a major functional component of tendons, ligaments and aponeuroses, and is also found in highly specialized organs such as the cornea. Elastic fibers, made from elastin and fibrillin, also provide resistance to stretch forces. They are found in the walls of large blood vessels and in certain ligaments, particularly in the ligamenta flava.
In hematopoietic and lymphatic tissues, reticular fibers made by reticular cells provide the stroma—or structural support—for the parenchyma—or functional part—of the organ.
Mesenchyme is a type of connective tissue found in developing organs of embryos that is capable of differentiation into all types of mature connective tissue. Another type of relatively undifferentiated connective tissue is the mucous connective tissue known as Wharton's jelly, found inside the umbilical cord.
Various types of specialized tissues and cells are classified under the spectrum of connective tissue, and are as diverse as brown and white adipose tissue, blood, cartilage and bone. Cells of the immune system, such as macrophages, mast cells, plasma cells and eosinophils are found scattered in loose connective tissue, providing the ground for starting inflammatory and immune responses upon the detection of antigens.
Clinical significance
There are many types of connective tissue disorders, such as:
Connective tissue neoplasms including sarcomas such as hemangiopericytoma and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor in nervous tissue.
Congenital diseases include Marfan syndrome and Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome.
Myxomatous degeneration – a pathological weakening of connective tissue.
Mixed connective tissue disease – a disease of the autoimmune system, also undifferentiated connective tissue disease.
Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – a major autoimmune disease of connective tissue
Scurvy, caused by a deficiency of vitamin C which is necessary for the synthesis of collagen.
Fibromuscular dysplasia is a disease of the blood vessels that leads to an abnormal growth in the arterial wall.
See also
Endometrium
Fascia
Parametrium
Notes and references
External links
Overview, University of Kansas
Connective tissue atlas, University of Iowa
Heritable disorders of connective tissue US National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases
Connective tissue photomicrographs | [
0.45214441418647766,
0.022331535816192627,
-0.001521432539448142,
0.5067747235298157,
0.15679983794689178,
0.16359391808509827,
0.0923956036567688,
0.36662280559539795,
-0.0587267205119133,
-0.9879865646362305,
-0.21536505222320557,
0.5234134793281555,
-0.2976107895374298,
0.4322105646133423,
-0.21391373872756958,
0.2981741428375244,
0.48005202412605286,
0.6846281886100769,
0.16307267546653748,
0.017242681235074997,
-0.8781793117523193,
-0.07900027930736542,
0.21353839337825775,
0.25961172580718994,
0.33278751373291016,
-0.5351412892341614,
0.10049979388713837,
0.13987813889980316,
0.4598660469055176,
-0.33979323506355286,
0.070018470287323,
0.4692070484161377,
-0.5216361284255981,
-0.2601781487464905,
0.17730233073234558,
-0.5657978653907776,
-0.3264627456665039,
-0.2791147232055664,
-0.21507734060287476,
-0.44172239303588867,
-0.2311435341835022,
0.4516509175300598,
0.2456662505865097,
0.5432118773460388,
-0.2633337080478668,
0.06691912561655045,
-1.185596227645874,
1.2152971029281616,
-0.1406967043876648,
0.9310391545295715,
-0.20466682314872742,
-0.1415262371301651,
0.820825457572937,
0.41677069664001465,
-0.05894196406006813,
0.21557365357875824,
-0.3915892243385315,
0.3761364817619324,
0.4835793673992157,
-0.401493638753891,
-0.06366041302680969,
0.4406627416610718,
-0.09887778759002686,
-0.2007206380367279,
0.36902952194213867,
0.21295541524887085,
0.32292237877845764,
0.020175736397504807,
-0.6005606651306152,
-0.2970796823501587,
0.2279045134782791,
-0.6993898749351501,
0.4238680601119995,
0.6781690716743469,
0.07575611025094986,
-0.7067385911941528,
-0.17476516962051392,
-0.5071350336074829,
0.413230299949646,
0.6477288007736206,
-0.5819892883300781,
1.2183367013931274,
0.06040223687887192,
0.4163961112499237,
0.8441917300224304,
-0.012402068823575974,
-0.6726093888282776,
0.9514005184173584,
-0.9233125448226929,
0.6691153645515442,
0.3804166615009308,
0.06638357043266296,
0.5536922216415405,
-0.2984621524810791,
0.5561398863792419,
-0.2850472033023834,
0.33040863275527954,
0.42232516407966614,
0.047746021300554276,
0.5125679969787598,
-0.21936750411987305,
0.14273124933242798,
0.20542903244495392,
-1.0237135887145996,
0.002098747296258807,
-0.1094413548707962,
-0.2405783236026764,
0.06326328963041306,
-0.358165442943573,
0.2015978991985321,
-0.0035981396213173866,
-0.6035550236701965,
-0.36869511008262634,
0.6451849937438965,
-0.3053993582725525,
0.9519938826560974,
-0.026921244338154793,
-0.05143265426158905,
-0.6313453316688538,
-0.08491457998752594,
-0.306484192609787,
0.41056862473487854,
-0.1394590586423874,
-0.024024557322263718,
-0.6548425555229187,
0.3349408805370331,
0.2576223909854889,
0.4835699796676636,
-0.4699435830116272,
0.31357523798942566,
0.24337883293628693,
1.2191026210784912,
-0.3992239236831665,
-0.3396967947483063,
0.49167966842651367,
-0.6588504910469055,
0.0008483878336846828,
0.49209269881248474,
0.9235416650772095,
0.2082420438528061,
-0.48844292759895325,
-0.6416990160942078,
-0.53599613904953,
-0.03870271518826485,
0.6010260581970215,
-0.6361088752746582,
-0.3078018128871918,
-0.5204077363014221,
-0.10327675193548203,
-0.300500750541687,
0.01446626242250204,
0.30013084411621094,
-0.1043655052781105,
0.42267510294914246,
-0.680009126663208,
0.8160149455070496,
0.7745903730392456,
-0.15119735896587372,
-0.11657882481813431,
0.20795591175556183,
0.2697111964225769,
-0.13166086375713348,
-0.3016926646232605,
-0.28565365076065063,
-0.260974258184433,
-0.2896759510040283,
0.2941894829273224,
0.5560961365699768,
0.6806893348693848,
0.7633559703826904,
0.08569587022066116,
-0.32488730549812317,
0.04809015244245529,
-0.36802706122398376,
0.2673351764678955,
-0.0922134518623352,
0.36163631081581116,
-0.3184959292411804,
0.3174850642681122,
0.12442691624164581,
-0.7302978038787842,
0.7508256435394287,
0.2533082664012909,
-0.366301029920578,
0.3216390311717987,
-0.19205991923809052,
0.6421188712120056,
-0.11561786383390427,
-0.08794188499450684,
-0.08093491941690445,
-0.1765064001083374,
-0.8414947986602783,
0.16353148221969604,
-0.12447508424520493,
1.5327706336975098,
-0.1639295220375061,
-0.11281903088092804,
0.542299211025238,
0.428335964679718,
0.12550289928913116,
0.21696603298187256,
0.20540645718574524,
-0.00447201170027256,
-0.7032826542854309,
-0.43431347608566284,
0.28841882944107056,
0.5975646376609802,
-0.3913004398345947,
0.20573924481868744,
-0.513740599155426,
0.28079578280448914,
0.17891697585582733,
0.6361750960350037,
-0.744965672492981,
0.5115947127342224,
-0.5784968137741089,
-0.11101160943508148,
0.7111634612083435,
-0.2159183919429779,
-0.5389009714126587,
0.9868044853210449,
-0.17511048913002014,
0.048845548182725906,
0.4728531837463379,
0.010710579343140125,
1.213416576385498,
0.09802006185054779,
0.0793185606598854,
0.560805082321167,
0.2731316387653351,
-0.227065309882164,
-0.1855788230895996,
-0.17512759566307068,
-0.5197235345840454,
-0.7614637613296509,
-0.10133150964975357,
0.21712061762809753,
-0.1501089483499527,
-0.08117567002773285,
-0.36561015248298645,
0.14485815167427063,
0.34121790528297424,
-0.7921870946884155,
-0.5507674813270569,
0.031860530376434326,
-0.49899330735206604,
0.36565548181533813,
-0.44872161746025085,
-0.20006589591503143,
0.024606281891465187,
-0.3866404891014099,
-0.3138486444950104,
0.12826159596443176,
-0.07579264789819717,
0.29627376794815063,
-0.6412736177444458,
-0.1543988734483719,
0.21409521996974945,
-0.31107959151268005,
-0.5548338890075684,
0.22702133655548096,
-0.5250257253646851,
-0.16247788071632385,
-0.12495912611484528,
-0.5524964928627014,
-0.5288199782371521,
-0.11811667680740356,
-0.6305347084999084,
0.8999912738800049,
0.5291739106178284,
1.0111759901046753,
-0.27099892497062683,
0.013823145069181919,
0.04158305376768112,
-0.14697006344795227,
-0.8932526707649231,
0.7265821099281311,
0.419517457485199,
-0.5080105066299438,
-0.38158056139945984,
0.19238613545894623,
0.6586530208587646,
0.6612371206283569,
-0.22040480375289917,
-0.22437670826911926,
-0.0839809775352478,
0.24523156881332397,
-0.232496976852417,
-0.6093905568122864,
0.04209525138139725,
-0.14706096053123474,
0.37539735436439514,
-0.5549876093864441,
-0.11728408187627792,
0.335342675447464,
0.702994704246521,
0.09309358149766922,
0.2000272125005722,
-0.11592790484428406,
-0.6560641527175903,
-0.2615828514099121,
0.199991375207901,
-0.4591885805130005,
-0.3999101519584656,
-0.2591700255870819,
0.2213655710220337,
-0.307416707277298,
-0.059476155787706375,
-5.271720886230469,
0.05398673936724663,
0.18149790167808533,
-0.25710609555244446,
0.7338365316390991,
0.02051001414656639,
0.7571119070053101,
0.19654354453086853,
0.2970869243144989,
-0.14963603019714355,
-0.439573734998703,
0.7413268089294434,
0.35248833894729614,
0.30937203764915466,
0.7560123205184937,
0.13463377952575684,
0.09676023572683334,
-0.23392276465892792,
0.1456829011440277,
-0.1009625792503357,
-0.4916512668132782,
-0.07354554533958435,
-0.154373437166214,
0.8794549703598022,
-0.4700876772403717,
-0.4736367464065552,
-0.5979776978492737,
0.2596258819103241,
-0.3386334776878357,
-0.043119851499795914,
-0.03415181487798691,
-0.3975897431373596,
0.3529081642627716,
-0.11291468143463135,
-0.00853582751005888,
-0.08988144248723984,
-0.000491875340230763,
0.2549095153808594,
0.03777645528316498,
-0.9580462574958801,
-0.23647530376911163,
0.7128638029098511,
-0.21857225894927979,
-0.0009218929917551577,
0.4269212782382965,
-0.7823095917701721,
-0.3872760832309723,
-0.38642653822898865,
-0.1761840432882309,
1.2596354484558105,
-0.03425697609782219,
0.4646955132484436,
1.0238966941833496,
-0.1367555856704712,
0.5501536726951599,
0.21678029000759125,
0.8800219297409058,
-0.02024940401315689,
-0.34767547249794006,
-0.45865535736083984,
-0.23680110275745392,
-0.28421470522880554,
-0.5181536674499512,
-0.2169463038444519,
-0.7450920343399048,
-0.24061278998851776,
-1.0655354261398315,
-0.5341417193412781,
-0.05697527155280113,
0.029632598161697388,
-0.3870588541030884,
0.5935988426208496,
-0.35970672965049744,
-0.33361589908599854,
0.46611112356185913,
-0.6846981048583984,
-0.044558703899383545,
-0.37192100286483765,
0.5913821458816528,
0.10947709530591965,
-0.4254992604255676,
-0.003376058768481016,
-0.8931535482406616,
0.4505619406700134,
0.04478311911225319,
0.007486274931579828,
-0.10996919870376587,
-0.35218819975852966,
-0.45148736238479614,
-0.3929036855697632,
0.6662724614143372,
-0.09849156439304352,
-0.19085806608200073,
0.7453387379646301,
0.31259530782699585,
0.04194634407758713,
0.3020678460597992,
0.27501583099365234,
0.5505014657974243,
-0.5942342281341553,
0.8818804621696472,
0.02020423114299774,
-0.24137446284294128,
-0.3135867118835449,
-0.003224608488380909,
0.03994189202785492,
-0.4438692033290863,
0.34380143880844116,
0.5340155363082886,
-0.06110168248414993,
0.06338794529438019,
0.3694327175617218,
-0.35460150241851807,
-0.4965013265609741,
0.46705347299575806,
-0.06729096174240112,
-0.5912558436393738,
0.09354117512702942,
0.5157613158226013,
-0.2740883231163025,
0.35293495655059814,
0.06996111571788788,
0.4844956696033478,
-0.035115282982587814,
-0.142257422208786,
0.06655953824520111,
0.20663784444332123,
0.08995455503463745,
-0.5923628211021423,
-0.21030312776565552,
0.6665405631065369,
0.7270801663398743,
0.19787657260894775,
-0.05441581830382347,
-0.059768788516521454,
-0.2986418306827545,
-0.1818469762802124,
0.12754221260547638,
0.284372478723526,
-0.8189335465431213,
0.6182788610458374,
-0.2547038197517395,
-0.5289779901504517,
-0.15749065577983856,
0.5474294424057007,
0.39595383405685425,
-0.8016791343688965,
-0.30874761939048767,
-0.19208873808383942,
0.13286378979682922,
-0.21344074606895447,
-0.5451437830924988,
-0.5258771181106567,
-0.5338436961174011,
-0.34523752331733704,
-0.254877507686615,
0.35847753286361694,
0.045425161719322205,
0.1363266408443451,
-0.5704969167709351,
-0.43183061480522156,
0.49311667680740356,
-0.6432733535766602,
0.380084753036499,
-0.5208167433738708,
-0.37786123156547546,
-0.7654368281364441,
-0.33944541215896606,
-0.46680593490600586,
0.2226634919643402,
-0.019416065886616707,
-0.026289651170372963,
-0.21919657289981842,
-0.2862793505191803,
0.0815882757306099,
-0.14252805709838867,
0.09557066112756729,
0.4147776663303375,
-0.616809606552124,
-0.20007266104221344,
0.49637970328330994,
-0.8676313161849976,
0.0192915890365839,
0.04040312394499779,
0.5117902159690857,
-0.33841535449028015,
0.10508231073617935,
-0.2524814009666443,
-0.4770263433456421,
0.07913309335708618,
0.41697970032691956,
-0.04381967708468437,
0.03544824197888374,
-0.01544396486133337,
-0.07502005249261856,
-0.32786354422569275,
0.3276505768299103,
-0.4422755241394043,
-0.2513137459754944,
-1.0001566410064697,
-0.11036133766174316,
0.8105155229568481,
-1.2928067445755005,
0.4623144567012787,
0.5184459686279297,
-0.5050957202911377,
0.08328602463006973,
0.6510347127914429,
0.16701044142246246,
-0.10500933974981308,
-0.38963019847869873,
-0.44813263416290283,
0.17363934218883514,
-0.08577389270067215,
-0.5839280486106873,
0.4915075898170471,
0.2536182999610901,
-0.33082324266433716,
-0.34530067443847656,
-0.09724650532007217,
0.1751992106437683,
-0.6282267570495605,
-0.2676379382610321,
-0.17606478929519653,
-0.09577012807130814,
0.4019433557987213,
0.2078734040260315,
-0.7619740962982178,
0.34506335854530334,
-0.16821831464767456,
-0.2596358358860016,
-0.5307126641273499,
0.14647197723388672,
-0.012669836170971394,
-0.05446041002869606,
-0.1244087740778923,
-0.48607879877090454,
-0.06206434592604637,
0.12427936494350433,
0.1288301795721054,
0.7257996201515198,
1.0694329738616943,
-0.7403321862220764,
-0.13959357142448425,
-0.18015331029891968,
0.5574329495429993,
-0.04179617017507553,
-0.49482566118240356,
-0.8330271244049072,
-0.16573113203048706,
0.4241768717765808,
-0.6885747909545898,
-0.7728105187416077,
-0.10610426962375641,
0.3661147356033325,
0.22275060415267944,
0.05768420547246933,
-0.1641133427619934,
-0.06453186273574829,
-0.170212984085083,
-0.7152583599090576,
-0.5810942649841309,
0.18589216470718384,
0.27861541509628296,
0.8593440651893616,
-0.14986343681812286,
-0.0607781819999218,
-0.35996565222740173,
0.2517275810241699,
-0.19803139567375183,
0.5013419985771179,
0.4587319493293762,
0.3692041039466858,
-0.445254385471344,
-0.14114335179328918,
0.07273548096418381,
0.29384443163871765,
-0.11654408276081085,
0.06622904539108276,
-0.13055641949176788,
-0.5463995337486267,
0.029566245153546333,
0.19321958720684052,
-0.08448220789432526,
0.228196382522583,
-0.4409230947494507,
0.7119454145431519,
0.011064895428717136,
-0.5448724031448364,
-0.6100819706916809,
0.15563072264194489,
-0.4482094347476959,
0.052833929657936096,
0.07133816927671432,
0.39014849066734314,
0.2791787385940552,
-0.37279006838798523,
0.536522626876831,
0.20721440017223358,
-0.12341044843196869,
-1.1767354011535645,
0.8365286588668823,
0.029727349057793617,
-0.7129418849945068,
0.13806948065757751,
0.4738140106201172,
-0.14483623206615448,
-0.3811679482460022,
0.09283604472875595,
0.008352131582796574,
-0.05862094461917877,
-0.030347343534231186,
0.11315080523490906,
0.4685288965702057,
-0.4624417722225189,
-0.16488967835903168,
0.13162387907505035,
-0.4542180001735687,
0.6631385087966919,
0.4879092574119568,
-0.17398230731487274,
-0.6207609176635742,
0.027629796415567398,
0.15328554809093475,
-0.19296374917030334,
0.7001085877418518,
-0.05396789312362671,
0.05334152653813362,
0.0901065468788147,
0.8293961882591248,
1.4175136089324951,
0.09737905859947205,
-0.0038348305970430374,
0.2957872152328491,
0.24275027215480804,
-0.313935786485672,
0.21483607590198517,
-0.4983191192150116,
-0.5528678297996521,
1.1746424436569214,
0.11980137228965759,
0.46029919385910034,
0.026646172627806664,
0.5460867285728455,
-0.30791616439819336,
0.46035000681877136,
-0.024497395381331444,
0.361052542924881,
-0.35060906410217285,
-0.018045606091618538,
0.7140229940414429,
-0.10474114865064621,
0.4103580415248871,
0.4678703844547272,
-0.08108429610729218,
-0.3636963665485382,
0.9238035678863525,
-0.49471279978752136,
-0.17540813982486725,
-0.053318094462156296,
-0.4268980026245117,
0.2429846227169037,
0.07193110883235931,
0.5787110924720764,
0.0965944305062294,
-0.43497583270072937,
0.6911407113075256,
-0.7802742719650269,
0.08897042274475098,
0.01775498315691948,
0.06885207444429398,
0.7831552624702454,
-0.6375734210014343,
0.4859693646430969,
-0.7064352035522461,
-0.24684973061084747,
-0.011319003999233246,
0.29652464389801025,
0.38999485969543457,
-0.03367506340146065,
-0.36621159315109253,
0.47190001606941223,
-0.026204437017440796,
-0.7833277583122253,
-0.4677756130695343,
0.06483122706413269,
-0.16390042006969452,
0.4604688584804535,
0.5528604388237,
0.30415305495262146,
-0.011025328189134598,
-0.577581524848938,
0.5371542572975159,
-0.10680300742387772,
-0.1599442958831787,
0.5166907906532288,
-0.24543167650699615,
0.5839884281158447,
0.30892977118492126,
0.20492073893547058,
-0.309938907623291,
1.088865041732788,
0.24421027302742004,
0.1646362841129303,
-0.8983936905860901,
0.63453608751297,
-0.2932050824165344,
-0.30796000361442566,
-0.6694808602333069,
-0.04261278733611107,
0.4998108744621277,
0.3779163360595703,
0.02750653401017189,
-0.009645603597164154,
-0.005956545937806368,
0.6854448318481445,
-0.03603512421250343,
-0.4701522886753082,
-0.016420023515820503,
-0.23007623851299286,
0.047469548881053925,
-0.46200770139694214,
-0.05023713409900665,
0.04606400430202484,
0.05880158022046089,
0.07054448872804642,
0.20556198060512543,
0.4262923002243042,
-0.32729658484458923,
0.432327538728714,
-0.5871650576591492,
1.0987944602966309,
-0.46425431966781616,
0.002846368821337819,
-0.033324409276247025,
0.09058164805173874,
-0.6300815939903259,
0.14388713240623474,
0.3922794461250305,
-0.4253760576248169,
-0.05026262626051903,
-0.13517065346240997,
-0.8293278217315674,
-0.004057690035551786,
-0.32578280568122864,
-0.13442058861255646,
-0.3183255195617676,
-0.5034934282302856,
-0.6097418665885925,
0.5135171413421631,
-0.05589809641242027,
-1.056805968284607,
0.34541213512420654,
-0.2904823124408722,
-0.4919722080230713,
0.42129769921302795,
-0.20978111028671265,
-0.29806962609291077,
-0.22238606214523315,
0.6535027623176575
] |
228848 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flensburg%20Firth | Flensburg Firth | Flensburg Firth or Flensborg Fjord (; ) is the westernmost inlet of the Baltic Sea. It forms part of the border between Germany to the south and Denmark to the north, on the eastern side of Schleswig Holstein and Jutland, respectively. Its length is between 40 and 50 km, depending on where it is considered to begin. It has the largest area of all the fjords of East Jutland, which are a special type of inlet, different from geological fjords.
Two peninsulas, Broager on the northern side and Holnis on the southern side, divide the inlet into an outer and an inner part. West of them, near the Danish coast, there are two small islands called Okseøerne (meaning Ox Isles).
On the Danish side, the outer part of the northern end of the firth is partly closed off by the island of Als, with the town of Sønderborg on it. Towards the west, continuing on the Danish side, are Broager, Egernsund, Gråsten, Rinkenæs, Sønderhav, and Kollund.
In Germany at the Danish border there is Harrislee, at the inner end of the inlet the town of Flensburg, east of it on the southern shore the town of Glücksburg and the villages of Munkbrarup, Langballig, Westerholz, Quern, Steinberg, Niesgrau, Gelting, and Nieby.
The tourist attractions of the Flensburg Firth are the church of Broager, the Ox Isles, Sønderborg Castle, Glücksburg Castle, the Naval Academy Mürwik (known as the Red Castle) and the harbour of Flensburg.
References
External links
Map
Google maps satellite image
Fjords of Denmark
Förden of Germany
Firth
Denmark–Germany border
International fjords
Bays of Schleswig-Holstein | [
-0.029104826971888542,
-0.15548796951770782,
1.1643351316452026,
-0.2552175521850586,
-0.1254459172487259,
0.21831513941287994,
0.4705802798271179,
0.16970930993556976,
-0.2671702206134796,
-0.11648641526699066,
-0.31527474522590637,
0.3087736666202545,
-0.08673450350761414,
0.44204390048980713,
-0.08227156847715378,
0.6774099469184875,
0.00589345907792449,
0.273321270942688,
0.3613148629665375,
-0.2673504054546356,
-0.05995500832796097,
-0.24221375584602356,
0.5373485088348389,
-0.3135976195335388,
0.4328451156616211,
-0.140658438205719,
0.18693095445632935,
0.6125931143760681,
-0.31417933106422424,
0.315451055765152,
-0.03740246221423149,
0.4854257106781006,
-0.7814843654632568,
0.11096978187561035,
0.3111737370491028,
0.37585118412971497,
0.1486591100692749,
-0.19767624139785767,
-0.4992460310459137,
-0.22560375928878784,
-0.4508943259716034,
0.15989120304584503,
0.10703589022159576,
-0.07907923310995102,
-0.14526793360710144,
-0.37566670775413513,
-0.8535422086715698,
0.200164794921875,
-0.23707637190818787,
0.2696046233177185,
-0.5893969535827637,
0.20183901488780975,
0.057505059987306595,
0.10803849250078201,
0.19251178205013275,
0.19787824153900146,
-0.9776578545570374,
0.05550561845302582,
0.18309442698955536,
-0.07903263717889786,
0.2896440625190735,
0.24033671617507935,
0.07837459444999695,
0.53045254945755,
0.7538430690765381,
0.2837440073490143,
-0.03785136714577675,
0.14945577085018158,
-0.16481198370456696,
-0.5885236859321594,
0.0398380346596241,
0.31928813457489014,
-0.2433658242225647,
0.09013188630342484,
-0.7120623588562012,
0.41185715794563293,
-0.24290750920772552,
0.15866567194461823,
0.40541186928749084,
0.1904316395521164,
0.4966593086719513,
0.16420893371105194,
0.8665134906768799,
0.09929461777210236,
0.16111186146736145,
-0.4816248416900635,
-0.1539270430803299,
0.3022259771823883,
-0.9703990817070007,
0.29352566599845886,
0.07556553184986115,
0.09220107644796371,
0.21649520099163055,
0.024239514023065567,
-0.009527081623673439,
-0.056007977575063705,
-0.13883796334266663,
0.5749016404151917,
0.011846352368593216,
0.5102902054786682,
-0.18045037984848022,
0.33133816719055176,
0.32044151425361633,
0.20133936405181885,
-0.5538589954376221,
-0.4453468322753906,
-0.37706097960472107,
-0.41785845160484314,
0.026967287063598633,
-0.09111655503511429,
-0.7805351614952087,
0.1333467662334442,
0.5797083377838135,
0.4370220899581909,
-0.2234068661928177,
0.2313133031129837,
-0.04318983480334282,
-0.5174835920333862,
0.29339176416397095,
-0.18094223737716675,
0.9869258999824524,
0.11482460051774979,
-0.11270471662282944,
-0.47493088245391846,
0.01589948683977127,
-0.12552759051322937,
-0.042025551199913025,
0.6662343740463257,
-0.7858867049217224,
-0.15873830020427704,
-0.12580783665180206,
0.814853310585022,
-0.15129312872886658,
0.4221874177455902,
-0.23828193545341492,
-0.034039027988910675,
-0.01857193186879158,
-0.2880469858646393,
0.5854503512382507,
0.3608438968658447,
-0.665421187877655,
-0.3579249680042267,
-0.993901252746582,
-0.9143030047416687,
0.3277125954627991,
-0.41882675886154175,
-0.4048883318901062,
-0.4526592791080475,
-0.45561811327934265,
0.284481406211853,
0.2567010819911957,
0.7334601879119873,
-0.5859004855155945,
-0.14672696590423584,
-0.034326475113630295,
-0.567634642124176,
0.7485723495483398,
0.19323638081550598,
0.4761461913585663,
0.03229069709777832,
-0.20369352400302887,
0.33364158868789673,
-0.062716543674469,
0.3352780044078827,
-0.05673658475279808,
-0.540554404258728,
0.18721315264701843,
0.09356451034545898,
-0.05479605495929718,
0.3409903347492218,
0.27575913071632385,
0.06707114726305008,
1.018298864364624,
0.0752878412604332,
0.4508666694164276,
0.054948244243860245,
0.306549608707428,
0.170206680893898,
0.09320473670959473,
-0.7094300389289856,
-0.7563655376434326,
0.4536537230014801,
0.18457704782485962,
0.23512385785579681,
-0.23282241821289062,
0.07203856855630875,
-0.13006308674812317,
0.6127964854240417,
-0.008886288851499557,
-0.3455008864402771,
0.17710480093955994,
-0.6786199808120728,
0.2751101851463318,
-0.00015356556104961783,
0.584688127040863,
-0.07322220504283905,
0.29094386100769043,
0.4884170591831207,
-0.2937205135822296,
0.9048104286193848,
-0.30391910672187805,
-0.6224076747894287,
-0.06358319520950317,
-0.18549644947052002,
-0.7800154685974121,
0.4627852141857147,
0.07057099044322968,
-0.4012124538421631,
-0.14075815677642822,
0.4594675600528717,
-0.004069056361913681,
-0.9757471084594727,
0.33012324571609497,
-0.168539896607399,
0.017739810049533844,
-0.6092318892478943,
-0.11205534636974335,
-0.20481015741825104,
-0.07852678000926971,
-0.2797579765319824,
0.6876705288887024,
0.4518246650695801,
-0.2923087179660797,
0.0008575876709073782,
0.0863012745976448,
0.18110263347625732,
-0.1454503983259201,
0.2925792932510376,
-0.34571969509124756,
-0.9069080948829651,
0.4715040922164917,
-0.12171276658773422,
0.07098867744207382,
-0.08363227546215057,
-0.21675477921962738,
-0.19978079199790955,
0.10128229111433029,
0.30632051825523376,
0.9964032173156738,
-0.014656680636107922,
0.13818730413913727,
-0.008449525572359562,
-0.5286375284194946,
0.8923709392547607,
0.2952328026294708,
0.25228026509284973,
0.6365024447441101,
0.3895969092845917,
-0.47069230675697327,
-0.5708494186401367,
0.13882479071617126,
-0.0768391415476799,
-0.25884872674942017,
-0.2785366475582123,
0.4748092293739319,
-0.4219684302806854,
0.23447123169898987,
0.2438206970691681,
0.7288678884506226,
0.027440480887889862,
-0.34274500608444214,
-0.044485293328762054,
0.1498626470565796,
-0.0555843748152256,
-0.1595410704612732,
0.46147215366363525,
-0.16103944182395935,
-1.160102128982544,
0.45705923438072205,
0.2619476914405823,
-0.02213822677731514,
0.3906196057796478,
-0.20701327919960022,
-0.02911730669438839,
-0.6956721544265747,
-0.3691742420196533,
0.16302110254764557,
-0.1229935884475708,
-0.26480770111083984,
0.159886434674263,
0.6147732138633728,
0.0964292660355568,
-0.17535343766212463,
-0.7263721227645874,
-0.6146721839904785,
-0.6822190284729004,
-0.44376835227012634,
-0.29876312613487244,
0.08678463846445084,
-0.013737224973738194,
-0.5499749183654785,
-0.2718047499656677,
-0.1408865749835968,
0.6620700359344482,
-0.8312839269638062,
0.19510631263256073,
-0.12803298234939575,
-0.17896507680416107,
0.45776206254959106,
-0.5604252219200134,
-0.7681330442428589,
0.6523409485816956,
-0.320023775100708,
-0.07499583810567856,
0.10756067931652069,
-0.3694714605808258,
-0.6650543808937073,
0.5227481722831726,
-5.3267011642456055,
0.33622077107429504,
-0.7618646621704102,
0.29001519083976746,
0.25426122546195984,
0.4640205204486847,
0.8304798007011414,
-0.07843491435050964,
0.31168270111083984,
-0.4012744724750519,
-0.014762690290808678,
0.32735130190849304,
-0.22414042055606842,
0.45014846324920654,
0.6386315822601318,
0.042590755969285965,
0.11596506088972092,
-0.2111712098121643,
0.1713687777519226,
-0.03756081312894821,
-0.415188193321228,
0.24080932140350342,
-0.05213348940014839,
0.2766682803630829,
0.8025017976760864,
0.3427931070327759,
-0.2944578230381012,
-0.2849520742893219,
-0.9004544615745544,
-0.36065542697906494,
-0.41544637084007263,
-0.2578054368495941,
0.26876434683799744,
-0.007177979219704866,
0.49050307273864746,
0.03453443944454193,
0.43933629989624023,
0.30855849385261536,
0.4827832579612732,
-0.7646337151527405,
-0.1375063955783844,
0.8026823401451111,
0.1898229867219925,
-0.049392640590667725,
0.1811174899339676,
-0.6574767231941223,
-0.1882244199514389,
0.16523496806621552,
-0.19625072181224823,
0.5660837292671204,
0.04251854121685028,
0.06844639778137207,
-0.4792030453681946,
0.040756940841674805,
0.4493873119354248,
-0.6359360814094543,
0.14055325090885162,
-0.40938568115234375,
-0.3612891733646393,
-0.06837078183889389,
0.6100492477416992,
-0.868076503276825,
-0.47939056158065796,
-0.07268576323986053,
-0.0644761174917221,
-0.4400317966938019,
-0.01037248969078064,
-0.16524574160575867,
0.3517656624317169,
0.3871309161186218,
-0.29433998465538025,
0.7064993381500244,
-0.48748141527175903,
-0.5754776000976562,
-0.27641192078590393,
-0.5469817519187927,
-0.6481174230575562,
0.09809527546167374,
0.04421805590391159,
-0.1854305863380432,
-0.43798190355300903,
0.3981993496417999,
-0.12168318033218384,
1.5887641906738281,
0.5673525929450989,
-0.6449247002601624,
0.16075916588306427,
0.2326316088438034,
0.019877100363373756,
-0.7143226265907288,
0.3970125913619995,
-0.7951967716217041,
0.7159558534622192,
-0.5654217004776001,
-0.9159112572669983,
0.2402927577495575,
-0.4921523630619049,
0.3434223532676697,
1.030347466468811,
-0.5897236466407776,
1.2578164339065552,
-0.08841755986213684,
0.18853674829006195,
-0.262259304523468,
0.1684427261352539,
-0.24351303279399872,
0.27913814783096313,
0.504536509513855,
1.1201597452163696,
-0.2582980692386627,
-0.3260267972946167,
-0.006201957818120718,
0.05846366658806801,
-0.5809046030044556,
-0.35977306962013245,
-0.33689501881599426,
-0.5573292374610901,
0.9399685859680176,
0.6531050801277161,
-0.055478934198617935,
0.15851345658302307,
0.3073413074016571,
-0.07962366193532944,
0.3605101704597473,
-0.33280226588249207,
-0.35285159945487976,
-0.27824318408966064,
0.09958482533693314,
-0.5702493190765381,
0.9905693531036377,
0.42485007643699646,
-0.10635904222726822,
0.27132704854011536,
-0.665368378162384,
0.30759313702583313,
-0.4090431332588196,
-0.25187787413597107,
-0.7017863988876343,
0.1909225434064865,
-0.15080393850803375,
0.4700479209423065,
0.03796151652932167,
0.6889937520027161,
0.3372765779495239,
0.1421939879655838,
0.4230761229991913,
0.21967029571533203,
0.15941119194030762,
-0.6782166361808777,
0.5793291926383972,
-0.31133362650871277,
-0.16571754217147827,
-0.5490270853042603,
-0.5800782442092896,
0.31937897205352783,
-0.0960620865225792,
0.5391628742218018,
0.7761564254760742,
-0.22893792390823364,
-0.28111395239830017,
-0.03423631563782692,
-0.06005397439002991,
-0.6048885583877563,
-0.6943656802177429,
0.3118894100189209,
-0.43774306774139404,
-0.920500636100769,
-0.07446863502264023,
-0.4732522666454315,
0.6603144407272339,
0.14809702336788177,
-0.4774274230003357,
-0.8904886245727539,
-0.009074383415281773,
-0.20867344737052917,
0.18750323355197906,
-0.6601145267486572,
0.6234199404716492,
-0.20995397865772247,
-0.21051760017871857,
0.15146178007125854,
-0.08958719670772552,
-0.35619622468948364,
0.8539353609085083,
0.7735953330993652,
0.01311738882213831,
-0.33636265993118286,
-0.2375788688659668,
-0.12892286479473114,
0.31003013253211975,
0.3755655586719513,
-0.14427074790000916,
0.14259420335292816,
0.18836186826229095,
0.064317487180233,
-0.36371856927871704,
-0.4732719659805298,
0.9846075773239136,
-0.20192764699459076,
-0.11579927802085876,
0.13467971980571747,
0.8476471900939941,
-0.8265788555145264,
0.06978845596313477,
-0.33923304080963135,
-0.29996761679649353,
0.3781581521034241,
0.11289600282907486,
-0.4586331844329834,
0.7863162755966187,
-0.7371375560760498,
-0.9553211331367493,
-0.2636600732803345,
0.6107771396636963,
-0.8816984295845032,
-0.019378092139959335,
0.007425857707858086,
-0.2733076810836792,
-0.26160523295402527,
-0.20399287343025208,
-0.23690393567085266,
-0.5707207918167114,
0.040318019688129425,
-0.2343018651008606,
-0.6169020533561707,
0.42618438601493835,
0.18009823560714722,
-0.25194206833839417,
0.3846266567707062,
0.0041929250583052635,
0.3609192967414856,
-0.4119053781032562,
0.5578562021255493,
0.41186606884002686,
0.14990544319152832,
0.1450035274028778,
-0.14501452445983887,
-0.10500085353851318,
0.15592600405216217,
0.6315796971321106,
1.2377480268478394,
1.1480257511138916,
0.10381732881069183,
-0.2546917498111725,
-0.35518088936805725,
0.2720452845096588,
0.7817627191543579,
-0.10675166547298431,
-0.7345876693725586,
0.2632790803909302,
0.07070349156856537,
-0.09614413976669312,
-0.7244333624839783,
-0.2652727961540222,
1.149802565574646,
-0.22400885820388794,
0.5951976180076599,
0.2770308554172516,
-0.15618836879730225,
0.06259550899267197,
0.1886361539363861,
-0.07871686667203903,
-0.20770308375358582,
0.21608403325080872,
0.43044784665107727,
-0.5378795862197876,
-0.8363834619522095,
0.2896774709224701,
0.04315062239766121,
-0.3010161817073822,
-0.21547715365886688,
-0.21762073040008545,
1.1556764841079712,
0.17248830199241638,
-0.30959728360176086,
0.1620284765958786,
0.23150211572647095,
0.17872203886508942,
0.29711708426475525,
0.044270649552345276,
-0.37036755681037903,
-0.0804828554391861,
0.049750007688999176,
-0.8577075004577637,
-0.4277353584766388,
-0.38718196749687195,
-0.2742127776145935,
0.12852132320404053,
-0.18012797832489014,
-0.010771793313324451,
0.28480812907218933,
-0.7065300941467285,
-0.3766377866268158,
0.4595203697681427,
-0.23359866440296173,
0.29761621356010437,
0.18878841400146484,
0.7466958165168762,
0.23528604209423065,
0.12565235793590546,
-1.063643455505371,
0.15116892755031586,
-0.3507246673107147,
-1.2812119722366333,
0.3043232858181,
-0.1259116530418396,
0.016032781451940536,
-0.436477392911911,
0.12919974327087402,
-0.0506233274936676,
0.6388319730758667,
0.5481478571891785,
-0.06433434039354324,
1.145245909690857,
0.011333601549267769,
0.17182700335979462,
0.7005483508110046,
-0.35514864325523376,
0.1645793616771698,
0.49951937794685364,
0.05562308058142662,
-0.23390047252178192,
-0.018070468679070473,
0.2659984529018402,
-0.11559753865003586,
0.7373172044754028,
0.13041093945503235,
0.07549141347408295,
0.11249551177024841,
0.5695584416389465,
-0.37802818417549133,
-0.6885488629341125,
-0.5460684895515442,
0.5084474682807922,
-0.4339781403541565,
-0.08566179871559143,
0.18888384103775024,
-1.1381205320358276,
-0.744257926940918,
0.331592321395874,
0.45626887679100037,
0.6832220554351807,
-0.22176876664161682,
-0.1271069347858429,
-0.23481442034244537,
0.276118665933609,
-0.1706204116344452,
0.3996627926826477,
0.20460624992847443,
-0.11848948895931244,
0.4633108675479889,
-0.55469810962677,
-0.13782471418380737,
-0.5724760293960571,
0.34825757145881653,
0.2429151087999344,
-0.03494119644165039,
-1.10769522190094,
-0.43176183104515076,
-0.36190399527549744,
-0.39791181683540344,
0.04808444529771805,
0.4724774956703186,
-0.21369919180870056,
-0.07287954539060593,
-0.2314414083957672,
0.5229834914207458,
-0.7691347002983093,
0.23359043896198273,
-0.13360841572284698,
0.5870745182037354,
-0.20914027094841003,
0.1220003068447113,
-0.25181135535240173,
0.16001200675964355,
0.4593455493450165,
0.11543948948383331,
0.27571237087249756,
-0.28531336784362793,
-0.23698019981384277,
-0.530968427658081,
1.101344108581543,
0.5147542953491211,
-0.5292454361915588,
-0.2573975920677185,
-0.3011011481285095,
0.2268550544977188,
-0.7758653163909912,
-0.2787230610847473,
-0.04264302924275398,
-0.006613734178245068,
-0.2814388871192932,
0.02416009083390236,
-0.4023969769477844,
-1.0549222230911255,
-0.7063262462615967,
-0.5108742117881775,
0.8474465608596802,
0.37778642773628235,
0.11396452784538269,
-0.10525572299957275,
0.3829295337200165,
0.17245259881019592,
0.39568910002708435,
-0.44253113865852356,
0.2226838767528534,
-0.29614609479904175,
0.22351250052452087,
0.7107899188995361,
0.6240186095237732,
0.7470372915267944,
-0.422616571187973,
-0.27283215522766113,
0.1491481065750122,
-0.3832285702228546,
0.13218289613723755,
0.43841561675071716,
-0.3703707158565521,
0.039461977779865265,
-0.022266432642936707,
0.2653525769710541,
-0.17893221974372864,
-0.6234119534492493,
0.11082921177148819,
0.06870152801275253,
0.06320132315158844,
0.2051953673362732,
0.10547053068876266,
-0.4564298689365387,
0.1895149201154709,
-0.3480813503265381,
-0.07846318930387497,
-0.5590016841888428,
0.4660486578941345,
-0.2396886646747589,
-0.17877085506916046,
0.2975003719329834,
0.4412006437778473,
0.6498050689697266,
-0.09959718585014343,
0.3767569959163666,
0.17681236565113068,
0.42609408497810364,
0.3870924711227417,
0.37536031007766724,
-0.23095841705799103,
-0.23035861551761627,
-0.6796830296516418,
-0.7549381256103516,
0.47819390892982483,
0.18933497369289398,
-0.7496730089187622,
0.2983549237251282,
-0.09695521742105484,
0.04374630004167557,
-0.4080699682235718,
0.73924720287323,
-0.5702610015869141,
-0.40747973322868347,
0.49662119150161743
] |
228850 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gl%C3%BCcksburg | Glücksburg | Glücksburg (; ) is a small town northeast of Flensburg in the district Schleswig-Flensburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany and is the northernmost town in Germany.
It is situated on the south side of the Flensborg Fjord, an inlet of the Baltic Sea, approx. 10 km northeast of Flensburg. The town was originally the home of the family Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg (or simply Glücksburg), since 1863 the royal family of Denmark and since 1905 of Norway.
Glücksburg is home to a German Navy base. Among the facilities at the base is the transmitter, callsign DHJ58. DHJ58, situated at 54° 50'N and 9° 32' E, ceased its transmissions on longwave frequency 68.9 kHz in 2002 and in 2004 its longwave antenna was disassembled.
Notable people
Kai-Uwe von Hassel (1913-1997), politician (CDU), was mayor of Glücksburg, Minister President of Schleswig-Holstein, Federal Minister, President of the Bundestag
Gui Bonsiepe (born 1934), designer and design theorist
References
External links
Seaside resorts in Germany
Schleswig-Flensburg | [
-0.4219490885734558,
0.4554058611392975,
1.1793549060821533,
-0.6522855758666992,
-0.1948704719543457,
0.414347767829895,
0.2915905714035034,
0.4422852396965027,
-0.5565090179443359,
-0.0009062447934411466,
-0.23350822925567627,
-0.11417031288146973,
0.01215021125972271,
0.6693108677864075,
-0.10119320452213287,
0.7689972519874573,
0.2718304693698883,
0.20391561090946198,
-0.42841917276382446,
-0.855186939239502,
0.24156823754310608,
-0.6694908142089844,
0.44985976815223694,
0.5849084258079529,
0.16308288276195526,
-0.18815477192401886,
0.29897627234458923,
0.37148335576057434,
0.18071003258228302,
0.24161872267723083,
-0.3270030617713928,
0.8456053137779236,
-0.049057092517614365,
0.33690696954727173,
-0.21339629590511322,
0.6136541366577148,
0.17168815433979034,
-0.3386150300502777,
0.5617324113845825,
-0.1603604555130005,
0.12483217567205429,
0.20390300452709198,
-0.34124481678009033,
-0.12099779397249222,
-0.39645788073539734,
-0.4383436441421509,
-1.2091319561004639,
0.23391662538051605,
-0.8696652054786682,
-0.3211914002895355,
-1.0664526224136353,
0.35279780626296997,
0.4297403395175934,
0.2787044048309326,
0.30805516242980957,
-0.1621013879776001,
-1.1046262979507446,
0.06731640547513962,
0.6240078806877136,
0.05147542804479599,
0.14370429515838623,
0.074564628303051,
-0.2607514262199402,
0.16824646294116974,
0.2880724370479584,
-0.14774225652217865,
-0.12505246698856354,
0.2100912481546402,
0.17751845717430115,
-1.206967830657959,
-0.9340863227844238,
-0.11209586262702942,
0.012364262714982033,
-0.15545448660850525,
0.3407632112503052,
0.42382097244262695,
-0.6354072093963623,
0.19724316895008087,
0.7659199237823486,
-0.06102250888943672,
0.1423013061285019,
-0.5005398392677307,
0.8935745358467102,
-0.48915958404541016,
0.6224281787872314,
0.31525126099586487,
-0.12190522998571396,
0.05106882005929947,
-0.3033432960510254,
0.29541605710983276,
-0.06778907775878906,
-0.3395916223526001,
-0.4013167917728424,
0.03982896730303764,
0.1762959063053131,
-0.37358900904655457,
0.16042502224445343,
0.4857453405857086,
0.29621875286102295,
0.8180559277534485,
-0.046248000115156174,
0.33868512511253357,
0.5833310484886169,
0.4420669674873352,
-0.3689476549625397,
-0.2618345320224762,
-0.5237661004066467,
-0.00804785918444395,
-0.48291316628456116,
-0.20467936992645264,
-1.0111596584320068,
0.37567266821861267,
-0.12414424866437912,
-0.05523017793893814,
-0.02364226244390011,
0.26811614632606506,
-0.0651107206940651,
-0.912605345249176,
0.16856876015663147,
0.40007707476615906,
0.41119083762168884,
0.6232532858848572,
-0.41966214776039124,
0.26120755076408386,
0.3091937005519867,
-0.23510460555553436,
-0.4934815764427185,
0.7971413731575012,
-0.9632736444473267,
0.2741023302078247,
0.3861183226108551,
0.795674204826355,
0.21017342805862427,
0.407032310962677,
0.07071858644485474,
-0.10862230509519577,
0.1247667595744133,
0.04829174280166626,
0.23936253786087036,
0.012294584885239601,
-0.9492324590682983,
-0.12074460089206696,
-0.8072179555892944,
-0.37105920910835266,
0.17200273275375366,
-0.32790711522102356,
-0.5221315622329712,
-0.9216180443763733,
-0.2505197823047638,
-0.19902753829956055,
0.30944108963012695,
0.41870272159576416,
-0.4432688057422638,
0.25656858086586,
-0.7459205389022827,
-0.15568500757217407,
0.3086666464805603,
0.23402850329875946,
0.6281172037124634,
0.28285953402519226,
0.14537224173545837,
-0.2004116326570511,
0.17460495233535767,
0.23192977905273438,
0.2650631070137024,
0.09741854667663574,
0.5405826568603516,
0.07220563292503357,
-0.31057530641555786,
0.10937335342168808,
-0.5057983994483948,
0.3608801066875458,
0.33781009912490845,
-0.059159837663173676,
0.3018062710762024,
-0.4303002655506134,
0.3592086136341095,
0.1453959345817566,
0.4880031645298004,
-0.22438167035579681,
-0.7844876646995544,
0.31525903940200806,
0.2769932746887207,
0.2305406928062439,
-0.2619072198867798,
0.3774662911891937,
-0.058995094150304794,
-0.08651271462440491,
-0.09895670413970947,
-0.16507308185100555,
0.23693014681339264,
-0.8371776938438416,
0.7874212861061096,
0.4583994448184967,
0.9544161558151245,
0.1640973538160324,
0.1621909886598587,
-0.1528126448392868,
-0.36992090940475464,
0.5827736258506775,
-0.07238627225160599,
-1.0117528438568115,
0.26093658804893494,
-0.025611070916056633,
-0.32301732897758484,
0.3062935471534729,
-0.038744281977415085,
-0.3194628059864044,
-0.05943949520587921,
0.389861524105072,
-0.22840248048305511,
0.13389159739017487,
0.42004668712615967,
0.1209641546010971,
-0.07663553208112717,
-0.6914952397346497,
-0.2828836441040039,
-0.16256912052631378,
-0.05701899155974388,
-0.5191110968589783,
0.14132720232009888,
0.4920096695423126,
-0.46039748191833496,
0.31449609994888306,
-0.3208982050418854,
0.38017547130584717,
0.2050265669822693,
0.5349814891815186,
-0.46762004494667053,
-0.698491632938385,
0.4570479691028595,
0.3700833022594452,
0.40399861335754395,
0.11670371145009995,
0.01451348327100277,
-0.13232295215129852,
-0.2034861296415329,
0.16040456295013428,
0.6684147715568542,
-0.8052767515182495,
0.281557559967041,
0.2850789427757263,
-0.29600226879119873,
0.38344019651412964,
0.36859560012817383,
0.8995956182479858,
-0.008136697113513947,
0.29452893137931824,
-0.5763042569160461,
-0.46700847148895264,
0.33606594800949097,
0.2450350970029831,
-0.048809945583343506,
-0.08021089434623718,
0.6841118335723877,
-0.6620103120803833,
-0.07019777595996857,
0.2942359447479248,
0.19937528669834137,
0.4880646765232086,
0.021838944405317307,
-0.35811150074005127,
0.09953268617391586,
-0.04777653142809868,
-0.7498094439506531,
0.3651982843875885,
0.11503041535615921,
-0.28614798188209534,
0.04830285534262657,
0.28579312562942505,
-0.5577114224433899,
-0.09308123588562012,
-0.46562597155570984,
-0.21388863027095795,
-0.01059539895504713,
-0.46924281120300293,
-0.6310106515884399,
0.24119624495506287,
-0.6149912476539612,
0.08386720716953278,
0.28262871503829956,
0.5135542750358582,
-0.282727986574173,
-0.7056043148040771,
-0.06002551317214966,
-0.7801674008369446,
0.5041071772575378,
-0.3341396152973175,
-0.3864811956882477,
0.010432539507746696,
-0.4768221974372864,
0.15853193402290344,
-0.33092889189720154,
0.5478683114051819,
-0.49054354429244995,
0.4533242881298065,
-0.2055046260356903,
0.029730042442679405,
0.4142586588859558,
-0.1701473891735077,
-0.8730463981628418,
0.39537009596824646,
-0.1838483065366745,
0.2870349586009979,
-0.746032178401947,
-0.7828062176704407,
-0.3864266276359558,
-0.13074658811092377,
-5.146542072296143,
0.278707891702652,
-0.615795910358429,
0.12422256171703339,
-0.24339155852794647,
0.3862898051738739,
0.20936991274356842,
-0.4537373483181,
0.1492270827293396,
-0.21475310623645782,
0.041716478765010834,
-0.17343410849571228,
-0.17399440705776215,
0.6904162168502808,
0.8406248092651367,
0.8589304089546204,
0.5076206922531128,
0.46328088641166687,
-0.1045401319861412,
-0.14323607087135315,
-0.0762106254696846,
0.016613319516181946,
0.48314806818962097,
0.09098324179649353,
0.929166853427887,
0.6615669131278992,
-0.13058820366859436,
-0.26970747113227844,
-0.9866526126861572,
-0.46903565526008606,
-0.009019164368510246,
-0.11767924576997757,
0.12798871099948883,
0.2837708592414856,
0.08951763063669205,
0.35263535380363464,
0.08601140975952148,
0.5365616679191589,
0.5279144048690796,
-0.3388773202896118,
0.3151921331882477,
0.9495466947555542,
-0.48147645592689514,
-0.2631855010986328,
0.8369084596633911,
-0.4232347309589386,
-0.8243395090103149,
0.12251606583595276,
-0.731440007686615,
1.055732250213623,
0.1544911116361618,
-0.4822886288166046,
0.05657346919178963,
0.00023050258459988981,
0.1502554565668106,
-0.0756206065416336,
0.3072930574417114,
-0.06104321777820587,
-0.20658361911773682,
0.764741063117981,
0.1503746211528778,
-0.3696466386318207,
-0.632530927658081,
-0.16465705633163452,
-0.7172265648841858,
-0.22609619796276093,
-0.27776017785072327,
0.44891929626464844,
0.5490543246269226,
-0.4303150475025177,
0.28780022263526917,
0.2582298815250397,
0.07684735953807831,
-0.7940232753753662,
-0.3937455713748932,
-1.2032508850097656,
-1.4620938301086426,
-0.3642394244670868,
0.13380660116672516,
0.42045608162879944,
0.17462746798992157,
-0.04732702299952507,
0.026692990213632584,
0.6212405562400818,
0.4832647740840912,
-0.1331951767206192,
-0.5712929964065552,
-0.12982317805290222,
-0.008542402647435665,
-0.6423704028129578,
-0.0840190201997757,
-0.5462058186531067,
0.4110146462917328,
-0.44363638758659363,
-0.9723349809646606,
0.9993091225624084,
-0.3908769190311432,
-0.22706955671310425,
0.3497063219547272,
-0.33481886982917786,
1.2933038473129272,
-0.38088807463645935,
0.06537844240665436,
-0.13195522129535675,
0.5064474940299988,
0.22349809110164642,
0.7340782880783081,
0.5085369944572449,
0.8593855500221252,
0.21478188037872314,
-0.01574341580271721,
0.001058741589076817,
-0.23749181628227234,
-1.2084132432937622,
0.16867901384830475,
-0.8435909152030945,
-1.0591505765914917,
1.1250323057174683,
0.19879184663295746,
-0.26298657059669495,
0.2680755853652954,
0.20423293113708496,
0.0983051210641861,
-0.6318130493164062,
-0.8560440540313721,
-0.1726890504360199,
0.22643476724624634,
0.43562525510787964,
-0.42225733399391174,
0.43274950981140137,
-0.13847605884075165,
-0.2773544490337372,
-0.31016072630882263,
-0.6053016185760498,
-0.048988427966833115,
-0.5142074227333069,
-0.3780611753463745,
-0.5616419315338135,
0.15825146436691284,
0.0919375792145729,
0.5816984176635742,
-0.04097089171409607,
-0.08851902186870575,
0.10118073225021362,
-0.22930382192134857,
0.25873371958732605,
0.603399395942688,
0.5677410364151001,
-0.6455312967300415,
0.5815460085868835,
-0.23300081491470337,
-0.22044676542282104,
0.1331792175769806,
-0.1905742585659027,
0.3695827126502991,
0.12772689759731293,
0.07172256708145142,
0.8073657155036926,
0.4638630747795105,
-0.7106848955154419,
0.13092444837093353,
-0.33343324065208435,
-0.6785138249397278,
0.05690419301390648,
0.3525121212005615,
-0.3305991590023041,
-0.6481995582580566,
-0.010412918403744698,
-0.7065204977989197,
0.35954776406288147,
0.4559302031993866,
-0.5783015489578247,
-0.9699538350105286,
0.3724895417690277,
-0.08510728925466537,
-0.4501590132713318,
-0.18760138750076294,
0.2529192566871643,
0.2863381505012512,
-0.19188672304153442,
-0.00454889889806509,
-0.1214405745267868,
-0.29270726442337036,
0.5501825213432312,
0.2681747376918793,
-0.007141773123294115,
-0.26622310280799866,
-0.08553405851125717,
-0.27711644768714905,
-0.10156678408384323,
0.6157701015472412,
-0.5787453055381775,
0.024855205789208412,
0.2768114507198334,
0.4033172130584717,
-0.9682906866073608,
-0.0998784527182579,
0.1934453248977661,
-0.0016270957421511412,
-0.22879520058631897,
-0.03871913254261017,
1.0401365756988525,
-0.39787107706069946,
0.7748762965202332,
0.2154141664505005,
-0.30439624190330505,
0.5117802619934082,
-0.029023999348282814,
-0.03980472311377525,
0.7314229011535645,
-0.8179009556770325,
-0.49424079060554504,
-0.13033831119537354,
1.3706746101379395,
-0.49182969331741333,
0.5326612591743469,
0.3050689101219177,
-0.5120782256126404,
-0.8108628988265991,
0.17574240267276764,
-0.39328473806381226,
-0.3480382561683655,
0.12309480458498001,
0.1216949075460434,
-0.8568593859672546,
0.3500194549560547,
-0.0021964670158922672,
-0.3085950016975403,
0.5191261172294617,
-0.46938556432724,
0.4624086618423462,
-0.08138119429349899,
1.0812197923660278,
0.20687589049339294,
0.1392482966184616,
0.580628514289856,
0.4195309281349182,
0.240249902009964,
0.47498050332069397,
0.30915606021881104,
1.016059160232544,
0.883318305015564,
0.5659024119377136,
-0.2494138926267624,
-0.19563664495944977,
-0.13485324382781982,
0.670604944229126,
-0.23157228529453278,
-0.990426242351532,
0.55109041929245,
0.029910601675510406,
0.041619233787059784,
-0.6344751715660095,
0.27547407150268555,
0.9280248284339905,
-0.4024139642715454,
0.00351193780079484,
0.7997629642486572,
0.41999098658561707,
0.1564655750989914,
-0.05594732612371445,
0.2959604263305664,
0.17742423713207245,
0.2505436837673187,
0.271173357963562,
0.05764879286289215,
-0.9079828858375549,
0.3124823570251465,
0.025785429403185844,
-0.1654549539089203,
-0.43294692039489746,
-0.3026084005832672,
0.40512487292289734,
-0.6465445160865784,
-0.48945707082748413,
0.30300554633140564,
-0.03985197842121124,
-0.12217400968074799,
0.16677390038967133,
0.09383785724639893,
-0.7375004291534424,
-0.05519167333841324,
0.11182807385921478,
-1.1801427602767944,
-0.28448447585105896,
-0.9585288166999817,
-0.7826682925224304,
0.3851613998413086,
-0.6949586868286133,
0.25561970472335815,
-0.18111905455589294,
-0.47791147232055664,
-0.44660329818725586,
0.17305432260036469,
0.14287680387496948,
-0.0026536034420132637,
0.03580532222986221,
0.3334920406341553,
-0.34700414538383484,
0.2339271903038025,
-1.1646497249603271,
0.17540831863880157,
0.07280979305505753,
-0.7579257488250732,
0.6118768453598022,
-0.08524682372808456,
-0.5564687252044678,
-0.06713559478521347,
0.060033153742551804,
-0.23977990448474884,
0.1582627147436142,
0.07640480250120163,
-0.3086095154285431,
0.8947036266326904,
-0.4204409718513489,
0.18786877393722534,
0.6683266758918762,
-0.15192052721977234,
-0.011765364557504654,
0.7230497598648071,
0.3107832074165344,
-0.3022564947605133,
0.7732744812965393,
0.36676475405693054,
0.07863666117191315,
0.7659846544265747,
0.26367682218551636,
-0.2970399856567383,
0.08902505785226822,
0.05640324950218201,
-0.49926504492759705,
-0.24458040297031403,
-0.4885675013065338,
0.7208676338195801,
-0.6692850589752197,
-0.25056976079940796,
0.11908195167779922,
0.045895010232925415,
-0.5448787212371826,
0.20374085009098053,
-0.3487864136695862,
0.755448043346405,
-0.2147028148174286,
0.10974814742803574,
0.0021973694674670696,
0.0528070367872715,
-0.1701817363500595,
-0.3426518738269806,
0.5670713186264038,
-0.37562915682792664,
0.5505523681640625,
-0.32135194540023804,
0.04180324822664261,
-0.42907851934432983,
-0.14087679982185364,
0.2611862123012543,
0.46132341027259827,
-0.6529255509376526,
-0.8225198984146118,
0.06919355690479279,
0.31490492820739746,
-0.8100321292877197,
0.09589974582195282,
0.3164776861667633,
-0.0069030155427753925,
-0.6552438735961914,
0.021779675036668777,
-0.24285094439983368,
-0.11499860137701035,
0.283909410238266,
0.24771639704704285,
-0.2724323570728302,
0.6917102932929993,
-0.4111882746219635,
0.10917486995458603,
-0.12691104412078857,
-0.021884124726057053,
0.295320600271225,
0.02004328742623329,
0.18372680246829987,
-0.3780202269554138,
0.19358927011489868,
0.33334189653396606,
-0.3269774615764618,
-0.07461392879486084,
-0.4046453833580017,
0.3796483874320984,
-0.3936779201030731,
0.3204287886619568,
0.04352490231394768,
0.2180406004190445,
-0.45405250787734985,
-0.27687495946884155,
-0.32657381892204285,
-0.977784276008606,
-0.3854140043258667,
0.03699224442243576,
0.8679430484771729,
0.086002416908741,
0.09923075884580612,
-0.3428342044353485,
0.23949235677719116,
-0.4612439274787903,
0.21926343441009521,
0.0847463309764862,
0.05538910627365112,
-0.16377682983875275,
0.5157108306884766,
0.26009002327919006,
0.6713414788246155,
0.821955144405365,
-0.009541367180645466,
-0.12839306890964508,
0.48671621084213257,
-0.36229756474494934,
-0.5555092096328735,
0.5606503486633301,
0.13919658958911896,
0.0749097466468811,
0.08630004525184631,
0.16453701257705688,
0.037704795598983765,
-0.06395142525434494,
0.49307194352149963,
0.7028093338012695,
0.14690116047859192,
-0.14204806089401245,
-0.025854742154479027,
-0.2936660051345825,
0.21885614097118378,
-0.10551971197128296,
0.01844095252454281,
-0.15112918615341187,
0.08524518460035324,
-0.44036588072776794,
0.1647072434425354,
0.34343546628952026,
0.497283011674881,
-0.22353288531303406,
-0.25664106011390686,
-0.09842905402183533,
-0.28762662410736084,
0.34723177552223206,
0.10513992607593536,
0.23332814872264862,
0.3320596218109131,
-0.2211860716342926,
-0.4819084405899048,
-0.8557717204093933,
0.4160972535610199,
-0.19990095496177673,
-0.6369633674621582,
0.7282185554504395,
0.12952424585819244,
-0.006497861817479134,
0.197413831949234,
-0.08767538517713547,
-0.5586990118026733,
0.1978980153799057,
-0.04257425293326378
] |
228851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faulty%20generalization | Faulty generalization | A faulty generalization is an informal fallacy wherein a conclusion is drawn about all or many instances of a phenomenon on the basis of one or a few instances of that phenomenon. It is similar to a proof by example in mathematics. It is an example of jumping to conclusions. For example, one may generalize about all people or all members of a group, based on what one knows about just one or a few people:
If one meets a rude person from a given country X, one may suspect that most people in country X are rude.
If one sees only white swans, one may suspect that all swans are white.
Expressed in more precise philosophical language, a fallacy of defective induction is a conclusion that has been made on the basis of weak premises, or one which is not justified by sufficient or unbiased evidence. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of defective induction, the premises are related to the conclusions, yet only weakly buttress the conclusions, hence a faulty generalization is produced. The essence of this inductive fallacy lies on the overestimation of an argument based on insufficiently-large samples under an implied margin or error.
Logic
A faulty generalization often follows the following format:
The proportion Q of the sample has attribute A.
Therefore, the proportion Q of the population has attribute A.
Such a generalization proceeds from a premise about a sample (often unrepresentative or biased), to a conclusion about the population itself.
Faulty generalization is also a mode of thinking that takes the experiences of one person or one group, and incorrectly extends it to another.
Inductive fallacies
Hasty generalization is the fallacy of examining just one or very few examples or studying a single case and generalizing that to be representative of the whole class of objects or phenomena.
The opposite, slothful induction, is the fallacy of denying the logical conclusion of an inductive argument, dismissing an effect as "just a coincidence" when it is very likely not.
The overwhelming exception is related to the hasty generalization but works from the other end. It is a generalization that is accurate, but tags on a qualification that eliminates enough cases (as exceptions); that what remains is much less impressive than what the original statement might have led one to assume.
Fallacy of unrepresentative samples is a fallacy where a conclusion is drawn using samples that are unrepresentative or biased.
Misleading vividness is a kind of hasty generalization that appeals to the senses.
Statistical special pleading occurs when the interpretation of the relevant statistic is "massaged" by looking for ways to reclassify or requantify data from one portion of results, but not applying the same scrutiny to other categories.
This can be considered a special case of the fallacy of composition, where the item under discussion is a group, and the fallacy is what can be derived from knowledge of part of the item.
Hasty generalization
Hasty generalization is an informal fallacy of faulty generalization, which involves reaching an inductive generalization based on insufficient evidence—essentially making a rushed conclusion without considering all of the variables or enough evidence. In statistics, it may involve basing broad conclusions regarding a statistical survey from a small sample group that fails to sufficiently represent an entire population. Its opposite fallacy is called slothful induction, which consists of denying a reasonable conclusion of an inductive argument (e.g. "it was just a coincidence").
Examples
Hasty generalization usually follows the pattern:
X is true for A.
X is true for B.
Therefore, X is true for C, D, E, etc.
For example, if a person travels through a town for the first time and sees 10 people, all of them children, they may erroneously conclude that there are no adult residents in the town.
Alternatively, a person might look at a number line, and notice that the number 1 is a square number; 3 is a prime number, 5 is a prime number, and 7 is a prime number; 9 is a square number; 11 is a prime number, and 13 is a prime number. From these observations, the person might claim that all odd numbers are either prime or square, while in reality, 15 is an example that disproves the claim.
Alternative names
The fallacy is also known as:
Black Swan fallacy
Illicit generalization
Fallacy of insufficient sample
Generalization from the particular
Leaping to a conclusion
Blanket statement
Hasty induction
Law of small numbers
Unrepresentative sample
Secundum quid
When referring to a generalization made from a single example, the terms "fallacy of the lonely fact", or the "fallacy of proof by example", might be used.
When evidence is intentionally excluded to bias the result, the fallacy of exclusion—a form of selection bias—is said to be involved.
See also
References
Inductive fallacies | [
0.2995609641075134,
0.5399414896965027,
-0.6684896349906921,
0.18222491443157196,
-0.3619994521141052,
-0.008709825575351715,
0.5722764730453491,
0.3664560914039612,
-0.06205122545361519,
-0.1103023961186409,
-0.4259587228298187,
0.23409204185009003,
-0.20714062452316284,
1.220132827758789,
-0.29669225215911865,
0.5342190265655518,
0.47300684452056885,
0.3888104557991028,
-0.09011354297399521,
0.22347506880760193,
-0.23739081621170044,
-0.016610322520136833,
-0.45796751976013184,
-0.5733928084373474,
-0.1895289421081543,
0.09250505268573761,
0.42858338356018066,
0.12931528687477112,
-0.08196917921304703,
0.018811596557497978,
-0.07169182598590851,
0.5172989368438721,
-0.00289121363312006,
-0.08509927988052368,
0.009722051210701466,
0.389835923910141,
0.5600376129150391,
-0.3762720823287964,
-0.3818272650241852,
-0.43887829780578613,
0.4016842246055603,
0.04332781210541725,
0.21200677752494812,
0.16325576603412628,
-0.5889759063720703,
-0.3493187725543976,
-2.116363286972046,
-0.34569504857063293,
-0.6857098937034607,
-0.4472430348396301,
-0.32900938391685486,
0.12616433203220367,
0.21654391288757324,
0.6643186807632446,
-0.5749799013137817,
0.43955036997795105,
-0.27138981223106384,
-0.36989399790763855,
0.5385115146636963,
-0.23596514761447906,
0.3991737365722656,
-0.161920428276062,
0.09373944997787476,
0.19490164518356323,
0.4084261357784271,
0.4143995940685272,
-0.30500614643096924,
0.5911455154418945,
-0.7346347570419312,
-0.5087388157844543,
-0.472309947013855,
-0.1452188789844513,
0.0622953400015831,
0.12515807151794434,
-0.6305228471755981,
0.21398261189460754,
0.24601663649082184,
-0.15849724411964417,
-0.16876475512981415,
-0.4484553039073944,
-0.6718246340751648,
0.5907273888587952,
0.5394903421401978,
-0.7357109785079956,
0.8420413732528687,
-0.523227870464325,
-0.08032450079917908,
0.8869778513908386,
-0.2327752709388733,
0.8502953052520752,
0.3179435729980469,
-0.2125004082918167,
0.673606812953949,
-0.26792222261428833,
-0.17892208695411682,
0.10713593661785126,
0.8994529247283936,
-0.2419716864824295,
-0.026155522093176842,
0.03170138970017433,
0.21210287511348724,
-0.03222443535923958,
0.6606875061988831,
0.005329753737896681,
-0.16949887573719025,
-0.654136598110199,
0.15900737047195435,
-0.5126028060913086,
-0.04233301430940628,
-0.6996872425079346,
-0.7114741802215576,
0.7158474326133728,
-0.46878576278686523,
-0.2740103304386139,
-1.0824483633041382,
0.20055674016475677,
0.03139575943350792,
0.2560979127883911,
-0.16057902574539185,
-0.33510610461235046,
0.24904495477676392,
0.5071739554405212,
-0.13456100225448608,
-0.24380970001220703,
-0.1554170697927475,
0.17724134027957916,
0.3469144403934479,
0.3786177933216095,
-0.5412915349006653,
0.5649534463882446,
-0.17983774840831757,
0.8883161544799805,
-0.06595010310411453,
0.2626675069332123,
0.22451192140579224,
-0.16180118918418884,
0.37922021746635437,
0.14028820395469666,
0.2806561589241028,
-0.17504774034023285,
-0.5316888093948364,
-0.15980346500873566,
-1.457319736480713,
0.22057397663593292,
0.36339354515075684,
0.07676897197961807,
0.11411920934915543,
0.022829044610261917,
-0.21391256153583527,
0.025571301579475403,
0.09873443096876144,
0.1622472107410431,
-0.37375935912132263,
0.10815442353487015,
0.05537557229399681,
0.2799125611782074,
0.1182866320014,
-0.6042938232421875,
0.028737209737300873,
0.6376727819442749,
0.43737927079200745,
-0.040511250495910645,
-0.5426656603813171,
-0.24909494817256927,
-0.14538444578647614,
-0.717750072479248,
0.2822040915489197,
0.676306426525116,
0.09077740460634232,
0.2623932361602783,
-0.29795828461647034,
-0.20928877592086792,
0.3311693072319031,
-0.450554758310318,
0.2748543620109558,
0.5056886076927185,
0.28037795424461365,
-0.09227938950061798,
0.8040590882301331,
-0.044970545917749405,
-0.6905624270439148,
0.040103327482938766,
0.49884864687919617,
-0.021201442927122116,
0.3656100928783417,
-0.021966692060232162,
0.34166139364242554,
-0.023336203768849373,
0.25847068428993225,
-0.40605852007865906,
-0.6260330080986023,
-0.36502766609191895,
0.07501908391714096,
-0.6962016820907593,
1.2207317352294922,
0.16600152850151062,
-0.11473211646080017,
0.904647171497345,
-0.034012023359537125,
0.14571163058280945,
0.3029990792274475,
0.23008398711681366,
-0.14698484539985657,
0.5543715953826904,
-0.37645354866981506,
1.47676420211792,
0.034226227551698685,
-0.08845265954732895,
-0.30414319038391113,
0.5749581456184387,
0.4926786720752716,
-0.23672135174274445,
-0.25439515709877014,
0.0064277928322553635,
0.07730985432863235,
0.4305112659931183,
-0.5664999485015869,
-0.18590958416461945,
-0.17650605738162994,
-0.1486232578754425,
0.41407039761543274,
-0.29644688963890076,
-0.1062733605504036,
0.2044384479522705,
0.2938215434551239,
0.47798824310302734,
0.2994338274002075,
0.31234002113342285,
0.8383926749229431,
-1.1315668821334839,
0.37437817454338074,
0.2505262494087219,
0.3343166410923004,
-0.3419499099254608,
-0.1841934621334076,
0.11067754775285721,
0.3220411539077759,
-0.3127577602863312,
0.03605412319302559,
-0.5568450093269348,
-0.007639922667294741,
0.10796695947647095,
-0.1155376136302948,
0.760834813117981,
0.34340140223503113,
-0.18378758430480957,
-0.7048609256744385,
0.5553110837936401,
-0.49341097474098206,
0.270615816116333,
0.1812499761581421,
0.3980129659175873,
0.2994700074195862,
-0.2826446294784546,
0.029466817155480385,
0.006202589254826307,
-0.269214004278183,
0.05475231632590294,
0.11106174439191818,
0.026753069832921028,
0.06729725003242493,
0.6608847975730896,
0.034227244555950165,
-0.13666003942489624,
-0.06213896721601486,
-0.5130953192710876,
0.005539132747799158,
0.0030637080781161785,
-0.16748639941215515,
-0.1585482358932495,
0.397734671831131,
-0.2963458001613617,
-0.5885881185531616,
-0.4741460680961609,
-0.7638793587684631,
-0.42724716663360596,
0.022248907014727592,
0.5199037790298462,
-0.8964105248451233,
0.01773211732506752,
0.13258956372737885,
0.07087855786085129,
0.023737415671348572,
-0.44084444642066956,
-0.2658989727497101,
-0.3602359890937805,
0.12277320772409439,
0.048698294907808304,
0.13353770971298218,
0.07667361944913864,
-0.5068175196647644,
0.49461066722869873,
-0.18967562913894653,
-0.15835219621658325,
0.004750257823616266,
0.15585161745548248,
-0.025916730985045433,
-0.523267388343811,
0.16537976264953613,
0.02462056092917919,
-0.6558626890182495,
0.287570059299469,
-0.09943904727697372,
-0.06255687773227692,
-0.3689350485801697,
0.02931922860443592,
-0.3952873945236206,
0.3455601632595062,
-5.5319085121154785,
0.2533020079135895,
-0.11106519401073456,
-0.11760824918746948,
-0.4288673400878906,
0.2731379270553589,
0.4432391822338104,
0.1178758293390274,
-0.9320140480995178,
0.3122577667236328,
-0.0025984887033700943,
0.03363461047410965,
-0.1930004060268402,
0.7118784785270691,
0.5862286686897278,
-0.35020333528518677,
0.24777565896511078,
0.010928706265985966,
0.2125716656446457,
0.5004708170890808,
-0.07427509129047394,
0.2500450015068054,
0.13011714816093445,
0.3874206244945526,
-0.02006424032151699,
0.611144483089447,
-0.27884504199028015,
0.5196285843849182,
-0.7341859936714172,
-0.09162595868110657,
0.5500918030738831,
-0.18415749073028564,
-0.33905336260795593,
-0.10547375679016113,
-0.6826497316360474,
0.29908639192581177,
-0.03714979812502861,
0.12515884637832642,
-0.23204629123210907,
-0.09590934962034225,
-0.14314070343971252,
0.4640554189682007,
0.26345038414001465,
0.44345471262931824,
0.4836850166320801,
0.32423341274261475,
-0.2160196453332901,
-0.19072766602039337,
-0.3012990653514862,
0.5493828654289246,
-0.3597637116909027,
0.1128893494606018,
0.6028717756271362,
0.007993017323315144,
-0.07870958000421524,
-0.29198747873306274,
0.9043547511100769,
-0.3509005308151245,
-0.5410323739051819,
-0.02873357944190502,
0.6769466996192932,
-0.37692323327064514,
-0.03331887349486351,
-0.13042479753494263,
-0.42444026470184326,
-0.3836331069469452,
-0.41012951731681824,
-0.6284177303314209,
0.7861486077308655,
-0.014912337996065617,
-0.6094950437545776,
0.5647900104522705,
0.5202740430831909,
-0.6763159036636353,
-0.10152975469827652,
-0.32309645414352417,
-0.33602938055992126,
0.037202492356300354,
0.565213680267334,
-0.040593281388282776,
-0.4142608046531677,
-0.27304163575172424,
-0.6348209977149963,
0.07754412293434143,
0.22874291241168976,
-0.3004511892795563,
-0.07184834033250809,
0.684440016746521,
-0.3697638511657715,
-0.1942436844110489,
0.6348118185997009,
0.5797631144523621,
0.32808881998062134,
0.33900734782218933,
-0.2581726312637329,
0.9234886169433594,
0.42245492339134216,
0.3294680714607239,
0.2792058289051056,
-0.2812279760837555,
-0.0012670200085267425,
-0.8316980004310608,
-0.03198099881410599,
-0.25357142090797424,
-0.28930073976516724,
-0.37431949377059937,
-0.6118641495704651,
0.28697669506073,
0.5875815749168396,
-0.3303954005241394,
0.468208909034729,
0.7620448470115662,
-0.2465374916791916,
-0.07435546070337296,
0.1865047663450241,
0.3858015835285187,
-0.4947774410247803,
0.3017898201942444,
0.16109350323677063,
-0.06065628305077553,
0.34729430079460144,
0.059785403311252594,
-0.24592053890228271,
-0.20410287380218506,
-0.30557122826576233,
-0.2134920209646225,
0.09328241646289825,
0.06252860277891159,
-0.12031493335962296,
-0.17433112859725952,
0.2083340436220169,
0.3680917024612427,
0.1250852793455124,
-0.2616889476776123,
-0.018667414784431458,
-0.6836873292922974,
-0.24345241487026215,
0.6730079650878906,
-0.38902267813682556,
-0.5591767430305481,
0.773810088634491,
-0.1359710991382599,
-0.1248675286769867,
0.4133376479148865,
0.40498679876327515,
-0.09126251190900803,
0.03337998688220978,
-0.3443196713924408,
-0.19076982140541077,
0.5173064470291138,
0.17220228910446167,
-0.5013283491134644,
0.43206241726875305,
-0.736718475818634,
0.025566017255187035,
0.6017961502075195,
0.257587194442749,
0.004531774669885635,
-0.17920644581317902,
-0.5211609601974487,
-0.14317716658115387,
0.03116103820502758,
-1.0503621101379395,
-0.505858302116394,
0.23217178881168365,
-0.3654274046421051,
-0.8105477690696716,
-0.14964565634727478,
-0.24720437824726105,
0.8014556169509888,
-0.2720985412597656,
-0.47494563460350037,
-0.3503362536430359,
-0.21799089014530182,
0.5332874059677124,
0.5393520593643188,
0.11941153556108475,
0.29424017667770386,
0.04991919919848442,
-0.1848585605621338,
0.10221975296735764,
-0.34962257742881775,
-0.3889511823654175,
0.5237618684768677,
0.4492817521095276,
-0.5549245476722717,
0.033900145441293716,
0.38733160495758057,
-0.3061908185482025,
-0.20913726091384888,
0.017489003017544746,
0.20998066663742065,
0.4675488770008087,
0.14575518667697906,
0.01806134358048439,
-0.2931826114654541,
-0.06147617846727371,
0.3020627498626709,
-0.05681168660521507,
-0.5471741557121277,
0.034950628876686096,
0.5240124464035034,
-0.5555315017700195,
0.20219232141971588,
0.9951296448707581,
-0.9056742191314697,
0.42382633686065674,
-0.2717316746711731,
-0.5942363739013672,
0.3326956033706665,
-0.6076724529266357,
-0.37105879187583923,
-0.573335587978363,
-0.12458167225122452,
-0.022112615406513214,
-0.41001829504966736,
0.21760870516300201,
-0.6361258029937744,
-0.20944222807884216,
0.19338150322437286,
0.37913480401039124,
-0.2541999816894531,
0.14915579557418823,
-0.09739145636558533,
-0.370121568441391,
-0.19307328760623932,
0.054580140858888626,
-0.3529300391674042,
0.7929093837738037,
-0.34076717495918274,
-0.383486807346344,
-0.3673545718193054,
0.057280395179986954,
-0.2840878963470459,
-0.5985389947891235,
-0.15838433802127838,
-0.14066991209983826,
0.6316043138504028,
-0.08587154000997543,
-0.5745204091072083,
0.4419507086277008,
0.45953255891799927,
0.2388097047805786,
-0.3631547689437866,
-0.20333752036094666,
-0.05696309730410576,
0.4036106765270233,
-0.6724380850791931,
-0.388263463973999,
0.35186493396759033,
0.2614564001560211,
0.058861397206783295,
-0.8726196885108948,
-0.186165913939476,
0.7415358424186707,
0.29992204904556274,
-0.3271167278289795,
-0.5016080141067505,
0.06100335717201233,
0.22586455941200256,
0.19343672692775726,
-0.43049073219299316,
0.16302338242530823,
0.15718185901641846,
0.28621795773506165,
-0.006305073853582144,
0.004883858375251293,
0.4291347861289978,
0.2964669167995453,
-0.7974901795387268,
0.216556578874588,
-0.47495076060295105,
0.3843359649181366,
0.42801204323768616,
0.24003300070762634,
-0.24225082993507385,
-0.2990175187587738,
-0.5825114846229553,
-0.1639937311410904,
-0.33699655532836914,
0.42891231179237366,
-0.23795422911643982,
0.22854790091514587,
-0.4597896933555603,
0.0924963429570198,
-0.25794437527656555,
0.5769899487495422,
-0.18873624503612518,
-0.6041858196258545,
-0.24436110258102417,
-1.0151962041854858,
0.01639319211244583,
0.22352463006973267,
0.3503173887729645,
-0.3251795768737793,
0.02588469162583351,
0.26738983392715454,
0.4185713231563568,
-0.17831988632678986,
-0.0668252632021904,
-0.4994639456272125,
0.4651431739330292,
0.18358223140239716,
-0.9906845092773438,
0.5768551826477051,
0.25209715962409973,
-0.4657619893550873,
-0.3897837698459625,
0.599233865737915,
-0.46372488141059875,
0.3312179148197174,
0.14948071539402008,
-0.1543871909379959,
0.5230908989906311,
0.21115827560424805,
-0.08196274191141129,
-0.019812559708952904,
-0.5260874629020691,
0.49108487367630005,
0.18882013857364655,
0.2942247688770294,
-0.22578972578048706,
0.8802165985107422,
-0.5130518674850464,
-0.48044249415397644,
0.5305207371711731,
-0.21739602088928223,
0.06560163199901581,
0.29800164699554443,
0.19115714728832245,
0.4473431408405304,
0.03236065432429314,
-0.08156699687242508,
0.02457672916352749,
-0.4215112626552582,
-0.3817160129547119,
0.4943596422672272,
-0.7602432370185852,
-0.1757844239473343,
0.023913267999887466,
0.23595596849918365,
0.2777263820171356,
0.3985576331615448,
0.32060328125953674,
-0.5746189951896667,
0.37619805335998535,
0.1676648110151291,
0.5468904972076416,
-0.15308703482151031,
0.06296448409557343,
-0.08244450390338898,
-0.06934436410665512,
0.6350200176239014,
-0.4896177351474762,
0.5034545660018921,
-0.49672064185142517,
0.32420918345451355,
-0.3212357461452484,
-0.3037962317466736,
-0.6975328922271729,
-0.35051578283309937,
0.15123100578784943,
-0.3613898456096649,
0.07297606021165848,
0.6407802700996399,
-0.17623195052146912,
0.6146248579025269,
-0.08745693415403366,
0.1327984780073166,
0.343211829662323,
0.004948267247527838,
-0.001841750112362206,
0.34743666648864746,
0.7612791657447815,
0.3025786280632019,
-0.17656269669532776,
0.4128807485103607,
0.35701319575309753,
0.1752980500459671,
-0.032771553844213486,
0.06316184252500534,
0.21174558997154236,
-0.10517603904008865,
-0.005715830251574516,
0.4365949332714081,
0.011256897822022438,
0.08911643922328949,
0.33030903339385986,
-0.12539394199848175,
0.3830934464931488,
0.022990120574831963,
-0.3465271592140198,
-0.08688975125551224,
0.1063171997666359,
-0.03477476164698601,
0.3806036114692688,
0.05940316990017891,
0.3901103138923645,
0.07311355322599411,
-0.02282746508717537,
-0.5236731171607971,
0.0878225639462471,
0.2972368597984314,
0.7143465280532837,
-0.7433329820632935,
-0.08292815089225769,
0.07977305352687836,
0.8444589376449585,
-1.2246710062026978,
0.5639463067054749,
-0.03520626574754715,
-0.14184656739234924,
-0.43195822834968567,
0.39481326937675476,
0.0852700024843216,
-0.7295539975166321,
0.1579681783914566,
-0.03138230741024017,
0.0633121058344841,
-0.1494605392217636,
-0.1015370711684227,
-0.30534136295318604,
0.09864259511232376,
-0.21025903522968292,
-0.41917338967323303,
-0.38016489148139954,
0.5084389448165894,
-0.024506907910108566,
0.15752801299095154,
0.22286753356456757,
-0.4763511121273041,
0.27482378482818604,
-0.3048912286758423,
0.1292368769645691,
-0.1691620796918869,
-0.29069316387176514,
0.5578639507293701,
0.32719436287879944,
0.5406972765922546,
-0.21365110576152802,
-0.0380457267165184,
-0.3867311179637909,
-0.3442913889884949,
0.369100958108902,
-2.072263717651367,
0.5999413728713989,
-0.1660526692867279,
-0.047012344002723694,
-0.11532769352197647,
0.4150201082229614,
0.6682919859886169,
-0.2815793454647064,
-0.12278325110673904,
-0.5687164068222046,
-0.18266189098358154,
-0.046168264001607895,
0.24127325415611267,
-0.3619791865348816,
-0.08321281522512436,
0.8630836606025696
] |
228853 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee%20in%20the%20Catholic%20Church | Jubilee in the Catholic Church | A jubilee is a special year of remission of sins and universal pardon. In Leviticus, a jubilee year ( yūḇāl) is mentioned to occur every 50th year; during which slaves and prisoners would be freed, debts would be forgiven and the mercies of God would be particularly manifest.
In Western Christianity, the tradition dates to 1300, when Pope Boniface VIII convoked a holy year, following which ordinary jubilees have generally been celebrated every 25 or 50 years, with extraordinary jubilees in addition depending on need. Catholic jubilees, particularly in the Latin Church, generally involve pilgrimage to a sacred site, normally the city of Rome. The Catholic Church declared the Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy for 2015–2016.
Background
In Jewish tradition, the jubilee year was a time of joy, the year of remission or universal pardon. Leviticus 25:10 reads, "Thou shalt sanctify the fiftieth year, and shalt proclaim remission to all the inhabitants of thy land: for it is the year of jubilee."
The same concept forms the fundamental idea of the Christian jubilee. The number 50 was specially associated in the early 13th century with the idea of remission. The translation of the body of Thomas Becket took place in the year 1220, 50 years after his martyrdom. The sermon on that occasion was preached by Cardinal Stephen Langton who told his hearers that this coincidence was meant by Providence to recall "the mystical virtue of the number fifty, which, as every reader of the sacred page is aware, is the number of remission."
In the Chronicle of Alberic of Three Fountains, under the year 1208 (not, be it noted, 1200), is this brief entry: "It is said that this year was celebrated as the fiftieth year, or the year of jubilee and remission, in the Roman Court."
Definition
In Roman Catholic tradition, a jubilee or Holy Year is a year of forgiveness of sins and also the punishment due to sin. It is a year of reconciliation between adversaries, of conversion and receiving the Sacrament of Reconciliation, "...and consequently of solidarity, hope, justice, commitment to serve God with joy and in peace with our brothers and sisters." A jubilee can be ordinary if it falls after the set period of years or extraordinary if it is proclaimed for some outstanding event.
History
First Christian jubilee
In the face of great suffering, caused by wars and diseases such as the plague thousands of pilgrims came to Rome at Christmas in 1299. Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the contemporary and counsellor of Pope Boniface VIII, and author of a treatise on the first Christian jubilee, noted that the proclamation of the jubilee owed its origin to the statements of certain aged pilgrims who persuaded Boniface that great indulgences had been granted to all pilgrims in Rome about a hundred years before.
On February 22, 1300, Boniface published the bull "Antiquorum habet fida relatio", in which, appealing vaguely to the precedent of past ages, he declared "...the most full, pardon of all their sins", to those who fulfill certain conditions. These are, first, that being truly penitent they confess their sins, and secondly, that they visit the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul in Rome, at least once a day for a specified time—in the case of the inhabitants of the city for 30 days, in the case of strangers for 15 days.
The word "jubilee" does not occur in the bull. The pope speaks rather of a celebration which is to occur every 100 years, but writers both Roman and foreign described this year as annus jubileus, and the name "jubilee" (though others, such as the "holy year" or "the golden year", have been used, as well) has been applied to such celebrations ever since. Among those who are recorded as among the pilgrims of that first jubilee are Cimabue, Giotto, Charles, Count of Valois, the chronicler Giovanni Villani, and Dante Alighieri, who mentions it in the Divine Comedy in Canto XXXI of "Paradiso".
Jubilee of 1350
Boniface VIII had intended that the jubilee should be celebrated only once in 100 years. Before the middle of the 14th century, Bridget of Sweden and the poet Petrarch (among others) urged Pope Clement VI, then residing at Avignon, to change this. In 1343, Clement VI assented and issued the bull "Unigenitus", and set the time frame for every 50 years. In 1350, a jubilee was held, and although the pope did not return to Rome, Cardinal Gaetani Ceccano was dispatched to represent him. On this occasion, daily visits to the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran were enjoined, besides those to the basilicas of St. Peter and St. Paul outside the Walls.
Jubilees of 1390 and 1423
In virtue of an ordinance of Pope Urban VI, it was proposed to hold a jubilee every 33 years as representing the period of the sojourn of Christ upon earth and also the average span of human life. The next jubilee was held in 1390, and the Basilica di Santa Maria Maggiore was added to the list. The visits to these four churches has remained as one of the conditions for gaining the Roman jubilee indulgence.
In 1400 so many people came to Rome that Pope Boniface IX granted the indulgence again, though he had not decreed a jubilee year previously. One of the most severe occurrences of plague during the Second plague pandemic was exacerbated by the many pilgrims making their way to and from Rome; in the city itself 600–800 of the faithful died daily.
Another jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Martin V in 1423 (33 years after the last proclaimed jubilee in 1390), but Pope Nicholas V, in 1450, reverted to the quinquagesimal period, while in 1470 Pope Paul II decreed that the jubilee should be celebrated every 25 years, and this has been the normal rule ever since. Paul also permitted foreigners to visit some specified church in their own country, and contribute towards the expense of the Holy Wars, as a substitute for the pilgrimage to Rome.
Subsequent jubilees
The jubilees of 1450 and 1475 were attended by vast crowds of pilgrims, and that of 1450 was unfortunately made famous by a terrible accident in which nearly 200 people were trampled to death in a panic which occurred on the bridge of Sant' Angelo. Following this disaster, great pains were taken to widen the thoroughfares and to provide for the entertainment and comfort of the pilgrims by numerous charitable organizations, of which the Archconfraternity of the Holy Trinity, founded by St. Philip Neri, was the most famous. In 1450, Rome was a largely rural area surrounded by the Aurelian Walls and inhabited by no more than 30,000 people engaged mainly in stock-rearing, in contrast with the economic centres of Florence, Venice, and Milan. Wolves frequented the Vatican Gardens, the population was centred on the Tiber near the Campus Martius, while round the churches of San Giovanni in Laterano and Santa Maria Maggiore were separate villages. Pope Nicholas V used the wealth brought in by pilgrims in the jubilee year of 1450 to convert the medieval city into a Renaissance capital, to found the Vatican Library, and to permanently move the papal seat to the west bank of the Tiber away from the Roman masses who had evicted his predecessor: the Vatican Palace and St Peter's Basilica thus replaced St John Lateran as the main papal headquarters. The nearby Castel Sant'Angelo was rebuilt, along with new fortifications encircling what is now the Vatican City, which Pope Nicholas made his home. According to Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini, 40,000 pilgrims arrived in Rome every day for the jubilee in 1450. With them came plague, and some members of the Curia died of the infection while the Pope himself fled Rome for Fabriano in the Apennine Mountains.
In 1500, Pope Alexander VI announced that the doors in the four major basilicas would be opened simultaneously, and that he himself would open the Holy Door of Saint Peter's. The celebrations around this were "founded on ancient rites and full of symbolic meaning" and the total number attending the initial jubilee events was, according to Johann Burchard, an estimated 200,000 people. This act definitively ushered in several customs.
The ninth jubilee was solemnly opened on December 24, 1524, by Pope Clement VII, at a time when symptoms of the great crises which would soon tear the Church apart were already present, with the Protestant Reformation. The 1550 Jubilee was proclaimed by Pope Paul III, but Pope Julius III actually opened it.
In 1575, in the time of Pope Gregory XIII, as many as 300,000 people came to Rome from all over Europe. The following Holy Year was proclaimed by Pope Clement VIII in 1600.
In 1625, Pope Urban VIII opened the ceremonial doors for the jubilee year. However, the number of pilgrims was lower than expected due to the wars in northern Italy, so the Pope suspended the declaration of indulgences outside Rome in an attempt to lure the faithful to the city. He then went on to declare a universal or extraordinary jubilee in 1628 to pray for peace. This was repeated the next year in 1629, and brought undoubted material benefits to the city. Finally, Innocent X oversaw the last of his jubilees in 1650.
Pope Clement X presided over that of 1675. Pope Clement XI, who opened the Jubilee of 1700, is remembered especially for establishing one of Rome's most renowned charitable institutions, the hospice of San Michele a Ripa. Gradually, other similar institutions were opened to offer shelter and assistance to pilgrims, as in 1725, the Holy Year called by Pope Benedict XIII. A famous preacher during the Jubilee of 1750, proclaimed by Pope Benedict XIV, was Leonard of Port Maurice, who set up 14 Stations of the Cross inside the ruins of the Colosseum.
Pope Clement XIV announced the Jubilee of 1775, but died three months before Christmas and the Holy Door was opened by the new pope, Pius VI. The difficult situation in which the Church found herself during the hegemonic rule of Napoleon prevented Pope Pius VII from proclaiming the Jubilee of 1800.
More than a half a million pilgrims made the journey to Rome for the Jubilee of 1825. Twenty-five years later, the Holy Year could not be held because of the unsettled situation in the Roman Republic and temporary exile of Pope Pius IX. However, he was able to announce a jubilee for 1875, but it was celebrated without any external solemnity, with only the clergy present for the inauguration. The holy doors were not opened, and the pilgrims who came were generally in Rome to do homage to the pope, who had not accepted the Italian annexation of Rome by the troops of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy, rather than to obtain an indulgence.
The Jubilee of 1900, though shorn of much of its splendor by the self-confinement of the pope within the limits of the Vatican, was, nevertheless, carried out by Pope Leo XIII with all the solemnity that was possible.
20th-century jubilees
In the 20th century, jubilees were held in 1925, 1933 (in commemoration of the 1900th anniversary of the traditional year of Jesus's death and resurrection), 1950, 1966 (post-Council jubilee), 1975, 1983 (for the Holy Year of the Redemption: the 1950th anniversary of Jesus's death and resurrection), and 2000.
Pope Pius XII used the occasion of the 1950 Jubilee to declare a new pontifical anthem for the Vatican City. With the encyclical Fulgens corona, he declared the first Marian year or "Little Holy Year" for 1954. Pope John Paul II proclaimed a Marian year in 1987, again four years after the 1983 Jubilee.
"Great Jubilee" of 2000
Pope John Paul II announced a Great Jubilee for the year 2000 with his apostolic letter Tertio Millennio Adveniente (As the Third Millennium Approaches) of November 10, 1994. In this writing, he called for a three-year preparation period leading up to the opening of the Great Jubilee in December 1999. The first year, 1997, was to be dedicated to meditation on Jesus, the second to the Holy Spirit, and the third to God the Father. This Jubilee was especially marked by a simplification of the rites and the requirements for achieving the indulgence, as well as a huge effort to involve other Christians in the celebration.
Protestants and the Eastern Orthodox Church were invited to celebrate the jubilee together with Catholics as a sign of ecumenism. Furthermore, special jubilees were invoked for various groups within the Church, such as children, athletes, politicians, and actors. World Youth Day, celebrated in Rome in August, brought over two million young people together.
The jubilee was closed by the pope on January 6, 2001, by the closing of the holy door of St. Peter's Basilica and the promulgation of the apostolic letter Novo Millennio Ineunte (Upon Entering the New Millennium), which outlined the pope's vision for the future of the church.
Extraordinary Jubilee of Mercy, 2016
On March 13, 2015, Pope Francis announced a special jubilee on the theme of mercy to be held from December 8, 2015, until November 20, 2016, and formally convoked the holy year through the papal bull of indiction, Misericordiae Vultus (The Face of Mercy), on April 11, 2015.
Ceremonial of the jubilee
The most distinctive feature in the ceremonial of the jubilee is the unwalling and the final walling up of the "holy door" in each of the four great basilicas which the pilgrims are required to visit. The doors are opened by the pope at the beginning of the jubilee and then sealed up again afterwards. Previously, the rite included the use of a silver hammer (for removing the concrete at the opening) and a silver trowel (for sealing it again after the jubilee). The pope would pound on the wall, which would then be set to collapse. This ritual caused injury of bystanders, so for the Great Jubilee of 2000, Pope John Paul II simplified the rite considerably, opening and closing the doors with his hands.
Traditionally, the pope himself opens and closes the doors of St. Peter's Basilica personally, and designates a cardinal to open those of St. John Lateran, St. Mary Major, and St. Paul Outside the Walls. In the Great Jubilee, the pope chose to open all the doors personally, while designating cardinals to close all the doors except that of St. Peter's.
Catholic parishes all over the world share a similar rite dedicating a door for the purposes of the jubilee year to accommodate its parishioners who do not intend to visit Rome for the occasion. Local parishes' doors include the same indulgence given to the basilica doors.
Miscellaneous jubilee events
In August 2020, Pope Francis approved the extension of the Jubilee Year of Loreto to 2021. The jubilee year marks the 100th anniversary of the official proclamation of Our Lady of Loreto as the patroness of pilots and air passengers. It began December 8, 2019 and was due to end December 10, 2020, the feast of Our Lady of Loreto, but was extended to December 10, 2021 because of disruptions due to the coronavirus.
Pope John Paul II named some of his voyages jubilee pilgrimages: to Mount Sinai and the Holy Land in 2000 and a Jubilee Pilgrimage in the Footsteps of Saint Paul in 2001 to Malta, Syria, and Greece.
Jubilee indulgence
This is a plenary indulgence which, as stated by Pope Boniface VIII in consistory, it is the intention of the Holy See to grant in the most ample manner possible. When first conceded, such an indulgence, and also the privilege annexed of choosing a confessor who had power to absolve from reserved cases, was a much rarer spiritual boon than it has since become. So preeminent was the favor then regarded that the custom arose of suspending all other indulgences during the jubilee year, a practice which, with certain modifications, still exists to the present day. The precise conditions for gaining each jubilee indulgence are determined by the Roman pontiff, and they are usually announced in a special Bull, distinct from that which it is customary to issue on the preceding feast of the Ascension giving notice of the forthcoming celebration. The main conditions, however, which do not usually vary, are five: confession, Communion, prayer for the Pope, complete renunciation of all attachment to sin, and visits to the four basilicas during a certain specified period. (The first four are common to all plenary indulgences.) The statement made by some, that the jubilee indulgence, being a culpa et a paena, did not of old presuppose either confession or repentance, is absolutely without foundation, and is contradicted by every extant official document of the Roman Catholic Church. Besides the ordinary jubilee indulgence, to be gained only by pilgrims who pay a visit to Rome, or through special concession by certain cloistered religious confined within their monasteries, it has long been customary to extend this indulgence the following year to the faithful throughout the world, though in 2000, the indulgence was extended to the whole world during the jubilee year itself. For this, fresh conditions are appointed, usually including a certain number of visits to local churches and sometimes fasting or other works of charity. Further, the popes have constantly exercised their prerogative of conceding to all the faithful indulgences ad instar jubilaei (after the model of a jubilee) which are commonly known as "extraordinary jubilees". On these occasions, as at the jubilee itself, special facilities are usually accorded for absolution from reserved cases, though on the other hand, the great indulgence is only to be gained by the performance of conditions much more onerous than those required for an ordinary plenary indulgence. Such extraordinary jubilees are commonly granted by a newly elected pontiff at his accession or on occasions of some unexpected celebration, as was done, for example, at the convening of the First Vatican Council, or again at times of great calamity.
Pope John Paul II convoked jubilees in 1983 (Holy Year of the Redemption) and in 2000 (the Great Jubilee). In 2000, he greatly liberalized the conditions for gaining the jubilee indulgence. A visit to only one of the four patriarchal basilicas in Rome was necessary (entering through the holy door). To the four basilicas were added the Sanctuary of Divine Love in Rome, and each diocese was permitted to name a location within the diocese where the indulgence could be gained. For instance, the Diocese of Rome added the chapel in the airport at Fiumicino as a possible pilgrimage site. Most dioceses simply named the local cathedral as the pilgrimage site. Multiple visits were not required. On the last full day of the jubilee, pilgrims were permitted to enter the holy door at St. Peter's until late into the night, so no one would be denied the opportunity to gain the indulgence. The requirements of confession, communion, prayer for the pope, and freedom from all attachment to sin remained in place, as for all plenary indulgences.
List of Roman Catholic jubilee years
1300: Pope Boniface VIII
1350: Pope Clement VI
1390: decreed by Pope Urban VI, presided by Pope Boniface IX
1400: Pope Boniface IX
1423: Pope Martin V
1450: Pope Nicholas V
1475: decreed by Pope Paul II, presided by Pope Sixtus IV
1500: Pope Alexander VI
1525: Pope Clement VII
1550: decreed by Pope Paul III, presided by Julius III
1575: Pope Gregory XIII
1600: Pope Clement VIII
1625: Pope Urban VIII
1650: Pope Innocent X
1675: Pope Clement X
1700: decreed by Pope Innocent XII, presided by Pope Clement XI
1725: Pope Benedict XIII
1750: Pope Benedict XIV
1775: decreed by Pope Clement XIV, presided by Pope Pius VI
1825: Pope Leo XII
1875: Pope Pius IX (without great solemnity)
1900: Pope Leo XIII
1925: Pope Pius XI
1933: Pope Pius XI
1950: Pope Pius XII
1966: Pope Paul VI
1975: Pope Paul VI
1983: Pope John Paul II
2000: Pope John Paul II
2016: Pope Francis
See also
Marian year
Jubilee (disambiguation page)
Christian views on the Old Covenant
Notes
References
External links
Vatican.Va: What is a holy year?
Vatican.Va: Jubilee in the Bible
Vatican.Va: Jubilee year in the Gospel of Luke
Christian terminology | [
-0.3081519603729248,
0.39176124334335327,
0.06026284024119377,
-0.4056745767593384,
-0.42355015873908997,
0.14012181758880615,
0.7168558835983276,
0.6703423857688904,
-0.8974082469940186,
-0.21258647739887238,
-0.45026224851608276,
0.3046184182167053,
0.4019666910171509,
0.26366472244262695,
-0.15214651823043823,
0.14364153146743774,
0.5821103453636169,
0.48278358578681946,
-0.24304796755313873,
-0.4882560074329376,
-0.06313479691743851,
0.2160256952047348,
0.4223040044307709,
-0.1461936980485916,
-0.05218483507633209,
-0.33042076230049133,
-0.012086492963135242,
-0.1906464844942093,
-0.32321256399154663,
-0.19162949919700623,
0.11466909199953079,
0.41840028762817383,
-0.0724932998418808,
0.2103789895772934,
0.15640507638454437,
0.10525013506412506,
0.3897421061992645,
-0.5602543950080872,
-0.36928245425224304,
-0.16991356015205383,
0.5741570591926575,
-0.7756122946739197,
0.07691065222024918,
-0.37065616250038147,
-0.46556785702705383,
-0.09120584279298782,
-1.0241764783859253,
0.12237269431352615,
-0.5323933362960815,
-0.23574694991111755,
-0.5457762479782104,
-0.250888854265213,
-0.0029782012570649385,
0.23146213591098785,
0.06595379114151001,
0.6685128808021545,
-1.2524620294570923,
0.7346154451370239,
0.24793608486652374,
-0.7011952996253967,
0.153230682015419,
-0.37025219202041626,
0.22922927141189575,
-0.3579435646533966,
-0.35812097787857056,
-0.16701668500900269,
0.11028032004833221,
0.6592643857002258,
-0.3278070390224457,
-0.980579137802124,
-0.05960245802998543,
-0.8842023015022278,
-0.02925766445696354,
0.16019447147846222,
-0.006647774018347263,
-0.8981642127037048,
-0.2261960506439209,
-0.26672422885894775,
0.1618277132511139,
-0.672696053981781,
-0.4095277190208435,
0.47452422976493835,
0.44770577549934387,
0.05619939789175987,
0.18761081993579865,
-0.18620167672634125,
-0.011028538458049297,
0.14745588600635529,
-0.23733431100845337,
0.5903388261795044,
-0.1845160871744156,
0.3134791851043701,
1.0045708417892456,
0.3351704180240631,
-0.2732510268688202,
-0.07488042116165161,
-0.2641409635543823,
-0.15740810334682465,
0.16406245529651642,
0.3167803883552551,
0.1770380139350891,
-0.29480794072151184,
0.18690001964569092,
-0.04426628723740578,
0.07606873661279678,
-0.2777596414089203,
0.07379817962646484,
-0.29087144136428833,
0.18522591888904572,
-0.41148874163627625,
-0.4979577958583832,
-0.3351713716983795,
-0.566831111907959,
0.8383082747459412,
-0.5781378746032715,
-0.6394902467727661,
0.22711218893527985,
-0.26842790842056274,
-0.47755691409111023,
-0.38954582810401917,
0.18735246360301971,
-0.13505931198596954,
0.6627379655838013,
-0.18609009683132172,
0.04576458781957626,
0.2072393298149109,
0.45350298285484314,
1.241286039352417,
-0.4297906160354614,
-0.10670189559459686,
0.2593193054199219,
0.5008164048194885,
-0.29323700070381165,
-0.17663034796714783,
0.22967655956745148,
-0.5580103397369385,
-0.378205269575119,
-0.3295995593070984,
0.1760879009962082,
0.31085363030433655,
-0.5633757710456848,
-0.5815863013267517,
-0.1809665560722351,
-0.302376925945282,
0.23823785781860352,
-0.6848653554916382,
-0.31717735528945923,
0.11348583549261093,
-0.2383512705564499,
0.16297265887260437,
0.40003275871276855,
0.019923850893974304,
-0.25498324632644653,
0.07156939804553986,
0.013983706012368202,
0.14055614173412323,
0.42379432916641235,
0.20829439163208008,
-0.12159828096628189,
0.5901312232017517,
0.15774808824062347,
-0.3386586606502533,
-0.14961107075214386,
-0.23865751922130585,
0.10332179069519043,
0.23124408721923828,
0.4777778387069702,
0.4695264995098114,
0.0740775540471077,
-0.12331092357635498,
-0.4617455303668976,
0.587577223777771,
0.13614529371261597,
-0.41471564769744873,
-0.4249083697795868,
0.3883885145187378,
0.502697765827179,
0.38381561636924744,
0.24863678216934204,
-0.16836710274219513,
-0.4626017212867737,
0.25818413496017456,
0.01856161281466484,
0.3927479386329651,
0.226711705327034,
0.22255109250545502,
-0.4694901406764984,
0.4422999918460846,
0.24934041500091553,
-0.24639980494976044,
-0.506606936454773,
0.17049585282802582,
-0.20310340821743011,
-0.5835981369018555,
0.6451568603515625,
-0.19262972474098206,
-0.09946931153535843,
0.3763314187526703,
-0.500882625579834,
0.5353896021842957,
-0.3073750436306,
0.14010141789913177,
-0.06302469223737717,
0.3961063325405121,
-0.8890108466148376,
0.6453396081924438,
0.24849773943424225,
0.4249120354652405,
0.18124055862426758,
0.44907689094543457,
0.10449763387441635,
-0.30312007665634155,
0.17843741178512573,
0.1754276007413864,
-0.10709916055202484,
0.7083251476287842,
-0.4090808629989624,
-0.32844021916389465,
-0.02610066905617714,
-0.19167163968086243,
0.08982553333044052,
0.19252987205982208,
0.01743548922240734,
0.05739583447575569,
-0.42316266894340515,
0.30918508768081665,
-0.09174323081970215,
0.3512602746486664,
0.3005025088787079,
-0.34056583046913147,
0.8133894801139832,
0.07956679165363312,
0.41360393166542053,
0.15007367730140686,
0.014017704874277115,
-0.03320178762078285,
0.036907073110342026,
-0.2994779348373413,
-0.10624948889017105,
-0.10757951438426971,
0.6103953719139099,
-0.09932982176542282,
0.18479695916175842,
0.45119285583496094,
0.17002791166305542,
0.4607391357421875,
0.27010995149612427,
0.233759805560112,
-0.5484113693237305,
-0.25737452507019043,
0.24894046783447266,
0.4910031855106354,
0.45113199949264526,
-0.14919839799404144,
0.1809154450893402,
-0.04343413561582565,
-0.028341807425022125,
0.4649069905281067,
0.12502619624137878,
-0.07038839161396027,
0.3465549945831299,
-0.6959964632987976,
0.32193583250045776,
-0.4647963047027588,
-0.1578434705734253,
-0.4618818461894989,
-0.36189350485801697,
0.1815483123064041,
0.17038987576961517,
0.16678495705127716,
-0.5590993762016296,
0.02587328851222992,
-0.734908401966095,
0.46702221035957336,
-0.1939382404088974,
-0.3037075698375702,
0.32769253849983215,
0.3740815818309784,
-0.37697717547416687,
-0.2178734838962555,
-0.5267908573150635,
0.20079483091831207,
-0.0829399824142456,
-0.27173084020614624,
-1.0187466144561768,
-0.47381916642189026,
-0.1139814630150795,
-0.9207419753074646,
-0.2759106159210205,
-0.23694097995758057,
-0.2918138802051544,
0.11014369130134583,
0.3173361122608185,
-0.08734189718961716,
0.3051935136318207,
-0.02452138066291809,
0.25512996315956116,
-0.11285435408353806,
0.26456549763679504,
-0.2793837785720825,
-0.08862408250570297,
-0.3886076807975769,
0.45685580372810364,
-0.12991325557231903,
0.36466220021247864,
0.3230656683444977,
-0.23182344436645508,
0.15868724882602692,
-5.934647083282471,
-0.2266240417957306,
-0.6358054280281067,
-0.37823060154914856,
-0.4721042215824127,
0.44750022888183594,
1.173801064491272,
0.09124279022216797,
0.005479477811604738,
-0.15001565217971802,
0.19902215898036957,
-0.11008474975824356,
0.22881045937538147,
0.7581020593643188,
0.19564543664455414,
0.12336816638708115,
0.32403621077537537,
-0.4013170897960663,
-0.04468381777405739,
-0.12019417434930801,
0.2995063066482544,
0.036284737288951874,
-0.16589368879795074,
0.937754213809967,
0.12552137672901154,
-0.1618030071258545,
0.06582697480916977,
0.45389270782470703,
-0.5190385580062866,
0.5898330807685852,
0.3273715376853943,
0.19835485517978668,
0.2922535240650177,
-0.43117377161979675,
-0.2732906639575958,
0.395385205745697,
0.31543296575546265,
-0.13223379850387573,
-0.0249922014772892,
-0.3948158919811249,
-0.255546510219574,
-0.26465335488319397,
0.24932211637496948,
-0.04473040625452995,
0.033026982098817825,
-0.05294511839747429,
-0.5162553787231445,
-0.09761602431535721,
-0.20776164531707764,
0.6003240942955017,
-0.0908498764038086,
0.21610018610954285,
-0.045010462403297424,
-0.3581770062446594,
-0.12723910808563232,
-0.16565287113189697,
0.4243237376213074,
-0.12473388761281967,
0.10775277763605118,
-0.2216353714466095,
0.4182547330856323,
-0.014226829633116722,
0.3156742751598358,
-0.04404545575380325,
-0.08787786215543747,
-0.16531305015087128,
-1.0599098205566406,
-0.5238913297653198,
0.18223822116851807,
0.64000403881073,
-0.6408538818359375,
0.13429556787014008,
-0.10402163118124008,
-0.8642999529838562,
-0.005348794162273407,
-0.39052632451057434,
-0.3861571252346039,
0.40156397223472595,
-0.2222641408443451,
0.46913212537765503,
0.2841685712337494,
-0.6676066517829895,
0.035522665828466415,
0.43219271302223206,
0.5138264894485474,
0.04337695613503456,
0.20672214031219482,
-0.043180450797080994,
-0.12694884836673737,
-0.041669849306344986,
0.671521008014679,
-0.3392842710018158,
0.16380353271961212,
-0.05482998862862587,
-0.36050254106521606,
0.8524687886238098,
-0.24060624837875366,
0.13023827970027924,
0.5286448001861572,
-0.09725870937108994,
0.19433431327342987,
-0.025054041296243668,
0.6411244869232178,
-0.16397778689861298,
-0.4035322070121765,
-0.49301061034202576,
-0.08296231180429459,
0.4688967764377594,
0.1407683789730072,
0.02931874804198742,
-0.16954423487186432,
-0.35894742608070374,
-0.16430474817752838,
-0.32869425415992737,
0.3368978798389435,
0.1587981879711151,
-0.010265125893056393,
0.40052980184555054,
0.5022169351577759,
0.24429257214069366,
0.3344580829143524,
0.02316206693649292,
-0.5206338763237,
0.04474245384335518,
-0.9645447731018066,
-0.005503928754478693,
-0.25334808230400085,
0.19832734763622284,
0.3279455900192261,
0.2114795744419098,
-0.051258496940135956,
0.3454679548740387,
0.3678024113178253,
-0.08783744275569916,
0.3980273902416229,
0.08801291882991791,
0.6445050239562988,
-0.3390341103076935,
-0.2042189985513687,
-0.6723573803901672,
0.5785061120986938,
-0.4423830509185791,
-0.4752980172634125,
0.32336607575416565,
0.30371540784835815,
0.37179136276245117,
0.28059443831443787,
-0.23955754935741425,
-0.3387385606765747,
0.8768686056137085,
0.028487635776400566,
0.25946635007858276,
0.17467519640922546,
-0.023579971864819527,
-0.5929123163223267,
0.6046286821365356,
0.6549025774002075,
0.04104577377438545,
-0.230514794588089,
-0.05891644209623337,
-0.19945278763771057,
-0.774756669998169,
-0.9479206800460815,
-0.18772423267364502,
0.27465546131134033,
0.15310099720954895,
-0.7649607062339783,
-0.4538525640964508,
-0.5076256990432739,
0.5489636659622192,
-0.16161921620368958,
-0.009811834432184696,
-0.587527334690094,
0.13668908178806305,
0.6444847583770752,
-0.08527324348688126,
0.46889182925224304,
-0.07361995428800583,
-0.33861809968948364,
0.04379047080874443,
0.40207067131996155,
-0.902775764465332,
-0.3483767807483673,
0.3001946806907654,
0.12487627565860748,
-0.140879288315773,
-0.17365427315235138,
-0.18828697502613068,
-0.36161187291145325,
0.2893277406692505,
0.7836865782737732,
0.18518215417861938,
-0.3943146765232086,
-0.19316625595092773,
0.051182739436626434,
-0.5350198745727539,
-0.475227952003479,
0.16589519381523132,
0.3717418313026428,
-0.21430209279060364,
0.3792613744735718,
0.02312919683754444,
-0.22340679168701172,
0.30787375569343567,
0.15337489545345306,
-0.49831318855285645,
0.5325931310653687,
0.24334965646266937,
-0.5831594467163086,
0.19986756145954132,
-0.09711822122335434,
-0.4906724691390991,
0.12453410029411316,
0.6914940476417542,
-0.09286706149578094,
0.005694407969713211,
-0.3462427854537964,
-0.09294474124908447,
-0.6311236023902893,
-0.3865148425102234,
0.3223477602005005,
0.08352043479681015,
0.17249557375907898,
-0.19802704453468323,
-0.20157448947429657,
0.3862346112728119,
0.24043124914169312,
-0.7992117404937744,
-0.03601086139678955,
0.2674611210823059,
0.3349777162075043,
-0.25849810242652893,
-0.26165270805358887,
-0.4002319574356079,
-0.40973320603370667,
0.1153041422367096,
-0.4813475012779236,
0.17386707663536072,
-0.30494341254234314,
0.03711744397878647,
0.0026898018550127745,
0.4293093979358673,
0.00044269798672758043,
-0.3376699388027191,
-0.5488767623901367,
-0.0697144865989685,
0.09452735632658005,
-0.19373412430286407,
-0.06977885216474533,
0.7188147902488708,
-0.36641865968704224,
0.11123444885015488,
0.2785697877407074,
-0.43017780780792236,
0.30029359459877014,
-0.3808450698852539,
-0.4212062358856201,
-0.02457158826291561,
0.006469672080129385,
-0.11965367197990417,
0.45334726572036743,
-0.472147673368454,
-0.47667062282562256,
-0.31279125809669495,
0.3628929853439331,
0.2458503097295761,
-0.08289346098899841,
0.3241250514984131,
0.4321385622024536,
0.11170521378517151,
0.039407625794410706,
-0.1893729567527771,
0.2394752949476242,
0.4820365309715271,
-0.0019474748987704515,
0.5032069683074951,
-0.42569515109062195,
-0.004192674998193979,
-0.16777390241622925,
-0.33669644594192505,
-0.2243034839630127,
-0.20989735424518585,
-0.18331605195999146,
0.10058765858411789,
-0.0652034729719162,
-1.058829426765442,
-0.09714832901954651,
0.1299414336681366,
-0.08418107032775879,
-0.19111421704292297,
-0.31392356753349304,
0.02433081902563572,
-0.07885844260454178,
0.7503079175949097,
-0.2324046492576599,
0.19335727393627167,
-0.1004074215888977,
0.09782969951629639,
-0.4826246201992035,
-0.03780672699213028,
0.15266180038452148,
0.4127291440963745,
0.23304836452007294,
-1.0113967657089233,
-0.17640285193920135,
0.013517762534320354,
0.24655303359031677,
0.24005010724067688,
-0.2161587029695511,
0.2814471423625946,
0.4885966181755066,
0.20582351088523865,
0.2714230418205261,
0.34163346886634827,
-0.16530853509902954,
0.5469393134117126,
0.5093168020248413,
0.1636553704738617,
-0.45220836997032166,
0.47842973470687866,
0.1266023963689804,
0.3339039385318756,
0.26475074887275696,
-0.3193857967853546,
-0.2653106153011322,
0.23473286628723145,
-0.12721876800060272,
0.04584812745451927,
0.14155209064483643,
0.6047003269195557,
0.599858283996582,
0.3019412159919739,
-0.15605469048023224,
0.849551260471344,
-0.2533093988895416,
-0.29691287875175476,
-0.1079581081867218,
-0.5044668316841125,
-0.020443253219127655,
0.698387861251831,
1.2303993701934814,
0.22480791807174683,
-0.49902573227882385,
0.18549369275569916,
0.010444247163832188,
0.19017252326011658,
-0.8758549094200134,
-0.2751460671424866,
0.5748210549354553,
0.03227606788277626,
0.41578367352485657,
-0.16853289306163788,
0.3231029212474823,
-0.16451437771320343,
0.895946741104126,
-0.3718135356903076,
-0.09966352581977844,
0.11830087006092072,
-0.06513246148824692,
-0.7013402581214905,
-0.13965348899364471,
0.2309374362230301,
0.5475354194641113,
0.22608992457389832,
0.07903552055358887,
-0.111046202480793,
0.229383647441864,
0.22914840281009674,
-0.8371816277503967,
-0.21109086275100708,
-0.04056325927376747,
-0.04268670827150345,
0.13817594945430756,
0.08262325078248978,
0.46211233735084534,
0.08276037871837616,
0.20489022135734558,
0.23270933330059052,
0.23161087930202484,
-0.027413109317421913,
-0.3792576193809509,
0.06565771251916885,
-0.5470790266990662,
-0.5165067315101624,
-0.7942888140678406,
0.6370514631271362,
0.47904613614082336,
0.16940583288669586,
-0.48967769742012024,
0.06393343210220337,
0.4317299723625183,
-0.03528950363397598,
0.08416248857975006,
-0.13633227348327637,
-0.3671046197414398,
-0.4292983412742615,
-0.11343526095151901,
0.8974317908287048,
0.24986319243907928,
0.06859888881444931,
0.29384973645210266,
-0.3366236686706543,
0.006592948455363512,
-0.14239998161792755,
-0.5328527688980103,
-0.08276037871837616,
0.14043594896793365,
-0.24495576322078705,
-0.4275527894496918,
-0.06616155058145523,
0.6556460857391357,
-0.5486579537391663,
0.10821100324392319,
-0.21225571632385254,
-0.21032331883907318,
-0.2697957158088684,
0.07257185876369476,
-0.38508176803588867,
0.14037686586380005,
-0.5440515279769897,
0.42667004466056824,
0.10376863926649094,
0.4735909700393677,
0.5050668120384216,
0.0201212577521801,
0.03739134594798088,
0.7756313681602478,
0.3099653124809265,
0.17788854241371155,
0.387652724981308,
-0.38385698199272156,
-0.20946162939071655,
-0.052923887968063354,
0.6541163325309753,
-0.4810470640659332,
-0.28065428137779236,
0.24370437860488892,
0.08703703433275223,
0.3228321373462677,
-0.3529955744743347,
-0.028753262013196945,
-0.0180825125426054,
0.4334428012371063,
-0.0218563973903656,
0.07931596040725708,
-0.2980501353740692,
-0.3484080731868744,
0.047199979424476624,
-0.7894878387451172,
0.01796475239098072,
0.16200904548168182,
0.2746352255344391,
0.4380857050418854,
-0.1149354875087738,
0.4558166265487671,
-0.398044615983963,
0.36866486072540283,
0.055052489042282104,
0.13613717257976532,
0.19160296022891998
] |
228860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overwhelming%20exception | Overwhelming exception | An overwhelming exception is an informal fallacy of generalization. It is a generalization that is accurate, but comes with one or more qualifications which eliminate so many cases that what remains is much less impressive than the initial statement might have led one to believe.
Examples
"Our foreign policy has always helped other countries, except of course when it is against our National Interest..."
The false implication is that their foreign policy always helps other countries.
The rhetorical use of the fallacy can be used to comic effect, as in the below examples:
"All right, but apart from the sanitation, the medicine, education, wine, public order, irrigation, roads, a fresh water system, and public health... what have the Romans ever done for us!?" – Monty Python's Life of Brian
The attempted implication (fallacious in this case) is that the Romans did nothing for them.
"Well, I promise the answer will always be yes. Unless no is required." – Madagascar: Escape 2 Africa
"Any customer can have a car painted any color that he wants so long as it is black." – My Life and Work by Henry Ford
See also
Faulty generalizationother fallacies involving generalization
References
Inductive fallacies | [
-0.1617957502603531,
0.3721783459186554,
-0.5606008768081665,
-0.11767306923866272,
-0.37250036001205444,
-0.32251694798469543,
0.42753422260284424,
0.36362314224243164,
-0.25766661763191223,
-0.39732030034065247,
-0.5092796087265015,
0.24625366926193237,
-0.12301818281412125,
0.4469996988773346,
-0.42806437611579895,
0.4648577570915222,
0.18678896129131317,
0.5728991031646729,
-0.17549501359462738,
-0.04743404686450958,
0.031555380672216415,
0.11513720452785492,
-0.06994683295488358,
-0.21262513101100922,
0.005604512523859739,
-0.2394288331270218,
0.3514445722103119,
-0.45010438561439514,
0.45360270142555237,
0.19815509021282196,
0.0172065868973732,
0.714413046836853,
0.08162426203489304,
0.14367453753948212,
-0.001287148566916585,
0.054885849356651306,
0.5291904211044312,
0.050500091165304184,
0.01847272738814354,
-0.21041661500930786,
0.4657723009586334,
-0.500234067440033,
0.3810901343822479,
0.05321453511714935,
-0.4325975477695465,
-0.6300071477890015,
-2.184924364089966,
-0.19652928411960602,
-0.736341118812561,
-0.4869590401649475,
-0.40136829018592834,
-0.005620384588837624,
0.3408519923686981,
0.6424098014831543,
-0.41017401218414307,
0.42010295391082764,
-0.4134833812713623,
-0.31946131587028503,
0.5889215469360352,
0.014361205510795116,
0.3443458080291748,
0.13752667605876923,
0.025432031601667404,
0.03608230873942375,
0.19614022970199585,
0.45496663451194763,
-0.19792112708091736,
0.4206066131591797,
-0.40347012877464294,
-0.46064651012420654,
-0.5246066451072693,
-0.32489213347435,
0.202701136469841,
0.371608704328537,
-0.5395365357398987,
0.6772421002388,
0.1734887957572937,
-0.23233743011951447,
-0.12791304290294647,
-0.3467616140842438,
-0.4671485722064972,
0.4429171681404114,
0.5410277843475342,
-0.3455645442008972,
0.3881678283214569,
-0.16080452501773834,
-0.08173047006130219,
0.6963187456130981,
-0.16006602346897125,
0.7942839860916138,
0.5421792268753052,
0.13994549214839935,
0.499149352312088,
-0.2688641846179962,
-0.04363271966576576,
0.13747365772724152,
0.47205424308776855,
-0.22587594389915466,
0.28963181376457214,
0.480410099029541,
-0.14886172115802765,
-0.3963903784751892,
0.34320738911628723,
-0.4806216061115265,
-0.6038255095481873,
-0.3395400047302246,
-0.2075534462928772,
-0.13959193229675293,
0.18154524266719818,
-0.9907598495483398,
-0.34803539514541626,
0.8554367423057556,
-0.5523387789726257,
-0.06379622220993042,
-1.1161746978759766,
0.1279134601354599,
0.3306029736995697,
0.4987572133541107,
-0.025833265855908394,
-0.3222505748271942,
0.10173282027244568,
0.6682357788085938,
-0.34315255284309387,
-0.1855643093585968,
-0.1331690400838852,
0.1026911810040474,
0.47293737530708313,
0.6739511489868164,
-0.5103312134742737,
0.20765601098537445,
-0.15079087018966675,
0.45969119668006897,
0.28636083006858826,
0.10866067558526993,
-0.06792636960744858,
0.04558074474334717,
0.33517733216285706,
0.06497333943843842,
0.11258625239133835,
-0.3787771165370941,
-0.5197288990020752,
-0.24840481579303741,
-1.3242586851119995,
0.41555604338645935,
0.6369906663894653,
0.1937079280614853,
0.16731557250022888,
-0.013648550026118755,
-0.08243190497159958,
-0.0642247423529625,
0.26326388120651245,
0.033317770808935165,
-0.32624825835227966,
0.17550602555274963,
0.21661026775836945,
0.07898131757974625,
0.5540422201156616,
-0.6453965902328491,
0.28611770272254944,
0.6268422603607178,
0.10706917196512222,
-0.07295529544353485,
-0.12283395975828171,
-0.546965479850769,
0.09681455790996552,
-0.4344136416912079,
0.2637133002281189,
0.6264373660087585,
-0.3636201322078705,
0.355935275554657,
-0.36509329080581665,
-0.22050702571868896,
-0.25887662172317505,
-0.019329994916915894,
0.017590675503015518,
0.001468444592319429,
-0.054418522864580154,
0.11163533478975296,
0.9177777767181396,
0.08361896872520447,
-0.5271862745285034,
0.18460242450237274,
0.5252764225006104,
-0.11845663189888,
0.6108230948448181,
0.17479372024536133,
0.1990843564271927,
-0.2210732251405716,
0.07159871608018875,
-0.5808629393577576,
-0.23841693997383118,
-0.17911815643310547,
-0.04269721731543541,
-0.8552853465080261,
0.8803992867469788,
0.2602185606956482,
-0.5468247532844543,
1.020188331604004,
0.48508140444755554,
0.4581335186958313,
0.5976583957672119,
-0.0076899416744709015,
0.06182296574115753,
0.24353720247745514,
-0.0634123757481575,
1.5728198289871216,
0.16233129799365997,
0.06277631223201752,
-0.48076358437538147,
0.5577053427696228,
0.28855660557746887,
0.26575732231140137,
-0.11028895527124405,
0.13647478818893433,
0.11112105846405029,
0.34601226449012756,
-0.37331828474998474,
0.1033015176653862,
0.1637713760137558,
-0.01178522314876318,
0.49733373522758484,
-0.3743777573108673,
-0.10835537314414978,
0.0752052441239357,
0.03552503138780594,
0.5229297280311584,
0.49017277359962463,
0.17182067036628723,
0.5491476655006409,
-0.7237550020217896,
0.11989285051822662,
0.13033784925937653,
0.25703105330467224,
-0.1084805354475975,
0.14210304617881775,
-0.17035868763923645,
0.32622280716896057,
-0.021877745166420937,
0.38367959856987,
-0.1574070155620575,
-0.06416518241167068,
0.19031359255313873,
-0.08914986997842789,
0.3540540337562561,
-0.07121219485998154,
-0.05014684796333313,
-0.4182928204536438,
-0.08457648754119873,
-0.10396036505699158,
0.32627230882644653,
0.23189838230609894,
0.08313760906457901,
0.12643320858478546,
-0.15418590605258942,
0.28660500049591064,
0.22803853452205658,
-0.13819091022014618,
0.09505797922611237,
-0.01205488946288824,
0.0007034469745121896,
-0.15060709416866302,
0.5330648422241211,
0.15580801665782928,
-0.208835631608963,
-0.14799882471561432,
-0.6236894726753235,
-0.5457210540771484,
0.13881324231624603,
-0.21744877099990845,
0.24236656725406647,
0.20821161568164825,
-0.3919233977794647,
-0.2895260453224182,
-1.3037292957305908,
-0.7977624535560608,
-0.12734726071357727,
-0.020265353843569756,
0.6153237819671631,
-0.6837713718414307,
-0.3075910210609436,
0.28673428297042847,
0.03926629200577736,
0.1115192100405693,
-0.4790213704109192,
0.07589993625879288,
-0.6026361584663391,
0.1660224199295044,
-0.31705495715141296,
-0.2625693678855896,
-0.18648473918437958,
-0.17298680543899536,
0.2505355775356293,
0.1858685314655304,
-0.31263643503189087,
0.5015051960945129,
0.5596680641174316,
0.22153976559638977,
-0.09198132157325745,
0.016881240531802177,
0.015134403482079506,
-0.5458370447158813,
0.23849821090698242,
-0.13879765570163727,
-0.21429695188999176,
-0.36998656392097473,
-0.18403679132461548,
0.01693037711083889,
0.12475546449422836,
-5.623003959655762,
0.24424110352993011,
-0.1557490974664688,
-0.05083731561899185,
-0.4585224688053131,
-0.013773421756923199,
0.4249163568019867,
-0.136263906955719,
-0.6752938032150269,
0.5309395790100098,
0.1848469078540802,
-0.023545853793621063,
-0.22231580317020416,
0.5146270990371704,
0.48643723130226135,
0.15275153517723083,
0.4372459650039673,
0.0037168872077018023,
0.18650439381599426,
0.47789445519447327,
-0.09550301730632782,
0.5698679089546204,
0.21835853159427643,
0.23698502779006958,
0.0887761265039444,
0.3994862735271454,
0.11893162876367569,
0.3220226764678955,
-0.6310192346572876,
0.12360502779483795,
0.5774555206298828,
0.11583951115608215,
-0.30596598982810974,
-0.12080799043178558,
-0.49172282218933105,
0.4216761291027069,
0.5673761367797852,
0.06969292461872101,
0.17122423648834229,
-0.2698375880718231,
-0.08235682547092438,
0.27478882670402527,
0.3687650263309479,
0.4083207845687866,
0.46311748027801514,
0.015765346586704254,
-0.12365153431892395,
-0.03847064822912216,
-0.0015344163402915,
0.15872089564800262,
-0.5477633476257324,
0.28366193175315857,
0.47322866320610046,
0.10866035521030426,
0.17267674207687378,
0.2121180146932602,
0.4489467740058899,
-0.07741273194551468,
-0.05058218166232109,
0.06417308747768402,
0.6840381026268005,
-0.3783973753452301,
0.31160447001457214,
-0.25012925267219543,
-0.12797793745994568,
-0.5313699841499329,
-0.33641472458839417,
-0.30368632078170776,
0.6816605925559998,
0.2488514482975006,
-0.13730764389038086,
-0.0584573857486248,
0.7012729644775391,
-0.64447021484375,
-0.16053077578544617,
-0.5856428742408752,
-0.04545946791768074,
0.14453493058681488,
0.38253065943717957,
0.028134504333138466,
-0.5710867047309875,
-0.21697446703910828,
-0.6577707529067993,
-0.021807752549648285,
0.4024799168109894,
0.12804856896400452,
-0.035124797374010086,
0.7828491926193237,
-0.3397565186023712,
-0.24644455313682556,
0.13426141440868378,
0.4210939109325409,
0.025285862386226654,
0.11040111631155014,
0.11825677007436752,
0.5546430945396423,
0.5134578347206116,
0.10579068958759308,
0.5805712342262268,
-0.065332792699337,
0.18834026157855988,
-0.6351350545883179,
-0.17445744574069977,
-0.374645471572876,
-0.03021763637661934,
-0.08592255413532257,
-0.7300048470497131,
0.3900112807750702,
0.7806086540222168,
-0.40350160002708435,
0.3320004940032959,
0.4979355037212372,
-0.36912012100219727,
-0.25775280594825745,
0.16932544112205505,
0.21672415733337402,
-0.2011723816394806,
0.42296814918518066,
-0.08306711167097092,
0.14139795303344727,
0.01268767286092043,
0.20586149394512177,
-0.34005817770957947,
-0.294636607170105,
-0.39128267765045166,
-0.5014476776123047,
-0.202210932970047,
-0.12702982127666473,
-0.4783242344856262,
-0.09060873836278915,
-0.1182745173573494,
0.4966522753238678,
0.1674555093050003,
-0.1860337257385254,
-0.2857741117477417,
-0.6794872283935547,
0.47004520893096924,
0.6831483840942383,
-0.38970446586608887,
-0.909467875957489,
0.38901734352111816,
-0.27156129479408264,
-0.25619712471961975,
0.22892415523529053,
0.5674319267272949,
-0.15809524059295654,
0.17439916729927063,
-0.3610527515411377,
-0.4314176142215729,
0.40320515632629395,
0.0000635346004855819,
-0.49125027656555176,
0.759799063205719,
-0.6507468819618225,
-0.003154478734359145,
0.6039756536483765,
0.19623567163944244,
0.1217556744813919,
-0.3237226605415344,
-0.43874964118003845,
-0.08180012553930283,
-0.17262043058872223,
-1.1300005912780762,
-0.4907941520214081,
0.3098049461841583,
-0.6662912368774414,
-0.9489561319351196,
-0.058781109750270844,
-0.16302639245986938,
0.5673786401748657,
-0.030583908781409264,
-0.4037538468837738,
-0.5001878142356873,
-0.009440033696591854,
0.3827732503414154,
0.4017670154571533,
0.37737858295440674,
0.20416314899921417,
-0.026558399200439453,
-0.1297190934419632,
-0.039668455719947815,
-0.08509919047355652,
-0.6760334968566895,
0.6899371147155762,
0.29395827651023865,
-0.17105494439601898,
0.26513126492500305,
0.7217742204666138,
-0.4169512093067169,
-0.34702029824256897,
0.04734957590699196,
-0.017120491713285446,
0.5662513375282288,
-0.46025896072387695,
0.05321690812706947,
-0.0008205574122257531,
0.021298039704561234,
-0.1250661015510559,
-0.37014341354370117,
-0.40625643730163574,
-0.038510456681251526,
0.44766002893447876,
-0.5418708920478821,
0.05965801328420639,
0.407084196805954,
-0.6398600935935974,
0.6537600755691528,
-0.18720731139183044,
-0.6558389663696289,
0.3402559161186218,
-0.4809700846672058,
-0.6064131259918213,
-0.4258057773113251,
0.0664714127779007,
0.19248056411743164,
-0.2316732406616211,
-0.33494263887405396,
-0.32201218605041504,
0.05501890927553177,
-0.17413488030433655,
0.6451255679130554,
-0.534517228603363,
0.24406495690345764,
-0.08705949783325195,
0.04819759726524353,
0.22022470831871033,
0.09103633463382721,
-0.574955403804779,
1.000716209411621,
-0.3678905665874481,
-0.4515971839427948,
-0.33426034450531006,
0.17441239953041077,
0.23895376920700073,
-0.744737982749939,
-0.1681540459394455,
-0.49227553606033325,
0.4282732903957367,
-0.32812023162841797,
-0.39812782406806946,
0.5158917903900146,
0.6466595530509949,
0.19990213215351105,
-0.3149058520793915,
-0.15173956751823425,
-0.09084898978471756,
0.34835830330848694,
-0.7700438499450684,
-0.3263987600803375,
0.031583383679389954,
-0.08237133175134659,
-0.16132676601409912,
-0.6305656433105469,
0.130760058760643,
0.5648147463798523,
0.022427016869187355,
-0.05521666631102562,
-0.4869021773338318,
-0.2790099084377289,
0.5889185667037964,
0.13694685697555542,
-0.6002829670906067,
-0.3761407732963562,
0.16621506214141846,
-0.054074645042419434,
0.1878374218940735,
-0.07251126319169998,
0.5684040188789368,
0.27621835470199585,
-0.3041592836380005,
0.24735982716083527,
-0.4395875930786133,
0.1415194571018219,
0.4900520145893097,
0.23775511980056763,
-0.31272000074386597,
-0.2523902952671051,
-0.17860837280750275,
-0.1358036994934082,
-0.050669535994529724,
0.35327985882759094,
-0.5112777352333069,
0.28035008907318115,
-0.7570753693580627,
-0.23711897432804108,
-0.14255087077617645,
0.17323938012123108,
-0.08853516727685928,
-0.6679998636245728,
-0.19696186482906342,
-1.083951711654663,
0.1185683086514473,
-0.03677164390683174,
-0.027189649641513824,
0.1891845166683197,
-0.1701817363500595,
0.13544684648513794,
0.3117843568325043,
-0.2511569857597351,
-0.5340384840965271,
-0.7520443201065063,
0.6107637882232666,
-0.13146358728408813,
-0.7848820686340332,
0.5450939536094666,
0.12058354914188385,
-0.19143497943878174,
-0.633614182472229,
0.6353322863578796,
-0.37592029571533203,
-0.016485927626490593,
0.07032661885023117,
0.1912454217672348,
0.7243592739105225,
0.3578260540962219,
-0.08887407183647156,
0.2925337255001068,
-0.22791635990142822,
0.20787379145622253,
0.35241734981536865,
0.22109124064445496,
-0.32074448466300964,
0.6807574033737183,
-0.3837580382823944,
-0.30079302191734314,
0.5461003184318542,
0.08449870347976685,
-0.34431445598602295,
0.4413776993751526,
0.08902031928300858,
0.8268362283706665,
0.27514103055000305,
0.04122021794319153,
0.17389936745166779,
-0.29541078209877014,
-0.8248031735420227,
0.13821759819984436,
-0.4443323314189911,
-0.24275343120098114,
0.20577886700630188,
0.49186572432518005,
0.33216404914855957,
0.1479189693927765,
-0.03196398541331291,
-0.5734698176383972,
-0.2685302495956421,
0.18637429177761078,
0.8937606811523438,
-0.08884911984205246,
-0.3209977447986603,
0.15138038992881775,
-0.15413592755794525,
0.47793981432914734,
-0.692486047744751,
0.34354594349861145,
-0.3002725839614868,
0.03427518904209137,
-0.5426697134971619,
0.05508880317211151,
-1.0353517532348633,
0.06729447841644287,
0.0972931757569313,
0.11890269070863724,
0.09623111039400101,
0.3584095537662506,
-0.10547982901334763,
0.5149650573730469,
0.3780308961868286,
-0.12992945313453674,
-0.0436520129442215,
-0.05502653867006302,
0.05992450192570686,
0.4304492175579071,
0.57584148645401,
0.5616318583488464,
0.047907549887895584,
-0.07211806625127792,
0.37684187293052673,
-0.10990959405899048,
-0.2888822853565216,
0.19001761078834534,
-0.13477517664432526,
0.14012883603572845,
-0.06270404905080795,
0.446442186832428,
-0.1885545402765274,
0.20261816680431366,
0.5841926336288452,
-0.3491967022418976,
0.35906246304512024,
0.20171719789505005,
-0.20944435894489288,
-0.0336889922618866,
-0.033675603568553925,
-0.41804563999176025,
0.08408381789922714,
-0.22405287623405457,
0.45157498121261597,
-0.003235061652958393,
-0.19328375160694122,
-0.301614373922348,
-0.29097333550453186,
0.4680595099925995,
0.10392233729362488,
-0.3145032525062561,
0.16052979230880737,
-0.31818142533302307,
0.5448952317237854,
-1.1941778659820557,
0.23377259075641632,
0.30572813749313354,
-0.41671621799468994,
-0.5129096508026123,
0.32956188917160034,
-0.03805670514702797,
-0.5240756273269653,
0.4543760418891907,
-0.12504372000694275,
0.418384850025177,
0.02268953062593937,
-0.19233420491218567,
-0.05491356924176216,
0.5497704744338989,
0.030420895665884018,
-0.23288029432296753,
0.10869885981082916,
0.3856754004955292,
0.20229053497314453,
-0.169783353805542,
0.3621898293495178,
-0.4935111999511719,
0.388455331325531,
0.17852221429347992,
0.10426249355077744,
-0.2360650599002838,
0.06139209493994713,
0.1638176143169403,
0.1900554895401001,
0.360378623008728,
-0.11978728324174881,
-0.08918286859989166,
-0.5427931547164917,
-0.3141120672225952,
0.349615216255188,
-2.792567253112793,
0.3192664384841919,
-0.3709074556827545,
-0.39997196197509766,
0.16365917026996613,
0.12753385305404663,
0.30678248405456543,
-0.404789537191391,
0.2952432632446289,
-0.027684113010764122,
-0.5317944884300232,
0.48330995440483093,
0.34774282574653625,
-0.5021385550498962,
-0.20579732954502106,
0.8696252107620239
] |
228867 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First%20Battle%20of%20Bull%20Run | First Battle of Bull Run | The First Battle of Bull Run (the name used by Union forces), also known as the Battle of First Manassas (the name used by Confederate forces), was the first major battle of the American Civil War. The battle was fought on July 21, 1861, in Prince William County, Virginia, just north of the city of Manassas and about 30 miles west-southwest of Washington, D.C. The Union's forces were slow in positioning themselves, allowing Confederate reinforcements time to arrive by rail. Each side had about 18,000 poorly trained and poorly led troops in their first battle. It was a Confederate victory, followed by a disorganized retreat of the Union forces.
Just months after the start of the war at Fort Sumter, the Northern public clamored for a march against the Confederate capital of Richmond, Virginia, which was expected to bring an early end to the Confederacy. Yielding to political pressure, Brig. Gen. Irvin McDowell led his unseasoned Union Army across Bull Run against the equally inexperienced Confederate Army of Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard camped near Manassas Junction. McDowell's ambitious plan for a surprise flank attack on the Confederate left was poorly executed; nevertheless, the Confederates, who had been planning to attack the Union left flank, found themselves at an initial disadvantage.
Confederate reinforcements under Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston arrived from the Shenandoah Valley by railroad, and the course of the battle quickly changed. A brigade of Virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the Virginia Military Institute, Thomas J. Jackson, stood its ground, which resulted in Jackson receiving his famous nickname, "Stonewall". The Confederates launched a strong counterattack, and as the Union troops began withdrawing under fire, many panicked and the retreat turned into a rout. McDowell's men frantically ran without order in the direction of Washington, D.C.
Both armies were sobered by the fierce fighting and the many casualties and realized that the war was going to be much longer and bloodier than either had anticipated. The First Battle of Bull Run highlighted many of the problems and deficiencies that were typical of the first year of the war. Units were committed piecemeal, attacks were frontal, infantry failed to protect exposed artillery, tactical intelligence was minimal, and neither commander was able to employ his whole force effectively. McDowell, with 35,000 men, could commit only about 18,000, and the combined Confederate forces, with about 32,000 men, also committed 18,000.
Background
Military and political situation
President Abraham Lincoln tried to resupply the military installations without provoking an attack, but did not succeed.
South Carolina in December 1860 was the first of seven Southern states to declare secession from the Union. Six other southern states did so to form the Confederate States of America, by 12 April when open warfare started when Confederate forces barraged Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor. On April 15th (two days after the Union forces surrendered at Fort Sumter), President Abraham Lincoln issued a proclamation declaring an insurrection against the laws of the United States had taken place.
To suppress the Confederacy and restore federal law in the Southern states, Lincoln called for 75,000 volunteers with ninety-day enlistments to augment the existing U.S. Army of about 15,000. He later accepted an additional 40,000 volunteers with three-year enlistments and increased the strength of the U.S. Army to almost 200,000. Lincoln's actions caused four more Southern states, including Virginia, to secede and join the Confederacy, and by June 1, the Confederate capital had been moved from Montgomery, Alabama, to Richmond, Virginia.
In Washington, D.C., as thousands of volunteers rushed to defend the capital, General in Chief Lt. Gen. Winfield Scott laid out his strategy to subdue the Confederate States. He proposed that an army of 80,000 men be organized to sail down the Mississippi River and capture New Orleans. While the Army "strangled" the Confederacy in the west, the U.S. Navy would blockade Southern ports along the eastern and Gulf coasts. The press ridiculed what they dubbed as Scott's "Anaconda Plan". Instead, many believed the capture of the Confederate capital at Richmond, only one hundred miles south of Washington, would quickly end the war.
By July 1861 thousands of volunteers were camped in and around Washington. Since General Scott was seventy-five years old and physically unable to lead this force, the administration searched for a more suitable field commander.
Irvin McDowell
Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase championed fellow Ohioan, 42-year-old Maj. Irvin McDowell. Although McDowell was a West Point graduate, his command experience was limited. In fact, he had spent most of his career engaged in various staff duties in the Adjutant General's Office. While stationed in Washington he had become acquainted with Chase, a former Ohio governor and senator. Now, through Chase's influence, McDowell was promoted three grades to brigadier general in the Regular Army and on 27 May was assigned command (by President Abraham Lincoln) of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, which included the military forces in and around Washington (Army of Northeastern Virginia). McDowell immediately began organizing what became known as the Army of Northeastern Virginia, 35,000 men arranged in five divisions. Under public and political pressure to begin offensive operations, McDowell was given very little time to train the newly inducted troops. Units were instructed in the maneuvering of regiments, but they received little or no training at the brigade or division level. He was reassured by President Lincoln, "You are green, it is true, but they are green also; you are all green alike." Against his better judgment, McDowell commenced campaigning.
Intelligence
During the previous year, U.S. Army captain Thomas Jordan set up a pro-Southern spy network in Washington City, including Rose O'Neal Greenhow, a prominent socialite with a wide range of contacts. He provided her with a code for messages. After he left to join the Confederate Army, he gave her control of his network but continued to receive reports from her. On July 9 and 16, Greenhow passed secret messages to Confederate General P.G.T. Beauregard containing critical information regarding military movements for what would be the First Battle of Bull Run, including the plans of Union general McDowell.
McDowell's plan and initial movements in the Manassas Campaign
On July 16, McDowell departed Washington with the largest field army yet gathered on the North American continent, about 35,000 men (28,452 effectives). McDowell's plan was to move westward in three columns and make a diversionary attack on the Confederate line at Bull Run with two columns, while the third column moved around the Confederates' right flank to the south, cutting the railroad to Richmond and threatening the rear of the Confederate army. He assumed that the Confederates would be forced to abandon Manassas Junction and fall back to the Rappahannock River, the next defensible line in Virginia, which would relieve some of the pressure on the U.S. capital. McDowell had hoped to have his army at Centreville by 17 July, but the troops, unaccustomed to marching, moved in starts and stops. Along the route soldiers often broke ranks to wander off to pick apples or blackberries or to get water, regardless of the orders of their officers to remain in ranks.
The Confederate Army of the Potomac (21,883 effectives) under Beauregard was encamped near Manassas Junction where he prepared a defensive position along the south bank of the Bull Run river with his left guarding a stone bridge, approximately 25 miles (40 km) from the United States capital. McDowell planned to attack this numerically inferior enemy army. Union Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson's 18,000 men engaged Johnston's force (the Army of the Shenandoah at 8,884 effectives, augmented by Maj. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes's brigade of 1,465) in the Shenandoah Valley, preventing them from reinforcing Beauregard.
After two days of marching slowly in the sweltering heat, the Union army was allowed to rest in Centreville. McDowell reduced the size of his army to approximately 31,000 by dispatching Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon with 5,000 troops to protect the army's rear. In the meantime, McDowell searched for a way to outflank Beauregard, who had drawn up his lines along Bull Run. On July 18, the Union commander sent a division under Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler to pass on the Confederate right (southeast) flank. Tyler was drawn into a skirmish at Blackburn's Ford over Bull Run and made no headway. Also on the morning of 18 July Johnston had received a telegram suggesting he go to Beauregard's assistance if possible. Johnston marched out of Winchester about noon, while Stuart's cavalry screened the movement from Patterson. Patterson was completely deceived. One hour after Johnston's departure Patterson telegraphed Washington, "I have succeeded, in accordance with the wishes of the General-in-Chief, in keeping General Johnston's force at Winchester."
For the maneuver to be successful McDowell felt he needed to act quickly. He had already begun to hear rumors that Johnston had slipped out of the valley and was headed for Manassas Junction. If the rumors were true, McDowell might soon be facing 34,000 Confederates, instead
of 22,000. Another reason for quick action was McDowell's concern that the ninety-day enlistments of many of his regiments were about to expire. "In a few days I will lose many thousands of the best of this force", he wrote Washington on the eve of battle. In fact, the next morning two units of McDowell's command, their enlistments expiring that day, would turn
a deaf ear to McDowell's appeal to stay a few days longer. Instead, to the sounds of battle, they would march back to Washington to be mustered out of service.
Becoming more frustrated, McDowell resolved to attack the Confederate left (northwest) flank instead. He planned to attack with Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler's division at the Stone Bridge on the Warrenton Turnpike and send the divisions of Brig. Gens. David Hunter and Samuel P. Heintzelman over Sudley Springs Ford. From here, these divisions could outflank the Confederate line and march into the Confederate rear. The brigade of Col. Israel B. Richardson (Tyler's Division) would harass the enemy at Blackburn's Ford, preventing them from thwarting the main attack. Patterson would tie down Johnston in the Shenandoah Valley so that reinforcements could not reach the area. Although McDowell had arrived at a theoretically sound plan, it had a number of flaws: it was one that required synchronized execution of troop movements and attacks, skills that had not been developed in the nascent army; it relied on actions by Patterson that he had already failed to take; finally, McDowell had delayed long enough that Johnston's Valley force, who had trained under Stonewall Jackson, was able to board trains at Piedmont Station and rush to Manassas Junction to reinforce Beauregard's men.
Prelude to battle
On July 19–20, significant reinforcements bolstered the Confederate lines behind Bull Run. Johnston arrived with all of his army, except for the troops of Brig. Gen. Kirby Smith, who were still in transit. Most of the new arrivals were posted in the vicinity of Blackburn's Ford, and Beauregard's plan was to attack from there to the north toward Centreville. Johnston, the senior officer, approved the plan. If both of the armies had been able to execute their plans simultaneously, it would have resulted in a mutual counterclockwise movement as they attacked each other's left flank.
McDowell was getting contradictory information from his intelligence agents, so he called for the balloon Enterprise, which was being demonstrated by Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe in Washington, to perform aerial reconnaissance.
Opposing forces
Union
McDowell's Army of Northeastern Virginia was organized into five infantry divisions of three to five brigades each. Each brigade contained three to five infantry regiments. An artillery battery was generally assigned to each brigade. The total
number of Union troops present at the First Battle of Bull Run was about
35,000 although only about 18,000 were actually engaged.
The Union army was organized as follows:
1st Division of Brig. Gen. Daniel Tyler the largest in the army, contained four brigades, led by Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck, Col. Erasmus Keyes, Col. William T. Sherman, and Col. Israel B. Richardson;
2nd Division of Col. David Hunter of two brigades. These were led by Cols. Andrew Porter and Ambrose E. Burnside;
3rd Division of Col. Samuel P. Heintzelman included 3 brigades, led by Cols. William B. Franklin, Orlando B. Willcox, and Oliver O. Howard;
4th Division of Brig. Gen. Theodore Runyon without brigade organization and not engaged, contained seven regiments of New Jersey and one regiment of New York volunteer infantries;
5th Division of Col. Dixon S. Miles included 2 brigades, commanded by Cols. Louis Blenker and Thomas A. Davies;
While McDowell organized the Army of Northeastern Virginia, a smaller Union command was organized and stationed northwest of Washington, near Harper's Ferry. Commanded by Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson, 18,000 men of the Department of Pennsylvania protected against a Confederate incursion from the Shenandoah Valley.
Abstract from the returns of the Department of Northeastern Virginia, commanded by Brigadier-General McDowell, U.S.A., for July 16 and 17, 1861.
Abstract from return of the Department of Pennsylvania, commanded by Major-General Patterson, June 28, 1861.
Confederate
The Army of the Potomac (Brig. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, commanding) was organized into six infantry brigades, with each brigade containing three to six infantry regiments. Artillery batteries were assigned to various infantry brigades. The total number of troops in the Confederate Army of the Potomac was approximately 22,000. Beauregard's army also contained thirty-nine pieces of field artillery and a regiment of Virginia cavalry. The Army of the Potomac was organized into seven infantry brigades. These were:
1st Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Milledge Luke Bonham;
2nd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell;
3rd Brigade, under Brig. Gen. David R. Jones;
4th Brigade, under Brig. Gen. James Longstreet;
5th Brigade, under Col. Philip St. George Cocke;
6th Brigade, under Col. Jubal Early;
7th Brigade, under Col. Nathan G. Evans.
Reserve Brigade, under Brig. Gen. Theophilus H. Holmes
The Army of the Shenandoah (Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston, commanding) was also organized into brigades. It consisted of four brigades of three to five infantry regiments each, which totaled approximately 12,000 men. Each brigade was assigned one artillery battery. In addition to the infantry, there were twenty pieces of artillery and about 300 Virginia cavalrymen under Col. J. E. B. Stuart. Although the combined strength of both Confederate armies was about 34,000, only about 18,000 were actually engaged at the First Battle of Bull Run. The Army of the Shenandoah consisted of four infantry brigades:
1st Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Jackson;
2nd Brigade, commanded by Col. Francis S. Bartow;
3rd Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Barnard E. Bee;
4th Brigade, commanded by Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith.
Abstract front field return, First Corps (Army of the Potomac), July 21, 1861.
[Dated September 25, 1861.]
Abstract from monthly report of Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's division, or Army of the Shenandoah (C.S.A.), for June 30, 1861.
Aggregate present for duty.
Battle
Morning phase
Matthews Hill
On the morning of July 21, McDowell sent the divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman (about 12,000 men) from Centreville at 2:30 a.m., marching southwest on the Warrenton Turnpike and then turning northwest toward Sudley Springs to get around the Confederates' left. Tyler's division (about 8,000) marched directly toward the Stone Bridge. The inexperienced units immediately developed logistical problems. Tyler's division blocked the advance of the main flanking column on the turnpike. The later units found the approach roads to Sudley Springs were inadequate, little more than a cart path in some places, and did not begin fording Bull Run until 9:30 a.m. Tyler's men reached the Stone Bridge around 6 a.m.
At 5:15 a.m., Richardson's brigade fired a few artillery rounds across Mitchell's Ford on the Confederate right, some of which hit Beauregard's headquarters in the Wilmer McLean house as he was eating breakfast, alerting him to the fact that his offensive battle plan had been preempted. Nevertheless, he ordered demonstration attacks north toward the Union left at Centreville. Bungled orders and poor communications prevented their execution. Although he intended for Brig. Gen. Richard S. Ewell to lead the attack, Ewell, at Union Mills Ford, was simply ordered to "hold ... in readiness to advance at a moment's notice". Brig. Gen. D.R. Jones was supposed to attack in support of Ewell, but found himself moving forward alone. Holmes was also supposed to support, but received no orders at all.
All that stood in the path of the 20,000 Union soldiers converging on the Confederate left flank were Col. Nathan "Shanks" Evans and his reduced brigade of 1,100 men. Evans had moved some of his men to intercept the direct threat from Tyler at the bridge, but he began to suspect that the weak attacks from the Union brigade of Brig. Gen. Robert C. Schenck were merely feints. He was informed of the main Union flanking movement through Sudley Springs by Captain Edward Porter Alexander, Beauregard's signal officer, observing from southwest on Signal Hill. In the first use of wig-wag semaphore signaling in combat, Alexander sent the message "Look out for your left, your position is turned." Evans hastily led 900 of his men from their position fronting the Stone Bridge to a new location on the slopes of Matthews Hill, a low rise to the northwest of his previous position.
The Confederate delaying action on Matthews Hill included a spoiling attack launched by Major Roberdeau Wheat's 1st Louisiana Special Battalion, "Wheat's Tigers". After Wheat's command was thrown back, and Wheat seriously wounded, Evans received reinforcement from two other brigades under Brig. Gen. Barnard Bee and Col. Francis S. Bartow, bringing the force on the flank to 2,800 men. They successfully slowed Hunter's lead brigade (Brig. Gen. Ambrose Burnside) in its attempts to ford Bull Run and advance across Young's Branch, at the northern end of Henry House Hill. One of Tyler's brigade commanders, Col. William Tecumseh Sherman, moved forward from the stone bridge around 10:00 a.m., and crossed at an unguarded ford and struck the right flank of the Confederate defenders. This surprise attack, coupled with pressure from Burnside and Maj. George Sykes, collapsed the Confederate line shortly after 11:30 a.m., sending them in a disorderly retreat to Henry House Hill.<ref>Rafuse, "First Battle of Bull Run", pp. 312–13; Rafuse, A Single Grand Victory", p. 131; Esposito, Map 22; Eicher, pp. 94–95</ref>
(Further map details, see: Additional Map 4, Additional Map 5, Additional Map 6 and Additional Map 7.)
Noon phase
Henry House Hill
As they retreated from their Matthews Hill position, the remainder of Evans's, Bee's, and Bartow's commands received some cover from Capt. John D. Imboden and his battery of four 6-pounder guns, who held off the Union advance while the Confederates attempted to regroup on Henry House Hill. They were met by generals Johnston and Beauregard, who had just arrived from Johnston's headquarters at the M. Lewis Farm, "Portici". Fortunately for the Confederates, McDowell did not press his advantage and attempt to seize the strategic ground immediately, choosing to bombard the hill with the batteries of Capts. James B. Ricketts (Battery I, 1st U.S. Artillery) and Charles Griffin (Battery D, 5th U.S.) from Dogan's Ridge.
Brig. Gen Thomas J. Jackson's Virginia Brigade came up in support of the disorganized Confederates around noon, accompanied by Col. Wade Hampton and his Hampton's Legion, and Col. J.E.B. Stuart's cavalry along with a contingent of 6-pounder guns. The Hampton Legion, some 600 men strong, managed to buy Jackson time to construct a defensive line on Henry House Hill by firing repeated volleys at Sherman's advancing brigade. Hampton had purchased about 400 British Enfield rifles to equip the men with, however it is not clear if his troops had them at Bull Run or if the weapons arrived after the battle. If so, they would have been the only foreign-made weapons on the field. The 79th New York was thoroughly decimated by Hampton's musket fire and began to disintegrate. Wade Hampton gestured towards their colonel, James Cameron, and remarked "Look at that brave officer trying to lead his men and they won't follow him." Shortly afterwards, Cameron, the brother of US Secretary of War Simon Cameron, was fatally wounded. It has been claimed that Hampton deliberately targeted officers of the 79th New York in revenge for the death of his nephew earlier in the day, although he had in fact been killed by soldiers of the 69th New York.
Jackson posted his five regiments on the reverse slope of the hill, where they were shielded from direct fire, and was able to assemble 13 guns for the defensive line, which he posted on the crest of the hill; as the guns fired, their recoil moved them down the reverse slope, where they could be safely reloaded. Meanwhile, McDowell ordered the batteries of Ricketts and Griffin to move from Dogan's Ridge to the hill for close infantry support. Their 11 guns engaged in a fierce artillery duel across against Jackson's 13. Unlike many engagements in the Civil War, here the Confederate artillery had an advantage. The Union pieces were now within range of the Confederate smoothbores and the predominantly rifled pieces on the Union side were not effective weapons at such close ranges, with many shots fired over the head of their targets.
One of the casualties of the artillery fire was Judith Carter Henry, an 85-year-old widow and invalid, who was unable to leave her bedroom in the Henry House. As Ricketts began receiving rifle fire, he concluded that it was coming from the Henry House and turned his guns on the building. A shell that crashed through the bedroom wall tore off one of the widow's feet and inflicted multiple injuries, from which she died later that day.
"The Enemy are driving us", Bee exclaimed to Jackson. Jackson, a former U.S. Army officer and professor at the Virginia Military Institute, is said to have replied, "Then, Sir, we will give them the bayonet." Bee exhorted his own troops to re-form by shouting, "There is Jackson standing like a stone wall. Let us determine to die here, and we will conquer. Rally behind the Virginians." This exclamation was the source for Jackson's (and his brigade's) nickname, "Stonewall". Bee was shot through the stomach shortly after speaking and died the next day, thus it is unclear exactly what he meant, moreover none of his subordinates wrote reports of the battle. Col. States Rights Gist, serving as Bee's aide-de-camp, took command of the brigade. Major Burnett Rhett, chief of staff to General Johnston, claimed that Bee was angry at Jackson's failure to come immediately to the relief of Bee's and Bartow's brigades while they were under heavy pressure. Those who subscribe to this opinion believe that Bee's statement was meant to be pejorative: "Look at Jackson standing there like a stone wall!"
Artillery commander Griffin decided to move two of his guns to the southern end of his line, hoping to provide enfilade fire against the Confederates. At approximately 3 p.m., these guns were overrun by the 33rd Virginia, whose men were outfitted in blue uniforms, causing Griffin's commander, Maj. William F. Barry, to mistake them for Union troops and to order Griffin not to fire on them. Close range volleys from the 33rd Virginia followed by Stuart's cavalry attack against the flank of the 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment (Ellsworth's Fire Zouaves), which was supporting the battery, killed many of the gunners and scattered the infantry. Capitalizing on this success, Jackson ordered two regiments to charge Ricketts's guns and they were captured as well. As additional Federal infantry engaged, the Confederates were pushed back and they reformed and the guns changed hands several times.
The capture of the Union guns turned the tide of battle. Although McDowell had brought 15 regiments into the fight on the hill, outnumbering the Confederates two to one, no more than two were ever engaged simultaneously. Jackson continued to press his attacks, telling soldiers of the 4th Virginia Infantry, "Reserve your fire until they come within 50 yards! Then fire and give them the bayonet! And when you charge, yell like furies!" For the first time, Union troops heard the disturbing sound of the Rebel yell. At about 4 p.m., the last Union troops were pushed off Henry House Hill by a charge of two regiments from Col. Philip St. George Cocke's brigade.
To the west, Chinn Ridge had been occupied by Col. Oliver Otis Howard's brigade from Heintzelman's division. But at 4 p.m., two Confederate brigades-Col. Jubal Early's, which had moved from the Confederate right, and Brig. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith's (commanded by Col. Arnold Elzey after Smith was wounded), which had just arrived from the Shenandoah Valley, moved forward and crushed Howard's brigade. Beauregard ordered his entire line forward, and the Union troops began to panic in retreat. At 5 p.m. everywhere McDowell's army was disintegrating. Thousands, in large and small groups or as individuals, began to leave the battlefield and head for Centreville in a rout. McDowell rode around the field trying to rally regiments and groups of soldiers, but most had had enough. Unable to stop the mass exodus, McDowell gave orders for Porter's regular infantry battalion, near the intersection of the turnpike and
Manassas-Sudley Road, to act as a rear guard as his army withdrew. The unit briefly held the crossroads, then retreated eastward with the rest of the army. McDowell's force crumbled and began to retreat.
(Further map details, see: Additional Map 8, Additional Map 9, Additional Map 10, Additional Map 11 and Additional Map 12.)
Union retreat
The retreat was relatively orderly up to the Bull Run crossings, but was poorly managed by the Union officers. A Union wagon was overturned by artillery fire on a bridge spanning Cub Run Creek, inciting panic in McDowell's force. As the soldiers streamed uncontrollably toward Centreville, discarding their arms and equipment, McDowell ordered Col. Dixon S. Miles's division to act as a rear guard, but it was impossible to rally the army short of Washington. In the disorder that followed, hundreds of Union troops were taken prisoner. Wagons and artillery were abandoned, including the 30-pounder Parrott rifle, which had opened the battle with such fanfare. Expecting an easy Union victory, the wealthy elite of nearby Washington, including congressmen and their families, had come to picnic and watch the battle. When the Union army was driven back in a running disorder, the roads back to Washington were blocked by panicked civilians attempting to flee in their carriages. The pell-mell retreat became known in the Southern press as “The Great Skedaddle.”
Since their combined army had been left highly disorganized as well, Beauregard and Johnston did not fully press their advantage, despite urging from Confederate President Jefferson Davis, who had arrived on the battlefield to see the Union soldiers retreating. An attempt by Johnston to intercept the Union troops from his right flank, using the brigades of Brig. Gens. Milledge L. Bonham and James Longstreet, was a failure. The two commanders squabbled with each other and when Bonham's men received some artillery fire from the Union rear guard, and found that Richardson's brigade blocked the road to Centreville, he called off the pursuit.
In Washington, President Lincoln and members of the cabinet waited for news of a Union victory. Instead, a telegram arrived stating "General McDowell's army in full retreat through Centreville. The day is lost. Save Washington and the remnants of this army." The tidings were happier in the Confederate capital. From the battlefield President Davis telegraphed Richmond, "We have won a glorious but dear-bought victory. Night closed on the enemy in full flight and closely pursued."
Aftermath
Brief observations
The battle was a clash between relatively large, ill-trained bodies of recruits, led by inexperienced officers. Neither army commander was able to deploy his forces effectively; although nearly 60,000 men were present at the battle, only 18,000 had actually been engaged on each side. Although McDowell had been active on the battlefield, he had expended most of his energy maneuvering nearby regiments and brigades, instead of controlling and coordinating the movements of his army as a whole. Other factors contributed to McDowell's defeat: Patterson's failure to hold Johnston in the valley; McDowell's two-day delay at Centreville; allowing Tyler's division to lead the march on 21 July, thus delaying the flanking divisions of Hunter and Heintzelman; and the -hour delay after the Union victory on Matthews' Hill, which allowed the Confederates to bring up reinforcements and establish a defensive position on Henry Hill. On Henry Hill, Beauregard had also limited his control to the regimental level, generally allowing the battle to continue on its own and only reacting to Union moves. Johnston's decision to transport his infantry to the battlefield by rail played a major role in the Confederate victory. Although the trains were slow and a lack of sufficient cars did not allow the transport of large numbers of troops at one time, almost all of his army arrived in time to participate in the battle. After reaching Manassas Junction, Johnston had relinquished command of the battlefield to Beauregard, but his forwarding of reinforcements to the scene of fighting was decisive. Jackson and Bee's brigades had done the largest share of fighting in the battle; Jackson's brigade had fought almost alone for four hours and sustained over 50% casualties.
Detailed casualties
Bull Run was the largest and bloodiest battle in United States history up until that point. Union casualties were 460 killed, 1,124 wounded, and 1,312 missing or captured; Confederate casualties were 387 killed, 1,582 wounded, and 13 missing (a very high 10% casualty rate of the troops engaged in battle, excluding missing or captured). Among the Union dead was Col. James Cameron, the brother of President Lincoln's first Secretary of War, Simon Cameron. Among the Confederate casualties was Col. Francis S. Bartow, the first Confederate brigade commander to be killed in the Civil War. General Bee was mortally wounded and died the following day.
Compared to later battles, casualties at First Bull Run had not been especially heavy. Both Union and Confederate killed, wounded, and missing were a little over 1700 each. Two Confederate brigade commanders, Jackson, and Edmund Kirby-Smith were wounded in the battle. Jackson was shot in the hand and so he remained on the battlefield. No Union officers above the regimental level were killed; two division commanders (Samuel Heintzelman and David Hunter) and one brigade commander (Orlando Willcox) were wounded.
UnionUnion casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.Union artillery lost in the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.ConfederateConfederate casualties at the battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861.Effect on Union and subsequent events
Union forces and civilians alike feared that Confederate forces, 14,000 not engaged in the battle and thus rested, would advance on Washington, DC, only 27 miles away ,with very little standing in their way. On July 24, Prof. Thaddeus S. C. Lowe ascended in the balloon Enterprise to observe the Confederates moving in and about Manassas Junction and Fairfax. He saw no evidence of massing Confederate forces but was forced to land in Confederate territory. It was overnight before he was rescued and could report to headquarters. He reported that his observations "restored confidence" to the Union commanders.
The Northern public was shocked at the unexpected defeat of their army when an easy victory had been widely anticipated. Both sides quickly came to realize that the war would be longer and more brutal than they had imagined. On July 22, President Lincoln signed a bill that provided for the enlistment of another 500,000 men for up to three years of service. On July 25, 11,000 Pennsylvanians who had earlier been rejected by the U.S. Secretary of War, Simon Cameron, for federal service in either Patterson's or McDowell's command arrived in Washington, DC, and were finally accepted.
Three months after the First Battle of Bull Run, Union forces suffered another, smaller defeat at the Battle of Ball's Bluff, near Leesburg, Virginia. The perceived military incompetence at both battles led to the establishment of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, a congressional body created to investigate Northern military affairs. Concerning the Battle of First Bull Run, the committee listened to testimony from a variety of witnesses connected with McDowell's army. Although the committee's report concluded that the principal cause of defeat was Patterson's failure to prevent Johnston from reinforcing Beauregard, Patterson's enlistment had expired a few days after the battle, and he was no longer in the service. The Northern public clamored for another scapegoat, and McDowell bore the chief blame. On 25 July, he was relieved of army command and replaced by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan, who would soon be named general-in-chief of all the Union armies. McDowell was also present to bear significant blame for the defeat of Maj. Gen. John Pope's Army of Virginia by Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia thirteen months later, at the Second Battle of Bull Run.Eicher, pp. 100–101.
Effect on Confederacy
The reaction in the Confederacy was more muted. There was little public celebration, as the Southerners realized that despite their victory, the greater battles that would inevitably come would mean greater losses for their side as well. Once the euphoria of victory had worn off, Jefferson Davis called for 400,000 additional volunteers.
Beauregard was considered the Confederate hero of the battle and was promoted that day by President Davis to full general in the Confederate army. Stonewall Jackson, arguably the most important tactical contributor to the victory, received no special recognition but would later achieve glory for his 1862 Valley Campaign. Privately, Davis credited Greenhow with ensuring Confederate victory. Jordan sent a telegram to Greenhow: "Our President and our General direct me to thank you. We rely upon you for further information. The Confederacy owes you a debt. (Signed) JORDAN, Adjutant-General."
The battle also had long-term psychological consequences. The decisive victory led to a degree of overconfidence on the part of Confederate forces and prompted a determined organizational effort on the part of the Union. In hindsight, commentators on both sides agreed that the one-sided outcome "proved the greatest misfortune that would have befallen the Confederacy." Although modern historians generally agree with that interpretation, James M. McPherson has argued that the esprit de corps attained by Confederate troops on the heels of their victory, together with a new sense of insecurity felt by northern commanders, also gave the Confederacy a military edge in the following months.
Confederate victory: turning point of the American Civil War
"Bull Run" vs. "Manassas"
The name of the battle has caused controversy since 1861. The Union Army frequently named battles after significant rivers and creeks that played a role in the fighting; the Confederates generally used the names of nearby towns or farms. The U.S. National Park Service uses the Confederate name for its national battlefield park, but the Union name (Bull Run) also has widespread currency in popular literature.
Confusion between battle flags
Battlefield confusion between the battle flags, especially the similarity of the Confederacy's "Stars and Bars" and the Union's "Stars and Stripes" when it was fluttering, led to the adoption of the Confederate Battle Flag, which eventually became the most popular symbol of the Confederacy and the South in general.
Conclusions
The First Battle of Bull Run demonstrated that the war would not be won by one grand battle, and both sides began preparing for a long and bloody conflict. The battle also showed the need for adequately trained and experienced officers and men. One year later, many of the same soldiers who had fought at First Bull Run, now combat veterans, would have an opportunity to test their skills on the same battlefield at the Second Battle of Bull Run/Manassas.
Additional battle maps
Gallery: the First Bull Run hour by hour
In popular culture
The First Battle of Bull Run is mentioned in the novel Gods and Generals, but is depicted more fully in its film adaptation. The battle forms the climax of the film Class of '61. It also appears in the first episode of the second season of the mini-series North and South, in the second episode of the first season of the mini-series How the West Was Won and in the first episode of the mini-series The Blue and the Gray. Manassas (1999) is the first volume in the James Reasoner Civil War Series of historical novels. The battle is described in Rebel (1993), the first volume of Bernard Cornwell's The Starbuck Chronicles series of historical novels. The battle is described from the viewpoint of a Union infantryman in Upton Sinclair's novella Manassas, which also depicts the political turmoil leading up to the Civil War. The battle is also depicted in John Jakes's The Titans, the fifth novel in The Kent Family Chronicles, a series that explores the fictional Confederate cavalry officer Gideon Kent. The battle is the subject of the Johnny Horton song, "Battle of Bull Run". Shaman, second in the Cole family trilogy by Noah Gordon, includes an account of the battle. The battle is also depicted in the song "Yankee Bayonet" by indie-folk band The Decemberists. In Murder at 1600, Detective Harlan Regis (Wesley Snipes) has built a plan-relief of the battle which plays a certain role in the plot.
Sesquicentennial
Prince William County staged special events commemorating the 150th anniversary of the Civil War through 2011. Manassas was named the No. 1 tourist destination in the United States for 2011 by the American Bus Association for its efforts in highlighting the historical impact of the Civil War. The cornerstone of the commemoration event featured a reenactment of the battle on July 23–24, 2011. Throughout the year, there were tours of the Manassas battlefield and other battlefields in the county and a number of related events and activities.
The City of Manassas commemorated the 150th anniversary of the battle July 21–24, 2011.
Battlefield preservation
Part of the site of the battle is now Manassas National Battlefield Park, which is designated as a National Battlefield Park. More than 900,000 people visit the battlefield each year. As a historic area under the National Park Service, the park was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.
See also
Armies in the American Civil War
Troop engagements of the American Civil War, 1861
List of costliest American Civil War land battles
Origins of the American Civil War
Bull Run Mountains
Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps
Notes
References
Alexander, Edward P. Fighting for the Confederacy: The Personal Recollections of General Edward Porter Alexander. Edited by Gary W. Gallagher. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. .
Ballard, Ted. First Battle of Bull Run: Staff Ride Guide. Washington, DC: United States Army Center of Military History, 2003. .
Beatie, Russel H. Army of the Potomac: Birth of Command, November 1860 – September 1861. New York: Da Capo Press, 2002. .
Brown, J. Willard. The Signal Corps, U.S.A. in the War of the Rebellion. U.S. Veteran Signal Corps Association, 1896. Reprinted 1974 by Arno Press. .
Davis, William C., and the Editors of Time-Life Books. First Blood: Fort Sumter to Bull Run. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books, 1983. .
Detzer, David. Donnybrook: The Battle of Bull Run, 1861. New York: Harcourt, 2004. .
Eicher, David J. The Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2001. .
Esposito, Vincent J. West Point Atlas of American Wars. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1959. . The collection of maps (without explanatory text) is available online at the West Point website. Praeger, 1959.
Freeman, Douglas S. Lee's Lieutenants: A Study in Command. 3 vols. New York: Scribner, 1946. .
Haydon, F. Stansbury. Military Ballooning during the Early Civil War. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1941. .
Livermore, Thomas L. Numbers and Losses in the Civil War in America 1861–65. Reprinted with errata, Dayton, OH: Morninside House, 1986. . First published in 1901 by Houghton Mifflin.
McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era. Oxford History of the United States. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988. .
Rafuse, Ethan S. "First Battle of Bull Run." In Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History, edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .
Rafuse, Ethan S. A Single Grand Victory: The First Campaign and Battle of Manassas. The American Crisis Series. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 2002. .
Rawley, James A. Turning Points of the Civil War. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1966. .
Robertson, James I., Jr. Stonewall Jackson: The Man, The Soldier, The Legend. New York: MacMillan Publishing, 1997. .
Salmon, John S. The Official Virginia Civil War Battlefield Guide. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2001. .
Williams, T. Harry. Lincoln and His Generals. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952. .
National Park Service battle description
Professor Thaddeus Lowe's Official Report (Part I)
Memoirs and primary sources
Dyer, Frederick H., A compendium of the War of the Rebellion, Volume 1, 1908, Des Moines IA
Longstreet, James. From Manassas to Appomattox: Memoirs of the Civil War in America. New York: Da Capo Press, 1992. . First published in 1896 by J. B. Lippincott and Co.
Robert Underwood Johnson, Clarence Clough Buell, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War: The Opening Battles, Volume 1 (Pdf), New York: The Century Co., 1887.
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: a Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1880–1901
Further reading
Davis, William C. Battle at Bull Run: A History of the First Major Campaign of the Civil War. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977. .
Goldfield, David, et al. The American Journey: A History of the United States. 2nd ed. New York: Prentice Hall, 1999. .
Gottfried, Bradley M. The Maps of First Bull Run: An atlas of the First Bull Run (Manassas) Campaign, including the Battle of Ball's Bluff, June–October 1861. El Dorado Hills, CA: Savas Beatie, 2009. .
Hankinson, Alan. First Bull Run 1861: The South's First Victory. Osprey Campaign Series #10. London: Osprey Publishing, 1991. .
Hennessy, John, Ethan Rafuse, and Harry Smeltzer. "Historians' Forum: The First Battle of Bull Run." Civil War History 57#2 (June 2011): 106–120.
Hines, Blaikie. The Battle of First Bull Run, Manassas Campaign – July 16–22, 1861: An Illustrated Atlas and Battlefield Guide. Maine: American Patriot Press, 2011. .
Longacre, Edward G. The Early Morning of War: Bull Run, 1861 (2014).
Rable, George. "The Battlefield and Beyond." Civil War History'' 53#3 (September 2007): 244–51.
External links
Battle of Bull Run: Battle maps, photos, history articles, and battlefield news (Civil War Trust)
"Map of the Battles of Bull Run, 1861", prepared by Army engineer, National Archives and Record Administration, at World Digital Library
Manassas National Battlefield Park website
First Battle of Manassas: An End to Innocence, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
Harper's Weekly 1861 Report on the Battle of Bull Run
Civil War Home website on First Bull Run
Animated history of the First Battle of Bull Run
FirstBullRun.co.uk
First Manassas Campaign with Official Records and Reports
Map of the Battles of Bull Run Near Manassas. Solomon Bamberger. Zoomable high-resolution map.
Newspaper coverage of the First Battle of Bull Run
Bull Run I
Bull Run I
Bull Run I
Prince William County in the American Civil War
Fairfax County in the American Civil War
Bull Run I
Bull Run
1861 in the American Civil War
1861 in Virginia
July 1861 events | [
-0.16748841106891632,
-0.34109264612197876,
-0.9174531698226929,
0.3237049877643585,
0.36795708537101746,
-0.016926702111959457,
0.3399074375629425,
0.4580504894256592,
0.11076203733682632,
-0.4820674955844879,
0.21127545833587646,
0.86727374792099,
-0.709534764289856,
0.7027783393859863,
-0.8810822367668152,
0.5617581009864807,
0.39742791652679443,
-0.5687510371208191,
0.3721710443496704,
-0.4645788073539734,
-0.15744073688983917,
-0.35176920890808105,
0.30533546209335327,
0.7370882034301758,
0.5304819345474243,
0.04487037658691406,
0.3458544611930847,
-0.3256705403327942,
0.6312383413314819,
-0.023815860971808434,
0.20114389061927795,
0.02227867767214775,
-0.052713628858327866,
0.26266518235206604,
-1.160901427268982,
-0.00884165894240141,
-0.3472384512424469,
0.11323080956935883,
-0.1326318085193634,
-0.4199100434780121,
-0.4450526833534241,
0.03811737149953842,
-0.40238669514656067,
-0.31905296444892883,
0.14680393040180206,
0.17053306102752686,
-0.8785847425460815,
-0.35206449031829834,
-1.0868282318115234,
-0.6846054196357727,
-0.34502363204956055,
0.7113457918167114,
-0.09969174861907959,
0.6334963440895081,
-0.2189691960811615,
0.17784792184829712,
-0.03358789533376694,
-0.5179498791694641,
-0.15026544034481049,
0.06695973128080368,
0.6963586807250977,
0.13697054982185364,
0.25171786546707153,
0.11396540701389313,
-0.08538428694009781,
-0.5223888754844666,
0.18026264011859894,
0.6468760967254639,
0.36405304074287415,
-0.47712990641593933,
0.031768519431352615,
-0.23422899842262268,
-0.0558096244931221,
0.13343478739261627,
0.2210487723350525,
-0.29158368706703186,
0.19606183469295502,
0.4318985342979431,
-0.6996116638183594,
0.24320979416370392,
-0.1777828186750412,
-0.4011416733264923,
0.3537777066230774,
0.008190404623746872,
-0.08555334061384201,
0.3403860926628113,
-0.42491447925567627,
-0.16938212513923645,
-0.2071494162082672,
0.6578243374824524,
-0.14761778712272644,
-0.018234457820653915,
-0.12976329028606415,
-0.5176910161972046,
0.028888601809740067,
-0.12430071830749512,
0.307044118642807,
0.18371418118476868,
-0.37616273760795593,
-0.2108299881219864,
-0.10395801067352295,
-0.3501201272010803,
0.7410183548927307,
0.1956920176744461,
-0.3916086256504059,
-0.010668739676475525,
0.4408935606479645,
-0.17139551043510437,
0.060001496225595474,
-0.6593396067619324,
-0.08006609976291656,
0.532580554485321,
0.1905413419008255,
-0.09813214838504791,
-0.32984477281570435,
-0.11830323934555054,
0.4276382327079773,
-0.8716768622398376,
0.20537404716014862,
-0.32445836067199707,
-0.11358043551445007,
0.4466880261898041,
-0.554882824420929,
0.29420340061187744,
-0.3519294857978821,
0.2597592771053314,
0.019004467874765396,
0.22105543315410614,
-0.1461191177368164,
0.2636513113975525,
-0.06936608999967575,
0.41498011350631714,
0.19527170062065125,
-0.408270001411438,
0.06921488791704178,
-0.2913775146007538,
0.29370608925819397,
0.02071383036673069,
-0.14625829458236694,
-0.2548951804637909,
-0.4343787431716919,
-0.49737340211868286,
-0.13725003600120544,
-0.07839600741863251,
0.16403436660766602,
-0.38318029046058655,
0.27038145065307617,
-0.31914570927619934,
-0.12013331800699234,
-0.0409146249294281,
0.10553949326276779,
-0.37324702739715576,
0.042106274515390396,
0.5283321738243103,
-0.18231332302093506,
0.6476349830627441,
0.6271735429763794,
-0.20842035114765167,
0.31871679425239563,
0.9846399426460266,
-0.013046562671661377,
0.48497042059898376,
0.4326739013195038,
0.044209789484739304,
0.14871443808078766,
-0.09085588902235031,
0.8310343027114868,
-0.2914011478424072,
-0.3425937294960022,
-0.4853973090648651,
-0.04613200202584267,
-0.5731015205383301,
-0.47003984451293945,
0.19876427948474884,
-0.06523814797401428,
0.0033249042462557554,
0.6939631700515747,
0.5777413249015808,
0.03643771633505821,
0.06976055353879929,
-0.32982391119003296,
0.3260841369628906,
0.35143712162971497,
0.2833464741706848,
0.13244593143463135,
0.058551907539367676,
0.29439887404441833,
-0.33846089243888855,
-0.5505856275558472,
-0.3900238871574402,
0.3431968092918396,
-0.32339373230934143,
-0.6992291212081909,
-0.20169447362422943,
1.0903514623641968,
-0.09347683191299438,
-0.6281875967979431,
-0.23130573332309723,
0.2208399474620819,
0.5827279090881348,
0.7198500633239746,
-0.12572719156742096,
0.6699458956718445,
0.08419904112815857,
-0.5101231336593628,
-0.2953583896160126,
0.09583199769258499,
0.30885329842567444,
0.47072723507881165,
-0.017456848174333572,
0.3025127947330475,
0.3193185329437256,
-0.2619866132736206,
-0.09423451125621796,
0.3720650374889374,
0.3325023651123047,
-0.10256180167198181,
-0.3042512536048889,
0.9856211543083191,
-0.43669191002845764,
0.48825034499168396,
-0.26668474078178406,
0.22301161289215088,
0.3656058609485626,
0.24947677552700043,
0.19542698562145233,
-0.26839274168014526,
0.3049147427082062,
-0.10393054038286209,
-1.1396543979644775,
0.08031939715147018,
0.04974861070513725,
-0.1345989853143692,
-0.2409132421016693,
0.5364218950271606,
-0.48615124821662903,
-0.4641178548336029,
-0.2560705542564392,
0.4840502440929413,
-0.025109171867370605,
0.5871598124504089,
0.5967066884040833,
-0.45630985498428345,
0.5639055371284485,
-0.49544304609298706,
-0.5879372954368591,
0.16227100789546967,
-0.0811457484960556,
0.311055451631546,
-0.885623037815094,
-0.2930440902709961,
0.16329820454120636,
0.5661613345146179,
-0.004795872140675783,
0.1822940558195114,
-0.16007931530475616,
-0.35954442620277405,
-0.13127629458904266,
0.40625107288360596,
0.05317181348800659,
-0.045509904623031616,
0.2816661596298218,
-0.19855530560016632,
0.36382442712783813,
0.1551063060760498,
-0.48128336668014526,
-1.0285420417785645,
0.606929361820221,
-0.647402822971344,
0.08500538021326065,
1.0547230243682861,
0.1160082072019577,
0.5439282655715942,
-0.3296431303024292,
0.28602850437164307,
-0.24420060217380524,
-0.010116352699697018,
0.33860817551612854,
-0.5747166275978088,
-0.5105282664299011,
0.16498196125030518,
0.351969450712204,
0.17939212918281555,
-0.5827925205230713,
-0.4026256799697876,
-0.5948025584220886,
-0.11897096782922745,
-0.08577403426170349,
0.23439015448093414,
0.4186280369758606,
0.3335159420967102,
0.27076005935668945,
-0.4561605751514435,
0.572119951248169,
0.7176639437675476,
0.9238573312759399,
0.41976872086524963,
0.6386104822158813,
-0.20327866077423096,
-0.13592278957366943,
-1.0363556146621704,
0.4048362970352173,
-0.6788424849510193,
-0.46502599120140076,
0.6115010380744934,
-0.6574888825416565,
-0.19125308096408844,
0.19111566245555878,
-5.531659126281738,
0.003711133264005184,
-0.3777294158935547,
-0.08862815052270889,
0.06441723555326462,
-0.3243284225463867,
-0.11615291982889175,
-0.03983805328607559,
0.1858881413936615,
0.6168015599250793,
-0.026373976841568947,
-0.398578017950058,
-0.7014127373695374,
-0.888937771320343,
0.29012349247932434,
0.13312318921089172,
0.7463315725326538,
-0.193636953830719,
0.2918381989002228,
0.5360516309738159,
-0.1785501390695572,
-0.4399195909500122,
0.09281028062105179,
0.2763611078262329,
0.4057787358760834,
0.45072731375694275,
0.04214898496866226,
0.06479188054800034,
-0.11100232601165771,
1.0053327083587646,
0.3703242242336273,
-0.23298236727714539,
0.04885740950703621,
-0.10768628865480423,
-0.02278568223118782,
-0.6104065179824829,
0.1625397801399231,
-0.3000689744949341,
0.004006376955658197,
-0.7677386403083801,
-0.23130537569522858,
-0.42272892594337463,
-0.30977386236190796,
-0.41035911440849304,
0.702479898929596,
-0.4038994312286377,
0.12235689163208008,
-0.012310461141169071,
-0.23127733170986176,
0.2578520178794861,
0.10240188986063004,
0.2922622859477997,
0.04008621722459793,
-0.40571847558021545,
0.08268456161022186,
0.12591949105262756,
0.4263051450252533,
-0.5813876986503601,
-0.07295257598161697,
0.32968127727508545,
-0.17300935089588165,
-0.8295117020606995,
-0.2621050775051117,
-0.31904709339141846,
0.811095118522644,
-0.7017725706100464,
0.4000687897205353,
0.3941718339920044,
0.5579026937484741,
0.31935495138168335,
0.8029786944389343,
0.9972423315048218,
0.0029842739459127188,
-0.8753646016120911,
0.028508232906460762,
-0.39507296681404114,
-0.388235479593277,
0.0835060328245163,
-0.062160391360521317,
0.018461916595697403,
-0.40836912393569946,
-0.31172657012939453,
0.587972104549408,
0.17752762138843536,
0.733639657497406,
0.6617425084114075,
-0.3412061035633087,
-0.27406591176986694,
-0.39263907074928284,
-0.42969802021980286,
0.5122394561767578,
0.08258899301290512,
-0.04808828607201576,
-0.051347121596336365,
0.1842101812362671,
0.42227011919021606,
-0.047570373862981796,
0.5373633503913879,
0.18502210080623627,
0.0728503093123436,
0.3034132421016693,
-0.4285099506378174,
-0.04295770823955536,
-1.0296454429626465,
-0.4367187023162842,
-0.030673718079924583,
-0.3106619715690613,
0.3288901150226593,
1.0075457096099854,
-0.1345418095588684,
-0.5849231481552124,
-0.3553626537322998,
-0.2263176143169403,
-0.19315873086452484,
-0.20674611628055573,
-0.07283662259578705,
0.5490132570266724,
0.22674235701560974,
0.8001909255981445,
0.348040372133255,
0.1770438253879547,
0.20949630439281464,
-0.2881680428981781,
-0.5079709887504578,
0.9486572742462158,
-0.09753663837909698,
-0.01631798781454563,
0.3803331255912781,
0.05019794777035713,
-0.17434214055538177,
0.3057725429534912,
-0.26762694120407104,
-0.21489372849464417,
0.6938289999961853,
-0.2642761766910553,
-0.12603817880153656,
0.011485982686281204,
-0.9569310545921326,
-0.0004256393003743142,
0.13439597189426422,
-0.11656256765127182,
-0.14304733276367188,
-0.17451415956020355,
0.17834381759166718,
0.3712010383605957,
-0.2564396262168884,
-0.3123925030231476,
-0.434709370136261,
-0.6954270601272583,
0.13278420269489288,
-0.3733972907066345,
-0.8047354221343994,
0.032286982983350754,
-0.09254513680934906,
0.4132891595363617,
-0.06672336161136627,
0.2688702940940857,
-0.10595954209566116,
-0.4729847311973572,
-0.27517035603523254,
-0.2257823795080185,
-0.2883574962615967,
-0.5497028231620789,
-0.3766508400440216,
0.07374471426010132,
0.06040366366505623,
-0.21944788098335266,
-0.1373288482427597,
-0.49473538994789124,
0.4328209161758423,
0.8116148114204407,
-0.4822571277618408,
-0.2191954106092453,
0.4128088653087616,
0.26075994968414307,
0.14383260905742645,
-0.6609371900558472,
0.07737971097230911,
0.5230861902236938,
-0.2420162707567215,
-0.12156268954277039,
0.28464779257774353,
-0.266622930765152,
0.2241991013288498,
0.3760204315185547,
-0.6761893033981323,
-0.48552441596984863,
0.39639002084732056,
-0.5125160217285156,
0.8100060820579529,
0.12794378399848938,
-0.49325814843177795,
0.12816327810287476,
0.18099214136600494,
-0.28254953026771545,
-0.21776460111141205,
-0.3677622079849243,
-0.08399976044893265,
0.2310630828142166,
-0.2233315259218216,
-0.18272536993026733,
0.27434998750686646,
-0.48373541235923767,
-0.49402981996536255,
-0.21025994420051575,
-0.32863783836364746,
0.49643751978874207,
0.5691131949424744,
-0.854326605796814,
0.8973135948181152,
0.10586977005004883,
-0.5956007838249207,
0.15453480184078217,
0.3164154291152954,
-0.2149152159690857,
-0.13303405046463013,
0.36447134613990784,
0.3934122920036316,
0.07514134794473648,
-0.2848491966724396,
0.1431538611650467,
-0.37110570073127747,
-0.3085682988166809,
-0.12255904078483582,
-0.09818430989980698,
0.3680082857608795,
-0.2331230640411377,
-0.9286038279533386,
0.6843419075012207,
-0.23971985280513763,
-0.3167056739330292,
-0.8087975382804871,
-0.1971287727355957,
0.4463150203227997,
0.11084667593240738,
0.40574532747268677,
0.9076511263847351,
-0.15177160501480103,
-0.3541736304759979,
0.09866530448198318,
0.29632991552352905,
0.9751739501953125,
-0.15146782994270325,
-0.172724187374115,
0.12911882996559143,
-0.24544699490070343,
0.2660426199436188,
0.0691080391407013,
-0.23039372265338898,
0.3382611870765686,
0.1774049550294876,
0.07035457342863083,
-0.9265598654747009,
0.3965529203414917,
0.34172168374061584,
-0.4784121513366699,
-0.22089815139770508,
0.2837211489677429,
-0.508129894733429,
0.20127320289611816,
0.2408023476600647,
0.2821888029575348,
-1.1228996515274048,
-0.5049630403518677,
0.25768399238586426,
-0.15878266096115112,
-0.15675880014896393,
-0.30937308073043823,
-0.22206109762191772,
0.042436663061380386,
-0.21786080300807953,
-0.44035351276397705,
0.18225334584712982,
0.39431777596473694,
0.5175509452819824,
0.732591450214386,
-0.05457320064306259,
-0.3208167254924774,
0.4830090403556824,
0.2715921401977539,
-0.5031344294548035,
-0.6942031383514404,
-0.22814053297042847,
0.001477728015743196,
0.38372811675071716,
-0.5194432735443115,
-0.4016129672527313,
0.03877359256148338,
0.15647830069065094,
0.06742975115776062,
0.0042666299268603325,
0.40330153703689575,
-0.010501651093363762,
-0.540860116481781,
-0.0723557323217392,
0.15771184861660004,
0.16878411173820496,
0.10758789628744125,
-0.5405688881874084,
0.6575782299041748,
-1.087488055229187,
1.272254467010498,
-0.09139803051948547,
-0.07994432002305984,
-0.1865376979112625,
-0.12313255667686462,
0.03025083802640438,
0.10713274776935577,
0.17987078428268433,
-0.4551442265510559,
0.36650359630584717,
-0.2571515142917633,
-0.4081362783908844,
0.08813536912202835,
-0.562723696231842,
-0.223185732960701,
1.047960877418518,
-0.08855684101581573,
-0.13916122913360596,
-0.30549633502960205,
0.2655276954174042,
-0.06589903682470322,
0.1370781809091568,
0.2022252082824707,
0.45468127727508545,
0.6643430590629578,
-0.43483155965805054,
-0.030619826167821884,
0.08330473303794861,
0.4374066889286041,
-0.16548468172550201,
-0.1693613976240158,
-0.4611618220806122,
0.21930089592933655,
-0.36937445402145386,
0.023737259209156036,
-0.2982844412326813,
-0.6899978518486023,
-0.7222476601600647,
0.4749814569950104,
-0.1715344786643982,
0.1320745348930359,
0.4189591407775879,
0.19992651045322418,
-0.21444855630397797,
-0.06117650493979454,
0.3674338161945343,
0.05682647228240967,
0.2966405153274536,
-0.2232646942138672,
0.37414801120758057,
-0.4267238676548004,
0.22357623279094696,
-0.5000953078269958,
0.00006734078488079831,
-0.4332934617996216,
-0.014286844059824944,
0.31146547198295593,
-0.395009309053421,
-0.32685092091560364,
0.17878663539886475,
0.008135720156133175,
0.889839231967926,
-0.5312661528587341,
0.42018476128578186,
1.1072955131530762,
-0.03606981784105301,
0.281335711479187,
-0.4304177165031433,
0.4733465611934662,
0.5336195230484009,
0.01789826527237892,
-0.023213794454932213,
-0.2839341461658478,
0.7545292377471924,
0.27418267726898193,
0.3815387487411499,
0.43326956033706665,
-0.13053502142429352,
-0.49687716364860535,
0.3404831290245056,
0.19586320221424103,
-0.34702950716018677,
-0.7426260709762573,
0.061635538935661316,
-0.5119576454162598,
0.14931124448776245,
-0.3630630373954773,
-0.6714722514152527,
-0.5682114362716675,
-0.0641322061419487,
-0.7624386548995972,
-0.0997435450553894,
-0.1563667505979538,
0.056839801371097565,
0.15403814613819122,
-0.03333499655127525,
0.7335925102233887,
0.22839051485061646,
0.3881862759590149,
0.02312454953789711,
-0.2519727945327759,
0.46826377511024475,
0.08777544647455215,
-0.12931300699710846,
0.939120352268219,
-0.46151572465896606,
0.22581227123737335,
0.12814150750637054,
0.6620236039161682,
-0.000592888449318707,
0.1722087264060974,
-0.25400683283805847,
0.8264376521110535,
-0.9387819766998291,
-0.5892587304115295,
0.9920089244842529,
-0.3279399275779724,
-0.2432849258184433,
-1.1520261764526367,
-0.23407118022441864,
0.1332126259803772,
-0.26123616099357605,
0.21022842824459076,
-0.29357650876045227,
-0.5115570425987244,
0.02458944171667099,
-0.04963364079594612,
0.3455432951450348,
1.0218764543533325,
0.48597273230552673,
-0.27192166447639465,
0.06995658576488495,
-0.9029130935668945,
-0.2521960437297821,
-0.7809249758720398,
0.7479313611984253,
0.7347853183746338,
-0.06922964751720428,
0.006611403077840805,
0.7231301069259644,
-0.24878710508346558,
0.34944459795951843,
0.43231552839279175,
0.33050817251205444,
-0.36820295453071594,
0.19955283403396606,
-0.4897485077381134,
0.10518614947795868,
1.0257302522659302,
0.9103080034255981,
0.4222433865070343,
0.2900497019290924,
0.0005070968763902783,
-0.3140597939491272,
0.12060997635126114,
-0.08326360583305359,
-0.6727551817893982,
-0.19227704405784607,
0.3168104290962219
] |
228886 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order%20of%20the%20Solar%20Temple | Order of the Solar Temple | The Order of the Solar Temple (, OTS) and the International Chivalric Organization of the Solar Tradition, or simply The Solar Temple, is a cult and religious sect that claims to be based upon the ideals of the Knights Templar. OTS was founded by Joseph di Mambro and Luc Jouret in 1984 in Geneva as l'Ordre International Chevaleresque de Tradition Solaire (OICTS) and later it was renamed Ordre du Temple Solaire.
Some historians allege that the Solar Temple was founded by the French author Jacques Breyer, who established a Sovereign Order of the Solar Temple in 1952. In 1968, a schismatic order was renamed the Renewed Order of the Solar Temple (ROTS) under the leadership of the French right-wing political activist Julien Origas.
The OTS is probably most notorious because it is associated with a series of murders and mass suicides that claimed several dozen lives in France, Switzerland and Canada in 1994 and 1995.
Beliefs
According to "Peronnik" (a pseudonym of temple member Robert Chabrier) in his book, "Pourquoi la Résurgence de l'Ordre du Temple? Tome Premier: Le Corps" ("Why a Revival of the Order of the Solar Temple? Vol. One: The Body") 1975, pp. 147–149, the aims of the Order of the Solar Temple included: establishing "correct notions of authority and power in the world"; an affirmation of the primacy of the spiritual over the temporal; assisting humanity through a great "transition"; preparing for the Second Coming of Christ as a solar god-king; and furthering a unification of all Christian churches and Islam. The group reportedly drew some inspiration for its teachings from British occultist Aleister Crowley, who headed the Order of the Eastern Temple from 1923 until his death in 1947, and the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, a 19th-century Rosicrucian Order Crowley belonged to briefly. Both occult groups had a grade system somewhat similar to the Solar Temple. Another Rosicrucian group, the Rosicrucian Fellowship headed by Max Heindel, also mentioned that Rosicrucians worship Christ as "The Solar Logos" (Rays from the Cross Magazine, June 1933), although this is not orthodox Christian doctrine.
There were Solar Temple lodges in Morin Heights and Sainte-Anne-de-la-Pérade, Quebec, Canada, as well as in Australia, Switzerland, Martinique and other countries. The Temple's activities were a mix of early Christian Identity, UFO religion and New Age philosophy using variously adapted Freemason rituals. Jouret was interested in attractive, wealthy and influential members, and it was reputed that several affluent Europeans were secret members of the group.
Structure
According to the literature of the OTS, the central authority was the Synarchy of the Temple, whose membership was secret. Its top 33 members were known as the Elder Brothers of the Rosy Cross (an alternative name for the Rosicrucians), and were headquartered in Zürich, Switzerland. The Council of the Order formed Lodges that were run by a Regional Commander and three Elders. Progression in the Order was by levels and grades, with three grades per level — the levels being The Brothers of Parvis, The Knights of the Alliance and the Brothers of the Ancient Times, in ascending order. There were many organizations associated with the OTS, including the International Archedia Sciences and Tradition, Archedia Clubs, Menta Clubs, Agata Clubs and Atlanta Clubs, all of which offered the teachings of Luc Jouret both to the general public and privately to OTS members. The Lodges had altars, rituals and costumes. Members were initiated at each stage of advancement in ceremonies which included expensive purchases, jewellery, costumes, regalia, and the payment of initiation fees. During ceremonies, members wore Crusader-type robes and were to hold in awe a sword, which Di Mambro said was an authentic Templar artifact, given to him a thousand years ago in a previous life.
Mass murders and suicides
In October 1994, Tony Dutoit's infant son (Emmanuel Dutoit), aged three months, was killed at the group's centre in Morin-Heights, Quebec. The baby had been stabbed repeatedly with a wooden stake. It is believed that Di Mambro ordered the murder, because he identified the baby as the Antichrist described in the Bible. He believed that the Antichrist was born into the order to prevent Di Mambro from succeeding in his spiritual aim.
Some time afterwards, Di Mambro and twelve followers performed a ritual Last Supper. Subsequently, apparent mass suicides and murders were conducted at Cheiry and Salvan, two villages in Western Switzerland, and at Morin Heights—15 inner circle members committed suicide with poison, 30 were killed by bullets or smothering, and 8 others were killed by other means. In Switzerland, many of the victims were found in a secret underground chapel lined with mirrors and other items of Templar symbolism. The bodies were dressed in the order's ceremonial robes and were in a circle, feet together, heads outward, most with plastic bags tied over their heads; they had each been shot in the head. The plastic bags may have been a symbol of the ecological disaster that would befall the human race after the OTS members moved on to Sirius; it's also possible that these bags were used as part of the OTS rituals, and that members would have voluntarily worn them without being placed under duress. There was also evidence that many of the victims in Switzerland were drugged before they were shot. Other victims were found in three ski chalets; several dead children were lying together. The tragedy was discovered when officers rushed to the sites to fight the fires that had been ignited by remote-control devices. Farewell letters left by the believers stated that they believed they were leaving to escape the "hypocrisies and oppression of this world."
A mayor, a journalist, a civil servant, and a sales manager were found among the dead in Switzerland. Records seized by the Quebec police showed that some members had personally donated over C$1 million to Di Mambro. Another attempted mass suicide of the remaining members was thwarted in the late 1990s. All the suicide/murders and attempts occurred around the dates of the equinoxes and solstices in some relation to the beliefs of the group.
Another mass-death incident related to the OTS took place during the night between the 15 and 16 December 1995. On 23 December 1995, 16 bodies were discovered in a star-formation in the Vercors mountains of France. It was found later that two of them shot the others and then committed suicide by firearm and immolation. One of the dead included Olympian Edith Bonlieu, who had competed in the women's downhill at the 1956 Winter Olympics.
On the morning of 23 March 1997, five members of the OTS took their own lives in Saint-Casimir, Quebec. A small house erupted in flames, leaving behind five charred bodies for the police to pull from the rubble. Three teenagers, aged 13, 14 and 16, the children of one of the couples that died in the fire, were discovered in a shed behind the house, alive but heavily drugged.
Michel Tabachnik, an internationally renowned Swiss musician and conductor, was arrested as a leader of the Solar Temple in the late 1990s. He was indicted for "participation in a criminal organization" and murder. He came to trial in Grenoble, France, during the spring of 2001 and was acquitted. French prosecutors appealed against the verdict and an appellate court ordered a second trial beginning 24 October 2006. He was again cleared less than two months later in December 2006.
Spanish sect
The Order of the Solar Temple was also based in Spain, especially in the Canary Islands. In 1984, the founder of the OTS, Luc Jouret, lectured on the island of Tenerife. The leader of the order's branch in Spain lived on the south of the island. The only Spaniard who died in the suicide of the Order of the Solar Temple was a barber from Tenerife. In 1998, a sect was suspected of plotting ritual suicide in the Teide National Park. Both Spanish and German police initially linked the group to the Order of the Solar Temple.
See also
Ancient Mystical Order Rosae Crucis
References
Sources
Daraul, Arkon. A History of Secret Societies. (NY: Citadel, 1995)
Galanter, Marc. Cults: Faith, Healing, and Coercion. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1989)
Moran, Sarah. The Secret World of Cults. (Surrey, England: CLB International, 1999)
Davis, Eric. Solar Temple Pilots, The Village Voice (25 October 1994)
"French Magistrate rejects idea that outsiders killed cultists," AFP, (24 April 2001)
Haight, James A. And Now, the Solar Temple. Free Inquiry, Winter 1994–95.
Hassan-Gordon, Tariq. Solar Temple Cult Influenced by Ancient Egypt, (Middle East Times, Issue 18, 2001)
Mayer, Jean-François. Apocalyptic Millennialism in the West: The Case of the Solar Temple, Critical Incident Analysis Group, hsc.Virginia.edu, retrieved, 4 January 2003.
Musician Denies Solar Temple Murders, The Scotsman, Edinburgh (18 April 2001)
Palmer, Susan. Purity and Danger in the Solar Temple, Journal of Contemporary Religion 3 (October 1996) pages 303–318
Probert, Robert. Solar Temple: Tabachnik Acquitted, Center for New Religious Studies, (25 June 2001)
Serrill, Michael S. Remains of the day, Time, (24 October 1994)
Spanish cops arrest cult leader, Associated Press, (8 January 1998)
Further reading
James R. Lewis (editor), The Order of the Solar Temple: The Temple of Death (Ashgate Publishing Company, Ashgate Controversial New Religions Series, 2006).
External links
Religious Tolerance: Solar Temple
CBC Digital Archives – Solar Temple: A cult gone wrong
Order of the Solar Temple – Britannica
Secret societies in France
Secret societies in Canada
Cults
Mass suicides
Suicides in Switzerland
Deaths by stabbing in Canada
1990s murders in Canada
1994 crimes in Canada
1994 murders in North America
1994 in Switzerland
Knights Templar in popular culture | [
0.6168219447135925,
0.7198784947395325,
-0.45028653740882874,
-0.22857865691184998,
-0.26115697622299194,
0.09530723094940186,
0.46893924474716187,
0.14590802788734436,
-0.5043281316757202,
-0.2114405781030655,
-0.46955740451812744,
0.45386579632759094,
-0.11379043757915497,
-0.03476744517683983,
-0.6096593141555786,
-0.039608776569366455,
0.7821243405342102,
0.36090487241744995,
-0.621900737285614,
-0.10710954666137695,
-0.5671893358230591,
0.04780755937099457,
0.1864859014749527,
0.15671269595623016,
-0.7122414708137512,
0.23304584622383118,
0.22102375328540802,
0.08594626188278198,
-0.15852123498916626,
0.03465357795357704,
0.6622846722602844,
0.48298290371894836,
0.372397780418396,
-0.9276352524757385,
0.23126913607120514,
-0.06832617521286011,
0.10879281163215637,
-0.652570903301239,
-0.073296919465065,
-0.07312418520450592,
0.5110108852386475,
-0.49380162358283997,
0.5316883325576782,
0.5094136595726013,
-0.43752220273017883,
-0.09325955808162689,
-1.331146240234375,
0.9699965119361877,
-0.5871064066886902,
0.2764025032520294,
-0.4823545515537262,
-0.02170753665268421,
-0.17666365206241608,
0.4502275586128235,
0.29631832242012024,
1.0717267990112305,
-1.2616055011749268,
0.5109049081802368,
-0.033511850982904434,
-1.0287132263183594,
0.01577482372522354,
0.35992175340652466,
0.1310224086046219,
-0.007047484163194895,
-0.7162889242172241,
0.1885048896074295,
0.10887857526540756,
0.27044472098350525,
-0.026909559965133667,
-0.36593836545944214,
0.022337082773447037,
-0.27097171545028687,
-0.3705306947231293,
-0.15223091840744019,
-0.5769840478897095,
-0.8443222045898438,
-0.17820850014686584,
-0.002763373777270317,
-0.03456608206033707,
-0.5914219617843628,
-0.16582685708999634,
-0.037087246775627136,
-0.069661945104599,
0.013730283826589584,
0.30486541986465454,
0.1554371863603592,
-0.28529685735702515,
-0.5085544586181641,
-0.003421869594603777,
-0.09674128890037537,
-0.5220552086830139,
0.1931964010000229,
0.8024413585662842,
0.72304767370224,
-0.23464195430278778,
-0.20525571703910828,
0.27573662996292114,
-0.41639307141304016,
0.401361346244812,
0.056069109588861465,
0.01644551381468773,
0.06445480138063431,
0.4369964301586151,
-0.02711401879787445,
-0.2888122797012329,
-0.13791030645370483,
0.05103784054517746,
-0.7434624433517456,
-0.05151604488492012,
0.3139815330505371,
-0.5966648459434509,
0.4371906816959381,
-0.2708956003189087,
0.039566829800605774,
0.2575971782207489,
0.05091848596930504,
0.0634448304772377,
-1.1439729928970337,
-0.2238186001777649,
-0.2735186219215393,
0.10421478003263474,
1.0946228504180908,
0.004254638683050871,
0.5352418422698975,
0.1510131061077118,
0.42506369948387146,
0.656486451625824,
0.8066345453262329,
-0.8390313386917114,
-0.024758873507380486,
0.0714576318860054,
0.13062486052513123,
0.0687233954668045,
-0.3813256323337555,
-0.03147442638874054,
0.2160930186510086,
0.4024636149406433,
-0.11106974631547928,
0.5449373722076416,
0.43068307638168335,
-1.2264484167099,
-0.6785619854927063,
-0.0962342768907547,
-0.046102434396743774,
0.750828206539154,
-0.3348582088947296,
0.7114071846008301,
-0.5840312242507935,
-0.07507339119911194,
-0.28442201018333435,
0.0053831846453249454,
-0.3810504078865051,
-0.12256763130426407,
0.04590148478746414,
0.022738276049494743,
0.42579352855682373,
0.7229123115539551,
-0.06577436625957489,
0.3210729956626892,
0.04307415336370468,
0.08061608672142029,
-0.6007158160209656,
-0.42810988426208496,
0.23040175437927246,
0.03758765757083893,
0.1143495962023735,
0.13540028035640717,
0.2974591851234436,
-0.003339551156386733,
0.06973301619291306,
-1.026003360748291,
-0.3078516721725464,
-0.05574377253651619,
-0.24890461564064026,
-0.2984432578086853,
0.005062716081738472,
0.8604509830474854,
0.1344335973262787,
0.2356703132390976,
-0.19376105070114136,
-0.5645671486854553,
0.2101021111011505,
-0.12274885177612305,
-0.10691468417644501,
0.15674185752868652,
-0.39436399936676025,
-0.4437046945095062,
-0.2054041177034378,
-0.0901436135172844,
0.47612568736076355,
-0.7962049841880798,
0.30632948875427246,
0.7528160810470581,
-0.35882076621055603,
1.111762523651123,
-0.09512819349765778,
-0.5594176054000854,
0.8526045680046082,
-0.24629494547843933,
0.30616244673728943,
-0.28411340713500977,
0.24695415794849396,
0.10060179978609085,
0.12175164371728897,
-1.0065791606903076,
0.13220614194869995,
0.09588205069303513,
0.3801349401473999,
0.33442455530166626,
0.1031673476099968,
0.4385804831981659,
-0.47132524847984314,
0.06466646492481232,
0.11101366579532623,
0.10281659662723541,
0.3699665665626526,
-0.6280575394630432,
0.20553362369537354,
0.059423547238111496,
-0.22189456224441528,
0.7486162185668945,
-0.16538457572460175,
0.021976536139845848,
0.3254883587360382,
-0.18669520318508148,
0.6459941864013672,
0.2354181408882141,
0.2662135064601898,
0.4615062177181244,
-0.06162281334400177,
0.8816564083099365,
-0.16503435373306274,
0.5457614660263062,
-0.4047342538833618,
-0.2113909274339676,
-0.31854525208473206,
0.29599687457084656,
-0.7355907559394836,
0.36021527647972107,
0.09088186174631119,
0.14289018511772156,
-0.11157016456127167,
-0.8749932050704956,
0.2732473611831665,
-0.0619010366499424,
0.23437288403511047,
-0.601817786693573,
0.18002565205097198,
-0.13232752680778503,
-0.03238803148269653,
-0.08664558827877045,
-0.06438113003969193,
0.6154028177261353,
-0.4419235587120056,
-0.035374514758586884,
-0.1897342950105667,
-0.18842634558677673,
0.0031571201980113983,
0.2703682482242584,
-0.31264767050743103,
-0.2923620343208313,
-0.24886643886566162,
0.08931085467338562,
-0.09747129678726196,
0.18354098498821259,
-0.5392434597015381,
0.02334132045507431,
-0.3308779001235962,
0.35314372181892395,
0.09731609374284744,
0.1342555731534958,
0.02771027944982052,
-0.858794629573822,
-0.24965737760066986,
0.02941288985311985,
-0.5115338563919067,
-0.6333670020103455,
0.5398827195167542,
-0.12450012564659119,
-0.3448241055011749,
-0.5247353315353394,
0.32555443048477173,
0.4265841543674469,
-0.15517178177833557,
-0.3515678942203522,
0.5148165225982666,
-0.04287678748369217,
-0.6222682595252991,
-0.41226786375045776,
-0.032341137528419495,
0.19448387622833252,
0.04103003442287445,
0.22943474352359772,
0.09280195832252502,
0.337004691362381,
0.0705285593867302,
0.1117854118347168,
-0.16989482939243317,
-0.26946717500686646,
0.17698806524276733,
0.04956120252609253,
-0.0267599206417799,
0.015751225873827934,
0.4190530478954315,
0.25516825914382935,
0.020973971113562584,
-0.24484261870384216,
0.4092916250228882,
-5.7881550788879395,
-0.33813920617103577,
-0.19888754189014435,
-0.021221498027443886,
-0.25676050782203674,
0.11405821889638901,
0.31166067719459534,
-0.061940085142850876,
0.367372065782547,
-0.6387941241264343,
0.24576452374458313,
-0.3173438608646393,
0.5633545517921448,
0.7542786598205566,
-0.0069167641922831535,
0.5524281859397888,
0.19400174915790558,
-0.04003731533885002,
0.1780513972043991,
0.17115512490272522,
0.7616884708404541,
-0.3164517879486084,
-0.3060239255428314,
0.6609485149383545,
0.031233033165335655,
0.27436619997024536,
-0.26781731843948364,
0.046257443726062775,
-0.31955331563949585,
-0.10123434662818909,
0.09451863169670105,
-0.07093466073274612,
-0.39267995953559875,
-0.20252245664596558,
-0.14034825563430786,
0.18346424400806427,
0.952001690864563,
-0.4495028853416443,
0.28952470421791077,
0.0654977411031723,
-0.15903759002685547,
0.1528923660516739,
0.15599986910820007,
0.18940149247646332,
0.33660444617271423,
-0.21052704751491547,
-0.6918056607246399,
0.09336868673563004,
-0.09281034022569656,
0.37279513478279114,
-0.37646913528442383,
-0.03109562397003174,
0.5367899537086487,
0.13304856419563293,
-0.3263305425643921,
0.029569976031780243,
0.06983810663223267,
-0.005881206598132849,
0.21141289174556732,
0.06823841482400894,
0.1597626805305481,
-0.3484233319759369,
0.40839534997940063,
-0.45461422204971313,
0.13581962883472443,
0.2673604190349579,
-0.13909843564033508,
-0.36722108721733093,
0.5129792094230652,
0.23416317999362946,
-0.5466763973236084,
0.4534648656845093,
-0.49158647656440735,
-0.84601891040802,
0.12156268209218979,
-0.19401508569717407,
-0.12470030784606934,
-0.17315387725830078,
0.013695545494556427,
0.09584151953458786,
-0.11517166346311569,
-0.38305869698524475,
-0.2684582769870758,
-0.15636734664440155,
0.0567442961037159,
-0.22684021294116974,
-0.13680800795555115,
0.23840662837028503,
-0.7066864967346191,
-0.008006717078387737,
0.9492102861404419,
0.16790464520454407,
0.1766502857208252,
0.7927193641662598,
0.49282771348953247,
1.1842024326324463,
0.1964317411184311,
-0.35664814710617065,
0.570643961429596,
0.37411412596702576,
0.0021612271666526794,
-0.19289757311344147,
0.25789326429367065,
0.10335391759872437,
-0.5342071652412415,
-0.02898426540195942,
-0.07318956404924393,
0.5149369835853577,
0.33314570784568787,
-0.042591340839862823,
-0.35238543152809143,
-0.3371094763278961,
-0.142173632979393,
-0.20940570533275604,
0.367383748292923,
0.324506551027298,
-0.0037505209911614656,
0.3273480534553528,
0.5262553691864014,
0.6029670238494873,
0.020735038444399834,
0.40997907519340515,
-0.22421017289161682,
-0.5036881566047668,
-0.16403897106647491,
-0.28549274802207947,
-0.022031394764780998,
0.09491497278213501,
0.38292887806892395,
0.13359451293945312,
-0.09540414065122604,
0.23216579854488373,
0.3342016339302063,
0.45378392934799194,
-0.3513356149196625,
0.21545825898647308,
0.31242144107818604,
-0.5718954801559448,
-0.5943398475646973,
-0.0022076035384088755,
-0.3021489679813385,
-0.03699347749352455,
-0.0466141551733017,
0.7117267847061157,
0.2595730423927307,
0.6340032815933228,
-0.20790612697601318,
0.23039355874061584,
0.30824559926986694,
1.2708033323287964,
0.5213120579719543,
-0.14656053483486176,
0.765063464641571,
-0.39486852288246155,
-0.5466434359550476,
0.0753314346075058,
-0.024348914623260498,
0.3769553005695343,
-0.2783789336681366,
0.32213693857192993,
0.12014443427324295,
-0.41882801055908203,
-0.6930888891220093,
-0.20393654704093933,
-0.09514842927455902,
0.06763260811567307,
-0.061843305826187134,
-0.8726458549499512,
-0.8385971784591675,
0.5314987897872925,
0.08724796026945114,
0.5094795823097229,
-0.3795866370201111,
-0.4267304241657257,
0.3614819049835205,
0.09511575102806091,
0.07765229791402817,
0.2677308917045593,
-0.2761569023132324,
-0.04360612854361534,
-0.13061881065368652,
0.05669840797781944,
-0.21726588904857635,
0.4043228328227997,
0.46997231245040894,
-0.720897376537323,
-0.013560029678046703,
-0.3984948396682739,
-0.03198973834514618,
0.17536625266075134,
0.43815311789512634,
0.5713417530059814,
0.4177350699901581,
0.13175372779369354,
-0.05026029050350189,
-0.09569831192493439,
-0.0941096767783165,
0.6164985299110413,
-0.2621559798717499,
-0.31341755390167236,
0.039731502532958984,
-0.1499071717262268,
-1.3230829238891602,
0.3770758807659149,
0.2593666911125183,
-0.49696385860443115,
0.4955614507198334,
0.02279222011566162,
0.14210976660251617,
0.29532572627067566,
-0.008286410011351109,
-0.12542212009429932,
-0.18953654170036316,
0.2705930471420288,
-0.5787110924720764,
0.1956242024898529,
-0.24754227697849274,
-0.23446199297904968,
-0.5554647445678711,
-0.13694840669631958,
0.22990122437477112,
-0.15233011543750763,
0.045101597905159,
-0.12712402641773224,
-0.004002791363745928,
0.3930542767047882,
0.5392606258392334,
-0.575497031211853,
-0.27925968170166016,
-0.03349079564213753,
0.06113120913505554,
0.13645470142364502,
-0.43394574522972107,
-0.7331960201263428,
-0.5491043329238892,
0.0830119326710701,
0.34208351373672485,
0.17703953385353088,
-0.29725924134254456,
0.44404885172843933,
-0.03162676468491554,
0.5993984341621399,
0.11387942731380463,
-0.5092648863792419,
0.09403195232152939,
0.10609151422977448,
0.30769020318984985,
-0.34029799699783325,
-0.26311543583869934,
-0.012744804844260216,
0.5535386800765991,
-0.1810542643070221,
-0.04660747945308685,
-0.5869694948196411,
0.27823418378829956,
-0.5372056365013123,
-0.027175165712833405,
-0.06479444354772568,
-0.13971726596355438,
0.10582304745912552,
0.30622753500938416,
-0.2442609965801239,
-0.86464524269104,
-0.44483399391174316,
-0.2487887740135193,
0.20400182902812958,
-0.2517295181751251,
-0.7334200143814087,
0.5492716431617737,
-0.4547499120235443,
0.5820897817611694,
-0.24999357759952545,
0.4911653697490692,
0.6119694709777832,
-0.25647464394569397,
-0.09441641718149185,
-0.24190329015254974,
-0.583443284034729,
0.045948199927806854,
-0.06206570938229561,
-0.3423793613910675,
0.3195341229438782,
0.09516052156686783,
-0.15160802006721497,
0.4759413003921509,
-0.9350752234458923,
-0.2850777804851532,
-0.05888794735074043,
-0.13018657267093658,
0.11109692603349686,
-0.6775408387184143,
-0.28986281156539917,
0.19207559525966644,
0.30612412095069885,
0.1579963117837906,
-0.02651805616915226,
0.5995693802833557,
-0.38378629088401794,
-0.26227259635925293,
-0.11150997132062912,
-0.43019139766693115,
0.15235933661460876,
0.44485923647880554,
-0.15435869991779327,
0.012476346455514431,
-0.12179189175367355,
0.23369473218917847,
-0.2950704097747803,
-0.4374910593032837,
-0.08546116203069687,
0.1488373726606369,
-0.7419171333312988,
0.15056206285953522,
0.7187171578407288,
-0.5205976963043213,
0.3633449971675873,
0.24657242000102997,
-0.42069217562675476,
-0.05127593129873276,
0.1756221055984497,
0.5104622840881348,
0.501259982585907,
0.06447968631982803,
-0.2163815200328827,
0.4397943615913391,
0.43295153975486755,
-0.39088159799575806,
-0.3950558602809906,
0.545989453792572,
-0.40891191363334656,
0.5922064781188965,
-0.19994668662548065,
-0.25632768869400024,
0.28473764657974243,
-0.430105984210968,
-0.18274329602718353,
0.31488335132598877,
-0.6495431065559387,
-0.8943081498146057,
0.5630001425743103,
0.4612935781478882,
0.10407191514968872,
-0.23238469660282135,
-0.2581973969936371,
-0.48036080598831177,
0.4452095627784729,
0.12195628136396408,
0.3036726713180542,
-0.054531414061784744,
0.41833382844924927,
-0.03472840040922165,
-0.4431307017803192,
0.04986506700515747,
-0.1711849868297577,
0.5042083859443665,
-0.08036522567272186,
-0.21250596642494202,
0.25480279326438904,
0.4470192790031433,
-0.10063914954662323,
-0.17817780375480652,
0.05418427288532257,
0.3961019217967987,
0.029393697157502174,
-0.3535662889480591,
0.26205259561538696,
0.16942045092582703,
-0.6360394954681396,
0.09031133353710175,
0.08372114598751068,
-0.5543075799942017,
0.30435317754745483,
-0.04526751860976219,
0.34595945477485657,
-0.045115940272808075,
0.053990863263607025,
0.3704279363155365,
0.3992721140384674,
-0.04733803868293762,
0.44609835743904114,
-0.10506600886583328,
-0.4802560806274414,
-0.3797033131122589,
-0.4630192518234253,
0.08384191989898682,
0.24286548793315887,
-0.21253615617752075,
0.41305550932884216,
-0.48376893997192383,
-0.07587695866823196,
0.10829716920852661,
-0.43083280324935913,
-0.13918523490428925,
0.20443005859851837,
0.1541968286037445,
0.5181593894958496,
-0.15986165404319763,
0.6402772068977356,
0.10397010296583176,
0.3314107358455658,
0.05122894421219826,
-0.04373279586434364,
0.8985931873321533,
-0.14391879737377167,
-0.285234272480011,
-0.4571777582168579,
-0.4418348968029022,
-0.5131016969680786,
-0.8183245658874512,
0.19790992140769958,
0.027764596045017242,
-0.38938599824905396,
0.19038252532482147,
0.689258873462677,
-0.1270730346441269,
0.4253695607185364,
0.9382306337356567,
-0.4598195254802704,
-0.10108824819326401,
-0.19867606461048126,
-0.45840826630592346,
-0.25615695118904114,
0.002049502916634083,
0.9695173501968384,
0.12460796535015106,
-0.5983214974403381,
0.48085910081863403,
-0.16138103604316711,
-0.3082692325115204,
0.19719350337982178,
0.4777752459049225,
-0.5459996461868286,
-0.7077770233154297,
0.5035313367843628,
-0.7275118827819824,
-0.5380403995513916,
0.844131588935852,
0.3878255784511566,
0.5748843550682068,
-0.16125653684139252,
-0.11424032598733902,
-0.17175902426242828,
0.21731668710708618,
-0.3080061078071594,
-0.28661012649536133,
-0.06203323230147362,
0.046554554253816605,
-0.35367536544799805,
0.032840415835380554,
0.6055760979652405,
0.15028946101665497,
-0.2925582826137543,
0.46357157826423645,
-0.47749799489974976,
0.030849702656269073,
-0.1665925681591034,
0.4462618827819824,
-0.42442917823791504,
0.3626982867717743,
0.2785307765007019
] |
228900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propylene%20glycol | Propylene glycol | Propylene glycol (IUPAC name: propane-1,2-diol) is a viscous, colorless liquid, which is nearly odorless but possesses a faintly sweet taste. Its chemical formula is CH3CH(OH)CH2OH.
Containing two alcohol groups, it is classed as a diol. It is miscible with a broad range of solvents, including water, acetone, and chloroform. In general, glycols are non-irritating and have very low volatility.
It is produced on a large scale primarily for the production of polymers. In the European Union, it has E-number E1520 for food applications. For cosmetics and pharmacology, the number is E490. Propylene glycol is also present in propylene glycol alginate, which is known as E405. Propylene glycol is a compound which is GRAS (generally recognized as safe) by the US Food and Drug Administration under 21 CFR x184.1666, and is also approved by the FDA for certain uses as an indirect food additive. Propylene glycol is approved and used as a vehicle for topical, oral, and some intravenous pharmaceutical preparations in the U.S. and in Europe.
Structure
The compound is sometimes called (alpha) α-propylene glycol to distinguish it from the isomer propane-1,3-diol, known as (beta) β-propylene glycol. Propylene glycol is chiral. Commercial processes typically use the racemate. The S-isomer is produced by biotechnological routes.
Production
Industrial
Industrially, propylene glycol is mainly produced from propylene oxide (for food-grade use). According to a 2018 source, 2.16 M tonnes are produced annually. Manufacturers use either non-catalytic high-temperature process at to , or a catalytic method, which proceeds at to in the presence of ion exchange resin or a small amount of sulfuric acid or alkali.
Final products contain 20% propylene glycol, 1.5% of dipropylene glycol, and small amounts of other polypropylene glycols. Further purification produces finished industrial grade or USP/JP/EP/BP grade propylene glycol that is typically 99.5% or greater. Use of USP (US Pharmacopoeia) propylene glycol can reduce the risk of Abbreviated New Drug Application (ANDA) rejection.
Propylene glycol can also be obtained from glycerol, a byproduct from the production of biodiesel. This starting material is usually reserved for industrial use because of the noticeable odor and taste that accompanies the final product.
Laboratory
S-Propanediol is synthesized via fermentation methods. Lactic acid and lactaldehyde are common intermediates. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate, one of the two products of breakdown (glycolysis) of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, is a precursor to methylglyoxal. This conversion is the basis of a potential biotechnological route to the commodity chemical 1,2-propanediol. Three-carbon deoxysugars are also precursor to the 1,2-diol.
A small-scale, nonbiological route from D-mannitol is illustrated in the following scheme:
Applications
Polymers
Forty-five percent of propylene glycol produced is used as a chemical feedstock for the production of unsaturated polyester resins. In this regard, propylene glycol reacts with a mixture of unsaturated maleic anhydride and isophthalic acid to give a copolymer. This partially unsaturated polymer undergoes further crosslinking to yield thermoset plastics. Related to this application, propylene glycol reacts with propylene oxide to give oligomers and polymers that are used to produce polyurethanes. Propylene glycol is used in water-based acrylic architectural paints to extend dry time which it accomplishes by preventing the surface from drying due to its slower evaporation rate compared to water.
Food and drug
Propylene glycol is also used in various edible items such as coffee-based drinks, liquid sweeteners, ice cream, whipped dairy products and soda. Vaporizers used for delivery of pharmaceuticals or personal-care products often include propylene glycol among the ingredients. In alcohol-based hand sanitizers, it is used as a humectant to prevent the skin from drying. Propylene glycol is used as a solvent in many pharmaceuticals, including oral, injectable, and topical formulations. Many pharmaceutical drugs which are insoluble in water utilize propylene glycol as a solvent and carrier; benzodiazepine tablets are one example. Propylene glycol is also used as a solvent and carrier for many pharmaceutical capsule preparations. Additionally, certain formulations of artificial tears use propylene glycol as an ingredient.
Antifreeze
The freezing point of water is depressed when mixed with propylene glycol. It is used as aircraft de-icing and anti-icing fluid. A 50% water-diluted and heated solution is used for removal of icing accretions from the fuselages of commercial aircraft on the ground (de-icing), and 100% undiluted cold solution is used only on wings and tail surfaces of an aircraft in order to prevent ice accretion from forming during a specific period of time before takeoff (anti-icing). Normally, such time-frame is limited to 15–90 minutes, depending on the severity of snowfall and outside air temperature. Water-propylene glycol mixtures dyed pink to indicate the mixture is relatively nontoxic are sold under the name of RV or marine antifreeze. Propylene glycol is frequently used as a substitute for ethylene glycol in low toxicity, environmentally friendly automotive antifreeze. It is also used to winterize the plumbing systems in vacant structures. The eutectic composition/temperature is 60:40 propylene glycol:water/−60 °C. The −50 °F/−45 °C commercial product is, however, water rich; a typical formulation is 40:60.
Electronic cigarettes liquid
Along with vegetable glycerin as the main ingredient (<1–92%) in e-liquid used in electronic cigarettes, where it is aerosolized to resemble smoke. It serves as both the carrier for substances like nicotine and cannabinoids, as well as for creating a vapor which resembles smoke.
Miscellaneous applications
As a solvent for many substances, both natural and synthetic.
As a humectant (E1520).
As a freezing point depressant for slurry ice.
In veterinary medicine as an oral treatment for hyperketonaemia in ruminants.
In the cosmetics industry, where propylene glycol is very commonly used as a carrier or base for various types of makeup.
For trapping and preserving insects (including as a DNA preservative).
For the creation of theatrical smoke and fog in special effects for film and live entertainment. So-called 'smoke machines' or 'hazers' vaporize a mixture of propylene glycol and water to create the illusion of smoke. While many of these machines use a propylene glycol-based fuel, some use oil. Those which use propylene glycol do so in a process that is identical to how electronic cigarettes work; utilizing a heating element to produce a dense vapor. The vapor produced by these machines has the aesthetic look and appeal of smoke, but without exposing performers and stage crew to the harms and odors associated with actual smoke.
As an additive in PCR to reduce the melting temperature of nucleic acids for targeting of GC rich sequences.
as a surfactant, it is used to prevent water from beading up on objects. It is used in photography for this purpose to reduce the risk of water spots, or deposits of minerals from water used to process film or paper.
Safety in humans
When used in average quantities, propylene glycol has no measurable effect on development and/or reproduction on animals and probably does not adversely affect human development or reproduction. The safety of electronic cigarettes—which utilize propylene glycol-based preparations of nicotine or THC and other cannabinoids—is the subject of much controversy. Vitamin E acetate has also been identified in this controversy.
Oral administration
The acute oral toxicity of propylene glycol is very low, and large quantities are required to cause perceptible health effects in humans; in fact, the toxicity of propylene glycol is one third of ethanol's. Propylene glycol is metabolized in the human body into pyruvic acid (a normal part of the glucose-metabolism process, readily converted to energy), acetic acid (handled by ethanol-metabolism), lactic acid (a normal acid generally abundant during digestion), and propionaldehyde (a potentially hazardous substance). According to the Dow Chemical Company, The LD50 (Lethal Dose that kills 50% of the test population) for rats is 20 g/kg (oral/rat).
Toxicity generally occurs at plasma concentrations over 4 g/L, which requires extremely high intake over a relatively short period of time, or when used as a vehicle for drugs or vitamins given intravenously or orally in large bolus doses. It would be nearly impossible to reach toxic levels by consuming foods or supplements, which contain at most 1 g/kg of PG, except for alcoholic beverages in the US which are allowed 5 percent = 50 g/kg. Cases of propylene glycol poisoning are usually related to either inappropriate intravenous administration or accidental ingestion of large quantities by children.
The potential for long-term oral toxicity is also low. In an NTP continuous breeding study, no effects on fertility were observed in male or female mice that received propylene glycol in drinking water at doses up to 10100 mg/kg bw/day. No effects on fertility were seen in either the first or second generation of treated mice. In a 2-year study, 12 rats were provided with feed containing as much as 5% propylene glycol, and showed no apparent ill effects. Because of its low chronic oral toxicity, propylene glycol was classified by the U. S. Food and Drug Administration as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS) for use as a direct food additive, including frozen foods such as ice cream and frozen desserts. The GRAS designation is specific to its use in food, and does not apply to other uses.
Skin, eye and inhalation contact
Propylene glycol is essentially non-irritating to the skin. Undiluted propylene glycol is minimally irritating to the eye, producing slight transient conjunctivitis; the eye recovers after the exposure is removed. A 2018 human volunteer study found that 10 male and female subjects undergoing 4 hours exposures to concentrations of up to 442 mg/m3 and 30 minutes exposures to concentrations of up to 871 mg/m3 in combination with moderate exercise did not show pulmonary function deficits, or signs of ocular irritation, with only slight symptoms of respiratory irritation reported. Inhalation of propylene glycol vapors appears to present no significant hazard in ordinary applications. Due to the lack of chronic inhalation data, it is recommended that propylene glycol not be used in inhalation applications such as theatrical productions, or antifreeze solutions for emergency eye wash stations. Recently, propylene glycol (commonly alongside glycerol) has been included as a carrier for nicotine and other additives in e-cigarette liquids, the use of which presents a novel form of exposure. The potential hazards of chronic inhalation of propylene glycol or the latter substance as a whole are as-yet unknown.
According to a 2010 study, the concentrations of PGEs (counted as the sum of propylene glycol and glycol ethers) in indoor air, particularly bedroom air, has been linked to increased risk of developing numerous respiratory and immune disorders in children, including asthma, hay fever, eczema, and allergies, with increased risk ranging from 50% to 180%. This concentration has been linked to use of water-based paints and water-based system cleansers. However, the study authors write that glycol ethers and not propylene glycol are the likely culprit.
Propylene glycol has not caused sensitization or carcinogenicity in laboratory animal studies, nor has it demonstrated genotoxic potential.
Intravenous administration
Studies with intravenously administered propylene glycol have resulted in LD50 values in rats and rabbits of 7 mL/kg BW. Ruddick (1972) also summarized intramuscular LD50 data for rat as 13-20 mL/kg BW, and 6 mL/kg BW for the rabbit. Adverse effects to intravenous administration of drugs that use propylene glycol as an excipient have been seen in a number of people, particularly with large bolus dosages. Responses may include CNS depression, "hypotension, bradycardia, QRS and T abnormalities on the ECG, arrhythmia, cardiac arrhythmias, seizures, agitation, serum hyperosmolality, lactic acidosis, and haemolysis". A high percentage (12% to 42%) of directly-injected propylene glycol is eliminated or secreted in urine unaltered depending on dosage, with the remainder appearing in its glucuronide-form. The speed of renal filtration decreases as dosage increases, which may be due to propylene glycol's mild anesthetic / CNS-depressant -properties as an alcohol. In one case, intravenous administration of propylene glycol-suspended nitroglycerin to an elderly man may have induced coma and acidosis. However, no confirmed lethality from propylene glycol was reported.
Animals
Propylene glycol is an approved food additive for dog and sugar glider food under the category of animal feed and is generally recognized as safe for dogs, with an LD50 of 9 mL/kg. The LD50 is higher for most laboratory animals (20 mL/kg). However, it is prohibited for use in food for cats due to links to Heinz body formation and a reduced lifespan of red blood cells. Heinz body formation from MPG has not been observed in dogs, cattle, or humans.
PG has been used in the dairy industry since the 1950s for cows showing signs of ketosis. The negative energy balance during the early stages of lactation can cause the animal's body to have lower glucose levels, inducing the liver to make up for this by the conversion of body fat, leading to several health conditions, e.g. displaced abomasum. PG "reduces the propionate ratio of acetate to acetaminophen, while increasing conversion of ruminal PG to propionate, and aid[s] in the closure of energy deficit in cattle."
Allergic reaction
Estimates on the prevalence of propylene glycol allergy range from 0.8% (10% propylene glycol in aqueous solution) to 3.5% (30% propylene glycol in aqueous solution). The North American Contact Dermatitis Group (NACDG) data from 1996 to 2006 showed that the most common site for propylene glycol contact dermatitis was the face (25.9%), followed by a generalized or scattered pattern (23.7%). Investigators believe that the incidence of allergic contact dermatitis to propylene glycol may be greater than 2% in patients with eczema or fungal infections, which are very common in countries with lesser sun exposure and lower-than-normal vitamin D balances. Therefore, propylene glycol allergy is more common in those countries.
Because of its potential for allergic reactions and frequent use across a variety of topical and systemic products, propylene glycol was named the American Contact Dermatitis Society's Allergen of the Year for 2018. Recent publication from The Mayo Clinic reported 0.85% incidence of positive patch tests to propylene glycol (100/11,738 patients) with an overall irritant rate of 0.35% (41/11,738 patients) during a 20-year period of 1997–2016. 87% of the reactions were classified as weak and 9% as strong. The positive reaction rates were 0%, 0.26%, and 1.86% for 5%, 10%, and 20% propylene glycol respectively, increasing with each concentration increase. The irritant reaction rates were 0.95%, 0.24%, and 0.5% for 5%, 10%, and 20% propylene glycol, respectively. Propylene glycol skin sensitization occurred in patients sensitive to a number of other concomitant positive allergens, most common of which were: Myroxylon pereirae resin, benzalkonium chloride, carba mix, potassium dichromate, neomycin sulfate; for positive propylene glycol reactions, the overall median of 5 and mean of 5.6 concomitant positive allergens was reported.
Environmental impacts
Propylene glycol occurs naturally, probably as the result of anaerobic catabolism of sugars in the human gut. It is degraded by vitamin B12-dependent enzymes, which convert it to propionaldehyde.
Propylene glycol is expected to degrade rapidly in water from biological processes, but is not expected to be significantly influenced by hydrolysis, oxidation, volatilization, bioconcentration, or adsorption to sediment. Propylene glycol is readily biodegradable under aerobic conditions in freshwater, in seawater and in soil. Therefore, propylene glycol is considered as not persistent in the environment.
Propylene glycol exhibits a low degree of toxicity toward aquatic organisms. Several guideline studies available for freshwater fish with the lowest observed effect concentration of 96-h LC50 value of 40,613 mg/l in a study with Oncorhynchus mykiss. Similarly, the effect concentration determined in marine fish is a 96-h LC50 of >10,000 mg/l in Scophthalmus maximus.
Although propylene glycol has low toxicity, it exerts high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) during degradation in surface waters. This process can adversely affect aquatic life by consuming oxygen needed by aquatic organisms for survival. Large quantities of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the water column are consumed when microbial populations decompose propylene glycol.
References
External links
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
Alton E. Martin - Frank H. Murphy, DOW CHEMICAL COMPANY
Propylene glycol website
WebBook page for C3H8O2
ATSDR - Case Studies in Environmental Medicine: Ethylene Glycol and Propylene Glycol Toxicity U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (public domain)
Propylene Glycol - chemical product info: properties, production, applications.
ChemSub Online: Propylene glycol
Propylene Glycol Toxicity in Pets
Household chemicals
Alcohol solvents
Cosmetics chemicals
Food additives
Excipients
Alkanediols
Commodity chemicals
Vicinal diols
E-number additives | [
0.04510284587740898,
0.42050692439079285,
-0.022186018526554108,
-0.02311559207737446,
-0.08573706448078156,
-0.1864926666021347,
-0.5596558451652527,
0.31813323497772217,
0.10276863723993301,
-0.28659287095069885,
-0.8525809049606323,
0.7339200377464294,
-0.6598467826843262,
0.0735117569565773,
0.15209122002124786,
1.0932950973510742,
0.9506961107254028,
0.9371559023857117,
-0.10102904587984085,
-0.5165043473243713,
-0.18493500351905823,
-0.2914932072162628,
0.3541870713233948,
-0.1747291535139084,
0.8859109878540039,
-0.04641034081578255,
0.2594052851200104,
0.4944939911365509,
-0.005604963283985853,
0.22035011649131775,
-0.03996088728308678,
0.6201160550117493,
0.22169147431850433,
-0.0580696277320385,
1.0096920728683472,
0.659647524356842,
-0.10444770008325577,
-0.04169094190001488,
0.33537915349006653,
-0.3917199671268463,
-0.08164811879396439,
0.2862122654914856,
0.3546096980571747,
0.4245787262916565,
-0.21692128479480743,
0.32454803586006165,
-1.1911565065383911,
0.8421227931976318,
-0.6092038154602051,
0.2605399191379547,
0.3223658502101898,
0.07096926122903824,
0.7703380584716797,
0.0857403352856636,
0.11255668103694916,
0.5153771638870239,
-0.8276417851448059,
0.2673822045326233,
0.04428461566567421,
0.15026938915252686,
-0.4113391637802124,
-0.14703896641731262,
-0.5704150199890137,
0.18509957194328308,
0.49356740713119507,
0.19609415531158447,
-0.4597465991973877,
0.13052786886692047,
-0.7354612350463867,
0.47785717248916626,
-0.044518161565065384,
-0.22681595385074615,
-0.5844467878341675,
0.2784983217716217,
-0.49150973558425903,
0.273440420627594,
-0.3644792139530182,
-0.4178202450275421,
-0.31415799260139465,
0.44217607378959656,
0.026408882811665535,
0.6304441690444946,
0.05942763760685921,
0.22045812010765076,
0.11794500797986984,
0.2636318802833557,
-0.9640169739723206,
0.98355633020401,
-0.9108137488365173,
0.0851532518863678,
-0.19982437789440155,
0.20232947170734406,
-0.1447659581899643,
-0.145095095038414,
0.20044419169425964,
-0.6621043086051941,
0.06249777972698212,
-0.09944820404052734,
0.23669539391994476,
0.37112513184547424,
0.07136458903551102,
0.2876076102256775,
0.29418644309043884,
-0.1258179098367691,
-0.3286644220352173,
0.03592576086521149,
-0.6456170082092285,
-0.25673365592956543,
-0.14438916742801666,
0.635435938835144,
-0.3538471460342407,
0.5012662410736084,
0.1960725337266922,
-0.15032562613487244,
-0.1965939849615097,
0.05185844749212265,
0.12344728410243988,
0.5456729531288147,
-0.5075050592422485,
0.3072160482406616,
-0.7690370678901672,
0.5028212070465088,
-0.403300940990448,
-0.25309064984321594,
-0.11281763762235641,
0.13294152915477753,
-0.011551439762115479,
0.5806924104690552,
-0.6004100441932678,
0.1380554735660553,
0.7427586913108826,
0.564822256565094,
0.007798916194587946,
-0.26543185114860535,
0.030938707292079926,
-0.5532395243644714,
0.016496703028678894,
0.08227947354316711,
0.9640346765518188,
-0.04520320147275925,
-0.4726552665233612,
-0.0647529736161232,
-0.583960235118866,
-0.24439433217048645,
0.19855430722236633,
-0.07358086109161377,
-0.24900545179843903,
-0.4708358943462372,
-0.530265748500824,
-0.2049335539340973,
0.6615878343582153,
-0.22465132176876068,
-0.14532561600208282,
-0.01234439667314291,
-0.4676232635974884,
-0.039236053824424744,
0.04174394533038139,
-0.30565643310546875,
-0.44409850239753723,
-0.6011341214179993,
-0.3301292955875397,
-0.45588234066963196,
0.20885489881038666,
-0.02718670479953289,
0.4320317506790161,
-0.1908152848482132,
-0.1706213802099228,
0.1913556307554245,
0.2983088493347168,
0.4359765648841858,
0.07243814319372177,
-0.28853899240493774,
-0.000028769434720743448,
-0.6779276728630066,
0.4231180250644684,
0.16333554685115814,
0.20485927164554596,
0.03374350070953369,
0.49915313720703125,
-0.33535072207450867,
-0.7175938487052917,
0.37461477518081665,
0.20426124334335327,
-0.22431781888008118,
0.15798042714595795,
-0.03976839780807495,
0.9345362782478333,
-0.476121187210083,
0.7634410858154297,
0.14043983817100525,
-0.9675038456916809,
-0.4478089213371277,
0.07769235968589783,
-0.47085636854171753,
1.4049352407455444,
-0.09700480103492737,
-0.6437435150146484,
-0.5587239265441895,
0.2689526379108429,
-0.40667402744293213,
-0.49734964966773987,
0.5726851224899292,
0.551681637763977,
-1.0362491607666016,
-0.5357138514518738,
0.22824054956436157,
0.1826292723417282,
-0.276740700006485,
0.7687357068061829,
0.4813886284828186,
0.6895169019699097,
-0.24055761098861694,
0.37719079852104187,
-0.08565491437911987,
0.18931221961975098,
-0.7948325872421265,
0.24693885445594788,
0.26775112748146057,
0.2744709849357605,
0.3500584065914154,
0.18656465411186218,
-0.28884580731391907,
-0.6222862005233765,
0.7179335951805115,
-0.2698693573474884,
0.8924919366836548,
0.09778453409671783,
-0.17568494379520416,
0.40737786889076233,
0.8374800086021423,
0.4970058798789978,
-0.2786051630973816,
0.23237572610378265,
-0.14345715939998627,
-0.36797162890434265,
-0.12555868923664093,
-0.004272642079740763,
-0.31854021549224854,
0.22152939438819885,
-0.459379643201828,
0.40855804085731506,
0.01779891923069954,
-0.9372022747993469,
-0.3433142900466919,
-0.05222272872924805,
-0.29313209652900696,
0.11478649824857712,
0.524233341217041,
-0.011054830625653267,
-0.35780808329582214,
-0.006364539265632629,
0.3349266052246094,
0.11732093244791031,
-0.30218639969825745,
0.3730389475822449,
-0.4576643407344818,
-0.3726518154144287,
0.04433240741491318,
-0.1003614068031311,
-0.33043989539146423,
-0.8123058080673218,
0.1006491631269455,
0.054296985268592834,
0.25808820128440857,
-0.1274271011352539,
-0.15862388908863068,
-0.259150892496109,
-0.09854690730571747,
0.017546329647302628,
0.3456748127937317,
0.48035168647766113,
0.2517105042934418,
-0.6765599846839905,
0.05691276863217354,
-0.7225155830383301,
-0.39724963903427124,
0.11209135502576828,
0.04965701326727867,
-0.8014981746673584,
-0.4108676314353943,
0.49756568670272827,
0.7592974305152893,
0.8571356534957886,
0.13458998501300812,
-1.1972893476486206,
0.12653815746307373,
0.021376030519604683,
-0.32573315501213074,
-0.18906615674495697,
-0.578814685344696,
-0.5346813201904297,
-0.04879423603415489,
-0.6031087636947632,
0.3142368197441101,
-0.276971697807312,
0.13950487971305847,
0.025020042434334755,
0.5004817247390747,
0.1662093549966812,
-0.5109719038009644,
0.5164484977722168,
-0.1797330528497696,
-0.3563619554042816,
0.04953303933143616,
0.38154497742652893,
0.044711895287036896,
-0.037760160863399506,
-0.10862868279218674,
-5.446962356567383,
0.3510720133781433,
-0.19508212804794312,
-0.25580015778541565,
0.6711646318435669,
0.19047948718070984,
0.21584802865982056,
-0.7391716837882996,
0.1753479689359665,
-0.16398221254348755,
-0.6163440346717834,
0.4527263641357422,
0.4620409309864044,
0.2690942883491516,
0.619376003742218,
0.035934049636125565,
0.7917474508285522,
0.049124445766210556,
0.11413329839706421,
0.1755598485469818,
0.2390374094247818,
0.30882546305656433,
0.00001709133357508108,
1.0132137537002563,
0.25285202264785767,
0.05449816212058067,
-0.038142669945955276,
0.16798286139965057,
-0.3865889608860016,
-0.3525911271572113,
-0.01596759632229805,
-0.21483248472213745,
-0.08715875446796417,
0.04585772380232811,
0.5071103572845459,
-0.05963921546936035,
0.02435232140123844,
-0.13819414377212524,
-0.3660416603088379,
-0.38265061378479004,
-0.18980202078819275,
0.6241946220397949,
0.039422836154699326,
-0.14787863194942474,
0.42258772253990173,
0.14463825523853302,
0.10615277290344238,
-0.6743167042732239,
-0.17838701605796814,
1.147976279258728,
0.11085257679224014,
0.11952608078718185,
-0.22677046060562134,
-0.2683148980140686,
0.34749969840049744,
0.5035061836242676,
0.5248056650161743,
-0.28331923484802246,
-0.10965172946453094,
-0.46195584535598755,
0.1974986046552658,
0.3272770941257477,
-0.7957669496536255,
0.08271943777799606,
-0.5576514005661011,
0.034426894038915634,
-0.44614124298095703,
-0.24697677791118622,
0.389386385679245,
0.10284663736820221,
-0.7845274209976196,
0.1393541693687439,
-0.12260432541370392,
-0.6363306641578674,
0.8164312243461609,
-0.32018035650253296,
-0.2589997947216034,
-0.3416840136051178,
-0.006258336827158928,
0.3056131899356842,
-0.8007959127426147,
0.24924743175506592,
-0.04038158059120178,
0.3601054251194,
-0.0401691272854805,
-0.31991133093833923,
-0.7406406402587891,
-0.2149921953678131,
-0.27507367730140686,
-0.5568128824234009,
0.8049051761627197,
-0.6000899076461792,
0.6017757058143616,
0.31075868010520935,
-0.028995642438530922,
0.1362268030643463,
0.31175705790519714,
0.5297437906265259,
0.5955706834793091,
-0.24228672683238983,
0.7890104651451111,
0.3373332917690277,
-0.2386602759361267,
0.009321045130491257,
-0.11837916821241379,
-0.2881563901901245,
-0.4182645082473755,
0.09382613003253937,
0.5573724508285522,
-0.1561247557401657,
0.06226172298192978,
0.7071784734725952,
-0.19682464003562927,
-0.5068344473838806,
0.7667443752288818,
-0.12467313557863235,
-0.14137589931488037,
0.015611394308507442,
0.7460401654243469,
-0.4012638330459595,
0.19289709627628326,
0.5414001941680908,
-0.2598208487033844,
-0.23457719385623932,
-0.2015710175037384,
0.115458182990551,
0.30386829376220703,
0.2155931144952774,
-0.11477683484554291,
0.38194382190704346,
0.4417707026004791,
0.05312047153711319,
-0.04394751414656639,
-0.19185008108615875,
-0.16665951907634735,
-0.2897242605686188,
-0.7675635814666748,
0.1294156163930893,
-0.09489067643880844,
-0.39987683296203613,
-0.06431543081998825,
-0.5264467597007751,
-0.021992597728967667,
-0.5445035696029663,
0.7000401020050049,
0.27619469165802,
-0.12086907029151917,
0.17003986239433289,
-0.2198994755744934,
0.42064327001571655,
0.46190300583839417,
0.24795372784137726,
-0.020352346822619438,
-0.3631005883216858,
-0.23440444469451904,
-0.1539287269115448,
0.1379493772983551,
0.934630811214447,
-0.13720326125621796,
-1.163450837135315,
-0.06813554465770721,
0.17196352779865265,
-0.8772256374359131,
-0.34373658895492554,
-0.3339838981628418,
-0.46468889713287354,
0.23963357508182526,
-0.18551847338676453,
-0.6596726775169373,
0.15704384446144104,
-0.5079065561294556,
-0.3961046040058136,
-0.658993124961853,
-0.22755475342273712,
0.2405070662498474,
0.15960142016410828,
0.225661501288414,
0.274008184671402,
-0.4912901520729065,
-0.5356257557868958,
-0.4401077330112457,
-0.2830487787723541,
0.09928204119205475,
0.11913277208805084,
0.14040084183216095,
-0.8536818027496338,
-0.3339186906814575,
-0.21389031410217285,
-0.28628969192504883,
-0.36938050389289856,
0.44290921092033386,
-0.08724058419466019,
0.3105512857437134,
-0.10343965888023376,
0.05482645705342293,
0.1897379457950592,
0.29043498635292053,
0.8124608397483826,
0.25626012682914734,
-0.4027382433414459,
-0.059937868267297745,
0.5468465089797974,
-0.6064914464950562,
0.519199550151825,
0.15842294692993164,
-0.092974953353405,
-0.00011753316357498989,
0.4562005400657654,
-0.12888078391551971,
0.0023126769810914993,
-0.0893319770693779,
-0.34663820266723633,
0.16147778928279877,
-0.4071151316165924,
-0.6864143013954163,
0.7306703329086304,
0.45611318945884705,
-0.5157608985900879,
-0.026564380154013634,
-0.4426243305206299,
0.17656423151493073,
-0.7433277368545532,
0.009629414416849613,
0.1570514440536499,
0.16009360551834106,
0.222495436668396,
0.3707730174064636,
-0.1524040848016739,
0.4953906834125519,
0.15649007260799408,
0.022593196481466293,
-0.12548574805259705,
-0.22381824254989624,
0.09223908185958862,
-0.13848352432250977,
0.49122530221939087,
-0.2534213364124298,
0.226029172539711,
0.23561331629753113,
0.3627174198627472,
0.5157108306884766,
0.8182759881019592,
-0.13537754118442535,
0.23641565442085266,
-0.2992137372493744,
0.31449711322784424,
0.7053956985473633,
-0.48238182067871094,
-0.4887124300003052,
0.042594727128744125,
0.9115917682647705,
-0.35610827803611755,
-0.23900650441646576,
-0.7996206283569336,
0.41006797552108765,
-0.4071314036846161,
0.21573187410831451,
-0.28949862718582153,
-0.31183820962905884,
0.7680730223655701,
-0.2539864778518677,
0.2929176688194275,
-0.4474593698978424,
0.8881773948669434,
0.3775889277458191,
-0.5213981866836548,
-0.72029709815979,
-0.7236578464508057,
0.5074174404144287,
-0.25971513986587524,
-0.3286755383014679,
0.4682615101337433,
0.6399598121643066,
0.6423376798629761,
0.1687467396259308,
0.5335131287574768,
-0.013617023825645447,
-1.0710810422897339,
-0.0657966136932373,
-0.1404566913843155,
-0.9426594376564026,
0.3848772943019867,
0.5744022727012634,
-0.20542247593402863,
-0.027605395764112473,
-0.7087889909744263,
-0.7967157363891602,
-0.16375231742858887,
-1.270859718322754,
-0.2367224246263504,
0.23876839876174927,
0.2386283427476883,
-0.6763017773628235,
-0.47631677985191345,
-0.09364116936922073,
0.6454615592956543,
-0.2548123300075531,
0.14669080078601837,
-0.34435752034187317,
0.22851775586605072,
-0.7149619460105896,
0.6318939924240112,
0.45603805780410767,
-0.4756477177143097,
0.28936299681663513,
0.13453035056591034,
0.030983157455921173,
-0.3655281662940979,
-0.12993977963924408,
-0.2576567530632019,
0.4051455855369568,
-0.0874297171831131,
-0.48460978269577026,
0.681945264339447,
-0.1272384077310562,
0.08927155286073685,
0.1861717402935028,
-0.12836353480815887,
0.35342320799827576,
0.8555949330329895,
0.4120423197746277,
-0.4043731987476349,
0.16468074917793274,
-0.01857897639274597,
-0.40331414341926575,
0.5160689949989319,
0.43294399976730347,
0.259250283241272,
0.3825280964374542,
0.16128765046596527,
0.7260328531265259,
0.22065119445323944,
-0.20816147327423096,
0.27963677048683167,
0.18331697583198547,
-0.09053067117929459,
-0.20082741975784302,
-0.20787900686264038,
-0.7222560048103333,
0.6766287088394165,
0.37815046310424805,
-0.005334474612027407,
-0.21792270243167877,
0.12305596470832825,
0.5510788559913635,
0.5601957440376282,
0.03871205449104309,
-0.6790649890899658,
-0.058180950582027435,
0.3856446146965027,
0.47143682837486267,
0.023525912314653397,
0.28311851620674133,
-0.23214131593704224,
-0.5827792286872864,
0.11161448061466217,
0.6129087209701538,
-0.3945249319076538,
-0.8982427716255188,
0.38455379009246826,
-0.5406739115715027,
0.18751947581768036,
-0.030827391892671585,
0.37108585238456726,
-0.18752723932266235,
-0.29387059807777405,
-0.16806696355342865,
-0.5707046985626221,
-0.18255575001239777,
0.13534559309482574,
-0.4228803515434265,
0.08829988539218903,
-0.8730594515800476,
0.3590414822101593,
-0.11924485862255096,
-0.4636912941932678,
0.2757100760936737,
0.4643871486186981,
0.27976474165916443,
0.38901466131210327,
-0.6899523735046387,
0.4873609244823456,
-0.48977890610694885,
-0.8126702308654785,
0.22172072529792786,
-0.05000149458646774,
-0.24250291287899017,
0.09453453868627548,
-0.2409721314907074,
0.3524000346660614,
0.0803421288728714,
-0.10308622568845749,
-0.09771689027547836,
-0.12817223370075226,
0.06375212967395782,
-0.36875981092453003,
0.5757144689559937,
0.605466902256012,
-0.19614925980567932,
-0.6444596648216248,
-0.21287092566490173,
0.34881794452667236,
-0.09090359508991241,
0.3197096288204193,
-0.05252841114997864,
0.20166891813278198,
-0.6328389048576355,
0.6259043216705322,
-0.4393809139728546,
0.6963728070259094,
0.16012810170650482,
0.26095515489578247,
0.08577550947666168,
0.5726792812347412,
0.06929010152816772,
0.3036158084869385,
0.3565535545349121,
-0.11467300355434418,
0.3086665868759155,
-0.5468983054161072,
0.3149053156375885,
-0.09398171305656433,
-0.08340266346931458,
0.5145463347434998,
0.005781425163149834,
-0.18549774587154388,
-0.06940482556819916,
0.7466667890548706,
-0.524352490901947,
-0.2561233639717102,
0.15176402032375336,
0.5906252264976501,
-0.5032660961151123,
0.2955165505409241,
-0.691709578037262,
0.06446471065282822,
0.09028107672929764,
0.2820121645927429,
-0.8246162533760071,
-0.10380393266677856,
0.032669682055711746,
-0.15864337980747223,
-0.31296631693840027,
-0.523743748664856,
-0.23830285668373108,
-0.34788715839385986,
0.37751564383506775,
-0.06395375728607178,
-0.6728405952453613,
0.10519619286060333,
-0.065701924264431,
-0.47876840829849243,
-0.2854422330856323,
0.4574621021747589,
0.030551407486200333,
-0.404925137758255,
0.05249505490064621,
-0.3515757620334625,
-0.04653492569923401,
0.5243255496025085
] |
228907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geoduck | Geoduck | The Pacific geoduck (“gooey-duck”; ; Panopea generosa) is a species of very large saltwater clam in the family Hiatellidae. The common name is derived from the Lushootseed (Nisqually) word gʷídəq.
The geoduck is native to the coastal waters of the eastern North Pacific Ocean from Alaska to Baja California. The shell of the clam ranges from to over in length, but the extremely long siphons make the clam itself much longer than this: the "neck" or siphons alone can be in length. The geoduck is the largest burrowing clam in the world. It is also one of the longest-living animals of any type, with a typical lifespan of 140 years; the oldest has been recorded at 168 years old.
Etymology
The name geoduck is derived from a Lushootseed (Nisqually) word gʷídəq either a word composed of a first element of unknown meaning and əq meaning "genitals" (referring to the shape of the clam), or a phrase meaning "dig deep", or perhaps both, as a double entendre. It is sometimes known as a mud duck, king clam or, when translated literally from Chinese, an elephant-trunk clam (). A group of geoducks is called a "bag".
Between 1983 and 2010, the scientific name of this clam was confused with that of an extinct clam, Panopea abrupta (Conrad, 1849), in scientific literature.
Biology
Native to the west coast of Canada and the northwest coast of the United States (primarily Washington and British Columbia), these marine bivalve mollusks are the largest burrowing clams in the world, weighing in at an average of at maturity, but specimens weighing over and as much as in length are not unheard of.
A related species, Panopea zelandica, is found in New Zealand and has been harvested commercially since 1989. The largest quantities have come from Golden Bay in the South Island where 100 tonnes were harvested in one year. There is a growing concern over the increase of parasites in the Puget Sound population of geoduck. Whether these microsporidium-like parasitic species were introduced by commercial farming is being studied by Sea Grant. Research to date does indicate their presence.
The oldest recorded specimen was 168 years old, but individuals usually live up to 140 years. A geoduck sucks water containing plankton down through its long siphon, filters this for food and ejects its refuse out through a separate hole in the siphon. Adult geoducks have few natural predators, which may also contribute to their longevity. In Alaska, sea otters and dogfish have proved capable of dislodging geoducks; starfish also attack and feed on the exposed geoduck siphon.
Geoducks are broadcast spawners. A female geoduck produces about 5 billion eggs in her century-long lifespan. However, due to a low rate of recruitment and a high rate of mortality for geoduck eggs, larvae, and post-settled juveniles, populations are slow to rebound. In the Puget Sound, studies indicate that the recovery time for a harvested tract is 39 years.
Biomass densities in Southeast Alaska are estimated by divers, then inflated by twenty percent to account for geoducks not visible at the time of survey. This estimate is used to predict the two percent allowed for commercial harvesting.
Industry
The world's first geoduck fishery was created in 1970, but demand for the half-forgotten clam was low at first due to its texture. , these clams sell in China for over US.
The geoduck's high market value has created an $80-million industry, with harvesting occurring in the US states of Alaska, Washington, and Oregon and the Canadian province of British Columbia. It is one of the most closely regulated fisheries in both countries. In Washington, Department of Natural Resources staff are on the water continually monitoring harvests to ensure revenues are received, and the same is true in Canada where the Underwater Harvesters' Association manages the Canadian Fishery in conjunction with Canada's Department of Fisheries and Oceans. The Washington State Department of Health tests water and flesh to assure clams are not filtering and holding pollutants, an ongoing problem. With the rise in price has come the inevitable problem with poaching, and with it the possibility some could be harvested from unsafe areas.
, advances in the testing system for contaminated clams have allowed geoduck harvesters to deliver live clams more consistently. The new testing system determines the viability of clams from tested beds before the harvesters fish the area. Previous methods tested clams after harvest. This advancement has meant that 90 percent of clams were delivered live to market in 2007. In 2001, only 10 percent were live. Because geoduck have a much higher market value live, an additional , this development has helped to stimulate the burgeoning industry.
The COVID-19 pandemic disrupted the geoduck industry. Given the near-shutdown of restaurants and seafood markets across the country, demand for live geoducks plummeted. Divers in Southeast Alaska who typically see prices of $5 to $10/lb for live geoducks reported prices as low as $1/lb, leading many to stop fishing temporarily.
Environmental impact
Geoduck farming grow-out and harvest practices are controversial, and have created conflicts with shoreline property owners, and concerns from nongovernmental organizations. However, the Environmental Defense Fund has found that bivalves (oysters, mussels, and clams) are beneficial to the marine environment. The water must be certifiably clean to plant geoducks commercially. Regulation was mandated in 2007. Studies have been funded to determine short- and long-term environmental and genetic impacts. In southern Puget Sound, the effect of geoduck farming on large mobile animals is ambiguous. A 2004 draft biological assessment, commissioned by three of the largest commercial shellfish companies in the Puget Sound region, identified no long-term effects of geoduck farming on threatened or endangered species.
Culinary uses
The large, meaty siphon is prized for its savory flavor and crunchy texture. Geoduck is regarded by some as an aphrodisiac because of its phallic shape. It is very popular in China, where it is considered a delicacy, mostly eaten cooked in a fondue-style Chinese hot pot. In Korean cuisine, geoducks are eaten raw with spicy chili sauce, sautéed, or in soups and stews. In Japan, geoduck is prepared as raw sashimi, dipped in soy sauce and wasabi. On Japanese menus in cheaper sushi restaurants, geoduck is sometimes substituted for Tresus keenae, a species of horse clam, and labeled mirugai or mirukuigai. It is considered to have a texture similar to an ark shell (known in Japanese as akagai). Mirugai is sometimes translated into English as "giant clam", and it is distinguished from himejako sushi, which is made from Tridacna gigas.
Chinese import ban
In December 2013, China imposed a ban on geoduck and other "double-shell aquatic animals"—such as clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops—that were imported from the west coast of the United States. Chinese officials found in an Alaskan shipment high levels of saxitoxin, a natural product that certain shellfish can accumulate, which when eaten by humans, can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning resulting in severe illness or even death. A shipment from Washington state was high in arsenic. The ban was in place for less than 6 months, ending in May 2014.
Popular culture
Evergreen State College in Olympia, Washington, has as its mascot a geoduck named Speedy.
Geoducks have also earned some internet infamy due to the phallic appearance of their siphons.
References
External links
Man and Mollusc—Geoduck facts
Geoduck.org; Underwater Harvester's Association
Geoduck.org: UHA—BC Seafood Alliance,
The Evergreen State College's Geoducks Page
Fisheries and Oceans Canada—Geoduck clam (Panopea abrupta)—Anatomy, Histology, Development, Pathology, Parasites, and Symbionts.
"Duckumentary" film Home Page: "3 Feet Under—Digging Deep for the Geoduck Clam"
Geoduck cooking Recipes
Clams
Hiatellidae
Marine molluscs of North America
Molluscs of the Pacific Ocean
Molluscs of the United States
Western North American coastal fauna
Commercial molluscs
Japanese seafood
Seafood in Native American cuisine
Washington (state) culture
Bivalves described in 1850
Taxa named by Augustus Addison Gould | [
-0.3820762038230896,
0.2372051626443863,
-0.48722314834594727,
0.1731584370136261,
0.11913120001554489,
0.4397546052932739,
-0.2527048587799072,
0.721213161945343,
-0.3073742091655731,
-0.22884567081928253,
0.06383615732192993,
0.45312368869781494,
-0.26032575964927673,
0.14913669228553772,
0.08765415847301483,
0.1786547750234604,
0.26051536202430725,
-0.040661994367837906,
-0.28233662247657776,
0.13856402039527893,
-0.37545931339263916,
-0.9179840683937073,
-0.05520743876695633,
-0.4594157636165619,
0.5659502744674683,
0.47210538387298584,
-0.04116753488779068,
0.5138230323791504,
0.12787500023841858,
-0.047144826501607895,
-0.4928426742553711,
0.648114025592804,
0.12766173481941223,
0.34698453545570374,
-0.11190541833639145,
0.1451752632856369,
-0.5510930418968201,
-0.32340720295906067,
-0.3299849331378937,
-0.4826081395149231,
0.9503846168518066,
0.05398870259523392,
0.2079213708639145,
0.47797808051109314,
-0.5447711944580078,
0.055127255618572235,
-1.0920721292495728,
0.24665439128875732,
-0.6452564001083374,
-0.1501232534646988,
-0.11749143898487091,
0.704853892326355,
0.14459742605686188,
-0.10746321082115173,
0.037624429911375046,
0.33603382110595703,
-0.4883109927177429,
0.10862185060977936,
-0.1703980565071106,
-0.7994041442871094,
-0.3094676733016968,
0.15224984288215637,
-0.1053551509976387,
0.06398395448923111,
-0.18383561074733734,
0.7440277338027954,
0.14835357666015625,
0.16449923813343048,
-0.679776668548584,
0.23081658780574799,
0.12939289212226868,
-0.1104116290807724,
-0.1615767776966095,
0.3809291124343872,
-0.9549728631973267,
0.13465537130832672,
-0.16539913415908813,
0.3833867013454437,
0.3602774143218994,
0.2696053385734558,
-0.3270481824874878,
0.22964446246623993,
0.7370997667312622,
-0.15423880517482758,
-0.2897835373878479,
0.051816511899232864,
-0.32614022493362427,
1.1044715642929077,
-0.5597304701805115,
0.6652181148529053,
-0.29424378275871277,
-0.22180019319057465,
0.07036833465099335,
0.14233209192752838,
-0.1505102515220642,
-0.3218074142932892,
-0.36469289660453796,
0.12600243091583252,
0.7254312038421631,
-0.17299476265907288,
-0.5457752346992493,
-0.4981217086315155,
0.5269099473953247,
0.676038384437561,
-0.3982967138290405,
-0.06372460722923279,
-0.30993959307670593,
-0.398266464471817,
-0.5423043966293335,
0.05165676400065422,
-0.5109149217605591,
0.14491505920886993,
-0.10876400768756866,
-0.17412897944450378,
0.35453107953071594,
0.438279926776886,
-0.2744543254375458,
0.41115936636924744,
-0.19956816732883453,
-0.21493160724639893,
0.4227493107318878,
0.03830607980489731,
-0.30487295985221863,
-0.3855249285697937,
0.187507763504982,
0.19707068800926208,
0.24630619585514069,
0.32504233717918396,
-0.9165036082267761,
-0.04079323261976242,
0.13038010895252228,
0.8422062993049622,
0.20622706413269043,
0.17538774013519287,
-0.13177140057086945,
-0.37466031312942505,
0.041897017508745193,
-0.42412906885147095,
0.28658565878868103,
0.47451549768447876,
-0.45659735798835754,
0.05834849923849106,
-1.0754001140594482,
-0.5282631516456604,
-0.2851198613643646,
-0.31215035915374756,
-0.05352817103266716,
-0.5365368127822876,
-0.1835114061832428,
-0.4653482139110565,
0.343904048204422,
0.4750278890132904,
-0.22109591960906982,
0.18141840398311615,
-0.33389395475387573,
-0.41000673174858093,
-0.02517525479197502,
-0.15122827887535095,
0.8554239869117737,
-0.16211354732513428,
-0.7522487044334412,
0.3127738833427429,
-0.6940494179725647,
-0.3365834355354309,
-0.059197403490543365,
-0.45961466431617737,
0.7428707480430603,
0.15912486612796783,
-0.7843659520149231,
0.331784188747406,
-0.06479275226593018,
0.20650389790534973,
0.9974771738052368,
0.7956169843673706,
0.16225604712963104,
-0.6404573321342468,
0.004088245797902346,
0.01593969389796257,
0.9267361760139465,
-0.4362602233886719,
-0.8110017776489258,
0.02434588596224785,
0.4381462037563324,
-0.031269438564777374,
0.4593356251716614,
-0.037747349590063095,
0.4920629858970642,
0.14738652110099792,
0.5846544504165649,
-0.40815532207489014,
-0.43939346075057983,
-0.5588538646697998,
-0.2716864347457886,
-0.005985268857330084,
0.7942229509353638,
0.03271235525608063,
-0.31189849972724915,
0.029274728149175644,
0.35282641649246216,
0.21744287014007568,
-0.6482632160186768,
-0.006055253092199564,
0.5919389128684998,
-0.38445159792900085,
-0.9224005341529846,
0.3440169394016266,
0.29546141624450684,
0.1546381711959839,
0.2967674732208252,
-0.21016904711723328,
-0.11944296211004257,
-0.4827043414115906,
0.20702658593654633,
-0.06047302857041359,
-0.25285977125167847,
-0.17990711331367493,
-0.19644081592559814,
0.011818664148449898,
-0.36056214570999146,
-0.18342696130275726,
1.0329827070236206,
-0.09697023034095764,
-0.20081032812595367,
1.0220690965652466,
-0.17917676270008087,
0.9770612120628357,
0.6763635277748108,
-0.03764934837818146,
0.8585891723632812,
-0.47587060928344727,
0.030254628509283066,
0.09584607183933258,
0.41484037041664124,
-0.6656419038772583,
0.21262101829051971,
0.5788879990577698,
0.37942665815353394,
-0.8410544395446777,
0.8533433675765991,
0.03370385244488716,
-0.1876816749572754,
-0.28014564514160156,
-0.44616004824638367,
0.5722255110740662,
0.44732922315597534,
-0.30724310874938965,
0.027551108971238136,
0.37684333324432373,
-0.8716902136802673,
-0.08625196665525436,
0.05333485081791878,
0.8914915919303894,
0.3439261019229889,
-0.02082420326769352,
-0.15103934705257416,
-0.26513591408729553,
0.2347218543291092,
-0.08325593173503876,
0.2948611080646515,
-0.08984950184822083,
-0.04549367353320122,
0.6848231554031372,
-0.21509966254234314,
0.00019326109031680971,
-0.02301521971821785,
-0.043290380388498306,
-0.007453552447259426,
0.19397808611392975,
0.2861565351486206,
0.3346473276615143,
0.4154863655567169,
0.5696093440055847,
-0.38939931988716125,
-0.05507131293416023,
-0.3775569200515747,
-0.42901504039764404,
0.17780713737010956,
-0.11321315914392471,
-0.3540330231189728,
-0.8934229016304016,
0.09176179766654968,
0.2860143184661865,
-0.4095131754875183,
-0.2895723879337311,
0.08401467651128769,
-0.6592739820480347,
0.09294665604829788,
-0.4594177305698395,
-0.29150208830833435,
-0.6395275592803955,
-0.7486706376075745,
-0.22249405086040497,
-0.11320096999406815,
0.22827409207820892,
-0.9419505000114441,
0.3038019835948944,
0.1451815366744995,
0.12808920443058014,
0.5026251077651978,
-0.1736786663532257,
-0.16895374655723572,
-0.2589215338230133,
0.07577641308307648,
0.12502597272396088,
0.19436973333358765,
-0.5538502335548401,
-0.11648979783058167,
0.47182515263557434,
-5.508643627166748,
0.18764959275722504,
0.04153616353869438,
0.0013459654292091727,
0.42610064148902893,
0.601209819316864,
0.008094913326203823,
-0.3696700632572174,
-0.03820616006851196,
0.08487444370985031,
0.005624363198876381,
0.24377919733524323,
-0.4399069547653198,
-0.5370137691497803,
0.20302167534828186,
-0.1948629468679428,
0.06579344719648361,
0.37148958444595337,
-0.45224615931510925,
-0.12092551589012146,
-0.28502699732780457,
0.505584716796875,
0.5502660870552063,
0.5115414261817932,
-0.28748616576194763,
0.15360276401042938,
-0.2945556342601776,
-0.637700617313385,
-0.2759127616882324,
-0.3416062295436859,
-0.01919424906373024,
0.0018104531336575747,
0.1154835894703865,
0.5627912282943726,
0.18741075694561005,
-0.2951396405696869,
0.28303420543670654,
0.27846673130989075,
0.06308704614639282,
-0.6294445991516113,
-0.4779154062271118,
-0.10203474760055542,
-0.08670962601900101,
-0.4366146922111511,
0.5899807214736938,
0.16322548687458038,
0.2541777491569519,
-0.4834204614162445,
-0.4605030417442322,
0.9407355785369873,
-0.14596426486968994,
-0.19570745527744293,
0.20071306824684143,
0.23915910720825195,
0.5993143916130066,
0.04955662786960602,
0.2446552813053131,
-0.04349067062139511,
-0.6254575252532959,
0.4512363374233246,
0.8122931122779846,
-0.28014490008354187,
-0.5361955761909485,
-0.8165797591209412,
-0.16951899230480194,
0.05340467765927315,
-0.738128662109375,
0.3670068383216858,
0.6059516668319702,
-0.2321610450744629,
-0.20606575906276703,
0.5501299500465393,
0.07026828825473785,
-0.8226948380470276,
0.5167701244354248,
-0.28310707211494446,
-0.34296199679374695,
-0.02134961262345314,
-0.4096525311470032,
0.23506926000118256,
-0.29071295261383057,
-0.018064366653561592,
-0.00232897256501019,
0.3763081729412079,
0.046950310468673706,
-1.229950189590454,
-0.5755165219306946,
-0.14053288102149963,
0.34132927656173706,
0.16893765330314636,
0.46481001377105713,
-0.4401121735572815,
0.5915675759315491,
-0.235470712184906,
0.8190109133720398,
0.4295867383480072,
0.16799478232860565,
0.4126695394515991,
0.567691445350647,
-0.8045942783355713,
0.7679093480110168,
-0.1435331106185913,
-0.15915954113006592,
-0.31331539154052734,
0.23856033384799957,
-0.7781645655632019,
0.4833621084690094,
0.5406479239463806,
1.0467877388000488,
0.11579698324203491,
0.07155574858188629,
0.19085758924484253,
-0.5200285315513611,
-0.24332652986049652,
0.2750077545642853,
0.5035252571105957,
-0.48238474130630493,
-0.09908009320497513,
1.1290355920791626,
-0.35019439458847046,
0.3397302031517029,
0.3754342198371887,
-0.029602842405438423,
-0.1562802791595459,
0.06142261251807213,
-0.08021435886621475,
0.24774089455604553,
-0.004054538439959288,
-0.5991942882537842,
-0.28776484727859497,
0.2336808741092682,
-0.25093814730644226,
0.11678031831979752,
-0.40323126316070557,
-0.38229814171791077,
-0.02902810648083687,
-0.5386215448379517,
-0.12470842897891998,
0.11331775039434433,
0.03247218206524849,
-0.14767467975616455,
-0.36314040422439575,
-0.2348739355802536,
-0.24258479475975037,
0.36787426471710205,
0.10074856877326965,
-0.8946526050567627,
0.13809287548065186,
0.04474861919879913,
0.6846108436584473,
0.2681480646133423,
-0.6627436876296997,
0.21201443672180176,
-0.4887699782848358,
0.46920889616012573,
0.6466243863105774,
0.24348056316375732,
0.40981224179267883,
0.16102787852287292,
-0.4799965023994446,
0.19753147661685944,
-0.3091546297073364,
-0.8903706073760986,
-0.017863746732473373,
-0.1778843253850937,
0.41845080256462097,
-0.8570396304130554,
-0.1738359034061432,
-0.03171246498823166,
0.3414837419986725,
0.5884736180305481,
0.004105937201529741,
-0.8338080048561096,
-0.24887508153915405,
-0.18559426069259644,
-0.3235423266887665,
-0.21503300964832306,
0.7572891712188721,
0.4050544500350952,
-0.11279700696468353,
0.18979676067829132,
-0.22914180159568787,
0.5590542554855347,
-0.29140451550483704,
0.5444220900535583,
-0.8780487179756165,
0.117197684943676,
0.5085732936859131,
-0.18723317980766296,
0.4880020320415497,
0.37553340196609497,
0.3863959312438965,
0.31934499740600586,
0.23871752619743347,
0.11821175366640091,
0.3473953902721405,
-0.34374499320983887,
0.782002866268158,
-0.08531548082828522,
-0.607765793800354,
-1.081244945526123,
0.04016784578561783,
-0.3831082284450531,
-0.10071515291929245,
-0.09154023975133896,
-0.31405583024024963,
0.33715856075286865,
-0.14537754654884338,
-0.3278160095214844,
0.06857845932245255,
0.16650956869125366,
-0.2672802209854126,
-0.4617091119289398,
0.316719114780426,
-0.2298097461462021,
0.12373313307762146,
0.031028442084789276,
-0.20442919433116913,
-0.271915465593338,
0.06597328186035156,
-0.7131101489067078,
0.37501609325408936,
0.10849699378013611,
-0.0178979579359293,
0.1592465043067932,
-0.03139453008770943,
-0.6027405261993408,
-0.09865737706422806,
0.2888473868370056,
-0.19190756976604462,
0.2220282256603241,
-0.49370208382606506,
0.04815782606601715,
0.26193416118621826,
0.2312992513179779,
0.02414480410516262,
0.5277686715126038,
0.4320283830165863,
0.028374431654810905,
0.4410541355609894,
0.9710943102836609,
0.8227929472923279,
0.2003573775291443,
0.16940619051456451,
-0.15595906972885132,
0.6553701162338257,
0.03739102557301521,
0.2911849319934845,
-1.2119473218917847,
-0.20279723405838013,
1.356860637664795,
0.010766929015517235,
-0.41565367579460144,
-0.07722082734107971,
0.931171178817749,
-0.7574864029884338,
0.00552684161812067,
-0.001402765279635787,
-0.0020903388503938913,
-0.13106966018676758,
0.17165373265743256,
0.04106012359261513,
-0.3501751720905304,
0.3125939965248108,
0.09851103276014328,
-0.36290037631988525,
-0.43649211525917053,
0.31833669543266296,
0.15440843999385834,
-0.39834439754486084,
0.1885087639093399,
0.03972797095775604,
0.6563851237297058,
0.6810857653617859,
0.013957465067505836,
0.34398674964904785,
0.05371144786477089,
-0.36580511927604675,
0.548958420753479,
0.2610272467136383,
-0.4401317834854126,
0.16111311316490173,
0.005725251976400614,
-0.2842240333557129,
-0.32099419832229614,
-0.3966245949268341,
-0.11711900681257248,
0.18795441091060638,
0.058998752385377884,
-0.4802974760532379,
-0.3551609516143799,
-0.3161802589893341,
-0.5368319153785706,
-0.08167727291584015,
0.2803957164287567,
0.3465065062046051,
0.28772127628326416,
-0.09623286873102188,
-0.7273659110069275,
0.23314718902111053,
-0.8441206812858582,
0.38060155510902405,
0.32075420022010803,
-0.5593312978744507,
0.7677214741706848,
-0.018807198852300644,
-0.12269865721464157,
0.017195964232087135,
-0.3575299382209778,
-0.5197412371635437,
0.47494637966156006,
0.030515044927597046,
-0.14630287885665894,
0.7352860569953918,
0.03225095942616463,
0.5168461203575134,
0.6641131043434143,
-0.6447775363922119,
0.33232617378234863,
0.6881741881370544,
0.49594151973724365,
0.4848804175853729,
0.11955989897251129,
0.4182998836040497,
0.2762662172317505,
-0.3009161651134491,
-0.8149986863136292,
-0.07857178896665573,
0.607401967048645,
0.627005934715271,
-0.06206921860575676,
-0.13466529548168182,
-0.19210678339004517,
-0.6139392256736755,
0.1886570155620575,
-0.12293176352977753,
0.11570671945810318,
-0.3463858664035797,
-0.15148085355758667,
1.0890543460845947,
0.4287552535533905,
0.4419335424900055,
-0.0358126200735569,
0.21632768213748932,
0.2905605137348175,
0.25941890478134155,
-0.26239991188049316,
0.3999626934528351,
-0.3428933918476105,
-0.1840013712644577,
0.335350900888443,
-0.23455224931240082,
0.0447852797806263,
-0.7495551705360413,
-0.014711985364556313,
0.32492122054100037,
-0.041507042944431305,
-0.24262893199920654,
0.2525689899921417,
-0.16467323899269104,
-0.07808823138475418,
0.33665284514427185,
0.08786846697330475,
-0.18588358163833618,
-0.6623567342758179,
0.11822958290576935,
-0.5969961285591125,
-0.3838919401168823,
-0.2861941456794739,
0.018515702337026596,
-0.025643564760684967,
0.2451651692390442,
0.16888798773288727,
0.012968777678906918,
0.0034727989695966244,
0.18380309641361237,
-0.4109853506088257,
0.7536731362342834,
-0.4281371235847473,
-0.1804133802652359,
-0.9149956107139587,
0.059155259281396866,
0.04105546697974205,
-0.38836079835891724,
0.23780685663223267,
-0.04302908107638359,
0.4745982885360718,
-0.02464934065937996,
-0.2990364730358124,
0.02024918422102928,
0.057480305433273315,
-1.1560348272323608,
-0.6906750202178955,
0.05806015059351921,
0.1485081911087036,
-0.8086040019989014,
0.36358708143234253,
0.7568749189376831,
0.1802445501089096,
0.14253343641757965,
-0.18465669453144073,
-0.3323744833469391,
0.10530997812747955,
-0.05853698402643204,
-0.160073384642601,
0.017557617276906967,
-0.13765983283519745,
1.056218147277832,
-0.5750470757484436,
0.2643420994281769,
0.8013632893562317,
0.21011154353618622,
-0.19723917543888092,
0.17163796722888947,
-0.22416941821575165,
0.12812870740890503,
0.806416928768158,
0.1676873117685318,
0.1062193214893341,
-0.38268184661865234,
-0.29237210750579834,
-0.5399336218833923,
-0.0035425443202257156,
0.226435586810112,
0.25467434525489807,
-0.05412741377949715,
0.6973982453346252,
0.04318938031792641,
-1.2189220190048218,
0.01708332449197769,
-0.33129215240478516,
0.1530323177576065,
-0.8591353297233582,
0.2394295483827591,
-0.5012916922569275,
-0.5217345356941223,
0.23292440176010132,
0.41249915957450867,
-0.11845224350690842,
-0.16015879809856415,
0.48591503500938416,
-0.2594214081764221,
0.18847525119781494,
-0.21599821746349335,
-0.2549024522304535,
0.02378704585134983,
0.0020976350642740726,
-0.0776091068983078,
-0.3221547305583954,
-0.39382240176200867,
0.24145865440368652,
-0.5945459604263306,
0.24083296954631805,
0.12165538221597672,
0.12274684011936188,
0.21715959906578064,
-0.11398892849683762,
-0.3468586802482605,
0.05355945602059364,
0.7345433235168457
] |
228911 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20New%20Market | Battle of New Market | The Battle of New Market was fought on May 15, 1864, in Virginia during the Valley Campaigns of 1864 in the American Civil War. A makeshift Confederate army of 4,100 men defeated the larger Army of the Shenandoah under Major General Franz Sigel, delaying the capture of Staunton by several weeks.
The battle is primarily remembered today for being the only time in American history a school's student body was used as an organized combat unit. During the battle Confederate general John C. Breckinridge ordered cadets from the Virginia Military Institute (VMI), some of them child soldiers no older than 15, to join an attack on the Union lines. The event has gone on to become central to many of the Institute's myths and traditions.
Background
In the spring of 1864, Union commander-in-chief Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant set in motion a grand strategy designed to press the Confederacy into submission. Control of the strategically important and agriculturally rich Shenandoah Valley was a key element in Grant's plans. While he confronted General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia in the eastern part of the state, Grant ordered Major General Franz Sigel's army of 10,000 to secure the Valley and threaten Lee's flank, starting the Valley Campaigns of 1864.
Sigel was to advance on Staunton, Virginia in order to link up with another Union column commanded by George Crook, which would advance from West Virginia and destroy the Virginia & Tennessee Railroad and other Confederate industries in the area. Sigel's force totaled about 9,000 men and 28 cannons, divided into an infantry division commanded by Brig. Gen. Jeremiah C. Sullivan and a cavalry division commanded by Maj. Gen. Julius Stahel (detachments made during the campaign reduced the Union force to about 6,300 by the time of the battle).
Receiving word that the Union Army had entered the Valley, Major General John C. Breckinridge pulled together all available forces to repulse the latest threat. His command consisted of two infantry brigades under John C. Echols and General Gabriel C. Wharton, a cavalry brigade commanded by General John D. Imboden, and other independent commands. This included the cadet corps of VMI, which had an infantry battalion of 247 cadets commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Scott Shipp and a two-gun artillery section. Breckinridge concentrated his infantry at Staunton, while Imboden slowed Sigel's movement southward along the Valley.
On the morning of May 13, Breckinridge decided to move north to attack Sigel instead of waiting for Sigel to reach Staunton. By the evening of May 14, Sigel's advance forces had reached a position north of the village of New Market, while Breckinridge was at Lacey Spring eight miles south of New Market. The Confederates started toward the Union positions at 1 a.m. on May 15, hoping to trap and crush the Union army.
Opposing forces
Union
Confederate
Battle
On May 14 a delaying action was fought at Rude's Hill, just outside of Mt. Jackson, by elements of the Confederate 18th Virginia Cavalry, under the overall command of Col. John Imboden. The Confederate cavalry slowed the Union advance, enabling Gen. John Breckinridge to gather the main body of his Confederate forces at New Market, about 4 miles away.
The two forces made contact south of New Market about mid-morning, with the main Union line west of the town near the North Fork of the Shenandoah River; Colonel Augustus Moor initially commanded the Union forces present on the battlefield at this time, which consisted of his infantry brigade and part of John E. Wynkoop's cavalry brigade. Additional Union regiments arrived throughout the morning and deployed between the North Fork of the Shenandoah River and the Valley Turnpike, with the main line centered on Manor's Hill. Breckinridge deployed Wharton's brigade on the Confederate left west of the Valley Turnpike and Echols's brigade on the right along the Pike; Echols was ill that morning, so his brigade was commanded by Colonel George S. Patton, Sr. The VMI cadets battalion was kept in reserve, while Imboden's cavalry was east of the turnpike.
Breckinridge attempted to lure the Federals into attacking him using cavalry and artillery, but Moor refused to move from his position. About 11 a.m., Breckinridge decided to launch an attack on Moor using his infantry, while Imboden's brigade crossed Smith's Creek east of New Market, rode north, and recrossed the stream behind the Union lines. Union cavalry General Stahel arrived at New Market at this time with additional troops, followed shortly afterwards by Union General Sigel.
Breckinridge launched his infantry attack near noon, slowly pushing Moor's infantry brigade off Manor's Hill and northward toward the rest of Sigel's army, which was deploying on a hill north of Jacob Bushong's farm, known as Bushong's Hill. Once past the town of New Market, the Confederates halted to dress ranks, shift units along the line, and reposition their artillery units. Breckinridge resumed his attack about 2 p.m. As the Confederate line formed near the Bushong farm, massed Union rifle and artillery fire disorganized the Confederate units in the center, forcing the right wing of the 51st Virginia Infantry and the 30th Virginia Infantry Battalion to retreat in confusion, while the rest of the Confederate line stalled.
Breckinridge reluctantly ordered the VMI cadet battalion to fill the gap; while the battalion was moving forward to the Bushong orchard, Shipp was wounded and was replaced by Captain Henry A. Wise. At this time, Sigel launched two counterattacks. On the Union left, Stahel launched a mounted charge with the cavalry but was routed by heavy fire from Confederate artillery, while three infantry regiments attacked on the Union right and were repulsed as well. The main cause of the failure of the infantry attacks was confusion within the ranks of the Union commanders; Sigel was noted to be shouting orders in his native language of German.
After the repulses of the Union attacks, Breckinridge started his advance again shortly after 3 p.m. with his infantry force; while crossing a field near Bushong's orchard, several VMI cadets lost their shoes in the mud, which led to the field being called the "Field of Lost Shoes". As the Confederate line got closer to the Union artillery, Sigel's batteries were forced to retreat as the infantry started breaking towards the rear. Five cannons were abandoned to the Confederates, one of which was captured by the VMI cadet battalion. Battery B of the 5th U.S. Artillery, which had just arrived on the field, and two infantry regiments slowed the Confederate pursuit. At this time, Breckinridge halted his forces until the supply trains arrived to resupply the troops. While the infantry was being resupplied, Confederate cavalry General Imboden arrived with his brigade with the news that the creek was too swollen to be crossed. Union General Sullivan arrived during this time with the 28th and 116th Ohio Infantry; Sigel managed to organize a rearguard on Rude's Hill, with Sullivan's infantry east of the turnpike, some of Stahel's cavalry west of the road, and the artillery behind the line. Due to the exhaustion of the men and low ammunition, Sigel decided to retreat across the Shenandoah River to Mount Jackson. Breckinridge advanced his artillery to the crest of Rude's Hill where they shelled Sigel's retreating Federals. The Union army managed to cross Mill Creek at Mt. Jackson and burned the bridge before the Confederates could catch up.
Aftermath
Union casualties totaled 841 for the battle: 96 killed, 520 wounded, and 225 captured or missing, a casualty rate of 13.4%. The Confederates lost 43 killed, including 10 cadets; 474 wounded, and 3 missing, 13% of the army. The wounded from the battle were cared for in Bushong's barn and in the town at the Smith Creek Baptist church and a warehouse, while the dead were buried in the graveyard of St. Matthew's Lutheran Church.
Sigel staged a rapid retreat northward to Strasburg, leaving the field and the Valley to Breckinridge's army. After learning of the Union defeat, Grant became furious and replaced Sigel with General David Hunter; Sigel was assigned to command the department's reserve division based in Harpers Ferry.
Sergeant James Burns of the 1st West Virginia Infantry received the Medal of Honor in 1896 for saving the regimental flag in the battle.
The Confederate victory allowed the local crops to be harvested for Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia and protected Lee's lines of communications to western Virginia. The Virginia newspapers and the Confederate soldiers in the battle compared Breckinridge to Thomas J. "Stonewall" Jackson. Following Sigel's retreat, Lee suggested that Breckinridge follow the Union army and invade Maryland; however, the flooded rivers in the northern Shenandoah Valley and the length of his supply line prevented Breckinridge from making a pursuit. Breckinridge's forces were transferred to eastern Virginia, where they reinforced Lee's army at the Battle of Cold Harbor.
The victory failed to stop the Union offensive however. After assuming command of the Army of the Shenandoah, Hunter resumed the march southwest and defeated a Confederate force under Brig. Gen. William E. "Grumble" Jones at the Battle of Piedmont on June 5, occupying Staunton the following day.
VMI casualties
Forty-seven VMI cadets were wounded in the battle (around 23%). The following ten cadets were killed outright or mortally wounded:
The New Market Day ceremony is an annual observance held at VMI in front of the monument Virginia Mourning Her Dead, a memorial to the New Market Corps. It was sculpted by Cavaliere Moses Ritter von Ezekiel, VMI Class of 1866, who was a veteran of the battle. The names of all of the cadets in the Corps of 1864 are inscribed on the monument, and six of the ten cadets who died in the battle are buried at this site.
The ceremony features the roll call of the names of the cadets who lost their lives at New Market, a custom that began in 1887. As the name of each cadet who died is called, a representative from the same company in the modern Corps answers, "Died on the Field of Honor, Sir." A 3-volley salute is conducted by a cadet honor guard, followed by "Taps" played over the parade ground. To culminate this ceremony, the entire Corps passes Virginia Mourning Her Dead in review.
See also
New Market Battlefield State Historical Park
Battlefield preservation
The battlefield is primarily preserved in the 300-acre New Market Battlefield State Historical Park. In addition, the Civil War Trust (a division of the American Battlefield Trust) and its partners have acquired and preserved of the battlefield.
In popular culture
In fall 1923, under the direction of Marine Corps Brigadier General Smedley D. Butler and employing the Quantico marines, the battle was reenacted on its historical grounds. The number of spectators was estimated at over 150,000.
Sean McNamara's 2014 film, Field of Lost Shoes, is a fictionalized account of the actions performed by the cadets of the Virginia Military Institute during the battle. The movie follows a group of seven cadets of the Virginia Military Institute, based on real characters.
John Ford's 1959 film The Horse Soldiers includes a scene which is loosely based on the event.
A principal character in Elaine Marie Alphin's 1991 novel Ghost Cadet is a cadet named William Hugh McDowell who fought in the battle.
References
Sources
Davis, William C. The Battle of New Market. Garden City, New York: Doubleday & Company, Inc., 1975.
Knight, Charles, Valley Thunder: The Battle of New Market, New York: Savas Beatie, 2010, .
National Park Service battle description
Cadet Deaths at New Market — VMI Archives
CWSAC Report Update
Further reading
Couper, William. The Corps Forward: The Biographical Sketches of the VMI Cadets Who Fought in the Battle of New Market. Buena Vista, VA: Mariner Pub., 2005.
Davis, William C., The Battle of New Market, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Stackpole Books, 1993, .
Du Pont, H.A., Col.,The Battle of New Market, Virginia, May 15, 1864, Winterthur, DE, 1923
Knight, Charles, Valley Thunder: The Battle of New Market, New York: Savas Beatie, 2010, .
Pancake, John, "Virginia Reveres Civil War Bravery", Washington Post, November 26, 2008.
External links
New Market Battlefield website
Virginia Military Institute
VMI Museum
VMI Archives
New Market
New Market, Battle of
1864 in the American Civil War
1864 in Virginia
New Market
May 1864 events
New Market
New Market | [
-0.8552777171134949,
-0.5624884366989136,
-0.1958569884300232,
0.004753461107611656,
0.5449826121330261,
0.3353983461856842,
0.4903619885444641,
0.31511053442955017,
0.02548999898135662,
-1.032667875289917,
0.1730642467737198,
0.7565633058547974,
-0.25881075859069824,
0.8270477652549744,
-0.7672189474105835,
0.8820177316665649,
0.5164967775344849,
-0.517833411693573,
0.5354433059692383,
-0.6050907969474792,
-0.4793727993965149,
-0.4535818099975586,
0.8783733248710632,
0.6604236364364624,
0.30590546131134033,
-0.30401384830474854,
0.4551820158958435,
-0.08775166422128677,
0.382472425699234,
0.23633961379528046,
-0.05497870594263077,
0.26127201318740845,
0.4070548117160797,
-0.20911820232868195,
-0.41576340794563293,
-0.14824111759662628,
-0.19413931667804718,
0.20728524029254913,
-0.1356898546218872,
-0.32367023825645447,
-0.49086230993270874,
-0.21635080873966217,
0.06743774563074112,
0.16091687977313995,
0.08607660979032516,
0.7418951988220215,
-1.2246094942092896,
-0.2891176640987396,
-1.2132160663604736,
-0.8848254084587097,
-0.31238850951194763,
1.0163336992263794,
0.3176608383655548,
0.8102682828903198,
-0.016105851158499718,
0.2030370682477951,
-0.5446763038635254,
-0.7036069631576538,
0.16287367045879364,
-0.258126437664032,
0.5538761615753174,
0.21244266629219055,
0.1559145301580429,
-0.6232792139053345,
-0.34377652406692505,
-0.8133610486984253,
0.11905256658792496,
0.5854304432868958,
0.04121313989162445,
-0.39848586916923523,
0.1755368858575821,
0.014062250964343548,
-0.3703329861164093,
0.3056938946247101,
0.19386370480060577,
-0.142586350440979,
0.1087624654173851,
0.40581774711608887,
-0.32049140334129333,
0.0552254244685173,
-0.14790093898773193,
-0.6780676245689392,
0.5373320579528809,
-0.1482449322938919,
-0.00565061392262578,
0.4709267318248749,
-0.8454381823539734,
-0.09388463944196701,
-0.6374433040618896,
0.28590497374534607,
-1.0109117031097412,
-0.4729159474372864,
-0.5736838579177856,
0.05996683984994888,
-0.6223524212837219,
-0.023324955254793167,
0.09375454485416412,
0.22845381498336792,
-0.40961387753486633,
0.3264736831188202,
-0.21822722256183624,
-0.34914058446884155,
1.2401219606399536,
0.4657576382160187,
-0.18338297307491302,
-0.44400498270988464,
0.387872576713562,
-0.556221067905426,
0.19777445495128632,
-0.5149427056312561,
-0.391964852809906,
0.8022936582565308,
0.10754019021987915,
-0.6092713475227356,
-0.34601545333862305,
-0.00810841005295515,
-0.11609508842229843,
-0.4081436097621918,
-0.2165537327528,
-0.11278094351291656,
0.10105210542678833,
0.6534196138381958,
-0.3864854574203491,
0.5915513634681702,
-0.5169827342033386,
0.17327865958213806,
0.4031801223754883,
0.32910093665122986,
-0.30976516008377075,
0.3264665901660919,
0.33684003353118896,
0.6533100008964539,
-0.1333010345697403,
0.020650628954172134,
0.34436142444610596,
-0.2434144765138626,
0.22231118381023407,
-0.15917779505252838,
-0.15161600708961487,
-0.25686001777648926,
-0.3309083580970764,
-0.0817437544465065,
0.3975425958633423,
0.2930888831615448,
0.16797707974910736,
-0.10528255999088287,
0.6014493703842163,
-0.5070636868476868,
0.2412792146205902,
-0.29249241948127747,
0.7571619153022766,
-0.32762813568115234,
0.027468806132674217,
0.20875297486782074,
-0.25077277421951294,
0.5583541393280029,
0.23998412489891052,
-0.4394835829734802,
-0.34746721386909485,
0.8426021337509155,
0.10929286479949951,
0.37081634998321533,
0.12526960670948029,
0.34276124835014343,
0.11203690618276596,
-0.16318199038505554,
0.5027558207511902,
-0.22422108054161072,
-0.011290442198514938,
-0.05559676140546799,
-0.10707835853099823,
0.0776669830083847,
-0.10495173186063766,
-0.41060349345207214,
0.2505477964878082,
-0.18705520033836365,
0.9036979675292969,
0.04759764298796654,
0.19921211898326874,
-0.000587508431635797,
-0.19387589395046234,
0.18075387179851532,
0.7358858585357666,
0.18282876908779144,
-0.03764290362596512,
0.5757448077201843,
0.32159942388534546,
-0.2595416307449341,
0.22954168915748596,
0.3515321612358093,
0.18051177263259888,
-0.23156887292861938,
0.12166615575551987,
-0.1322602778673172,
0.9073982834815979,
0.3037877380847931,
-0.4595358073711395,
0.17108860611915588,
-0.13350804150104523,
0.4761747121810913,
0.40290576219558716,
-0.5279447436332703,
1.2671411037445068,
-0.045105013996362686,
-0.13904204964637756,
-0.7534348368644714,
-0.1041530892252922,
-0.29387813806533813,
0.7173893451690674,
0.6285125613212585,
0.006154482252895832,
-0.04244036227464676,
-0.21428047120571136,
0.7387986183166504,
0.5064178705215454,
-0.25367701053619385,
-0.2099088579416275,
-0.12180212140083313,
0.7679267525672913,
-0.6775004863739014,
0.007893364876508713,
-0.2319185733795166,
0.2599019408226013,
0.032395172864198685,
0.2889006733894348,
0.1244230791926384,
-0.7211093306541443,
0.17584748566150665,
-0.28047505021095276,
-0.8124434351921082,
0.3311576247215271,
0.7241716980934143,
-0.41467252373695374,
-0.18065783381462097,
0.7230110168457031,
-0.6171141862869263,
-0.3083363175392151,
-0.21165600419044495,
0.3854743540287018,
-0.2624259889125824,
0.09977550804615021,
0.2664778530597687,
-0.44617560505867004,
0.2137497216463089,
0.02394571341574192,
0.01618131622672081,
-0.3233192265033722,
0.4618082344532013,
-0.05948701873421669,
-1.0203205347061157,
-0.012155108153820038,
0.27617713809013367,
0.6325074434280396,
-0.2085677683353424,
0.09040594846010208,
-0.21035058796405792,
-0.16624686121940613,
0.08503741770982742,
0.6714734435081482,
0.0498521588742733,
0.3411523997783661,
0.15506604313850403,
-0.26816970109939575,
0.09508401900529861,
0.24328744411468506,
-0.33790379762649536,
-1.141309380531311,
0.24851465225219727,
-0.2810257077217102,
-0.13842451572418213,
0.7760506272315979,
0.2833717167377472,
0.2020006626844406,
0.22948907315731049,
0.5782026052474976,
-0.35846754908561707,
-0.37046948075294495,
0.2822357714176178,
-0.3999340236186981,
-0.7349722981452942,
0.3038027584552765,
1.23265540599823,
-0.017743537202477455,
-0.8242947459220886,
0.01473456434905529,
-0.36550724506378174,
0.07171232253313065,
0.15302564203739166,
0.29372912645339966,
0.051832329481840134,
-0.2771739661693573,
0.22547417879104614,
-0.810989260673523,
0.6146778464317322,
0.35238897800445557,
0.6201521754264832,
-0.16964749991893768,
0.33040663599967957,
-0.015545717440545559,
0.4565519094467163,
-0.5568589568138123,
0.15662743151187897,
-0.3843980133533478,
-0.3051421642303467,
0.39936354756355286,
-0.6808019876480103,
-0.11474073678255081,
0.10253960639238358,
-5.111753940582275,
0.36952540278434753,
0.23215684294700623,
-0.3985609710216522,
-0.09268506616353989,
-0.16453592479228973,
-0.2881123721599579,
0.09623401612043381,
0.2092428356409073,
0.45753511786460876,
0.08273402601480484,
-0.6998845338821411,
-0.5016072988510132,
-0.5880628824234009,
0.40584495663642883,
-0.3351190984249115,
0.6461558938026428,
-0.7897507548332214,
0.23781542479991913,
0.6932638883590698,
0.5225467085838318,
-0.6138371229171753,
-0.13667897880077362,
0.21076428890228271,
0.1931225210428238,
0.2680566608905792,
-0.35166406631469727,
0.1758265495300293,
0.05194210633635521,
0.26804879307746887,
0.10385770350694656,
0.1909928321838379,
-0.019020874053239822,
-0.15277020633220673,
-0.23035618662834167,
-0.57234126329422,
-0.1932952105998993,
-0.36394834518432617,
0.3743755519390106,
-1.2521953582763672,
0.10820883512496948,
0.16892002522945404,
-0.9432361721992493,
-0.12726934254169464,
0.8843303918838501,
-0.17848089337348938,
-0.24980515241622925,
0.6564702987670898,
-0.4800010025501251,
0.4116942286491394,
0.7368249297142029,
0.31321096420288086,
0.20363014936447144,
-0.024656033143401146,
0.42492008209228516,
-0.575537383556366,
0.17160846292972565,
-0.393060564994812,
0.46188730001449585,
0.10863613337278366,
-0.1794634759426117,
-0.6958370208740234,
-0.4995354413986206,
-0.1953745037317276,
0.18063825368881226,
-0.8873087763786316,
0.41326650977134705,
0.4245535731315613,
0.4611802399158478,
0.4388524293899536,
1.0031225681304932,
1.1877630949020386,
0.05435692146420479,
-0.9694675803184509,
0.41133913397789,
-0.2817652225494385,
-0.41506633162498474,
-0.7075768709182739,
-0.3201681673526764,
-0.13379639387130737,
0.3271464705467224,
-0.6605522036552429,
0.9144510626792908,
0.01373748667538166,
0.8367128968238831,
0.030024312436580658,
-0.7786675691604614,
-0.20375971496105194,
-1.0600389242172241,
-0.6298040151596069,
0.44104480743408203,
-0.20345038175582886,
-0.10449209064245224,
-0.8689280152320862,
0.042759183794260025,
0.31868502497673035,
0.2733823359012604,
0.8356104493141174,
-0.052629902958869934,
0.852764368057251,
0.4511110186576843,
-0.3944084644317627,
0.1509888917207718,
-0.3320273756980896,
-0.1278868317604065,
0.012050077319145203,
-0.418034166097641,
0.6445770263671875,
0.5398556590080261,
0.2397649884223938,
-0.8575568795204163,
-0.4444354474544525,
-0.3395480215549469,
-0.34791576862335205,
-0.3328741490840912,
-0.2127634435892105,
0.4640313684940338,
0.42210596799850464,
0.583290696144104,
0.047372523695230484,
0.1830970048904419,
0.06692560762166977,
-0.62767094373703,
-0.04489225149154663,
0.7743687629699707,
-0.5862072706222534,
-0.08963164687156677,
0.2725890278816223,
-0.6372733116149902,
0.7059730887413025,
-0.08880157023668289,
-0.1220659464597702,
-0.5112302303314209,
-0.28258147835731506,
-0.11963559687137604,
0.006552660372108221,
-0.01466573216021061,
-0.7227538824081421,
-0.12093605846166611,
0.6049500703811646,
-0.1408010870218277,
-0.21688321232795715,
-0.3244522213935852,
0.049862947314977646,
-0.24934394657611847,
0.16349713504314423,
0.5671061277389526,
-0.875422477722168,
-0.6568964123725891,
0.3239379823207855,
-0.7087381482124329,
-0.14396528899669647,
-0.17198169231414795,
0.10245563834905624,
0.2956004738807678,
-0.48433834314346313,
0.19283752143383026,
0.05102362483739853,
0.08312047272920609,
-0.43268507719039917,
0.014975622296333313,
-0.33894383907318115,
-0.8111540079116821,
0.21193256974220276,
-0.4012669622898102,
0.16092322766780853,
-0.3079029619693756,
-0.26544713973999023,
-0.5822845101356506,
0.0021135832648724318,
0.5730299949645996,
-0.1853628307580948,
-0.43563011288642883,
0.24324311316013336,
0.6864907741546631,
-0.5677518248558044,
-0.2185463011264801,
-0.4326038062572479,
0.5721892714500427,
-0.3694097697734833,
0.23917131125926971,
0.19410589337348938,
-0.10315240174531937,
-0.06494665145874023,
0.5094704627990723,
-0.539474606513977,
-0.5946092009544373,
0.2721625864505768,
-0.12949307262897491,
-0.20216666162014008,
-0.08573693782091141,
-0.912075936794281,
-0.11555027216672897,
0.4137277901172638,
0.07900670170783997,
-0.05948839709162712,
-0.2943679094314575,
-0.2058316320180893,
-0.2132028192281723,
-0.30218932032585144,
-0.2134084403514862,
0.37030601501464844,
-0.604381263256073,
-0.017969368025660515,
0.09768180549144745,
-0.6446558833122253,
0.37858760356903076,
0.3282136023044586,
-0.6785495281219482,
1.1064165830612183,
-0.2625434398651123,
-0.35390186309814453,
0.1251363903284073,
0.03452632576227188,
-0.22382937371730804,
0.007893038913607597,
0.2542194426059723,
0.8689197897911072,
-0.06930224597454071,
-0.44022971391677856,
0.07641198486089706,
-0.1049586832523346,
-0.3512052297592163,
-0.021993065252900124,
-0.33477479219436646,
0.5223537683486938,
-0.11329860240221024,
-0.7030009031295776,
0.7161566615104675,
-0.0481281504034996,
-0.3144649863243103,
-0.31736597418785095,
-0.0610211007297039,
0.5078914165496826,
0.6813765168190002,
0.4984493553638458,
0.22159835696220398,
-0.4391242265701294,
-0.7432123422622681,
0.40604662895202637,
0.6452673077583313,
0.723407506942749,
0.07577880471944809,
0.10370136052370071,
-0.1139129251241684,
0.3492671847343445,
0.7257606983184814,
0.32646816968917847,
-0.4036965072154999,
-0.045811571180820465,
-0.08631573617458344,
0.004226733930408955,
-0.415353387594223,
0.32435810565948486,
0.7100539803504944,
-0.6380083560943604,
-0.11007910966873169,
-0.20278571546077728,
-0.05432869493961334,
0.2885138988494873,
-0.0600053109228611,
0.3834973871707916,
-0.25886139273643494,
-0.13136589527130127,
1.064237356185913,
-0.025020848959684372,
-0.02191554568707943,
-0.37180835008621216,
-0.5832087993621826,
-0.061366815119981766,
0.13167373836040497,
-0.009551127441227436,
-0.25059154629707336,
0.716543972492218,
0.5436618328094482,
0.18175990879535675,
-0.40554362535476685,
-1.0007981061935425,
0.38577204942703247,
0.07280626893043518,
-0.584048330783844,
-0.34728261828422546,
-0.9845142364501953,
-0.34725379943847656,
0.27694985270500183,
-0.8701208233833313,
-0.07711002230644226,
-0.07979019731283188,
-0.33692455291748047,
-0.5056383609771729,
-0.23443061113357544,
0.7385913729667664,
-0.14445096254348755,
-0.29570600390434265,
-0.16593629121780396,
0.4564540684223175,
-0.39852699637413025,
0.5455524325370789,
0.17572756111621857,
0.12334750592708588,
-0.9964134097099304,
0.8825168609619141,
-0.27508479356765747,
0.18758602440357208,
0.4102488160133362,
0.22552470862865448,
-0.20242440700531006,
0.10888999700546265,
0.20586654543876648,
0.29243022203445435,
0.355763703584671,
-0.320839524269104,
0.2652972638607025,
0.3850902020931244,
-0.2834239602088928,
0.14275097846984863,
0.18818533420562744,
-0.3570749759674072,
-0.45851466059684753,
-0.5456407070159912,
-0.1335873007774353,
0.23874646425247192,
0.27900388836860657,
0.5433984994888306,
0.28175342082977295,
1.0172075033187866,
-0.30482038855552673,
-0.03061097487807274,
-0.14684362709522247,
-0.26383665204048157,
-0.21764688193798065,
-0.027972517535090446,
-0.6319443583488464,
0.40465590357780457,
-0.7198163270950317,
0.030181607231497765,
-0.6308382153511047,
-0.8333621025085449,
-0.5278253555297852,
0.5012107491493225,
-0.3012492060661316,
0.23211154341697693,
0.43109849095344543,
0.3624815344810486,
-0.11445751041173935,
-0.11531835049390793,
0.2823605239391327,
-0.22175022959709167,
0.5292729735374451,
-0.4452667236328125,
0.15535412728786469,
-0.019107062369585037,
-0.11711229383945465,
-0.49324947595596313,
0.16468285024166107,
-0.3064133822917938,
0.43315577507019043,
0.29890960454940796,
-0.48275044560432434,
-0.2583806812763214,
0.09638159722089767,
0.10512520372867584,
1.1129608154296875,
-0.98164302110672,
-0.13406173884868622,
0.4706263542175293,
-0.5646063685417175,
0.2658052444458008,
-0.6038970947265625,
0.7031177282333374,
0.8566242456436157,
0.048805058002471924,
0.0535399466753006,
-0.7271431088447571,
0.4921031892299652,
0.741925835609436,
0.3146805167198181,
0.48265451192855835,
-0.08367352187633514,
0.02459772117435932,
0.0444817878305912,
-0.1798401027917862,
-0.5228647589683533,
-0.2929747998714447,
-0.5552429556846619,
-0.8175739645957947,
0.2012430727481842,
-0.36750105023384094,
-0.5187645554542542,
-1.4124016761779785,
0.4440247118473053,
-0.574156641960144,
-0.27488988637924194,
-0.2379036545753479,
-0.14178459346294403,
0.37435248494148254,
0.5105963945388794,
1.168985366821289,
0.34261611104011536,
1.0158597230911255,
0.032506998628377914,
-0.1699027717113495,
0.24273930490016937,
0.22537878155708313,
-0.21711979806423187,
0.8830116987228394,
-0.3161788880825043,
0.43508777022361755,
0.368233859539032,
1.1782524585723877,
0.35760313272476196,
0.3221449851989746,
0.01308734342455864,
0.7847696542739868,
-0.9017060995101929,
-0.6780545711517334,
0.9785643815994263,
0.157566100358963,
-0.19094081223011017,
-0.6033393740653992,
0.18444478511810303,
0.14207208156585693,
0.04418962448835373,
-0.06641995161771774,
-0.14581134915351868,
-0.709075391292572,
0.24705606698989868,
0.13232073187828064,
0.03501985967159271,
0.25864455103874207,
0.738976001739502,
-0.6709012389183044,
-0.06755498051643372,
-0.5125201940536499,
-0.4710012972354889,
-0.4155128598213196,
0.6568481922149658,
0.36031782627105713,
0.2255709171295166,
-0.06435847282409668,
0.2133869230747223,
-0.5852316617965698,
0.40269672870635986,
-0.0188042763620615,
0.21002262830734253,
0.09852451831102371,
0.22828693687915802,
-0.08045589923858643,
0.03779614716768265,
1.3204965591430664,
-0.014661073684692383,
0.436197429895401,
0.46652841567993164,
-0.3330794870853424,
-0.20597657561302185,
-0.3531239330768585,
-0.2397421896457672,
-0.5896653532981873,
-0.2267245054244995,
-0.09267926961183548
] |
228913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20George | Prince George | Prince George may refer to:
People
British princes
Prince George Augustus, later George II of Great Britain (1683–1760)
Prince George William of Great Britain (1717–1718), son of George II
Prince George William Frederick, later George III of the United Kingdom (1738–1820)
Prince George Augustus Frederick, later George IV of the United Kingdom (1762–1830)
Prince George, Duke of Cambridge (1819–1904), grandson of George III
Prince George of Cumberland, later George V of Hanover (1819–1878), grandson of George III
Prince George Frederick Ernest Albert, later George V of the United Kingdom (1865–1936)
Prince George, Duke of Kent (1902–1942), fourth son of George V
Prince George of Cambridge (born 2013), first son of Prince William, Duke of Cambridge and third in line to the British throne
Fictional
George (Blackadder), a fictional caricature of George IV while he was Prince Regent
Other princes
George Kastrioti Skanderbeg (1405–1468), Albanian prince and national hero
George, Duke of Coimbra (1481–1550), Portuguese Infante, natural son of King John II of Portugal
George of Lencastre, 2nd Duke of Aveiro (1548–1578), Portuguese Prince
George of Lencastre, 1st Duke of Torres Novas (1594–1632), Portuguese Prince
Prince George of Denmark (1653–1708), husband of Anne of Great Britain
Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt (1669–1705)
Prince George of Prussia (1826–1902)
George Albert, Prince of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1838–1890)
Prince George of Greece and Denmark (1869–1957)
George, Crown Prince of Serbia (1887–1972)
Prince George William of Hanover (1915–2006)
Prince George Valdemar of Denmark (1920–1986), second cousin of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
Giorgi Bagration Bagrationi (born 2011), Georgian prince
Places
Canada
Prince George, British Columbia, largest city in northern British Columbia
Prince George-Mount Robson, a provincial electoral district in British Columbia
Prince George North, a provincial electoral district in British Columbia
Prince George–Omineca, a provincial electoral district in British Columbia
South Africa
Prince George Circuit, motorsport circuit in East London
United States
Prince George's County, Maryland
Prince George County, Virginia
Prince George, Virginia, a census-designated place
Prince George's Plaza Station, station on the Washington Metro in Hyattsville, Maryland
Ships
, four Royal Navy ships
, sister ship of SS Prince Rupert
, successor to SS Prince George, launched in 1947.
, a 19th-century barque
, operated by the Hudson's Bay Company from 1834–1837, see Hudson's Bay Company vessels
Other
Mr. PG, a mascot and monument located in Prince George, British Columbia
Prince George (racehorse), favourite for the 1849 Grand National | [
0.08263102918863297,
0.12929198145866394,
0.5280309915542603,
0.0344090610742569,
-0.160496324300766,
0.2067992240190506,
0.7381504774093628,
-0.06286491453647614,
-0.5237540602684021,
-0.4865673780441284,
-0.39330703020095825,
-0.14446498453617096,
-0.20561262965202332,
0.647983968257904,
0.14477479457855225,
0.28360486030578613,
-0.013085704296827316,
0.45857715606689453,
-0.3494230806827545,
-0.6736396551132202,
0.0012817501556128263,
0.46263161301612854,
0.24629442393779755,
0.0022465235088020563,
0.2963516414165497,
0.03405074402689934,
0.5880863666534424,
-0.4393720030784607,
0.28632792830467224,
0.29508519172668457,
0.0785016417503357,
0.02901744283735752,
-0.26599305868148804,
0.01739678345620632,
-0.2274089753627777,
-0.8112765550613403,
-0.20917664468288422,
-0.19143520295619965,
0.20098455250263214,
-0.3252198398113251,
0.1958700567483902,
-0.39296668767929077,
0.6566197872161865,
-0.048210110515356064,
-0.279880553483963,
-0.6563435792922974,
-1.3412680625915527,
0.45928868651390076,
0.19546416401863098,
-0.22985103726387024,
0.2404409945011139,
0.11837857216596603,
0.31708598136901855,
0.14053305983543396,
0.5546078681945801,
-0.10986997187137604,
-0.5815187692642212,
-0.04592267796397209,
-0.1073417067527771,
-0.2923291325569153,
0.403255432844162,
0.6992537379264832,
0.018200112506747246,
0.38209423422813416,
0.03528111055493355,
-0.08855463564395905,
-0.016517572104930878,
0.3901382386684418,
-0.670823335647583,
-0.055515941232442856,
0.5569979548454285,
0.08593842387199402,
0.25978991389274597,
0.31273648142814636,
0.3631543219089508,
0.25358128547668457,
0.13061212003231049,
-0.08204235136508942,
0.6916396617889404,
-0.6162458062171936,
0.15869140625,
-0.9802039265632629,
0.5486694574356079,
0.2854467034339905,
0.0975877046585083,
0.41041260957717896,
0.3739128112792969,
0.33893200755119324,
-0.14613556861877441,
0.2701151371002197,
-0.17409291863441467,
0.27658089995384216,
0.890322208404541,
-0.2083882838487625,
-0.17179478704929352,
-0.372233122587204,
0.2237025797367096,
0.0750335156917572,
-0.033692169934511185,
-0.5234580039978027,
-0.20689676702022552,
-0.1722680926322937,
0.23205216228961945,
-0.5144146084785461,
-0.702189028263092,
-0.2209770530462265,
-0.3065323531627655,
0.21746833622455597,
-0.48447683453559875,
-0.017380665987730026,
-0.09765060991048813,
-0.23254422843456268,
0.10195299983024597,
0.38934001326560974,
0.3230128586292267,
-0.21904359757900238,
-0.05549236014485359,
-0.7703045010566711,
-0.22590766847133636,
0.05840970575809479,
0.026164822280406952,
0.3600667417049408,
-0.25957080721855164,
0.11694063991308212,
0.5294824838638306,
0.08709362894296646,
0.546876072883606,
-0.10129529982805252,
0.1424044817686081,
-0.3625370264053345,
0.3430655300617218,
1.0025737285614014,
-0.4259442687034607,
-0.05873948335647583,
-0.048418108373880386,
-0.24842919409275055,
0.1423088163137436,
-0.23022882640361786,
-0.18582555651664734,
0.20520605146884918,
-0.26592010259628296,
-0.1323937624692917,
-0.2212718427181244,
0.45666125416755676,
0.15285706520080566,
-0.1595686823129654,
-0.07193651050329208,
0.08846572786569595,
0.15047262609004974,
0.06463852524757385,
-0.1682441532611847,
-0.0669628381729126,
-0.28549402952194214,
-0.2576424181461334,
0.1781967431306839,
0.2281135469675064,
0.42163872718811035,
-0.12941838800907135,
0.7097371816635132,
0.2151307910680771,
-0.3717915415763855,
0.13023926317691803,
0.3243257701396942,
0.08673316985368729,
1.018744707107544,
0.04441341757774353,
-0.1540246456861496,
-0.15455849468708038,
-0.9996384978294373,
-0.09995030611753464,
-0.31679025292396545,
0.81983882188797,
-0.22760725021362305,
0.2950049340724945,
-0.5774853825569153,
0.6389784812927246,
0.4178108870983124,
0.23074586689472198,
0.48209622502326965,
-0.8478955626487732,
-0.28469645977020264,
-0.03842516615986824,
-0.16710777580738068,
-0.01316018309444189,
0.3672530949115753,
0.4031508266925812,
0.020008189603686333,
0.008702155202627182,
0.043934907764196396,
-0.13197560608386993,
0.10460944473743439,
-0.5381872653961182,
-0.13493269681930542,
-0.536022424697876,
0.5312842130661011,
-0.057616256177425385,
-0.6057497262954712,
0.45833420753479004,
0.48957499861717224,
0.8312897682189941,
0.4053613543510437,
-0.4937833845615387,
0.39887192845344543,
-0.022273346781730652,
-0.44949063658714294,
0.27695122361183167,
0.0722288191318512,
-0.1530543714761734,
0.8011811375617981,
-0.04904073849320412,
0.3292516767978668,
-0.46793949604034424,
-0.15599443018436432,
-0.0012861525174230337,
-0.06563719362020493,
-0.26087015867233276,
-0.13510799407958984,
-0.07689977437257767,
-0.3436523675918579,
-0.42160749435424805,
0.5061007738113403,
0.2278757244348526,
-0.1361049860715866,
0.3931286036968231,
-0.05690477415919304,
0.8420268893241882,
-0.24095816910266876,
-0.1853596419095993,
-0.39110419154167175,
-0.8157698512077332,
0.006297126412391663,
-0.28231099247932434,
0.3323937654495239,
-0.01557853166013956,
0.45446309447288513,
0.028431016951799393,
-0.3352242708206177,
-0.3242936134338379,
0.09452164173126221,
0.0005914153880439699,
0.2579317092895508,
0.5684779286384583,
0.024580631405115128,
0.2757154703140259,
-0.006242283619940281,
0.9273962378501892,
-0.1354350447654724,
-0.11324959248304367,
-0.7787956595420837,
0.3373982012271881,
-0.0446448028087616,
0.13795647025108337,
-0.2286185324192047,
0.3211960792541504,
0.23944327235221863,
0.10158923268318176,
-0.289211243391037,
0.41488081216812134,
-0.43539103865623474,
0.611652672290802,
-0.44498103857040405,
-0.07723941653966904,
0.167764350771904,
0.08689629286527634,
-0.14285936951637268,
0.28349101543426514,
-0.1348171979188919,
-0.6988198161125183,
0.55345618724823,
0.0764259472489357,
0.06609627604484558,
-0.3002539873123169,
-0.7661392688751221,
-0.006834855303168297,
0.6230539083480835,
-0.37953880429267883,
-0.007466771174222231,
0.5458678007125854,
-0.08450303971767426,
-0.6793592572212219,
-0.2303401380777359,
0.6047961711883545,
-0.45656704902648926,
-0.10985008627176285,
-0.07106839865446091,
-0.22597944736480713,
0.33697131276130676,
-0.2718602418899536,
0.06543902307748795,
0.2992815673351288,
-0.008118531666696072,
-0.16607850790023804,
0.2576145529747009,
-0.5228255391120911,
-0.3656867444515228,
0.6826440691947937,
0.10620516538619995,
0.050879500806331635,
0.13013772666454315,
0.054431989789009094,
-0.982649028301239,
-0.017716389149427414,
0.0703880563378334,
0.022768251597881317,
0.7738372683525085,
0.02672155573964119,
-0.21725444495677948,
0.3160097897052765,
-5.804785251617432,
-0.49527987837791443,
-0.079299695789814,
0.17680515348911285,
0.5142396092414856,
0.09101225435733795,
0.5280828475952148,
-0.4348140060901642,
-0.057928793132305145,
-0.15063773095607758,
1.4263750314712524,
0.26991021633148193,
0.5240736603736877,
0.09280798584222794,
0.4162999391555786,
0.36920055747032166,
0.7211484313011169,
0.15758457779884338,
0.50342857837677,
-0.05567602813243866,
0.05468936264514923,
0.47277915477752686,
0.3842644691467285,
0.46346795558929443,
0.34772488474845886,
0.5725416541099548,
-0.18372683227062225,
-0.22641617059707642,
-0.6405096054077148,
-0.7235798239707947,
-0.2504412829875946,
0.12625828385353088,
0.9125512838363647,
0.038679368793964386,
-0.015598008409142494,
-0.3022364675998688,
0.288133442401886,
0.5463742017745972,
0.13583824038505554,
-0.17735570669174194,
-0.0755956768989563,
0.17831869423389435,
-0.7231611013412476,
-0.29564470052719116,
-0.2633986473083496,
-0.40846240520477295,
-0.6380722522735596,
0.7847115397453308,
-0.10174096375703812,
0.3283093571662903,
-0.24994245171546936,
0.13096527755260468,
0.24518494307994843,
-0.16273094713687897,
-0.06201329454779625,
0.5353978872299194,
-0.26066577434539795,
0.7686711549758911,
-0.39482182264328003,
0.24381960928440094,
0.30258679389953613,
-0.020049171522259712,
0.2155839204788208,
0.23223568499088287,
-0.1054021343588829,
-0.12271978706121445,
-0.6030526757240295,
0.5019509792327881,
0.530029833316803,
0.502041220664978,
-0.3827708661556244,
-0.4825989007949829,
0.27799975872039795,
-0.7551268339157104,
0.05708768591284752,
-0.7402245402336121,
0.27058812975883484,
0.29951268434524536,
-0.13420698046684265,
-0.15885509550571442,
0.06473017483949661,
0.40682435035705566,
-0.3597702085971832,
0.6582134962081909,
-0.3080013692378998,
-0.04609601944684982,
-0.3337857127189636,
0.1286545693874359,
-0.3039802312850952,
-0.1169520765542984,
0.18562738597393036,
-0.5598474740982056,
-0.40558502078056335,
0.25357189774513245,
0.25991344451904297,
-0.2564280033111572,
-0.45514115691185,
0.21039177477359772,
0.2722958028316498,
-0.49959084391593933,
0.27564212679862976,
-0.2699621617794037,
0.1021503284573555,
-0.8708707690238953,
-0.08033617585897446,
-0.192922443151474,
-0.2445601224899292,
0.3110787272453308,
0.0006473898538388312,
-0.35746273398399353,
-0.29491111636161804,
-0.08417966216802597,
-0.31730467081069946,
-0.7077892422676086,
0.47972843050956726,
-1.0254532098770142,
-0.3469749689102173,
0.01910237781703472,
0.6022213697433472,
0.18083395063877106,
-0.4454994201660156,
0.5415974259376526,
-0.5558760166168213,
0.29673752188682556,
-0.2705412209033966,
0.15140914916992188,
0.1765638142824173,
-0.38376879692077637,
-0.34055569767951965,
0.012858463451266289,
0.45322385430336,
0.19287434220314026,
0.2594021260738373,
0.3305058479309082,
0.2762286961078644,
0.002434024354442954,
0.2640860974788666,
-0.52992182970047,
-0.21952438354492188,
-0.2318161129951477,
-0.38800713419914246,
-0.22986820340156555,
-0.41590258479118347,
0.4189967215061188,
0.2216581553220749,
0.34657958149909973,
-0.0774531364440918,
0.033755503594875336,
-0.07704838365316391,
0.8428739905357361,
-0.018184995278716087,
-0.03901508077979088,
0.6857578158378601,
-0.05600184574723244,
-0.5553007125854492,
-0.12428297102451324,
-0.40111464262008667,
0.01813693717122078,
-0.04071627929806709,
-0.5030782222747803,
-0.4710335433483124,
-0.35382044315338135,
-0.8031384348869324,
0.10856601595878601,
0.5905307531356812,
-0.1815849393606186,
-0.7205663919448853,
-0.5719159841537476,
-0.0034323763102293015,
0.37223711609840393,
0.21398834884166718,
-0.7347164154052734,
-0.45150187611579895,
-0.379226952791214,
0.08940952271223068,
-0.05192850902676582,
-0.2297753095626831,
0.11624782532453537,
-0.04199020192027092,
-0.26708874106407166,
0.35187438130378723,
0.21983443200588226,
-0.2871527075767517,
0.31835833191871643,
0.20558921992778778,
0.45572179555892944,
-0.010006420314311981,
-0.35317501425743103,
0.019270583987236023,
0.20778325200080872,
-0.14014847576618195,
0.019545523449778557,
0.48301035165786743,
0.3922503888607025,
-0.32821226119995117,
-0.01941327191889286,
0.38776323199272156,
0.522553563117981,
0.12678289413452148,
0.0533074289560318,
0.2055882066488266,
0.5252520442008972,
-0.379169762134552,
-0.5136810541152954,
-0.028743823990225792,
-0.6146867871284485,
0.09933579713106155,
-0.1908136010169983,
0.1405661404132843,
0.22596898674964905,
0.0892167016863823,
-0.5549397468566895,
0.13431239128112793,
0.39449140429496765,
-0.2482006996870041,
0.3628896474838257,
0.3452001214027405,
-0.5109882950782776,
0.23698879778385162,
-0.7391639947891235,
-0.13390427827835083,
0.0452486053109169,
-0.7653563618659973,
-0.16749830543994904,
0.23613905906677246,
0.27583542466163635,
0.5483644604682922,
-0.2902945280075073,
0.5377190709114075,
-0.007402654271572828,
-0.22693578898906708,
-0.0697488859295845,
-0.46868130564689636,
0.060753557831048965,
-0.5924332737922668,
0.22145207226276398,
0.5831416249275208,
-0.359011173248291,
0.2630872428417206,
-0.11681520193815231,
0.5642187595367432,
0.8949294090270996,
0.30346977710723877,
-0.8572845458984375,
0.2286204695701599,
-0.15031571686267853,
0.4390627145767212,
-0.7109494805335999,
-0.13816018402576447,
0.3142883777618408,
0.26758643984794617,
-0.4398645758628845,
-0.5969694256782532,
-0.450931191444397,
0.4916101098060608,
-0.8969583511352539,
0.25096043944358826,
-0.16450701653957367,
0.16087064146995544,
0.4359282851219177,
-0.15881063044071198,
0.37142300605773926,
-0.2788779139518738,
0.07444366067647934,
0.001294820918701589,
0.3129941523075104,
-0.0795508548617363,
0.11583255231380463,
-0.0798325389623642,
0.03429138660430908,
0.020933300256729126,
-0.0958135724067688,
-0.24823231995105743,
-0.024111853912472725,
-0.28501224517822266,
0.30462920665740967,
-0.22651538252830505,
-0.0979825109243393,
0.15463607013225555,
0.23916690051555634,
-1.0004760026931763,
-0.20567558705806732,
0.14799226820468903,
-0.7829399108886719,
-0.2357030063867569,
-0.9314226508140564,
-0.2836834490299225,
0.2349073588848114,
-0.18544317781925201,
-0.16342368721961975,
-0.5799079537391663,
-0.4695456027984619,
-0.30260005593299866,
-0.05756808817386627,
-0.14813493192195892,
0.5036208629608154,
-0.6060708165168762,
0.2334119826555252,
-0.07551486790180206,
0.023816917091608047,
-0.6754714250564575,
0.7083227038383484,
0.2600722312927246,
-0.10526472330093384,
-0.01916351355612278,
0.34323927760124207,
0.5047138333320618,
-0.5750187635421753,
0.21139134466648102,
-0.17344677448272705,
0.9543921947479248,
-0.33551856875419617,
0.2549838423728943,
0.17795686423778534,
-0.4818401336669922,
0.010643420740962029,
0.4314822554588318,
0.2214784026145935,
-0.512073278427124,
0.06894748657941818,
0.24689027667045593,
0.41959676146507263,
0.3129444420337677,
0.2435234934091568,
0.012146241031587124,
0.16957639157772064,
-0.33329081535339355,
-0.34319034218788147,
0.2035364806652069,
-0.0274788998067379,
0.20780698955059052,
0.3502030074596405,
-1.1857975721359253,
0.6384148001670837,
-0.08415484428405762,
-0.09662293642759323,
0.7621757388114929,
-0.25729310512542725,
-0.13007692992687225,
0.5549778342247009,
0.5705044865608215,
0.49340468645095825,
-0.692512035369873,
-0.5676398873329163,
-0.2161761224269867,
-0.006636268459260464,
-0.2861585319042206,
-0.07318971306085587,
0.2270965427160263,
-0.09579366445541382,
0.5667585730552673,
-0.07278633862733841,
-0.38890311121940613,
-0.6385229825973511,
0.1833985298871994,
0.8265513181686401,
0.2991091012954712,
-0.5830956101417542,
0.2382781207561493,
-0.5561084747314453,
-0.37786227464675903,
-0.7404414415359497,
0.7234686017036438,
-0.4114384353160858,
0.4541938602924347,
-0.03831590712070465,
0.328335702419281,
-0.31643497943878174,
0.29277074337005615,
0.014315967448055744,
0.205109104514122,
-0.07261218875646591,
0.14810778200626373,
-0.311097115278244,
-0.5141273140907288,
0.026468707248568535,
0.27265051007270813,
0.37318238615989685,
0.1108047217130661,
-0.1588154137134552,
-0.5825871229171753,
-0.4492458701133728,
0.05726984143257141,
-0.9759842753410339,
-0.6698015928268433,
0.20241929590702057,
0.2932386100292206,
0.14911668002605438,
-0.7032936215400696,
0.014750811271369457,
0.6013556718826294,
-0.5970112681388855,
-0.47569698095321655,
0.13669778406620026,
-0.362148255109787,
-0.5084500908851624,
-0.35711997747421265,
0.3524821996688843,
0.22774028778076172,
0.010188478045165539,
-0.2347574681043625,
0.4068320095539093,
-0.0228304211050272,
0.3456697463989258,
0.23061877489089966,
0.0696691945195198,
-0.1303274780511856,
-0.5119662284851074,
-0.7579262256622314,
0.4518126845359802,
0.12528720498085022,
-0.5964534282684326,
-0.30598798394203186,
0.31831488013267517,
-0.16866067051887512,
-0.13582691550254822,
0.49440285563468933,
-0.3084033131599426,
-0.4669003486633301,
0.06898894160985947,
-0.16496996581554413,
-0.19707819819450378,
0.5092813968658447,
0.2315792590379715,
-0.38045552372932434,
-0.33113372325897217,
0.3144596517086029,
0.5567353367805481,
-0.7148652076721191,
0.4443213641643524,
-0.37100911140441895,
-0.21920493245124817,
-0.34058108925819397,
0.18732233345508575,
-0.44414255023002625,
0.25672563910484314,
0.6784110069274902,
0.9283632040023804,
-0.6350671052932739,
-0.6966778039932251,
-0.40553411841392517,
0.41120022535324097,
0.7524668574333191,
0.6309698820114136,
0.364287406206131,
-0.2792970538139343,
0.0680144652724266,
-0.230020672082901,
-0.33949753642082214,
0.59373939037323,
0.36714452505111694,
0.42759737372398376,
0.34771135449409485,
-0.3504292964935303,
1.0086147785186768,
-0.3161260485649109,
-0.17675435543060303,
-0.6356061100959778,
0.14995457231998444,
0.5578066110610962
] |
228921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Woman%20Suffrage%20Association | National Woman Suffrage Association | The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was formed on May 15, 1869, to work for women's suffrage in the United States. Its main leaders were Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. It was created after the women's rights movement split over the proposed Fifteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, which would in effect extend voting rights to black men. One wing of the movement supported the amendment while the other, the wing that formed the NWSA, opposed it, insisting that voting rights be extended to all women and all African Americans at the same time.
The NWSA worked primarily at the federal level in its campaign for women's right to vote. In the early 1870s, it encouraged women to attempt to vote and to file lawsuits if prevented, arguing that the constitution implicitly enfranchised women through its guarantees of equal protection for all citizens. Many women attempted to vote, notably Susan B. Anthony, who was arrested and found guilty in a widely publicized trial. After the Supreme Court ruled that the constitution did not implicitly enfranchise women, the NWSA worked for an amendment that would do so explicitly.
The NWSA and its leaders also worked on related projects, such as a history of the women's suffrage movement and the establishment of the International Council of Women, which is still active. The split in the suffrage movement was healed in 1890, when the NWSA merged with its rival, the American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association under the leadership of Anthony and Stanton.
Background
Women's suffrage in the U.S. emerged as a significant issue in the mid-1800s. A key event was the first women's rights convention, the Seneca Falls Convention in 1848, which was initiated by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Women's right to vote was endorsed at the convention only after a vigorous debate about an idea that was controversial even within the women's movement. Soon after the convention, however, it became a central tenant of the movement.
In 1851, Stanton and Susan B. Anthony formed a decades-long partnership that became important to the women's rights movement and to the future National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA). For the next several years, they worked together for the abolition of slavery and for women's rights.
In 1866, Anthony and Stanton organized the Eleventh National Women's Rights Convention, the first since the Civil War began.
The convention voted to transform itself into the American Equal Rights Association (AERA), whose purpose was to campaign for the equal rights of all citizens, especially the right of suffrage. Its members consisted mainly of activists in the women's rights and abolitionist movements, and its leadership included such prominent activists as Lucretia Mott, Lucy Stone and Frederick Douglass.
Over time, the AERA members whose primary interest was women's suffrage began to divide into two wings. One wing, whose leading figure was Lucy Stone, was willing for black men to achieve suffrage first, as the abolitionist movement insisted, and wanted to maintain close ties with the Republican Party. The other, whose leading figures were Stanton and Anthony, wanted women and black men be enfranchised at the same time and worked toward a politically independent women's movement that would no longer be dependent on abolitionists for financial and other resources. In 1868, Anthony and Stanton began publishing The Revolution, a weekly women's rights newspaper in New York City that became an important tool for supporting their wing of the movement.
The dispute became increasingly bitter after the Fifteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution was introduced, which would prohibit the denial of suffrage because of race. Stanton and Anthony opposed the amendment, which would have the effect of enfranchising black men, insisting that all women and all African Americans should be enfranchised at the same time. Stanton argued in the pages of The Revolution, sometimes using racially condescending language, that by enfranchising almost all men while excluding all women, the amendment would give constitutional authority to the idea that men were superior to women, creating an "aristocracy of sex".
Lucy Stone supported the amendment while arguing that suffrage for women would be more beneficial to the country than suffrage for black men.
Formation of the National Woman Suffrage Association
The AERA essentially collapsed after an acrimonious convention in 1869, and two rival women's suffrage organizations were created in its wake. The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA) was created on May 15, 1869, two days after what turned out to be the AERA's last convention, with Anthony and Stanton as its primary leaders. The American Woman Suffrage Association (AWSA) was formed in November 1869, with Lucy Stone as its primary leader. The AWSA was initially larger and better funded, but Stanton and Anthony were more widely known as leaders of the women's suffrage movement and were more influential in setting its direction.
Membership of the NWSA came partly from activists in organizations that Anthony and Stanton had created. One of those was the Women's Loyal National League, whose 5000 members had by 1864 completed a petition drive, the largest in the nation's history, in support of an amendment to abolish slavery. Another was the Working Women's Association, which began as an organization of wage-earning women but evolved into one consisting almost entirely of journalists, doctors and other middle-class working women. Its members formed the core of the New York City segment of the NWSA, where the NWSA was headquartered.
Comparison to NWSA
Even after the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified in 1870, differences between the two organizations remained.
The NWSA worked mostly at the federal level, focusing on a constitutional amendment to achieve women's suffrage, while the AWSA worked toward the same goal mostly at the state level. The NWSA's meetings were open to everyone, but the AWSA allowed only delegates from recognized state organizations to vote at its meetings, although any member could attend and speak. The NWSA initially dealt with several women's issues, such as divorce reform and equal pay for women, while the AWSA focused almost exclusively on suffrage. The AWSA's membership included both women and men, and its first president was a man, Henry Ward Beecher. Stanton had originally proposed that the NWSA's membership be limited to women, but her proposal was not accepted. In practice, however, the overwhelming majority of the NWSA members and officers were women. The NWSA held its conventions in Washington in accordance with its strategy of working primarily at the federal level, while the AWSA, working mainly at the state level, met in various cities across the country.
The author of a study of African American women in the suffrage movement lists nine who participated in the AWSA during the 1870s and six who participated in the NWSA.
Early years
Many suffragists were appalled by the split and insisted on reunification. Theodore Tilton, a newspaper editor and women's rights advocate, initiated a petition drive calling for an end to the split. In April 1870, he convened a meeting of members of both organizations in an attempt to merge the two groups. Anthony opposed the idea of merger, as did her rival Lucy Stone. The NWSA sent three official representatives to the meeting who reported that their organization would agree to a merger only if the new organization agreed to work toward a Sixteenth Amendment to enfranchise women. Lucy Stone and two other AWSA members who were present as unofficial representatives of their organization left the meeting at that point. Those remaining, including some non-affiliated activists, formed a new organization, the Union Woman Suffrage Association (UWSA) with Tilton as president and a Sixteenth Amendment as its central goal. Soon afterward, the executive committee of the moribund AERA met and voted, over Stone's objection, to merge into the UWSA. The next month, the NWSA itself merged into the UWSA, which essentially became the NWSA under a new name.
In May 1870, Anthony was forced to sell The Revolution because of mounting debts, thereby losing the NWSA's primary media voice. The NWSA afterwards depended on smaller periodicals, such as The National Citizen and Ballot Box, edited by Matilda Joslyn Gage, and The Woman's Tribune, edited by Clara Bewick Colby, to represent its viewpoint.
The NWSA benefited from the extensive lecture tours that Stanton and Anthony undertook, which brought new recruits into the organization and strengthened it at the local, state and national levels. Their journeys during that period covered a distance that was unmatched by any other reformer or politician. From 1869 to 1879, Stanton traveled eight months of the year on the lecture circuit, usually delivering one lecture per day, two on Sundays. In one year alone, Anthony traveled 13,000 miles and gave at least 170 lectures.
The NWSA did not have a national office, its mailing address being simply that of one of the officers. Anthony and Stanton did not receive a salary from the organization, supporting themselves with the money they earned by lecturing. In Anthony's case, the money flowed the other way, with her lecture fees helping to fund the organization after she had paid The Revolution's debts.
The fact that Anthony was unmarried gave her a legal advantage in building the organization. A married woman at that time had the legal status of feme covert, which, among other things, excluded her from signing contracts (she had to convince her husband to sign for her). As Anthony had no husband, she had the legal status of a feme sole, enabling her to sign contracts for convention halls and printed materials.
New Departure
In 1869, Virginia Minor, a member of the NWSA, and her husband Francis developed the idea that achieving women's suffrage did not require a Sixteenth Amendment. Their approach, which became known as the New Departure, was based on the belief that women were already implicitly enfranchised by the U.S. Constitution. Their strategy relied heavily on the Fourteenth Amendment, which says, "No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States … nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws."
In January 1871, the UWSA delayed the opening session of its annual convention in Washington so its members could hear the historic address to the House Judiciary Committee by Victoria Woodhull, the first woman to speak before a Congressional body. A stockbroker with wealthy backers but little previous connection to the women's movement, she presented a modified version of the New Departure strategy. Instead of asking the courts to rule that the Constitution implicitly enfranchised women, she asked Congress to pass a declaratory act to accomplish the same goal. The committee did not accept her proposal.
Woodhull was invited to give the same speech to the UWSA's afternoon session and was greeted there with enthusiasm.
Woodhull's reputation as a women's suffrage leader continued to rise afterwards. Both Stanton and Anthony eagerly supported her at first, although Anthony became increasingly wary of her. At the UWSA's 1872 convention, Woodhull attempted to commandeer the organization, urging its delegates to meet the next day in a different hall to form a new political party with herself as its candidate for president of the United States. In the chaotic situation that followed, Anthony shouted that the UWSA would meet the next day as usual and abruptly adjourned the session. The UWSA did meet the next day as planned, although with fewer participants because most of them had gone to the Woodhull event instead. The UWSA voted to transform itself at this meeting into a reconstituted NWSA with Anthony as president.
Later that year, Woodhull published details of an affair between Elizabeth Tilton, wife of Theodore Tilton, a prominent NWSA ally, and Reverend Henry Ward Beecher, the first president of the AWSA, seriously damaging the reputation of the entire women's movement. Woodhull did not play a significant role in the women's suffrage movement afterwards.
In 1871 the NWSA officially adopted the New Departure strategy, encouraging women to attempt to vote and to file lawsuits if denied that right. Soon hundreds of women tried to vote in dozens of localities.
Challenging the denial of voting rights
In 1872, Susan B. Anthony convinced some election officials to allow her to vote in that year's presidential elections, for which she was arrested and found guilty in a widely publicized trial. The judge at the trial was Justice Ward Hunt, who had recently been appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court and who conducted the trial as part of the federal circuit court system at that time.
The trial, United States v. Susan B. Anthony, was closely followed by the national press. Following a rule of common law at that time which prevented criminal defendants in federal courts from testifying, Hunt refused to allow Anthony to speak until the verdict had been delivered. At the end of the trial, Justice Hunt delivered his opinion, which he had put in writing, and directed the jury to deliver a guilty verdict.
When he asked Anthony if she had anything to say, she responded with "the most famous speech in the history of the agitation for woman suffrage", according to Ann D. Gordon, a historian of the women's movement.
Repeatedly ignoring the judge's order to stop talking and sit down, she castigated him for denying her a trial by jury, but said that even if he had allowed the jury to discuss the case, she still would have been denied a trial by a jury of her peers because women were not allowed to be jurors.
The Supreme Court ruled in 1875 in Minor v. Happersett that "the Constitution of the United States does not confer the right of suffrage upon anyone".
The NWSA was obliged to return to the far more difficult strategy of achieving suffrage by constitutional amendment. In 1878, Senator Aaron A. Sargent, who was married to NWSA treasurer Ellen Clark Sargent, introduced into Congress the women's suffrage amendment that more than forty years later would become the Nineteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution. Its text is identical to that of the Fifteenth Amendment except that it prohibits the denial of suffrage because of sex rather than race.
Centennial of the Declaration of Independence
On July 4, 1876, The United States celebrated its 100th anniversary with a ceremony in Philadelphia at Independence Hall, where the Declaration of Independence was approved on July 4, 1776. In preparation for the event, the NWSA established headquarters nearby and began drawing up "articles of impeachment" against the country's male "Political Sovereigns". NWSA officers asked permission to present a Declaration of Rights for Women at the official celebration, but they were refused. Despite the lack of permission, five women, headed by Anthony, walked onto the platform during the ceremony and handed their Declaration to Senator Thomas Ferry who was the acting Vice President of the United States, and the official in charge of the celebration. As they left, they handed out copies to the crowd. Stepping onto an unoccupied bandstand outside the hall, Anthony read the Declaration to a large crowd and invited everyone to a NWSA convention at the nearby Unitarian church to hear Stanton, Lucretia Mott and other speakers.
The Declaration was signed by Susan B. Anthony and these other leading members of the NWSA: Lucretia Mott, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Paulina Wright Davis, Ernestine L. Rose, Clarina I. H. Nichols, Mary Ann McClintock, Amy Post, Sarah Pugh, Matilda Joslyn Gage, Clemence Sophia Harned Lozier, Olympia Brown, Mathilde Franziska Anneke, Mathilde F. Wendt, Adelaide Thomson, Laura de Force Gordon, Ellen Clark Sargent, Virginia L. Minor, Sara Andrews Spencer, Lillie Devereux Blake, Phoebe Couzins, Jane Graham Jones, Abigail Scott Duniway, Belva A. Lockwood.
Lucretia Mott, former president of the AERA, was listed first among those who signed the Declaration and was a vice president of the NWSA. According to Sally Gregory McMillen, a historian of the women's movement during this period, Lucretia Mott "avoided taking sides" in the split in the women's movement, providing support to both sides.
History of Woman Suffrage
In 1876, Anthony and Stanton began working on the History of Woman Suffrage. Originally envisioned as a modest publication that could be produced quickly, the history evolved into a six-volume work of more than 5700 pages written over a period of 41 years, preserving a rich history that otherwise might have been lost. The first three volumes, which cover the movement up to 1885, were produced primarily by Anthony and Stanton. Anthony handled the production details while Stanton wrote most of the text. Matilda Joslyn Gage, another leading member of the NWSA, wrote three chapters of the first volume but was forced to abandon the project afterwards because of the illness of her husband. After Stanton's death, Anthony published Volume 4 with the help of Ida Husted Harper. After Anthony's death, Harper completed the last two volumes, which brought the history up to 1920.
Stanton and Anthony had encouraged their rival Lucy Stone to assist with the work, or at least to send material that could be used by someone else to write the history of her wing of the movement, but she refused to cooperate in any way. Stanton's daughter Harriot Stanton Blatch, wrote the 120-page chapter on Stone and the AWSA, which appears in Volume 2.
Even so, the History of Woman Suffrage places Stanton, Anthony and the NWSA at the center of the movement's history and marginalizes the role of Stone and the AWSA.
International Council of Women
Anthony traveled to Europe in 1883, linking up with Stanton, who had arrived a few months earlier to visit her daughter, whose husband was British. Over a period of nine months, they met with leaders of various European women's movements and began laying the foundation for an international women's organization.
The NWSA agreed to host the founding congress of the organization that Stanton and Anthony were working toward. The first congress of the International Council of Women (ICW) met in Washington in 1888 with delegates from fifty-three women's organizations in nine countries. The delegates represented a wide variety of organizations, including suffrage associations, professional groups, literary clubs, temperance unions, labor leagues and missionary societies. The AWSA participated in the congress. The ICW convention brought increased publicity and respectability to the women's movement, especially when President Grover Cleveland honored the delegates by inviting them to a reception at the White House.
Still active, ICW is associated with the United Nations.
Reunification of the movement
Lucy Stone initiated the reunification of the rival suffrage organizations. She was seventy years old and in declining health, and the AWSA was losing strength. Anthony, by contrast, was by that point, "among the senior political figures in the United States", according to a prominent historian of women's history. Stanton, a popular speaker and a prolific writer of articles for newspapers and magazines, was also well known.
The AWSA's annual meeting in November 1877 passed a resolution authorizing Stone to confer withAnthony about the possibility of a merger. The proposal did not generate significant controversy within the AWSA. There was strong opposition within the NWSA, however. Ida Husted Harper, Anthony's co-worker and biographer, said the NWSA meetings that dealt with this issue "were the most stormy in the history of the association." Matilda Joslyn Gage, an opponent of the merger, formed a competing organization called the Woman's National Liberal Union, but it did not attract a significant following, and plans for merger proceeded.
The NWSA and the AWSA met in a joint convention in Washington and formed the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) on February 18, 1890. At Anthony's insistence, Stanton agreed to accept its presidency. This was largely a symbolic move; the day after she was elected president, Stanton sailed to her daughter's home in England, where she stayed for eighteen months, leaving Anthony effectively in charge. Stone was elected chair of the executive committee.
The NAWSA developed into the nation's largest voluntary organization, with two million members. After women's suffrage was achieved in 1920 by the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, the NAWSA transformed itself into the League of Women Voters, which is still active.
Some leading members other than Anthony and Stanton
See also
List of suffragists and suffragettes
List of women's rights activists
Timeline of women's suffrage
Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States
Women's suffrage organizations
References
Bibliography
Anthony, Susan B.; Harper, Ida Husted (1902), History of Woman Suffrage, Vol. 4, Rollenbeck Press, Indianapolis, Indiana.
Barry, Kathleen (1988). Susan B. Anthony: A Biography of a Singular Feminist. New York: Ballantine Books. .
Buhle, Mari Jo; Buhle, Paul editors (1978). The Concise History of Woman Suffrage. University of Illinois. .
DuBois, Ellen Carol (1978). Feminism and Suffrage: The Emergence of an Independent Women's Movement in America, 1848–1869. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. .
DuBois, Ellen Carol (1998). Woman Suffrage and Women's Rights. New York: New York University Press. .
Dudden, Faye E., (2011). Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America. New York: Oxford University Press. .
Flexner, Eleanor (1959). Century of Struggle. Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. .
Gordon, Ann D., ed. (2000). The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: Against an aristocracy of sex, 1866 to 1873. Vol. 2 of 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. .
Gordon, Ann D., ed. (2003). The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony: National protection for national citizens, 1873 to 1880. Vol. 3 of 6. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. .
Griffith, Elisabeth (1985). In Her Own Right: The Life of Elizabeth Cady Stanton. Oxford University Press; New York, NY.
McMillen, Sally Gregory (2008). Seneca Falls and the origins of the women's rights movement. Oxford University Press.
Rakow, Lana F. and Kramarae, Cheris, editors (2001). The Revolution in Words: Righting Women 1868–1871, New York: Routledge. .
Sherr, Lynn (1995). Failure Is Impossible: Susan B. Anthony in Her Own Words. New York: Random House.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady; Anthony, Susan B.; Gage, Matilda Joslyn (1887), History of Woman Suffrage, Volume 2, Rochester, NY: Susan B. Anthony (Charles Mann printer).
Venet, Wendy Hamand (1991). Neither Ballots nor Bullets: Women Abolitionists and the Civil War. Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia. .
Ward, Geoffrey C., with essays by Martha Saxton, Ann D. Gordon and Ellen Carol DuBois (1999). Not for Ourselves Alone: The Story of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony. New York: Alfred Knopf.
External links
The Constitution of the National Woman Suffrage Association at the Library of Congress
The Declaration of Rights of the Women of the United States - July 4, 1876, presented at the official celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence, from the Carrie Chapman Catt Center for Women and Politics at Iowa State University
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Feminist organizations in the United States
First-wave feminism
History of women's rights in the United States
Organizations established in 1869
Susan B. Anthony
Women's suffrage advocacy groups in the United States
1869 establishments in New York (state) | [
0.07903973013162613,
-0.21830038726329803,
-0.5357304215431213,
-0.23183059692382812,
-0.4361203610897064,
0.5017501711845398,
0.6870413422584534,
-0.17921365797519684,
-0.7093517184257507,
-0.4476163387298584,
0.607377290725708,
-0.15249541401863098,
-0.3821091949939728,
0.8371527194976807,
-0.6319367289543152,
0.25921157002449036,
-0.007017700932919979,
0.8705996870994568,
-0.1009228453040123,
-0.2561817467212677,
-0.3103189468383789,
0.05938905477523804,
0.95567387342453,
-0.44216176867485046,
-0.04665637016296387,
-0.3912239074707031,
0.8349846005439758,
-0.6653582453727722,
0.33925092220306396,
0.18456806242465973,
0.40010151267051697,
0.0027471170760691166,
0.35053399205207825,
-0.03605550527572632,
-0.4662916660308838,
-0.012752514332532883,
-0.06450515240430832,
0.3462221920490265,
-0.019050123170018196,
-0.03192747384309769,
-0.9792025685310364,
-0.5403437614440918,
0.04969262704253197,
0.371724009513855,
0.19839416444301605,
0.02599283680319786,
-1.6374502182006836,
0.3523333966732025,
-0.44004571437835693,
-0.1033790335059166,
-0.46365228295326233,
0.24671325087547302,
0.6197803020477295,
1.1042475700378418,
0.1664307862520218,
0.314569354057312,
-0.29722610116004944,
-0.06662598252296448,
-0.387188583612442,
-0.8121911883354187,
0.5333573222160339,
0.19160999357700348,
0.7409893870353699,
-0.117775097489357,
0.6758019328117371,
0.3811321556568146,
0.02885410375893116,
0.6474547982215881,
-0.17929470539093018,
-0.31560155749320984,
-0.04444609582424164,
-0.3121429979801178,
-0.14323210716247559,
0.05587742477655411,
-0.11185729503631592,
-0.23983623087406158,
0.2905949652194977,
-0.3015280067920685,
0.3967466950416565,
-0.03836570680141449,
-0.37871474027633667,
0.6269983053207397,
0.6035171151161194,
0.12481848150491714,
0.24196743965148926,
0.0807485580444336,
-0.6857088208198547,
-0.2947831153869629,
0.004557911306619644,
0.6953039169311523,
-0.20741815865039825,
0.38975271582603455,
0.6938565969467163,
-0.3845943510532379,
-0.06221943348646164,
0.046051885932683945,
0.5936564803123474,
0.1309250295162201,
0.05394908785820007,
-0.575340211391449,
-0.259619802236557,
-0.12522296607494354,
0.3178843557834625,
-0.025326982140541077,
-0.4821952283382416,
0.059877920895814896,
0.36683377623558044,
-0.22503362596035004,
0.7295520305633545,
0.051981858909130096,
0.001766060828231275,
0.37857553362846375,
0.11048458516597748,
-0.2069101333618164,
-0.6204943060874939,
0.41006869077682495,
0.5643031001091003,
-0.5190614461898804,
0.30199354887008667,
-0.5231525301933289,
-0.09792163223028183,
0.4944017827510834,
-0.13167759776115417,
0.39137277007102966,
-0.14617009460926056,
0.9552097916603088,
0.41589638590812683,
0.787965714931488,
-0.5864441394805908,
-0.3370217978954315,
0.20585457980632782,
0.0608079768717289,
0.07969874888658524,
-0.08785758912563324,
-0.02686121128499508,
-0.1754700392484665,
0.15312685072422028,
0.1308126449584961,
0.8139117360115051,
0.32428455352783203,
-0.367549329996109,
0.32563358545303345,
-0.5411758422851562,
-0.2645843029022217,
0.6681547164916992,
-0.5324921607971191,
0.4462758004665375,
0.08001286536455154,
-0.9455460906028748,
-0.27241066098213196,
0.03512429818511009,
-0.2722224295139313,
0.3290219008922577,
0.477877140045166,
-0.2275068312883377,
-0.03768404200673103,
0.3918375074863434,
-0.4390307664871216,
0.43681925535202026,
0.9100237488746643,
0.32500988245010376,
0.16197843849658966,
-0.1491638720035553,
0.019768396392464638,
-0.20419085025787354,
-0.12097322195768356,
-0.07623036205768585,
0.18577121198177338,
0.4945923388004303,
-0.02255328558385372,
-0.09262276440858841,
-0.5120688080787659,
-0.07806366682052612,
0.008807365782558918,
-0.6524080038070679,
-0.47842931747436523,
-0.019797809422016144,
0.17197507619857788,
-0.4005226194858551,
-0.34267935156822205,
-0.6820865869522095,
0.19187714159488678,
0.1473381519317627,
0.5327587127685547,
0.6104625463485718,
-0.1404794156551361,
0.2464170604944229,
-0.16319511830806732,
-0.6538773775100708,
-0.28105565905570984,
0.1213291808962822,
-0.9373359084129333,
0.17812463641166687,
-0.19196009635925293,
1.2770755290985107,
0.5992921590805054,
-0.7820100784301758,
1.0010277032852173,
-0.554204523563385,
0.37395724654197693,
0.6413003206253052,
-0.44483375549316406,
-0.0942286029458046,
-0.26855355501174927,
-0.6595004796981812,
0.3484037220478058,
-0.004939005244523287,
0.4087313711643219,
-0.3706125020980835,
0.3610855042934418,
-0.09688416868448257,
-0.7933269739151001,
0.23274368047714233,
0.3604869246482849,
0.1079416498541832,
0.029955783858895302,
0.01636316068470478,
0.3523592948913574,
0.8093430399894714,
0.03340822830796242,
0.8080994486808777,
0.031112084165215492,
0.04529986530542374,
-0.08737950026988983,
0.65399569272995,
0.19334042072296143,
-0.7294896841049194,
0.407948762178421,
-0.15799641609191895,
-0.05724097043275833,
1.059329628944397,
0.2300277054309845,
0.1859404742717743,
-0.5597898960113525,
0.4436698257923126,
-0.5017755627632141,
-0.29615986347198486,
-0.45886334776878357,
-0.10835853964090347,
0.10182830691337585,
0.11538059264421463,
0.5155103802680969,
-0.15274468064308167,
0.3721991181373596,
-0.14862704277038574,
-0.3445543348789215,
-0.18628229200839996,
-0.23918882012367249,
0.3467007577419281,
0.18841208517551422,
0.4739622175693512,
0.10327312350273132,
0.386373907327652,
-0.27807581424713135,
-0.06907819956541061,
0.2694506049156189,
-0.16750232875347137,
-0.6626474261283875,
1.05855393409729,
-0.37774860858917236,
0.7378219962120056,
-0.10857151448726654,
-0.1634470373392105,
0.35977086424827576,
0.26551076769828796,
-1.0393946170806885,
-1.042856216430664,
-0.15588127076625824,
0.03534252569079399,
0.1965884566307068,
1.5429588556289673,
0.40699630975723267,
-0.3287033438682556,
0.05918823182582855,
-0.16749878227710724,
-0.1262037456035614,
-0.21630553901195526,
0.505627453327179,
-1.2341924905776978,
-0.7940640449523926,
-0.37757182121276855,
0.7932254076004028,
0.3368936777114868,
-0.3827289044857025,
-0.12056992202997208,
-0.35370394587516785,
0.5245558023452759,
-0.3766065835952759,
-0.33598434925079346,
0.39700666069984436,
-0.1897779256105423,
0.22426217794418335,
-0.5673346519470215,
-0.8698098063468933,
0.964262068271637,
0.4038187861442566,
-0.3137141764163971,
0.6275333762168884,
-0.2094423919916153,
-0.011060496792197227,
-0.80338054895401,
0.10385283827781677,
-0.25344744324684143,
-0.6903576850891113,
0.4264041483402252,
-0.006597368977963924,
-0.07002033293247223,
-0.6130831241607666,
-5.2698163986206055,
0.19792889058589935,
-0.5809274315834045,
-0.2013309746980667,
-0.15176129341125488,
-0.046462491154670715,
0.13141755759716034,
0.17942169308662415,
-0.27279502153396606,
0.09953561425209045,
-0.0517004132270813,
0.24675637483596802,
-0.27780982851982117,
0.15443965792655945,
-0.26888221502304077,
0.2331884205341339,
0.5467294454574585,
-0.4751856327056885,
-0.0707058236002922,
-0.13726535439491272,
0.20024369657039642,
-0.6023272275924683,
-0.035572413355112076,
1.1021126508712769,
0.8342322111129761,
0.3634503483772278,
0.2891879379749298,
-0.2330683022737503,
0.19060258567333221,
-0.12454044073820114,
0.8102150559425354,
-0.06762669235467911,
-0.02994198352098465,
-0.3248123824596405,
0.02780282497406006,
-0.31550130248069763,
0.5830532312393188,
-0.08490079641342163,
0.04558300971984863,
-0.8372472524642944,
-0.29537519812583923,
0.3043973445892334,
-0.18031033873558044,
-0.016618546098470688,
0.5008015632629395,
-0.36779525876045227,
-0.13700279593467712,
0.0004396160366013646,
-0.5080610513687134,
0.536552369594574,
0.03199906274676323,
0.30592232942581177,
0.09295759350061417,
-0.07603088766336441,
-0.22404922544956207,
0.14475660026073456,
-0.3341072201728821,
-0.08761991560459137,
-0.5558992624282837,
-0.14388348162174225,
0.5980105996131897,
-0.2624930739402771,
0.7030895948410034,
-0.8460074067115784,
-0.6411521434783936,
-0.7127314209938049,
-0.8352596163749695,
-0.08252522349357605,
0.2891737222671509,
0.6597798466682434,
0.5464125871658325,
0.6894634962081909,
-0.12067482620477676,
-0.8002751469612122,
-0.08425094932317734,
-0.5011382102966309,
0.11641541868448257,
-0.12986737489700317,
-0.22950862348079681,
-0.053088750690221786,
0.4266960620880127,
-0.3559652268886566,
0.2105732411146164,
1.0780237913131714,
-0.02293838933110237,
0.056682124733924866,
0.4251619577407837,
-0.06734233349561691,
-0.9962344169616699,
-0.06191934272646904,
0.17700472474098206,
0.4568173885345459,
0.1760728806257248,
0.30625173449516296,
0.45432060956954956,
0.16443867981433868,
-0.05188295990228653,
-0.027751397341489792,
0.3004160225391388,
-0.10412837564945221,
-0.08687229454517365,
0.07564409077167511,
-0.6300424933433533,
-0.8548676371574402,
0.13228031992912292,
0.08149664103984833,
-0.5989207625389099,
-0.12430986016988754,
1.0578845739364624,
-0.4271901249885559,
-0.7948639392852783,
-0.7211071252822876,
-0.6377447843551636,
0.019641011953353882,
0.06328324228525162,
-0.06334637105464935,
-0.02480834349989891,
0.23893028497695923,
0.37732309103012085,
-0.016571801155805588,
0.21749000251293182,
0.628666341304779,
-0.4322778880596161,
-0.09300833195447922,
0.1648828238248825,
-0.44002842903137207,
0.3533000946044922,
0.5214099884033203,
-0.2320554554462433,
0.05042143538594246,
0.012745331041514874,
0.05384445562958717,
-0.8024201989173889,
-0.16001677513122559,
-0.24373605847358704,
0.061561111360788345,
-0.6364843845367432,
0.3897208869457245,
-0.0009714326006360352,
0.18027013540267944,
-0.14221742749214172,
-0.01714225299656391,
-0.5411456227302551,
0.49589672684669495,
0.578704297542572,
0.375029057264328,
0.35668492317199707,
-0.1530977487564087,
-1.1611754894256592,
0.6102824807167053,
-0.5323633551597595,
-0.7196537256240845,
0.5648898482322693,
-0.12414219975471497,
-0.04895344376564026,
-0.032661858946084976,
1.3982539176940918,
0.30633559823036194,
-0.355974406003952,
-0.5320607423782349,
-1.14948570728302,
-0.682730495929718,
-0.140562504529953,
-0.3323743939399719,
0.2066807746887207,
-0.28848743438720703,
-0.37800467014312744,
0.14015276730060577,
-0.4446827173233032,
0.5563598871231079,
-0.18757571280002594,
-0.1524105668067932,
0.08976204693317413,
-0.11486563086509705,
-0.04471278935670853,
0.12881594896316528,
0.030044695362448692,
0.29782170057296753,
-0.6461325883865356,
-0.4945506155490875,
-0.24082253873348236,
-0.3267945349216461,
-0.4955294132232666,
-0.15574772655963898,
0.36211633682250977,
0.18946070969104767,
-0.6552757024765015,
0.26404061913490295,
-0.15707308053970337,
0.21686406433582306,
0.16945233941078186,
-0.16684019565582275,
0.4746176302433014,
-0.12664470076560974,
-0.6082165837287903,
0.3513222336769104,
0.003379971254616976,
0.4009978473186493,
-0.1307184100151062,
-0.5358313918113708,
0.37483739852905273,
0.16418498754501343,
-0.43028122186660767,
-0.35953837633132935,
-0.4378722608089447,
-0.8057832717895508,
0.3516862392425537,
-0.11131426692008972,
-0.9495221972465515,
0.300345778465271,
0.025166260078549385,
0.4532104432582855,
0.4173084795475006,
0.563683032989502,
-0.5210441946983337,
0.19424398243427277,
0.23678861558437347,
0.28993773460388184,
-0.13656467199325562,
-0.3387424945831299,
0.07502119988203049,
-0.6068339347839355,
-0.09985573589801788,
0.028877176344394684,
-0.19969724118709564,
0.6812723278999329,
0.4416130781173706,
-0.08958140015602112,
0.3923453688621521,
-0.4332709014415741,
-0.32006052136421204,
-0.08135659992694855,
-0.7826465368270874,
-0.13467979431152344,
0.321039080619812,
-0.2260102778673172,
0.25462085008621216,
-0.08418560028076172,
-0.1742781400680542,
0.3480539321899414,
-0.13039547204971313,
0.7297592759132385,
-0.26774176955223083,
-0.20578618347644806,
-0.22945261001586914,
-0.04312209039926529,
-0.25077661871910095,
0.21233771741390228,
0.03069208189845085,
0.14679469168186188,
0.29203444719314575,
-0.16170205175876617,
-0.8662956357002258,
-0.2135348916053772,
0.18513856828212738,
0.40785476565361023,
-0.29632237553596497,
0.30167093873023987,
-0.5648377537727356,
-0.4125390648841858,
0.05163859203457832,
0.24859122931957245,
-0.9976738095283508,
0.19039036333560944,
-0.1019841879606247,
0.32070744037628174,
0.22498689591884613,
-0.2534465789794922,
0.050913501530885696,
-0.6017559170722961,
-0.04016287997364998,
-0.18303638696670532,
-0.26100954413414,
0.28287896513938904,
0.02092159539461136,
0.1918967366218567,
0.09971366077661514,
-0.34531188011169434,
0.6496983170509338,
0.37463515996932983,
-0.3971153199672699,
-0.6918538212776184,
-0.0010593509068712592,
-0.032446932047605515,
0.493797242641449,
-0.9230000972747803,
0.05593731999397278,
-0.43287965655326843,
-1.0504282712936401,
-0.7524027228355408,
-0.0864417627453804,
-0.14371353387832642,
0.5894796252250671,
-0.07436259835958481,
-0.5274509787559509,
0.09863357245922089,
0.16616305708885193,
0.20419460535049438,
-0.007313706912100315,
-0.0713849812746048,
-0.8360351324081421,
0.32518988847732544,
0.2322111576795578,
-0.1547888219356537,
-0.8536862134933472,
0.0533168725669384,
-0.1900540143251419,
-0.2152514010667801,
-0.7331284284591675,
0.2841036915779114,
-0.119381383061409,
-0.4989749491214752,
0.6036916971206665,
0.742597758769989,
-1.072486162185669,
0.12864424288272858,
0.15411236882209778,
-0.5185149908065796,
0.24130523204803467,
-0.18919388949871063,
-0.4818820655345917,
0.22101931273937225,
0.3632768392562866,
0.23381003737449646,
0.47759461402893066,
0.2071608155965805,
0.13157285749912262,
0.8053957223892212,
-0.2015296369791031,
-0.002488640369847417,
-0.1600324660539627,
-0.1330641657114029,
-0.02115032821893692,
1.0097395181655884,
0.12525251507759094,
-0.7253661155700684,
-0.3864354193210602,
-0.5063672065734863,
-0.6847502589225769,
1.2653119564056396,
0.6012230515480042,
0.047101233154535294,
0.04725249111652374,
-0.06729576736688614,
0.32328441739082336,
-0.05654352903366089,
0.19313089549541473,
0.2940978705883026,
0.5412030220031738,
0.05687473341822624,
0.6169010400772095,
0.07376698404550552,
0.09193643182516098,
0.1075267568230629,
0.4857911169528961,
-0.20482927560806274,
0.2643173635005951,
0.09395254403352737,
-0.19103027880191803,
-0.004447406157851219,
-0.4562217891216278,
0.31300944089889526,
0.8429901003837585,
-0.5922461152076721,
-0.606665313243866,
0.14115823805332184,
0.12600548565387726,
0.007971212267875671,
-0.1363377422094345,
0.24425910413265228,
1.1125553846359253,
-0.04921770468354225,
-0.39033693075180054,
0.26749420166015625,
-0.03656579181551933,
0.47801557183265686,
0.1963932067155838,
-0.173568457365036,
0.06653323024511337,
-0.5712454915046692,
0.29449474811553955,
0.5444658398628235,
-0.2660405933856964,
-1.1289647817611694,
-0.2512006163597107,
-0.3657037019729614,
0.04533256217837334,
-0.057612981647253036,
0.028508374467492104,
-0.46105146408081055,
-0.012510497123003006,
-0.22923068702220917,
0.20602434873580933,
-0.46818506717681885,
0.14219149947166443,
0.23459696769714355,
0.1351160705089569,
0.5622298121452332,
0.7455147504806519,
-0.17929822206497192,
-0.07101661711931229,
0.24349001049995422,
0.4771709144115448,
0.19149957597255707,
0.014424460008740425,
0.7146453857421875,
-0.3900691270828247,
-0.06599706411361694,
0.16189464926719666,
0.1894993931055069,
-0.13247588276863098,
0.3567623794078827,
0.13733288645744324,
1.0331501960754395,
0.12858344614505768,
0.2430790513753891,
1.4644064903259277,
0.007798110134899616,
-0.2685757875442505,
-0.05173675715923309,
-0.16644464433193207,
-0.16528521478176117,
-0.773021399974823,
-0.16971547901630402,
-0.3451775312423706,
-0.3692384660243988,
0.19755785167217255,
-0.3608796000480652,
0.6265197396278381,
0.6046103239059448,
-0.4924878180027008,
-0.10607004165649414,
-0.2976817488670349,
-0.18515747785568237,
-0.7832602262496948,
0.5864542722702026,
-0.3159058094024658,
0.5628436207771301,
0.5705165863037109,
0.032308027148246765,
0.29717153310775757,
-0.36682480573654175,
0.3568626344203949,
0.08199233561754227,
0.6331846117973328,
-0.021711869165301323,
0.01785196363925934,
-0.5982295274734497,
-0.19744275510311127,
0.41420823335647583,
-0.2599943280220032,
0.327849417924881,
-0.2171688824892044,
-0.3222953975200653,
0.24283498525619507,
-0.4361506700515747,
0.2669738829135895,
-0.7292799949645996,
0.15802600979804993,
0.6286699771881104
] |
228927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20George%2C%20Duke%20of%20Kent | Prince George, Duke of Kent | Prince George, Duke of Kent, (George Edward Alexander Edmund; 20 December 1902 – 25 August 1942) was a member of the British royal family, the fourth son of King George V and Queen Mary. He was a younger brother of kings Edward VIII and George VI.
Prince George served in the Royal Navy in the 1920s and then briefly as a civil servant. He became Duke of Kent in 1934. In the late 1930s he served as an RAF officer, initially as a staff officer at RAF Training Command and then, from July 1941, as a staff officer in the Welfare Section of the RAF Inspector General's Staff. He was killed in a military air-crash on 25 August 1942.
Early life
Prince George was born on 20 December 1902 at York Cottage on the Sandringham Estate in Norfolk, England. His father was the Prince of Wales (later King George V), the only surviving son of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra.
His mother was the Princess of Wales (later Queen Mary), the only daughter and eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was fifth in the line of succession to the throne, behind his father and three older brothers Edward, Albert and Henry.
George was baptised in the Private Chapel at Windsor Castle on 26 January 1903 by Francis Paget, Bishop of Oxford.
Education and career
Prince George received his early education from a tutor and then followed his elder brother, Prince Henry, to St Peter's Court, a preparatory school at Broadstairs, Kent. At the age of 13, like his brothers, the Prince of Wales (later King Edward VIII) and Prince Albert (later King George VI), before him, he went to naval college, first at Osborne and, later, at Dartmouth. He was promoted to sub-lieutenant on 15 February 1924, and was promoted to lieutenant on 15 February 1926. He remained on active service in the Royal Navy until March 1929, serving on and later on the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet (renamed the Home Fleet in 1932), . He served on the latter as a lieutenant on the Admiral's staff before transferring in 1928 to HMS Durban on the America and West Indies Station, based at the Royal Naval Dockyard at Bermuda (where his father had previously served on HMS Canada and HMS Thrush), as a watch-keeping Lieutenant.
After leaving the navy, he briefly held posts at the Foreign Office and later the Home Office, becoming the first member of the royal family to work as a civil servant. He continued to receive promotions after leaving active service: to commander on 15 February 1934 and to captain on 1 January 1937.
From January to April 1931, Prince George and his elder brother the Prince of Wales travelled 18,000 miles on a tour of South America. Their outward voyage was on the ocean liner . In Buenos Aires they opened a British Empire Exhibition. They continued from Río de la Plata to Rio de Janeiro on the liner and returned from Brazil to Europe on the liner , landing at Lisbon. The princes returned via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris–Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park.
On 23 June 1936, George was appointed a personal aide-de-camp to his eldest brother, the new king, Edward VIII. Following the abdication of Edward VIII, he was appointed a personal naval aide-de-camp to his elder brother, now George VI. On 12 March 1937, he was commissioned as a colonel in the British Army and in the equivalent rank of group captain in the Royal Air Force (RAF). He was also appointed as the Colonel-in-Chief of the Royal Fusiliers from the same date.
In October 1938 George was appointed Governor-General of Australia in succession to Lord Gowrie with effect from November 1939. On 11 September 1939 it was announced that, owing to the outbreak of the Second World War, the appointment was postponed.
On 8 June 1939, George was promoted to the ranks of rear admiral in the Royal Navy, major-general in the British Army and air vice-marshal in the Royal Air Force. At the start of the Second World War, George returned to active naval service with the rank of rear admiral, briefly serving in the Intelligence Division of the Admiralty.
He was patron of the Society for Nautical Research between 1926 and 1942.
Personal life
Marriage and children
On 12 October 1934, in anticipation of his forthcoming marriage to his second cousin, Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark, he was created Duke of Kent, Earl of St Andrews, and Baron Downpatrick. The couple married on 29 November 1934 at Westminster Abbey. The wedding was followed by a Greek ceremony in the private chapel at Buckingham Palace, which was converted into an Orthodox chapel for the ceremony. They had three children:
Prince Edward, Duke of Kent (9 October 1935). He married Katharine Worsley on 8 June 1961. They have three children.
Princess Alexandra, The Hon. Lady Ogilvy (25 December 1936). She married the Hon. Angus Ogilvy, son of David Ogilvy, 12th Earl of Airlie and Lady Alexandra Coke, on 24 April 1963. They had two children.
Prince Michael of Kent (4 July 1942). He married Baroness Marie Christine von Reibnitz on 30 June 1978. They have two children.
Relationships
There were "strong rumours" that he had affairs with musical star Jessie Matthews, writer Cecil Roberts, and Noël Coward, a relationship which Coward's long-term partner, Graham Payn, denied. While married, he also had an affair with Margaret Whigham, later known as Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll.
The Duke of Kent was also rumoured to have been addicted to drugs, especially morphine and cocaine, an allegation which reputedly originated from his friendship with Kiki Preston (née Alice Gwynne, 1898–1946), whom he first met in the mid-1920s. Known as "the girl with the silver syringe" due to her addiction to heroin, Preston – a
cousin of railroad heiress Gloria Vanderbilt – was married first to Horace R. B. Allen and then, in 1925, to banker Jerome Preston. She died after jumping out of a window of the Stanhope Hotel in New York City.
Other alleged sexual liaisons include a ménage à trois with Preston and José Uriburu, bisexual son of Argentinean ambassador to the UK José Uriburu Tezanos.
In addition to his legitimate children, the Duke is said to have had a son by Kiki Preston. According to the memoirs of a friend, Loelia, Duchess of Westminster, Prince George's brother, the Duke of Windsor, believed that the son was Michael Temple Canfield (1926–1969), the adopted son of American publisher Cass Canfield – and the first husband of Lee Radziwill, sister of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis.
Some authors have alleged that like his elder brother, Edward VIII (later the Duke of Windsor), he was a Nazi sympathiser with ties to Rudolf Hess, but the claim has not been proven.
RAF career
As a young man the Duke came to the opinion that the future lay in aviation. It became his passion, and in 1929, the Duke earned his pilot's licence. He was the first of the royal family to cross the Atlantic Ocean by air. Before his flying days, he entered the Royal Navy, and was trained in intelligence work while stationed at Rosyth.
In March 1937, he was granted a commission in the Royal Air Force as a group captain. He was also made the Honorary Air Commodore of No. 500 (County of Kent) Squadron Auxiliary Air Force in August 1938. He was promoted to air vice-marshal in June 1939, along with promotions to flag and general officer rank in the other two services.
In 1939 he returned to active service as a rear admiral in the Royal Navy, but in April 1940, transferred to the Royal Air Force. He temporarily relinquished his rank as an air officer to assume the post of staff officer at RAF Training Command in the rank of group captain, so that he would not be senior to more experienced officers. On 28 July 1941, he assumed the rank of air commodore in the Welfare Section of the RAF Inspector General's Staff. In this role, he went on official visits to RAF bases to help boost wartime morale.
Freemasonry
Prince George was initiated into freemasonry on 12 April 1928 in Navy Lodge No 2612. He subsequently served as master of Navy Lodge in 1931, and was also a member of Prince of Wales's Lodge No 259, and Royal Alpha Lodge No 16, of which he served as master in 1940. He was appointed senior grand warden of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1933, and served as provincial grand master of Wiltshire from 1934, until he was elected grand master of the United Grand Lodge of England in 1939; a position he held until his death in 1942.
Death
On 25 August 1942, George and 14 others took off in a RAF Short Sunderland flying boat W4026 from Invergordon, Ross and Cromarty, to fly to Iceland on non-operational duties. The aircraft crashed on Eagle's Rock, a hillside near Dunbeath, Caithness, Scotland. All but one were killed, including George, who was 39 years old.
Lynn Picknett and Clive Prince have written about the crash in their book Double Standards, which, however, has been criticised for its "implausible inaccuracy".
They alleged that Kent had a briefcase full of 100 Swedish krona notes, worthless in Iceland, handcuffed to his wrist, leading to speculation the flight was a military mission to Sweden, the only place where Swedish notes were of value.
His death in RAF service marked the first time in more than 450 years that a member of the royal family died on active service. The prince's body was transferred initially to St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and he was buried in the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore, directly behind Queen Victorias mausoleum. His elder son, six-year-old Prince Edward, succeeded him as Duke of Kent. Princess Marina, his wife, had given birth to their third child, Prince Michael, only seven weeks before Prince George's death.
One RAF crew member survived the crash: Flight Sergeant Andrew Jack, the Sunderland's rear gunner. Flight Sergeant Jack's niece has claimed that Jack told his brother that the Duke had been at the controls of the plane; that Jack had dragged him from the pilot's seat after the crash; and that there was an additional person on board the plane whose identity has never been revealed.
In popular culture
The Duke's early life is dramatised in Stephen Poliakoff's television serial The Lost Prince (2003), a biography of the life of the Duke's younger brother John. In the film, the teenage Prince 'Georgie' is portrayed as sensitive, intelligent, artistic and almost uniquely sympathetic to his brother's plight. He is shown as detesting his time at the Royal Naval College and as having a difficult relationship with his austere father.
In May 2008, the BBC aired its Radio 4 comedy, Hut 33, Series 2, Episode 1, titled "The Royal Visit". The main guest character for this episode was Duke of Kent, played by Michael Fenton-Stevens. The show is set at Bletchley Park with a team of code breakers. The Duke has been chosen to make an impromptu visit, and the code breakers have been told to hide all evidence of their real work and invent a story. On no account should the Duke be told what really happens at Bletchley because he is a Nazi spy. He is also portrayed as promiscuous and bisexual, as he tries to gain sexual favours from one of the male staff, and one of the female characters recalls a previous liaison with the Duke.
Much of George's later life was outlined in the documentary film The Queen's Lost Uncle. He is a recurring character in the revival of Upstairs, Downstairs (2010/2012), played by Blake Ritson. He is portrayed as a caring brother, terrified of the mistakes that his family is making; later, he is portrayed as an appeaser of the German regime, but also as a supportive friend of Hallam Holland.
George and his eldest brother the Prince of Wales, later Edward VIII, are shown in Stephen Poliakoff's BBC television serial Dancing on the Edge (2013), in which they are portrayed as supporters of jazz and encouragers of Louis Lester's Jazz Band. A sexual attraction to Louis on George's part is also insinuated.
Titles, styles, honours and arms
Titles and styles
1902–1910: His Royal Highness Prince George of Wales{{refn|As a grandchild of a British monarch in the male line, he was styled His Royal Highness Prince George of Wales".}}
1910–1934: His Royal Highness The Prince George
1934–1942: His Royal Highness The Duke of Kent
Honours
KG: Knight of the Garter, 1923
KT: Knight of the Thistle, 1935
GCMG: Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George, 1934
GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1924
Royal Victorian Chain, 1936
Knight of the Order of the Elephant, 20 September 1922
Knight of the Order of the Seraphim, 1 October 1932
Knight Grand Cross of the Chilean Order of Merit
Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, March 1939
Appointments
1932: Royal Bencher of the Honourable Society of Lincoln's Inn
Military
Colonel-in-Chief, Royal Fusiliers (1937)
Honorary Air Commodore, No. 500 (County of Kent) Squadron Auxiliary Air Force (1938)
Arms
Around the time of his elder brother Prince Henry's twenty-first birthday, Prince George was granted the use of the Royal Arms, differenced by a label argent of three points, each bearing an anchor azure.
Ancestry
References
Further reading
(New edition in 1992 by Crécy Publishing, .)
Millar, Peter. "The Other Prince". The Sunday Times (26 January 2003).
Warwick, Christopher. George and Marina, Duke and Duchess of Kent''. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1988. .
External links
Portraits of Prince George from the National Portrait Gallery
1902 births
1942 deaths
Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in Scotland
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1942
Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Burials at the Royal Burial Ground, Frogmore
Civil servants in the Home Office
Civil servants in the Foreign Office
Dukes of Kent
Grand Masters of the United Grand Lodge of England
Honorary air commodores
George, Duke of Kent
British people of German descent
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Knights of the Garter
Knights of the Thistle
Lords High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland
People educated at the Royal Naval College, Osborne
People educated at St Peter's Court
George, Duke of Kent
Royal Air Force air marshals
Royal Navy admirals of World War II
British Empire in World War II
People from Sandringham, Norfolk
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Sons of British monarchs
Peers created by George V
Royal Air Force personnel killed in World War II
Children of George V
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
British Army generals of World War II | [
-0.7423648238182068,
0.18839281797409058,
0.03971895948052406,
-0.1657688468694687,
-0.01851213537156582,
0.5874963402748108,
0.7740707397460938,
-0.12710462510585785,
-0.44871118664741516,
-0.19720889627933502,
-0.5785344243049622,
-0.039828862994909286,
-0.1103685274720192,
0.21151110529899597,
0.37484294176101685,
-0.17685122787952423,
0.06546864658594131,
0.07542969286441803,
-0.5723737478256226,
-0.17089468240737915,
-0.10111922025680542,
0.2650599181652069,
-0.48527464270591736,
0.5911141633987427,
-0.010723485611379147,
-0.4253386855125427,
0.34073126316070557,
-0.22837089002132416,
0.18042196333408356,
-0.4210054576396942,
0.11555277556180954,
-0.06984022259712219,
-0.12270168215036392,
-0.7361394762992859,
-0.3135848939418793,
-0.6780527234077454,
-0.3479692339897156,
-0.7333377003669739,
-0.2464955449104309,
0.11442805081605911,
-0.29642996191978455,
-0.23664550483226776,
0.2507613003253937,
-0.42211461067199707,
-0.39873790740966797,
-1.0530593395233154,
-1.0732117891311646,
0.26762980222702026,
-0.15749573707580566,
-0.13041751086711884,
0.1942632794380188,
0.285260945558548,
0.24894195795059204,
0.11566434800624847,
0.6501414775848389,
-0.015825100243091583,
-1.114843726158142,
0.30584147572517395,
-0.15180419385433197,
0.10684990882873535,
0.7318620085716248,
0.07088928669691086,
0.1089518740773201,
0.18505385518074036,
0.07196485996246338,
0.20724967122077942,
0.36838456988334656,
0.12913395464420319,
-0.5428692102432251,
0.13326828181743622,
0.05007019266486168,
0.21504788100719452,
0.5632615089416504,
0.2646942138671875,
0.07535996288061142,
-0.11769101023674011,
-0.05700916051864624,
-0.4118497371673584,
0.464237779378891,
-0.4044831395149231,
0.25741204619407654,
-0.0669788271188736,
0.34416663646698,
0.19514545798301697,
0.06364072114229202,
0.4820311367511749,
0.13904623687267303,
0.6266366243362427,
-0.3503338694572449,
0.4252319633960724,
-0.9964185953140259,
0.3819543421268463,
0.8054999709129333,
-0.07865441590547562,
-0.4239717721939087,
-0.5234758257865906,
-0.18211860954761505,
0.027765249833464622,
0.03621186316013336,
-0.3629915118217468,
-0.2294796109199524,
-0.14078006148338318,
0.3318292498588562,
-0.0753568485379219,
-0.9429413676261902,
-0.04507848620414734,
-0.5634191632270813,
0.11710713803768158,
-0.5909605622291565,
0.1188991367816925,
-0.0895092785358429,
-0.23307961225509644,
0.08845826983451843,
0.012881256639957428,
0.18361324071884155,
0.022749433293938637,
0.10761719942092896,
-0.8478240966796875,
-0.49215152859687805,
-0.4552585184574127,
-0.10538938641548157,
0.2989925444126129,
-0.04707156494259834,
0.3568326234817505,
0.2714282274246216,
-0.05101354792714119,
0.6177831292152405,
0.11041959375143051,
-0.06644245237112045,
0.3964093029499054,
0.25377535820007324,
1.2775236368179321,
-0.5277661681175232,
-0.28780242800712585,
0.12839537858963013,
-0.28801724314689636,
-0.17335350811481476,
0.5759264826774597,
0.07348646968603134,
0.21317684650421143,
-0.6256340146064758,
0.162176251411438,
-0.2583656907081604,
0.6895921230316162,
0.27010059356689453,
-0.22522857785224915,
-0.5954663753509521,
0.09321782737970352,
-0.10081790387630463,
0.45663657784461975,
-0.0715322494506836,
-0.08620753884315491,
-0.03368357941508293,
-0.5207449197769165,
-0.23663964867591858,
0.6612467169761658,
0.8787550330162048,
0.2623339295387268,
0.7443232536315918,
0.41052860021591187,
-0.09049363434314728,
0.06071313098073006,
-0.12413942068815231,
-0.3905179798603058,
0.5832950472831726,
-0.027920834720134735,
-0.09608162939548492,
-0.10475455224514008,
-0.38118094205856323,
0.16104207932949066,
-0.5064801573753357,
0.3391691744327545,
0.12476186454296112,
0.3551557660102844,
-0.45802146196365356,
0.4203466475009918,
0.373505562543869,
0.20587323606014252,
0.1478014588356018,
-0.7760488390922546,
-0.509992241859436,
-0.17638181149959564,
-0.024824952706694603,
0.03643638268113136,
0.44705864787101746,
0.20596909523010254,
-0.1185184121131897,
-0.5911018252372742,
0.3308205008506775,
-0.21870185434818268,
0.4510115683078766,
-0.4042876064777374,
-0.021885953843593597,
0.16329321265220642,
0.1767578423023224,
0.024068031460046768,
-0.582771360874176,
0.38932347297668457,
0.6262096762657166,
0.844216525554657,
0.5039708614349365,
-0.3242693245410919,
0.11297496408224106,
-0.005513597745448351,
0.4481552243232727,
0.40336230397224426,
0.17566098272800446,
0.09210621565580368,
0.5590518116950989,
0.5643002986907959,
0.2428950071334839,
-0.7107775807380676,
0.017465289682149887,
0.5376794338226318,
0.22753466665744781,
-0.48664137721061707,
0.142638698220253,
-0.5848694443702698,
0.2789354622364044,
-0.7644701600074768,
0.4481876790523529,
0.6452531814575195,
-0.17320482432842255,
0.50844806432724,
-0.26456916332244873,
0.7794741988182068,
-0.3926713466644287,
0.2359904795885086,
-0.38857635855674744,
-0.5581029057502747,
-0.1555602103471756,
-0.22122298181056976,
0.04484497010707855,
0.08066235482692719,
0.2985711693763733,
-0.4487350285053253,
0.1038518100976944,
-0.13555726408958435,
0.2858995795249939,
0.1858370453119278,
0.11980835348367691,
0.2921839952468872,
-0.2946687638759613,
0.6215066909790039,
-0.1451064646244049,
0.8016570806503296,
0.2797020673751831,
0.05984101817011833,
-0.7509683966636658,
0.16873042285442352,
0.38630813360214233,
-0.003365750191733241,
-0.2989135682582855,
0.531473696231842,
0.25999170541763306,
-0.3052682876586914,
-0.15084007382392883,
0.49522432684898376,
0.0006463882746174932,
1.1610395908355713,
0.22307240962982178,
0.321747362613678,
0.41470199823379517,
0.29749730229377747,
-0.06780581176280975,
0.11557529866695404,
0.3729974925518036,
-0.5984529852867126,
0.7020373940467834,
-0.15452751517295837,
0.091012142598629,
-0.2673073410987854,
-0.789548933506012,
-0.1961635947227478,
0.6617637276649475,
-0.07353337109088898,
-0.2557489573955536,
0.5752103328704834,
-0.3483743667602539,
-1.0168029069900513,
-0.02762315608561039,
0.7135936617851257,
-0.7976497411727905,
-0.13983584940433502,
0.13051341474056244,
0.00206543505191803,
0.019056566059589386,
-0.22777749598026276,
-0.12619495391845703,
0.0702950581908226,
-0.16985434293746948,
-0.005225322674959898,
0.33046117424964905,
-0.08124369382858276,
-0.41230544447898865,
0.5442020893096924,
-0.21572868525981903,
-0.19296795129776,
-0.06621881574392319,
-0.040633928030729294,
-0.5886508822441101,
0.018524862825870514,
-0.0020878941286355257,
0.22182278335094452,
0.4163567125797272,
0.3859611451625824,
0.12293215095996857,
0.06805191189050674,
-5.427964687347412,
-0.31259217858314514,
0.3404218852519989,
-0.0006134205032140017,
0.4366905689239502,
0.2688728868961334,
0.2590866982936859,
-0.2664191424846649,
-0.03487655892968178,
-0.35060927271842957,
1.0751519203186035,
0.1116432175040245,
0.34931322932243347,
0.41584035754203796,
0.5891641974449158,
0.2674020528793335,
0.844562292098999,
-0.22299212217330933,
0.46226564049720764,
0.3578377068042755,
-0.37284567952156067,
0.14324763417243958,
0.016496101394295692,
0.20758895576000214,
-0.043707225471735,
0.06820636987686157,
-0.18956109881401062,
-0.4258582890033722,
-1.0973292589187622,
-0.6072702407836914,
-0.030559292063117027,
0.3473193347454071,
0.1883627027273178,
0.0184121523052454,
-0.33228302001953125,
-0.3095410168170929,
0.4373238980770111,
0.41994234919548035,
-0.16142220795154572,
-0.2783769369125366,
0.17933225631713867,
-0.1758580207824707,
-0.29737165570259094,
0.5175639986991882,
-0.09290426224470139,
-0.20483121275901794,
-0.7531061768531799,
0.35177287459373474,
0.17801082134246826,
0.493249773979187,
-0.3567427694797516,
0.6099264621734619,
0.5666919350624084,
-0.0694274976849556,
-0.20941990613937378,
0.7410478591918945,
-0.3635597229003906,
0.6277632117271423,
-0.42162013053894043,
0.3647218942642212,
0.2139352560043335,
-0.26586589217185974,
0.20682011544704437,
0.6074268221855164,
0.41485878825187683,
-0.03224292770028114,
-0.18573537468910217,
0.4306453466415405,
0.4385364055633545,
0.11062482744455338,
-0.3286456763744354,
-0.25962644815444946,
0.571130096912384,
-1.047485113143921,
-0.28067630529403687,
-0.7609780430793762,
0.2543124556541443,
-0.15025077760219574,
-0.1328907608985901,
-0.4983091950416565,
-0.1583835333585739,
-0.12023534625768661,
-0.6158636808395386,
0.551639199256897,
-0.22961369156837463,
-0.40520602464675903,
-0.4299973249435425,
0.10692979395389557,
0.3701011538505554,
-0.4384916424751282,
0.12544965744018555,
-0.49212294816970825,
-0.7616084814071655,
0.6232216358184814,
-0.22487249970436096,
-0.48300033807754517,
-0.5714401602745056,
0.7365456223487854,
-0.060201890766620636,
-0.2869397699832916,
-0.35853055119514465,
-0.5456687808036804,
-0.46391963958740234,
-0.9416794776916504,
-0.36830735206604004,
-0.08431532979011536,
-0.10117106884717941,
-0.13878951966762543,
0.13862188160419464,
-0.5890681147575378,
-0.27798768877983093,
0.21899093687534332,
-0.20210354030132294,
-0.37094882130622864,
0.6017283797264099,
-0.2753182351589203,
-0.14864124357700348,
0.12532642483711243,
0.5555227994918823,
0.6294982433319092,
0.061938442289829254,
0.5460515022277832,
-0.13222730159759521,
0.3753397464752197,
-0.006471811328083277,
0.33853578567504883,
0.42199423909187317,
-0.9237345457077026,
-0.6938877105712891,
-0.41954582929611206,
0.07366318255662918,
0.3293183743953705,
0.1863597333431244,
0.5422196388244629,
0.055966369807720184,
-0.36598432064056396,
-0.23182690143585205,
-0.6302099227905273,
-0.10220012068748474,
-0.23270337283611298,
-0.36536741256713867,
0.001493633957579732,
-0.20843125879764557,
0.7056478261947632,
0.23756526410579681,
0.2877890467643738,
0.4970516562461853,
0.2455500364303589,
-0.5654324293136597,
1.057734727859497,
-0.12988628447055817,
-0.3947880268096924,
0.9746918678283691,
-0.06758716702461243,
-0.9523061513900757,
0.17296168208122253,
-0.4891965985298157,
0.31556013226509094,
-0.16384100914001465,
-0.45610660314559937,
-0.3303200900554657,
-0.30632519721984863,
-0.7236776351928711,
-0.0066274977289140224,
0.5194372534751892,
-0.01241983100771904,
-0.6384719014167786,
-0.4215167462825775,
-0.371193528175354,
0.4454749822616577,
-0.35588642954826355,
-0.4965452253818512,
-0.08849657326936722,
-0.26158562302589417,
-0.12199466675519943,
-0.23838022351264954,
-0.45900610089302063,
0.0035654816310852766,
0.11590941995382309,
0.040953461080789566,
0.16712990403175354,
0.26984721422195435,
-0.6051015257835388,
0.330940842628479,
0.5484130382537842,
0.43127208948135376,
-0.7554422616958618,
-0.6684993505477905,
0.021320508792996407,
0.07896267622709274,
0.01490421500056982,
-0.11783738434314728,
0.3830607831478119,
0.6182202696800232,
-0.8050333857536316,
0.1692247986793518,
0.11777813732624054,
0.07959667593240738,
0.012347904965281487,
-0.16776826977729797,
0.17939645051956177,
0.5742398500442505,
0.044375330209732056,
-0.3874468207359314,
-0.04610893875360489,
-0.8800550699234009,
0.008826250210404396,
-0.1305193305015564,
0.3890722095966339,
0.8199792504310608,
-0.03410745784640312,
-0.8344839811325073,
0.07047063112258911,
0.5964873433113098,
-0.5575345754623413,
0.6501442790031433,
-0.3209201693534851,
-0.5721917748451233,
0.2924318015575409,
-0.3162938952445984,
-0.732841432094574,
0.046796608716249466,
-0.3537136912345886,
-0.09473397582769394,
-0.5747402906417847,
-0.1901492029428482,
0.5302321910858154,
-0.08241996169090271,
0.5987932085990906,
-0.3023891746997833,
0.3798616826534271,
-0.07983749359846115,
-0.359597384929657,
0.42775753140449524,
-0.44841790199279785,
0.46509504318237305,
0.8034350275993347,
-0.14810971915721893,
-0.02020447701215744,
0.39877012372016907,
0.8818496465682983,
1.0735934972763062,
0.2165374904870987,
-0.8691855669021606,
0.3223792016506195,
-0.008780538104474545,
0.7094196081161499,
-0.5429927110671997,
0.07243992388248444,
0.5248457193374634,
0.40527644753456116,
-0.5828116536140442,
-0.8916823863983154,
-0.7345477342605591,
0.5623778104782104,
-0.6936774849891663,
0.3060172200202942,
-0.013979719020426273,
0.3379422724246979,
0.18141110241413116,
-0.06796547025442123,
0.24527716636657715,
0.2413840889930725,
0.06944815069437027,
-0.23877330124378204,
-0.056428082287311554,
-0.046215709298849106,
0.38462865352630615,
-0.3217853903770447,
-0.03284522518515587,
-0.1506585329771042,
-0.5232084393501282,
-0.43843114376068115,
-0.3012930750846863,
-0.7839957475662231,
0.2893257737159729,
0.3932555019855499,
-0.43117058277130127,
0.4500962793827057,
0.004997662268579006,
-0.6877514719963074,
-0.0887940376996994,
0.6421255469322205,
-0.6766678094863892,
-0.23922176659107208,
-0.6260366439819336,
0.19675709307193756,
-0.02332877926528454,
0.049737222492694855,
0.22815637290477753,
-0.5481224656105042,
-0.4548606872558594,
-0.028915591537952423,
0.15318197011947632,
0.37719663977622986,
0.28609412908554077,
-0.43824923038482666,
0.4603441655635834,
-0.1257106512784958,
-0.21932512521743774,
-0.3060401678085327,
1.1775646209716797,
0.5175257921218872,
0.35598281025886536,
0.32672300934791565,
0.18336327373981476,
0.1451667994260788,
-0.6504949927330017,
0.2670002281665802,
0.3287356197834015,
0.46703463792800903,
-0.3660185635089874,
0.020679427310824394,
0.2760831117630005,
-0.6683746576309204,
-0.023356834426522255,
0.8303359150886536,
-0.18153874576091766,
-0.3191218674182892,
-0.29160624742507935,
0.038366273045539856,
0.16684013605117798,
-0.15416684746742249,
-0.05648551881313324,
0.00263201049529016,
0.8823960423469543,
-0.36506468057632446,
-0.7967792749404907,
0.0845935270190239,
0.4257656931877136,
0.27230384945869446,
0.0060720425099134445,
-0.8329150080680847,
0.7796562314033508,
-0.45517998933792114,
-0.3414481282234192,
0.9124295711517334,
-0.10365152359008789,
-0.00611985195428133,
0.4306751489639282,
0.1587328463792801,
0.567209005355835,
-0.8722902536392212,
0.01697499305009842,
0.029536472633481026,
0.35848268866539,
-0.21251468360424042,
0.7217479348182678,
-0.11700541526079178,
-0.25724634528160095,
0.6450947523117065,
0.013463643379509449,
0.14259368181228638,
-0.5682716965675354,
0.4711884558200836,
0.6119368076324463,
0.4622271955013275,
-0.2919277250766754,
-0.032274797558784485,
-0.09086690098047256,
-0.17162418365478516,
-0.3643932044506073,
1.1159554719924927,
0.2153320163488388,
0.17686396837234497,
-0.31213492155075073,
0.575096607208252,
-0.09758368879556656,
0.32394328713417053,
-0.022468553856015205,
0.24330605566501617,
0.013310513459146023,
0.14797814190387726,
-0.217254638671875,
0.0019610763993114233,
0.2923220694065094,
0.007930614054203033,
-0.21652404963970184,
-0.3205753564834595,
0.05546170473098755,
-0.627480685710907,
-0.4628211259841919,
-0.2905774712562561,
-0.8055087924003601,
-0.5176503658294678,
0.4097827076911926,
-0.15694676339626312,
0.6429237127304077,
-1.1375714540481567,
0.10104281455278397,
0.672695517539978,
-0.7948417663574219,
-0.4887741804122925,
0.2803075611591339,
-0.823058009147644,
-0.464805006980896,
-0.4609636664390564,
0.601460874080658,
0.3113771677017212,
-0.31015872955322266,
-0.19547930359840393,
0.7285248637199402,
-0.3906933069229126,
0.13957972824573517,
-0.14390729367733002,
0.5348659157752991,
-0.26914486289024353,
-0.6606491208076477,
-1.4506281614303589,
-0.10484462231397629,
-0.2951861619949341,
-0.11044780164957047,
-0.2455020546913147,
0.17072351276874542,
-0.21773114800453186,
0.0622919462621212,
0.549116313457489,
-0.6731410622596741,
-0.5592734217643738,
0.06207163631916046,
-0.1655900925397873,
-0.40317049622535706,
0.0517401285469532,
-0.0318329818546772,
-0.09663432836532593,
0.3351452648639679,
0.5021154880523682,
0.6210073232650757,
-0.9035172462463379,
0.21179819107055664,
-0.4646450877189636,
-0.09953854233026505,
-0.46868616342544556,
0.23113755881786346,
-0.24826006591320038,
0.20867714285850525,
0.3612232506275177,
1.1021175384521484,
-0.4275265038013458,
-0.02961546741425991,
0.6286988854408264,
0.009316394105553627,
0.7200674414634705,
0.20790503919124603,
0.1416444480419159,
-0.47170203924179077,
-0.4491350054740906,
-0.3088606297969818,
-0.1860204041004181,
0.01622839830815792,
0.32647475600242615,
0.5031615495681763,
0.634850025177002,
-0.7908170819282532,
0.6872817873954773,
0.04722054675221443,
-0.11902014911174774,
0.07104048877954483,
0.4550761282444,
0.5687875747680664
] |
228930 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High%20School%20of%20Art%20and%20Design | High School of Art and Design | The High School of Art and Design is a Career and Technical Education high school in Manhattan, New York City, New York State, United States. Founded in 1936 as the School of Industrial Art, the school moved to 1075 Second Avenue in 1960 and more recently, its Midtown Manhattan location on 56th Street, between Second and Third Avenues, in September 2012. High School of Art and Design is operated by the New York City Department of Education.
History
On November 2, 1936, four art teachers began what was to become the High School of Art and Design, the School of Industrial Art, in a former Manhattan elementary school at 257 West 40th Street, which for a time had housed a WPA Federal Theatre Project locale. Initially, they used orange crates and plywood to make storage and desks. One of the co-founders, John B. Kenny, became principal in 1941. The school soon moved to 211 East 79th Street on the Upper East Side, the site of the former annex to Benjamin Franklin High School. In September 1960, the School of Industrial Art changed its name to the High School of Art and Design and moved to 1075 Second Avenue in east Midtown.
The 1936 school was first envisioned as a continuation school, that is, a school where children who had left school and gotten jobs attended for half days to continue their education, normally including vocational classes relevant to their current or possible future jobs. However, it opened as a vocational high school,
On November 8, 2004, a rally was scheduled on the occasion of the school's 68th anniversary. This was to include a press conference at which increased support of the school would be urged. On November 8, 2006 the school celebrated its 70th anniversary. The office of the Mayor of New York City issued a proclamation making November 8 "High School of Art and Design Day".
Academics and events
Applicants must take an entrance exam and present a portfolio to be accepted. Freshmen sample all art and design subjects before selecting a major for their sophomore, junior and senior years. Students at Art and Design receive two periods of art instruction per day, choosing from among eight art majors: cartooning, animation, architecture, graphic design, illustration, fashion, photography, and film/video.
Art and Design's Kenny Gallery, named for the school's founding principal John B. Kenny, hosts monthly art exhibits of student work. The gallery is open to the public. The Black Box Theatre was donated by the Friends of Art and Design (FAD).
Notable people
Faculty
Some members of the school's faculty became notable for their creative work outside teaching. These include:
Daisy Aldan, poet, actress, editor and translator
Irv Docktor, fine artist and book illustrator
Frank Eliscu, designer and sculptor of the Heisman Memorial Trophy and other works of art
Alvin Hollingsworth, comic book illustrator and fine artist
Bel Kaufman, author of "Up the Down Staircase"
Bernard Krigstein, painter, illustrator, cartoonist
Tom Wesselmann, pop artist, famous for his "Great American Nude" series
Alumni
1937: Paul Winchell, ventriloquist, inventor, actor
1940: Violet Barclay, a pioneering female comic book artist
1940: Al Plastino, comic book illustrator, writer and editor
1940: Chic Stone, comic book illustrator
1941: Allen Bellman, comic book artist
1943: Carmine Infantino, comic book artist, editor, member Comic Book Hall of Fame
1943: Helmut Krone, art director
1943: Henry Wolf, graphic designer, art director and photographer
1944: Joe Orlando, comic book illustrator, Mad magazine Associate Publisher
1945: Tony Bennett, singer and painter
1945: Joe Giella, comic book illustrator
1945: Everett Raymond Kinstler, portrait artist
1946: Sy Barry, comic book illustrator
1946: Vladimir Kagan, furniture designer
1946: Al Scaduto, syndicated cartoonist
1947: Alex Toth, comic book illustrator, animator for Hanna-Barbera
1947: John Romita, Sr., comic book illustrator
1949: Howard Beckerman, animator and author
1950: Dick Giordano, comic book illustrator
1950: Jules Maidoff, artist and founder of SACI (Studio Arts College International) in Florence, Italy
1951: Leo Dillon, adult and children's book illustrator
1951: Bill Kresse, syndicated cartoonist
1952: Eva Hesse, minimalist painter and sculptor
1952: Sam Scali, advertising-agency owner
1953: Peter Hujar, photographer
1953: Ronald Wayne, Apple Computer co-founder
1955: I. C. Rapoport, photojournalist
1956: Ralph Bakshi, animator, filmmaker
1956: John Johnson, TV news anchor, author and painter
1956: Barbara Nessim, illustrator and educator
1956: Regina Porter, fashion designer
1957: Bobby Weinstein, songwriter, member of the Songwriters Hall of Fame
1957: Phoebe Gilman, children's book author and illustrator
1959: Neal Adams, comic book illustrator
1959: Paul J. Pugliese, TIME Magazine cartographer
1960: Calvin Klein, fashion designer
1960: George Kuchar, cult filmmaker and director
1960: Antonio Lopez, fashion illustrator
1960: Gerard Malanga, poet, photographer and filmmaker
1960: William T. Williams, abstract painter
1961: Robert Volpe, painter and NYPD detective, the "Art Cop"
1962: Roscoe Orman, actor, author and artist, best known as "Gordon" on Sesame Street
1962: Simon Gaon, painter
1963: Ronnie Landfield, abstract painter
1963: Joey Skaggs, media prankster, performance artist
1963: Jim Simon, animator and artist
1963: Michael Steiner, abstract artist and sculptor
1965: Jackie Curtis, Warhol film star, poet, playwright
1965: Art Spiegelman, Pulitzer Prize winning author and cartoonist
1967: Bert Monroy, digital art pioneer, author of books on Photoshop, Illustrator
1967: Eric Carr (Paul Charles Caravello), drummer in the rock band Kiss
1967: Frank Brunner, comic book illustrator
1967: Larry Hama, writer and comic book illustrator
1967: Ralph Reese, comic book illustrator
1967: Lenny White, jazz-funk drummer, member of Return to Forever
1967: Terry Winters, abstract painter and printmaker
1968: Candida Royalle, producer and director of couples-oriented erotic films
1968: John Steptoe, author and illustrator of children's books
1968: Robin Tewes, artist and painter
1968: Frank Verlizzo ("Fraver"), Drama Desk Award-winning designer of theater art
1969: Pat Cleveland, fashion model
1969: Harvey Fierstein, actor, playwright, gay activist
1970: Amy Heckerling, film director, writer, actress
1971: Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs, actor and singer
1971: Alan Kupperberg, cartoonist and illustrator
1971: Steven Meisel, fashion photographer
1971: Lynette Washington, jazz vocalist
1973: Lisa Jane Persky, actress.
1973: Tom Sito, animator, filmmaker, educator
1974: Manny Vega, painter, muralist, mosaicist
1976: Marcelino Sanchez, film and television actor
1976: Tracy 168 (Michael Tracey), graffiti artist
1976: Mike Carlin, comic book writer and editor
1977: Joe Jusko, comic book illustrator
1977: Gladys Portugues, champion body builder
1978: Lasana M. Sekou, poet, journalist, author, publisher
1978: Lorna Simpson, artist and photographer
1978: Lee Quiñones, actor and graffiti artist
1978: Margaret Matz, architect and illustrator
1978: Malcolm Jones III, comic book illustrator
1979: Denys Cowan, comic book illustrator
1979: Jimmy Palmiotti, inker and writer of comic books, games and film
1979: Mark Texeira, comic book illustrator
1980: Chris 'Daze' Ellis, graffiti writer and artist
1980: Nicole Willis, musician, artist
1981: Marc Jacobs, fashion designer
1982: Lady Pink (Sandra Fabara), graffiti writer, artist and muralist.
1983: Mare139 (Carlos Rodriguez), graffiti artist and designer
1985: Roger Sanchez, Grammy Award-winning DJ, producer, recording artist
1985: Christopher Martin rapper/Kid&Play
1986: Pharoahe Monch (Troy Donald Jamerson), hip hop artist
1987: Ivan de Prume, former drummer in the groove metal band White Zombie
1990: Jamal Igle, comic book and animation storyboard artist
1992: Joe Madureira, comic book illustrator
1992: Mobb Deep, hip-hop duo
1995: Cool Calm Pete (Peter Chung), hip hop artist as a member of Babbletron and then as a Solo artist
1998: Fabolous, rapper
2006: ASAP Ferg (Darold D. Brown Ferguson, Jr.), rapper and fashion designer
2007: LaQuan Smith, fashion designer
2014: Devon Rodriguez artist and painter
References
External links
NYC Department of Education: Art and Design High School
High School of Art and Design Alumni Association
Friends of Art and Design High School
1936 establishments in New York City
Art schools in New York City
Culture of New York City
Educational institutions established in 1936
Public high schools in Manhattan
Midtown Manhattan | [
0.5491517186164856,
0.20422187447547913,
-0.17136511206626892,
0.44215449690818787,
0.5063328146934509,
0.02010980248451233,
0.18005682528018951,
0.33026203513145447,
0.005217322614043951,
-0.4543784260749817,
-0.026205146685242653,
0.7405270934104919,
0.3057740032672882,
0.47157028317451477,
-0.5216149687767029,
-0.6585877537727356,
0.7354143261909485,
0.504219651222229,
-0.08376581221818924,
-0.47744762897491455,
-0.49151819944381714,
-0.2949976921081543,
0.1657232940196991,
0.025402043014764786,
-0.47146520018577576,
0.12063971161842346,
0.33960941433906555,
0.1562003195285797,
0.0575697086751461,
0.4312605857849121,
-0.31771883368492126,
-0.11096898466348648,
-0.1610478162765503,
-0.7160918116569519,
-0.3992246091365814,
-0.37476015090942383,
0.03372039273381233,
-0.6939199566841125,
-0.06343504041433334,
-0.5955628156661987,
0.09782995283603668,
0.04160764440894127,
-0.15956883132457733,
0.3842644989490509,
-0.023383133113384247,
-0.5758107304573059,
-1.494847059249878,
0.29601046442985535,
-0.9156597256660461,
0.2205129861831665,
-0.04873821139335632,
0.9523634910583496,
0.1438203901052475,
0.22574985027313232,
-0.0710151195526123,
0.09883668273687363,
-0.9297378063201904,
0.7082890868186951,
0.1458180546760559,
-0.3382299542427063,
-0.15357044339179993,
0.6844639182090759,
0.2005152851343155,
0.4125816226005554,
-0.08979178965091705,
-0.16380436718463898,
0.06055614724755287,
-0.24992449581623077,
-0.5079734325408936,
-0.020867621526122093,
-0.18960662186145782,
-0.1882515400648117,
-0.23674370348453522,
-0.35550880432128906,
-0.2540525794029236,
-0.2773739695549011,
-0.10528640449047089,
-0.28275808691978455,
-0.3133811354637146,
-0.1737096607685089,
0.27182820439338684,
-0.23139162361621857,
0.6376717686653137,
0.306510865688324,
0.708185613155365,
0.43641477823257446,
-0.6589272022247314,
-0.16670186817646027,
0.12067453563213348,
0.5064933896064758,
-0.7376198768615723,
0.40751805901527405,
0.02150525525212288,
0.3370721936225891,
0.28627172112464905,
-0.3496534824371338,
-0.5014455318450928,
0.2512609660625458,
-0.28485655784606934,
-0.09252572059631348,
0.026106128469109535,
0.5412251353263855,
0.5997897982597351,
0.025763198733329773,
-0.34368592500686646,
-0.1663540154695511,
0.3287660479545593,
-0.43817490339279175,
0.10593637824058533,
-0.02703654021024704,
-0.26741164922714233,
0.2142716944217682,
-0.0571143738925457,
0.028453825041651726,
-0.1560792475938797,
0.9247862100601196,
0.5592772960662842,
0.0638241395354271,
-0.35784807801246643,
-0.08387468755245209,
0.23117370903491974,
0.3883714973926544,
-0.28428778052330017,
0.23749428987503052,
0.20036141574382782,
0.9857607483863831,
0.40071284770965576,
0.08699554949998856,
-0.04238655045628548,
-0.49242129921913147,
0.23085200786590576,
0.7245345711708069,
0.15716759860515594,
-0.3669995963573456,
0.002295929938554764,
-0.268950492143631,
-0.11698019504547119,
0.039164382964372635,
-0.08173920214176178,
0.3724096417427063,
-1.2426644563674927,
-0.34928658604621887,
0.08112689107656479,
-0.7876838445663452,
0.37892070412635803,
-0.646113395690918,
0.134820818901062,
-0.1959102749824524,
-0.3978669345378876,
0.7604567408561707,
0.45041877031326294,
0.21302878856658936,
-0.637190043926239,
0.2761514484882355,
0.027551766484975815,
-0.2398025095462799,
0.6600306034088135,
0.42711472511291504,
0.2647148072719574,
0.21667996048927307,
0.19576174020767212,
-0.04205253720283508,
-0.20129652321338654,
0.487446665763855,
-0.3593442440032959,
-0.28201577067375183,
-0.31114205718040466,
0.10768802464008331,
-0.5777450799942017,
0.3220490515232086,
-0.6340622305870056,
-0.07853306084871292,
0.22312551736831665,
-0.3996225893497467,
-0.34850502014160156,
-0.21855925023555756,
0.8415881395339966,
0.06666631996631622,
0.3475150167942047,
-0.21727679669857025,
-0.28881555795669556,
-0.07133626937866211,
0.6546699404716492,
-0.4504394233226776,
-0.062022753059864044,
-0.1627648025751114,
0.2728734314441681,
0.029325343668460846,
-0.24123752117156982,
0.1715623289346695,
-0.5553275942802429,
-0.3128703534603119,
0.44773656129837036,
-0.7733486294746399,
0.8441929221153259,
-0.1534131020307541,
-0.5089514255523682,
1.2490841150283813,
-0.5028542280197144,
0.20874521136283875,
-0.14479972422122955,
-0.7070063948631287,
0.5516148805618286,
-0.3700236678123474,
-0.4951903223991394,
-0.02168511599302292,
0.21420998871326447,
0.5907953381538391,
-0.03739716112613678,
0.3621242344379425,
0.5132739543914795,
-1.0581613779067993,
0.17033442854881287,
0.6055188179016113,
0.44058477878570557,
-0.7551302909851074,
-0.423334002494812,
-0.15003277361392975,
0.20703621208667755,
-0.5823459625244141,
0.8124907612800598,
-0.43053871393203735,
0.10021156072616577,
-0.43823879957199097,
0.009944768622517586,
0.19076356291770935,
-0.32928499579429626,
-0.0221562422811985,
0.6134001016616821,
-0.02830413170158863,
0.22015883028507233,
-0.012742431834340096,
0.7235442399978638,
-0.09058985114097595,
0.1976718008518219,
-0.19763122498989105,
-0.16255450248718262,
-0.02461213432252407,
0.7830871939659119,
-0.8868271112442017,
-0.5589726567268372,
0.17923825979232788,
-1.2138276100158691,
0.41143497824668884,
-0.15586836636066437,
0.40291327238082886,
0.008701924234628677,
0.3094855844974518,
-0.363097608089447,
-0.19339501857757568,
0.5877988338470459,
0.10464587807655334,
0.20090731978416443,
-0.15162965655326843,
-0.6863915324211121,
-0.198777973651886,
0.23805741965770721,
-0.11613008379936218,
0.7066246271133423,
-0.1493103951215744,
0.0815998837351799,
0.1179577186703682,
0.5837856531143188,
0.5645694732666016,
-0.23289771378040314,
-0.42000940442085266,
0.2911393344402313,
-0.6326988339424133,
0.21370574831962585,
0.2881348133087158,
-0.09287863224744797,
0.29942575097084045,
-0.19258172810077667,
-0.15793991088867188,
-0.17521436512470245,
-0.0585450753569603,
0.15046653151512146,
0.10990764200687408,
-0.5191447734832764,
-0.390150249004364,
0.23030556738376617,
1.253053069114685,
0.09467815607786179,
-0.43534713983535767,
0.4541800022125244,
0.0950533077120781,
0.04943035542964935,
0.1336730271577835,
-0.3914382755756378,
-0.09216951578855515,
-0.13209004700183868,
0.14144669473171234,
-0.2601076066493988,
0.2549273371696472,
-0.5486347675323486,
-0.0456199087202549,
0.13929829001426697,
-0.19972006976604462,
0.13275328278541565,
-0.2254515141248703,
-0.159482941031456,
0.6372072100639343,
-0.5471073389053345,
0.2928354740142822,
-0.2516031861305237,
0.20662280917167664,
0.28218284249305725,
-0.08361982554197311,
-5.618232727050781,
0.29231134057044983,
-0.1260303407907486,
0.11647709459066391,
-0.02226770482957363,
-0.7084033489227295,
0.23414883017539978,
-0.3608852028846741,
-0.10522650182247162,
-0.3817199468612671,
-0.4920709431171417,
-0.6356140375137329,
0.055183812975883484,
0.5836002230644226,
0.31544357538223267,
0.3761175572872162,
-0.3189752399921417,
-0.6504693031311035,
-0.19788925349712372,
0.8167507648468018,
0.28933727741241455,
-0.2090991586446762,
-0.275668203830719,
0.562213122844696,
0.4537847638130188,
0.3814157545566559,
-0.8712872266769409,
-0.2793014645576477,
-0.6745985746383667,
-0.650608479976654,
0.38344424962997437,
-0.3224005699157715,
-0.1606592983007431,
0.4288884997367859,
0.13148678839206696,
-0.29011282324790955,
0.9621872305870056,
-0.12396126240491867,
0.37828877568244934,
0.2668333351612091,
0.7392621636390686,
-0.03229773789644241,
-0.4334874749183655,
-0.1419195830821991,
0.5729738473892212,
-0.4951848089694977,
0.022842762991786003,
-0.0862584039568901,
-0.15922266244888306,
0.4326200485229492,
0.2948267459869385,
0.5086181163787842,
0.15941114723682404,
0.13101045787334442,
-0.19855855405330658,
-0.07486172020435333,
0.47726649045944214,
0.4146629869937897,
-0.06428664922714233,
0.023517262190580368,
-0.21496160328388214,
-0.41578924655914307,
0.22322289645671844,
-0.1663273572921753,
-0.31126099824905396,
-0.4612556993961334,
-0.40004000067710876,
0.5138589143753052,
-0.16579367220401764,
0.2226203978061676,
0.5696260333061218,
0.2373243123292923,
-0.37483248114585876,
-0.7251168489456177,
0.42853379249572754,
-0.18502724170684814,
-0.3197396695613861,
-0.4764734208583832,
0.3510913848876953,
-0.987388014793396,
0.22783909738063812,
-0.3675972521305084,
0.5439018607139587,
0.5095119476318359,
0.6744546294212341,
-0.4641759991645813,
0.06217486411333084,
0.6487225890159607,
-0.33622339367866516,
-0.08477844297885895,
0.474761426448822,
-0.008330666460096836,
0.45890215039253235,
0.0931045264005661,
0.1146039143204689,
-0.07211113721132278,
1.0334373712539673,
0.2581973671913147,
0.19721342623233795,
0.012311075814068317,
0.025557566434144974,
0.0650610700249672,
-0.24985988438129425,
-0.03442218154668808,
-0.2680045962333679,
-0.42948880791664124,
0.8668510913848877,
0.08148647844791412,
0.808205246925354,
-0.29657459259033203,
-0.1931423395872116,
-0.24633677303791046,
-0.7469655275344849,
-0.24138812720775604,
0.4844277501106262,
-0.22326673567295074,
-0.5898252129554749,
0.47860395908355713,
0.36787718534469604,
0.2519836723804474,
0.08550799638032913,
0.11876043677330017,
-0.13212278485298157,
0.4180378019809723,
-0.10937485843896866,
-0.6512243747711182,
-0.2581391930580139,
0.6221283674240112,
-0.5251408219337463,
-0.10735076665878296,
-0.1719353049993515,
0.15281903743743896,
-0.5335062742233276,
0.31800246238708496,
0.43530064821243286,
0.08555009961128235,
-0.40172839164733887,
-0.19174768030643463,
0.07454988360404968,
0.21805398166179657,
0.041147973388433456,
0.33105364441871643,
0.17865973711013794,
0.37164124846458435,
0.42320147156715393,
0.5554957389831543,
-0.14998075366020203,
0.1852349489927292,
-0.3861444592475891,
-0.04930726811289787,
0.06723827123641968,
-0.4047641158103943,
0.026447469368577003,
0.4147614538669586,
0.32178062200546265,
0.20871290564537048,
-0.5976636409759521,
-0.0017278181621804833,
0.16734103858470917,
0.20259720087051392,
0.5505304932594299,
-0.004141850396990776,
-0.9781089425086975,
0.24438194930553436,
-0.18830403685569763,
-0.03904462978243828,
-0.5127925276756287,
-0.11753647029399872,
-0.7796621322631836,
0.13537965714931488,
0.7849970459938049,
-0.3135376274585724,
-0.2651268541812897,
-0.8614531755447388,
0.21793043613433838,
-0.16057538986206055,
-0.04432007297873497,
-0.10168150812387466,
0.21717260777950287,
0.11936499178409576,
0.8622298240661621,
-1.0809897184371948,
0.10856705158948898,
-0.3968886733055115,
0.017598919570446014,
-0.4016694128513336,
-0.6812427639961243,
0.037402745336294174,
-0.7855264544487,
-0.4191860854625702,
-0.3013399541378021,
-0.5584295392036438,
-0.14366713166236877,
0.32703885436058044,
-0.7468652129173279,
-0.6233664155006409,
0.17348387837409973,
0.3578474521636963,
0.0027641751803457737,
0.19722768664360046,
-0.15410058200359344,
0.5072872042655945,
-0.7417404651641846,
0.3601545989513397,
-0.07042332738637924,
-0.2072669118642807,
-0.044934116303920746,
0.1458801031112671,
0.6894325017929077,
0.3541426360607147,
-0.5341616868972778,
-0.135896235704422,
0.1666117012500763,
-0.24055862426757812,
-0.6601136922836304,
-0.5871175527572632,
0.12491625547409058,
-0.23788900673389435,
-0.2990918457508087,
-0.08837977051734924,
0.12211637943983078,
0.710814893245697,
-0.3627443015575409,
0.1020108312368393,
-0.5410828590393066,
0.3634380102157593,
0.1487242579460144,
-0.26328861713409424,
-0.24250513315200806,
-0.675251305103302,
0.04333208128809929,
0.0038843725342303514,
-0.2697748839855194,
0.29101765155792236,
0.12981852889060974,
-0.2567662298679352,
-0.2456754446029663,
0.18803206086158752,
0.22200964391231537,
0.028915535658597946,
0.13330520689487457,
0.22639843821525574,
-0.40723535418510437,
-0.0685470774769783,
-0.11395935714244843,
0.804750919342041,
0.4693744480609894,
-0.04867475852370262,
-0.3995510935783386,
0.13046790659427643,
0.36434271931648254,
-1.4248032569885254,
-0.5538910627365112,
0.009447881951928139,
-0.13137783110141754,
-0.5427917242050171,
0.07113340497016907,
0.040668897330760956,
0.03767237067222595,
0.15397661924362183,
-0.3411150276660919,
0.4393194317817688,
-0.9859121441841125,
0.13429692387580872,
-0.36957240104675293,
0.38161414861679077,
-0.6402938961982727,
-0.24223285913467407,
-0.13577014207839966,
-0.7437462210655212,
0.575282871723175,
-0.18237434327602386,
0.24131758511066437,
0.24352306127548218,
-0.30215778946876526,
-0.08662979304790497,
-0.30776911973953247,
-0.805968165397644,
0.08126728236675262,
-0.139420747756958,
-0.1511727124452591,
0.5134721398353577,
-0.16397035121917725,
-0.5226683020591736,
0.0409904383122921,
-0.5901505351066589,
0.2318868190050125,
0.03657802566885948,
-0.4381672143936157,
0.2530142664909363,
-0.2164221704006195,
-0.5761805176734924,
-0.15584279596805573,
-0.6582372188568115,
-0.11989865452051163,
-0.20004016160964966,
0.38526245951652527,
0.5153768658638,
0.5545236468315125,
0.11819931119680405,
-0.1417723298072815,
0.45237675309181213,
0.4859881103038788,
-0.039638351649045944,
0.1786537915468216,
0.16124366223812103,
0.07411052286624908,
-0.03693164139986038,
0.1430795043706894,
-0.12047958374023438,
-0.046954259276390076,
-0.5080519914627075,
0.4565717875957489,
0.5991379022598267,
-0.91253662109375,
-0.36879804730415344,
0.41572338342666626,
-0.6120961308479309,
0.785307765007019,
0.1829085797071457,
-0.72466641664505,
0.2441369593143463,
0.7148179411888123,
0.52776038646698,
-0.050564955919981,
0.5521324276924133,
-0.13965290784835815,
-0.2678149342536926,
-0.022655893117189407,
0.40747740864753723,
-0.006831702310591936,
0.23386846482753754,
-0.37626296281814575,
0.7856926321983337,
-0.14659687876701355,
-0.21493691205978394,
-0.043190713971853256,
-0.9685196876525879,
0.011124635115265846,
0.20204511284828186,
0.6660979986190796,
0.7099596858024597,
0.2001604437828064,
0.6144987940788269,
-0.19642257690429688,
-0.030419226735830307,
0.5510162711143494,
0.23574750125408173,
-0.24773570895195007,
0.07124670594930649,
-0.008417750708758831,
-0.11348065733909607,
0.6097174286842346,
-0.839403510093689,
0.18254032731056213,
-0.13958154618740082,
0.0768650621175766,
0.2483176589012146,
-0.09352090954780579,
0.14548470079898834,
0.011494814418256283,
0.6081637144088745,
0.7078972458839417,
-0.3737150728702545,
-0.5158451199531555,
-0.2731233537197113,
0.7197477221488953,
-0.18076841533184052,
-0.7607401013374329,
0.27946946024894714,
0.16309122741222382,
0.7700933814048767,
0.2087632268667221,
-0.1168242022395134,
-0.39049607515335083,
0.8643538951873779,
0.7939300537109375,
0.46973127126693726,
0.7218831777572632,
0.3290589153766632,
-0.5659875273704529,
-0.05497525632381439,
-0.5842858552932739,
-0.06286497414112091,
-0.4546906352043152,
-0.3065926432609558,
-0.04590906947851181,
0.5210049748420715,
-0.3088371455669403,
0.13396120071411133,
0.481844961643219,
-0.25822871923446655,
0.5944464802742004,
0.39566171169281006,
0.14798393845558167,
0.07747800648212433,
-0.1912732720375061,
0.3727036714553833,
-0.32037657499313354,
0.7440584301948547,
-0.1538408398628235,
0.3467724621295929,
-0.183414489030838,
-0.0020305190701037645,
-0.7975478768348694,
0.13983476161956787,
0.357637494802475,
-0.18327444791793823,
-0.3920549750328064,
0.31336745619773865,
0.022169817239046097,
0.20598240196704865,
0.5528428554534912,
0.16033951938152313,
-0.4735375642776489,
0.43296685814857483,
0.5751888155937195,
0.3695923984050751,
-0.3385053277015686,
-0.5310536623001099,
-0.013449540361762047,
0.09195117652416229,
0.1453588902950287,
0.25417888164520264,
-0.20029382407665253,
0.16811582446098328,
-0.517131507396698,
0.4016639292240143,
0.13608534634113312,
0.31690916419029236,
0.36265257000923157,
-0.31624850630760193,
-0.09363213926553726,
0.5392588376998901,
-0.31676360964775085,
-0.11758207529783249,
-0.37474751472473145,
0.61402827501297,
0.590042769908905,
-0.758303165435791,
0.027771221473813057,
-0.401242196559906,
-0.15404012799263,
-0.07112541049718857,
-0.4900296628475189,
0.5442080497741699,
-0.2689386010169983,
0.2764652669429779,
-0.35903042554855347,
0.12534518539905548,
0.0088772252202034,
-0.36469727754592896,
0.4996809959411621,
0.11529698967933655,
-0.5633612871170044,
-0.2947354018688202,
0.12877215445041656,
-0.4958622455596924,
0.4904964864253998,
0.16977755725383759
] |
228936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School%20of%20Visual%20Arts | School of Visual Arts | The School of Visual Arts New York City (SVA NYC) is a for-profit art and design college in Manhattan, New York. It was founded in 1947, and is a member of the Association of Independent Colleges of Art and Design.
History
This school was started by Silas H. Rhodes and Burne Hogarth in 1947 as the Cartoonists and Illustrators School; it had three teachers and 35 students, most of whom were World War II veterans who had a large part of their tuition underwritten by the U.S. government's G.I. Bill. It was renamed the School of Visual Arts in 1956 and offered its first degrees in 1972. In 1983, it introduced a Master of Fine Arts in painting, drawing and sculpture.
The school has a faculty of more than 1,100 and a student body of over 3,000. It offers 11 undergraduate and 22 graduate degree programs, and is accredited by the Commission on Higher Education of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Schools and the National Association of Schools of Art and Design.
The interior design BFA is accredited by the Council for Interior Design Accreditation, the art therapy MPS is approved by the American Art Therapy Association, and the art education MA is accredited by the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation.
The current school logo was created in 1997 by George Tscherny for its 50th anniversary, and redesigned in 2013.
In 2019 the school began the process of converting to nonprofit, with the SVA alumni organization (which is already an IRS tax-exempt entity) planning to purchase the school from its owners, who are retiring.
Commencement speakers have included Susan Sontag, Carrie Mae Weems, Gloria Steinem and John Waters.
Undergraduate departments
BFA Advertising
BFA Animation
BFA Cartooning
BFA Computer Art, Computer Animation and Visual Effects
BFA Design
BFA Film
BFA Fine Arts
BFA Illustration
BFA Interior Design
BFA Photography and Video
BFA Visual & Critical Studies
The school has three non-degree granting undergraduate departments: Art History, Honors Program and Humanities and Sciences.
Graduate departments
MA/MAT Art Education
MFA Art Practice
MPS Art Therapy
MPS Branding
MFA Computer Arts
MA Curatorial Practice
MFA Design
MFA Design for Social Innovation
MA Design Research, Writing and Criticism
MPS Digital Photography
MPS Directing
MPS Fashion Photography
MFA Fine Arts
MFA Illustration as Visual Essay
MFA Interaction Design
MFA Photography, Video and Related Media
MFA Products of Design
MFA Social Documentary Film
MFA Visual Narrative
The MFA Art Writing program (referred to as Art Criticism & Writing from 2006–2015) was discontinued in 2021.
Continuing education
The continuing education division offers noncredit courses from most departments; ¿Hablas Diseño?, a selection of advertising, branding, cartooning, copywriting, illustration and marketing courses taught in Spanish; professional development and corporate training courses; and summer residency programs.
The school offers short-term study abroad programs in various creative fields.
Rankings
PayScale included the college in its "Top 10 Art & Design Schools by Salary Potential" list for 2013–2014. It is ranked the 18th among the art graduate schools in U.S. News & World Report, with its MFA Photography, Video and Related Media program ranked the fifth best MFA photography program in the country.
Location and campus
The school has several buildings in the Gramercy Park neighborhood, on Manhattan's east side, and in the Chelsea neighborhood, on the west side. There is a residence hall on Ludlow Street, in the Lower East Side. From 1994 to 1997, it had a branch campus in Savannah, Georgia; this was closed following a lawsuit from the Savannah College of Art and Design.
Library
The library holds books, periodicals, audio recordings, films and other media; the Milton Glaser Design Study Center and Archives, which comprises the collections of Chermayeff & Geismar, Seymour Chwast, Heinz Edelmann, Milton Glaser, Steven Heller, Ed McCabe, James McMullan, Tony Palladino, George Tscherny and Henry Wolf; and the SVA Archives, a repository for materials pertaining to the college's history.
West 21st Street buildings
The building at 133 to 141 West 21st Street, between Sixth Avenue and Seventh Avenue in Chelsea, has studios for drawing and painting classes.
The buildings at 132 and 136 West 21st Street have offices, classrooms and studios for art criticism, art education, art therapy, cartooning, computer art, design, illustration and writing. The building at 132 West 21st Street houses the Visible Futures Lab, a workshop featuring traditional and emerging fabrication technology, which regularly hosts artists in residence.
Theatre
The Theatre is at 333 West 23rd Street, between Eighth Avenue and Ninth Avenue, in Chelsea. It was formerly the Clearview Chelsea West Cinema. It was purchased in 2008, renovated, and reopened in January 2009. Milton Glaser designed the theater's interior and exterior, including the sculpture situated atop its marquee. The facility houses two separate auditoriums, one with 265 seats and one with 480, and hosts class meetings, lectures, screenings and other public events. It has also hosted the red-carpet New York première of Ethan Hawke's The Daybreakers and a diverse list of world premières, ranging from Lucy Liu's 2010 feature documentary Redlight, to the 2011 Fox animated comedy Allen Gregory; and the 2012 film The Hunger Games. In 2013, Beyoncé held a release party and screening for her record-setting, self-titled visual album at the theatre. Community partners that have used the theatre include the Tribeca and GenArt film festivals, Mayor Michael Bloomberg's PlaNYC environmental initiative, and the Mayor's Office of Film, Theatre & Broadcasting. The theater is also home to the Dusty Film & Animation Festival, held annually since 1990, which showcases the work of emerging filmmakers and animators from the college's BFA Film and Video and BFA Animation programs.
Residence halls
There are several residence halls available for students at SVA.
23rd Street Residence (formerly New Residence), at 215 East 23rd Street, is an apartment-style dormitory reserved for new students.
24th Street Residence, is a 146,000-square-foot, 14-story residence hall that opened in August 2016. The site was purchased by Magnum Real Estate Group and 40 North in April 2015 for $32.25 million from the nonprofit International Center for the Disabled. It houses 505 residents in 242 suites, including office space, and serves as the flagship residence hall for the school.
Former residence halls
George Washington Residence, at 23 Lexington Avenue.
Awards
Notable alumni and instructors
References
External links
Art schools in New York City
Culture of New York City
Animation schools in the United States
Design schools in the United States
Educational institutions established in 1947
For-profit universities and colleges in the United States
Graphic design schools in the United States
Universities and colleges in New York City
Universities and colleges in Manhattan
1947 establishments in New York City
Gramercy Park
Chelsea, Manhattan
For profit schools in Manhattan
Private universities and colleges in New York City | [
0.8521830439567566,
0.010266394354403019,
0.07323384284973145,
0.30829641222953796,
0.21590974926948547,
0.18516214191913605,
0.22706206142902374,
0.14728567004203796,
-0.4897612929344177,
-0.5477156043052673,
-0.15192811191082,
0.4990414083003998,
0.13617880642414093,
0.1710071712732315,
-0.1021764799952507,
-0.7922114133834839,
0.710366427898407,
0.1473204791545868,
-0.02884986624121666,
-0.23776711523532867,
-0.5480250716209412,
-0.07973124831914902,
0.4097488820552826,
-0.07366757839918137,
-0.5820222496986389,
0.15722666680812836,
0.1458616554737091,
0.1200055480003357,
0.3947039246559143,
0.21168452501296997,
0.0195031575858593,
-0.2671275734901428,
-0.0014921821421012282,
-0.5077890753746033,
-0.19544139504432678,
-0.13391314446926117,
-0.4997037947177887,
-0.4726547598838806,
-0.18836677074432373,
-0.3597712218761444,
-0.29148945212364197,
-0.3850148022174835,
0.10491612553596497,
0.12933142483234406,
-0.07118558138608932,
-0.46066197752952576,
-1.4051698446273804,
0.13641834259033203,
-0.7387985587120056,
0.3959095776081085,
-0.17100889980793,
0.21411192417144775,
0.47362542152404785,
0.6001147627830505,
-0.29831427335739136,
0.22391898930072784,
-0.8664130568504333,
0.09309260547161102,
0.07866907864809036,
-0.5412275791168213,
-0.26392221450805664,
0.4133719503879547,
0.2604210376739502,
0.18743474781513214,
-0.03159341961145401,
-0.1122111827135086,
0.12199214845895767,
0.23794694244861603,
-0.10724297910928726,
-0.43023332953453064,
-0.05346470698714256,
-0.13644225895404816,
-0.16774816811084747,
-0.09421170502901077,
-0.5185597538948059,
-0.5084593296051025,
0.49048295617103577,
-0.257304310798645,
-0.2562415301799774,
0.2078128308057785,
-0.058396272361278534,
0.31935298442840576,
0.7865965962409973,
0.15544971823692322,
0.5849579572677612,
0.4143317937850952,
-0.892650842666626,
-0.2966368794441223,
0.10478932410478592,
0.12187730520963669,
-0.5822626352310181,
0.35224249958992004,
0.6426419019699097,
0.25359082221984863,
0.3925713002681732,
0.006896444130688906,
-0.16818316280841827,
-0.17048074305057526,
0.11510302126407623,
-0.14060205221176147,
-0.15371888875961304,
0.4169670045375824,
0.4203024208545685,
0.1638769954442978,
-0.40093377232551575,
-0.06048307567834854,
0.4337189495563507,
-0.24565842747688293,
0.10033202171325684,
0.05348934233188629,
-0.40896400809288025,
0.38822147250175476,
-0.3627846837043762,
-0.1209951788187027,
-0.023076506331562996,
0.6408298015594482,
0.5410181879997253,
0.06344461441040039,
-0.5929246544837952,
-0.04301366209983826,
0.4679194986820221,
0.5803895592689514,
0.023859143257141113,
0.30499961972236633,
0.018958445638418198,
0.6169296503067017,
0.344673752784729,
0.2501786947250366,
-0.45579391717910767,
-0.4022805392742157,
0.21078228950500488,
0.35590416193008423,
0.3049086630344391,
-0.015864025801420212,
0.12216712534427643,
-0.14435505867004395,
-0.030122928321361542,
-0.09193568676710129,
-0.041346803307533264,
0.37343260645866394,
-1.0845706462860107,
-0.024150388315320015,
-0.12241196632385254,
-0.4811103940010071,
0.45792099833488464,
-0.33692729473114014,
0.1794578582048416,
-0.28954648971557617,
-0.31143486499786377,
0.09220725297927856,
0.11699070036411285,
-0.0963331013917923,
-0.6136384606361389,
0.29908573627471924,
-0.20430199801921844,
-0.39758288860321045,
0.5944870710372925,
0.3884485363960266,
0.5800114870071411,
0.34898480772972107,
0.07809172570705414,
0.09696942567825317,
-0.04777267202734947,
0.6344658136367798,
-0.5495477318763733,
-0.317776620388031,
-0.44479063153266907,
0.07003500312566757,
-0.42119932174682617,
0.1977103054523468,
-0.2276027500629425,
-0.10452835261821747,
0.1763003021478653,
-0.4704883396625519,
-0.12140776216983795,
-0.11616353690624237,
0.220216765999794,
0.29428112506866455,
-0.008147265762090683,
-0.21213297545909882,
-0.5291908383369446,
0.2557429373264313,
0.5336554646492004,
-0.45514971017837524,
-0.14923487603664398,
-0.5800008773803711,
0.4999918043613434,
0.27020570635795593,
0.05322955548763275,
0.45767396688461304,
-0.8119325637817383,
0.1387156993150711,
0.2306494563817978,
-0.2106492817401886,
0.9985003471374512,
0.15584681928157806,
-0.5335772633552551,
1.2995719909667969,
-0.21919463574886322,
0.578872561454773,
-0.033797383308410645,
-0.46582651138305664,
0.12692396342754364,
-0.018521325662732124,
-0.5956054925918579,
-0.04974234476685524,
0.26106172800064087,
0.34939292073249817,
0.07286891341209412,
0.19891966879367828,
0.1329776644706726,
-1.0200262069702148,
-0.0477239154279232,
0.4842953085899353,
0.5922760367393494,
-0.4299609363079071,
-0.606926679611206,
-0.08409785479307175,
0.04238179326057434,
-0.5350050330162048,
1.4841548204421997,
-0.5370633006095886,
0.5277073383331299,
-0.42061057686805725,
-0.11803127825260162,
0.4801579713821411,
-0.282746285200119,
-0.1505286693572998,
0.5210078954696655,
-0.31348875164985657,
0.30987417697906494,
0.08437462151050568,
-0.039317771792411804,
-0.5450559258460999,
0.20354045927524567,
-0.16155624389648438,
-0.1331786811351776,
-0.4326980412006378,
0.7174080014228821,
-0.765030562877655,
-0.2792483866214752,
-0.16564086079597473,
-1.0438995361328125,
0.0017165729077532887,
0.03823484107851982,
0.25692087411880493,
-0.06183738633990288,
0.17347848415374756,
0.04058457165956497,
0.11260990053415298,
0.08221723884344101,
0.15111522376537323,
-0.12603479623794556,
-0.17946738004684448,
-0.6767984628677368,
0.06431194394826889,
0.12847186625003815,
-0.2766726315021515,
0.825924277305603,
-0.4131540060043335,
0.2002974897623062,
0.24927979707717896,
0.4871402978897095,
0.8340592980384827,
-0.06962000578641891,
-0.26088762283325195,
0.27574706077575684,
-0.4852372109889984,
0.13495001196861267,
0.10336481034755707,
0.48391076922416687,
0.008166136220097542,
-0.09565482288599014,
-0.39157170057296753,
0.012074355967342854,
-0.12218113988637924,
0.36238548159599304,
-0.08845312893390656,
-0.16520938277244568,
-0.4658980667591095,
0.16477732360363007,
0.7513318061828613,
-0.2708604335784912,
-0.5880672931671143,
0.10071326792240143,
0.1303245723247528,
-0.176529198884964,
0.3043470084667206,
-0.21025089919567108,
-0.5469743013381958,
0.16647012531757355,
0.11049707233905792,
-0.12876302003860474,
0.301401287317276,
-0.3085503876209259,
-0.07483825087547302,
0.03781241923570633,
0.015100372023880482,
-0.010976983234286308,
-0.08294138312339783,
-0.26221606135368347,
0.3307018280029297,
-0.36419710516929626,
0.18624305725097656,
-0.2362895905971527,
-0.10621006786823273,
0.07280309498310089,
-0.12003529816865921,
-5.769914150238037,
0.1954130232334137,
-0.1612805426120758,
0.38349565863609314,
-0.04400602728128433,
-0.6440631151199341,
0.2611732482910156,
-0.3690885603427887,
0.28004804253578186,
-0.4054332971572876,
-0.565657913684845,
-0.23514589667320251,
-0.08621835708618164,
0.5346825122833252,
0.12375260889530182,
0.4135865271091461,
-0.24365079402923584,
-0.2889743447303772,
-0.275539755821228,
0.7856765389442444,
-0.35698404908180237,
-0.13378947973251343,
-0.16016428172588348,
0.19397735595703125,
0.5037054419517517,
0.2076636254787445,
-0.7942320108413696,
-0.40004676580429077,
-0.681310772895813,
-0.4462239444255829,
-0.019974935799837112,
-0.6556739807128906,
-0.28455299139022827,
-0.05158178135752678,
0.14600320160388947,
-0.027005312964320183,
1.1490273475646973,
-0.0816742479801178,
0.06254157423973083,
-0.4413157105445862,
0.44520941376686096,
0.003603688906878233,
-0.3176065981388092,
0.00702982721850276,
0.39330214262008667,
0.12959258258342743,
-0.30581754446029663,
-0.1905180960893631,
-0.41101348400115967,
0.6247335076332092,
0.26974865794181824,
0.11888571083545685,
0.1533561795949936,
-0.06646053493022919,
-0.5760454535484314,
-0.25540608167648315,
0.5730053186416626,
0.4524227976799011,
-0.049399107694625854,
-0.08519710600376129,
0.2659568786621094,
-0.30755001306533813,
0.17520810663700104,
-0.28197914361953735,
-0.13301444053649902,
-0.41033193469047546,
-0.5330199599266052,
0.38046589493751526,
0.2751617133617401,
0.1582164168357849,
0.5639960169792175,
0.35539525747299194,
-0.44786331057548523,
-0.5251297950744629,
0.1598069667816162,
-0.2604753077030182,
-0.0692485049366951,
-0.5117783546447754,
0.38608917593955994,
-0.39991509914398193,
0.23515917360782623,
-0.2915724813938141,
0.7276192903518677,
0.16357560455799103,
0.1042998731136322,
-0.4989235997200012,
0.056466493755578995,
0.6374379992485046,
-0.11118106544017792,
0.2795318365097046,
0.41824814677238464,
0.5720128417015076,
0.2319536656141281,
0.44017550349235535,
0.312895268201828,
0.10795477777719498,
0.9028444290161133,
0.30560174584388733,
-0.121120885014534,
-0.04163213446736336,
0.20172975957393646,
-0.18103870749473572,
-0.28760409355163574,
-0.34819841384887695,
-0.14143963158130646,
-0.30123668909072876,
0.30397605895996094,
0.144095316529274,
0.6727087497711182,
-0.4658878445625305,
-0.04552547633647919,
-0.3105721175670624,
-0.29245755076408386,
-0.41038089990615845,
0.8353054523468018,
-0.03331688046455383,
-0.6380198001861572,
0.7619030475616455,
0.05069739744067192,
0.1349577158689499,
0.019346602261066437,
0.16813017427921295,
0.3410513699054718,
0.5105311274528503,
-0.2572411596775055,
-0.5098217129707336,
-0.2934876084327698,
0.3198986053466797,
-0.4938030540943146,
0.180829718708992,
0.17764413356781006,
0.01770624704658985,
-0.1719629466533661,
0.2213076651096344,
0.47203633189201355,
0.07024484872817993,
-0.4020755887031555,
-0.36527779698371887,
0.2663875222206116,
0.07748118788003922,
0.10026843100786209,
0.39241066575050354,
0.043331246823072433,
0.6309334635734558,
0.763331949710846,
0.4459172189235687,
-0.3969365954399109,
-0.2972240447998047,
-0.7136093974113464,
0.10346368700265884,
0.3740905225276947,
-0.6468949913978577,
-0.15167678892612457,
0.4995866119861603,
0.3995749056339264,
-0.3071422278881073,
-0.6330646872520447,
-0.23490284383296967,
0.1725252866744995,
0.07824457436800003,
0.43529632687568665,
-0.026146281510591507,
-1.1061596870422363,
-0.07054442167282104,
0.05918961763381958,
-0.9301602244377136,
-0.2765721082687378,
-0.28295159339904785,
-0.41547679901123047,
0.08445229381322861,
0.801237165927887,
-0.3309093117713928,
-0.12751296162605286,
-0.770322322845459,
0.16952651739120483,
0.08852387219667435,
0.23267166316509247,
-0.2237187772989273,
-0.03720667585730553,
0.1642073541879654,
0.7927575707435608,
-0.4592863619327545,
0.07871010154485703,
-0.2405698150396347,
0.4093754291534424,
-0.3349933624267578,
-0.35090020298957825,
-0.027374565601348877,
-0.6078014373779297,
-0.17658041417598724,
0.06915196776390076,
-0.052337147295475006,
0.058010321110486984,
0.5751432776451111,
-0.6279188394546509,
-0.49261367321014404,
-0.054249681532382965,
0.2555661201477051,
-0.1761476695537567,
0.17550607025623322,
-0.09665961563587189,
0.6521843075752258,
-0.8753390312194824,
0.3496878445148468,
-0.021619142964482307,
-0.27728205919265747,
0.008955612778663635,
0.38075923919677734,
0.1799837201833725,
0.020665263757109642,
-0.48078662157058716,
-0.013273968361318111,
-0.36632317304611206,
-0.18692933022975922,
-0.49362772703170776,
-0.09831357002258301,
0.09504102915525436,
-0.44440266489982605,
-0.25211018323898315,
-0.03190469369292259,
0.34740543365478516,
0.5217326283454895,
-0.4628700613975525,
-0.18186353147029877,
-0.21944265067577362,
0.8453922867774963,
0.04243788868188858,
-0.6958898305892944,
-0.3271089494228363,
-0.6716654300689697,
0.08749541640281677,
-0.1917429268360138,
-0.270812064409256,
0.09746033698320389,
-0.1038118526339531,
0.013409426435828209,
-0.14504733681678772,
0.03267873078584671,
0.27180349826812744,
0.33705660700798035,
-0.04259250685572624,
0.37505051493644714,
-0.6638116836547852,
-0.4012692868709564,
0.2193118929862976,
0.24616208672523499,
0.39577099680900574,
0.01644580438733101,
-0.4917587339878082,
-0.051034167408943176,
0.3410801589488983,
-1.3495949506759644,
0.04435193911194801,
-0.19815665483474731,
0.5557166934013367,
-0.021379239857196808,
0.13975755870342255,
-0.5622711777687073,
-0.0452914722263813,
0.14771172404289246,
-0.2859153747558594,
-0.20637951791286469,
-0.8635469675064087,
0.006777123082429171,
-0.3301871120929718,
-0.02226947993040085,
-0.23238076269626617,
-0.4089340567588806,
-0.3163265287876129,
-0.9248153567314148,
0.22796179354190826,
-0.1255696564912796,
0.2079862803220749,
0.4642142355442047,
0.012672479264438152,
-0.16340278089046478,
-0.10762491822242737,
-0.8260824084281921,
0.20870479941368103,
-0.2578064203262329,
-0.13959792256355286,
0.23601365089416504,
-0.3659287095069885,
-0.24020744860172272,
0.5358659625053406,
-0.3023850917816162,
0.6049330234527588,
0.19397974014282227,
-0.3630186915397644,
0.28242966532707214,
0.3219652473926544,
-0.665635347366333,
0.03600833937525749,
-0.4345073997974396,
-0.0333595871925354,
-0.12883582711219788,
0.6074989438056946,
0.20533469319343567,
0.7922642827033997,
0.08385028690099716,
-0.17869216203689575,
0.2138233780860901,
0.6411987543106079,
0.2423715740442276,
0.329233318567276,
-0.06028103828430176,
0.12489404529333115,
-0.35111290216445923,
-0.038603708148002625,
-0.0679704025387764,
-0.364840030670166,
-0.5362735986709595,
0.4999634921550751,
0.6005390286445618,
-1.0100278854370117,
0.3046163022518158,
0.4822384715080261,
-0.545872688293457,
0.8031571507453918,
-0.07349076867103577,
-0.5015924572944641,
0.22951628267765045,
0.3881267011165619,
0.5765113234519958,
0.23346930742263794,
0.4227631986141205,
0.026646561920642853,
-0.018230946734547615,
0.18441210687160492,
-0.12216705083847046,
0.044534530490636826,
0.009331109933555126,
-0.49221131205558777,
0.6509516835212708,
0.38774925470352173,
0.05912250280380249,
0.024800769984722137,
-0.9702505469322205,
-0.2500770688056946,
0.2607153654098511,
0.6992972493171692,
1.0588620901107788,
0.5239114165306091,
0.6225917935371399,
-0.3441285490989685,
0.12056335806846619,
0.5502413511276245,
0.1658625304698944,
-0.1726820468902588,
0.18999242782592773,
0.311282217502594,
0.02098470740020275,
0.41689473390579224,
-0.6768743395805359,
0.3953595459461212,
-0.16209889948368073,
0.31427744030952454,
0.23133523762226105,
0.12536479532718658,
0.02596498467028141,
0.09628795087337494,
0.6068764925003052,
0.1664394736289978,
-0.13788959383964539,
-0.8165632486343384,
-0.3855050206184387,
0.4543638527393341,
-0.22233350574970245,
-0.4722197651863098,
0.017641019076108932,
0.23849447071552277,
0.7291291952133179,
-0.3225051164627075,
-0.17344045639038086,
0.10791411995887756,
0.9120702147483826,
0.8371503353118896,
0.22877809405326843,
0.1939108967781067,
0.32284149527549744,
-0.10395513474941254,
-0.09125866740942001,
-0.48433297872543335,
-0.1255481094121933,
-0.1782936304807663,
-0.09979615360498428,
-0.1763954609632492,
0.37136897444725037,
-0.41796213388442993,
0.07371031492948532,
0.07426689565181732,
-0.17301742732524872,
0.8849037289619446,
0.5880393385887146,
0.14326904714107513,
0.39519187808036804,
-0.46425649523735046,
0.45795443654060364,
-0.07188206911087036,
0.05311666429042816,
-0.2622195780277252,
0.39644426107406616,
-0.3763887882232666,
0.10577554255723953,
-0.4769882261753082,
0.02994164265692234,
-0.28519949316978455,
-0.1527945101261139,
-0.45677199959754944,
0.5653753876686096,
0.15952102839946747,
0.017974654212594032,
0.26695898175239563,
-0.01610255241394043,
-0.2523219883441925,
1.0074704885482788,
0.9174445867538452,
0.5581690073013306,
-0.30182307958602905,
-0.22740381956100464,
0.11983409523963928,
-0.21297097206115723,
0.0660044327378273,
0.5560131072998047,
-0.20682881772518158,
-0.06092524528503418,
-0.352498859167099,
0.4355248212814331,
0.023295003920793533,
0.14648285508155823,
0.14502649009227753,
-0.07304026931524277,
-0.3760911524295807,
0.8803020119667053,
-0.45115000009536743,
-0.024183886125683784,
-0.1688169687986374,
0.5411570072174072,
0.8862658739089966,
-1.0743987560272217,
0.3266831338405609,
-0.40858614444732666,
-0.24529621005058289,
-0.2075345665216446,
-0.5918841361999512,
0.4928341805934906,
-0.26655617356300354,
0.24062548577785492,
-0.6163308024406433,
-0.16697479784488678,
-0.27772462368011475,
-0.9088939428329468,
0.5640158653259277,
-0.26297226548194885,
-0.802574634552002,
0.40945732593536377,
0.24938035011291504,
-0.38368499279022217,
0.037021685391664505,
0.3362855613231659
] |
228953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry%20Lloyd | Terry Lloyd | Terence Ellis "Terry" Lloyd (21 November 1952 – 22 March 2003) was an English television journalist who reported extensively from the Middle East. He was killed by the U.S. military while covering the 2003 invasion of Iraq for ITN. An inquest jury in the United Kingdom before Assistant Deputy Coroner Andrew Walker returned a verdict of unlawful killing on 13 October 2006 following an eight-day hearing.
Early life and education
Lloyd was born in Derby, Derbyshire, where he worked for Raymonds News Agency, and later moved to become a regional TV reporter for ATV/Central Television. He joined ITN in 1983. His Welsh-born father, Ellis Aled Lloyd, was a police officer who was killed in an accident while answering an emergency call aged 46 in 1970. He was the brother of the television actor Kevin Lloyd, and uncle of James Lloyd, also an actor.
Career
In 1988, Lloyd broke the news that Saddam Hussein had used chemical weapons in Halabja, killing 5,000 Kurds. In 1999, he became the first foreign journalist to enter Kosovo.
Death
Lloyd died on 22 March 2003 while covering the 2003 invasion of Iraq for ITN. Working as an independent reporter not "embedded" with coalition forces, Lloyd and his team of two cameramen and an interpreter were caught in crossfire during fighting near the Shatt Al Basra Bridge in Basra, Iraq, between U.S. and Iraqi forces. His body and that of his Lebanese interpreter, Hussein Osman, were recovered and it was later discovered they had both been shot by U.S. forces on the road to Basra. French cameraman Frédéric Nérac is still officially classed as missing, presumed dead. Belgian cameraman Daniel Demoustier survived. Lloyd's funeral was reported on ITN news bulletins by Mark Austin on ITV and Samira Ahmed on Channel 4. At a 29 July 2003 'Embedded Journalist' symposium at the William and Mary College, Washington DC, journalist John Donovan said he had seen Lloyd in the town of Safwan two hours before he was killed.
Investigation
The Royal Military Police (RMP) carried out an investigation into the incident. Major Kay Roberts, an RMP investigator, testified at Lloyd's inquest that a videotape of the incident, taken by a cameraman attached to the U.S. unit that killed him, had been edited before it had been passed on to the British investigation. The RMP forensics expert who examined the tape concluded that about 15 minutes had been removed from the start of the recording. Roberts testified at the inquest that she was sent the tape "some months" after the incident and that she was told by U.S. authorities that the footage they handed over was "everything that they had".
The ITN team were driving in two cars both clearly marked as press vehicles. Frédéric Nérac and Hussein Osman were in the car behind Lloyd and Daniel Demoustier. They encountered an Iraqi convoy at the Shatt Al Basra Bridge in Basra, Iraq. Nérac and Osman were taken out of their car and made to get into an Iraqi vehicle. The British investigation into the incident established the convoy was escorting a Baath Party leader to Basra. American forces shot at the Iraqi convoy, killing Osman: Nérac's body has not been recovered, but the investigation found that he was unlikely to have survived. Frédéric Nérac's wife Fabienne Mercier-Nérac testified that she had received a letter from U.S. authorities who denied being at the scene when the ITN News team was attacked.
Demoustier and Lloyd, still in the ITN car, were caught in crossfire between the Iraqi Republican Guard and American forces. Lloyd was hit by an Iraqi bullet, an injury from which he could have recovered. He was put into a civilian minibus that had stopped to pick up casualties. Forensic evidence presented at the inquest shows U.S. forces shot at the minibus after it had turned to leave the area, killing Lloyd outright. Demoustier survived.
Inquest
The inquest on Lloyd's death was held in October 2006 in Oxfordshire, and lasted eight days, recording the verdict on 13 October 2006. The Assistant Deputy Coroner, Andrew Walker, recorded a verdict of unlawful killing by the U.S. military, and announced he would write to the Director of Public Prosecutions asking for him to investigate the possibility of bringing charges.
Andrew Walker formally cleared ITN of any blame for Lloyd's death, and said that in his view the U.S. tanks had been first to open fire on the ITN crew's two vehicles. However, in the same document, he says he "was unable to determine whether the bullets that killed Lloyd in southern Iraq on 22 March 2003, were fired by U.S. ground forces or helicopters." Lloyd "would probably have survived the first [Iraqi] bullet wound" but was killed as he was being carried away from the fighting in the civilian minibus. Walker said: "If the vehicle was perceived as a threat, it would have been fired on before it did a U-turn. This would have resulted in damage to the front of the vehicle. I have no doubt it was the fact that the vehicle stopped to pick up survivors that prompted the Americans to fire on that vehicle." The National Union of Journalists said Lloyd's killing was a war crime.
On 25 October 2006, Liberal Democrats leader Sir Menzies Campbell raised the matter at Prime Minister's Questions (PMQs), asking "When may we expect the Attorney-General to make an application for the extradition and trial in Britain of those American soldiers against whom there is a prima facie case for the unlawful killing in Iraq of the ITN journalist Terry Lloyd?"
On 19 March 2007, BBC reported that ITN had released the names of the 16 U.S. Marines in the unit involved in Lloyd's death. Despite the inquest verdict of unlawful killing, the Crown Prosecution Service decided in July 2008 that there was "insufficient evidence" to prosecute Lloyd's killers.
References
External links
Obituary: Terry Lloyd (The Guardian)
Lloyd's daughter demands inquiry into father's death - IFEX
Inquiry reveals military cover up
US forces killed ITN man in Iraq
ITN - Lloyd footage may have been edited (itv.com)
BBC News - Profile: Terry Lloyd - 23 March 2003
Incident Account by Daniel Demoustier
google cache of Incident Account by Daniel Demoustier
Online Press Gazette - NUJ speaks out on eve of Terry Lloyd inquest - 2/10/06
National Union of Journalists
Reporters Sans Frontieres - available in three languages
AIM Magazine - The Terry Lloyd Memorial Bursary - 8/10/06
1952 births
2003 deaths
English reporters and correspondents
Deaths by firearm in Iraq
ITN newsreaders and journalists
Journalists killed while covering the Iraq War
People from Derby
English people of Welsh descent
English war correspondents | [
0.39895495772361755,
0.5823920369148254,
-0.6839436888694763,
-0.7816165089607239,
0.24928270280361176,
0.32339727878570557,
0.1636500358581543,
0.22448791563510895,
-0.35296255350112915,
0.3862690329551697,
-0.5169075727462769,
0.7059643268585205,
-0.12960785627365112,
0.1267167180776596,
-0.041862260550260544,
0.05716275796294212,
-0.43296775221824646,
-0.37866440415382385,
-0.7385169863700867,
-0.28143051266670227,
0.06811165809631348,
-0.23206447064876556,
-0.2609345018863678,
0.17783953249454498,
-0.5318184494972229,
0.191758394241333,
-0.08319645375013351,
0.2734910547733307,
0.003923685289919376,
-0.6600939035415649,
0.20806445181369781,
0.15582752227783203,
0.13887450098991394,
0.04454951360821724,
-0.08862916380167007,
0.9433229565620422,
-0.11183423548936844,
-0.3386506736278534,
-0.8141957521438599,
-0.08400348573923111,
0.2657535672187805,
0.23536613583564758,
0.14177273213863373,
0.7540467381477356,
-0.20819498598575592,
-0.4926207363605499,
-1.8046438694000244,
0.37049514055252075,
-0.6924569010734558,
-0.3892475962638855,
0.04867180064320564,
1.087712049484253,
0.8819153308868408,
-0.24260887503623962,
0.6072335839271545,
0.7885001301765442,
-0.4920652210712433,
-0.25340786576271057,
0.09368808567523956,
0.05856377258896828,
0.6241085529327393,
-0.2097288966178894,
0.4676849842071533,
-0.22243478894233704,
0.22368882596492767,
0.01519787684082985,
-0.13302138447761536,
0.3131391406059265,
0.043533142656087875,
-0.05752738192677498,
-0.08901961892843246,
0.2396567165851593,
0.4514498710632324,
0.3933667540550232,
-0.24033653736114502,
0.08094089478254318,
0.32143640518188477,
-0.8013491034507751,
-0.2854761481285095,
-0.0023222025483846664,
0.10021860897541046,
0.143191397190094,
0.06900353729724884,
0.7420578002929688,
0.7011048793792725,
-0.19087472558021545,
-0.6280517578125,
0.24423149228096008,
-0.17741519212722778,
0.2575019598007202,
-0.8633572459220886,
-0.16469702124595642,
0.26444509625434875,
0.3745574355125427,
-0.4346874952316284,
-0.33552801609039307,
-0.6198760271072388,
0.4126688838005066,
0.2978985905647278,
-0.019970687106251717,
-0.04937931150197983,
0.12625621259212494,
0.2596457600593567,
-0.5522767305374146,
-0.6110689043998718,
-0.4969247579574585,
-0.1851898431777954,
-0.4080711007118225,
0.2790699601173401,
-0.8831584453582764,
-0.3104538321495056,
-0.08827705681324005,
0.08883748203516006,
0.1576825976371765,
0.33012333512306213,
-0.11768639832735062,
-0.34767040610313416,
-0.33964207768440247,
-0.6982134580612183,
0.16730235517024994,
-0.5510923266410828,
0.6245786547660828,
-0.5857992172241211,
-0.0829424187541008,
-1.0216593742370605,
-0.5009361505508423,
0.20658567547798157,
-0.2292771339416504,
-0.5352956652641296,
0.6927799582481384,
0.18758633732795715,
1.0352797508239746,
-1.0573853254318237,
-0.2966119349002838,
-0.5460019707679749,
0.1730118989944458,
0.3337317705154419,
0.3719216287136078,
0.09348192811012268,
-0.09909413009881973,
-0.4643862545490265,
-0.2901783883571625,
-2.0058774948120117,
-0.1556386500597,
0.2971619665622711,
-0.14144264161586761,
0.04582555219531059,
-0.02191334031522274,
0.5675988793373108,
-0.476710706949234,
0.391929566860199,
-0.249659925699234,
0.6328270435333252,
-0.3057501018047333,
-0.3645779490470886,
0.2914908528327942,
0.2803356349468231,
-0.07305224984884262,
0.15586011111736298,
-0.1956763118505478,
0.5515397787094116,
-0.5668905377388,
0.043373655527830124,
0.07102406769990921,
0.2852647602558136,
0.3548392951488495,
0.14160828292369843,
-0.19174987077713013,
0.6458539962768555,
0.21219059824943542,
-0.34567776322364807,
-0.17108392715454102,
0.43858063220977783,
0.12453382462263107,
-0.02480396255850792,
0.31648072600364685,
0.3838977813720703,
0.7059015035629272,
-0.10043159872293472,
-0.16375014185905457,
-0.6357160806655884,
-0.7045433521270752,
0.07968548685312271,
0.04976804926991463,
0.5248122215270996,
-0.08592899143695831,
0.34689173102378845,
-0.3676411807537079,
0.3319290280342102,
0.6923837065696716,
-0.16662639379501343,
-0.13334207236766815,
0.16890563070774078,
-0.506924569606781,
-0.20352278649806976,
-0.014725449495017529,
-0.41709816455841064,
0.3248441815376282,
0.26515740156173706,
0.8708992004394531,
-0.19346942007541656,
0.08875516057014465,
0.32126468420028687,
-0.4478663504123688,
0.04392844811081886,
1.5511516332626343,
0.846673309803009,
0.016683895140886307,
0.09948795288801193,
1.5485920906066895,
0.08263754844665527,
-0.4527895748615265,
-0.1451101005077362,
0.9434446096420288,
-0.05193765461444855,
-0.8822104930877686,
-0.2280397117137909,
0.19688476622104645,
-0.08009673655033112,
-0.5839410424232483,
0.31974977254867554,
0.9322905540466309,
-0.4977891743183136,
0.7327854633331299,
0.18981057405471802,
0.3850513696670532,
-0.29461824893951416,
0.021856069564819336,
0.47278735041618347,
-1.5672836303710938,
-0.27815547585487366,
0.5225426554679871,
0.3971743583679199,
-0.8987116813659668,
-0.028578052297234535,
-0.13465847074985504,
0.48285096883773804,
-0.7142677307128906,
-0.18113857507705688,
-0.46117204427719116,
0.38139551877975464,
-0.2093132734298706,
-0.5905107855796814,
0.09012773633003235,
0.40951645374298096,
0.3765082061290741,
0.12347355484962463,
-0.16402071714401245,
0.10450385510921478,
0.276919424533844,
0.6025594472885132,
0.9505072236061096,
0.7886671423912048,
-0.38668912649154663,
-0.14058396220207214,
0.18680225312709808,
0.049214236438274384,
-0.13524092733860016,
0.42726317048072815,
0.44901198148727417,
0.18140479922294617,
0.14227049052715302,
0.05327627807855606,
-0.19861091673374176,
-0.26592299342155457,
-0.4742262661457062,
-0.31369996070861816,
-0.9198580384254456,
0.21516983211040497,
-0.1485103815793991,
0.005365502554923296,
-0.4087393283843994,
-0.01837674155831337,
-1.7496695518493652,
0.3569485545158386,
0.1753537505865097,
-0.40011316537857056,
-0.006044324487447739,
-0.2037762701511383,
-0.26717469096183777,
0.7799724340438843,
0.5242339968681335,
0.1259196549654007,
0.5533520579338074,
-0.12069984525442123,
0.11286553740501404,
-0.7204797863960266,
-0.26120486855506897,
-0.09525889158248901,
-0.19319620728492737,
-0.5225706100463867,
0.46414729952812195,
0.00408971356227994,
0.5651368498802185,
-0.05637818202376366,
0.04871164634823799,
-0.6043934226036072,
-0.7979694604873657,
-0.16238614916801453,
-0.399099737405777,
-0.11428648233413696,
0.6217779517173767,
-0.16235096752643585,
0.10620887577533722,
0.3991570472717285,
-0.042989715933799744,
-0.3504840135574341,
-0.3789547085762024,
-4.553744316101074,
0.4050291180610657,
0.3770228624343872,
-0.34348630905151367,
0.30693596601486206,
0.25776079297065735,
0.6165348291397095,
-0.28931495547294617,
0.0146014504134655,
-0.5265910625457764,
0.35340768098831177,
-0.3696480989456177,
-0.028592856600880623,
0.45670193433761597,
1.0373207330703735,
0.6218940019607544,
0.5974055528640747,
0.18398517370224,
0.7150737047195435,
0.6288053393363953,
0.1981598287820816,
0.1493554562330246,
-0.16391755640506744,
0.4787018895149231,
-0.7010263800621033,
0.310796320438385,
-0.07511024177074432,
0.03427444398403168,
-0.6494545936584473,
-0.13553988933563232,
0.08217542618513107,
-0.36124610900878906,
-0.5728414058685303,
0.09064824879169464,
-0.5245808959007263,
0.0018781848484650254,
0.2821834087371826,
0.3505874574184418,
-0.08423034846782684,
-0.6263858079910278,
-0.28672724962234497,
0.21349792182445526,
-0.6537250876426697,
-0.43695953488349915,
0.8705663084983826,
-0.11961111426353455,
-0.595030665397644,
-0.3122504651546478,
-0.0044341194443404675,
0.4877265989780426,
0.06355995684862137,
0.232200026512146,
0.5858886241912842,
0.5605025887489319,
-0.5004651546478271,
-0.4480063021183014,
0.6841642260551453,
-0.8584563732147217,
-0.7267040610313416,
0.4406414031982422,
0.38705044984817505,
-0.4409395456314087,
0.5678556561470032,
-0.17889058589935303,
-0.05944294482469559,
0.24507170915603638,
0.3209496736526489,
-0.19701682031154633,
0.20777566730976105,
-0.7383561730384827,
-0.5000678300857544,
0.26170384883880615,
0.5159647464752197,
-1.0459426641464233,
-0.4853716194629669,
-0.3144615888595581,
0.38426467776298523,
0.23112177848815918,
-0.23581954836845398,
-0.15947292745113373,
0.5466936826705933,
-0.1761048138141632,
-0.13248153030872345,
0.4049568176269531,
0.380280077457428,
-0.7053871750831604,
-0.07474195957183838,
0.6408196687698364,
0.09053992480039597,
-0.4550274610519409,
0.32356324791908264,
0.05497901514172554,
-0.07525379210710526,
0.9224472641944885,
-0.19689100980758667,
0.6357814073562622,
-0.013388325460255146,
0.03133389726281166,
1.0828332901000977,
-0.25108960270881653,
-0.951241672039032,
0.04070428013801575,
-0.06043597683310509,
-0.5086245536804199,
0.05263655260205269,
-0.31098413467407227,
-0.2051420658826828,
-0.2434931993484497,
0.567574143409729,
-0.1360563486814499,
-0.17076151072978973,
0.8643552660942078,
-0.7850945591926575,
0.40415671467781067,
0.16168928146362305,
0.04838349297642708,
0.2534935772418976,
0.3535514175891876,
0.3785371780395508,
0.30656763911247253,
0.25361841917037964,
0.2633237838745117,
-0.17762722074985504,
0.003365041222423315,
-0.2559647262096405,
-0.6134832501411438,
-0.07141334563493729,
-0.4247540235519409,
-0.22085702419281006,
0.298621267080307,
-0.5655635595321655,
0.5727285742759705,
0.5130515098571777,
0.26727303862571716,
-0.16552501916885376,
-0.15968966484069824,
-0.874167263507843,
-0.404338538646698,
0.24803048372268677,
0.31703779101371765,
-0.08148136734962463,
0.1256771832704544,
0.15662997961044312,
0.5532791614532471,
0.10616795718669891,
0.23244021832942963,
0.16145095229148865,
0.31764933466911316,
-0.14762260019779205,
1.0095012187957764,
-0.04314130172133446,
0.05950766056776047,
-0.09081968665122986,
-0.4399908483028412,
-0.39269161224365234,
0.520732045173645,
-0.08395342528820038,
0.2729501724243164,
-0.15913881361484528,
-0.5971653461456299,
0.3127352297306061,
0.16077032685279846,
-1.1124310493469238,
0.3766510784626007,
0.219597727060318,
-0.05989068001508713,
-0.005034265574067831,
-0.1338772475719452,
-0.4368442893028259,
0.6820676922798157,
-0.3396320343017578,
-0.15270034968852997,
-0.49784982204437256,
0.1305828094482422,
0.486057847738266,
0.20795279741287231,
0.03843849524855614,
-0.1541130542755127,
-0.08014734834432602,
0.1031455248594284,
-0.12022964656352997,
0.3359108567237854,
-0.6027954816818237,
0.09130018949508667,
0.2357155978679657,
0.16211706399917603,
-0.9220778942108154,
-0.7935943603515625,
-0.1241980493068695,
-0.2180727869272232,
0.4653010666370392,
0.08082281053066254,
0.3871871531009674,
1.0026720762252808,
-0.3896687924861908,
-0.053450360894203186,
0.3310457766056061,
-0.41805610060691833,
-0.3035115599632263,
-0.3969208896160126,
0.10213345289230347,
0.4957588315010071,
-0.36235350370407104,
0.004766723606735468,
-0.010126699693500996,
-0.9014807939529419,
-0.4089345633983612,
0.188754603266716,
-0.543060839176178,
0.6611862778663635,
-0.3154362440109253,
0.008474883623421192,
-0.6106505990028381,
0.6237984299659729,
-0.5372557044029236,
-0.10265026241540909,
0.12961818277835846,
0.27366000413894653,
-0.14846770465373993,
-0.33644184470176697,
-0.5639960765838623,
-0.07287944853305817,
0.19499091804027557,
0.06010418385267258,
-0.46295058727264404,
0.2512211501598358,
0.18689560890197754,
-0.49000248312950134,
0.2872362434864044,
0.3999456763267517,
-0.21229562163352966,
-0.12704230844974518,
0.459581583738327,
0.13367390632629395,
-0.00757715804502368,
0.43366578221321106,
0.32177287340164185,
0.21366144716739655,
0.07406232506036758,
0.15219341218471527,
0.6010685563087463,
1.2075207233428955,
0.5060684680938721,
-0.39066800475120544,
-0.10203481465578079,
0.5332306623458862,
0.7171332240104675,
-0.35043641924858093,
-0.23735730350017548,
-0.24402780830860138,
0.5583800077438354,
-0.10288935899734497,
-0.5692840814590454,
-0.10356074571609497,
0.6927679181098938,
-1.0100924968719482,
-0.0861411988735199,
-0.11118525266647339,
0.3838827311992645,
-0.44983232021331787,
0.6792152523994446,
-0.1453515887260437,
-0.07290208339691162,
0.18516944348812103,
0.35630401968955994,
0.48200082778930664,
0.12949234247207642,
0.46771785616874695,
0.004613136872649193,
-0.027723947539925575,
-0.5385363698005676,
-0.2514050602912903,
-0.012964543886482716,
0.9840067625045776,
-0.1210692897439003,
-0.23794065415859222,
0.6782222390174866,
-0.7161190509796143,
0.6681448221206665,
-0.2330223172903061,
0.6193476319313049,
-0.15353943407535553,
0.5638850331306458,
-0.5510018467903137,
-0.33304792642593384,
-0.8289244771003723,
-0.14889489114284515,
0.5537317395210266,
-0.14985398948192596,
-0.09481845796108246,
-0.23906871676445007,
-0.001895517692901194,
-0.6127488017082214,
0.5843023657798767,
0.08470549434423447,
-0.38174980878829956,
-0.34257328510284424,
0.47921887040138245,
-0.4982777535915375,
-0.156958669424057,
-0.5453023910522461,
0.10218428820371628,
-0.2605569362640381,
0.20239880681037903,
0.41743630170822144,
-0.17822252213954926,
0.13321639597415924,
-0.15801338851451874,
0.11974216252565384,
0.32455745339393616,
-0.08741597086191177,
-0.26529496908187866,
0.563782811164856,
0.1258818656206131,
-0.11703498661518097,
-0.22567203640937805,
0.8228004574775696,
-0.4747636616230011,
-0.10308242589235306,
-0.5821187496185303,
-0.015096553601324558,
0.3199884295463562,
0.2683870494365692,
-0.3036735951900482,
-0.0525176115334034,
0.9769085049629211,
0.1423991471529007,
-0.03276306763291359,
0.08688190579414368,
-0.17018099129199982,
-0.1114652156829834,
0.10223891586065292,
-0.44500601291656494,
0.03558726981282234,
-0.2891661822795868,
-0.8258301019668579,
0.14883184432983398,
0.06023511663079262,
0.32675230503082275,
0.1171988770365715,
-0.5878493189811707,
0.8357532024383545,
-0.06624441593885422,
0.13895083963871002,
-0.13561956584453583,
0.3826305568218231,
-0.3197166323661804,
0.22376574575901031,
-0.24301110208034515,
-0.6140616536140442,
0.48434925079345703,
0.7280534505844116,
0.2155953347682953,
-0.4089398682117462,
0.4198934733867645,
-0.009891151450574398,
0.13804475963115692,
-0.6486404538154602,
-0.1623556911945343,
-1.455541729927063,
-0.2218293994665146,
0.2845042943954468,
0.5648390650749207,
0.3751440942287445,
-0.1731550693511963,
-0.38977494835853577,
0.10947968065738678,
-0.8369412422180176,
0.37136110663414,
0.9671077132225037,
0.5797196626663208,
-0.030255870893597603,
-0.23511765897274017,
0.36199522018432617,
0.6738624572753906,
-0.5526805520057678,
0.2660304605960846,
0.1816936582326889,
-0.14529044926166534,
-0.27751052379608154,
-0.14914029836654663,
-0.032594945281744,
0.09465761482715607,
-0.1575406938791275,
0.12808501720428467,
0.21608708798885345,
-0.6882733702659607,
-0.21964840590953827,
-0.23013323545455933,
-0.05320151522755623,
0.3608105778694153,
-0.9325137734413147,
-1.3385311365127563,
0.28440600633621216,
-0.9463076591491699,
-0.18052296340465546,
-0.6561747193336487,
1.288352370262146,
0.26323649287223816,
-0.4886229932308197,
-0.21908065676689148,
0.41403454542160034,
-0.2370557337999344,
-0.011612256988883018,
-0.3579212427139282,
0.27175602316856384,
-0.06364849209785461,
0.10910014808177948,
-0.8815814256668091,
0.3285881280899048,
0.3188769519329071,
0.11607558280229568,
-0.20022909343242645,
0.2701309025287628,
-0.5391215085983276,
0.05797562748193741,
0.6320866942405701,
-0.47326332330703735,
0.4722558259963989,
-0.048087410628795624,
0.2563910186290741,
0.3904607892036438,
-0.11188969016075134,
-0.13803645968437195,
-0.0013270999770611525,
0.23685285449028015,
0.17047187685966492,
0.3548733592033386,
-0.11813276261091232,
0.3575354814529419,
0.030850740149617195,
-0.2328321933746338,
-0.25263381004333496,
-0.3406398296356201,
0.16098472476005554,
-0.3911501169204712,
0.9032882452011108,
1.1961662769317627,
0.6248396039009094,
0.2612558603286743,
0.8167983293533325,
0.03791632875800133,
0.3463127315044403,
-0.4670311212539673,
-3.9479827880859375,
-0.4020533859729767,
0.08138716965913773,
-0.5646960735321045,
0.03978472203016281,
0.5108894109725952,
-0.3240184783935547,
-0.12750504910945892,
0.21739548444747925,
-0.8153597116470337,
0.28276360034942627,
0.023082341998815536,
-0.23945046961307526,
-0.2844783663749695,
0.5919390916824341,
0.06188281998038292
] |
228956 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%20Day | Victoria Day | Victoria Day () is a federal Canadian public holiday celebrated on the last Monday preceding May 25. Initially in honour of Queen Victoria's birthday, it has since been celebrated as the official birthday of Canada's sovereign. It is informally considered to be the beginning of the summer season in Canada.
The holiday has been observed in Canada since at least 1845, originally falling on Victoria's actual birthday (May 24). The holiday has always been a distinctly Canadian observance and continues to be celebrated across the country. It falls on the Monday between the 18th and the 24th (inclusive) and so is always the penultimate Monday of May ( in and in ).
Victoria Day is a federal statutory holiday, as well as a holiday in six of Canada's ten provinces and all three of its territories. In Quebec, before 2003, the Monday preceding May 25 of each year was unofficially the , a commemoration of Adam Dollard des Ormeaux initiated in the 1920s to coincide with Victoria Day. In 2003, provincial legislation officially created National Patriots' Day on the same date.
History
The birthday of Queen Victoria was a day for celebration in Canada long before Confederation, with the first legislation regarding the event being in 1845 passed by the parliament of the Province of Canada to officially recognize May 24 as the Queen's birthday. It was noted that on that date in 1854, the 35th birthday of Queen Victoria, some 5,000 residents of Canada West gathered in front of Government House (near present-day King and Simcoe Streets in Toronto) to "give cheers to their queen". An example of a typical 19th century celebration of the Queen's birthday took place on May 24, 1866, in Omemee, also in Canada West: the town mounted a day-long to mark the occasion, including a gun salute at midnight, pre-dawn serenades, picnics, athletic competitions, a display of illuminations, and a torch-light procession; such events were common around the colony and, by the 1890s, the day had become a "patriotic holiday".
Following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, May 24 was made by law to be known as "Victoria Day", a date to remember the late queen, who was deemed the "Mother of Confederation", and, in 1904, the same date was by imperial decree made Empire Day throughout the British Empire. Over the ensuing decades, the official date in Canada of the reigning sovereign's birthday changed through various royal proclamations until the haphazard format was abandoned in 1952. That year, both Empire Day and Victoria Day were, by order-in-council and statutory amendment, respectively, moved to the Monday before May 25 and the monarch's official birthday in Canada was by regular viceregal proclamations made to fall on this same date every year between 1953 and January 31, 1957, when the link was made permanent by royal proclamation. The following year, Empire Day was renamed Commonwealth Day and in 1977 it was moved to the second Monday in March, leaving the Monday before May 25 only as both Victoria Day and the Queen's Birthday.
Victoria Day celebrations have been marred by major tragedy at least twice: In 1881, the passenger ferry Victoria overturned in the Thames River, near London, Ontario. The boat departed in the evening with 600 to 800 people on board—three times the allowable passenger capacity—and capsized part way across the river, drowning some 182 individuals, including a large number of children who had been with their families for Victoria Day picnics at Springbank Park. The event came to be known as the "Victoria Day disaster". Then, on May 26, 1896, the Point Ellice Bridge disaster occurred in Victoria, British Columbia, when a bridge collapsed under the weight of a streetcar overloaded with passengers on their way to attend Victoria Day celebrations.
In 2013, a group of prominent Canadian actors, authors, and politicians sent a petition to Prime Minister Stephen Harper, requesting that the holiday be renamed "Victoria and First Peoples Day".
Provincial and territorial legislation
Most workplaces in Canada are regulated by the provincial or territorial governments. Therefore, although Victoria Day is a statutory holiday for federal purposes, whether an employee is entitled to a paid day off generally depends on the province or territory of residence (with the exception of employees in federally regulated workplaces such as banks).
The status of Victoria Day in each of the provinces and territories is as follows: It is a general holiday in Alberta, Manitoba, the Northwest Territories, and Yukon and is a statutory holiday in British Columbia, Ontario, and Saskatchewan. Victoria Day is not a paid public holiday in Newfoundland and Labrador, but is a government holiday; Nova Scotia, where it is also not a designated retail closing day, but is considered a "non-statutory holiday"; and Prince Edward Island, although provincial legislation defines "holiday" to include Victoria Day.
In Nunavut and New Brunswick, the date is set as a general holiday (for New Brunswick, a prescribed day of rest on which retail businesses must be closed) to mark the reigning sovereign's official birthday. In Quebec, the day was nicknamed the which commemorated Adam Dollard des Ormeaux. In 2003, the National Assembly of Quebec named it National Patriots' Day, commemorating the patriotes of the Lower Canada Rebellion of 1837.
Practice
Canada is the only country that commemorates Queen Victoria with an official holiday. Federal government protocol dictates that, on Victoria Day, the Royal Union Flag is to be flown from sunrise to sunset at all federal government buildingsincluding airports, military bases, and other Crown owned property across the countrywhere physical arrangements allow (i.e. where a second flag pole exists, as the Royal Union Flag can never displace the national flag).
Several cities hold a parade on the holiday, with the most prominent being that which has taken place since 1898 in the monarch's namesake city of Victoria, British Columbia. In nearby New Westminster, the Victoria Day weekend is distinguished by the Hyack Anvil Battery Salute, a tradition created during colonial times as a surrogate for a 21-gun salute: Gunpowder is placed between two anvils, the top one upturned, and the charge is ignited, hurling the upper anvil into the air. Other celebrations include an evening fireworks show, such as that held at Ashbridge's Bay Beach in the east end of Toronto, and at Ontario Place, in the same city.
In Ottawa, the tradition Trooping of the Queen's Colour ceremony takes place on Parliament Hill or at Rideau Hall on occasion. The reviewing officer in the ceremony is the Queen, with members of the Royal Family, the Governor General, the Minister of National Defence and the Chief of the Defence Staff taking her place in her absence. The participating units in the parade include personnel of the Governor General's Foot Guards and The Canadian Grenadier Guards, both of which are part of the ad hoc Ceremonial Guard.
Across the country, Victoria Day serves as the unofficial marker of the end of the winter social season, and thus the beginning of the summer social calendar. Banff, Alberta's Sunshine Village ends its lengthy ski season on Victoria Day and, likewise, it is during this long weekend that many summer businesses—such as parks, outdoor restaurants, bicycle rentals, city tour operators, etc.—will open. Victoria Day is also a mark of the beginning of the cottage season, when cottage owners may reverse the winterization of their property. Gardeners in Canada will similarly regard Victoria Day as the beginning of spring, as it falls at a time when one can be fairly certain that frost will not return until the next autumn. There is also a change in fashion: lighter-coloured summer clothing was traditionally worn from Victoria Day through until Labour Day.
The holiday is colloquially known in parts of Canada as "May Two-Four"; a double entendre that refers both to the date around which the holiday falls (May 24) and the Canadian slang for a case of twenty-four beers (a "two-four"), a drink popular during the long weekend. The holiday weekend may also be known as the "May long weekend", "May Long", or "May Run", and the term "Firecracker Day" was once employed in Ontario.
A traditional, short song about Victoria Day went as follows: "The twenty-fourth of May / Is the Queen's birthday; / If they don't give us a holiday / We'll all run away!" The holiday is referenced in the song "Lakeside Park" by Canadian rock band Rush, from their 1975 album Caress of Steel. The song features the line, "everyone would gather on the 24th of May, sitting in the sand to watch the fireworks display".
See also
Monarchism in Canada
Bermuda Day, a Bermudian holiday. Introduced from Canada and originally known as Victoria Day (subsequently Empire Day, Commonwealth Day and Heritage Day), Bermuda Day is celebrated on the Friday occurring on or nearest May 24 and traditionally marks the unofficial beginning of summer
Memorial Day, a U.S. holiday that falls on the final Monday of May also generally treated as the beginning of summer
References
External links
Department of Canadian Heritage website entry for Victoria Day
Victoria Day Festival
Birthdays
Birthdays of heads of state
May observances
Monarchy in Canada
Monday observances
Monuments and memorials to Queen Victoria
Public holidays in Canada
Spring (season) events in Canada
Queen Victoria | [
0.2894536852836609,
0.3445304036140442,
0.8427448868751526,
-0.22490088641643524,
-0.31843551993370056,
0.11536288261413574,
1.3652302026748657,
0.46919262409210205,
-0.508309543132782,
0.11746815592050552,
-0.6557552218437195,
-0.4531746804714203,
0.07459370046854019,
0.7858713269233704,
-0.1593066304922104,
0.9221866726875305,
-0.2993907630443573,
0.4553655982017517,
0.14823608100414276,
-0.43657609820365906,
-0.3051510453224182,
-0.5039136409759521,
0.9740049242973328,
0.27220582962036133,
0.3215816617012024,
-0.32048559188842773,
0.7471868395805359,
0.4376283586025238,
-0.3585699498653412,
-0.029639676213264465,
-0.0250606220215559,
0.00640059681609273,
0.6839699149131775,
0.20425309240818024,
0.3387318253517151,
0.17192135751247406,
0.308687299489975,
-0.6300620436668396,
-0.24829451739788055,
-0.4109921455383301,
-0.010406678542494774,
-0.4231431782245636,
0.2559337913990021,
-0.21554510295391083,
0.33450019359588623,
-0.0030417460948228836,
-1.0493451356887817,
-0.047938551753759384,
-0.5081469416618347,
-0.3004387617111206,
-0.7962194681167603,
0.40171071887016296,
0.3678460419178009,
-0.004265803378075361,
0.3337107300758362,
-0.0048639061860740185,
-0.762805700302124,
-0.11126399040222168,
-0.28690454363822937,
-0.6202790141105652,
0.5747582912445068,
0.09490404278039932,
0.2298179268836975,
-0.1833028942346573,
0.5989628434181213,
-0.026776494458317757,
-0.10517910122871399,
0.6841581463813782,
0.05081414431333542,
-0.38751232624053955,
-0.3401033878326416,
-0.2671373188495636,
-0.06624441593885422,
0.23757286369800568,
-0.1461225301027298,
-0.2860218286514282,
0.23616889119148254,
-0.26489585638046265,
0.5548421144485474,
0.20829223096370697,
0.258859246969223,
-0.607712984085083,
0.5446776747703552,
0.21107017993927002,
0.5506036281585693,
0.27866625785827637,
-0.6187148690223694,
-0.2923874855041504,
-0.034734684973955154,
0.6288686394691467,
-0.8409749865531921,
-0.20976805686950684,
0.8399733304977417,
-0.39391008019447327,
-0.5174028277397156,
-0.18609920144081116,
-0.33712291717529297,
-0.16211867332458496,
0.47007298469543457,
-0.013803115114569664,
-0.33662983775138855,
-0.60988849401474,
0.5917665362358093,
0.2892761826515198,
0.0643424242734909,
-0.4315315783023834,
-0.5546292066574097,
-0.5218484401702881,
0.11144360154867172,
-0.39772307872772217,
-0.49342674016952515,
-0.372836172580719,
0.06503452360630035,
0.16614875197410583,
0.1186344102025032,
-0.44621583819389343,
0.33590397238731384,
-0.5953043103218079,
-0.27894705533981323,
0.027881057932972908,
0.2702467739582062,
-0.4491496980190277,
0.082688108086586,
-0.278838187456131,
-0.16267701983451843,
-0.041238654404878616,
0.11343608796596527,
0.11404729634523392,
-0.30020153522491455,
0.4554913640022278,
0.41933372616767883,
0.5274254679679871,
0.022503122687339783,
-0.4181688129901886,
0.07185424864292145,
-0.5525898337364197,
-0.2663997709751129,
-0.027697475627064705,
0.26580753922462463,
-0.07596410810947418,
-0.5572863221168518,
-0.2680381238460541,
-0.27252286672592163,
-0.3269822597503662,
0.7770937085151672,
0.11592718958854675,
0.01154116541147232,
-0.37260663509368896,
-0.3360345661640167,
-0.3743225634098053,
-0.19024164974689484,
0.3716011941432953,
-0.4172181189060211,
0.12806512415409088,
-0.30353668332099915,
0.13750986754894257,
0.5310487151145935,
-0.059643931686878204,
-0.3353581428527832,
0.42650431394577026,
0.1294700652360916,
0.016058912500739098,
0.2058064490556717,
-0.07837717235088348,
0.8190993666648865,
0.2238660603761673,
-0.03695802763104439,
0.45344334840774536,
0.7681342959403992,
-0.3329053819179535,
-0.20724168419837952,
0.12377160042524338,
0.2600768506526947,
-0.8073274493217468,
-0.793939471244812,
-0.36475589871406555,
0.14784198999404907,
-0.032081592828035355,
0.5200546979904175,
-0.2704095244407654,
-0.09363220632076263,
0.5587645769119263,
0.009320007637143135,
0.48400723934173584,
-0.10826272517442703,
0.15232893824577332,
-0.258646696805954,
-0.09161941707134247,
-0.05781221017241478,
0.48424533009529114,
-0.03914409503340721,
-0.2169853001832962,
0.30542317032814026,
-0.527523398399353,
0.14704561233520508,
0.0685185045003891,
-0.621387779712677,
1.4720202684402466,
-0.46891236305236816,
0.556022047996521,
-0.011228152550756931,
0.3333577811717987,
-0.15451624989509583,
-0.29952266812324524,
-0.8532741665840149,
0.3584451675415039,
0.20456354320049286,
0.30802300572395325,
0.12678758800029755,
0.681026041507721,
-0.5456796288490295,
-0.9889693260192871,
0.5342258810997009,
0.4192081391811371,
0.007994801737368107,
-0.09185553342103958,
-0.4391460120677948,
-0.17145894467830658,
-0.24430152773857117,
-0.1440391093492508,
-0.18152903020381927,
0.3230837881565094,
-0.14974862337112427,
0.38078659772872925,
-0.22086969017982483,
-0.11905035376548767,
0.1537749171257019,
0.13021938502788544,
0.357108473777771,
-0.5671378374099731,
0.3609962463378906,
0.48648491501808167,
0.38210529088974,
-0.014980259351432323,
0.1986592561006546,
-0.500462532043457,
0.017312373965978622,
-0.7083722949028015,
0.31584352254867554,
-0.08319723606109619,
0.15348900854587555,
0.27906110882759094,
0.5561988353729248,
0.051219623535871506,
0.19870741665363312,
0.4560930132865906,
-0.11322130262851715,
0.12554404139518738,
0.17873243987560272,
0.14961853623390198,
0.6105701923370361,
0.17511436343193054,
0.02037680894136429,
0.2377917468547821,
0.3606945872306824,
-0.12925851345062256,
-0.06475186347961426,
-0.19276602566242218,
0.07053637504577637,
0.5425766110420227,
-0.05173269659280777,
-0.3317788243293762,
0.13896013796329498,
0.22232882678508759,
0.09986139088869095,
-0.2120993733406067,
-0.3732427656650543,
-0.06223417446017265,
-0.5128807425498962,
0.5840038657188416,
0.34568071365356445,
-0.09970586746931076,
-0.23680756986141205,
0.2231774479150772,
0.35672271251678467,
0.4520247280597687,
-0.043989524245262146,
0.16032296419143677,
-0.5596439242362976,
-0.30543971061706543,
-0.2557995617389679,
0.672910213470459,
0.14858393371105194,
-0.48640739917755127,
-0.43933019042015076,
-0.22623077034950256,
0.4138121008872986,
-0.4658252000808716,
-0.323920339345932,
-0.21835918724536896,
-0.03640688955783844,
0.07519560307264328,
0.4860970079898834,
-0.0013082908699288964,
0.10296039283275604,
-0.1508881002664566,
-0.024844029918313026,
0.5626471638679504,
0.48888474702835083,
-0.5180951952934265,
0.030839893966913223,
0.08308501541614532,
0.3156641721725464,
-0.315515398979187,
0.5629411339759827,
0.03906075283885002,
-0.3024170696735382,
-0.24140362441539764,
-5.744207382202148,
-0.4006204307079315,
-0.13490895926952362,
0.030001047998666763,
-0.4005064070224762,
0.3325323462486267,
0.9511445164680481,
0.3740053176879883,
-0.04180428758263588,
-0.22092632949352264,
0.2811858057975769,
-0.3014909625053406,
-0.13253171741962433,
0.3813645839691162,
0.662085771560669,
-0.10757841169834137,
0.5211323499679565,
-0.5249530673027039,
0.41284340620040894,
0.15518204867839813,
0.18166016042232513,
0.3199199438095093,
0.23271937668323517,
0.3482351303100586,
0.5068578720092773,
0.11259908229112625,
0.20481494069099426,
0.26842743158340454,
-0.24079087376594543,
0.5363102555274963,
0.645130455493927,
0.05298556014895439,
0.13918720185756683,
-0.23718956112861633,
0.5195854306221008,
0.1686723679304123,
-0.2099020779132843,
-0.007583679165691137,
0.4492461681365967,
-0.29746684432029724,
-0.24271109700202942,
-0.17976711690425873,
0.13669633865356445,
0.014711572788655758,
0.06402207165956497,
-0.13203908503055573,
-0.21815502643585205,
0.1487790197134018,
-0.372078537940979,
0.6119343042373657,
0.5333757996559143,
0.436690092086792,
0.4748114347457886,
-0.5817641019821167,
-0.28176790475845337,
0.8351724743843079,
0.2573985159397125,
-0.5766234993934631,
-0.2852659225463867,
-0.10146241635084152,
0.8475849628448486,
0.255119651556015,
0.8159617185592651,
-0.09572277963161469,
-0.9404406547546387,
-0.3268117308616638,
-0.6398404240608215,
-0.39013537764549255,
0.3303205370903015,
0.38499215245246887,
-0.42109790444374084,
-0.41081440448760986,
-0.8868291974067688,
-1.228362798690796,
-0.09510799497365952,
-0.614030659198761,
-0.3003588914871216,
0.8450435400009155,
0.14822371304035187,
-0.29519593715667725,
0.04158245399594307,
-0.6106597185134888,
-0.24845708906650543,
0.3775688111782074,
0.1682833731174469,
0.10053957998752594,
-0.2576824128627777,
0.22999265789985657,
0.039291396737098694,
-0.5643855333328247,
-0.19925889372825623,
0.2764194905757904,
0.48211774230003357,
-0.31080594658851624,
-0.20930804312229156,
0.06034377962350845,
0.08753746747970581,
-0.4497244954109192,
0.0839783176779747,
0.013093690387904644,
0.3340299725532532,
-0.019266078248620033,
-0.06696697324514389,
-0.794734001159668,
-0.15005238354206085,
-0.6261545419692993,
-0.4640060067176819,
-0.08644965291023254,
-0.015287145972251892,
-0.03922562673687935,
-0.3492870628833771,
-0.3051557242870331,
-0.41651782393455505,
-0.6046595573425293,
0.15796828269958496,
0.18722915649414062,
0.02589479088783264,
0.1105770543217659,
0.39012545347213745,
0.11900563538074493,
-0.06460142135620117,
0.16118638217449188,
-0.5034511685371399,
0.4066901206970215,
-0.04603464528918266,
0.3965316414833069,
-0.0194801464676857,
-0.1275831162929535,
-0.05292239412665367,
0.2126474529504776,
0.45391935110092163,
0.32437825202941895,
0.2127608060836792,
-0.13854457437992096,
-0.3584044873714447,
0.14596012234687805,
0.2528156638145447,
-0.3252115249633789,
-0.18207478523254395,
-0.3374471962451935,
0.28403347730636597,
0.3157375752925873,
-0.13019469380378723,
0.3897545635700226,
0.3346618413925171,
0.18842065334320068,
-0.08478954434394836,
-0.46134597063064575,
-0.6080401539802551,
0.5772186517715454,
-0.26091867685317993,
-0.47570839524269104,
0.2707245647907257,
-0.7060930728912354,
-0.3866013288497925,
-0.3270743489265442,
0.5275142192840576,
-0.06631453335285187,
0.3218182921409607,
-0.43069249391555786,
-0.40629321336746216,
-1.0029624700546265,
-0.9881397485733032,
-0.4376230537891388,
-0.4262451231479645,
-0.512418806552887,
-0.6620370149612427,
-0.030337326228618622,
0.25419870018959045,
0.13272179663181305,
-0.053561583161354065,
-0.35185232758522034,
-0.5179954171180725,
0.45609843730926514,
0.3240918517112732,
-0.26881662011146545,
-0.6830313205718994,
-0.5029932260513306,
0.22173500061035156,
-0.3706212639808655,
-0.2406078279018402,
-0.2914668619632721,
-0.7672786712646484,
0.3930187225341797,
-0.14981648325920105,
-0.4003647565841675,
-0.33512595295906067,
0.17777706682682037,
0.15764731168746948,
0.035350460559129715,
0.8115573525428772,
0.40396809577941895,
0.10844578593969345,
0.18876783549785614,
0.1284773200750351,
-0.36229822039604187,
0.1266145259141922,
0.6411575078964233,
-0.045363251119852066,
-0.4156191647052765,
0.2818697392940521,
0.31673040986061096,
-0.9404938817024231,
0.2136663943529129,
0.14338789880275726,
-0.4772796034812927,
0.3190065324306488,
0.28656506538391113,
-0.5976258516311646,
0.009379198774695396,
-0.04084650054574013,
-0.03799690306186676,
0.27834048867225647,
0.5307035446166992,
-0.5228682160377502,
0.21525146067142487,
-0.23307476937770844,
0.0075762621127069,
0.304531991481781,
-0.13574695587158203,
-0.361746221780777,
0.11484789103269577,
-0.02551700919866562,
-0.5295892953872681,
-0.15185131132602692,
0.6489699482917786,
0.8425617218017578,
-0.5621717572212219,
0.09198915213346481,
0.09704774618148804,
-0.10089068859815598,
-0.5935394763946533,
0.11159190535545349,
0.28494247794151306,
-0.0743357464671135,
0.29498809576034546,
-0.7208292484283447,
-0.14231564104557037,
-0.6608490347862244,
0.42483919858932495,
-0.017492713406682014,
0.8818920850753784,
0.24324001371860504,
-1.1356064081192017,
-0.5751778483390808,
0.08714612573385239,
0.27818959951400757,
-0.28947320580482483,
-0.14181087911128998,
0.09751112759113312,
-0.053017619997262955,
0.047157954424619675,
0.08553849905729294,
0.04184458404779434,
-0.24845440685749054,
-0.6048858165740967,
-0.1993773728609085,
0.19556310772895813,
0.232872873544693,
0.14579004049301147,
0.5366405844688416,
0.23563596606254578,
-0.2739383280277252,
0.33839544653892517,
-0.07248122990131378,
0.5660866498947144,
-0.10256553441286087,
0.18611271679401398,
-0.0826709121465683,
0.39491164684295654,
0.4012514650821686,
-0.34277763962745667,
0.25765150785446167,
0.5462366342544556,
0.01516097504645586,
-0.2934621274471283,
-0.5412755012512207,
-0.32081151008605957,
0.1265731006860733,
0.197378009557724,
-0.26510292291641235,
-0.18420442938804626,
-0.31188493967056274,
-0.35591667890548706,
0.10400815308094025,
-1.154473900794983,
-0.0005315109738148749,
0.7913710474967957,
-0.7219990491867065,
0.10788929462432861,
0.18374206125736237,
0.12715651094913483,
-0.2131136655807495,
-0.2270607203245163,
-0.6930702328681946,
0.5019969344139099,
-0.4850344657897949,
0.882427990436554,
-0.026627317070961,
0.04285993054509163,
-0.11447295546531677,
0.7504749298095703,
0.25109875202178955,
-0.549692690372467,
-0.12790894508361816,
-0.3684883117675781,
-0.014126006513834,
-0.42342671751976013,
0.46116408705711365,
0.10289712995290756,
0.8308918476104736,
0.28277334570884705,
0.6143644452095032,
1.2326425313949585,
-0.33873477578163147,
0.32754600048065186,
0.2672061324119568,
-0.24329109489917755,
0.03452501818537712,
0.6252571940422058,
-0.5457009673118591,
0.20791208744049072,
0.722856342792511,
0.1068691834807396,
-0.5302017331123352,
0.15085752308368683,
0.07150349020957947,
0.1586705446243286,
0.12966300547122955,
0.4298831522464752,
-0.003271122695878148,
0.0053686052560806274,
-0.2570747137069702,
0.8795320391654968,
-0.5093725919723511,
-0.3390968143939972,
-0.1459117978811264,
-0.42450106143951416,
-0.5114444494247437,
0.4859408140182495,
0.8166410326957703,
0.02142287977039814,
-0.08081965148448944,
-0.23236149549484253,
1.0551261901855469,
0.09676111489534378,
-0.11214152723550797,
-0.37037280201911926,
0.8198014497756958,
-0.10012239962816238,
0.362774521112442,
0.03176381066441536,
0.09775856137275696,
-0.5804082155227661,
0.09204957634210587,
-0.4881472885608673,
-0.005953920539468527,
-0.3150467872619629,
-0.26860880851745605,
-0.011109845712780952,
-0.5106709599494934,
0.2253045290708542,
0.5155430436134338,
-0.40868282318115234,
-0.30713731050491333,
-0.3795265853404999,
0.5742098093032837,
0.12291453778743744,
-0.32026877999305725,
0.362052857875824,
0.3261946737766266,
-0.00962354801595211,
-0.5800608992576599,
0.29691389203071594,
0.5309598445892334,
0.30610695481300354,
-0.16555319726467133,
0.2656658887863159,
0.31360235810279846,
0.14760860800743103,
-0.07564420998096466,
0.1432444453239441,
-0.13758787512779236,
-0.5652692914009094,
-0.6643993854522705,
-0.5473251938819885,
0.009112901985645294,
0.24727514386177063,
-0.38352951407432556,
-0.07070395350456238,
0.13923993706703186,
0.349388986825943,
-0.114866241812706,
-0.5772968530654907,
-0.6212201118469238,
-0.3989576995372772,
-0.5279944539070129,
0.6696791648864746,
0.06503614038228989,
-0.06197182461619377,
0.3076963722705841,
0.04043352231383324,
-0.37006649374961853,
-0.08706676214933395,
0.025497157126665115,
0.5690129399299622,
0.11318396776914597,
0.08193434029817581,
-0.41599041223526,
0.6914727091789246,
0.024767551571130753,
0.06886019557714462,
-0.2301177680492401,
-0.08742424100637436,
-0.4898020029067993,
-0.39571666717529297,
0.40448588132858276,
-0.4119032025337219,
0.00435228506103158,
-0.7872828245162964,
-0.004918316844850779,
0.65824294090271,
0.47166165709495544,
0.4750223159790039,
-0.21250654757022858,
-0.16346246004104614,
0.04231413081288338,
0.24537812173366547,
0.004117902833968401,
-0.2496573030948639,
0.20395860075950623,
0.08930676430463791,
-0.3879842758178711,
0.6024560928344727,
-0.3616393506526947,
0.14461033046245575,
0.2920231521129608,
0.4132888913154602,
0.08586174994707108,
-0.13132402300834656,
0.43438079953193665,
-0.5629169344902039,
0.5717999339103699,
-0.4321731626987457,
0.439907044172287,
-0.29313817620277405,
-0.054855212569236755,
0.3579903542995453,
-0.7662995457649231,
-0.29990023374557495,
-0.04188084229826927,
0.39267435669898987,
0.5604076981544495,
-0.39428046345710754,
0.019703680649399757,
-0.6996681690216064,
0.1579529196023941,
-0.25164783000946045,
0.20959177613258362,
0.7819401025772095
] |
228959 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iconoclast%20%28disambiguation%29 | Iconoclast (disambiguation) | An iconoclast is one who professes iconoclasm (the belief in the importance of the destroying physical religious images); one who objects to the use of sacred images in religion, or who opposes orthodoxy and religion.
Iconoclast(s) may also refer to:
Film and television
Iconoclasts (TV series), a Sundance Channel show
Iconoclast, 2011 documentary film about Boyd Rice; directed by Larry Wessel
Music
Iconoclast (jazz group), American jazz duo
Albums
Iconoclast (Part 1: The Final Resistance), 2008 studio album by Heaven Shall Burn, a German extreme metal band
Iconoclast trilogy, trilogy of Heaven Shall Burn productions
Iconoclast (Nazxul album), 2009 studio album by Nazxul, an Australian black metal band
Iconoclast (Symphony X album), 2011 album by American progressive metal band Symphony X
Iconoclast (EP), 2014 EP by Clinton Sparks
Songs
"Iconoclast", a song on Emerson, Lake and Palmer's 1971 album Tarkus
Other uses
Iconoclast: A Neuroscientist Reveals How to Think Differently, a book by Gregory Berns, published in 2008
Iconoclasts (video game), 2018 platform game
Iconoclast, a pen-name of Charles Bradlaugh
See also
Ao-Iconoclast / Pigeon-The Green-ey'd Monster, 2009 maxi single by J-pop singer Kotoko
Eikonoklastes, book by Milton | [
0.43270331621170044,
1.0087661743164062,
-0.685883104801178,
-0.20132045447826385,
-0.7670794725418091,
0.12767639756202698,
1.009345293045044,
0.43393978476524353,
-0.2935641407966614,
-0.04698411375284195,
-0.50194251537323,
0.30537837743759155,
-0.6285122036933899,
0.7056155800819397,
0.16887487471103668,
0.8011016845703125,
0.2805919945240021,
0.7219759225845337,
-0.2315753847360611,
0.033717554062604904,
-0.29413023591041565,
-0.07065482437610626,
0.15354003012180328,
-0.5733068585395813,
-0.04006493091583252,
-0.025035982951521873,
0.5856812596321106,
0.0476725772023201,
-0.8103805780410767,
0.34328368306159973,
-0.054558370262384415,
0.8542704582214355,
0.1258840411901474,
-0.34440335631370544,
0.09238658100366592,
-0.029131364077329636,
0.40464895963668823,
-0.5353543162345886,
0.010777520015835762,
-0.6017335057258606,
0.416620135307312,
-0.2081853151321411,
-0.0556933768093586,
0.40683677792549133,
-0.22177134454250336,
0.08623956888914108,
-1.2197927236557007,
0.30395573377609253,
-0.6945992708206177,
0.13696710765361786,
0.10809128731489182,
-0.0918072983622551,
-0.3977610766887665,
0.6454734206199646,
-0.33308833837509155,
0.4982762038707733,
-1.14556086063385,
-0.08867726475000381,
0.7852533459663391,
-0.2726394534111023,
0.3439761996269226,
0.059235285967588425,
0.21244502067565918,
-0.07181805372238159,
0.2711160182952881,
-0.16832780838012695,
-0.44638773798942566,
0.8723011612892151,
-1.0060250759124756,
-1.0240248441696167,
-0.34569618105888367,
-0.43335509300231934,
-0.1324148178100586,
0.09063759446144104,
-0.4982272684574127,
-0.1041797325015068,
0.0045755174942314625,
-0.4008805751800537,
0.2757253646850586,
-0.6688681244850159,
-0.14551891386508942,
0.4735025465488434,
0.42944589257240295,
0.1556042730808258,
0.09799598902463913,
-0.313654363155365,
-0.1409643292427063,
0.3818008005619049,
-0.306172639131546,
0.2585568428039551,
0.48558229207992554,
0.2464073747396469,
1.062855839729309,
0.022622456774115562,
-0.3365173041820526,
0.06863029301166534,
0.28687262535095215,
-0.2822612226009369,
-0.02689756080508232,
-0.27986910939216614,
0.3667117953300476,
0.2428446114063263,
0.07350463420152664,
-0.11152155697345734,
-0.10994082689285278,
-0.3604280650615692,
0.15313299000263214,
0.24002167582511902,
0.026534583419561386,
0.22534775733947754,
-0.7968215942382812,
0.4510125517845154,
-0.5629551410675049,
-0.02587055042386055,
-0.38612231612205505,
0.0223984494805336,
-0.0250132754445076,
-0.7990164756774902,
-0.4820849895477295,
-0.05501587316393852,
0.2903043329715729,
0.45722639560699463,
-0.06689827144145966,
-0.05188130959868431,
0.14039260149002075,
-0.041302312165498734,
0.7303833961486816,
1.1884856224060059,
-0.8832435011863708,
0.5364249348640442,
-0.029800618067383766,
0.6772463321685791,
-0.07372390478849411,
-0.14025761187076569,
0.4308755099773407,
-0.3989337980747223,
0.5116350650787354,
-0.014629453420639038,
0.40237852931022644,
0.009123695082962513,
-0.9384451508522034,
-0.7645921111106873,
-0.8713750839233398,
0.1864323765039444,
0.6392650008201599,
-0.5198444128036499,
0.5680224895477295,
0.3110908269882202,
-0.07656912505626678,
-0.2709730267524719,
0.11072691529989243,
0.04813281074166298,
-0.2638898491859436,
-0.005636561196297407,
0.07723832130432129,
0.30346086621284485,
0.8303884863853455,
-0.5437634587287903,
0.19989559054374695,
0.624235987663269,
0.39807742834091187,
-0.592091977596283,
-0.4501999616622925,
-0.0743974968791008,
-0.15494902431964874,
-0.25583386421203613,
-0.14226196706295013,
0.676342785358429,
-0.08995406329631805,
-0.23446737229824066,
-0.5383381247520447,
-0.1637440323829651,
0.17089608311653137,
-0.19130167365074158,
0.4000297784805298,
0.5258764028549194,
0.5630977749824524,
0.03540170192718506,
0.3459605872631073,
-0.03877541422843933,
-0.940342903137207,
0.34907078742980957,
-0.05081981047987938,
0.10919545590877533,
0.25218603014945984,
0.15117013454437256,
0.20543129742145538,
0.09998545050621033,
0.03676943853497505,
-0.12413734942674637,
-0.6793884038925171,
-0.1789359450340271,
0.39468827843666077,
-0.4715016782283783,
1.5459012985229492,
-0.16414640843868256,
-1.0007086992263794,
0.21378210186958313,
0.09443419426679611,
0.5031233429908752,
-0.29546818137168884,
0.32613080739974976,
-0.17337867617607117,
0.49748125672340393,
-0.6682709455490112,
0.517909586429596,
-0.08202562481164932,
-0.021479012444615364,
0.1781754046678543,
0.42258962988853455,
0.4594143331050873,
-0.7262333631515503,
-0.01350789237767458,
-0.2161325365304947,
-0.2904273271560669,
0.25592729449272156,
-0.5856861472129822,
0.11858189851045609,
-0.12352048605680466,
-0.47029390931129456,
-0.115006223320961,
-0.7333484888076782,
-0.012672482058405876,
-0.39843741059303284,
-0.36722448468208313,
0.5876497626304626,
-0.35556015372276306,
0.32361674308776855,
0.5436331629753113,
-0.8402448892593384,
0.3866850435733795,
0.6983782649040222,
0.6264150142669678,
-0.30311524868011475,
-1.1115282773971558,
0.07841336727142334,
0.19383585453033447,
-0.4782843291759491,
0.577154278755188,
-0.3814091980457306,
0.10721354186534882,
-0.14317403733730316,
-0.14951884746551514,
0.12471578270196915,
-0.08304523676633835,
-0.07916384190320969,
-0.3642614483833313,
0.05859251320362091,
-0.7045695781707764,
0.24932165443897247,
0.15066756308078766,
0.22025199234485626,
-0.023417770862579346,
-0.30747586488723755,
0.3161905109882355,
0.2638823688030243,
0.24510706961154938,
-0.0017134470399469137,
-0.08899518847465515,
-0.38078200817108154,
-0.2672268748283386,
0.20111459493637085,
-0.04166017472743988,
0.3136402368545532,
-0.0915086567401886,
-0.06621421128511429,
0.05987526476383209,
0.4449402093887329,
0.09201634675264359,
-0.04018599912524223,
0.23217251896858215,
-0.44395148754119873,
-0.9133272767066956,
0.5162129998207092,
-0.3508763015270233,
-0.5308814644813538,
-0.12425820529460907,
0.6339172720909119,
-0.4881291091442108,
-0.27378708124160767,
-0.5304949879646301,
0.5741138458251953,
0.13468551635742188,
-0.33975884318351746,
-0.3694761395454407,
-0.03924689069390297,
0.5003544688224792,
-0.4125000536441803,
-0.04972001910209656,
-0.20798693597316742,
-0.12822695076465607,
0.5712794065475464,
0.16377952694892883,
-0.30458056926727295,
-0.1974153369665146,
0.1368638277053833,
-0.09892801940441132,
-0.34723272919654846,
-0.08854585140943527,
-0.15462766587734222,
-0.4672049582004547,
0.22544655203819275,
-0.009283625520765781,
-0.037397537380456924,
0.09676580876111984,
0.35495156049728394,
-0.36245739459991455,
0.35741251707077026,
-5.467345714569092,
0.04525313526391983,
-0.4392676055431366,
-0.0630108043551445,
-0.41189420223236084,
-0.024467697367072105,
0.5666496157646179,
-0.17461448907852173,
-0.45125171542167664,
-0.21449014544487,
0.08149253576993942,
0.24436092376708984,
0.30620959401130676,
0.4746883809566498,
0.46167683601379395,
0.059670574963092804,
0.43862858414649963,
-0.49439331889152527,
-0.07499818503856659,
0.2001035362482071,
0.12525495886802673,
0.0725325271487236,
0.17415130138397217,
0.5594223737716675,
0.18453672528266907,
0.5463021993637085,
-0.12169383466243744,
1.0132149457931519,
-0.23047688603401184,
-0.03941286727786064,
0.4584886431694031,
-0.23804597556591034,
0.359923392534256,
-0.2684963643550873,
-0.11659201979637146,
0.4188840985298157,
0.5571836829185486,
-0.11915398389101028,
-0.5278787612915039,
-0.1429683417081833,
-0.17364627122879028,
0.23711232841014862,
0.16010166704654694,
0.13734348118305206,
0.5766599178314209,
-0.194017231464386,
-0.3890501856803894,
-0.14113934338092804,
-0.4621262848377228,
0.5421375036239624,
-0.09782277047634125,
-0.2947240471839905,
0.5400804281234741,
0.4749564826488495,
-0.024252787232398987,
-0.2145695686340332,
0.9840794801712036,
-0.12435758858919144,
-0.5101453065872192,
-0.38816267251968384,
0.7446891069412231,
-0.2772953510284424,
-0.034560419619083405,
0.18716123700141907,
0.101348377764225,
0.026783285662531853,
-0.935120701789856,
-0.5563825964927673,
0.44595974683761597,
-0.005633256863802671,
-1.009617805480957,
0.567131519317627,
0.0839577317237854,
-0.7896581292152405,
0.24652034044265747,
-0.04500843584537506,
-0.22287075221538544,
-0.03831757977604866,
0.08982765674591064,
0.3691723346710205,
-0.41124165058135986,
-0.5099852085113525,
-0.23214136064052582,
0.03866807371377945,
0.5876245498657227,
-0.27135536074638367,
0.29990702867507935,
0.5994769334793091,
-0.43144866824150085,
0.003520644037052989,
0.9049250483512878,
0.24616606533527374,
-0.00941627100110054,
0.5769945383071899,
-0.5478963851928711,
1.0040565729141235,
0.5310463309288025,
-0.08034611493349075,
1.2414206266403198,
0.2713475525379181,
0.03821012005209923,
-0.5568662881851196,
0.3765198588371277,
-0.12250169366598129,
-0.26308369636535645,
0.02264527790248394,
-0.27461475133895874,
0.46630731225013733,
0.28245943784713745,
-0.530983567237854,
0.5920096039772034,
0.42087897658348083,
0.09913273900747299,
-0.15358294546604156,
0.567173421382904,
0.14641667902469635,
0.14371848106384277,
0.8914939761161804,
0.574734628200531,
-0.0033572532702237368,
0.6926824450492859,
-0.006665430031716824,
-0.4446430802345276,
-0.11477478593587875,
-0.8731019496917725,
-0.05788237228989601,
0.05594069883227348,
0.27575716376304626,
-0.3920905888080597,
-0.299742728471756,
0.11156313866376877,
0.13952840864658356,
0.4287685453891754,
-0.0800861120223999,
0.4511282444000244,
-0.1774059385061264,
-0.06628397107124329,
-0.3009657859802246,
-0.32315778732299805,
-0.5374294519424438,
0.4006396234035492,
-0.488402783870697,
-0.28870266675949097,
0.6228870749473572,
0.39423078298568726,
0.36142897605895996,
0.03556996211409569,
-0.10730741173028946,
-0.11324875056743622,
1.0611412525177002,
-0.03585699200630188,
-0.08056874573230743,
0.32825401425361633,
-0.524985134601593,
-0.14271755516529083,
0.5429256558418274,
0.04461261257529259,
0.10893675684928894,
-0.4120712876319885,
-0.3863040804862976,
-0.3578382432460785,
-0.5177457332611084,
-1.110923171043396,
-0.610455334186554,
0.43888550996780396,
-0.8041691184043884,
-0.6259256601333618,
-0.48167118430137634,
-0.12861452996730804,
0.541341245174408,
-0.15101447701454163,
0.13546568155288696,
-0.6753583550453186,
0.27439650893211365,
0.8163523077964783,
-0.2824219763278961,
0.02658206596970558,
0.47752201557159424,
-0.1329548954963684,
-0.0686727985739708,
0.2678748667240143,
-0.3945767283439636,
-0.3790147602558136,
0.012936392799019814,
0.9186933040618896,
-0.2414281666278839,
-0.3790406584739685,
-0.054106369614601135,
-0.4079110622406006,
-0.23482345044612885,
-0.19218678772449493,
-0.14331483840942383,
0.0629727765917778,
0.04511073976755142,
-0.2953926622867584,
-0.3419318199157715,
-0.37090763449668884,
0.3050188422203064,
0.5436546206474304,
-0.2907877564430237,
0.33734384179115295,
0.5392073392868042,
-0.5135695934295654,
0.2107049971818924,
0.5412718653678894,
-0.8342481255531311,
1.2374500036239624,
-0.20296457409858704,
-0.6102817058563232,
0.3762454092502594,
-0.01899588294327259,
-0.5559296607971191,
-0.3244210183620453,
0.8489673137664795,
-0.45826736092567444,
-0.3135283887386322,
-0.07513558864593506,
-0.6778520345687866,
-0.6963258385658264,
-0.06385450810194016,
0.5103929042816162,
-0.1258111298084259,
-0.07075133919715881,
0.5114670395851135,
-0.23657125234603882,
0.315885990858078,
0.4411841034889221,
-0.5410934090614319,
0.7325040698051453,
0.06629092246294022,
0.3252642750740051,
0.20532429218292236,
-0.36356619000434875,
-0.25087273120880127,
-0.4472278356552124,
-0.2423042505979538,
0.42153480648994446,
0.25787559151649475,
-0.5287899374961853,
-0.06809254735708237,
0.15361066162586212,
0.3043392300605774,
0.07802395522594452,
-0.4538309574127197,
0.02883816510438919,
0.04411131143569946,
0.01706501841545105,
-0.41911187767982483,
-0.3866802752017975,
-0.021129731088876724,
-0.31169962882995605,
0.019246073439717293,
-0.570845901966095,
-0.7597329020500183,
0.6680294871330261,
-0.2077854424715042,
-0.5443177223205566,
-0.43405869603157043,
0.3740781843662262,
-0.07225559651851654,
0.385319322347641,
-0.30996784567832947,
0.11252559721469879,
-0.38334837555885315,
0.07984056323766708,
-0.12286480516195297,
0.01862272620201111,
0.5706145763397217,
0.19694197177886963,
-0.251888632774353,
-0.37747859954833984,
-0.06787414848804474,
0.3097432553768158,
-0.02195686474442482,
-0.5226314067840576,
-0.4824058711528778,
-0.6200076341629028,
-0.8636862635612488,
-0.32467120885849,
0.2290620505809784,
-0.46672165393829346,
-0.568861186504364,
0.1574043184518814,
-0.020239410921931267,
-0.005526411812752485,
-0.6578288674354553,
0.7927188873291016,
0.003429126227274537,
-0.28959566354751587,
-0.47334209084510803,
-0.7970485091209412,
-0.10067746043205261,
0.31445375084877014,
0.34911444783210754,
-0.20099341869354248,
0.13234937191009521,
0.25896990299224854,
-0.07535853236913681,
0.04575585573911667,
-0.40210986137390137,
-0.5927399396896362,
0.2971329391002655,
0.3066719174385071,
-0.7099481821060181,
0.44003915786743164,
0.24295338988304138,
-0.17630033195018768,
-0.5718559622764587,
-0.06157539784908295,
-0.007909221574664116,
0.49474507570266724,
0.1827768087387085,
0.24075311422348022,
0.5088174939155579,
0.03418402001261711,
0.20028269290924072,
0.34265774488449097,
-0.3387739956378937,
-0.0040688347071409225,
0.2565901577472687,
0.09459792077541351,
0.06409315019845963,
0.8655118346214294,
-0.07038672268390656,
-0.1278902143239975,
0.18419580161571503,
-0.6109920144081116,
-0.05029679089784622,
0.49085569381713867,
0.14670458436012268,
0.7048479318618774,
0.36330050230026245,
-0.7249684929847717,
0.6639341711997986,
-0.05180496349930763,
-0.5179272294044495,
0.5617532730102539,
-0.7729721069335938,
-0.5993059277534485,
0.3922368884086609,
0.507445752620697,
0.2698771357536316,
-0.44920021295547485,
0.05704401805996895,
-0.9396764039993286,
0.6387671828269958,
-0.3929940462112427,
-0.27211353182792664,
0.26025351881980896,
0.516392171382904,
0.2713366448879242,
-0.10284094512462616,
0.1860436201095581,
-0.5182076692581177,
0.5373875498771667,
-0.2858317792415619,
0.10735634714365005,
0.05072053521871567,
-0.5181933641433716,
-0.2689868211746216,
-0.39057862758636475,
0.5897995829582214,
0.058154188096523285,
0.21879634261131287,
0.18186965584754944,
0.19941097497940063,
0.1391519457101822,
-0.25111788511276245,
-0.11168014258146286,
0.10767948627471924,
0.3277888596057892,
-0.1959824562072754,
0.21034446358680725,
0.7194578647613525,
0.21376267075538635,
0.03622894734144211,
0.8348993062973022,
0.5250466465950012,
0.24248428642749786,
-0.18173301219940186,
-0.6809571981430054,
0.12132091075181961,
-0.10491865873336792,
-0.3532610535621643,
0.2929534614086151,
0.2186298370361328,
0.36054250597953796,
0.277920126914978,
0.17445442080497742,
-0.16462571918964386,
-0.2600555419921875,
0.12608326971530914,
0.25159743428230286,
0.2195674031972885,
-0.7792312502861023,
0.058482322841882706,
-0.2696918249130249,
0.785025954246521,
-0.3723123371601105,
0.2475486546754837,
-0.09328612685203552,
0.012675094418227673,
0.058420829474925995,
0.3850397765636444,
-0.8008895516395569,
-0.18837422132492065,
-0.09225252270698547,
-0.12756842374801636,
-1.1521536111831665,
0.15569734573364258,
-0.12534530460834503,
-0.423907995223999,
-0.08893829584121704,
-0.0002883620618376881,
-0.2560808062553406,
-0.10869734734296799,
0.03795871511101723,
-0.3171194791793823,
0.25801560282707214,
-0.010472689755260944,
0.24826106429100037,
-0.5673657059669495,
0.1756020188331604,
0.6126545667648315,
-0.7932465076446533,
-0.6981959342956543,
0.6073324084281921,
0.036338817328214645,
-0.01112285815179348,
0.08686971664428711,
-0.5031588077545166,
0.3159596920013428,
-0.1912296563386917,
0.539115846157074,
-0.27121680974960327,
-0.04042641445994377,
0.8247004151344299,
0.31275442242622375,
0.035490259528160095,
-0.9947230219841003,
0.16510877013206482,
-0.37354856729507446,
0.15699157118797302,
0.21016916632652283,
-0.2046799212694168,
0.3452707529067993,
-0.10283518582582474,
0.18104086816310883,
0.02321764826774597,
0.5664111375808716,
0.4142051041126251,
-0.18797622621059418,
0.29855889081954956,
-0.7435986995697021,
-0.07306485623121262,
-0.09788916260004044,
0.6383259892463684,
-0.1831163763999939,
0.34206804633140564,
0.48210954666137695
] |
228964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan%20High%20Speed%20Rail | Taiwan High Speed Rail | Taiwan High Speed Rail (THSR) is the high-speed railway of Taiwan consisting of one line that runs approximately along the west coast, from the capital Taipei to the southern city of Kaohsiung. With construction and operations managed by a private company, Taiwan High Speed Rail Corporation (THSRC; ), which also operates the line, the total cost of the project was billion in 1998. At the time it was built, this was one of the world's largest privately funded rail construction schemes. The system is based primarily on Japan's Shinkansen.
The railway opened for service on 5 January 2007, with trains running at a top speed of , currently running from Nangang to Zuoying in as little as 1 hour and 45 minutes, reaching almost 90% of Taiwan's population. Most intermediate stations on the line lie outside the cities served; however, a variety of transfer options, such as free shuttle buses, conventional rail, and metros have been constructed to facilitate transport connections.
Ridership initially fell short of forecasts, but grew from fewer than 40,000 passengers per day in the first few months of operation to over 129,000 passengers per day in June 2013. Daily passenger traffic reached 130,000 in 2014, well below the forecast of 240,000 daily passengers for 2008. The system carried its first 100 million passengers by August 2010 and over 200 million passengers had taken the system by December 2012, followed by 400 million by December 2016.
In the initial years of operation, THSRC accumulated debt due to high depreciation charges and interest, largely due to the financial structure set up for the private company. In 2009, THSRC negotiated with the government to change the method of depreciation from depending on concessions on rights to ridership. At the same time, the government also started to help refinance THSRC's loans to assist the company so it could remain operational and profitable. The government injected NT$30 billion as a financial bailout, boosting the government's stake to about 64% from about 37%. The government also extended the rail concession from 35 years to 70 years and terminated the company's build-operate-transfer business model.
History
Taiwan's rapid economic growth during the latter half of the twentieth century led to congestion of highways, conventional rail, and air traffic systems in the western transport corridor, which threatened to impede the region's development. The idea of a new high-speed rail line arose in the 1970s, and informal planning began in 1980. In 1987 the executive branch of Taiwan's government, the Executive Yuan, instructed the Ministry of Transportation to launch a feasibility study for a high-speed rail line in the western Taiwan corridor, which was completed in 1990. The study found that in a comparison of potential solutions to traffic problems in the corridor, a high-speed rail line would offer the highest transit volume, lowest land use, highest energy savings, and least pollution. In July 1990 the Preparation Office of High Speed Rail (POHSR) was established and a route was selected in 1991. Plans for the THSR were subsequently approved by the Executive Yuan in June 1992 and by Taiwan's legislature, the Legislative Yuan, in 1993.
Build-Operate-Transfer
In November 1994, Taiwan passed a law regarding the use of private finance in infrastructure projects, which also applied to the up-to-then state-run THSR project. Consequently, in 1995, POHSR was transformed into the Bureau of High Speed Rail (BOHSR), which started to tender THSR as a build-operate-transfer (BOT) scheme in October 1996.
The bidding process pitted Taiwan High Speed Rail Consortium (THSRC) against the Chunghwa High Speed Rail Consortium (CHSRC). THSRC's bid was based on the high-speed technology platform of Eurotrain, a joint venture between GEC-Alsthom, the main maker of the French TGV, and Siemens, the main maker of the German ICE, while CHSRC's bid was based on Japanese Shinkansen technology supplied by Taiwan Shinkansen Consortium (TSC), a joint venture of Japanese companies. THSRC, which submitted the lower bid and promised to build the line with zero net cost from the government, was chosen as preferred bidder in September 1997. The group was renamed and formally established as the Taiwan High Speed Rail Corporation (THSRC) in May 1998. THSRC and the government signed the BOT agreement on 23 July 1998.
However, controversy arose during rolling-stock selection. In May 1999, as THSRC faced difficulties in raising capital, the government of Japan promised soft loans if THSRC switched to TSC. Although Eurotrain promised to match TSC's financial proposal, the Eschede train disaster in combination with TSC offering the newer 700 Series Shinkansen, convinced THSRC to reopen its core system bid, ultimately resulting in TSC selected as the preferred rolling-stock supplier in December 1999. Although Eurotrain eventually conceded in the bid, in February 2001 it filed for a US$800 million damage claim against THSRC at the Singapore International Arbitration Centre. After a lengthy arbitration process, the court ruled in March 2004 that THSRC should pay a compensation for the US$32.4 million Eurotrain spent on development and US$35.7 million for unjust enrichment. THSRC agreed to pay US$65 million (US$89 million with interest) to Eurotrain in November 2004.
Opening and expansion
The railway opened in 2007 between Taipei and Zuoying. Four additional stations were added in 2014 and 2015.
On 10 September 2019, the Executive Yuan announced that the railway would be expanded to Pingtung. Out of four proposed route options, it was confirmed on 27 September that the expansion would bypass central Kaohsiung, branching from Zuoying east towards western Pingtung City, near , with an estimated cost of NT$55.4 billion. Although lowest in cost, the option was met with criticism regarding its economic benefits.
On 25 October 2019, the Railway Bureau published an assessment report to extend the line from Taipei to Yilan, cutting travel time to 13 minutes. The extension route was approved in October 2020.
Train and operation
Train
Taiwan High Speed Rail started operation with 30 THSR 700T trainsets supplied by a consortium led by Kawasaki Heavy Industries. In response to increasing ridership and new stations that would begin operation in 2015, THSRC signed the contract for four new 700T trainsets with the Kawasaki consortium in May 2012 in Tokyo, Japan. The first (TR 31) trainset was delivered to Taiwan on 23 December 2012; the second (TR 32) on 21 January 2013; the third (TR33) on 25 January 2014; the fourth (TR34) on 12 August 2015.
The THSR 700T trainset is based on the 700 Series Shinkansen trainset used by JR Central and JR West in Japan. This marked the first time Shinkansen technology was exported to a foreign country. Customization was focused on adapting to Taiwan's climate and geography, and the nose shape was optimized for tunnels wider than those in Japan.
The maximum service speed of the trains was raised from the 700 Series Shinkansen's . The 12 cars of a 700T train are grouped in three traction units with three power cars and one trailer each, providing 10.26 MW of power; both end cars are trailers to avoid slip on powered bogies. The train is long and has a mass of when empty. The trains have a passenger capacity of 989 seats in two classes: 66 seats in 2+2 configuration in the single Business Car and 923 seats in 2+3 configuration in the eleven Standard Cars. The per capita energy consumption of a fully loaded 700T train is 16% of that of private cars and half that of buses; carbon dioxide emissions are 11% of private cars and a quarter that of buses.
Engineering trains
THSRC uses overhead line inspection trains from Windhoff, Harsco railgrinders, Plasser & Theurer track tampers, and several ex-JR rolling stock to maintain its line. Among the latter include the JNR Class DD14 and JNR Class DD16 diesel-hydraulic locomotives, which were originally used for snowploughing by JR. The two ex-JR locomotives with THSRC are equipped with Shinkansen-style rotary couplers and standard-gauge bogies instead of the original 1067mm gauge bogies and knuckle couplers and are used for shunting the 700T trainsets within the depot. THSRC also uses a former 0 Series Shinkansen end car as a structure gauge test car.
Operation
As the first high speed railway system in Taiwan, THSRC started operation in 2007 with many foreign employees, including French and German train drivers and operation controllers in the Operation Control Center (OCC). At the same time, THSRC also started to train local drivers and controllers. Since May 2008, all controllers working in the OCC have been Taiwanese, and since October 2008, all train drivers have been Taiwanese.
The OCC's main responsibility is to maintain safe train operations. THSRC has 132 controllers (July 2012), of which about one quarter are female, working 24 hours per day and 365 days per year in the OCC. Requirements for becoming a Chief Controller (主任控制員) include experience in all nine OCC positions, 300-hours of on-the-job training and acquiring qualification.
THSRC has 144 drivers (July 2012), of which almost 10% are female. All driver candidates must spend 8 months completing 1,326 hours of professional training and pass the National Certification before they can drive the train. In addition, after becoming a certified high-speed train driver, they undergo further on-the-job training at least three times each year in order to guarantee they can drive the train safely.
Natural disasters
Taiwan frequently faces multiple types of natural disasters, including typhoons, earthquakes, heavy rainfall, floods, and landslides. For this reason, a primary focus of THSRC's infrastructure design was how to respond to natural disasters such as earthquakes and how to ensure safety for all passengers and trains in any emergency situation.
THSRC has established a system to respond to natural disasters and unexpected intrusion onto the right-of-way, called DWS (Disaster Warning Systems). This system consists of a network of sensors installed along the rail route to detect unexpected situations such as earthquakes, strong winds, heavy rainfall, floods, landslides, and intrusions. In case of an unexpected situation, the DWS will send signals to the OCC (Operation Control Center) immediately; it will also activate contingency measures to ensure the safety of the passengers and trains, including decelerating or stopping trains in the affected area.
The DWS has functioned successfully since its initial operation in 2007. The most powerful earthquake that THSRC has experienced measured 6.4 on the Richter Scale with an epicenter 17 km from Jiaxian, Kaohsiung that shook southern Taiwan on 4 March 2010 (甲仙地震). One operating train was slightly derailed in Sinshih, Tainan, and six trains were stopped on the track. In spite of the temporary suspension of operations, there was no damage or casualties. All 2,500 affected passengers were evacuated in two hours without injury. Service resumed the next day. Such a record was well noted, and provided valuable experience in operational safety to the global railway industry.
In April 2010, it was reported that subsidence had been observed during construction on a viaduct section in Yunlin County. The subsidence continued, reaching up to over seven years. By 2010 subsidence had slowed, which was ascribed to the closure of some deep groundwater wells operating in the region. Although the situation was deemed safe with differential settlement between adjacent piers along the viaduct at only a sixth of the permissible level, the BOHSR urged the closure of more wells. On 25 July 2011, the government announced plans to close almost 1,000 wells in Changhua and Yunlin counties, reducing the amount of water pumped from deep wells by by 2021.
Service
According to THSR's July 2018 timetable, there are 989 train services per week of operation, with operation times between 05:50 to 24:00 every day. Most southbound trains originate from Nangang station and most northbound trains originate from Zuoying; however, a few trains operate just between Nangang and Taichung or between Taichung and Zuoying. Southbound trains are designated by odd train numbers, and northbound trains by even train numbers.
Each train consists of 1 business car (car 6) and 11 standard cars (including reserved seats and non-reserved seats). Since July 2010, non-reserved seats are available in cars 10 through 12 (some trains available in cars 9 through 12 or available in cars 8 through 12 ). Car 7 of each train is fitted with 4 wheelchair accessible chairs and a disabled-friendly restroom. Passengers can call THSR's Customer Service Hot Line at (Taiwan) 4066-3000 or visit any THSR station ticket window to reserve these seats.
By August 2012, implementation of 4G WiMAX on-board trains is expected to provide smooth wireless broadband services, making THSR the first high-speed ground transportation system equipped with this service.
In 2012, THSRC rated highly in the CommonWealth Magazine (天下雜誌) "Golden Service Award survey" (金牌服務大賞), not only far outpacing all rivals in the "long-distance land transport" category, but also taking the top spot in the overall rankings of 300 industries.
Local connections
To improve local public transit connections to THSR stations, the TRA built two new spur lines branching off from West Coast Line.
Shalun Line for Tainan opened on 2 January 2011,
Liujia Line for Hsinchu opened on 11 November 2011.
Stop Patterns
With a few exceptions, the services follow the below pattern.
Ticket fare and discount
As of January 2018, a one-way Taipei–Zuoying trip, a THSR standard car adult ticket is NT$1490, and a business car ticket fare is NT$1950. The cost of a non-reserved seat is approximately 3% less than the regular price. Business and standard car reserved ticket reservations are available 28 days prior to the date of departure (including the departure day).
Senior citizens (Taiwan citizens above 65 years of age), registered disabled persons plus one accompanying passenger (Taiwan citizens only), and children (passengers under 12 years of age) are eligible for concession (half price) tickets.
A group discount is offered for groups of 11 or more. A group discount cannot be used in combination with other discount offers and does not include non-reserved seats. Passengers eligible for multiple discounts can only choose one discount offer.
Since 1 July 2010, a smart card system has provided frequent travelers with multi-ride (eight trips) or periodic tickets. THSR's contact-less smart cards allow the cardholder to travel between specific stations within a given time period for a certain number of rides. The card is sold in either registered (name-bearing) or non-registered form. Only adult tickets are available in this format, and cannot be used for rides between Banqiao and Taipei.
After purchasing or adding value to a multi-ride card, the card balance is valid for 45 days counted from the day of first use. The ticket is good for 8 rides. The multi-ride card provides a discount of about 21% off the full fare of a reserved Standard Seat. Non-registered and registered multi-ride tickets can be purchased at the ticket windows of all THSRC stations. Upon first purchase of a multi-ride ticket, a card deposit fee of NT$100 is required (refundable if the card is returned). The registered multi-ride ticket is limited to personal use by the registered cardholder.
Since November 2012, an Early Bird discount of 35% has been offered for a limited number of tickets sold no later than 8 days before the departure date. If the 35% off tickets sell out before the deadline, tickets with a discount of 20% off are offered. If these tickets sell out before the deadline, tickets with a discount of 10% off are offered. If all early bird tickets are sold out, then full fare tickets are offered.
Train frequency
THSRC operates additional train services during national holidays. On 29 June 2011, a proposal by THSRC to increase the maximum number of train services to 210 per day (compared to the existing 175 per day) passed an environmental impact assessment, increasing the number of possible services on "high-load days".
Ridership
Original estimates predicted a daily ridership of 180,000 after launch, growing to 400,000 by 2036. In view of a 50% drop in airline passengers in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, forecasts were revised downwards. The final initial ridership estimate was 140,000 passengers per day. Actual initial ridership did not match these projections. In September 2007, six months after opening, THSRC carried 1.5 million passengers monthly, translating to about 50,000 passengers daily. In the second year, passenger numbers almost doubled. In the third year, average daily ridership continued to grow to 88,000 passengers per day, jumping to over 120,000 passengers per day in 2012. (updated to September 2012) Seat occupancy was around 45% in the first three years, with a modest improvement achieved in 2009, and reached 53.91% in 2012. (updated to September 2012) Punctuality is stable above 99%.
The 10-millionth passenger was carried after 265 days of operation on 26 September 2007, while the 100-millionth passenger was carried after 1,307 days on 3 August 2010, and 200-millionth by December 2012. On 10 October 2011, the Double Ten Day holiday, THSRC transported a single-day record of 189,386 passengers. On 5 February 2011, the third day of Chinese New Year’s celebration, a new record of 190,596 passengers was achieved. The next single-day record was reached on 25 January 2012, also the third day of Chinese New Year's celebration, at 191,989 passengers. The most recent record is 212,000 passengers transported on 1 January 2013.
The high-speed trains have successfully out-competed planes: by August 2008, half of the air routes between Taipei and the country's western cities had been discontinued, including all connections between cities with THSR stations except for a single daily connection between Taipei and Kaohsiung. Total domestic air traffic was expected to be halved from 2006 to 2008, and actually fell from 8.6 to 4.9 million. In June 2012, officials announced the discontinuation of the last remaining commercial flight between Taipei and Kaohsiung. The share for conventional rail between Taipei and Kaohsiung fell from 9.71% in 2006 to 2.5% in 2008, while high-speed rail became the most common mode of transport at 50% of all trips by 2008. The opening of THSR led to a 10% reduction of traffic on the parallel expressway in 2007. Despite cheaper ticket prices, long-distance bus companies reported that passenger volumes had fallen by 20 to 30 percent by 2008.
Infrastructure
Construction of the system took more than 2,000 professional engineers from 20 countries and over 20,000 foreign and domestic workers six years to complete. Construction work was broken into several specialized lots that were contracted separately. One group of contracts was for civil works, covering the construction of the superstructure of open line sections. Stations and depots were the subject of separate groups of construction contracts. A fourth group of contracts was for track work.
The Taiwan North-South High Speed Rail Project was awarded the first prize for the Outstanding Civil Engineering Project Award by the Asian Civil Engineering Coordination Council (ACECC) in Sydney in 2010.
In 2011, the Public Construction Commission (公共工程委員會) organized an on-line voting campaign that garnered over 330,000 votes, to select the 100 best infrastructure projects (百大建設) in Taiwan to celebrate the centennial of the Republic; Taiwan High Speed Rail topped the list.
Track
Reflecting a design speed of , track layout was designed with a minimum curve radius of , track-centre distance of , right-of-way width of , and a maximum gradient of 2.5%, except for 3.5% at one location. All but of track is ballastless, combining slab track of Japanese manufacture on open line sections with switches from a German supplier. Track laying began in July 2003. The line was electrified with the 25 kV/60 Hz AC system. The signalling and train control system was laid out for bi-directional operation according to European specifications. Each track section has a checkpoint, and an automatic control system ensures that trains are spaced at least apart to prevent collisions.
Most of the line is elevated. About or 73% of the line runs on viaducts, mostly precast pre-stressed concrete box girder spans, the first of which was put in place in October 2001.
The Changhua-Kaohsiung Viaduct is a continuous section from Baguashan (八卦山) in Changhua County to Zuoying in Kaohsiung. It was the second longest bridge in the world as of 2017. Viaducts were designed to be earthquake resistant to allow for trains to stop safely during a seismic event and for repairable damage following a maximum design earthquake. Bridges built over known fault lines were designed to survive fault movements without catastrophic damage.
About or 18% of the line is in tunnels, including of the TRUPO section in Taipei, as well as 48 tunnels with a total length of on the other sections, the longest of which is Paghuashan Tunnel, at a finished length of . Forty-two of the tunnels included a total of of mined sections, all of which were bored with the sequential excavation and support construction method, with excavated tunnel faces of , between November 2000 and July 2003. The finished interior cross-sectional area of , set according to wider European standards, provides space for two tracks with safety walkways.
After four months of delays, trial runs using the first THSR 700T trains began on 27 January 2005, on the Tainan–Kaohsiung section. On 30 October 2005, a day after a test run passed the planned top service speed of , the targeted maximum test speed of was achieved. The section between Banqiao (Taipei) and Zuoying (Kaohsiung) opened to the public on 5 January 2007. The HSR platforms at Taipei Station opened on 2 March 2007, bringing the entire line into operation.
Stations
A distinctive feature of the system's station placement is that many are located at the periphery of urban areas, rather than within city centers. The decision was made with the expectation that the stations would act as centers for planned communities and thus increase the property values of the surrounding area. A study in 2010 showed that this isn't the case, but later analyses show that property prices around certain stations have indeed risen. Since the THSR's opening, cities have gradually expanded their mass transit systems to connect with these stations.
Environmental issues
Environmental mitigation measures in the line's construction phase included the construction of animal bridges over the line, the planting and re-planting of trees along the track as noise screens, and the purchase of farmland to create a preservation area for jacana birds away from the line.
For more than 10 years, THSRC has been devoted to the preservation of the pheasant-tailed Jacana, a type of bird that is considered endangered in Taiwan. With NT$50 million invested, the first artificial habitat recovery project was completed in collaboration with the local government, country development organizations and non-profit organizations. The pheasant-tailed Jacana population in Tainan, Taiwan, which at one point numbered less than 50, has increased to over 300. In 2007, the recovery habitat was officially renamed "Pheasant-tailed Jacana Eco-Educational Nature Park" and since then, it has opened to the public. To educate students in matters concerning environmental protection, every year THSRC arranges for elementary and junior high school students to visit Pheasant-tailed Jacana Eco-Educational Nature Park (台南官田—水雉生態教育園區), where they are able to learn about the beauty of Taiwan's natural habitats.
The other story about the balance between THSR construction and the environment is the protection plan of "300-year-old camphor tree and the temple" (保護金山面老樹及伯公廟) in Hsinchu City for more than 10 years. The tree and the temple are located on the main route of the THSR, and both of them faced removal because of railway construction. The temple established beside the old tree is the belief center of the people there. In 1998, THSRC adjusted the line and design to keep the tree and temple in their original place and cooperated with local government and people to protect the old tree and the temple until today. Afterwards, together with the local government, the Environment and the Resources Protection Committee, and cultural and historical authorities, THSRC drafted the Hsinchu Old Camphor Tree Medical Plan, which called for the repair of decayed branches as well as measures designed to maintain the long-term growth and the health of the tree.
Financial
Revenue and cost
Most of THSRC's revenue comes from ticket sales; supplemental income comes from other activities such as advertising and renting spaces for standing shops and spots in plazas. Advertising spots on trains and station platforms have also been sold.
Revenues grew along with ridership over the first three years, but ridership remained below expectations. In 2008 the second year of operation, revenues fell barely short of THSRC's expectations a year earlier of a doubling of first-year results.
The cost of running the trains and infrastructure, or cash operating costs, was initially over NT$1 billion a month, but was reduced to around NT$850–900 million in 2008. Revenues first exceeded this level, thus generating a positive operating cash flow, in the fourth month of operation (April 2007).
For THSRC, the over heavy accounting of the fixed cost of fixed assets like rolling stock and infrastructure (depreciation) is a significant non-cash element of total operating costs. In its first two years of operation, THSRC applied straight-line depreciation, distributing costs evenly over a period of 26.5 years. As a result, the balance of operating revenues and costs (operating income) showed a high loss in the first year of operation, which was only reduced as revenues grew in the second year. The depreciation period set for THSRC reflected the length of the B.O.T. concession rather than the much longer lifespan of the infrastructure, and it is the factor for the operating loss. After adopting an activity depreciation method which is variable in time, THSRC posted its first operating profit for 2009, the third year of operation. The company reported its first annual profit of NT$5.78 billion after five years of operation.
For the first time in its five-year operation, the Company reported a net income of NT$5.78 billion, with earnings per share of NT$0.59. Revenues increased by 16.65% from NT$27.64 billion to NT$32.24 billion, with operating costs and expenses (excluding depreciation and amortization) rising by only 4.98%. Over the same period of time, gross profit totaled NT$12.98 billion (an increase of 30.32%), income from operations totaled NT$12.06 billion (an increase of 32.93%) and EBITDA totaled NT$22.73 billion (an increase of 22.34%). 2011 gross profit, income from operation and EBITDA were all record highs. Since commencing operations in 2007, THSRC has had a significant influence on Taiwan's economy and on the lives of its people. In 2011, the Company continued to pursue sustainable growth aligned with the interests of shareholders and society, achieving record profits even amid a challenging economic environment.
The interest cost is another major item of this company's financing. In the first few years of operation, interest rates were well above market rates. Interest expense per month stood at around NT$1.3 billion in 2008, when THSRC first achieved break-even cash flow, with revenue and cash expenses (which exclude depreciation) both around NT$2.1 billion in 2008. Interest rates fell in the first half of 2009, reducing interest expenses and contributing to a reduced net loss.
In 2010, THSRC obtained a new syndicate loan to alleviate its imminent financial burden. The company signed a NT$382 billion refinancing contract with a consortium of eight domestic banks led by the Bank of Taiwan, and used the new loan to pay off the previous syndicated loan, which had higher interest. , the long-term debts totalling NT$385 billion included NT$26 billion in corporate bonds and NT$359 billion in bank loans. In comparison with the terms and conditions of previous loans, the refinancing debts carried lower interest rates and longer tenors, up to 22 years.
Financial and loan
In cumulative figures, until July 2008, depreciation and interest were equal to 95% of THSRC's accumulated debt. Both THSRC and a September 2009 government report identified an unreasonable financial structure and the resulting high interest rates and high depreciation charges as the main causes of negative financial performance, while the government assessed THSRC to have performed well in its core business, as measured by earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation and amortization (EBITDA). To reduce its interest load, THSRC sought to revise its loan structure in 2008 and again in 2009. To reduce depreciation costs by increasing the amortization time, THSRC requested an extension of its 35-year concession period.
By the summer of 2009, THSRC's cumulative losses were equivalent to two-thirds of its equity capital. In response to global financial crisis and domestic economic recession, THSRC proposed to increase income and reduce expenditures in several aspects in the hope of raising operation performances. In February 2009, THSRC announced to adjust train frequency, cut down salary payment by 10~20% among management level, and measured to expand fare promotion to stimulate ridership.
While the media questioned whether the planned construction of three more intermediate stations and the extension to Nangang would be postponed, THSRC published press release on 28 September 2009, stating that the company will comply with "Taiwan High Speed. Rail Construction and Operation Contract", and the construction project of 3 intermediate stations, namely Miaoli, Changhua and Yunlin will be initiated in July 2012, and is scheduled to start its operation from 2015. By the time of completion, there will be a total of 12 stations along the THSRC operation route. The company was put under new management in September 2009 with the aim of turning around the company's finances with government help in arranging refinancing of the loans.
The government took majority control of the company after the election of its new board on 10 November 2009. In January 2010, when accumulated losses already exceeded NT$70 billion, THSRC signed a government-guaranteed refinancing deal in which eight government-dominated banks provided NT$382 billion at lower interest rates and longer maturity. The government also approved the company's new variable depreciation charge.
Incidents
On 12 April 2013, suspicious luggage items were found inside the North bound train No. 616 toilet when it was heading towards THSR Hsinchu Station. The train was stopped at THSR Taoyuan Station and all of the passengers were evacuated. Later, it was determined the luggage contained an unidentified liquid in cans, alarm clock and white particulate matter. The items were dismantled by the bomb squad and taken for further investigation. Two KMT legislators, Hsu Hsin-ying and Lu Shiow-yen, were on board.
On 12 April 2013, the train master on no. 616 received complaints from passengers at about 9:10am that the women's toilet in cabin No. 11 contained two pieces of luggage which emitted a strange odor. THSRC informed the High Speed Rail Police Division, which later boarded the train when it stopped at Hsinchu station. The traffic control center decided to evacuate passengers after the train stopped at Taoyuan station at 9:45am. More than 600 people were asked to disembark and continue their journey on another train.
Two bomber suspects were arrested in a hotel in Zhongshan, Guangdong Province, mainland China on 15 April and repatriated to Taiwan on 17 April 2013.
Part of the tracks near Tainan were badly damaged during the earthquake on 6 February 2016. All high-speed rail services south of Chiayi Station were suspended until 7 February 2016.
On 10 May 2017, a non-passenger carrying train headed the opposite direction of the track from Zuoying to Tainan for 1 km due to human negligence.
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the THSR, along with Taiwan Railway Administration and bus services nationwide, began to require all passengers to wear surgical masks as of 1 April. In addition, infrared sensors were set up at twelve stations to detect fevers, eating and drinking was prohibited on board the trains, trains and stations were disinfected more frequently, and the THSR cancelled all non-reserved seating tickets, which allowed for crowds of passengers to stand if no seats were available. It was reported that the switch to reserved seats only aimed to reduce crowding.
Public relations activities
THSRC conducts community engagement activities to raise its profile.
Since 2009, the company has organized an annual "Ride THSR and Join the Book Exhibition for Free" event to promote a national reading culture; school-age passengers from remote villages are given free admission to the Taipei International Book Exhibition and go there on a themed high-speed "reading train", which features a celebrity reading a book over the train's public address system.
Since 2010, along with World Vision Taiwan, THSRC has run a tuition fee assistance program for thousands of underprivileged children, to which passengers contribute.
Other events have been a capella singers at stations; gift-giving to couples taking wedding photos at major stations; station tours for the public and experience-sharing with its fellow railway transportation operators; and in collaboration with non-profit organizations, thousands of free rides to underprivileged groups and families.
Students at primary, secondary and tertiary level learn about high-speed rail and THSRC at "THSR Camps", held in partnership with the Railway Cultural Society of Taiwan, the National Chiao Tung University Railway Research Society, and the China Youth Corps.
In popular culture
The first film to feature THSR prominently was the 2007 Taiwanese movie Summer's Tail, directed by Cheng Wen-tang ().
Railfan: Taiwan High Speed Rail, a 2007 train simulator video game developed jointly by Taiwanese company Actainment and Japanese company Ongakukan on the basis of the latter's Train Simulator series, featured real video and was the first Taiwanese game for Sony Computer Entertainment's PlayStation 3 system.
The "National Geographic" website chose travel by Taiwan's high speed train as the "Best winter trip” in 2013.
See also
Rail transport in Taiwan
Transportation in Taiwan
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Bureau of High Speed Rail, Ministry of Transportation and Communications
Rail transport in Taiwan
Build–operate–transfer
High-speed rail in Taiwan
High-speed trains
Railway lines opened in 2007
2007 establishments in Taiwan
25 kV AC railway electrification
Companies based in Taipei | [
0.13805851340293884,
-0.40289103984832764,
0.11874029785394669,
0.613186240196228,
0.04971129447221756,
-0.31006401777267456,
-0.18344610929489136,
0.7107807397842407,
-0.34586769342422485,
-0.07898931950330734,
-0.12950892746448517,
0.21651235222816467,
0.04293723776936531,
0.08720854669809341,
-0.14600469172000885,
0.26646339893341064,
0.4631139039993286,
-0.1960889995098114,
-0.19214648008346558,
-0.8440518379211426,
-0.32908761501312256,
-0.3742002546787262,
1.0611255168914795,
-0.09307199716567993,
0.16517502069473267,
-0.2465369701385498,
0.12665505707263947,
1.0623829364776611,
-0.04429496079683304,
-0.05297157168388367,
0.19206076860427856,
0.6551877856254578,
-0.42060455679893494,
0.5125272274017334,
0.04262328892946243,
-0.05258508771657944,
0.1624222993850708,
-0.5604296326637268,
-0.2039843499660492,
-0.16561582684516907,
0.004835214931517839,
-0.11709804832935333,
-0.40206393599510193,
0.10914295166730881,
0.7558938264846802,
-0.3866344690322876,
-0.7855902910232544,
0.10653281211853027,
-0.615029513835907,
0.07830913364887238,
-0.5136887431144714,
0.8069531917572021,
-0.34447163343429565,
0.7358868718147278,
0.21373289823532104,
0.5165241956710815,
-0.6421413421630859,
-0.05292217433452606,
-0.12624403834342957,
-0.31430014967918396,
0.1154128685593605,
0.21140071749687195,
-0.13839544355869293,
0.946238100528717,
0.7640456557273865,
0.24215912818908691,
0.11561408638954163,
0.20606856048107147,
-0.08696331828832626,
-0.0813564658164978,
0.509617030620575,
-0.15440595149993896,
0.18043240904808044,
0.4530850052833557,
-0.3765559196472168,
-0.09453114122152328,
-0.3562086522579193,
-0.560716986656189,
-0.17968440055847168,
0.18421748280525208,
-0.08012070506811142,
0.3361237049102783,
1.007097601890564,
0.1769302785396576,
0.5160097479820251,
0.10118518024682999,
-0.20419959723949432,
-0.20479987561702728,
-0.34691041707992554,
0.8750346302986145,
-0.15039104223251343,
0.2521618902683258,
0.2797139286994934,
-0.05257958918809891,
-0.3861698806285858,
-0.4634798467159271,
0.03222101554274559,
0.40040063858032227,
0.0966220423579216,
0.30811819434165955,
0.11308085173368454,
0.0931580439209938,
0.445052832365036,
-0.3705572485923767,
-0.6978875398635864,
-0.6990822553634644,
-0.03535699099302292,
0.059505902230739594,
-0.09810138493776321,
0.04021420329809189,
-1.4526314735412598,
-0.1677911877632141,
-0.14641965925693512,
0.15530119836330414,
0.14442560076713562,
0.1065087839961052,
0.255508154630661,
-0.7612367272377014,
0.0951659306883812,
-0.28925061225891113,
0.09675974398851395,
-0.00645397137850523,
-0.6848471760749817,
-0.02521558292210102,
0.3523366451263428,
0.6043137907981873,
0.6502499580383301,
0.30433550477027893,
-0.19951294362545013,
0.05616607889533043,
0.35288581252098083,
1.050758719444275,
-0.2752329111099243,
0.10952014476060867,
-0.0011485774302855134,
-0.21212023496627808,
0.1424236297607422,
0.4038638472557068,
0.7403204441070557,
0.344730943441391,
-1.0739775896072388,
-0.623142659664154,
-0.07719817757606506,
-0.7542428374290466,
-0.3239043056964874,
0.3146977126598358,
-0.7283287644386292,
-0.8340223431587219,
-0.49184450507164,
-0.06566677987575531,
0.3653493821620941,
0.2937391400337219,
-0.8073132634162903,
0.11223270744085312,
-0.41872304677963257,
0.3862691819667816,
1.1067395210266113,
0.13151487708091736,
0.21411681175231934,
0.3191838264465332,
-0.31971511244773865,
-0.03287607058882713,
-0.27192309498786926,
0.10423026978969574,
-0.19250133633613586,
-0.21982046961784363,
0.33751222491264343,
0.25098755955696106,
0.2851405441761017,
-0.6878452897071838,
-0.09897231310606003,
-0.2402908354997635,
-0.2553827166557312,
-0.06312258541584015,
0.17604714632034302,
-0.3066479563713074,
-0.07488731294870377,
-0.06501781940460205,
-0.38725975155830383,
0.3541905879974365,
-0.7930645942687988,
0.9393954277038574,
0.6298612952232361,
-0.028255097568035126,
0.5412586331367493,
-0.13231424987316132,
-0.05399454012513161,
0.4171554446220398,
-0.29206153750419617,
-0.2087894082069397,
0.16071155667304993,
-0.3434983789920807,
0.05212884396314621,
-0.7346296310424805,
0.3413900136947632,
-0.18656951189041138,
-0.07591221481561661,
0.9587582945823669,
-0.18668760359287262,
0.7312827706336975,
0.02716810442507267,
-0.20492513477802277,
0.20965570211410522,
0.2710607051849365,
-1.0668374300003052,
0.13307805359363556,
0.21740786731243134,
0.144828200340271,
-0.000364750565495342,
-0.040727563202381134,
-0.20234206318855286,
-0.31411275267601013,
0.007435525767505169,
-0.28145653009414673,
0.2605312466621399,
-0.5756126046180725,
-0.2529786229133606,
-0.18385477364063263,
0.01909657195210457,
-0.219563826918602,
0.9128183722496033,
-0.30423063039779663,
-0.49187353253364563,
1.04530668258667,
-0.8864445686340332,
0.36023303866386414,
0.004652748350054026,
1.001843810081482,
-0.10828784853219986,
0.14118602871894836,
-0.1713988035917282,
-0.5560669898986816,
-0.08753214031457901,
-0.1561008244752884,
0.32356587052345276,
0.7149381041526794,
-0.15070299804210663,
-0.021135877817869186,
0.18164823949337006,
-0.31574228405952454,
0.2882055938243866,
0.3303045332431793,
-0.7598587274551392,
0.4133647382259369,
0.376479834318161,
-0.02383548952639103,
-0.20775942504405975,
0.19270916283130646,
-0.2879062592983246,
-0.22484706342220306,
0.07577850669622421,
0.1145368441939354,
0.3136007785797119,
-0.08513212203979492,
0.2931465208530426,
-0.7765993475914001,
0.5226942896842957,
0.09411419928073883,
0.10723229497671127,
-0.12002192437648773,
-0.01192257646471262,
-0.6545591354370117,
-0.09322675317525864,
-0.2971794307231903,
-0.2938743829727173,
-0.36736011505126953,
0.08257246762514114,
-0.1518959105014801,
0.7997477054595947,
0.4598596692085266,
-0.09715243428945541,
0.16952894628047943,
-0.3971841335296631,
-0.015273726545274258,
-0.6246415972709656,
-0.8918854594230652,
-0.19550299644470215,
0.8316808342933655,
-0.6082410216331482,
-0.018964821472764015,
0.033153437077999115,
-0.09434463083744049,
0.3881053626537323,
-0.47744491696357727,
-0.23511581122875214,
-0.167867511510849,
-0.024624979123473167,
0.12761805951595306,
-0.4430341422557831,
-0.1533852070569992,
-0.3105901777744293,
-0.31626129150390625,
-0.3197622299194336,
0.16422581672668457,
-0.2643110156059265,
0.19573551416397095,
0.302977979183197,
0.0740257203578949,
0.26099345088005066,
-0.4127790927886963,
-0.36566996574401855,
-0.19810669124126434,
0.10432989150285721,
0.16490624845027924,
-0.010914670303463936,
-0.06800355762243271,
-0.3764231503009796,
0.028828594833612442,
-5.5280351638793945,
0.4084435701370239,
-0.3514787554740906,
-0.12143781781196594,
0.05668678507208824,
0.44254690408706665,
0.5510352849960327,
-0.4194675385951996,
0.1775849461555481,
-0.22589385509490967,
-0.21648922562599182,
0.12165699154138565,
0.1953682005405426,
-0.017174452543258667,
0.1906469762325287,
0.3075005114078522,
0.26671433448791504,
-0.18449433147907257,
0.4823490381240845,
-0.3549961745738983,
-0.019970282912254333,
-0.44963887333869934,
0.023428527638316154,
0.7378917932510376,
0.5652174949645996,
0.19304914772510529,
-0.5641007423400879,
-0.006341495551168919,
-0.6302812099456787,
-0.033934757113456726,
0.06447857618331909,
-0.5970340371131897,
-0.08526133000850677,
0.34205716848373413,
0.30414023995399475,
-0.7280551791191101,
0.7958353757858276,
0.05754585191607475,
0.26746129989624023,
0.05049039050936699,
-0.2561929225921631,
0.29227951169013977,
0.06565823405981064,
-0.5597643256187439,
-0.10704026371240616,
-0.4667275547981262,
-0.08157193660736084,
0.20570550858974457,
-0.6165149807929993,
1.0364832878112793,
0.13694296777248383,
0.37234097719192505,
0.7126490473747253,
-0.3577239215373993,
0.021115489304065704,
-0.378444641828537,
-0.1064019426703453,
-0.6356382966041565,
-0.5784887671470642,
0.21255342662334442,
0.4726422429084778,
-0.37412500381469727,
-0.39510080218315125,
-0.3863840401172638,
-0.4072466492652893,
0.3102678954601288,
-0.5781775116920471,
-0.30603623390197754,
0.1335655152797699,
0.47041475772857666,
-0.8690426349639893,
0.12636597454547882,
-0.13598676025867462,
-0.7010260224342346,
0.28661203384399414,
-0.7142620086669922,
-0.4264700710773468,
0.6076713800430298,
0.3665308952331543,
-0.22268545627593994,
-0.06709477305412292,
-0.20974649488925934,
-0.26399537920951843,
0.5080364942550659,
0.8481327295303345,
-0.4599596858024597,
0.03274773806333542,
0.09382008016109467,
0.30170077085494995,
-0.11452141404151917,
0.6751700043678284,
-0.7341033816337585,
0.8460707068443298,
0.030774585902690887,
0.10537081956863403,
0.2192349135875702,
0.04037140682339668,
0.21030743420124054,
0.540092945098877,
-1.200373649597168,
0.9914677739143372,
0.3639112412929535,
-0.08966697007417679,
-0.3835701644420624,
-0.7035642862319946,
-0.5951796174049377,
0.8767818808555603,
0.11417629569768906,
0.37802037596702576,
-0.02376469224691391,
-0.029742423444986343,
-0.15750949084758759,
-0.3892807364463806,
-0.5409910082817078,
0.4399729371070862,
-0.006018785294145346,
-0.7968186140060425,
0.21096743643283844,
0.3105592727661133,
0.35214218497276306,
0.333270788192749,
0.3097335696220398,
0.03757893294095993,
0.20219644904136658,
0.21011358499526978,
0.4105629324913025,
-0.0670253112912178,
0.9385800361633301,
0.3532516360282898,
-0.381420761346817,
0.4349389970302582,
0.10723806917667389,
0.5587480068206787,
-0.0679236650466919,
-0.579560399055481,
-0.4317688047885895,
-0.6512978076934814,
-0.4555591940879822,
0.2519862651824951,
0.3886581361293793,
-0.03348899632692337,
0.38942840695381165,
-0.36301031708717346,
0.16824820637702942,
0.471616268157959,
0.6227417588233948,
-0.4954695701599121,
-0.312973290681839,
-0.6633164286613464,
-0.2753587067127228,
0.02762516960501671,
-1.1459262371063232,
0.3359326124191284,
-0.2248120754957199,
-0.043236590921878815,
0.3629944920539856,
0.04915682226419449,
0.1981508433818817,
0.10306858271360397,
-0.1546086072921753,
0.14902673661708832,
-0.307362824678421,
-0.1599942296743393,
0.5136019587516785,
0.30383026599884033,
0.08963004499673843,
-0.3815300166606903,
-0.4398318827152252,
-0.3052976727485657,
0.2998332679271698,
0.4850923418998718,
-0.40788623690605164,
-0.056908491998910904,
-0.46545350551605225,
0.17527203261852264,
0.06221875175833702,
-0.29932716488838196,
0.25567862391471863,
0.15289801359176636,
-0.6384989023208618,
-0.025649508461356163,
0.13637660443782806,
0.011167672462761402,
0.8077067732810974,
0.5590490698814392,
-0.4856397211551666,
-0.03910383582115173,
0.3136027455329895,
0.1478283554315567,
0.8242027163505554,
0.6412490606307983,
0.15140467882156372,
-0.23647505044937134,
0.6924968957901001,
0.10959811508655548,
-0.7195134162902832,
0.15561416745185852,
0.5607831478118896,
-0.21289953589439392,
-0.6064322590827942,
0.04215683788061142,
0.5159698128700256,
-0.2644495666027069,
0.08640517294406891,
0.70721036195755,
-0.037129711359739304,
0.6503386497497559,
0.5096024870872498,
-0.2989349663257599,
-0.24117322266101837,
-0.682972252368927,
-1.0004059076309204,
0.3371639549732208,
0.2737048864364624,
-0.850843071937561,
0.14034104347229004,
0.43359264731407166,
-0.8753761649131775,
-0.6476916074752808,
-0.32192060351371765,
-0.20730219781398773,
0.6763038635253906,
-0.4697282016277313,
-0.6973782181739807,
-0.6276410222053528,
0.24952073395252228,
0.21645987033843994,
-1.1139460802078247,
-0.43914687633514404,
-0.5592105984687805,
-0.4499943256378174,
-0.30261892080307007,
0.5834746360778809,
0.6278942823410034,
-0.3748696446418762,
-0.06355559080839157,
-0.20944111049175262,
-0.11258705705404282,
0.7031230330467224,
0.13529235124588013,
0.28626665472984314,
0.4524621367454529,
-0.24251873791217804,
-0.5685651302337646,
-0.40988606214523315,
0.6566758751869202,
0.6690418124198914,
-0.24424146115779877,
-0.5807400941848755,
0.17292016744613647,
0.235117107629776,
-0.7787005305290222,
-1.2498186826705933,
-0.2029355764389038,
0.6401135325431824,
-0.26029467582702637,
-0.2950531542301178,
-0.05374842509627342,
0.23291943967342377,
-0.06573750823736191,
-0.4070936143398285,
-0.8888188004493713,
-0.3643395006656647,
-0.37724989652633667,
0.22000527381896973,
0.2143668830394745,
-0.189495250582695,
-0.6025764346122742,
-0.026661833748221397,
-0.282247394323349,
0.37668874859809875,
-0.5669270753860474,
0.49235448241233826,
-0.4075200855731964,
-0.07444670796394348,
-0.011856169439852238,
0.003493276424705982,
-0.08809205144643784,
-0.5047159790992737,
0.37672603130340576,
-0.3446297347545624,
-0.3090248703956604,
-0.15864920616149902,
-0.20896168053150177,
-0.4363545775413513,
-0.32370761036872864,
0.594817042350769,
0.0010422138730064034,
0.3728078305721283,
0.1886255145072937,
-0.20807641744613647,
-0.8133367896080017,
-0.015376003459095955,
0.03681202977895737,
-0.08282415568828583,
0.19939638674259186,
0.5032093524932861,
0.3486453592777252,
-0.23367738723754883,
0.24341514706611633,
-0.5057680606842041,
0.4829918146133423,
0.2358679473400116,
-0.5470761060714722,
0.12779271602630615,
-0.011913691647350788,
0.5427886843681335,
-0.2748493254184723,
0.6811792850494385,
0.7562490701675415,
0.8693150877952576,
0.36849838495254517,
-0.05618936941027641,
1.3257710933685303,
0.13186536729335785,
0.05445738136768341,
0.4209272563457489,
-0.18971656262874603,
0.1999502182006836,
0.41947540640830994,
-0.09361830353736877,
0.35604244470596313,
0.3187786936759949,
0.2684822082519531,
-0.25943437218666077,
0.6171578168869019,
-0.40857523679733276,
-0.27041828632354736,
0.15557967126369476,
0.3387239873409271,
0.3356325924396515,
0.02488599345088005,
-0.4733307659626007,
0.34802913665771484,
0.27424708008766174,
-0.3677595853805542,
-0.012287350371479988,
-0.2851416766643524,
-0.2020704448223114,
0.46885454654693604,
0.5795616507530212,
0.31411078572273254,
-0.39102283120155334,
0.09692402184009552,
0.41781044006347656,
0.507529079914093,
0.046606745570898056,
0.0607820600271225,
-0.3875104486942291,
-0.09823080152273178,
0.49673888087272644,
0.4194044768810272,
-0.0334073044359684,
-0.5097310543060303,
0.3841038942337036,
-0.05900335684418678,
-0.6831875443458557,
-0.2304353415966034,
0.42695027589797974,
0.027383647859096527,
0.19908149540424347,
0.6818954944610596,
-0.014358713291585445,
-0.06497431546449661,
-0.22774142026901245,
-0.31555816531181335,
0.31159892678260803,
-0.6106644868850708,
-0.3106253445148468,
0.1794649064540863,
0.10721452534198761,
0.3663667142391205,
-0.18364015221595764,
0.34667089581489563,
-0.13089674711227417,
0.43109461665153503,
0.34074774384498596,
0.26962557435035706,
0.012793214060366154,
0.2265845090150833,
-0.5375546813011169,
0.37142103910446167,
-0.03268911689519882,
-0.6978557109832764,
0.26952603459358215,
0.03638854995369911,
-0.147186741232872,
0.07608985900878906,
-0.45736074447631836,
-0.049066755920648575,
0.024797694757580757,
0.20294436812400818,
0.0019089188426733017,
-0.06094718351960182,
-0.19030654430389404,
-0.2513006627559662,
-0.5051876306533813,
0.2949710786342621,
0.19313344359397888,
0.43106386065483093,
0.181769460439682,
0.3591797947883606,
0.5026921629905701,
0.3906644582748413,
-0.6700552701950073,
0.49134138226509094,
-0.3643629252910614,
0.1952522099018097,
-0.7773528099060059,
-0.09319137781858444,
0.22175024449825287,
0.4730857014656067,
-0.05021829903125763,
0.019135121256113052,
0.04660990089178085,
0.41438591480255127,
0.7432277202606201,
-0.31267547607421875,
0.0974334254860878,
-0.4012066125869751,
-1.0727298259735107,
-0.6114387512207031,
0.1288217157125473,
0.5383970141410828,
0.1234990581870079,
-0.38832780718803406,
0.3871433734893799,
0.09847383201122284,
-0.40492311120033264,
0.4499290883541107,
0.09874936193227768,
-0.2548537254333496,
-0.49781572818756104,
-0.19700270891189575,
-0.28526222705841064,
-0.01839938387274742,
-0.26430708169937134,
0.45941582322120667,
0.45056071877479553,
0.1270560622215271,
0.5583006739616394,
0.32923561334609985,
-0.2687637507915497,
0.5009307861328125,
-0.08863217383623123,
-0.5773777961730957,
-0.36511608958244324,
0.1761125922203064,
-1.3527052402496338,
0.3985555171966553,
-0.023279337212443352,
-0.38688603043556213,
0.7794944047927856,
0.026423687115311623,
0.18650871515274048,
-0.4571402072906494,
0.2983083724975586,
-0.1900736540555954,
0.37105023860931396,
-0.5443330407142639
] |
228967 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSR | HSR | HSR may refer to:
Proper names
Haliburton Scout Reserve, a Scouts Canada camp
Hamilton Street Railway
Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act
Hisar Junction railway station, in India
Historical Social Research
Historic Sportscar Racing, U.S.
Hochschule für Technik Rapperswil, a university in St. Gallen, Switzerland
Holyoke Street Railway
Hot Springs Municipal Airport, South Dakota, US
Mitsubishi HSR, a concept car
HSR Layout, Bengaluru
High-Speed Research Program, a 1990-1999 NASA supersonic jet program
Abbreviations
Health services research
Heat shock response, via HSPA1A gene
Hidden-surface removal
Hierarchical state routing
High-availability Seamless Redundancy
High-speed rail
Higher-speed rail
Homogeneously staining region
Hungarian State Railways | [
0.3146798014640808,
0.5071262121200562,
0.31361204385757446,
0.07087355107069016,
0.20810392498970032,
-0.1726531833410263,
0.3747248947620392,
-0.11430545151233673,
-0.346047043800354,
-0.31227943301200867,
-0.41541436314582825,
-0.13831505179405212,
0.1824474036693573,
0.3483867049217224,
0.05537863075733185,
0.5178968906402588,
-0.316685289144516,
0.797371506690979,
-0.047105368226766586,
-0.6531282663345337,
-0.21703217923641205,
-0.16584505140781403,
0.3626232445240021,
-0.15234144032001495,
0.3970947563648224,
0.17653216421604156,
0.48678213357925415,
0.11264530569314957,
-0.04078406095504761,
0.34072330594062805,
0.4148034155368805,
0.2663561999797821,
0.10683450847864151,
0.04156208410859108,
0.21116164326667786,
-0.16550156474113464,
0.15743637084960938,
-0.6964452266693115,
0.09729648381471634,
-0.6939064860343933,
0.20030349493026733,
-0.579889178276062,
0.23926016688346863,
0.09509126842021942,
0.09877390414476395,
0.30247917771339417,
-1.4461910724639893,
0.32585209608078003,
-0.4186854064464569,
0.008050038479268551,
-0.14094878733158112,
0.16751980781555176,
-0.11019247025251389,
0.34961065649986267,
-0.1766381561756134,
0.43275341391563416,
-0.5231550335884094,
-0.08080650120973587,
0.4435462951660156,
-0.7790406346321106,
0.790457546710968,
0.05777854099869728,
0.022648243233561516,
0.7359248995780945,
0.4309842884540558,
0.12803807854652405,
-0.0093997772783041,
0.05822904035449028,
-0.004436197225004435,
-0.076849564909935,
0.35882800817489624,
-0.5564096570014954,
0.07046939432621002,
0.23529931902885437,
-0.07569857686758041,
-0.014946269802749157,
-0.4032442271709442,
-0.1048145741224289,
-0.16623708605766296,
-0.1045101061463356,
-0.06882839649915695,
0.08047297596931458,
0.36923104524612427,
0.035174041986465454,
0.3538867235183716,
0.33344313502311707,
-0.6103767156600952,
-0.26269978284835815,
-0.2323133498430252,
0.8063374161720276,
-0.3991372585296631,
-0.17197167873382568,
0.27838262915611267,
-0.1488242894411087,
0.02680368907749653,
0.2114058881998062,
-0.005545339547097683,
-0.20700305700302124,
0.5087780356407166,
-0.13118132948875427,
-0.4079415500164032,
0.36829736828804016,
-0.017597835510969162,
-0.2550688683986664,
-0.5963732600212097,
0.03627156466245651,
-0.1284865140914917,
0.03243396058678627,
0.047529187053442,
-0.9042291045188904,
-0.3278544843196869,
-0.30036604404449463,
-0.11744005978107452,
0.21199418604373932,
0.15873821079730988,
-0.3626595735549927,
0.26318469643592834,
-0.3879498541355133,
-0.10929181426763535,
0.3016813397407532,
0.23543910682201385,
0.7370961308479309,
-0.05014690384268761,
-0.011212342418730259,
0.3370964229106903,
0.5627468228340149,
0.6565446257591248,
0.21986420452594757,
-0.6746923923492432,
-0.1576097160577774,
0.06504902243614197,
0.5569660067558289,
-0.03901686146855354,
0.11101780086755753,
-0.4532501697540283,
0.30376994609832764,
-0.2375907152891159,
-0.2386360466480255,
0.023085778579115868,
0.35739192366600037,
-0.8088124990463257,
-0.17631085216999054,
-0.510022759437561,
-0.03874624893069267,
0.10184346139431,
0.13366000354290009,
-0.1738177388906479,
-0.31873640418052673,
-0.08241549879312515,
-0.34208229184150696,
0.2870287001132965,
0.033984433859586716,
-0.3681006133556366,
0.036510154604911804,
0.11855653673410416,
0.6312759518623352,
0.3835774064064026,
-0.1710214912891388,
0.29221463203430176,
0.29854223132133484,
-0.229210764169693,
0.29243406653404236,
-0.30944931507110596,
0.23847000300884247,
0.3542518615722656,
0.037852514535188675,
-0.2552218437194824,
-0.08461184799671173,
0.008708672598004341,
-0.5860322117805481,
-0.0788780078291893,
-0.27324336767196655,
0.036228377372026443,
-0.16930517554283142,
0.00796034187078476,
-0.07832018285989761,
0.540379524230957,
0.13627812266349792,
0.14290040731430054,
-0.12019697576761246,
-0.47503823041915894,
0.08858755230903625,
-0.1735026240348816,
0.0887579619884491,
0.14137451350688934,
0.026982808485627174,
0.2533392012119293,
-0.02373945713043213,
-0.3804751932621002,
0.05542051047086716,
0.19081103801727295,
-0.6163333654403687,
0.378354012966156,
-0.989398717880249,
1.2597815990447998,
-0.13061171770095825,
-0.08622968941926956,
0.9200080037117004,
0.015096128918230534,
0.1254398375749588,
-0.24124665558338165,
-0.018256140872836113,
0.5416244268417358,
-0.2069815844297409,
-0.7760204076766968,
1.0356214046478271,
0.2844320237636566,
0.1849258691072464,
-0.06304974853992462,
-0.24698194861412048,
0.21071064472198486,
-0.4725695550441742,
0.10977470874786377,
0.20693498849868774,
0.5028350949287415,
-0.5002796649932861,
-0.07280430942773819,
-0.028144657611846924,
0.10875709354877472,
-0.10661786049604416,
0.3064084053039551,
-0.2546480894088745,
-0.010907900519669056,
0.12205887585878372,
-0.5497848391532898,
0.17024213075637817,
0.06811366230249405,
0.47748124599456787,
0.2182142585515976,
-0.5997107625007629,
0.32659921050071716,
-0.43577608466148376,
0.06277833133935928,
0.10125833749771118,
0.002174731809645891,
-0.03494984284043312,
0.17491792142391205,
-0.2873067855834961,
0.16356560587882996,
0.13453005254268646,
-0.02260970138013363,
0.18090569972991943,
-0.2800581157207489,
-0.06272488832473755,
0.14603906869888306,
-0.07911759614944458,
0.09355471283197403,
0.07925496995449066,
-0.12371022999286652,
-0.2186429351568222,
0.008978341706097126,
0.36668527126312256,
0.2457089126110077,
0.029148412868380547,
0.5617825984954834,
-0.004091207403689623,
0.3055042326450348,
-0.13891665637493134,
-0.2873501479625702,
-0.4124773442745209,
-0.015641530975699425,
-0.41338494420051575,
-0.7166467905044556,
0.292198121547699,
-0.11135828495025635,
-0.5546908378601074,
-0.7154739499092102,
-0.552051842212677,
0.7218042016029358,
0.471262127161026,
-0.04302597790956497,
0.0876687690615654,
0.08754310011863708,
-0.7238295674324036,
0.10216568410396576,
-0.13129818439483643,
0.23243482410907745,
0.13125091791152954,
0.19652383029460907,
0.1817692071199417,
-0.12784044444561005,
0.3115300238132477,
0.09359150379896164,
-0.4389997124671936,
-0.24197742342948914,
0.2832513451576233,
0.04825739562511444,
0.21809415519237518,
-0.16236945986747742,
-0.11261983215808868,
0.19478611648082733,
-0.19158317148685455,
0.1367824822664261,
0.15506069362163544,
0.4061813950538635,
0.1848381906747818,
0.013136424124240875,
0.1433962732553482,
-0.08415664732456207,
-0.02744309790432453,
-0.695606529712677,
0.4482175409793854,
-0.2628748118877411,
-0.1324068009853363,
0.3008827567100525,
0.4515775144100189,
-0.5222177505493164,
-0.23300673067569733,
-6.23798131942749,
0.007930310443043709,
-0.2249457836151123,
-0.33137184381484985,
0.08830533921718597,
-0.07376483827829361,
0.4344746470451355,
-0.35852277278900146,
-0.2803744077682495,
0.04763006418943405,
0.4554913640022278,
0.16115275025367737,
0.4091328978538513,
-0.24093317985534668,
0.31664565205574036,
0.03495704010128975,
0.1562572717666626,
0.17112362384796143,
0.22365443408489227,
-0.4838191866874695,
0.05669425055384636,
0.10753477364778519,
0.04369845241308212,
0.490666925907135,
0.0921618640422821,
0.5448119044303894,
-0.43824583292007446,
0.12394275516271591,
-0.6639910936355591,
-0.4430290460586548,
0.37953290343284607,
-0.19233296811580658,
-0.0905536338686943,
0.2641609311103821,
-0.20340007543563843,
-0.3659328818321228,
0.407598614692688,
0.09985823184251785,
0.453599750995636,
-0.2482094019651413,
-0.03758172318339348,
0.19660016894340515,
-0.05728001147508621,
-0.3964129388332367,
-0.1932762861251831,
-0.10935031622648239,
-0.4587379992008209,
0.565461277961731,
-0.2943189740180969,
0.7854867577552795,
0.048483576625585556,
0.2925015985965729,
0.5661088228225708,
0.13818402588367462,
0.2706525921821594,
-0.1907941848039627,
-0.058299850672483444,
-0.04428459331393242,
0.059609126299619675,
0.06594831496477127,
0.4550512135028839,
-0.20206589996814728,
-0.029668577015399933,
-0.7443656325340271,
-0.32867035269737244,
-0.028800874948501587,
-0.18901345133781433,
-0.48997020721435547,
0.13338427245616913,
0.07348714768886566,
-0.24563422799110413,
-0.016243951395154,
-0.20803600549697876,
-1.1336827278137207,
-0.4225781559944153,
-0.505786120891571,
0.22594159841537476,
0.6240169405937195,
0.14679573476314545,
0.3509219288825989,
-0.04065243527293205,
0.1554078459739685,
-0.03322602063417435,
-0.12367043644189835,
-0.020937427878379822,
0.1599227637052536,
-0.036179978400468826,
0.2915283441543579,
0.2524273097515106,
-0.6189252734184265,
0.6224333047866821,
0.029621651396155357,
0.06305579841136932,
0.5375306606292725,
0.23781925439834595,
-0.11238333582878113,
0.2511105537414551,
-0.008630619384348392,
-0.08475052565336227,
-0.4809674918651581,
0.560522198677063,
0.012500997632741928,
0.07210938632488251,
-0.5893113017082214,
-0.4848242998123169,
-0.04919442534446716,
-0.1842752993106842,
-0.012556133791804314,
0.3399982154369354,
0.07210633903741837,
-0.14238762855529785,
-0.5032884478569031,
-0.5828067660331726,
-0.3356873095035553,
0.6034428477287292,
-0.052657753229141235,
-0.18620164692401886,
0.1504606008529663,
0.4616430997848511,
0.4128604829311371,
0.14337846636772156,
0.06798525154590607,
-0.6133973002433777,
0.35906386375427246,
-0.04478650167584419,
0.11656862497329712,
0.20662438869476318,
0.2524401545524597,
-0.0674203485250473,
-0.15651758015155792,
0.396251916885376,
0.2727958559989929,
0.6848695278167725,
0.1803751438856125,
-0.1626381278038025,
-0.024142706766724586,
-0.5006484985351562,
0.10112296044826508,
0.22861163318157196,
0.00408262200653553,
0.0012478147400543094,
0.5666092038154602,
-0.5422631502151489,
0.3767422139644623,
0.6284051537513733,
0.4558703899383545,
-0.27387529611587524,
-0.26776668429374695,
0.1424487680196762,
0.12641599774360657,
-0.17542913556098938,
-0.6766601204872131,
0.4285622239112854,
-0.047749511897563934,
-0.01839226856827736,
-0.2296631932258606,
-0.041516173630952835,
-0.09218765795230865,
-0.0019898004829883575,
-0.16174769401550293,
0.17834794521331787,
0.22935602068901062,
-0.7860404849052429,
0.2592177093029022,
0.3189656138420105,
-0.21614708006381989,
0.26869311928749084,
-0.5950140953063965,
-0.1212630346417427,
0.27337121963500977,
0.007263156119734049,
-0.35080865025520325,
-0.5397148728370667,
-0.06770017743110657,
0.16696202754974365,
0.2334582805633545,
-0.03280514106154442,
-0.31284642219543457,
0.5471296906471252,
-0.29829198122024536,
-0.06648235023021698,
0.29993388056755066,
-0.21305647492408752,
1.1157622337341309,
-0.030574781820178032,
-0.3778422176837921,
0.3854580521583557,
0.01391567848622799,
0.12667346000671387,
0.04481981694698334,
0.16947701573371887,
0.04613424465060234,
0.4884759187698364,
0.5457442998886108,
-0.1735459268093109,
0.007197286002337933,
0.1370936930179596,
0.08327546715736389,
-0.16092069447040558,
-0.4876607656478882,
0.32348546385765076,
0.20002096891403198,
-0.27991822361946106,
-0.14095139503479004,
0.05698954686522484,
-0.3281654715538025,
0.29760363698005676,
0.3440011739730835,
-0.5805763602256775,
0.11931951344013214,
-0.42403101921081543,
-0.4428403377532959,
0.4994415044784546,
0.31702151894569397,
0.004428733605891466,
-0.09326528757810593,
0.020455816760659218,
0.09889323264360428,
-0.521973192691803,
-0.37600892782211304,
-0.010802346281707287,
0.16527777910232544,
-0.029819775372743607,
-0.4268185496330261,
-0.13021990656852722,
-0.12835079431533813,
0.2764558792114258,
-1.0057862997055054,
0.3769017159938812,
-0.22743892669677734,
-0.643720269203186,
-0.005482219625264406,
-0.05344805121421814,
-0.004283780697733164,
0.08799739927053452,
0.1676304042339325,
-0.15511204302310944,
-0.021539853885769844,
0.28958970308303833,
0.08596395701169968,
-0.030209442600607872,
0.5020799040794373,
0.15348340570926666,
-0.9071094393730164,
-0.1846717894077301,
0.3544885814189911,
0.46777665615081787,
-0.13778549432754517,
-0.2852286696434021,
0.6089680194854736,
0.25681835412979126,
-0.5200152397155762,
-0.2309933751821518,
-0.34181222319602966,
0.9938086867332458,
0.038122110068798065,
-0.1579877734184265,
-0.13334685564041138,
0.02311204932630062,
0.08504720777273178,
-0.4361080527305603,
0.2437722384929657,
-0.5285888910293579,
0.004583022557199001,
-0.12919606268405914,
0.5852445363998413,
-0.2005721628665924,
-0.6319953799247742,
-0.030472490936517715,
-0.5710581541061401,
0.3479921817779541,
0.06601060926914215,
0.7129296660423279,
0.24606509506702423,
0.13094322383403778,
-0.45029011368751526,
-0.30499181151390076,
-0.39405858516693115,
0.031018320471048355,
0.019376177340745926,
-0.22145457565784454,
0.20618672668933868,
0.2776724100112915,
-0.24899530410766602,
0.24227114021778107,
-0.6315930485725403,
0.04094910994172096,
-0.05948042869567871,
-0.32096028327941895,
0.31510964035987854,
-0.41217902302742004,
-0.19299548864364624,
-0.40262970328330994,
-0.041457805782556534,
-0.4735182821750641,
-0.11802573502063751,
0.1570088416337967,
0.2253158539533615,
-0.33859094977378845,
0.3654712736606598,
-0.9271247982978821,
0.484319806098938,
0.028418097645044327,
-0.6366516351699829,
0.03938250243663788,
0.33475881814956665,
0.04251575097441673,
-0.35161206126213074,
0.11149627715349197,
-0.5282195210456848,
0.5284931659698486,
-0.5102187395095825,
-0.0071267662569880486,
0.8461074233055115,
-0.16502240300178528,
-0.11817940324544907,
0.051064398139715195,
-0.42578911781311035,
0.3580157160758972,
0.341491162776947,
0.3391907513141632,
0.7168713212013245,
0.6934932470321655,
-0.07112380862236023,
-0.6637880802154541,
0.4818693995475769,
-0.033420637249946594,
-0.3670693337917328,
0.5059074759483337,
0.7907688021659851,
0.3323933780193329,
-0.344283789396286,
-0.28594446182250977,
0.6951277256011963,
-0.30735960602760315,
-0.14994849264621735,
0.033643968403339386,
-0.4346783459186554,
-0.6971947550773621,
0.1915743052959442,
0.3109697699546814,
0.2417653650045395,
-0.32280445098876953,
-0.20462334156036377,
-0.1472882479429245,
0.19270813465118408,
0.20884577929973602,
0.11745144426822662,
0.049390316009521484,
0.10269849747419357,
0.2158527374267578,
-0.14563532173633575,
-0.3203715980052948,
0.3338543772697449,
0.045147158205509186,
0.058150094002485275,
-0.2349797487258911,
-0.16835136711597443,
0.01896418258547783,
-0.6951935291290283,
-0.013732124119997025,
-0.018073828890919685,
0.4394228160381317,
-0.023879285901784897,
0.11902141571044922,
-0.4702603816986084,
0.2746841311454773,
-0.2967270612716675,
0.12867435812950134,
0.14263981580734253,
-0.05994659662246704,
0.4968668222427368,
-0.6613761186599731,
-0.07077609747648239,
-0.07855506986379623,
-0.006192979868501425,
0.11761518567800522,
0.281596302986145,
0.1329161524772644,
0.43344730138778687,
-0.176993727684021,
0.4539121985435486,
0.23348784446716309,
-0.7590678334236145,
0.49877965450286865,
-0.6526665091514587,
-0.08584991842508316,
0.12234753370285034,
-0.4190814197063446,
-0.03495709225535393,
0.3648223876953125,
-0.21776023507118225,
0.2201303243637085,
-0.13839586079120636,
-0.10134810954332352,
-0.09485817700624466,
-0.4789762794971466,
-0.04891427606344223,
0.35699597001075745,
0.2277614176273346,
-0.17176435887813568,
0.17381933331489563,
0.2014102190732956,
-0.2081303894519806,
-0.44361746311187744,
-0.11211849749088287,
-0.06257860362529755,
0.2226795107126236,
-0.10681936889886856,
0.2724917232990265,
0.06017858907580376,
0.09673421084880829,
0.08178162574768066,
0.31581681966781616,
-0.2317276895046234,
0.03956063091754913,
0.4685736894607544,
-0.09510942548513412,
0.005395511165261269,
0.2046746164560318,
-0.07900189608335495,
-0.0047754161059856415,
0.8560639023780823,
0.31791913509368896,
-0.028190897777676582,
-0.4604712426662445,
0.10267367213964462,
-0.03375751152634621,
-0.2582812011241913,
0.5233669877052307,
0.21264874935150146,
-0.33939579129219055,
-0.602984607219696,
0.32173770666122437,
-0.45543172955513,
-0.39995789527893066,
-0.1555044949054718,
-0.005325655452907085,
0.4226991534233093,
0.04130980372428894,
0.1863483488559723,
-0.1766909658908844,
0.2550085783004761,
-0.058090854436159134,
-0.990347146987915,
0.3184337913990021,
-0.20803530514240265,
-0.24061322212219238,
-0.6951290965080261,
0.42266228795051575,
0.24840375781059265,
-0.21849560737609863,
0.057653188705444336,
0.21602074801921844,
0.45871418714523315,
-0.4330006539821625,
0.04183465987443924,
-0.17919699847698212,
-0.0070450459606945515,
-0.052408523857593536
] |
228972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Texel | Battle of Texel | The naval Battle of Texel or Battle of Kijkduin took place off the southern coast of island of Texel on 21 August 1673 (11 August O.S.) between the Dutch and the combined English and French fleets. It was the last major battle of the Third Anglo-Dutch War, which was itself part of the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678), during which Louis XIV of France invaded the Republic and sought to establish control over the Spanish Netherlands. English involvement came about because of the Treaty of Dover, secretly concluded by Charles II of England, and which was highly unpopular with the English Parliament.
The overall commanders of the English and Dutch military forces were Lord High Admiral James, Duke of York, later James II, and Admiral-General William III of Orange, his son-in-law and another future King of England. Neither of them took part in the fight.
Prince Rupert of the Rhine commanded the Allied fleet of about 92 ships and 30 fireships, taking control of the centre himself, with Jean II d'Estrées commanding the van, and Sir Edward Spragge the rear division. The Dutch fleet of 75 ships and 30 fireships was commanded by Lieutenant-Admiral-General Michiel de Ruyter, with Lieutenant-Admirals Adriaen Banckert in charge of the van and Cornelis Tromp the rear. Although the Dutch ships were smaller on average than their opponents, their crews were better trained and more experienced.
Battle
In late July, Rupert put to sea again, hoping to draw the Dutch fleet north by feinting against The Hague or Den Helder. De Ruyter initially remained at Schooneveld, but William ordered him to escort an inbound Dutch East India Company treasure fleet, whose capture could provide Charles enough funds to continue the war.
De Ruyter first decided not to leave his defensive position in the Schooneveld, from which he had successfully engaged the allied fleet in the double Battle of Schooneveld. However the Dutch Spice Fleet was returning from the Indies, filled with precious cargo. With half the country under French occupation for almost a year, the Dutch Republic's finances were in disastrous straits. The Dutch could not afford to lose the wealth the Spice Fleet was bringing, let alone allow it to be captured by the enemy. As such stadtholder William ordered De Ruyter to seek to engage the enemy.
Although outnumbered, De Ruyter gained the weather gauge and sent his van under Adriaen Banckert in to separate the Allied van (under D'Estrées) from the main fleet. His ploy was effective, and the French ships were unable to play a significant part in the remainder of the battle, which became a gruelling encounter between the bulk of the Dutch fleet and the English centre and rear divisions. Both suffered badly during hours of fierce fighting.
Once again, the rear divisions led by Spragge and Tromp clashed repeatedly, Spragge having publicly sworn to kill or capture his old enemy. Each had to shift their flags to fresh ships three times; on the third occasion, Spragge drowned when the boat transporting him sank. More importantly, his preoccupation with duelling Tromp isolated the English centre, and was a key factor in allowing an inferior but better managed fleet to succeed.
The fight between the English and Dutch centre under De Ruyter and Lieutenant-Admiral Aert Jansse van Nes continued for hours, with each side gaining the weather gauge as the winds shifted. Having disengaged from the French, Banckert joined the Dutch centre, followed first by Rupert, then De Ruyter; the main focus of the fight was a Dutch attempt to capture Spragge's isolated flagship, the Prince. This was unsuccessful, and with both fleets exhausted, the Allies withdrew; although there were no major ship losses, many were seriously damaged and about 3,000 men died, two-thirds of them English or French.
Aftermath
After the battle, Prince Rupert complained the French had not done their share of the fighting, and their performance is still disputed. While Prud'homme states the French fought hard, he accepts they allowed themselves to become separated from the English fleet. The main dispute is whether this was deliberate; D'Estrées had been ordered by Louis XIV to preserve the French fleet, and thus disobeyed Rupert's orders to attack the Dutch, claiming the wind was too weak. By the admission of several French officers, their fleet was not prominent in the action, but they attributed this to inexperience.
The size of the Allied fleet and length of its battle line, combined with inadequacies in fighting instructions and signalling, made it hard to control. It deepened suspicions between the English and French, further undercutting popular support for the war, while ending any hopes of starving the Dutch through a naval blockade, making it an overwhelming strategic victory for the Dutch. This campaign was the highlight of De Ruyter's career, as acknowledged by the Duke of York, who concluded "he was the greatest that ever to that time was in the world".
Despite losing four ships, the Spice Fleet arrived safely, bringing the much needed financial reprieve. In the months following, the Netherlands formed a formal alliance with Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The threat posed by German and Spanish invasions from the south and east forced the French to withdraw from the territory of the Republic. The Third Anglo-Dutch War came to an end with the signing of the Treaty of Westminster between the English and the Dutch in 1674. Fourteen years later the Glorious Revolution, which saw Stadtholder William III ascend the throne of England, put an end to the Anglo-Dutch conflicts of the 17th century. Only in 1781 would the Dutch and British fleets fight each other again in the battle of Dogger Bank.
Ships involved
England and France
?
[cf "Journals and Narratives of the Third Dutch War", Roger Charles Anderson, Naval Records Society, London. Complete English ship lists are given for the naval battles of this war, but smaller vessels, e.g. fireships, of which there were many present during this action, are not included in Anderson's book.] John Winkler
White Squadron (French): 30 SOLs about 1828 guns
27 SOLs from the previous battle, plus 3 new ones:
Royale Therese 80 - RA Marquis de Martel
Pompeux 70
Diamant 60
The Netherlands
Admiralty of Amsterdam
Admiralty of de Maze
Admiralty of the Northern Quarter
Admiralty of Zealand
Admiralty of Frisia
References
Sources
Conflicts in 1673
1673 in the Dutch Republic
Military history of the North Sea
Naval battles of the Third Anglo-Dutch War
Battles in North Holland
Battle | [
-0.6963548064231873,
-0.21710063517093658,
0.25039076805114746,
-0.1969519853591919,
0.1363515853881836,
0.15410083532333374,
0.5922518968582153,
-0.13083285093307495,
-0.3746625483036041,
-0.49909454584121704,
0.3352757692337036,
0.7586783170700073,
0.13487306237220764,
0.3275461792945862,
-0.5594778060913086,
0.5250016450881958,
1.1270891427993774,
-0.43644917011260986,
0.20603834092617035,
-0.7417342662811279,
-0.010448715649545193,
-0.41239798069000244,
0.2680591344833374,
0.6739535927772522,
0.5247057676315308,
-0.41654932498931885,
0.44779372215270996,
0.2229015827178955,
1.0053945779800415,
-0.161301389336586,
0.6595836877822876,
0.5668810606002808,
-0.4047050476074219,
-0.15794126689434052,
-0.45712390542030334,
0.257395476102829,
-0.21380949020385742,
0.049638714641332626,
-0.5077682137489319,
-0.1537075936794281,
-0.29555749893188477,
0.44595015048980713,
0.007360011804848909,
0.06920099258422852,
-0.016733640804886818,
0.07133453339338303,
-1.1817901134490967,
-0.2774089574813843,
-0.6010896563529968,
-0.0300933588296175,
-0.1458144634962082,
0.49451276659965515,
0.1843375563621521,
1.1166355609893799,
-0.014734970405697823,
0.4879970848560333,
-1.136339545249939,
-0.5807772874832153,
-0.013631303794682026,
-0.5353723764419556,
0.45269450545310974,
0.1788558065891266,
-0.1611417829990387,
-0.3049420118331909,
-0.7065536975860596,
-0.2806680500507355,
0.05000633746385574,
0.4398733079433441,
0.10777181386947632,
-0.37128299474716187,
0.9254492521286011,
0.1974092721939087,
-0.43347302079200745,
-0.025088250637054443,
-0.10463660210371017,
-0.19511988759040833,
-0.327221542596817,
0.0953860878944397,
-0.1013696938753128,
-0.08212567120790482,
-0.06781680136919022,
-1.108572244644165,
0.9900165796279907,
-0.3907988965511322,
0.6644646525382996,
0.4963814616203308,
0.3596741855144501,
-0.1412065178155899,
-0.7632381319999695,
0.022582564502954483,
0.3411617875099182,
-0.690406084060669,
-0.07818534225225449,
0.12052282691001892,
0.024461321532726288,
-0.16743692755699158,
0.13228924572467804,
0.6518427133560181,
-0.38322117924690247,
0.9001137018203735,
-0.07265219837427139,
0.6840078234672546,
0.6650909185409546,
0.5013431906700134,
-0.5569117069244385,
-0.30623215436935425,
0.3571018874645233,
-0.3759959638118744,
-0.4515218734741211,
-0.7678303122520447,
-0.15061919391155243,
0.27411460876464844,
-0.12881165742874146,
-0.011455257423222065,
-0.4994514286518097,
0.028145818039774895,
0.26874426007270813,
0.05690915882587433,
-0.05623491853475571,
0.4177252948284149,
0.03526220843195915,
0.9068393707275391,
0.08653916418552399,
0.664944589138031,
-0.13247765600681305,
-0.14127691090106964,
0.1889611929655075,
0.34488606452941895,
-0.572047770023346,
0.3526981472969055,
0.5053702592849731,
1.104200839996338,
-0.39011308550834656,
0.06538411974906921,
-0.27507779002189636,
0.22272410988807678,
0.5616145133972168,
0.8043713569641113,
-0.1339985579252243,
-0.020279305055737495,
-0.7702455520629883,
-0.5256537199020386,
-0.011738124303519726,
0.09515229612588882,
0.10967134684324265,
-0.6020358204841614,
-0.10469923168420792,
-0.557031512260437,
-0.05220448970794678,
-0.36993852257728577,
0.14809969067573547,
0.19387684762477875,
-0.7170308828353882,
0.013632876798510551,
-0.24865716695785522,
0.5698803067207336,
0.5158829689025879,
-0.36045992374420166,
0.3953658640384674,
0.3167748749256134,
-0.04255256801843643,
-0.07902052998542786,
0.4195821285247803,
0.15511946380138397,
0.3064519762992859,
-0.2448086440563202,
0.45370081067085266,
0.11466645449399948,
-0.15254761278629303,
0.4351940453052521,
-0.04669679328799248,
0.06366535276174545,
0.0026359003968536854,
0.06936654448509216,
0.5059109926223755,
0.027852557599544525,
0.4215428829193115,
-0.1877550631761551,
0.4617084562778473,
-0.1671220362186432,
-0.6159586906433105,
0.2188531905412674,
0.6234279274940491,
-0.11301084607839584,
0.8864859342575073,
0.7791100144386292,
0.2765120267868042,
-0.0734323263168335,
-0.3339032530784607,
0.4753619432449341,
-0.043607279658317566,
-0.996870219707489,
0.37239623069763184,
0.08690697699785233,
1.4923008680343628,
-0.38820987939834595,
-0.6293556690216064,
-0.14546342194080353,
0.06550639867782593,
0.6761716604232788,
-0.04905381053686142,
-0.6418498158454895,
0.5338929295539856,
0.22668145596981049,
-0.3616648316383362,
-0.022833358496427536,
-0.0562063492834568,
0.04634600505232811,
0.3339715898036957,
1.0480499267578125,
-0.12419024109840393,
-0.20383979380130768,
-0.4931683838367462,
0.5937159657478333,
0.4716106057167053,
-0.4888059198856354,
-0.12844203412532806,
-0.1733231544494629,
0.5063049793243408,
-0.5203577876091003,
0.2287309318780899,
-0.1855417788028717,
-0.429442435503006,
0.7589972019195557,
0.38064852356910706,
0.5077781081199646,
-0.11845187097787857,
0.36613205075263977,
0.26394152641296387,
-1.015332579612732,
0.09346742928028107,
0.2727012634277344,
0.06079047545790672,
-0.14391738176345825,
0.26234006881713867,
-0.3819068670272827,
-0.06508572399616241,
0.12205132842063904,
0.2822727859020233,
-0.42524468898773193,
0.32632750272750854,
0.239060640335083,
-0.4484284520149231,
0.7414377927780151,
0.13546599447727203,
0.47371336817741394,
0.22925031185150146,
0.11875580251216888,
-0.3762405514717102,
-0.4751250147819519,
-0.014356652274727821,
0.23402267694473267,
-0.3083571791648865,
-0.4955504238605499,
-0.2796303331851959,
-0.8592710494995117,
0.06917651742696762,
-0.25549057126045227,
0.4270114600658417,
0.23127396404743195,
-0.022192012518644333,
-0.42331811785697937,
0.2622230052947998,
0.5263499021530151,
0.7455760836601257,
-0.2945955991744995,
-0.6357352137565613,
-0.2948938310146332,
0.5600621104240417,
0.03625387325882912,
0.1107422262430191,
-0.3531878590583801,
-0.3238213062286377,
-0.4056382179260254,
-0.3526718020439148,
-0.6753277778625488,
-0.3710877299308777,
0.03761174902319908,
0.1605890989303589,
-0.3551537096500397,
-0.24029690027236938,
0.9140135049819946,
-0.0015647889813408256,
-0.7294325232505798,
0.5305749177932739,
0.2845299243927002,
0.2105201631784439,
0.12272381782531738,
0.024731334298849106,
0.05855201184749603,
0.1331762671470642,
-0.7946232557296753,
-0.5518884062767029,
-0.28032636642456055,
0.22801470756530762,
-0.07212086021900177,
-0.24676737189292908,
-0.10049773752689362,
0.4319848120212555,
-0.3252427279949188,
-0.5261818170547485,
0.2780134379863739,
-0.3501273989677429,
0.09177910536527634,
0.14567236602306366,
-0.7567628026008606,
-0.42022356390953064,
0.6666518449783325,
-5.274855136871338,
0.1431942731142044,
-0.2711528241634369,
-0.1282244324684143,
-0.5206888318061829,
-0.5911198258399963,
0.126695916056633,
-0.6736695766448975,
0.6714523434638977,
-0.2509405016899109,
0.06792549043893814,
-0.32708966732025146,
-0.18023701012134552,
0.012394922785460949,
0.29929301142692566,
-0.2650255560874939,
0.49326199293136597,
-0.43570566177368164,
0.22999584674835205,
0.1600082814693451,
0.32587090134620667,
-0.058735694736242294,
0.25817516446113586,
0.4974721372127533,
0.5636322498321533,
0.3914540112018585,
0.15404203534126282,
-0.294270783662796,
-0.3212597370147705,
0.3996458947658539,
-0.3299143314361572,
-0.4641318917274475,
0.507233202457428,
-0.10121758282184601,
-0.49416109919548035,
-0.4021787643432617,
0.990697979927063,
1.244928002357483,
-0.09807874262332916,
-0.5108429789543152,
0.13818109035491943,
0.5354905128479004,
-0.7107716798782349,
-0.45691215991973877,
0.7190903425216675,
-0.9394302368164062,
-0.4393404424190521,
0.5260440707206726,
-0.2559205889701843,
0.6175248622894287,
0.4124561846256256,
-0.21462078392505646,
-0.34449055790901184,
-0.24128293991088867,
0.5325198173522949,
-0.3588152825832367,
-0.18046154081821442,
-0.18323193490505219,
0.3718796968460083,
0.3323766887187958,
0.28640249371528625,
-0.39040595293045044,
-0.16661004722118378,
-0.4856814444065094,
0.32229116559028625,
-0.2513222396373749,
0.4858720004558563,
0.03577541187405586,
0.16585950553417206,
-0.1995333433151245,
0.5069157481193542,
0.401608943939209,
-0.10172736644744873,
-1.0670942068099976,
0.10035783052444458,
0.3099413812160492,
-0.4467586874961853,
-0.7388970851898193,
0.2648089826107025,
-0.21769121289253235,
0.10432285070419312,
-0.18286190927028656,
0.1965482532978058,
0.3020736575126648,
0.6993609070777893,
-0.5555888414382935,
-1.1914985179901123,
0.06821601837873459,
-0.3965053856372833,
-0.6656715869903564,
0.5871742367744446,
-0.8291153311729431,
0.04405086487531662,
0.09479519724845886,
-0.06175319850444794,
0.5019002556800842,
-0.5213490724563599,
0.09995494782924652,
0.580393373966217,
-0.044868726283311844,
0.17996913194656372,
-0.16530835628509521,
0.054380886256694794,
-0.38412603735923767,
0.03307368606328964,
0.08310136198997498,
-0.04205607250332832,
0.47124212980270386,
0.9931251406669617,
0.25535476207733154,
-0.27477097511291504,
-0.02634691260755062,
0.04083288460969925,
-0.7703209519386292,
-0.3343586325645447,
-0.7437158226966858,
0.04837009310722351,
0.0967966765165329,
0.5779223442077637,
-0.4305979013442993,
-0.059070929884910583,
0.44906750321388245,
-0.8270735144615173,
0.25373896956443787,
0.356282502412796,
-0.6558753252029419,
-0.571994960308075,
0.13639916479587555,
-0.7638725638389587,
0.38153037428855896,
-0.12194178998470306,
0.013678808696568012,
0.29546621441841125,
-0.020962437614798546,
0.025154324248433113,
-1.0002869367599487,
-0.1813536435365677,
-1.1094642877578735,
0.07625389099121094,
-0.18479885160923004,
-0.23186738789081573,
-0.47925326228141785,
-0.28130123019218445,
0.15675568580627441,
-0.24946263432502747,
0.2478369027376175,
0.1801048368215561,
-0.5208620429039001,
0.020225299522280693,
0.4857299327850342,
-0.9107280969619751,
0.20938600599765778,
0.46276065707206726,
0.21543514728546143,
0.02020910754799843,
-0.36081093549728394,
0.08009015768766403,
0.13387972116470337,
-0.22130078077316284,
-0.23892296850681305,
0.02514485828578472,
-0.0564713217318058,
-0.5690611600875854,
-0.32298535108566284,
-0.2993464171886444,
-0.3703281581401825,
-0.45452582836151123,
-0.3034997582435608,
-0.2451166808605194,
0.22546334564685822,
0.18403097987174988,
-0.29970815777778625,
-0.686259925365448,
0.36486539244651794,
0.008424927480518818,
-0.5970775485038757,
-0.23706385493278503,
0.43413808941841125,
-0.6291446089744568,
-0.16311953961849213,
0.29392704367637634,
0.23028887808322906,
-0.11107467859983444,
1.0154494047164917,
1.1209607124328613,
-0.26671314239501953,
-0.49726954102516174,
0.009968954138457775,
-0.4775422215461731,
0.08931079506874084,
0.14170420169830322,
0.09268531948328018,
0.11039867997169495,
0.6159980893135071,
-0.7425488829612732,
-0.5375707745552063,
-0.4178454875946045,
0.520991861820221,
0.10793471336364746,
-0.15272046625614166,
0.06579197198152542,
0.7794562578201294,
-0.4705027639865875,
0.059535980224609375,
-0.23536014556884766,
-0.7584353089332581,
0.4709465801715851,
0.245618537068367,
-0.5281198620796204,
0.2704778015613556,
-0.27468785643577576,
-0.6524651646614075,
-0.1519555151462555,
0.6763575673103333,
-0.6462914347648621,
0.2723865509033203,
0.16560496389865875,
0.11097317934036255,
0.24007566273212433,
-0.07045677304267883,
-0.462723970413208,
-0.1916649043560028,
-0.6977325677871704,
-0.26641845703125,
-0.5247488617897034,
0.7550691366195679,
0.016435399651527405,
-0.32259422540664673,
0.5493881702423096,
0.3992403745651245,
-0.08298356086015701,
-0.23773524165153503,
-0.22824470698833466,
0.7040155529975891,
0.5939465761184692,
0.004365126136690378,
0.7724048495292664,
-0.17777322232723236,
-0.12698735296726227,
0.3107098639011383,
0.3900614082813263,
0.561642587184906,
0.6878710985183716,
-0.06864378601312637,
-0.17206420004367828,
0.10968378186225891,
-0.03572499752044678,
-0.3033685088157654,
-0.44668787717819214,
-0.3137121796607971,
-0.14029744267463684,
0.13661211729049683,
-0.8002544641494751,
0.10967152565717697,
1.1599230766296387,
0.024160416796803474,
-0.34275081753730774,
0.275983989238739,
-0.023591114208102226,
0.5008275508880615,
-0.19260528683662415,
0.4183594286441803,
-0.31553658843040466,
0.0481778159737587,
0.7594438195228577,
-0.4999837577342987,
-0.9584468603134155,
-0.3898685574531555,
-0.41526487469673157,
0.6131528615951538,
-0.24889081716537476,
-0.5264665484428406,
-0.04846430569887161,
-0.19182179868221283,
0.7762165665626526,
0.292142391204834,
-0.41143181920051575,
-0.9010598063468933,
0.9168192148208618,
0.06900882720947266,
-0.5710486769676208,
-0.42185819149017334,
-0.8568365573883057,
-0.7111014723777771,
-0.24051402509212494,
-0.7195723056793213,
-0.34480246901512146,
-0.11448121070861816,
-0.16626882553100586,
0.419901967048645,
0.543961763381958,
-0.21745656430721283,
-0.33765578269958496,
0.037326112389564514,
0.5748801827430725,
0.9052662253379822,
-0.4124608635902405,
0.5883756875991821,
-0.1458168476819992,
0.6371529698371887,
-0.43219366669654846,
0.2739546000957489,
0.23214469850063324,
-0.07614243775606155,
0.22917790710926056,
0.2566453814506531,
-0.45819756388664246,
0.23621737957000732,
-0.054532501846551895,
0.44946742057800293,
0.320107102394104,
0.1746487021446228,
-0.30201971530914307,
0.015633568167686462,
-0.17523521184921265,
-0.22091905772686005,
0.880503237247467,
-0.7717427015304565,
-0.24501003324985504,
0.17008666694164276,
0.18771134316921234,
-0.5332854390144348,
0.06978511065244675,
0.32391369342803955,
-0.4251381754875183,
0.9255565404891968,
-0.30424317717552185,
-0.1394033282995224,
0.15097558498382568,
0.055057380348443985,
0.11593037843704224,
0.34073615074157715,
-0.7400078773498535,
0.5284884572029114,
-0.6174826622009277,
0.5152329802513123,
-0.21897198259830475,
-0.6087647080421448,
0.22050239145755768,
0.3953094780445099,
-0.04825681820511818,
0.688788890838623,
-0.20170383155345917,
-0.3456694781780243,
-0.1713828444480896,
0.18454033136367798,
0.14991438388824463,
0.09393572807312012,
0.740856945514679,
-0.08291944116353989,
0.5570712685585022,
0.18113239109516144,
0.37380748987197876,
-1.0544511079788208,
0.19370165467262268,
0.22846905887126923,
0.34078124165534973,
0.05351470783352852,
-0.22627943754196167,
0.1128612607717514,
0.33714559674263,
-0.1947229653596878,
0.36622416973114014,
-0.12755753099918365,
-0.21716685593128204,
-0.14412479102611542,
-0.34477636218070984,
0.19153854250907898,
0.283025324344635,
0.8968638181686401,
0.28973180055618286,
-0.1845272034406662,
0.09705124795436859,
-0.973014771938324,
0.1856945902109146,
0.5163679122924805,
0.11426112800836563,
-0.04772724583745003,
0.3924865424633026,
0.0455680713057518,
-0.6607060432434082,
-0.03585381433367729,
-0.10559437423944473,
0.16658015549182892,
-0.1946999728679657,
-0.736179530620575,
0.13332463800907135,
0.3735996186733246,
-0.42940670251846313,
-0.9490364193916321,
0.09906981140375137,
-0.864746630191803,
-0.07550739496946335,
-0.25764259696006775,
-0.3189423680305481,
0.12683933973312378,
0.2959105968475342,
0.9896280169487,
0.5811071395874023,
-0.3679477572441101,
-0.6211735010147095,
0.18145933747291565,
0.12785778939723969,
0.6291540265083313,
-0.4393416941165924,
0.9274225234985352,
-0.30231574177742004,
0.688807487487793,
0.11770354211330414,
0.20768320560455322,
0.4389849007129669,
-0.25356772541999817,
-0.18262900412082672,
0.12255629897117615,
-0.4876359701156616,
-0.5538101196289062,
0.2399226427078247,
-0.47959864139556885,
0.07064660638570786,
-0.5213955044746399,
-0.02060098387300968,
-0.43222057819366455,
-0.24389313161373138,
-0.14278748631477356,
0.11035168170928955,
-0.6659201979637146,
0.025903409346938133,
0.45301565527915955,
-0.03866104409098625,
0.017217818647623062,
0.549285352230072,
-0.07313332706689835,
-0.1422775536775589,
-0.057211313396692276,
-0.4576835036277771,
-0.35233011841773987,
0.8418511748313904,
0.20600591599941254,
0.06910344213247299,
0.14504656195640564,
0.583164632320404,
-0.0852900817990303,
0.20683874189853668,
0.07499624788761139,
0.035455070436000824,
-0.3604722321033478,
0.650346577167511,
0.21064907312393188,
-0.2732211649417877,
0.9657906293869019,
0.39788317680358887,
-0.2148975133895874,
0.862686038017273,
-0.42686927318573,
-0.30122110247612,
-0.03548048436641693,
-0.32778388261795044,
-0.2804419696331024,
-0.07406935840845108,
-0.23523277044296265
] |
228973 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20JAG%20episodes | List of JAG episodes | JAG (U.S. military acronym for Judge Advocate General) is an American legal drama television show with a distinct U.S. Navy and Marine Corps theme, created by Donald P. Bellisario, and produced by Belisarius Productions in association with Paramount Network Television (after 2006 known as CBS Studios). The first season was co-produced with NBC Productions.
Originally pitched towards the studio, network, and later also marketed for audiences as a Top Gun meets A Few Good Men hybrid series, the pilot episode of JAG first aired on NBC on September 23, 1995, but the series was later canceled on May 22, 1996, after finishing 79th in the ratings, leaving one episode unaired. Rival network CBS picked up the series for a Mid-season replacement, beginning on January 3, 1997. For several seasons, JAG climbed in the ratings and was on the air for nine additional seasons. JAG furthermore spawned the hit series NCIS, which in turn spun off NCIS: Los Angeles, NCIS: New Orleans, and NCIS: Hawaiʻi.
In total, 227 episodes were produced over 10 seasons. At the time of the original airing of its fifth season in the United States, JAG was seen in over 90 countries worldwide. JAG entered syndication in early 1999.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (1995–96)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, and Tracey Needham as Meg Austin. Patrick Labyorteaux and John M. Jackson both have continuous arcs throughout the season. Catherine Bell guest stars in one episode, Andrea Parker recurs.
Season 2 (1997)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb. Catherine Bell joins the main cast as Sarah MacKenzie, alongside Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as A.J. Chegwidden. Steven Culp and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 3 (1997–98)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Tracey Needham guest stars in a flashback, Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 4 (1998–99)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Trevor Goddard and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Mae Whitman guest stars, Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 5 (1999–2000)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Trevor Goddard, Randy Vasquez and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Mae Whitman guest stars, Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 6 (2000–01)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Trevor Goddard, Randy Vasquez and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Mae Whitman and Andrea Parker guest stars in one episode, Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 7 (2001–02)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Trevor Goddard, Zoe McLellan, Scott Lawrence, Nanci Chambers, Randy Vasquez and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 8 (2002–03)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Zoe McLellan, Scott Lawrence, Nanci Chambers, Randy Vasquez and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Tamlyn Tomita guest stars, Chuck Carrington recurs.
Season 9 (2003–04)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts, and John M. Jackson as Admiral AJ Chegwidden. Steven Culp, Zoe McLellan, Scott Lawrence, Randy Vasquez and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Chuck Carrington guest stars.
Season 10 (2004–05)
This season stars David James Elliott as Harmon Rabb, Catherine Bell as Sarah MacKenzie, and Patrick Labyorteaux as Bud Roberts. Scott Lawrence joins the main cast as Sturgis Turner, alongside Zoe McLellan as Jennifer Coates. Steven Culp, David Andrews and Karri Turner have continuous arcs throughout the season. Jordana Spiro, Meta Golding and Chris Beetem also star.
US television ratings
Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of JAG from Nielsen ratings on NBC (first season) and CBS (other seasons).
Note: U.S. network television seasons generally start in late September and end in late May, which coincides with the completion of the May sweeps.
JAG had generally an older skewing audience: for the 2002-2003 season, the median age viewer was 58 (the same figure was also held by other CBS shows Becker and The Guardian). As a comparison, for the same season, Law & Order and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit on NBC had a median of 50, while The Practice and NYPD Blue on ABC had a median of 48. However, as the article in Broadcasting & Cable states: "fewer broadcast network primetime series than [2013] had median age audiences over 50"
Home media
JAG was not available on DVD (or VHS, with the singular exception of the pilot movie, which was given a VHS release by Paramount Home Video in 1998 ) during the course of its original run. It was suggested that a syndication deal with USA Network possibly prevented Paramount from issuing DVD releases. Before it did happen in 2006, JAG was the second most requested TV series not commercially available on the TVShowsOnDVD website.
See also
NCIS (franchise)
CBS All Access
References
External links
JAG at CBS
JAG (TV series)
JAG | [
-0.5117127299308777,
0.3004929721355438,
0.23958486318588257,
-0.5423240661621094,
-0.8310264348983765,
0.00549805723130703,
1.041937232017517,
0.348188579082489,
-0.6284137964248657,
0.09320934861898422,
-0.20004263520240784,
0.08260148763656616,
-0.04283984750509262,
0.430280864238739,
0.26904892921447754,
0.39704379439353943,
-0.003976197447627783,
0.5905691385269165,
0.2281297892332077,
-0.8423935770988464,
0.4958290755748749,
0.07155010849237442,
0.2898561358451843,
-0.9014527201652527,
0.05566088855266571,
0.18110547959804535,
-0.05437171459197998,
0.3014683127403259,
-0.2631109058856964,
-0.3210271894931793,
-0.2639486789703369,
0.9008838534355164,
0.20240266621112823,
0.33197179436683655,
0.11478476971387863,
0.1458899974822998,
0.08071134239435196,
-0.6003381609916687,
0.1487267166376114,
-0.10731782764196396,
-0.13580040633678436,
-0.45754364132881165,
-0.19175192713737488,
0.4756585657596588,
0.13053973019123077,
-0.11762949079275131,
-2.3036296367645264,
-0.22258271276950836,
-0.10200368613004684,
-0.11704719066619873,
-0.03878600522875786,
0.22471988201141357,
0.4476722776889801,
0.023573923856019974,
-0.2436247169971466,
0.45307260751724243,
-0.0742098018527031,
-0.3178612291812897,
0.28792160749435425,
0.465136855840683,
0.05078490078449249,
-0.23011541366577148,
0.10632637143135071,
0.22503630816936493,
-0.23427478969097137,
0.10492774844169617,
-0.18790818750858307,
0.8477380275726318,
-0.3127613067626953,
-0.18213467299938202,
-0.10973956435918808,
-0.3439624607563019,
0.334604948759079,
-0.0632847249507904,
0.024251814931631088,
0.13567602634429932,
0.1883767992258072,
0.16902975738048553,
-0.12567299604415894,
-0.584769070148468,
-0.19294509291648865,
0.16240423917770386,
0.5480614304542542,
-0.07401110231876373,
0.2661256492137909,
-0.018797781318426132,
-0.031916167587041855,
-0.2651538550853729,
-0.3158973455429077,
0.8108871579170227,
-0.3403761386871338,
-0.2660025358200073,
0.1480513960123062,
0.2186577320098877,
0.02188148908317089,
0.07677067816257477,
-0.1707739382982254,
-0.0174323171377182,
0.3956654667854309,
0.20546013116836548,
0.06114625185728073,
0.7446078062057495,
0.37532660365104675,
-0.1977287083864212,
-0.4880068302154541,
-0.2764262855052948,
0.05965716764330864,
-0.47399696707725525,
0.053864434361457825,
-1.4126204252243042,
-0.6843394637107849,
0.3600161075592041,
-0.2956661880016327,
0.1540077179670334,
-0.3186068534851074,
0.7039692997932434,
0.3390030264854431,
-0.23674970865249634,
-0.333904504776001,
0.3000796437263489,
-0.282427579164505,
0.5084015727043152,
-0.014154874719679356,
0.20915831625461578,
0.28997746109962463,
0.560370147228241,
0.4019075930118561,
-0.19998854398727417,
0.21704886853694916,
0.2101636379957199,
-0.31855395436286926,
0.4632819592952728,
-0.004263581242412329,
0.023339685052633286,
-0.08501533418893814,
-0.17292717099189758,
0.10141054540872574,
0.3412567377090454,
-0.17160697281360626,
0.22030974924564362,
-0.8255729079246521,
-0.5251617431640625,
-2.0436408519744873,
-0.28264233469963074,
0.5016849040985107,
0.049805283546447754,
-0.6624227166175842,
-0.08622164279222488,
-0.1788567453622818,
0.4676833152770996,
-0.21848538517951965,
-0.18064573407173157,
-0.03242669254541397,
0.4627096951007843,
-0.40217745304107666,
0.500291645526886,
0.1011781096458435,
-0.2481839805841446,
0.40085774660110474,
0.32301828265190125,
-0.10018512606620789,
0.23810309171676636,
-0.25475746393203735,
0.3750200569629669,
-0.2837922275066376,
-0.23444864153862,
0.14968284964561462,
0.10914774984121323,
-0.21991954743862152,
-0.18416737020015717,
-0.49455511569976807,
0.13565778732299805,
0.29274100065231323,
-0.22140014171600342,
0.024744132533669472,
0.3687690496444702,
0.4079921245574951,
0.4427296817302704,
0.06896109133958817,
0.0323319286108017,
-0.61955726146698,
-0.33977141976356506,
0.5658523440361023,
-0.13047446310520172,
0.36755427718162537,
0.25525933504104614,
0.4267204999923706,
-0.09878234565258026,
0.32458749413490295,
-0.09324900060892105,
0.17556774616241455,
0.08610517531633377,
0.6673892140388489,
-0.0017099507385864854,
0.7749051451683044,
0.02401246689260006,
-0.4675293564796448,
-0.23117183148860931,
0.19822831451892853,
0.2623520791530609,
0.17555132508277893,
-0.48443055152893066,
0.440286785364151,
0.2621022164821625,
-0.572145938873291,
1.6238268613815308,
0.04051988199353218,
-0.11802010983228683,
0.02653820626437664,
-0.26732975244522095,
0.43044522404670715,
-0.05472816899418831,
-0.4046182334423065,
-0.3352973461151123,
0.07584196329116821,
0.15290045738220215,
-0.1686028242111206,
0.13262207806110382,
0.2748948633670807,
-0.6154167056083679,
0.3777293562889099,
0.04454880580306053,
0.22106076776981354,
0.37690478563308716,
-0.32701414823532104,
0.9060866832733154,
0.10149750113487244,
0.4069591164588928,
0.3879295289516449,
-0.8875637650489807,
0.47591733932495117,
-0.09306467324495316,
-0.48947882652282715,
0.0675751194357872,
-0.5835248827934265,
0.10934597253799438,
0.0038197748363018036,
-0.05518026649951935,
0.058869313448667526,
-0.6922239661216736,
0.09017083793878555,
0.0357433445751667,
-0.16971610486507416,
0.26746392250061035,
-0.043837063014507294,
-0.20938226580619812,
0.012276939116418362,
0.16929949820041656,
-0.379525363445282,
-0.6530666947364807,
0.4735487103462219,
0.005042994860559702,
0.19046145677566528,
-0.6456246376037598,
0.34290027618408203,
-0.0222337506711483,
-0.22103287279605865,
-0.48784616589546204,
0.03481408581137657,
-0.16409051418304443,
-0.12857624888420105,
0.06043311581015587,
0.09296306222677231,
0.15028595924377441,
-0.062483496963977814,
-0.5060405731201172,
-0.6202818751335144,
-0.6115828156471252,
0.2436101883649826,
-0.16384665668010712,
-0.3040659725666046,
0.09950442612171173,
-0.16743583977222443,
-2.191873550415039,
-0.24344313144683838,
-0.31302040815353394,
0.37843337655067444,
0.08974133431911469,
-0.12165133655071259,
0.25633251667022705,
0.02435201406478882,
0.1980699896812439,
0.5515663027763367,
0.1437014639377594,
-0.43143075704574585,
-0.4073266088962555,
0.02903158776462078,
-0.09142141789197922,
0.22710849344730377,
-0.08003676682710648,
-0.08930875360965729,
0.44174572825431824,
-0.3108532130718231,
0.28171682357788086,
0.09240055829286575,
0.07856679707765579,
-0.06536398082971573,
0.6378624439239502,
0.3058289885520935,
-0.010037364438176155,
-0.3471637964248657,
0.24197502434253693,
-0.4741155803203583,
-0.24058562517166138,
-0.1466960608959198,
0.08372195810079575,
-0.7279285192489624,
0.1784101128578186,
-5.31367826461792,
-0.10289885103702545,
-0.2574917674064636,
-0.18273307383060455,
-0.23939953744411469,
-0.05453793331980705,
0.5695133209228516,
-0.08761820197105408,
0.10476623475551605,
0.07525191456079483,
0.011092311702668667,
-0.12224909663200378,
0.18726122379302979,
0.44754230976104736,
0.18882611393928528,
0.17250412702560425,
0.41153380274772644,
-0.17128972709178925,
-0.012813642621040344,
-0.09377660602331161,
-0.1800960749387741,
0.3231409192085266,
-0.14758755266666412,
0.10519392043352127,
-0.032498542219400406,
0.4611714780330658,
-0.2475314885377884,
0.2564830780029297,
-0.21926578879356384,
0.3733522593975067,
0.07772648334503174,
-0.2839069962501526,
-0.4869520664215088,
0.061448317021131516,
-0.538926899433136,
0.14392563700675964,
0.7038215398788452,
0.27347874641418457,
0.26392415165901184,
0.006267274729907513,
0.05045625939965248,
0.3070267140865326,
-0.03131377324461937,
0.18918290734291077,
0.8630444407463074,
0.393825501203537,
-0.5983831882476807,
-0.2962374687194824,
-0.11645238846540451,
0.29644128680229187,
-0.16547814011573792,
-0.06462113559246063,
0.7457859516143799,
0.5034139156341553,
0.5202973484992981,
-0.2148643285036087,
0.24797113239765167,
-0.1617072969675064,
0.2862040102481842,
0.002391706919297576,
0.4126477837562561,
-0.12332981079816818,
0.23153088986873627,
-0.9369668364524841,
0.11965230852365494,
-0.08004412800073624,
-0.12692168354988098,
-0.25396254658699036,
0.08600740134716034,
-0.018278971314430237,
-0.3821651339530945,
0.12082060426473618,
0.24924324452877045,
-0.4438430964946747,
0.30018535256385803,
-0.054875269532203674,
-0.19451473653316498,
0.43213748931884766,
-0.21239513158798218,
0.2519638240337372,
-0.5521309971809387,
0.13264726102352142,
-0.4089260995388031,
-0.06102743372321129,
-0.2604260742664337,
-0.4763583838939667,
0.30755507946014404,
-0.08447692543268204,
-0.26240962743759155,
0.1124606803059578,
0.3418480157852173,
-0.24345844984054565,
-0.36296090483665466,
0.5321086645126343,
0.2597792446613312,
0.7778704762458801,
0.4812268316745758,
0.11097069084644318,
0.4540592133998871,
-0.4815658926963806,
0.4803304970264435,
-0.54245525598526,
0.19838926196098328,
-0.6858993172645569,
-0.09135797619819641,
-0.13922932744026184,
0.004264160059392452,
0.32395678758621216,
0.5753917098045349,
-0.4897376000881195,
0.04226488992571831,
-0.2805675268173218,
-0.32752278447151184,
0.16122351586818695,
0.7975187301635742,
-0.08262114226818085,
-0.17909061908721924,
1.0618647336959839,
0.5661613941192627,
-0.0069541181437671185,
-0.030510960146784782,
0.037190746515989304,
-0.3363904654979706,
-0.1542738527059555,
-0.35407760739326477,
-0.1535886526107788,
-0.10557954758405685,
-0.2788911461830139,
-0.24561075866222382,
0.3511946499347687,
0.36162832379341125,
0.45859089493751526,
0.4893108308315277,
-0.07249059528112411,
0.108433298766613,
-0.5850163698196411,
-0.2897210717201233,
0.035712867975234985,
0.1241932362318039,
-0.9810588359832764,
0.23026379942893982,
-0.1122661754488945,
-0.07837267965078354,
0.6016402840614319,
0.04239711910486221,
-0.10002556443214417,
0.16471260786056519,
-0.11190667003393173,
-0.5728660225868225,
0.10607293993234634,
0.17296530306339264,
-0.616115152835846,
0.7323436737060547,
-0.4081229567527771,
-0.14166252315044403,
0.51320481300354,
0.06278526037931442,
0.4731631875038147,
-0.6828581690788269,
-0.43112772703170776,
0.6288371682167053,
-0.3477869927883148,
-0.7695921063423157,
0.1042410135269165,
0.1017565205693245,
-0.6535767912864685,
0.3477247357368469,
-0.08151435106992722,
-0.16185016930103302,
0.4832322597503662,
-0.4599192142486572,
0.3129597306251526,
-0.8671824932098389,
0.30863091349601746,
0.2054663747549057,
-0.142112597823143,
0.24291226267814636,
0.13482537865638733,
0.17246778309345245,
-0.03259033337235451,
-0.20817109942436218,
0.09882810711860657,
-0.05020818114280701,
0.6048175692558289,
0.0578739270567894,
0.1404816210269928,
-0.007339825388044119,
0.21838977932929993,
-0.19629919528961182,
0.15726394951343536,
0.11532573401927948,
0.6401705145835876,
0.5974043011665344,
-0.3693074584007263,
-0.5894922018051147,
-0.5914543867111206,
0.1183902844786644,
0.4339437186717987,
0.05149955675005913,
-0.49682939052581787,
0.6311060786247253,
0.45674553513526917,
-0.8295946717262268,
0.19008998572826385,
0.6818442940711975,
-0.24454955756664276,
0.0004569961747620255,
0.3387596011161804,
-0.48993727564811707,
0.3096688985824585,
0.26946768164634705,
-0.7050347328186035,
-0.21817158162593842,
0.2212250679731369,
0.1406240463256836,
-0.4845649302005768,
-0.06358622014522552,
-0.38474172353744507,
-0.114935964345932,
-0.2948188781738281,
-0.022192250937223434,
-0.3471592366695404,
-0.5232484936714172,
0.057433728128671646,
-0.4877309203147888,
0.10281656682491302,
0.31562042236328125,
-0.7433927655220032,
0.2476208657026291,
0.30928492546081543,
-0.10115865617990494,
0.3815307021141052,
0.3691902160644531,
0.6462612152099609,
-0.38914790749549866,
-0.3043769896030426,
-0.5089685320854187,
0.33381733298301697,
0.3886144459247589,
0.496353417634964,
0.14980734884738922,
0.6689247488975525,
-0.06285079568624496,
-0.7614123821258545,
-0.2075863480567932,
0.18671000003814697,
0.13080652058124542,
-0.3402741551399231,
-0.2057737112045288,
0.3033742308616638,
0.21240073442459106,
-0.18084239959716797,
-0.44142284989356995,
-0.14138662815093994,
1.3292790651321411,
-0.3248053789138794,
-0.05082767829298973,
-0.03476811200380325,
0.19377107918262482,
0.04818486049771309,
-0.11923415958881378,
0.6740264296531677,
-0.3734625279903412,
0.3472795784473419,
-0.2851220369338989,
0.4488775134086609,
-0.6594217419624329,
-0.11213590949773788,
-0.04454973712563515,
-0.12869296967983246,
-0.6260687112808228,
-0.21276815235614777,
0.5136977434158325,
0.6236436367034912,
0.04900054633617401,
0.2336123287677765,
0.0652674213051796,
-0.1378970444202423,
-0.2316340059041977,
0.19600866734981537,
0.7975520491600037,
-0.1820690631866455,
-0.15044216811656952,
-0.4463423788547516,
0.5579952597618103,
-0.404098242521286,
-0.12476436793804169,
0.23741216957569122,
-0.33034637570381165,
0.16107431054115295,
0.3039514720439911,
0.3666529357433319,
-0.5210424661636353,
0.5939879417419434,
0.11188728362321854,
0.036971885710954666,
0.042505472898483276,
-0.0860956460237503,
-0.16405104100704193,
-0.10963849723339081,
-0.5338335633277893,
0.557938814163208,
0.4978143870830536,
-0.2194511592388153,
0.526378333568573,
-0.060196004807949066,
0.07683432847261429,
-0.6879529356956482,
-0.13055653870105743,
-0.2214016318321228,
0.14563201367855072,
0.19598765671253204,
0.4156672954559326,
0.8553417921066284,
0.16086333990097046,
-0.024546150118112564,
0.251026451587677,
-0.3747827410697937,
0.08867774158716202,
0.38012441992759705,
0.668703556060791,
0.14516030251979828,
0.21803496778011322,
0.04193640872836113,
-0.2535972595214844,
0.23595793545246124,
0.11490874737501144,
-0.28236526250839233,
0.6341888308525085,
-0.014028803445398808,
0.47053709626197815,
-0.6559781432151794,
-0.3100467920303345,
0.9672072529792786,
0.16730324923992157,
-0.12426361441612244,
0.08463703095912933,
-0.16606871783733368,
-0.4243835508823395,
0.19166837632656097,
0.246562659740448,
0.015504236333072186,
-0.33561450242996216,
-0.04996676370501518,
-0.04845445975661278,
0.1808551549911499,
-0.4772692918777466,
0.16129058599472046,
0.24245119094848633,
-0.0404333621263504,
-0.039035189896821976,
0.5920503735542297,
0.4749507009983063,
0.03002813458442688,
-0.046818092465400696,
-0.08676207065582275,
-0.09181472659111023,
-0.2799191474914551,
-0.5640027523040771,
-2.051257371902466,
0.1664581298828125,
-0.1977004110813141,
-0.04015311226248741,
0.16537787020206451,
0.4043164551258087,
-0.30652761459350586,
0.15708741545677185,
0.29697829484939575,
-0.3781368136405945,
0.3206092119216919,
0.05473152920603752,
0.016475291922688484,
-0.0663590133190155,
0.022407913580536842,
-0.26564568281173706,
-0.1883605420589447,
0.3324669301509857,
-0.4391211271286011,
0.0991492047905922,
-0.46699750423431396,
-0.32662391662597656,
0.3621281683444977,
-0.004056433215737343,
-0.6449857354164124,
0.24718108773231506,
-0.21835315227508545,
-0.8079589605331421,
0.21997235715389252,
-0.020114287734031677,
0.1161409467458725,
0.016746841371059418,
0.23121891915798187,
0.1785876750946045,
0.044252220541238785,
-0.12785673141479492,
-0.30457812547683716,
-0.16604620218276978,
0.7374813556671143,
0.6227250099182129,
-0.2715754210948944,
-0.3320147693157196,
0.004385270643979311,
-0.052100758999586105,
0.1306791603565216,
-0.08884111046791077,
-0.04047514125704765,
-0.7849202156066895,
-0.09827503561973572,
-0.0018459699349477887,
0.7546406388282776,
0.5791431069374084,
-0.0906827375292778,
-0.09401161223649979,
0.365633487701416,
-0.0751991719007492,
0.2174258530139923,
0.807937502861023,
-0.40340059995651245,
-0.15209674835205078,
-0.28279268741607666,
-0.03223351016640663,
-0.43768712878227234,
0.36129239201545715,
0.5478721261024475,
-0.2954212427139282,
0.1835271418094635,
0.1704401671886444,
-0.22519059479236603,
-0.25029200315475464,
0.07807652652263641,
-0.07663223892450333,
-0.23610901832580566,
-0.19161947071552277,
-0.09032513201236725,
-0.15497314929962158,
0.2113810032606125,
0.624197244644165,
0.49439364671707153,
0.3793259263038635,
0.2999476194381714,
-0.18088607490062714,
-0.4247184097766876,
0.1569996327161789,
0.36868342757225037,
-4.060510158538818,
-0.03179781511425972,
0.25595009326934814,
-0.4323458969593048,
-0.5404049158096313,
-0.20010313391685486,
-0.11763031780719757,
-0.287904292345047,
0.07309234887361526,
0.2126065343618393,
-0.08692153543233871,
0.11695294827222824,
0.48926350474357605,
-0.1793329417705536,
-0.22155486047267914,
0.13317014276981354
] |
228980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%20Buber | Martin Buber | Martin Buber (; ; ; February 8, 1878 –
June 13, 1965) was an Austrian Jewish and Israeli philosopher best known for his philosophy of dialogue, a form of existentialism centered on the distinction between the I–Thou relationship and the I–It relationship. Born in Vienna, Buber came from a family of observant Jews, but broke with Jewish custom to pursue secular studies in philosophy. In 1902, he became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, the central organ of the Zionist movement, although he later withdrew from organizational work in Zionism. In 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du (later translated into English as I and Thou), and in 1925, he began translating the Hebrew Bible into the German language reflecting the patterns of the Hebrew language.
He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature ten times, and Nobel Peace Prize seven times.
Biography
Martin (Hebrew name: מָרְדֳּכַי, Mordechai) Buber was born in Vienna to an Orthodox Jewish family. Buber was a direct descendant of the 16th-century rabbi Meir Katzenellenbogen, known as the Maharam (מהר"ם), the Hebrew acronym for “Our Teacher, the Rabbi, Rabbi Meir”, of Padua. Karl Marx is another notable relative. After the divorce of his parents when he was three years old, he was raised by his grandfather in Lvov. His grandfather, Solomon Buber, was a scholar of Midrash and Rabbinic Literature. At home, Buber spoke Yiddish and German. In 1892, Buber returned to his father's house in Lemberg, today's Lviv, Ukraine.
Despite Buber's putative connection to the Davidic line as a descendant of Katzenellenbogen, a personal religious crisis led him to break with Jewish religious customs. He began reading Immanuel Kant, Søren Kierkegaard, and Friedrich Nietzsche. The latter two, in particular, inspired him to pursue studies in philosophy. In 1896, Buber went to study in Vienna (philosophy, art history, German studies, philology).
In 1898, he joined the Zionist movement, participating in congresses and organizational work. In 1899, while studying in Zürich, Buber met his future wife, Paula Winkler, a "brilliant Catholic writer from a Bavarian peasant family" who in 1901 left the Catholic Church and in 1907 converted to Judaism.
Buber, initially, supported and celebrated the Great War as a 'world historical mission' for Germany along with Jewish intellectuals to civilize the Near East. Some researchers believe that while in Vienna during and after World War I, he was influenced by the writings of Jacob L. Moreno, particularly the use of the term ‘encounter’.
In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main, but resigned from his professorship in protest immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body as the German government forbade Jews from public education. In 1938, Buber left Germany and settled in Jerusalem, Mandate Palestine, receiving a professorship at Hebrew University and lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. After the creation of the state of Israel in 1948, Buber became the best known Israeli philosopher.
Buber and Paula had two children: a son, Rafael Buber, and a daughter, Eva Strauss-Steinitz. They helped raise their granddaughters Barbara Buber (1921–2013) and Judith (1926–2018), born by their son Rafael's marriage to Margarete Buber-Neumann.
Buber's wife Paula Winkler died in 1958, and he died at his home in the Talbiya neighborhood of Jerusalem on June 13, 1965.
Buber was a vegetarian.
Major themes
Buber's evocative, sometimes poetic, writing style marked the major themes in his work: the retelling of Hasidic and Chinese tales, Biblical commentary, and metaphysical dialogue. A cultural Zionist, Buber was active in the Jewish and educational communities of Germany and Israel. He was also a staunch supporter of a binational solution in Palestine, and, after the establishment of the Jewish state of Israel, of a regional federation of Israel and Arab states. His influence extends across the humanities, particularly in the fields of social psychology, social philosophy, and religious existentialism.
Buber's attitude toward Zionism was tied to his desire to promote a vision of "Hebrew humanism". According to Laurence J. Silberstein, the terminology of "Hebrew humanism" was coined to "distinguish [Buber's] form of nationalism from that of the official Zionist movement" and to point to how "Israel's problem was but a distinct form of the universal human problem. Accordingly, the task of Israel as a distinct nation was inexorably linked to the task of humanity in general".
Zionist views
Approaching Zionism from his own personal viewpoint, Buber disagreed with Theodor Herzl about the political and cultural direction of Zionism. Herzl did not envision Zionism as a movement with religious objectives. In contrast, Buber believed the potential of Zionism was for social and spiritual enrichment. For example, Buber argued that following the formation of the Israeli state, there would need to be reforms to Judaism: "We need someone who would do for Judaism what Pope John XXIII has done for the Catholic Church". Herzl and Buber would continue, in mutual respect and disagreement, to work towards their respective goals for the rest of their lives.
In 1902, Buber became the editor of the weekly Die Welt, the central organ of the Zionist movement. However, a year later he became involved with the Jewish Hasidim movement. Buber admired how the Hasidic communities actualized their religion in daily life and culture. In stark contrast to the busy Zionist organizations, which were always mulling political concerns, the Hasidim were focused on the values which Buber had long advocated for Zionism to adopt. In 1904, he withdrew from much of his Zionist organizational work, and devoted himself to study and writing. In that year, he published his thesis, Beiträge zur Geschichte des Individuationsproblems, on Jakob Böhme and Nikolaus Cusanus.
In the early 1920s, Martin Buber started advocating a binational Jewish-Arab state, stating that the Jewish people should proclaim "its desire to live in peace and brotherhood with the Arab people, and to develop the common homeland into a republic in which both peoples will have the possibility of free development".
Buber rejected the idea of Zionism as just another national movement, and wanted instead to see the creation of an exemplary society; a society which would not, he said, be characterized by Jewish domination of the Arabs. It was necessary for the Zionist movement to reach a consensus with the Arabs even at the cost of the Jews remaining a minority in the country. In 1925, he was involved in the creation of the organization Brit Shalom (Covenant of Peace), which advocated the creation of a binational state, and throughout the rest of his life, he hoped and believed that Jews and Arabs one day would live in peace in a joint nation. In 1942, he co‑founded the Ihud party, which advocated a bi-nationalist program. Nevertheless, he was connected with decades of friendship to Zionists and philosophers such as Chaim Weizmann, Max Brod, Hugo Bergman, and Felix Weltsch, who were close friends of his from old European times in Prague, Berlin, and Vienna to the Jerusalem of the 1940s through the 1960s.
After the establishment of Israel in 1948, Buber advocated Israel's participation in a federation of "Near East" states wider than just Palestine.
Literary and academic career
From 1905 he worked for the publishing house Rütten & Loening as a lecturer; there he initiated and supervised the completion of the social psychological monograph series .
From 1906 until 1914, Buber published editions of Hasidic, mystical, and mythic texts from Jewish and world sources. In 1916, he moved from Berlin to Heppenheim.
During World War I, he helped establish the Jewish National Committee to improve the condition of Eastern European Jews. During that period he became the editor of Der Jude (German for "The Jew"), a Jewish monthly (until 1924). In 1921, Buber began his close relationship with Franz Rosenzweig. In 1922, he and Rosenzweig co-operated in Rosenzweig's House of Jewish Learning, known in Germany as Lehrhaus.
In 1923, Buber wrote his famous essay on existence, Ich und Du (later translated into English as I and Thou). Though he edited the work later in his life, he refused to make substantial changes. In 1925, he began, in conjunction with Franz Rosenzweig, translating the Hebrew Bible into German (Die Schrift). He himself called this translation Verdeutschung ("Germanification"), since it does not always use literary German language, but instead attempts to find new dynamic (often newly invented) equivalent phrasing to respect the multivalent Hebrew original. Between 1926 and 1930, Buber co-edited the quarterly Die Kreatur ("The Creature").
In 1930, Buber became an honorary professor at the University of Frankfurt am Main. He resigned in protest from his professorship immediately after Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. On October 4, 1933, the Nazi authorities forbade him to lecture. In 1935, he was expelled from the Reichsschrifttumskammer (the National Socialist authors' association). He then founded the Central Office for Jewish Adult Education, which became an increasingly important body, as the German government forbade Jews to attend public education. The Nazi administration increasingly obstructed this body.
Finally, in 1938, Buber left Germany, and settled in Jerusalem, then capital of Mandate Palestine. He received a professorship at Hebrew University, there lecturing in anthropology and introductory sociology. The lectures he gave during the first semester were published in the book The problem of man (Das Problem des Menschen); in these lectures he discusses how the question "What is Man?" became the central one in philosophical anthropology. He participated in the discussion of the Jews' problems in Palestine and of the Arab question – working out of his Biblical, philosophic, and Hasidic work.
He became a member of the group Ihud, which aimed at a bi-national state for Arabs and Jews in Palestine. Such a binational confederation was viewed by Buber as a more proper fulfillment of Zionism than a solely Jewish state. In 1949, he published his work Paths in Utopia, in which he detailed his communitarian socialist views and his theory of the "dialogical community" founded upon interpersonal "dialogical relationships".
After World War II, Buber began lecture tours in Europe and the United States. In 1952, he argued with Jung over the existence of God.
Philosophy
Buber is famous for his thesis of dialogical existence, as he described in the book I and Thou. However, his work dealt with a range of issues including religious consciousness, modernity, the concept of evil, ethics, education, and Biblical hermeneutics.
Buber rejected the label of "philosopher" or "theologian", claiming he was not interested in ideas, only personal experience, and could not discuss God, but only relationships to God.
Politically, Buber's social philosophy on points of prefiguration aligns with that of anarchism, though Buber explicitly disavowed the affiliation in his lifetime and justified the existence of a state under limited conditions.
Dialogue and existence
In I and Thou, Buber introduced his thesis on human existence. Inspired by Feuerbach's The Essence of Christianity and Kierkegaard's Single One, Buber worked upon the premise of existence as encounter. He explained this philosophy using the word pairs of Ich-Du and Ich-Es to categorize the modes of consciousness, interaction, and being through which an individual engages with other individuals, inanimate objects, and all reality in general. Theologically, he associated the first with the Jewish Jesus and the second with the apostle Paul (formerly Saul of Tarsus, a Jew). Philosophically, these word pairs express complex ideas about modes of being—particularly how a person exists and actualizes that existence. As Buber argues in I and Thou, a person is at all times engaged with the world in one of these modes.
The generic motif Buber employs to describe the dual modes of being is one of dialogue (Ich-Du) and monologue (Ich-Es). The concept of communication, particularly language-oriented communication, is used both in describing dialogue/monologue through metaphors and expressing the interpersonal nature of human existence.
Ich-Du
Ich‑Du ("I‑Thou" or "I‑You") is a relationship that stresses the mutual, holistic existence of two beings. It is a concrete encounter, because these beings meet one another in their authentic existence, without any qualification or objectification of one another. Even imagination and ideas do not play a role in this relation. In an I–Thou encounter, infinity and universality are made actual (rather than being merely concepts). Buber stressed that an Ich‑Du relationship lacks any composition (e. g., structure) and communicates no content (e. g., information). Despite the fact that Ich‑Du cannot be proven to happen as an event (e. g., it cannot be measured), Buber stressed that it is real and perceivable. A variety of examples are used to illustrate Ich‑Du relationships in daily life—two lovers, an observer and a cat, the author and a tree, and two strangers on a train. Common English words used to describe the Ich‑Du relationship include encounter, meeting, dialogue, mutuality, and exchange.
One key Ich‑Du relationship Buber identified was that which can exist between a human being and God. Buber argued that this is the only way in which it is possible to interact with God, and that an Ich‑Du relationship with anything or anyone connects in some way with the eternal relation to God.
To create this I–Thou relationship with God, a person has to be open to the idea of such a relationship, but not actively pursue it. The pursuit of such a relation creates qualities associated with It‑ness, and so would prevent an I‑You relation, limiting it to I‑It. Buber claims that if we are open to the I–Thou, God eventually comes to us in response to our welcome. Also, because the God Buber describes is completely devoid of qualities, this I–Thou relationship lasts as long as the individual wills it. When the individual finally returns to the I‑It way of relating, this acts as a barrier to deeper relationship and community.
Ich-Es
The Ich-Es ("I‑It") relationship is nearly the opposite of Ich‑Du. Whereas in Ich‑Du the two beings encounter one another, in an Ich‑Es relationship the beings do not actually meet. Instead, the "I" confronts and qualifies an idea, or conceptualization, of the being in its presence and treats that being as an object. All such objects are considered merely mental representations, created and sustained by the individual mind. This is based partly on Kant's theory of phenomenon, in that these objects reside in the cognitive agent's mind, existing only as thoughts. Therefore, the Ich‑Es relationship is in fact a relationship with oneself; it is not a dialogue, but a monologue.
In the Ich-Es relationship, an individual treats other things, people, etc., as objects to be used and experienced. Essentially, this form of objectivity relates to the world in terms of the self – how an object can serve the individual's interest.
Buber argued that human life consists of an oscillation between Ich‑Du and Ich‑Es, and that in fact Ich‑Du experiences are rather few and far between. In diagnosing the various perceived ills of modernity (e. g., isolation, dehumanization, etc.), Buber believed that the expansion of a purely analytic, material view of existence was at heart an advocation of Ich‑Es relations - even between human beings. Buber argued that this paradigm devalued not only existents, but the meaning of all existence.
Hasidism and mysticism
Buber was a scholar, interpreter, and translator of Hasidic lore. He viewed Hasidism as a source of cultural renewal for Judaism, frequently citing examples from the Hasidic tradition that emphasized community, interpersonal life, and meaning in common activities (e. g., a worker's relation to his tools). The Hasidic ideal, according to Buber, emphasized a life lived in the unconditional presence of God, where there was no distinct separation between daily habits and religious experience. This was a major influence on Buber's philosophy of anthropology, which considered the basis of human existence as dialogical.
In 1906, Buber published Die Geschichten des Rabbi Nachman, a collection of the tales of the Rabbi Nachman of Breslov, a renowned Hasidic rebbe, as interpreted and retold in a Neo-Hasidic fashion by Buber. Two years later, Buber published Die Legende des Baalschem (stories of the Baal Shem Tov), the founder of Hasidism.
Buber's interpretation of the Hasidic tradition, however, has been criticized by Chaim Potok for its romanticization. In the introduction to Buber's Tales of the Hasidim, Potok claims that Buber overlooked Hasidism's "charlatanism, obscurantism, internecine quarrels, its heavy freight of folk superstition and pietistic excesses, its tzadik worship, its vulgarized and attenuated reading of Lurianic Kabbalah". Even more severe is the criticism that Buber de-emphasized the importance of the Jewish Law in Hasidism.
Awards and recognition
In 1951, Buber received the Goethe award of the University of Hamburg.
In 1953, he received the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade.
In 1958, he was awarded the Israel Prize in the humanities.
In 1961, he was awarded the Bialik Prize for Jewish thought.
In 1963, he won the Erasmus Prize in Amsterdam.
Published works
In English
I and Thou translated by Ronald Gregor Smith, published by Charles Scribner & sons, 1958
I and Thou translated by Walter Kaufmann, published by Simon Schuster as a Touchstone edition, 1996
The Way of Man, according to the teachings of Hasiidism published by Routledge and Kegan, 1950
Original writings (German)
Die Geschichten des Rabbi Nachman (1906)
Die fünfzigste Pforte (1907)
Die Legende des Baalschem (1908)
Ekstatische Konfessionen (1909)
Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten (1911)
Daniel – Gespräche von der Verwirklichung (1913)
Die jüdische Bewegung – gesammelte Aufsätze und Ansprachen 1900–1915 (1916)
Vom Geist des Judentums – Reden und Geleitworte (1916)
Die Rede, die Lehre und das Lied – drei Beispiele (1917)
Ereignisse und Begegnungen (1917)
Der grosse Maggid und seine Nachfolge (1922)
Reden über das Judentum (1923)
Ich und Du (1923)
Translation: I and Thou by Walter Kaufmann (Touchstone: 1970)
Das Verborgene Licht (1924)
Die chassidischen Bücher (1928)
Aus unbekannten Schriften (1928)
Zwiesprache (1932)
Kampf um Israel – Reden und Schriften 1921–1932 (1933)
Hundert chassidische Geschichten (1933)
Die Troestung Israels : aus Jeschajahu, Kapitel 40 bis 55 (1933); with Franz Rosenzweig
Erzählungen von Engeln, Geistern und Dämonen (1934)
Das Buch der Preisungen (1935); with Franz Rosenzweig
Deutung des Chassidismus – drei Versuche (1935)
Die Josefslegende in aquarellierten Zeichnungen eines unbekannten russischen Juden der Biedermeierzeit (1935)
Die Schrift und ihre Verdeutschung (1936); with Franz Rosenzweig
Aus Tiefen rufe ich Dich – dreiundzwanzig Psalmen in der Urschrift (1936)
Das Kommende : Untersuchungen zur Entstehungsgeschichte des Messianischen Glaubens – 1. Königtum Gottes (1936 ?)
Die Stunde und die Erkenntnis – Reden und Aufsätze 1933–1935 (1936)
Zion als Ziel und als Aufgabe – Gedanken aus drei Jahrzehnten – mit einer Rede über Nationalismus als Anhang (1936)
Worte an die Jugend (1938)
Moseh (1945)
Dialogisches Leben – gesammelte philosophische und pädagogische Schriften (1947)
Der Weg des Menschen : nach der chassidischen Lehre (1948)
Das Problem des Menschen (1948, Hebrew text 1942)
Die Erzählungen der Chassidim (1949)
Gog und Magog – eine Chronik (1949, Hebrew text 1943)
Israel und Palästina – zur Geschichte einer Idee (1950, Hebrew text 1944)
Der Glaube der Propheten (1950)
Pfade in Utopia (1950)
Zwei Glaubensweisen (1950)
Urdistanz und Beziehung (1951)
Der utopische Sozialismus (1952)
Bilder von Gut und Böse (1952)
Die Chassidische Botschaft (1952)
Recht und Unrecht – Deutung einiger Psalmen (1952)
An der Wende – Reden über das Judentum (1952)
Zwischen Gesellschaft und Staat (1952)
Das echte Gespräch und die Möglichkeiten des Friedens (1953)
Einsichten : aus den Schriften gesammelt (1953)
Reden über Erziehung (1953)
Gottesfinsternis – Betrachtungen zur Beziehung zwischen Religion und Philosophie (1953)
Translation Eclipse of God: Studies in the Relation Between Religion and Philosophy (Harper and Row: 1952)
Hinweise – gesammelte Essays (1953)
Die fünf Bücher der Weisung – Zu einer neuen Verdeutschung der Schrift (1954); with Franz Rosenzweig
Die Schriften über das dialogische Prinzip (Ich und Du, Zwiesprache, Die Frage an den Einzelnen, Elemente des Zwischenmenschlichen) (1954)
Sehertum – Anfang und Ausgang (1955)
Der Mensch und sein Gebild (1955)
Schuld und Schuldgefühle (1958)
Begegnung – autobiographische Fragmente (1960)
Logos : zwei Reden (1962)
Nachlese (1965)
Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten included the first German translation ever made of Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio. Alex Page translated the Chinesische Geister- und Liebesgeschichten as "Chinese Tales", published in 1991 by Humanities Press.
Collected works
Werke 3 volumes (1962–1964)
I Schriften zur Philosophie (1962)
II Schriften zur Bibel (1964)
III Schriften zum Chassidismus (1963)
Martin Buber Werkausgabe (MBW). Berliner Akademie der Wissenschaften / Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, ed. Paul Mendes-Flohr & Peter Schäfer with Martina Urban; 21 volumes planned (2001–)
Correspondence
Briefwechsel aus sieben Jahrzehnten 1897–1965 (1972–1975)
I : 1897–1918 (1972)
II : 1918–1938 (1973)
III : 1938–1965 (1975)
Several of his original writings, including his personal archives, are preserved in the National Library of Israel, formerly the Jewish National and University Library, located on the campus of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
See also
Existential therapy
Guilt
Humanistic psychology
Intersubjectivity
Contextual therapy
André Neher
List of Israel Prize recipients
List of Bialik Prize recipients
Jewish existentialism
References
Sources
Biographies
Further reading
.
.
.
.
Morgan, W. John and Guilherme, Alexandre (2014), Buber and Education: Dialogue as Conflict Resolution , Routledge, Taylor and Francis, London and New York, .
Nelson, Eric S. (2017). Chinese and Buddhist Philosophy in Early Twentieth-Century German Thought London: Bloomsbury. .
Mendes-Flohr, Paul. [2019] ‘’Martin Buber - A Life of Faith and Dissent’’, Yale, New Haven & London
External links
Literature by and about Martin Buber in University Library JCS Frankfurt am Main: Digital Collections Judaica
Martin Buber Homepage
Martin Buber – The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy article by Sarah Scott
The Martin Buber Institute for Dialogical Ecology
Digitized works by Martin Buber at the Leo Baeck Institute, New York
1878 births
1965 deaths
20th-century Jewish theologians
20th-century translators
Austrian emigrants to Germany
Austrian Orthodox Jews
Austrian people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent
Austrian pacifists
Austrian socialists
Continental philosophers
Cultural critics
Epistemologists
Existentialist theologians
Existentialists
Goethe University Frankfurt faculty
Hasidic Judaism
Hebrew University of Jerusalem faculty
Israel Prize in humanities recipients
Israel Prize in humanities recipients who were philosophers
Israeli Orthodox Jews
Israeli pacifists
Israeli philosophers
Israeli socialists
Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to Mandatory Palestine
Jewish ethicists
Jewish existentialists
Jewish peace activists
Jewish pacifists
Orthodox Jewish socialists
Jewish theologians
Jewish translators of the Bible
Jews from Galicia (Eastern Europe)
Judaic scholars
Members of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Metaphysicians
Moral philosophers
Ontologists
People from Innere Stadt
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of ethics and morality
Philosophers of history
Philosophers of Judaism
Philosophers of mind
Philosophers of religion
Political philosophers
Presidents of the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities
Relational ethics
Austrian social commentators
Social critics
Social philosophers
Translation scholars
Translators of the Bible into German
Utopian socialists
Writers from Vienna
Zionist activists | [
-0.3597601056098938,
0.2689560651779175,
-0.2951912581920624,
-0.3406018912792206,
-0.3412066698074341,
1.3057644367218018,
0.7252100110054016,
0.09268761426210403,
0.533854067325592,
-0.22777989506721497,
-0.6224054098129272,
0.8424898386001587,
-0.16153918206691742,
0.25000834465026855,
0.03811100870370865,
-0.5216745734214783,
0.7145277857780457,
-0.6361532807350159,
-0.4338187873363495,
0.02682657726109028,
0.05474930256605148,
0.5032663345336914,
0.16979345679283142,
-0.24807630479335785,
0.11252431571483612,
0.027762671932578087,
0.32359397411346436,
-0.465661883354187,
-0.4817486107349396,
-0.1555166244506836,
0.2856971323490143,
0.22853858768939972,
-0.4274251163005829,
-0.5939289331436157,
-0.26506176590919495,
0.27491968870162964,
-0.07085593044757843,
-0.0159590020775795,
-0.13766297698020935,
-0.08023226261138916,
-0.09283328801393509,
0.21995888650417328,
0.3219977021217346,
-0.16718274354934692,
-0.26784825325012207,
-0.37918466329574585,
-2.014986515045166,
0.24401196837425232,
-0.9008357524871826,
-0.4957676827907562,
-0.4787741005420685,
0.3390997350215912,
1.0420897006988525,
0.34379810094833374,
-0.13902002573013306,
-0.04831632599234581,
-0.44622471928596497,
-0.6803561449050903,
0.39029908180236816,
-0.41300728917121887,
0.6029885411262512,
0.16572868824005127,
1.3317338228225708,
0.18859955668449402,
-0.0519837886095047,
0.3500763177871704,
-0.35859063267707825,
-0.02755609154701233,
-0.28179609775543213,
-0.13407744467258453,
-0.6262633800506592,
0.05919216573238373,
-0.7939655780792236,
0.0025726461317390203,
0.35590115189552307,
-0.5859577655792236,
0.2809028923511505,
0.3837571144104004,
-0.11101893335580826,
0.07038203626871109,
-0.41363587975502014,
0.34170758724212646,
0.11917456239461899,
-0.10097610950469971,
0.06707647442817688,
-0.06870704889297485,
0.1497611552476883,
0.5402655601501465,
-0.21392081677913666,
-0.4000590443611145,
0.12317173182964325,
-0.669977068901062,
-0.469424307346344,
-0.36663684248924255,
-0.20702020823955536,
-0.14513064920902252,
0.7908967137336731,
0.3796128034591675,
-0.2591190040111542,
-0.017251985147595406,
0.36887431144714355,
0.1515738070011139,
0.6083545088768005,
-0.12276807427406311,
-0.34809231758117676,
-0.210308238863945,
0.03220124542713165,
-1.0379770994186401,
-0.04685022309422493,
0.045348599553108215,
-0.6132004857063293,
0.20793883502483368,
0.3477649986743927,
0.326147198677063,
-0.1311059147119522,
0.5201006531715393,
-0.16605332493782043,
-0.14770634472370148,
-0.37285444140434265,
0.5278368592262268,
0.0804130807518959,
0.04531281068921089,
0.4760074019432068,
0.1628117859363556,
0.12203746289014816,
-0.8140491247177124,
-0.46093103289604187,
0.7038983106613159,
-1.2993998527526855,
0.04333498701453209,
0.3493925929069519,
0.8213040232658386,
0.32329002022743225,
-0.5261886715888977,
-0.49512961506843567,
0.18913142383098602,
0.9300487041473389,
-0.603902280330658,
-0.1715170294046402,
0.5710431933403015,
-0.5524637699127197,
-0.4304378032684326,
-0.5519558191299438,
-0.21378575265407562,
0.4632554352283478,
-0.3066410720348358,
0.3209051489830017,
0.1373273879289627,
0.23439618945121765,
-0.059798479080200195,
-0.5765109062194824,
0.015452353283762932,
0.22365513443946838,
-0.3020375370979309,
0.1874348223209381,
0.4360424280166626,
0.4098967909812927,
0.5776715278625488,
-0.40380263328552246,
-0.26314160227775574,
0.34954267740249634,
0.2932458221912384,
0.013676141388714314,
-0.03571891784667969,
0.09054605662822723,
-0.8843748569488525,
0.16104306280612946,
-0.2474886029958725,
-0.04334604740142822,
0.10768270492553711,
0.5569403171539307,
-0.40934696793556213,
0.37219053506851196,
-0.2729669511318207,
0.28189897537231445,
0.3810967206954956,
0.900252103805542,
-0.21045851707458496,
0.42490920424461365,
-0.26150569319725037,
-0.7383855581283569,
0.13002608716487885,
-0.3891768753528595,
0.026152320206165314,
-0.0403481125831604,
0.038009852170944214,
-0.33742162585258484,
-0.4708595871925354,
0.4107348918914795,
0.07207255065441132,
-1.0581691265106201,
-0.8706414103507996,
0.39175519347190857,
-0.05382248014211655,
1.2225829362869263,
-0.14216351509094238,
-0.7191522717475891,
0.36701351404190063,
0.1722380369901657,
0.23043566942214966,
-0.14625565707683563,
-0.5676937103271484,
-0.27803465723991394,
0.5797168612480164,
0.12674397230148315,
0.6554475426673889,
0.294613778591156,
0.2995636463165283,
-0.07963163405656815,
0.3736203908920288,
-0.10401738435029984,
-0.19506636261940002,
0.2797565758228302,
-0.33902350068092346,
-0.4428090453147888,
-0.08936964720487595,
-0.11801748722791672,
-0.021637892350554466,
0.16017796099185944,
0.14890065789222717,
0.5084579586982727,
0.014150455594062805,
-0.11795981973409653,
0.4913614094257355,
-0.12618032097816467,
0.16676545143127441,
0.03871557489037514,
0.18332430720329285,
-0.052922237664461136,
-0.2864060699939728,
-0.18775604665279388,
0.5607359409332275,
0.33251670002937317,
-0.4374608099460602,
0.09351246058940887,
0.010701900348067284,
-0.03952287137508392,
-0.09284024685621262,
0.3267509937286377,
-0.7016410827636719,
0.12925708293914795,
0.4222843647003174,
-0.010681294836103916,
-0.008053545840084553,
-0.5171876549720764,
0.4369714856147766,
0.04639802500605583,
-0.02315407432615757,
-0.4550774097442627,
0.921854555606842,
-0.7086759209632874,
0.5441206693649292,
0.2570251524448395,
-0.18606197834014893,
0.05633319169282913,
-0.2438703328371048,
0.2841678857803345,
0.38264599442481995,
0.7643133997917175,
0.5379143953323364,
0.1542552262544632,
-0.044807691127061844,
-0.28864553570747375,
0.16194498538970947,
-0.14124129712581635,
0.02805699035525322,
-0.09155689179897308,
-0.1646447628736496,
-0.23441609740257263,
0.42586928606033325,
0.04016271233558655,
-0.6715469360351562,
-0.40231308341026306,
0.7749003171920776,
-0.37450096011161804,
-0.06419926136732101,
-0.22716327011585236,
0.03151587396860123,
-0.7102925777435303,
-0.23471692204475403,
0.11681512743234634,
0.46085914969444275,
-0.6566933989524841,
-0.7584761381149292,
0.4495849013328552,
-0.01713714376091957,
-0.37354496121406555,
-0.11051049828529358,
0.5336517691612244,
-0.3065132796764374,
-0.2670532464981079,
0.9257052540779114,
0.25480636954307556,
-0.39250466227531433,
0.11873456835746765,
0.6836178302764893,
0.26570525765419006,
-0.12037870287895203,
-0.22539761662483215,
0.3292146921157837,
-0.195578932762146,
0.601465106010437,
0.1145700141787529,
0.5932669043540955,
0.6962814331054688,
-0.023706302046775818,
-0.20502270758152008,
0.538753867149353,
-5.334269046783447,
-0.4179201126098633,
0.3417494595050812,
-0.273963987827301,
0.48140302300453186,
0.21020804345607758,
0.23951177299022675,
-0.17907235026359558,
0.14619186520576477,
-0.3816398084163666,
0.05499693751335144,
-0.38384929299354553,
-0.11778336018323898,
0.532778263092041,
0.028559822589159012,
-0.15819993615150452,
0.2829292118549347,
-0.13821472227573395,
0.016026543453335762,
0.8750274181365967,
-0.061348725110292435,
-0.5984103679656982,
0.06946101039648056,
0.6171508431434631,
-0.04628933593630791,
-0.46519023180007935,
-0.3509765565395355,
0.529892086982727,
-0.19013133645057678,
0.3030831217765808,
-0.16834591329097748,
-0.24449408054351807,
-0.3441169261932373,
0.0018270686268806458,
0.367359459400177,
0.07178708165884018,
0.7174229621887207,
-0.28638964891433716,
0.3476788103580475,
0.6032237410545349,
-0.06643639504909515,
0.8211570382118225,
0.11398275941610336,
-0.3779623508453369,
0.034491438418626785,
0.07575086504220963,
-0.5952433943748474,
-0.26077884435653687,
-0.6526595950126648,
0.5085434913635254,
0.3758956789970398,
-0.3915870785713196,
0.3989567756652832,
-0.07587219029664993,
0.842195451259613,
0.2380935251712799,
0.45511236786842346,
-0.5505431890487671,
-0.2754708230495453,
-0.13322852551937103,
0.20037038624286652,
-0.3225848078727722,
-0.5010215640068054,
-0.4866481125354767,
-0.16436009109020233,
-0.43593502044677734,
-0.33713048696517944,
0.34551575779914856,
0.6893786787986755,
-0.06334152072668076,
-0.20785313844680786,
0.6983396410942078,
-0.22549527883529663,
-1.214552640914917,
-0.05733839049935341,
-0.3114352226257324,
0.0543985590338707,
-0.04878658428788185,
-0.3816621005535126,
0.0640568807721138,
-0.3126436471939087,
-0.4996928870677948,
-0.1382317692041397,
0.2727440297603607,
0.9082144498825073,
0.5144138932228088,
0.031346917152404785,
0.11415930092334747,
-0.2845536172389984,
0.08952800929546356,
0.2870403826236725,
-0.49968308210372925,
0.06618387252092361,
0.14811141788959503,
0.4144355356693268,
0.8494552969932556,
-0.7382310032844543,
0.7013142108917236,
0.5190852880477905,
0.41123637557029724,
0.05608973279595375,
-0.024594197049736977,
0.10840059816837311,
0.1528385728597641,
0.4783746600151062,
0.5366523861885071,
-0.5834941864013672,
0.15322843194007874,
0.8037393093109131,
-0.049717869609594345,
-0.22680683434009552,
0.7511816620826721,
-0.1381322294473648,
-0.5309529304504395,
0.022051533684134483,
0.28552868962287903,
-0.6802185773849487,
0.36866647005081177,
0.30369284749031067,
0.3909221291542053,
-0.2294597029685974,
0.07664335519075394,
-0.5588394999504089,
-0.3643219769001007,
-0.4432978630065918,
0.028009731322526932,
-0.7443158030509949,
0.08352799713611603,
-0.3556680679321289,
0.5783587694168091,
0.08203401416540146,
0.36960217356681824,
0.05132881551980972,
0.2613498270511627,
0.564195454120636,
-0.6481016874313354,
0.1912141740322113,
-0.19331595301628113,
-0.949061930179596,
0.1614599972963333,
-0.1573302298784256,
-0.05586044862866402,
0.34467431902885437,
0.08221539855003357,
0.16438035666942596,
-0.34873318672180176,
-0.7296394109725952,
0.012011323124170303,
-0.5427002906799316,
1.0441203117370605,
0.812594473361969,
-0.2207861840724945,
0.3938082158565521,
0.10195133835077286,
0.07423342019319534,
0.3809721767902374,
-0.47301405668258667,
0.2534514367580414,
0.08411969989538193,
0.014398320578038692,
0.16728536784648895,
-0.007052317727357149,
-0.7692395448684692,
-0.6642564535140991,
0.13295681774616241,
0.16406461596488953,
-0.29896801710128784,
-0.43876010179519653,
-0.37981200218200684,
-0.1874687522649765,
0.2582539916038513,
-0.7072676420211792,
-0.3435809314250946,
-0.08096353709697723,
0.20467719435691833,
0.10978499799966812,
-0.24189400672912598,
-0.011601263657212257,
-0.0027660666964948177,
-0.49535882472991943,
0.028160009533166885,
-0.07390294224023819,
-0.24236096441745758,
0.10019189119338989,
0.5064159631729126,
-1.0082467794418335,
0.5467250347137451,
-0.606776773929596,
-0.4226023256778717,
-0.49505406618118286,
0.191787451505661,
-0.06266335397958755,
0.565714418888092,
0.6043351292610168,
-0.006469104904681444,
-0.5221701860427856,
0.42002665996551514,
-0.543940544128418,
-0.5684563517570496,
-0.1828184872865677,
0.3781238794326782,
0.6914300918579102,
-0.7141948342323303,
-0.1391809582710266,
0.7150107026100159,
-1.141833782196045,
0.18005771934986115,
-0.17736057937145233,
0.08859070390462875,
0.9288132786750793,
-0.16845861077308655,
-0.4931866526603699,
-0.5204663276672363,
-0.1930031031370163,
-0.45098721981048584,
-0.23668207228183746,
0.41777122020721436,
-0.5008418560028076,
-0.39242443442344666,
0.13191860914230347,
0.17033766210079193,
-0.7464823126792908,
-0.6119256019592285,
-0.23972459137439728,
-0.38460996747016907,
-0.19563594460487366,
0.15700921416282654,
-0.17209723591804504,
0.25745317339897156,
-0.30710068345069885,
-0.050771377980709076,
-0.36281028389930725,
0.17139770090579987,
0.7111873030662537,
-0.254654198884964,
-0.6173147559165955,
-0.10667263716459274,
-0.22831521928310394,
-0.5383772850036621,
0.06349503993988037,
0.45154741406440735,
0.5652724504470825,
-0.055290959775447845,
-0.09362149238586426,
-0.213329017162323,
0.36343079805374146,
0.7280600070953369,
-0.4406595528125763,
-0.328290730714798,
0.22454161942005157,
0.034241318702697754,
0.5868053436279297,
-0.7946852445602417,
-0.22219277918338776,
0.04013607278466225,
-0.011624425649642944,
-0.24772702157497406,
-0.058430880308151245,
-0.0685516819357872,
0.29346469044685364,
0.3102320730686188,
0.09892525523900986,
-0.0962066650390625,
0.07998741418123245,
-0.2738702893257141,
0.2765492796897888,
0.6059548854827881,
-0.28173333406448364,
-0.39430442452430725,
-0.3605944812297821,
-0.16662074625492096,
-0.7683787941932678,
-0.27601295709609985,
-0.09951864182949066,
-0.5104877948760986,
-0.0737127736210823,
-0.14383602142333984,
-0.01095059048384428,
0.5195993781089783,
-0.16628573834896088,
-0.38404467701911926,
-0.10670661926269531,
-0.4474201500415802,
-0.056315500289201736,
0.25248345732688904,
-0.3619151711463928,
0.15620622038841248,
-0.4774473011493683,
-0.21657000482082367,
-0.13917027413845062,
-0.9279273748397827,
0.3383907675743103,
-0.27302709221839905,
0.6079246997833252,
-0.2762812674045563,
0.3483428657054901,
-0.008622100576758385,
0.7092669010162354,
-0.6222797632217407,
-0.2549538314342499,
-0.007670615799725056,
-0.14467109739780426,
0.6104704737663269,
-0.2587305009365082,
0.5191364884376526,
0.1694815754890442,
-0.3979380130767822,
-0.05952863767743111,
-0.08258127421140671,
-0.3303166925907135,
0.29115763306617737,
0.4492173194885254,
0.26473572850227356,
-0.034571632742881775,
-0.2300128936767578,
-0.00812782533466816,
0.6509258151054382,
-0.22442150115966797,
-0.24542075395584106,
0.137312650680542,
0.16243761777877808,
-0.2874588370323181,
0.7958616018295288,
-0.817150354385376,
0.1287805736064911,
0.10175618529319763,
0.39026862382888794,
0.41315463185310364,
-0.7342994213104248,
0.36312398314476013,
0.5392805933952332,
-0.1433306187391281,
-0.21041087806224823,
-0.016067784279584885,
0.447298526763916,
-0.15091747045516968,
0.47341790795326233,
-0.6671587824821472,
-0.3435083329677582,
0.28627339005470276,
-0.25242793560028076,
1.340620994567871,
-0.396260142326355,
0.07705175876617432,
-0.12287430465221405,
0.1626346856355667,
0.6353036761283875,
0.9610576033592224,
-0.3856560289859772,
0.7686939835548401,
0.7785017490386963,
0.1304422914981842,
0.4333738684654236,
-0.9682808518409729,
0.13053013384342194,
-0.24259965121746063,
0.7559565901756287,
-0.1998148411512375,
-0.5000700354576111,
0.2049015909433365,
0.11796155571937561,
0.19531017541885376,
0.9055903553962708,
-0.29046109318733215,
0.20081020891666412,
0.4997408092021942,
-0.039994582533836365,
-1.4321891069412231,
0.956916093826294,
0.08670402318239212,
-0.11362995952367783,
0.4024876058101654,
-0.4380505084991455,
0.3508494794368744,
0.05305148661136627,
-0.02851475030183792,
1.0398850440979004,
-0.03457830846309662,
0.4569556415081024,
0.14265266060829163,
-0.34476059675216675,
-0.3754712641239166,
0.1818999946117401,
0.40272149443626404,
0.3547203540802002,
-0.06887681037187576,
0.5183991193771362,
-0.11502531915903091,
-0.6732476949691772,
-0.2188887745141983,
-0.38978496193885803,
-0.36188840866088867,
-0.8980762362480164,
0.5163938999176025,
-0.7578083872795105,
0.28159281611442566,
-0.4956676661968231,
0.579742968082428,
-0.1073710173368454,
0.31419339776039124,
0.05932306498289108,
0.4884492754936218,
0.49437379837036133,
0.07884988933801651,
-0.03039630502462387,
-0.09857406467199326,
-0.27049770951271057,
0.1997227519750595,
-1.637742042541504,
-0.09851213544607162,
0.1800326257944107,
0.1157659962773323,
-0.2335115522146225,
0.32999560236930847,
-0.5032832026481628,
0.3225766122341156,
0.6259303092956543,
0.396223247051239,
0.5809267163276672,
-0.22606317698955536,
0.7418943047523499,
0.013280645944178104,
-0.2665848433971405,
0.11665910482406616,
-0.46127498149871826,
0.46624207496643066,
0.14644421637058258,
0.10232976824045181,
-0.7441831827163696,
-0.10250224173069,
0.08657717704772949,
-0.3690604865550995,
0.24279914796352386,
0.33690348267555237,
0.08312481641769409,
-0.3635058104991913,
0.5319404602050781,
0.442802369594574,
0.18866653740406036,
-0.8370738625526428,
0.7071223855018616,
0.20101290941238403,
-0.5552167892456055,
0.39246952533721924,
-0.7853906750679016,
0.15871961414813995,
-0.38717833161354065,
-0.605880081653595,
-0.3293422758579254,
-0.022990750148892403,
0.4486393928527832,
-0.8952978253364563,
0.19675616919994354,
-0.8700679540634155,
-0.0928870216012001,
-0.2459431141614914,
0.2620164453983307,
-0.20129932463169098,
0.6224431395530701,
0.24991439282894135
] |
228985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brothers%20in%20Arms%20%28album%29 | Brothers in Arms (album) | Brothers in Arms is the fifth studio album by British rock band Dire Straits, released on 17 May 1985 through Vertigo Records internationally and through Warner Bros. Records in the United States. It spent a total of 14 non-consecutive weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart (including ten consecutive weeks between 18 January and 22 March 1986), nine weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 in the US and 34 weeks at number one on the Australian Albums Chart. Brothers in Arms was the first album certified ten-times platinum in the UK and is the eighth-best-selling album in UK chart history. It is certified nine-times platinum in the US and is one of the world's best-selling albums, having sold more than 30 million copies worldwide.
The album won a Grammy Award in 1986 for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical and Best British Album at the 1987 Brit Awards; the 20th Anniversary Edition won another Grammy in 2006 for Best Surround Sound Album. Q magazine placed the album at number 51 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. It was also among ten albums nominated for the best British album of the previous 30 years by the Brit Awards in 2010, ultimately losing to (What's the Story) Morning Glory? by Oasis.
Recording
Brothers in Arms was recorded from October 1984 to February 1985 at AIR Studios on the island of Montserrat, a British overseas territory in the Caribbean. The album was produced by songwriter Mark Knopfler and Neil Dorfsman, who had engineered Dire Straits’ 1982 album Love over Gold and Knopfler's 1983 soundtrack album Local Hero.
Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums recorded on a Sony 24-track digital tape machine. The decision to move to digital recording came from Knopfler's constant striving for better sound quality. "One of the things that I totally respected about him," Dorfsman observed, "was his interest in technology as a means of improving his music. He was always willing to spend on high-quality equipment."
Before arriving at Montserrat, Knopfler had written all the songs and rehearsed them with the band. The studio lineup included Knopfler (guitar), John Illsley (bass), Alan Clark (piano, Hammond B-3 organ and synthesisers) and Guy Fletcher, who was new to the band, playing a synth rig that consisted of a huge new Yamaha DX1, a couple of Roland synthesizers and a Synclavier. Guitarist Hal Lindes left the band early on in the sessions, and was replaced in December 1984 by Jack Sonni, a New York-based guitarist and longstanding friend of Knopfler (although Sonni's contribution to the album was minimal). The group’s then permanent drummer Terry Williams was present at the start of the sessions, before being temporarily replaced.
The studio itself was small, with a recording space that offered virtually no isolation. "It was a good-sounding studio," Dorfsman later recalled, "but the main room itself was nothing to write home about. The sound of that studio was the desk," referring to the Neve 8078 board. Knopfler and Dorfsman utilised the limited space to best effect, placing the drum kit in the far left corner, facing the control room, miked with Sennheiser MD 421s on the toms, an Electro-Voice RE20 and AKG D12 on the kick drum, a Shure SM57 and AKG C451 with a 20 dB pad on the snare, 451s for overheads and the hi-hat, and Neumann U87s set back a little to capture "some kind of ambience". They placed the piano in a tight booth in the far right corner of the studio, miked with AKG C414s. The Hammond B3 was placed nearby, with its Leslie speaker crammed into an airlock next to the control room. Illsley's bass amplifier was recorded inside a small vocal booth with a Neumann FET 47 and a DI unit. Knopfler's amplifiers were miked with 57s, 451s, and Neumann U67s. Fletcher's synths were placed in the control room.
During the recording of "Money for Nothing", the signature sound of Knopfler's guitar may have been enhanced by a "happy accident" of microphone placement. Knopfler was using his Gibson Les Paul going through a Laney amplifier. While setting up the guitar amplifier microphones in an effort to get the "ZZ Top sound" that Knopfler sought, guitar tech Ron Eve, who was in the control room, heard the "amazing" sound before Dorfsman was finished arranging the mics. "One mic was pointing down at the floor," Dorfsman remembered, "another was not quite on the speaker, another was somewhere else, and it wasn't how I would want to set things up—it was probably just left from the night before, when I'd been preparing things for the next day and had not really finished the setup." What they heard was exactly what ended up on the record; no additional processing or effects were used during the mix.
According to a Sound on Sound magazine interview with Neil Dorfsman, during the first month of the recording sessions the performance of Terry Williams was considered to be unsuitable for the desired sound of the album. Williams was not fired from the band, but he was released from the recording sessions and temporarily replaced by jazz session drummer Omar Hakim, who re-recorded all the album's drum parts during a two-day stay before leaving for other commitments. Both Hakim and Williams are credited on the album, although Williams' only contribution was the improvised crescendo at the beginning of "Money for Nothing". The remaining tracks all featured Omar Hakim as drummer, as Dorfsman and Knopfler made the decision to erase Williams' contributions and replace them with those of Hakim; however, all the music videos that were released from the album featured Williams.
Although Andy Kanavan was briefly recruited as Dire Straits' new drummer, Terry Williams rejoined the band for the promotional concert world tour.
A defective batch of recording tape at AIR Studios resulted in the loss of part or all of three album tracks, leading to follow-up sessions being recorded at the Power Station in New York during early 1985 (including the addition of a Jack Sonni guitar synthesizer part to 'The Man's Too Strong'). During this time, overdubs were recorded with further New York musicians including Michael and Randy Brecker, Mike Mainieri (who'd previously contributed vibraphone to Love Over Gold) and Jimmy Maelen, plus trumpeter Dave Plews and Average White Band saxophonist Malcolm Duncan. When Illsey sprained his wrist in a roller-skating accident, several prominent New York studio bassists were hired to record or re-record several basslines on the record (Tony Levin performing on 'One World', with contributions elsewhere from Saturday Night Live house band bassist Neil Jason).
Composition
Brothers in Arms has been described musically as a pop rock album. The music video for "Money for Nothing" received heavy rotation on MTV, and it was the first to be aired on MTV Europe when the network launched on 1 August 1987. It is one of only two Dire Straits songs on a studio album not to be solely credited to Knopfler (the other being "The Carousel Waltz", which opens Making Movies), with guest vocalist Sting given a co-writing credit due to the melody of the repeated "I want my MTV" (sung by Sting) in the song's fadeout echoing the melody of the Police's "Don't Stand So Close to Me".
"Walk of Life" was a number two hit in the UK Singles Chart in early 1986 and a number seven hit in the US Billboard Hot 100 later that year. The song was nearly left off the album, but was included after the band out-voted producer Neil Dorfsman.
On the second side of the album, three songs ("Ride Across the River", "The Man's Too Strong" and "Brothers in Arms") are lyrically focused on militarism. "Ride Across the River" uses immersive Latin American imagery, accompanied by synthesized pan flute, mariachi trumpet, a reggae-influenced drum part and eerie background noises. "The Man's Too Strong" depicts the character of an ancient soldier (or war criminal) and his fear of showing feelings as a weakness. Written during the 1982 Falklands War, "Brothers in Arms" deals with the senselessness of war. In 2007, the 25th anniversary of the war, Knopfler recorded a new version of the song at Abbey Road Studios to raise funds for British veterans who he said "are still suffering from the effects of that conflict."
Artwork
The guitar featured on the front of the album cover is Mark Knopfler's 1937 14-fret National Style "O" Resonator. The Style "O" line of guitars was introduced in 1930 and discontinued in 1941. The photographer was Deborah Feingold. The back cover features a painting of the same guitar, by German artist Thomas Steyer. A similar image was also used, with a similar colour scheme, for the 1989 album The Booze Brothers by Brewers Droop.
Release
Brothers in Arms was one of the first albums directed at the CD market, and it was a full digital recording (DDD) at a time when most popular music was recorded on analog equipment. It was also released on vinyl (abridged to fit on one LP) and cassette. Producer Neil Dorfsman says the digital multitrack was mixed on an analog board with the resulting two track mix re-digitized via a Prism A/D converter and recorded on a DAT machine.
Brothers in Arms was the first album to sell one million copies in the CD format and to outsell its LP version. A Rykodisc employee subsequently wrote, "[In 1985 we] were fighting to get our CDs manufactured because the entire worldwide manufacturing capacity was overwhelmed by demand for a single rock title (Dire Straits' Brothers in Arms)."
It was remastered and reissued with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 for most of the world outside the United States and on 19 September 2000 in the United States, the remastering for both reissues was done by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering using the Super Bit Mapping process. In 2000, it was released on XRCD2 format, this edition was remastered by Hiromichi Takiguchi using K2 20bit technology. A 20th Anniversary Edition was issued in Super Audio CD on 26 July 2005 (becoming the 3000th title for the SACD format), it featured a 5.1 surround sound remix done by Chuck Ainlay at British Grove Studios, it was mastered by Bob Ludwig at Gateway Mastering. The 5.1 mix was also released on DualDisc format with DVD-Audio 24 bit/96 kHz track on 16 August 2005. Ainlay's 5.1 remix won a Grammy for Best Surround Sound Album at the 48th Grammy Awards ceremony. In 2006, a half-speed-mastered vinyl version of the album was issued. Mastered by Stan Ricker, this version consists of four sides on two 33 1/3 rpm discs, containing the full-length songs on vinyl for the first time. In 2013, Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab released a hybrid SACD mastered from the original tapes by Shawn R. Britton, it includes the original stereo mix only. In 2014, a new master was released in Japan on SHM-SACD - it's made from the original analogue master tapes and contains the original LP length of the album: 47:44 min, this edition was transferred by Mick McKenna and Richard Whittaker at FX Copyroom using Direct Stream Digital. On May 19, 2014, Vertigo reissued the album on double 180g vinyl, this edition contains the full-length songs of the album, it was mastered by Bob Ludwig, Bernie Grundman and Chris Bellman from the original analogue and digital tapes, this version was also included on The Studio Albums 1978 - 1991 the previous year. In 2015, Mobile Fidelity also released the album on double 45 RPM vinyl, this edition was mastered by Krieg Wunderlich. The same year, the album re-entered the UK Album Charts at #8 following the record being made available at a discounted price on digital music retailers. In March 2021, a new half-speed mastered edition was released, mastered at Abbey Road Studios by Miles Showell. The release was a double-LP, 45 rpm, 180 gram edition, with the complete version of the album, for only the second time (the first being issued by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab in 2015). The album has spent a total of 356 weeks on the UK Album Charts.
Critical reception
Initial reviews of Brothers in Arms from the UK music press in 1985 were generally negative. In a scathing review for NME, Mat Snow criticised Knopfler's "mawkish self-pity, his lugubriously mannered appropriation of rockin' Americana, his thumpingly crass attempts at wit". He also accused the album of the "tritest would-be melodies in history, the last word in tranquilising chord changes, the most cloying lonesome playing and ultimate in transparently fake troubador sentiment ever to ooze out of a million-dollar recording studio". Eleanor Levy of Record Mirror dismissed the "West Coast guitars reeking of mega bucks and sell out stadium concerts throughout the globe. Laid back melodies. Dire Straits – summed up... This is like any other Dire Straits album quarried out of the tottering edifice of MOR rock."
The reviews from other UK music papers were less harsh, with Jack Barron of Sounds feeling that "it's only a halfway decent album because it has only halfway decent songs... Knopfler has distilled his sonic essence, via blues, to appeal to billboard romantics with cinemascope insecurities. And he can pull it off well... but not often enough here." Melody Makers Barry McIlheney observed that Knopfler had recently explored different creative directions with his work on movie soundtracks and on Bob Dylan's Infidels, and bemoaned that "this admirable spirit of adventure fails to materialise... Instead it sounds just a bit too like the last Dire Straits album, which sounded not unlike the last one before that, which sounded suspiciously like the beginning of a hugely successful and very lucrative plan to take over the world known as AOR". He concluded, "the old rockschool restraints and the undeniably attractive smell of the winning formula seem to block out any such experimental work and what you end up with is something very like the same old story."
US reviews were more positive. Writing for Spin magazine, E. Brooks praised Knopfler's guitar work and noted that "when the intensity of his words approaches that of his ravishing stratocaster licks, the song soars. That doesn't happen as often as I'd like on this new album [...] but I find myself returning to certain cuts the way one might come back to a favorite chair." Brooks singled out the "haunting ballad" "Your Latest Trick", the "acerbic satire of vid-rock culture" in "Money for Nothing" and the "outstanding craftsmanship in the words and music" of the title track, which was "not a new message, but at least something other than sex, cars, or drugs is being talked about here. Take that and the quality of the musicianship, and you've got a lot." Debby Bull gave the album a mixed review for Rolling Stone magazine, praising the "carefully crafted" effort, writing, "The record is beautifully produced, with Mark Knopfler's terrific guitar work catching the best light". Although she found the lyrics literate, Bull noted that the scenarios "aren't as interesting as they used to be on records like Making Movies". Despite the production values and notable contributions from guest artists like drummer Omar Hakim and the Brecker Brothers, Bull concluded that "the music lacks the ache that made Knopfler's recent soundtracks for Comfort and Joy and Cal so powerful." In Rolling Stones end-of-year round-up of 1985's key albums, Fred Schruers said that "Knopfler's nimble, evocative guitar style and gentle vocalizing are still as appealing as they were on previous scenario-rich albums".
Later reviews have praised the record. Reviewing the remastered Dire Straits albums in 1996, Rob Beattie of Q awarded Brothers in Arms five stars out of five and wrote that "repeated listening reveals it as a singularly melancholic collection – see the guitar slashing of 'The Man's Too Strong' and the title track, where joy is as sharp as sorrow". In a 2007 review for BBC Music, Chris Jones called Brothers in Arms "a phenomenon on every level... a suite of Knopfler's very fine brand of JJ Cale-lite". In his retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four out of five stars, crediting the international success of the album not only to the clever computer-animated video for "Money for Nothing", but also to Knopfler's "increased sense of pop songcraft". According to Erlewine, Dire Straits had "never been so concise or pop-oriented, and it wore well on them". Erlewine concluded that the album remains "one of their most focused and accomplished albums, and in its succinct pop sense, it's distinctive within their catalog".
In 2010, when Brothers in Arms was among ten albums nominated for the best British album of the past 30 years by the Brit Awards, music broadcaster and author Paul Gambaccini described the list of nominees as "risible" but added, "Brothers in Arms runs away with it for the quality of songwriting and musicianship."
Accolades
In 1986 Brothers in Arms won a Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical, while the 20th Anniversary Edition won another Grammy in 2006 for Best Surround Sound Album, and also won Best British Album at the 1987 Brit Awards. In 2000, Q magazine placed the album at number 51 in its list of the 100 Greatest British Albums Ever. In 2003, the album ranked number 351 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of the "500 Greatest Albums of All Time", and number 352 in a 2012 revised list, and number 418 in the 2020 revision. The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
In November 2006 the results of a national poll conducted by the public of Australia revealed their top 100 favourite albums. Brothers in Arms came in at number 64 (see "My Favourite Album"). Brothers in Arms is ranked number three in the best albums of 1985 and number 31 in the best albums of the 1980s.
As of July 2016 Brothers in Arms is the eighth-best-selling album of all-time in the UK. It is also the third-best-selling album of all-time in Australia, and the 18th-best-selling album of all-time in France. In the Netherlands, the album used to hold the record for longest run ever on the Dutch Album chart with 269 weeks (non-consecutive) but lost it to Adele's 21 in 2016.
British music journalist Robert Sandall wrote:
Awards and nominations
Track listings
All songs were written by Mark Knopfler, except where indicated.
The CD and cassette versions feature extended versions of "So Far Away", "Money for Nothing", "Your Latest Trick" and "Why Worry". Because of this, the Side Two of the cassette version has about 10 minutes of blank tape.
Single LP track listing
Double LP track listing
The Double LP edition uses extended versions of four songs originally featured on CD and cassette editions.
Personnel
Credits adapted from album liner notes.
Dire Straits
Mark Knopfler – guitars and vocals
John Illsley – bass guitar and vocals
Alan Clark – keyboards
Guy Fletcher – keyboards and vocals
Omar Hakim – drums
Terry Williams – drum intro on "Money for Nothing"
Additional musicians
Nature of contributions uncredited on album; contributions added where known.
Michael Brecker – saxophone on "Your Latest Trick"
Randy Brecker
Malcolm Duncan
Neil Jason
Tony Levin – bass on "One World"
Jimmy Maelen
Mike Mainieri
Dave Plews
Jack Sonni – guitar synthesizer on "The Man's Too Strong"
Sting – vocals on "Money for Nothing"
Charts
In the Netherlands, the album broke the all-time record for most weeks on chart, with 269 non-consecutive weeks (since overtaken by Adele's 21 and the Buena Vista Social Club's eponymous debut album).
In the UK, the album spent 14 weeks at number one on the UK Albums Chart, and as of August 2018 has spent 271 weeks on the chart.
In the United States, the album reached number one on the Billboard 200 and remained there for nine weeks.
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Decade-end charts
Certifications and sales
See also
List of best-selling albums
List of best-selling albums in the United Kingdom
List of best-selling albums in Australia
List of best-selling albums in Austria
List of best-selling albums in France
List of best-selling albums in New Zealand
References
Bibliography
External links
Brothers in Arms at Mark Knopfler's website
1985 albums
Dire Straits albums
Albums produced by Mark Knopfler
Vertigo Records albums
Warner Records albums
Grammy Award-winning albums
Grammy Award for Best Immersive Audio Album
Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical
APRA Award winners
Juno Award for International Album of the Year albums
Brit Award for British Album of the Year
Albums recorded at AIR Studios | [
-0.23925989866256714,
0.5991138815879822,
0.44987252354621887,
-0.0736469104886055,
-0.20722894370555878,
0.4308168590068817,
0.7732152938842773,
-0.5857201814651489,
-0.26693835854530334,
-0.04021095857024193,
0.386052668094635,
0.7231440544128418,
-0.13100466132164001,
0.06659166514873505,
0.4464641809463501,
0.08705960959196091,
-0.08508723974227905,
0.1978197693824768,
-0.15052638947963715,
-0.6544555425643921,
0.05541649088263512,
-0.18175992369651794,
0.5371742248535156,
-0.09223084896802902,
-0.025013023987412453,
0.34855619072914124,
0.018802901729941368,
-0.057536814361810684,
0.3648904860019684,
-0.32508331537246704,
0.5369730591773987,
0.050551287829875946,
0.3245907425880432,
-0.600328803062439,
0.3621810972690582,
0.06084398552775383,
-0.10047505050897598,
-0.18205930292606354,
-0.27669644355773926,
-1.0323033332824707,
0.42311331629753113,
-0.430808961391449,
0.0981653481721878,
0.3839065432548523,
-0.3395189642906189,
-0.25623515248298645,
-0.8557299971580505,
-0.057217180728912354,
-0.6071231961250305,
0.2109186351299286,
0.19947607815265656,
0.49527525901794434,
-0.07737303525209427,
-0.2040252685546875,
0.378118097782135,
0.16269172728061676,
-0.1060238629579544,
-0.3762032389640808,
-0.46207261085510254,
-0.5194660425186157,
-0.06433502584695816,
0.014844508841633797,
0.5326948165893555,
-0.18218398094177246,
0.2537575662136078,
-0.10856989026069641,
0.10085398703813553,
0.2078285962343216,
-0.350448876619339,
-0.6275793313980103,
0.20596016943454742,
-0.0369139164686203,
-0.19505877792835236,
-0.31246528029441833,
0.6009096503257751,
-0.12720614671707153,
0.1623242199420929,
-0.3805847764015198,
0.49499356746673584,
0.43737560510635376,
0.4047222137451172,
0.31611496210098267,
0.49587467312812805,
0.502984344959259,
-0.34046506881713867,
0.27780213952064514,
0.058873411267995834,
0.34217867255210876,
-0.5848802924156189,
0.4361117482185364,
-0.29093268513679504,
-0.6770418286323547,
0.14214761555194855,
0.2432073950767517,
0.3471926748752594,
-0.14201153814792633,
-0.1427426040172577,
0.016355598345398903,
0.6398170590400696,
0.20102249085903168,
0.41158735752105713,
-0.2246888428926468,
-0.16141706705093384,
-0.7200755476951599,
-0.49612537026405334,
-0.3724457621574402,
0.0351850762963295,
-0.6514896750450134,
0.2733994126319885,
-0.689202606678009,
-0.16825184226036072,
-0.06330876797437668,
-0.11743395775556564,
-0.33833837509155273,
-0.051848720759153366,
0.17740066349506378,
0.1563212126493454,
-0.4349648356437683,
-0.6323899626731873,
0.26814454793930054,
0.018226223066449165,
0.381806880235672,
0.0040051802061498165,
0.4609801173210144,
-0.0019941411446779966,
0.025106970220804214,
0.02228854037821293,
0.48023268580436707,
-0.5013189911842346,
0.07840104401111603,
-0.4049324095249176,
0.2537335157394409,
-0.2838851511478424,
0.3316711485385895,
-0.5803971886634827,
-0.3966473639011383,
0.5038350224494934,
0.3376918435096741,
0.03187929093837738,
0.20733292400836945,
-0.7667938470840454,
-0.12624606490135193,
-0.22527197003364563,
-0.39574602246284485,
0.2488350123167038,
-0.12244756519794464,
-0.2582538425922394,
-0.18605904281139374,
-0.43579789996147156,
-0.29485079646110535,
0.4362558126449585,
-0.320859432220459,
0.07468686252832413,
0.10696254670619965,
-0.4882715344429016,
0.40200212597846985,
0.5554802417755127,
0.24428023397922516,
0.10318168252706528,
-0.2609212100505829,
0.011029908433556557,
0.47096532583236694,
-0.22169767320156097,
0.3923032581806183,
0.031525108963251114,
0.27351757884025574,
0.14802679419517517,
-0.07488158345222473,
0.004024234600365162,
-0.5071991682052612,
-0.10219968855381012,
-0.0005298407049849629,
-0.46381810307502747,
-0.1339886486530304,
-0.4165222644805908,
-0.28196239471435547,
0.5143827199935913,
1.0965402126312256,
0.5001929402351379,
-0.16480696201324463,
-0.12206467986106873,
0.07988152652978897,
0.25032374262809753,
-0.72369784116745,
0.5004286170005798,
0.7309277057647705,
-0.012609309516847134,
-0.08288366347551346,
0.07397495210170746,
0.024927577003836632,
-0.30866730213165283,
-0.0588253028690815,
0.5539040565490723,
-0.043229080736637115,
0.5734350681304932,
0.10758741945028305,
-0.546061635017395,
0.5998477339744568,
-0.5941960215568542,
0.3057538866996765,
-0.033710937947034836,
0.16098420321941376,
0.7991624474525452,
-0.037539903074502945,
-0.30024656653404236,
-0.19452327489852905,
0.025768190622329712,
-0.41678470373153687,
0.1056937426328659,
0.7801750302314758,
0.05064572021365166,
-0.5247492790222168,
0.010414930060505867,
0.32243189215660095,
-0.018933352082967758,
-0.14555223286151886,
-0.001527630491182208,
0.03486306965351105,
-0.023826610296964645,
-0.11162478476762772,
0.8946268558502197,
0.4733358919620514,
-0.12994669377803802,
0.5945985913276672,
-0.4048643112182617,
0.6540405750274658,
0.056620460003614426,
-0.37976959347724915,
-0.22873304784297943,
-0.04554692283272743,
-0.20999501645565033,
0.4044649302959442,
0.063373863697052,
-0.15783290565013885,
0.11456798017024994,
0.48502227663993835,
0.547012984752655,
-0.2767478823661804,
0.3162429928779602,
-0.38812458515167236,
0.41681283712387085,
-0.2511844336986542,
-0.3740219175815582,
0.5860015153884888,
0.5480231642723083,
0.0617864616215229,
0.14565080404281616,
-0.08694032579660416,
-0.26326772570610046,
-0.33618298172950745,
0.30922263860702515,
0.6337876319885254,
0.1608933061361313,
0.771285355091095,
0.3900011479854584,
-0.04576985165476799,
0.10786173492670059,
-0.0049665700644254684,
-0.10470397025346756,
0.4032413065433502,
0.07158306986093521,
-0.15049739181995392,
0.5344322919845581,
0.2467043548822403,
0.2771149277687073,
-0.2935693860054016,
-0.25619634985923767,
-0.4811536371707916,
0.5064114332199097,
-0.43310147523880005,
-0.5348799824714661,
0.11327344924211502,
-0.7679699063301086,
0.4060395359992981,
-0.03652000054717064,
0.29441413283348083,
-0.25616469979286194,
-0.35018789768218994,
0.06859658658504486,
-1.130196213722229,
0.6356552839279175,
0.4452015161514282,
0.6269056797027588,
-0.2807160019874573,
0.24794712662696838,
-0.07617058604955673,
0.5488967895507812,
-0.734423041343689,
0.361378937959671,
-0.23430325090885162,
0.28090816736221313,
0.08371601998806,
-0.3545931577682495,
-0.3839164674282074,
0.2980494201183319,
0.25854432582855225,
0.46933650970458984,
0.31376534700393677,
0.1430439054965973,
0.40524810552597046,
0.043505050241947174,
-0.1531357765197754,
-0.2086494415998459,
-0.10049138218164444,
0.8281088471412659,
-0.6942195296287537,
0.5723256468772888,
-0.3312235176563263,
-5.860477447509766,
-0.38427332043647766,
-0.09983605891466141,
0.1335725486278534,
0.7012689113616943,
0.2738015949726105,
0.13693881034851074,
-0.8783201575279236,
-0.28257858753204346,
-0.33485880494117737,
-0.08483941853046417,
0.1617068350315094,
0.07049323618412018,
-0.2680043876171112,
0.3154755234718323,
0.03599972277879715,
0.18961091339588165,
-0.2353101223707199,
0.18782120943069458,
0.15851815044879913,
0.46853113174438477,
0.04514196515083313,
0.10076595097780228,
-0.06248553842306137,
-0.19117459654808044,
0.7594202160835266,
-0.10705036669969559,
-0.10348810255527496,
-0.29047247767448425,
0.6406919360160828,
-0.6807108521461487,
0.1141766756772995,
-0.0868452787399292,
-0.8560733199119568,
-0.4495612382888794,
-0.07181580364704132,
0.3699623644351959,
-0.3061412274837494,
0.6986459493637085,
-0.40055108070373535,
0.04839690402150154,
-0.0347132571041584,
0.16545961797237396,
-0.707875669002533,
-0.11835335940122604,
-0.6392551064491272,
-0.1612464189529419,
-0.41091713309288025,
-0.16321900486946106,
1.3379762172698975,
-0.06316126883029938,
0.10420198738574982,
0.28241032361984253,
-0.4183536767959595,
-0.19540157914161682,
0.16263219714164734,
-0.4876710772514343,
-0.0801343321800232,
0.2349221259355545,
1.2080758810043335,
0.5897486805915833,
-0.5128343105316162,
-0.3988872766494751,
-0.6110804080963135,
0.015038110315799713,
-0.31795454025268555,
-0.09948421269655228,
-0.14482395350933075,
0.2646385431289673,
0.23976503312587738,
0.06133392080664635,
-0.014611235819756985,
0.012677828781306744,
-1.2025010585784912,
-0.10745297372341156,
-0.6977705359458923,
-0.12326741218566895,
-0.0022927725221961737,
0.07553869485855103,
0.05792097747325897,
0.4185217320919037,
0.47615256905555725,
-0.06774169206619263,
0.24909134209156036,
-0.23221455514431,
-0.12622246146202087,
-0.5017375946044922,
-0.0868205651640892,
-0.24689573049545288,
-0.2011357992887497,
-0.10366387665271759,
-0.6339771747589111,
-0.1664409041404724,
0.25129902362823486,
-0.023245863616466522,
0.26338720321655273,
-0.05093282833695412,
0.4798371195793152,
0.48372307419776917,
0.17690202593803406,
-0.13902956247329712,
0.4310409724712372,
0.5074345469474792,
-0.5890448093414307,
-0.5809208750724792,
-0.8087641596794128,
-0.32384032011032104,
0.04360619932413101,
0.3349877893924713,
-0.19177061319351196,
-0.34831979870796204,
-0.599216103553772,
-0.11818023025989532,
-0.6391853094100952,
0.21206730604171753,
-0.6774861216545105,
-0.07995743304491043,
0.5001661777496338,
0.28237155079841614,
-0.30009907484054565,
0.3907420337200165,
0.41849398612976074,
0.16148340702056885,
-0.4955798089504242,
-0.6434919834136963,
0.16198410093784332,
-0.005133775062859058,
0.18578489124774933,
0.2957092225551605,
0.0591248981654644,
-0.1869402378797531,
-0.08675067871809006,
0.17460545897483826,
0.2936452031135559,
0.34166330099105835,
-0.5272186994552612,
0.009653336368501186,
-0.2790782153606415,
-0.6137081384658813,
-0.5458480715751648,
0.2473239153623581,
-0.3075845241546631,
-0.34604567289352417,
0.641200840473175,
0.3215883672237396,
-0.20227676630020142,
0.3150600492954254,
-0.0926029309630394,
-0.16579873859882355,
0.6954441666603088,
0.13003236055374146,
-0.048003554344177246,
1.4317904710769653,
-0.24545663595199585,
0.11688171327114105,
0.21034924685955048,
-0.3693208396434784,
-0.07673060148954391,
-0.2988319993019104,
-0.5110847353935242,
0.25885236263275146,
0.23369403183460236,
-0.9151812195777893,
-0.3664201498031616,
0.12293769419193268,
0.4476626515388489,
-0.2905426621437073,
-0.49919047951698303,
-0.7352124452590942,
-0.005922747775912285,
-0.22523097693920135,
-0.21173235774040222,
0.038300566375255585,
-0.36729294061660767,
-0.12920978665351868,
0.6511217355728149,
-0.1495232731103897,
-0.27642861008644104,
0.8483057618141174,
-0.4463850259780884,
-0.24599896371364594,
-0.3837842345237732,
-0.2820233106613159,
-0.196234330534935,
0.2273155003786087,
-0.19634073972702026,
-0.5144296288490295,
-0.692065954208374,
-0.026637474074959755,
0.4893576502799988,
-0.18967776000499725,
-0.3807806074619293,
0.6041871309280396,
-0.3343673050403595,
-0.3271549344062805,
-0.20500604808330536,
0.03556045517325401,
0.018111728131771088,
0.332622766494751,
-0.05906342342495918,
0.0956847071647644,
0.3782122731208801,
0.3203885555267334,
-0.05508694797754288,
0.153180792927742,
-0.6412368416786194,
0.44649800658226013,
0.20575566589832306,
-0.3452156186103821,
0.5924559831619263,
-0.14424097537994385,
-0.6325525641441345,
0.035430360585451126,
0.9665399789810181,
-0.10566473007202148,
0.06417135894298553,
-0.046040717512369156,
-0.519219696521759,
-0.6249952912330627,
-0.20587080717086792,
-0.19289852678775787,
-0.011275478638708591,
-0.8518453240394592,
0.10648805648088455,
-0.7705637812614441,
0.3973443806171417,
0.2660602033138275,
0.3008628785610199,
-0.04428080841898918,
-0.10669806599617004,
-0.5512023568153381,
-0.033423446118831635,
0.18451380729675293,
0.1821410208940506,
-0.30852970480918884,
0.8142076134681702,
0.016991471871733665,
-0.03923739865422249,
0.26955854892730713,
-0.10096344351768494,
0.4376494884490967,
0.6044505834579468,
0.22084841132164001,
-0.8302648663520813,
0.222783625125885,
0.0049143568612635136,
0.3969535529613495,
-0.8482765555381775,
-0.09421100467443466,
0.025789057835936546,
0.007460719905793667,
0.053235217928886414,
-0.24819259345531464,
-0.6508333683013916,
0.2090473622083664,
-0.3028305470943451,
-0.17068824172019958,
-0.11930118501186371,
-0.29763221740722656,
-0.43501749634742737,
-0.22847959399223328,
0.4361962080001831,
-0.7342526912689209,
-0.22993719577789307,
0.12943047285079956,
0.24079445004463196,
-0.23351019620895386,
0.1086306944489479,
-0.1326487511396408,
0.30270132422447205,
-0.5744695663452148,
0.10554327070713043,
0.20971406996250153,
0.41577965021133423,
0.016125351190567017,
-0.04490876570343971,
-0.2347145676612854,
-0.4165588617324829,
-0.1510053277015686,
0.3208319842815399,
-0.6941966414451599,
0.2181660383939743,
-0.5721642374992371,
-0.2903704345226288,
0.12151975184679031,
-0.4940083920955658,
-0.6835224628448486,
-0.0008307161624543369,
0.7550835013389587,
0.5185750722885132,
-0.4079710841178894,
0.3292527198791504,
-0.18807832896709442,
0.36541780829429626,
0.15661247074604034,
0.18899235129356384,
-0.14506499469280243,
0.09504358470439911,
-0.08164800703525543,
0.09899105131626129,
-0.1454663872718811,
0.6262756586074829,
0.2635493874549866,
-0.604836106300354,
-0.0014490444445982575,
-0.09219857305288315,
0.275531142950058,
-0.3261857330799103,
-0.2748775780200958,
1.0120197534561157,
0.16036036610603333,
-0.18413208425045013,
-0.1060846671462059,
0.498245507478714,
-0.3121244013309479,
-0.0637570172548294,
0.7184357643127441,
-0.4029082655906677,
-0.008011377416551113,
0.2313123643398285,
-0.2820233702659607,
0.7875283360481262,
0.055143605917692184,
0.20093925297260284,
-0.27572739124298096,
0.1735624074935913,
-0.42939627170562744,
-0.30715978145599365,
0.28323185443878174,
0.8251306414604187,
0.6362752914428711,
0.21997785568237305,
0.11693874001502991,
0.0364154651761055,
-0.18807382881641388,
-0.27814680337905884,
0.33293652534484863,
0.02100633829832077,
0.0871676504611969,
0.6909983158111572,
-0.09871126711368561,
-0.5801723599433899,
-0.24694004654884338,
-0.10352441668510437,
-0.3455030918121338,
0.06144106760621071,
-0.30956998467445374,
0.2796911299228668,
0.5563575029373169,
-0.23681554198265076,
0.38711491227149963,
0.28846219182014465,
0.014202301390469074,
-0.9447342157363892,
0.3029518723487854,
0.4033624529838562,
-0.1266273409128189,
0.17717355489730835,
0.25331708788871765,
-0.035641636699438095,
-0.10506778955459595,
0.38964807987213135,
0.4554815888404846,
-0.03443680703639984,
0.3516080677509308,
-0.011437655426561832,
0.6447272896766663,
0.3368213474750519,
-0.11723686009645462,
0.09187052398920059,
-0.339713990688324,
-0.12116492539644241,
-0.3598203957080841,
-0.18707729876041412,
0.16882145404815674,
0.39646655321121216,
0.009073572233319283,
0.6629729866981506,
-0.3206632137298584,
0.29604536294937134,
-0.38864946365356445,
-0.22473019361495972,
-0.2596558630466461,
-0.18941986560821533,
-0.16248507797718048,
0.00998726673424244,
0.07587718218564987,
0.21567605435848236,
-0.09491300582885742,
-0.3491690158843994,
0.762650728225708,
-0.6673595309257507,
-0.19985394179821014,
0.10897834599018097,
-0.40570738911628723,
-0.3141307234764099,
0.3936481773853302,
1.238513469696045,
-0.034536439925432205,
0.42293956875801086,
-0.37814539670944214,
-0.30085885524749756,
-0.23373594880104065,
-0.020211152732372284,
0.15759436786174774,
0.24626612663269043,
-0.5669806003570557,
0.32319575548171997,
-0.38161954283714294,
0.4155741035938263,
-0.07848472893238068,
-0.019927797839045525,
-0.20450124144554138,
0.665762186050415,
-0.7378678917884827,
-0.36007124185562134,
0.5752363204956055,
-0.08484654873609543,
-0.13164420425891876,
0.08869722485542297,
0.21064382791519165,
0.5490593910217285,
0.46169188618659973,
0.41612857580184937,
-0.06521567702293396,
0.003335573012009263,
0.49496138095855713,
-0.06155165657401085,
-0.3848556876182556,
0.5265225172042847,
0.7004216909408569,
-0.2923636734485626,
0.027148228138685226,
-0.14115285873413086,
-0.4654744267463684,
-0.21529118716716766,
0.18264643847942352,
0.18137843906879425,
0.24265970289707184,
-0.3788640797138214,
0.40800461173057556,
-0.11971873044967651,
0.4754442870616913,
0.2735956609249115,
-0.13811852037906647,
-0.6952078342437744,
0.05020632967352867,
-0.3616056740283966,
-1.0086166858673096,
0.30751192569732666,
0.20247922837734222,
-0.10731641203165054,
0.3464096188545227,
-0.6940398216247559,
-0.16053329408168793,
0.1719013750553131,
0.2303718775510788,
-0.024760166183114052,
-0.07733908295631409,
-0.4605335593223572
] |
228988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Making%20Movies | Making Movies | Making Movies is the third studio album by British rock band Dire Straits released on 17 October 1980 by Vertigo Records internationally, Warner Bros. Records in the United States and Mercury Records in Canada. The album includes the single "Romeo and Juliet", which reached #8 on the UK Singles Chart, as well as one of Dire Straits’ best known cuts, “Tunnel of Love”, which was also featured in the 1982 Richard Gere film An Officer and a Gentleman.
Making Movies reached number one on the album charts in Italy and Norway, number 19 in the United States and number 4 in the United Kingdom. Making Movies was later certified platinum in the United States and double-platinum in the United Kingdom. It is regarded as one of Dire Straits’ best albums.
Background
After Dire Straits' Communiqué Tour ended on 21 December 1979 in London, Mark Knopfler spent the first half of 1980 writing the songs for the band's next album. He contacted Jimmy Iovine after hearing Iovine's production on the song "Because the Night" by Patti Smith—a song co-written by Smith and Bruce Springsteen. Iovine had also worked on Springsteen's Born to Run and Darkness on the Edge of Town albums, and he was instrumental in recruiting E-Street Band keyboardist Roy Bittan for the Making Movies sessions.
Making Movies was recorded at the Power Station in New York from 20 June to 25 August 1980. Jimmy Iovine and Mark Knopfler produced the album.
David Knopfler left Dire Straits in August 1980 during the recording of the album, following heated arguments with his brother. His guitar tracks were almost complete for the album, but were re-recorded by Mark. David appears on video playing "Solid Rock" and "Les Boys" live in concert, but these performances preceded the recording. The album sessions continued with Sid McGinnis on rhythm guitar, although he was uncredited on the album. Dire Straits expanded into a quintet when keyboard player Alan Clark and Californian guitarist Hal Lindes were recruited as full-time group members shortly after the album's release in October 1980.
Four songs were recorded during the sessions but not released on the album: "Making Movies", "Suicide Towers", "Twisting by the Pool" and "Sucker for Punishment". "Twisting by the Pool" was released on the ExtendedancEPlay EP on 10 January 1983 and reached the UK Top 20 when released as a single. The title of the album is taken from a line in the song "Skateaway" and from the outtake "Making Movies".
Release
Making Movies was released on 17 October 1980 on LP and cassette formats. In 1981, an identically named short film was released on VHS and Beta, as well as screened in some theatrical venues, consisting of three music videos directed by fashion/commercial photographer Lester Bookbinder, for "Romeo and Juliet", "Tunnel of Love" and "Skateaway". The original CD version was released in 1984.
The album was remastered and reissued on CD with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 internationally, and on 19 September 2000 in the United States.
The album includes some of Dire Straits’ best known songs. The album's main single was "Romeo and Juliet" which reached number 8 in the UK singles chart in early 1981. The second single release was "Skateaway", and the third and final single from the album was the lengthy opening track, "Tunnel of Love", with its intro "The Carousel Waltz" by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II, which only reached the number 54 position in the UK. However, it remains one of Knopfler's most popular compositions.
With new group members Alan Clark and Hal Lindes on board, Dire Straits embarked on tours of Europe, North America, and Oceania from October 1980 until July 1981 to promote the album.
Three of the seven tracks from Making Movies continued to be played throughout the Love over Gold, Brothers in Arms and On Every Street tours: “Romeo and Juliet”, “Tunnel of Love” and “Solid Rock”, while “Expresso Love” was played in all concert tours until 1986.
Critical reception
In his retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album four and a half out of five stars, noting that Making Movies "ranks among the band's finest work."
In his review for Rolling Stone, David Fricke gave the album four out of five stars, writing:
Rolling Stone ranked Making Movies number 52 in their survey of the 100 Best Albums of the Eighties.
Track listing
All songs were written by Mark Knopfler, except where indicated.
Personnel
Dire Straits
Mark Knopfler – vocals, guitar
John Illsley – bass guitar, vocals
Pick Withers – drums, vocals
Additional musicians
Roy Bittan – piano, organ
Sid McGinnis – guitar (uncredited)
Production
Greg Calbi – mastering
Brian Griffin – photography
Jeff Hendrickson – assistant engineer
Jimmy Iovine – producer
Mark Knopfler – producer
Bob Ludwig – remastering
Jon Mathias – assistant engineer
Neil Terk – original design and artwork
Shelly Yakus – engineer
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications and sales
References
Notes
Citations
External links
Making Movies at Mark Knopfler's website
1980 albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Iovine
Albums produced by Mark Knopfler
Dire Straits albums
Vertigo Records albums
Warner Records albums | [
0.7203177809715271,
0.3195846676826477,
0.08672279119491577,
0.11130546033382416,
0.37978851795196533,
0.31875312328338623,
0.012945945374667645,
-0.3763199746608734,
-0.32514578104019165,
-0.029026277363300323,
0.2640337347984314,
0.8811771869659424,
-0.2019372135400772,
0.014696327038109303,
0.11397179216146469,
-0.22973927855491638,
0.3532898724079132,
0.022573478519916534,
0.15608464181423187,
-0.5614297389984131,
-0.40287381410598755,
-0.09808257967233658,
0.15473408997058868,
-0.2547779977321625,
-0.7355170249938965,
0.318248450756073,
0.06564271450042725,
-0.17503531277179718,
0.16008040308952332,
-0.3412509858608246,
0.7352466583251953,
-0.14507751166820526,
-0.07412099838256836,
-0.15807919204235077,
-0.3124103248119354,
0.28708896040916443,
0.06672674417495728,
-0.23725400865077972,
-0.6280834078788757,
-0.7451126575469971,
0.3113606870174408,
-0.3123812973499298,
0.40788036584854126,
0.12019681930541992,
-0.584470272064209,
-0.03412904590368271,
-0.7047299742698669,
0.021065974608063698,
-0.8718910217285156,
-0.004045877140015364,
0.22995159029960632,
0.9417862296104431,
-0.08830611407756805,
-0.03690671920776367,
0.3895252048969269,
0.6034162044525146,
0.1880807727575302,
-0.11152729392051697,
-0.685992419719696,
-0.4586203396320343,
0.49226081371307373,
-0.33337751030921936,
0.4634580910205841,
-0.49500182271003723,
0.10880818217992783,
-0.2083406150341034,
0.32499590516090393,
0.5176917910575867,
0.5929268598556519,
-0.6031942963600159,
0.21713586151599884,
-0.26937419176101685,
-0.4582829773426056,
-0.13119035959243774,
0.33644434809684753,
-0.2801821827888489,
0.47165173292160034,
-0.09520268440246582,
0.0737411230802536,
0.062141306698322296,
0.2732671797275543,
-0.14669959247112274,
1.0504575967788696,
0.37442901730537415,
-0.4911796450614929,
-0.17273056507110596,
0.275390625,
0.6045299172401428,
-0.6421216726303101,
0.3683055639266968,
-0.27800241112709045,
-0.3334398865699768,
0.2540789544582367,
0.10771597921848297,
0.21021316945552826,
-0.21047167479991913,
-0.5511381030082703,
0.026295101270079613,
0.8012863397598267,
0.26897454261779785,
0.41558393836021423,
0.0489950031042099,
0.02349488064646721,
-0.5042726993560791,
-0.4328933358192444,
0.024565037339925766,
0.286478191614151,
-0.4188474118709564,
-0.10276032239198685,
0.18693143129348755,
0.5049716830253601,
0.5284233093261719,
0.1169506385922432,
0.05242570489645004,
-0.13856986165046692,
0.33776888251304626,
-0.35509416460990906,
-0.2794914245605469,
-1.0581074953079224,
0.3767377734184265,
0.6032898426055908,
0.443213552236557,
0.23133593797683716,
0.3493632376194,
0.14745795726776123,
0.35521507263183594,
-0.010427107103168964,
0.2936576306819916,
-0.3658188283443451,
-0.23060208559036255,
0.0021573135163635015,
0.49869871139526367,
-0.46195268630981445,
-0.07509325444698334,
-0.3684951364994049,
0.11423159390687943,
0.47115686535835266,
0.0036178389564156532,
-0.169277623295784,
-0.29835253953933716,
-0.3320346474647522,
0.17273451387882233,
-0.5476011633872986,
-0.15760818123817444,
0.3662949204444885,
-0.2445233166217804,
-0.03915884718298912,
-0.2639574110507965,
-0.2615359127521515,
-0.410929411649704,
0.18742434680461884,
-0.1775876134634018,
0.4985997974872589,
-0.3105638325214386,
-0.09710406512022018,
0.5984992384910583,
0.1463155448436737,
0.31924235820770264,
-0.07147244364023209,
-0.1554659903049469,
-0.04712696000933647,
0.5380055904388428,
-0.12610681354999542,
0.05793404579162598,
0.15938803553581238,
-0.17282916605472565,
0.12798364460468292,
0.04248352721333504,
0.20501214265823364,
0.07358009368181229,
0.1438022404909134,
0.14481496810913086,
-0.1505875438451767,
-0.05655203014612198,
-0.441229909658432,
-0.6849976181983948,
0.6646509170532227,
0.7500997185707092,
0.5456364750862122,
-0.3533102869987488,
-0.3470664918422699,
0.1355760246515274,
0.23517422378063202,
-0.2857142984867096,
0.252726674079895,
0.2153519093990326,
0.15811893343925476,
0.1678871363401413,
-0.10383989661931992,
-0.02821825072169304,
-0.3756553530693054,
-0.37537893652915955,
0.24339042603969574,
-0.7313594818115234,
0.4881978929042816,
-0.2550663948059082,
-0.6171175241470337,
0.4498947560787201,
0.14194442331790924,
0.0927421897649765,
-0.1926800012588501,
-0.02262033335864544,
0.7765772342681885,
-0.03150227293372154,
-0.23850111663341522,
0.007257105316966772,
0.31751006841659546,
0.004416214302182198,
0.6793544888496399,
0.6198816895484924,
-0.026509137824177742,
-0.014666270464658737,
0.05132381245493889,
0.26547443866729736,
-0.11771245300769806,
-0.1756470799446106,
-0.4585069417953491,
0.4535628855228424,
0.02287600003182888,
-0.06615934520959854,
0.61797034740448,
0.4750843048095703,
-0.2800426185131073,
0.3488025963306427,
-0.0357099287211895,
0.9043838381767273,
0.17194820940494537,
-0.36810970306396484,
0.12754876911640167,
-0.1656293272972107,
-0.4527570307254791,
0.616797685623169,
0.03814501687884331,
0.33927878737449646,
0.23482085764408112,
0.4441474974155426,
0.46244287490844727,
0.040729422122240067,
-0.036966901272535324,
-0.16762162744998932,
0.18607772886753082,
-0.5189056396484375,
-0.5101218223571777,
0.34741729497909546,
0.2594096064567566,
0.21255531907081604,
0.3886672258377075,
0.08963891118764877,
-0.4772911071777344,
-0.3810841739177704,
0.08668053150177002,
0.6565513610839844,
0.2940470278263092,
0.33484458923339844,
-0.12663115561008453,
0.13029399514198303,
-0.34354040026664734,
-0.4580559730529785,
0.8791955709457397,
0.2999742031097412,
0.2273435890674591,
-0.15351338684558868,
0.6762602925300598,
0.5747022032737732,
-0.11735013127326965,
-0.23598375916481018,
-0.30529850721359253,
-0.23422327637672424,
0.22721339762210846,
0.14400604367256165,
-0.2732824385166168,
0.09770109504461288,
-0.7222839593887329,
0.46157708764076233,
0.38787156343460083,
-0.07222943753004074,
0.09299691021442413,
-0.1519462913274765,
-0.1635936200618744,
-0.7177171111106873,
1.0103012323379517,
0.3926933705806732,
0.41757479310035706,
-0.6347109079360962,
-0.17025913298130035,
-0.23424670100212097,
-0.15317857265472412,
-0.4061497151851654,
0.2673322558403015,
-0.37175148725509644,
-0.0808417797088623,
0.21689139306545258,
-0.21790264546871185,
-0.33631956577301025,
0.10484299063682556,
-0.060096513479948044,
-0.11068207770586014,
0.3062019944190979,
0.04492642357945442,
0.34433701634407043,
-0.25898477435112,
0.19322553277015686,
-0.011330829001963139,
-0.10515640676021576,
0.23647639155387878,
0.11452120542526245,
0.36428022384643555,
-0.8020537495613098,
-6.0513482093811035,
-0.21400365233421326,
0.3807021379470825,
0.17482753098011017,
0.4949355721473694,
-0.30313995480537415,
-0.09958021342754364,
-0.6311714053153992,
0.007642947603017092,
0.34975308179855347,
-0.6321597099304199,
0.2605186700820923,
-0.29435867071151733,
0.26813560724258423,
-0.01631401665508747,
0.0708991214632988,
-0.10538167506456375,
0.27618464827537537,
-0.1413564682006836,
0.5992252826690674,
-0.02820517309010029,
-0.292366623878479,
0.13210168480873108,
0.37220773100852966,
-0.3903001546859741,
0.5069478154182434,
-0.46128901839256287,
0.16584914922714233,
-0.3885246515274048,
-0.051319628953933716,
-0.46351876854896545,
-0.14622202515602112,
0.02643691934645176,
-0.6660146713256836,
0.010725914500653744,
0.6565108299255371,
0.5927231907844543,
-0.24454458057880402,
0.31711283326148987,
-0.4796399772167206,
0.2346322238445282,
-0.15380260348320007,
-0.1705704778432846,
-0.7788830399513245,
0.17708121240139008,
-0.25181812047958374,
0.04293088987469673,
-0.2205716073513031,
-0.05653182417154312,
0.8308243751525879,
0.517564594745636,
0.2664265036582947,
0.11128299683332443,
-0.38625335693359375,
-0.08005896955728531,
0.09370231628417969,
0.16968511044979095,
0.014662530273199081,
0.015297888778150082,
0.47005361318588257,
0.4342271089553833,
-0.13985086977481842,
-0.2785133123397827,
-0.26060405373573303,
0.3157427906990051,
-0.04104899242520332,
-0.043074432760477066,
-0.2636154294013977,
0.43461698293685913,
0.1180097907781601,
0.2424340397119522,
-0.1046740785241127,
0.5398157835006714,
-0.9783231616020203,
-0.015578932128846645,
-0.32729363441467285,
-0.14655615389347076,
0.07542702555656433,
0.035905372351408005,
0.21094568073749542,
0.42516934871673584,
0.11225109547376633,
0.20417533814907074,
0.13273119926452637,
-0.14845427870750427,
-0.2672428786754608,
-0.19246700406074524,
0.0013858653837814927,
-0.1901922971010208,
-0.025846146047115326,
0.3832979202270508,
-0.06621913611888885,
-0.4335106313228607,
0.39468491077423096,
-0.06139114871621132,
0.062426917254924774,
0.28488510847091675,
0.9407205581665039,
0.9170265793800354,
0.026181044057011604,
-0.3549986779689789,
0.003316029906272888,
0.33290988206863403,
-0.7673465013504028,
-0.7031948566436768,
-0.52266526222229,
-0.3428068161010742,
0.3162536323070526,
0.11846844106912613,
-0.5043758153915405,
0.02445414289832115,
-0.1566905379295349,
-0.25877466797828674,
-0.20128658413887024,
0.17182126641273499,
-0.29024538397789,
-0.17485737800598145,
0.5141177773475647,
0.33485665917396545,
-0.3682856857776642,
0.34875017404556274,
0.2169543355703354,
-0.23406028747558594,
-0.19492116570472717,
-0.5064760446548462,
0.13644681870937347,
-0.2847236394882202,
-0.22897687554359436,
-0.1549365222454071,
0.23319099843502045,
-0.353753924369812,
-0.196953684091568,
0.2477114498615265,
0.24317868053913116,
0.4530446231365204,
-0.37076038122177124,
-0.5350168347358704,
0.014659224078059196,
-0.08508343249559402,
-0.290052592754364,
-0.1690666675567627,
-0.193939670920372,
0.4733831584453583,
0.32745859026908875,
0.4148697555065155,
-0.3045460283756256,
0.1417832225561142,
-0.15170259773731232,
0.06078589707612991,
0.17284482717514038,
0.2974683940410614,
0.09379533678293228,
0.7609811425209045,
-0.28446856141090393,
-0.03396415337920189,
0.35635611414909363,
-0.4661025404930115,
-0.4498399794101715,
-0.18224166333675385,
-0.6484334468841553,
0.5685511827468872,
0.28821951150894165,
-0.8879774808883667,
-0.08349814265966415,
0.13964402675628662,
-0.0007103040697984397,
-0.23165743052959442,
-0.182728573679924,
-0.36084502935409546,
0.12865887582302094,
-0.03650757297873497,
0.19984258711338043,
-0.352819561958313,
-0.13411813974380493,
-0.14483031630516052,
0.7163336873054504,
-0.5199155211448669,
0.17616167664527893,
0.6311441659927368,
-0.24848386645317078,
-0.08658793568611145,
-0.40304669737815857,
-0.15638531744480133,
-0.8217892050743103,
-0.07397300750017166,
-0.21431183815002441,
-0.8216673135757446,
-0.6733131408691406,
-0.4983578026294708,
-0.029451534152030945,
0.014184786006808281,
0.27736103534698486,
1.1323598623275757,
0.05943610519170761,
-0.3296818733215332,
-0.43638181686401367,
0.0591939240694046,
0.5158430337905884,
-0.39992010593414307,
-0.024645211175084114,
-0.1464061588048935,
0.03461208939552307,
-0.369991272687912,
-0.38403990864753723,
0.2933638393878937,
-0.4962557554244995,
0.08883343636989594,
0.7736055850982666,
-0.20188693702220917,
0.6281677484512329,
-0.6262895464897156,
-0.3606369197368622,
-0.26502880454063416,
-0.004263030830770731,
-0.09103477001190186,
-0.056240569800138474,
0.23864342272281647,
-0.4444112479686737,
-0.4986122250556946,
-0.3574939966201782,
-0.35499995946884155,
-0.020489290356636047,
-0.5933062434196472,
-0.10403095930814743,
-0.9598860740661621,
0.07518984377384186,
0.2903212904930115,
-0.053483497351408005,
-0.2818060517311096,
-0.46046173572540283,
-0.24587273597717285,
-0.12430834770202637,
0.20797134935855865,
0.6302725076675415,
-0.4472017288208008,
0.6271167397499084,
0.2506352365016937,
0.24260883033275604,
0.3742310106754303,
0.1509198099374771,
0.17821438610553741,
0.24193541705608368,
0.1411990374326706,
-0.10676419734954834,
0.21476076543331146,
0.3755413293838501,
-0.2069583386182785,
-0.4969452917575836,
-0.4206276834011078,
-0.05369843170046806,
-0.08440320938825607,
-0.1608884036540985,
-0.08458618819713593,
-0.35251179337501526,
0.2546137571334839,
-0.7237955331802368,
-0.0516660250723362,
-0.2807144820690155,
-0.4494818449020386,
-0.07010801881551743,
0.20394670963287354,
0.31264829635620117,
-0.17635983228683472,
-0.31231623888015747,
0.13257955014705658,
0.008534260094165802,
0.06568396091461182,
0.08497408032417297,
-0.20526482164859772,
-0.05977383628487587,
-0.05441712588071823,
0.026642948389053345,
-0.07314404845237732,
0.34239447116851807,
0.3677445352077484,
-0.05155627802014351,
-0.27865833044052124,
-0.5860322713851929,
0.36153361201286316,
-0.39377427101135254,
-0.5297990441322327,
0.4752683937549591,
-0.6499993205070496,
-0.4278530478477478,
-0.2546543776988983,
-0.7221622467041016,
-0.4417424499988556,
-0.036999545991420746,
0.11743053048849106,
0.22180475294589996,
-0.37064480781555176,
0.5921596884727478,
-0.329282283782959,
0.2378356158733368,
-0.06978210806846619,
0.195644810795784,
0.11881548166275024,
0.08170610666275024,
-0.3312303423881531,
-0.2957005500793457,
0.12077884376049042,
-0.4541638195514679,
0.07486018538475037,
-0.49973899126052856,
-0.2232530266046524,
0.13146254420280457,
0.27014684677124023,
-0.3710111081600189,
-0.5194829106330872,
0.5118541121482849,
0.34008559584617615,
-0.25815024971961975,
-0.07038217782974243,
0.6144730448722839,
-0.40723514556884766,
-0.058073073625564575,
1.0345104932785034,
-0.3530571162700653,
-0.00519027141854167,
0.4960630238056183,
0.14711858332157135,
0.19169098138809204,
0.18929266929626465,
-0.24624401330947876,
-0.35292237997055054,
-0.08093316107988358,
-0.05919884145259857,
0.19819103181362152,
0.44770175218582153,
0.4389333426952362,
0.5083194971084595,
-0.22510981559753418,
0.33373337984085083,
0.03530126065015793,
0.06821584701538086,
-0.30005690455436707,
-0.10290804505348206,
-0.2902884781360626,
0.16337405145168304,
0.09778944402933121,
0.12787286937236786,
-0.2968013882637024,
-0.06728041917085648,
0.1006392240524292,
0.11562421172857285,
0.35620173811912537,
0.15019787847995758,
-0.06039483845233917,
0.022543998435139656,
-0.041739705950021744,
0.3382561206817627,
-0.04930426552891731,
0.1329859048128128,
-0.4529827833175659,
0.7068002820014954,
0.24697504937648773,
0.20449449121952057,
-0.1847934126853943,
0.5507745146751404,
0.14520061016082764,
-0.04982248693704605,
0.15345686674118042,
0.28366386890411377,
0.1914130598306656,
0.5820304155349731,
-0.07007735222578049,
-0.11199045926332474,
0.4298281669616699,
0.2747194468975067,
0.22289732098579407,
-0.12627588212490082,
0.42721953988075256,
-0.3669798672199249,
0.09003929048776627,
0.1063724011182785,
0.4979550838470459,
-0.033055610954761505,
0.4546700119972229,
0.015139876864850521,
-0.19252389669418335,
-0.5061116814613342,
0.31440022587776184,
-0.4086368680000305,
0.2706461548805237,
-0.524081289768219,
-0.24589842557907104,
0.037428975105285645,
0.30137139558792114,
0.05610001087188721,
-0.7603601813316345,
-0.034732189029455185,
-0.946443498134613,
-0.2984812557697296,
0.05218277871608734,
-0.863867998123169,
-0.08177737146615982,
0.40852922201156616,
0.5058111548423767,
-0.049775026738643646,
0.18139028549194336,
-0.22539888322353363,
0.12754064798355103,
-0.1414172500371933,
0.5440858006477356,
0.0584452860057354,
-0.033418890088796616,
-0.61368727684021,
-0.08868040889501572,
-0.33570119738578796,
0.7101248502731323,
-0.2395058572292328,
0.10210024565458298,
0.10472720861434937,
0.33236759901046753,
-0.834342896938324,
-0.08855873346328735,
0.7141104936599731,
0.0675596222281456,
0.5916083455085754,
0.02198615111410618,
0.12416960299015045,
-0.09376074373722076,
-0.45200467109680176,
0.2288210093975067,
-0.08307375013828278,
0.28263378143310547,
0.15398253500461578,
-0.14473797380924225,
-0.351967453956604,
0.23717187345027924,
-0.13928157091140747,
0.04747970029711723,
0.04745941609144211,
-0.05416665971279144,
-0.6159972548484802,
-0.1738797128200531,
0.08978685736656189,
0.464475154876709,
0.5886456966400146,
-0.458516389131546,
-0.03843974694609642,
0.17927996814250946,
0.34341251850128174,
-0.07882542163133621,
-0.07191301137208939,
-0.8195180892944336,
0.07637736201286316,
0.14429980516433716,
-0.8858422040939331,
0.5346487164497375,
-0.23815478384494781,
-0.5837149024009705,
0.08391696214675903,
-0.7247349619865417,
-0.6275074481964111,
0.6003363132476807,
0.7109994888305664,
0.09965862333774567,
0.03513446822762489,
-0.4619077444076538
] |
228989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On%20Every%20Street | On Every Street | On Every Street is the sixth and final studio album by British rock band Dire Straits, released on 9 September 1991 by Vertigo Records internationally, and by Warner Bros. Records in the United States. The follow-up to the band's massively successful album Brothers in Arms, On Every Street reached the top of the UK Albums Chart and was also certified platinum by the RIAA.
History
On Every Street was released more than six years after the band's previous album, Brothers in Arms, and was Dire Straits' final studio album. It reached number 12 in the United States and number one in the United Kingdom and numerous European countries. The album was produced by Mark Knopfler and Dire Straits.
By this time, the band comprised Knopfler, John Illsley, Alan Clark and Guy Fletcher, and the album features session musicians including Paul Franklin, Phil Palmer, Danny Cummings and American drummer Jeff Porcaro from Toto.
Dire Straits promoted the album with a world tour which lasted until the end of 1992. The group disbanded in 1995, after which Mark Knopfler pursued a solo career.
The album was remastered and reissued with the rest of the Dire Straits catalogue in 1996 for most of the world, except for the United States, where it was reissued on 19 September 2000.
Track listing
The album was released on LP, compact cassette, Digital Compact Cassette and CD. The track list below corresponds to the original LP and cassette variants.
The LP version is notable to have the same duration as the CD and cassette versions, being more than one hour long. This was achieved by narrowing the grooves, which reduced the sound level. The 2014 pressing of the album comes on two LPs having three songs per side.
All songs written by Mark Knopfler.
^Certain versions of the album feature a slightly longer version of "Heavy Fuel" (length of 5:10), which includes approximately four measures of additional instrumental music both between the first chorus and second verse, and between the bridge and the third verse. It is unclear if the 5:10 version is the original "uncut" version or if these instrumental passages were simply added afterward to extend the song.
Personnel
Dire Straits
Mark Knopfler – vocals, guitar, production
John Illsley – bass guitar
Alan Clark – organ, piano, synthesizers, production
Guy Fletcher – synthesizers, backing vocals
Additional musicians
Danny Cummings – percussion
Paul Franklin – pedal steel guitar, acoustic lap steel (6)
Vince Gill – guitar, backing vocals (5)
Manu Katché – percussion, drums (7, 11)
George Martin – conductor, string arrangements (9)
Phil Palmer – guitar
Jeff Porcaro – drums, percussion
Chris White – flute, saxophone
Production
Chuck Ainlay – engineer
Bob Clearmountain – mixing (7)
Sutton Cooper – design
Paul Cummins – design
Neil Dorfsman – mixing
Jo Motta – project coordinator
Steve Orchard – assistant engineer
Jack Joseph Puig – assistant engineer
Bill Schnee – engineer
Andy Strange – assistant engineer
Paul Williams – photography
Singles
On Every Street produced six singles:
"Calling Elvis"
"Heavy Fuel"
"On Every Street"
"The Bug"
"You and Your Friend" (released in France and Germany)
"Ticket to Heaven" (released in The Netherlands)
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Singles charts
Sales and certifications
References
External links
On Every Street at Mark Knopfler's website
Dire Straits albums
1991 albums
Albums produced by Mark Knopfler
Vertigo Records albums
Warner Records albums
Roots rock albums
Albums produced by Alan Clark (keyboardist) | [
0.49159279465675354,
0.03631731495261192,
-0.03934482857584953,
-0.08696591109037399,
-0.14663179218769073,
0.7062036395072937,
0.7324160933494568,
0.24062468111515045,
0.03828899562358856,
-0.1585003137588501,
0.17319898307323456,
0.7533265352249146,
-0.7653411030769348,
0.22822095453739166,
0.6365188360214233,
-0.15687346458435059,
0.31663310527801514,
0.13836833834648132,
0.06372625380754471,
-0.47695231437683105,
0.1876780092716217,
-0.12502449750900269,
0.044399555772542953,
-0.5496629476547241,
0.07518050074577332,
0.06742434203624725,
-0.15572451055049896,
0.21841348707675934,
-0.049732793122529984,
0.2231796681880951,
0.3214128911495209,
0.4653710126876831,
0.455630362033844,
-0.20443519949913025,
0.6135642528533936,
0.32459598779678345,
0.32120755314826965,
-0.3879636526107788,
-0.578556478023529,
-0.5579323768615723,
0.17353715002536774,
-0.4961603283882141,
0.030306044965982437,
0.5211594104766846,
-0.16554602980613708,
-0.018258430063724518,
-1.3368932008743286,
0.005942783318459988,
-0.5705705881118774,
-0.01902439258992672,
0.10462328791618347,
0.5653371214866638,
0.574952244758606,
0.3913242220878601,
0.1586666703224182,
-0.12905751168727875,
-0.06543299555778503,
-0.04392757639288902,
-0.2785674035549164,
-0.0016601235838606954,
0.5823370218276978,
-0.5112298130989075,
0.23601751029491425,
-0.015530218370258808,
0.12328214943408966,
-0.32739245891571045,
0.0821419283747673,
0.4122999906539917,
0.12398175150156021,
-0.32157987356185913,
0.01175612397491932,
-0.1879616528749466,
-0.3796173334121704,
-0.2332267314195633,
-0.2605305016040802,
-0.3378254771232605,
0.38532304763793945,
0.10076627135276794,
0.25065240263938904,
0.3504948616027832,
0.060027606785297394,
-0.0783591940999031,
1.1053440570831299,
0.5950360298156738,
-0.007466521114110947,
-0.23594295978546143,
-0.23251985013484955,
0.2624361217021942,
-0.46117404103279114,
0.19863149523735046,
-0.7006056308746338,
-0.6872652173042297,
0.13111501932144165,
0.046973537653684616,
-0.31562483310699463,
0.2812618017196655,
-0.13340184092521667,
0.016077125445008278,
0.3937157690525055,
-0.11598944664001465,
0.1947822868824005,
0.08837074041366577,
0.1446896493434906,
-0.473762184381485,
-0.07422269135713577,
-0.15289999544620514,
0.3127928078174591,
-0.37656939029693604,
0.8015651106834412,
-0.5478127002716064,
0.09886568784713745,
0.08734292536973953,
0.03814544156193733,
-0.35072749853134155,
0.01564011164009571,
0.7434511780738831,
0.2352769821882248,
0.15938544273376465,
-0.47802969813346863,
0.15516231954097748,
0.016526149585843086,
-0.40499022603034973,
0.28398507833480835,
0.2793664336204529,
-0.3319850564002991,
0.02532472461462021,
-0.018517369404435158,
0.24171724915504456,
-0.3776722252368927,
0.4461211562156677,
-0.6281119585037231,
0.6622055768966675,
-0.8265429735183716,
-0.32893067598342896,
-0.20543529093265533,
-0.4966706335544586,
0.11500199884176254,
0.005771243013441563,
0.45646652579307556,
0.020782671868801117,
-0.18141205608844757,
0.20932504534721375,
-0.6625065803527832,
-0.3144805133342743,
0.550533652305603,
0.13394320011138916,
-0.4542807638645172,
-0.24230442941188812,
-0.3775491714477539,
-0.9285914301872253,
0.5165067911148071,
-0.2384050488471985,
0.1630382537841797,
-0.4813489317893982,
-0.5957611203193665,
-0.2048490196466446,
-0.16879409551620483,
0.5086715817451477,
-0.7456313967704773,
0.10400640964508057,
-0.1946086287498474,
0.4226635992527008,
0.7068192958831787,
0.17595882713794708,
-0.1627044379711151,
0.01163992378860712,
0.021842584013938904,
0.019464807584881783,
0.38607388734817505,
-0.3141982853412628,
0.17414093017578125,
0.18586720526218414,
-0.1307504028081894,
0.028519919142127037,
-0.5142710208892822,
0.4506491720676422,
0.7972531914710999,
0.387454092502594,
-0.003935228567570448,
-0.29639142751693726,
-0.1288355588912964,
0.4915190637111664,
0.8029484748840332,
0.09655030071735382,
0.5577680468559265,
0.14148274064064026,
-0.011408379301428795,
0.4296811819076538,
0.4173871576786041,
0.3548502027988434,
-0.13272812962532043,
-0.4501081109046936,
0.7537820935249329,
-0.3365657925605774,
0.06331271678209305,
-0.019464869052171707,
-0.3056032359600067,
0.19405651092529297,
-0.40630534291267395,
0.7321462631225586,
0.04007257893681526,
-0.28243061900138855,
0.6587972044944763,
-0.31996703147888184,
-0.023475684225559235,
0.06003651022911072,
-0.010417652316391468,
-0.7241243720054626,
0.2375529706478119,
0.46791842579841614,
-0.30401307344436646,
-0.4918815493583679,
0.20037175714969635,
0.6620417237281799,
0.082753024995327,
-0.4611242115497589,
0.2868204712867737,
0.05983768031001091,
-0.13845518231391907,
-0.5732080936431885,
0.7442402243614197,
0.49098095297813416,
-0.03556292504072189,
0.07329779118299484,
-0.03327450901269913,
0.5161560773849487,
-0.08336062729358673,
-0.4937524199485779,
0.364753782749176,
-0.48601168394088745,
0.13977107405662537,
0.6103821396827698,
0.11788865923881531,
-0.22024446725845337,
-0.187859445810318,
0.6396328806877136,
0.5083050727844238,
-0.23017518222332,
0.11478710919618607,
-0.5544309020042419,
0.15770180523395538,
-0.4417020380496979,
-0.11769470572471619,
0.05185558646917343,
0.3078101575374603,
0.03406985104084015,
0.5414357781410217,
0.07904819399118423,
-0.48825427889823914,
-0.23082846403121948,
0.28280606865882874,
-0.07612712681293488,
0.23129266500473022,
0.1488099992275238,
-0.20581656694412231,
-0.02520168013870716,
0.521378219127655,
0.06307975202798843,
0.5410860180854797,
0.14397118985652924,
0.0230364091694355,
0.005246640648692846,
0.7563874125480652,
0.23587770760059357,
0.11679939180612564,
-0.555746853351593,
-0.5939662456512451,
-0.212646022439003,
0.12649624049663544,
-0.4480297863483429,
-0.29560449719429016,
0.42991888523101807,
-0.6214398741722107,
0.5793966054916382,
0.10027510672807693,
0.19602960348129272,
-0.11231444031000137,
0.0335179828107357,
0.22133056819438934,
-0.1622573733329773,
0.7490540146827698,
0.4033673107624054,
0.2882125675678253,
-0.6546618342399597,
0.04633663594722748,
0.08393149822950363,
0.4163931608200073,
-0.061779726296663284,
-0.04304846376180649,
0.05163674056529999,
-0.35443246364593506,
0.10213197767734528,
-0.2190776765346527,
-0.5399342179298401,
-0.2106124758720398,
-0.37106001377105713,
-0.24297219514846802,
-0.17502905428409576,
-0.052210476249456406,
0.5322473645210266,
0.15368817746639252,
0.18600206077098846,
-0.20578259229660034,
0.055501166731119156,
0.3605850040912628,
-0.3212433457374573,
-0.312401682138443,
-0.5354416966438293,
-5.894083023071289,
0.7067578434944153,
0.02187163569033146,
0.09002295881509781,
0.01884767785668373,
-0.4953128397464752,
0.10844620317220688,
-0.35369211435317993,
-0.14614556729793549,
-0.4655647873878479,
-1.0338733196258545,
-0.06240101531147957,
-0.20163723826408386,
0.3097176253795624,
0.2772957980632782,
-0.32593390345573425,
0.30536243319511414,
-0.3569376766681671,
0.04551300033926964,
0.35116493701934814,
-0.09099001437425613,
-0.3917212188243866,
0.2339024543762207,
0.10582223534584045,
-0.24637779593467712,
1.0054463148117065,
-0.5921338796615601,
0.2643612027168274,
-0.5061603784561157,
0.06476689875125885,
-0.34772777557373047,
-0.4689554274082184,
-0.15775130689144135,
-0.4760574996471405,
0.08410945534706116,
0.1917996108531952,
-0.22386977076530457,
-0.5286086201667786,
-0.20959307253360748,
-0.48701074719429016,
0.1699954867362976,
0.01799548976123333,
-0.09703178703784943,
-0.546541690826416,
0.0025044982321560383,
0.6441015005111694,
-0.6884621977806091,
-0.55372154712677,
-0.10948772728443146,
0.8539798259735107,
0.20055831968784332,
0.24563291668891907,
0.14681978523731232,
-0.2807977795600891,
-0.1594853401184082,
0.16353394091129303,
0.13958846032619476,
-0.6031434535980225,
0.6445953845977783,
0.4255278408527374,
0.9070156812667847,
-0.22509068250656128,
0.2047688215970993,
-0.02135012298822403,
0.17288964986801147,
-0.4201519191265106,
-0.14931145310401917,
0.0682554766535759,
0.2043425589799881,
0.45493048429489136,
0.22188767790794373,
0.23053522408008575,
-0.07214771956205368,
-1.103687047958374,
-0.5701881051063538,
0.1185966432094574,
0.11499099433422089,
0.06286659091711044,
0.02710863947868347,
-0.47113436460494995,
0.43228381872177124,
0.24526138603687286,
0.26840996742248535,
0.07256866991519928,
-0.3505617380142212,
-0.8456105589866638,
-0.23253650963306427,
0.2951718270778656,
-0.5079145431518555,
-0.4413638710975647,
0.4700513482093811,
-0.5479235053062439,
0.21634848415851593,
0.29263073205947876,
0.5160306692123413,
0.3124082386493683,
0.050645504146814346,
0.7248742580413818,
0.2926676869392395,
-0.14216741919517517,
-0.06779403984546661,
-0.20304596424102783,
0.373913437128067,
-0.6950353384017944,
-0.5109489560127258,
-0.16808325052261353,
-0.6995069980621338,
0.06981805711984634,
-0.06610279530286789,
-0.15778352320194244,
0.04403802007436752,
-0.07661415636539459,
-0.2135818600654602,
-0.8093052506446838,
0.6456815004348755,
-0.4782259166240692,
0.09185653179883957,
0.09087862819433212,
0.11776972562074661,
-0.3414190709590912,
0.30696114897727966,
0.1144714280962944,
-0.12554620206356049,
-0.1757158786058426,
-0.8761644959449768,
0.6072937846183777,
0.2061239629983902,
-0.09232450276613235,
-0.0711505264043808,
0.23289930820465088,
0.06278707832098007,
0.09119980782270432,
0.027259038761258125,
0.34030064940452576,
0.14336611330509186,
-0.5752003192901611,
-0.5785415172576904,
-0.080765500664711,
-0.189800426363945,
0.5591172575950623,
0.14663119614124298,
0.01471000723540783,
-0.146410271525383,
0.5437896251678467,
0.4684187173843384,
-0.05615430325269699,
0.14256007969379425,
-0.6606357097625732,
-0.3082071542739868,
0.5986778736114502,
0.7295611500740051,
-0.44360557198524475,
0.6417663097381592,
-0.2762744724750519,
-0.06370136886835098,
0.31434595584869385,
-0.2078673094511032,
-0.29850706458091736,
-0.7380082011222839,
-0.671221137046814,
0.03391803056001663,
-0.014704891480505466,
-0.807092010974884,
0.06680985540151596,
-0.11805500090122223,
-0.03573929890990257,
0.23291197419166565,
-0.28484979271888733,
-0.7958744764328003,
0.41539716720581055,
-0.22543296217918396,
-0.14181336760520935,
0.05243610963225365,
0.1269707828760147,
0.45150992274284363,
0.3933081328868866,
-0.456744909286499,
0.23889678716659546,
0.4987523853778839,
-0.34313419461250305,
-0.022741349413990974,
0.23234577476978302,
-0.576800525188446,
-0.0930141732096672,
0.7969754934310913,
-0.4419829547405243,
-0.6522032022476196,
-0.47369861602783203,
-0.11707573384046555,
0.06312497705221176,
0.10398977249860764,
-0.017694706097245216,
0.2444390505552292,
0.12269988656044006,
-0.5826655030250549,
-0.8884366750717163,
0.3232709467411041,
0.8123738765716553,
-0.2567068040370941,
0.48149165511131287,
-0.10434278845787048,
0.10530872642993927,
-0.3086201548576355,
0.18705236911773682,
0.8893323540687561,
-0.48526591062545776,
0.47286853194236755,
0.5762776136398315,
-0.5353405475616455,
0.7291229367256165,
-0.33708202838897705,
-0.45243996381759644,
-0.8328967094421387,
0.144679993391037,
-0.11964978277683258,
-0.3318091332912445,
-0.17265507578849792,
-0.7434285283088684,
-0.6478577852249146,
-0.34685513377189636,
-0.4286044239997864,
0.16061733663082123,
-0.3931547701358795,
0.3322743773460388,
-0.4898592233657837,
0.5677146911621094,
0.3726973235607147,
0.16796362400054932,
-0.16745685040950775,
0.049492042511701584,
-0.4392881989479065,
0.30369651317596436,
0.3829815685749054,
0.568940281867981,
-0.50853431224823,
-0.09310555458068848,
-0.6916013360023499,
-0.2177567332983017,
-0.06494224816560745,
0.7826288938522339,
-0.05062323436141014,
0.07383725792169571,
0.10855655372142792,
-0.9124438166618347,
0.06701178103685379,
-0.06901230663061142,
0.23998695611953735,
-0.43584197759628296,
-0.07914044708013535,
0.14294466376304626,
0.11256787180900574,
-0.04587075486779213,
-0.32738471031188965,
-0.45022091269493103,
0.037017691880464554,
-0.3086368143558502,
-0.19676800072193146,
-0.09221403300762177,
-0.2414514720439911,
0.005785714369267225,
0.13081088662147522,
-0.02592555619776249,
-0.09924918413162231,
0.17729975283145905,
0.3242146968841553,
0.14155055582523346,
-0.01614462584257126,
-0.13779067993164062,
0.062481287866830826,
0.07973355799913406,
-0.09370791167020798,
-0.03365328162908554,
0.15060602128505707,
0.16055189073085785,
0.3766033351421356,
-0.12537455558776855,
0.1024307832121849,
-0.31351789832115173,
0.014725134707987309,
-0.1312384307384491,
-0.599565863609314,
0.322107195854187,
-0.17474888265132904,
-0.43744638562202454,
-0.08225902915000916,
-0.3614584803581238,
0.09140560030937195,
-0.15410470962524414,
0.41360753774642944,
0.3842281699180603,
-0.05530288815498352,
0.1701715737581253,
0.2940562069416046,
0.7847243547439575,
-0.21312929689884186,
0.305956095457077,
0.20315603911876678,
0.5051416754722595,
-0.11960798501968384,
-0.07485158741474152,
-0.29404357075691223,
-0.1036486029624939,
0.5952929258346558,
-0.03359115496277809,
0.22769410908222198,
0.035865455865859985,
0.4246225357055664,
-0.15336057543754578,
-0.6109622716903687,
0.33192339539527893,
0.42227670550346375,
-0.03209695219993591,
0.39117857813835144,
1.2511000633239746,
-0.9423633217811584,
0.2686518728733063,
1.0307399034500122,
-0.5077797770500183,
0.04365399479866028,
0.2198316901922226,
-0.33633774518966675,
-0.0036122458986938,
0.0806732326745987,
0.29804909229278564,
-0.4344451129436493,
0.18919949233531952,
-0.05921114236116409,
0.26547229290008545,
0.5718166828155518,
0.2982405126094818,
0.3249453902244568,
-0.14131395518779755,
-0.04543565958738327,
-0.3413469195365906,
0.09686893969774246,
-0.3397332429885864,
-0.16611619293689728,
-0.39539018273353577,
-0.21619245409965515,
0.4024982452392578,
0.3615975081920624,
-0.5812028050422668,
-0.36001351475715637,
0.044707220047712326,
0.25393080711364746,
0.12341618537902832,
0.19710195064544678,
0.0162134300917387,
0.6113409996032715,
-0.15515606105327606,
0.07399517297744751,
0.5432213544845581,
0.037717580795288086,
-0.15959355235099792,
0.578678548336029,
-0.04750164970755577,
0.14645205438137054,
-0.3608829081058502,
0.2682962417602539,
-0.35393351316452026,
-0.3662271201610565,
0.33540627360343933,
-0.18583674728870392,
-0.26654887199401855,
-0.027920613065361977,
-0.1599322259426117,
0.43411514163017273,
-0.20095877349376678,
-0.20545190572738647,
0.5293591022491455,
0.17429037392139435,
0.4138847887516022,
-0.22683703899383545,
-0.3334844708442688,
0.1227099820971489,
0.2739371359348297,
0.16395162045955658,
0.47980785369873047,
0.3125218152999878,
-0.3849019706249237,
-0.27416208386421204,
0.07092739641666412,
-0.06273579597473145,
-0.5056450963020325,
0.07554642856121063,
0.23151379823684692,
-0.5475039482116699,
-0.39267927408218384,
-0.2800179123878479,
-0.5916994214057922,
0.2205054759979248,
-0.8337464332580566,
-0.49646058678627014,
-0.2877761125564575,
-0.43174245953559875,
-0.3660314381122589,
0.3411523103713989,
1.1148813962936401,
-0.11513948440551758,
0.23754563927650452,
0.17736278474330902,
-0.11022372543811798,
-0.07542514055967331,
0.4341910481452942,
-0.419692724943161,
0.345931738615036,
-0.3405359983444214,
-0.11678354442119598,
-0.6718392372131348,
0.9809974431991577,
-0.049295805394649506,
0.02563496306538582,
-0.07669930160045624,
0.674943208694458,
-0.8384342789649963,
-0.30267614126205444,
0.6060953736305237,
0.1758791208267212,
-0.1353309601545334,
0.3889181315898895,
0.5227842926979065,
0.3910016119480133,
-0.49671775102615356,
0.21668261289596558,
-0.6565307378768921,
-0.0068045747466385365,
0.2264077216386795,
-0.06602618098258972,
-0.14814414083957672,
0.46831250190734863,
0.22581028938293457,
-0.2046695202589035,
0.106283038854599,
-0.49292275309562683,
-0.5927156805992126,
-0.1266583502292633,
0.4996531009674072,
0.2444024384021759,
0.3593069016933441,
-0.26128748059272766,
0.4814854860305786,
-0.284687876701355,
-0.012773897498846054,
0.23342472314834595,
-0.34426209330558777,
-0.33791089057922363,
0.0779297724366188,
0.2221759855747223,
-1.0485273599624634,
0.46774783730506897,
-0.02333449013531208,
-0.10785616189241409,
0.18679529428482056,
-0.15308965742588043,
-0.037886183708906174,
-0.2865840792655945,
0.3306327164173126,
-0.06717680394649506,
0.05870255455374718,
0.09439095109701157
] |
228992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angora | Angora | Angora may refer to:
Places
Angora, the historic name of Ankara, the capital city of Turkey
Angora, Philadelphia
Angora (SEPTA station), a commuter rail station
Angora, Minnesota
Angora Township, Minnesota
Angora, Nebraska
Angora Lakes, a set of freshwater lakes in the Sierra Nevada
Angora Fire, a 2007 forest fire near the lakes
Fauna
Angora wool, from an Angora rabbit
Angora rabbit, one of at least 11 breeds of rabbit
Angora goat, a breed of goat
Angora ferret, a long-haired breed of ferret
Turkish Angora, a breed of cat originally known as just Angora
Oriental Longhair, a breed of cat formerly known as the British Angora
Media
Tygodnik Angora, a Polish language publication
Angora (band), a musical group
See also
Angara (disambiguation)
Ankara (disambiguation)
Angola (disambiguation) | [
0.04959598556160927,
-0.07437632232904434,
-0.16225339472293854,
-0.2580970227718353,
0.06825831532478333,
0.9191227555274963,
0.2833646237850189,
0.2788920998573303,
-0.4296294152736664,
-0.13135510683059692,
-0.4212556481361389,
0.01690094731748104,
-0.44704651832580566,
0.5495865345001221,
-0.3783585727214813,
0.6357822418212891,
-0.20843163132667542,
1.1429442167282104,
0.18062055110931396,
0.12165533006191254,
-0.2153465449810028,
-0.6761911511421204,
0.4646673798561096,
0.31820887327194214,
0.7293151617050171,
-0.08492568135261536,
0.8779513239860535,
0.19815251231193542,
0.10458455234766006,
0.5678044557571411,
-0.41006436944007874,
0.591779887676239,
0.0532037578523159,
-0.23731759190559387,
0.07789143919944763,
-0.06830960512161255,
-0.6767781972885132,
-0.4775475561618805,
-0.2640441656112671,
-0.6395164132118225,
0.1005922332406044,
0.02631371282041073,
0.1950491964817047,
0.5953440070152283,
-0.14312279224395752,
0.045471224933862686,
-1.7453404664993286,
1.0676898956298828,
-0.20376557111740112,
0.25407248735427856,
-0.47531020641326904,
-0.42134374380111694,
-0.2690930664539337,
0.1160813644528389,
0.01375948078930378,
0.37134793400764465,
-0.8479796648025513,
-0.06803305447101593,
0.22796016931533813,
-0.46481752395629883,
-0.23399558663368225,
0.07042483985424042,
-0.24515721201896667,
0.1771642565727234,
-0.26755061745643616,
-0.05322166904807091,
0.09269385039806366,
0.09265335649251938,
0.2127051204442978,
-0.21139110624790192,
-0.0901401937007904,
-0.012612047605216503,
-0.7028295397758484,
0.32590973377227783,
-0.243647038936615,
0.12082462757825851,
-0.4693194627761841,
0.03911390155553818,
0.44087886810302734,
0.8194645047187805,
0.276374876499176,
0.11812147498130798,
0.6376173496246338,
-0.6056774854660034,
0.7320165038108826,
-0.5033551454544067,
-0.7113749384880066,
0.19832126796245575,
-0.42393404245376587,
0.2770369350910187,
0.07347122579813004,
-0.493537575006485,
0.6119822859764099,
0.30858954787254333,
-0.11641021817922592,
-0.13666602969169617,
0.37455642223358154,
-0.31823068857192993,
-0.18875035643577576,
-0.0026604358572512865,
-0.48048025369644165,
0.1528485268354416,
0.12651866674423218,
0.08011837303638458,
-0.31618309020996094,
-0.03007557988166809,
-0.1871320903301239,
0.38290947675704956,
0.703822910785675,
-0.2806209921836853,
0.4119884669780731,
0.04332184046506882,
0.5661980509757996,
-0.17615154385566711,
0.17110006511211395,
0.04294430837035179,
0.43064001202583313,
-0.23885595798492432,
-0.14793750643730164,
-0.16331379115581512,
0.3692270815372467,
0.7690137028694153,
-0.19588962197303772,
-0.13190609216690063,
-0.20289559662342072,
0.002713218331336975,
0.1913909912109375,
-0.08030646294355392,
-0.7854129672050476,
0.41244933009147644,
0.23861128091812134,
0.2034936547279358,
0.2720194160938263,
0.5306631326675415,
-0.08151941746473312,
-0.1172565147280693,
-0.4076189696788788,
-0.16852796077728271,
0.7462213635444641,
0.2779434025287628,
-0.9456400871276855,
-0.008631842210888863,
-0.3928930163383484,
0.04320467635989189,
0.4464389681816101,
-0.2501615285873413,
0.23183947801589966,
-0.2428920418024063,
0.31444647908210754,
-0.36837753653526306,
-0.3031298816204071,
-0.44441381096839905,
-0.48778507113456726,
0.39533475041389465,
-0.4891377091407776,
-0.27793365716934204,
0.10083132237195969,
-0.2512419521808624,
0.7339869737625122,
0.06295107305049896,
0.07405641674995422,
0.11570242047309875,
0.006674533244222403,
0.03302444890141487,
0.11044219136238098,
-0.10680867731571198,
-0.20432449877262115,
0.675518810749054,
-0.5779442191123962,
0.34569594264030457,
-0.142720565199852,
0.21218843758106232,
0.9166572093963623,
0.2728741466999054,
-0.3230327069759369,
0.08666229248046875,
-0.15298330783843994,
0.20158830285072327,
0.06904357671737671,
0.14252763986587524,
-0.3811738193035126,
0.7163376808166504,
-0.1768437922000885,
0.09596364200115204,
-0.1281391829252243,
0.08214937895536423,
0.21724289655685425,
-0.16945208609104156,
0.08387348055839539,
-0.469295859336853,
-0.3736029863357544,
-0.9270629286766052,
0.6049230694770813,
-0.047047533094882965,
0.8881804943084717,
-0.3421041965484619,
-0.5370073914527893,
0.7041491270065308,
0.12922713160514832,
0.2645394504070282,
-0.34823548793792725,
-0.4571763575077057,
1.0029646158218384,
-0.6044926643371582,
-0.3460761308670044,
0.17534473538398743,
-0.1504654437303543,
-0.14827966690063477,
0.674245297908783,
0.22970420122146606,
0.44673463702201843,
-0.15766510367393494,
0.251447856426239,
-0.02513783425092697,
-0.039704784750938416,
-0.15180081129074097,
-0.27573442459106445,
0.34816041588783264,
0.21174347400665283,
-0.32165369391441345,
0.6674281358718872,
0.27793002128601074,
-0.2831761837005615,
-0.24253182113170624,
0.21858829259872437,
0.42921990156173706,
0.35868632793426514,
0.2944728136062622,
0.9403226375579834,
-0.22359402477741241,
0.3354460299015045,
0.2695685923099518,
-0.14713238179683685,
-0.6934974789619446,
0.04156802222132683,
-0.36925920844078064,
0.39248380064964294,
-0.010824998840689659,
0.47334742546081543,
-0.28971803188323975,
-0.5451514720916748,
0.6593393683433533,
-0.281286358833313,
-0.08445834368467331,
0.5112252831459045,
0.03333999216556549,
-0.006000270135700703,
-0.0017085988074541092,
-0.08954012393951416,
-0.23990142345428467,
0.2385597974061966,
0.45198285579681396,
0.20235994458198547,
0.3579785227775574,
0.13402290642261505,
0.09589839726686478,
0.05247261002659798,
-0.1388070434331894,
0.18037839233875275,
-0.2947375476360321,
-0.41031619906425476,
-0.012659941799938679,
-0.028667619451880455,
0.12762311100959778,
0.5826533436775208,
-0.3182477653026581,
0.003391669597476721,
-0.6740332841873169,
0.454427033662796,
0.41148409247398376,
0.9175227880477905,
0.49886971712112427,
-0.19494523108005524,
0.2626376152038574,
-0.012782197445631027,
-0.2553585469722748,
0.08422833681106567,
-0.40357348322868347,
0.07825909554958344,
-0.6852014064788818,
-0.5960772037506104,
0.6183418035507202,
-0.09315386414527893,
-0.5237591862678528,
-0.2660663425922394,
-0.45422932505607605,
0.5970827341079712,
-0.2950393557548523,
-0.2014036625623703,
0.46274223923683167,
-0.058265186846256256,
0.029871538281440735,
-0.15749545395374298,
-0.22181221842765808,
-0.2983156144618988,
-0.14890305697917938,
0.04724704846739769,
0.653348445892334,
0.4586261510848999,
-0.5532721877098083,
-0.4466029703617096,
0.30420804023742676,
-0.2645505964756012,
0.5234279036521912,
0.43459367752075195,
0.15854792296886444,
-0.08863423019647598,
-0.25035199522972107,
-5.8092241287231445,
0.5510648488998413,
-0.5040234327316284,
-0.4012443423271179,
0.07102009654045105,
0.006180236581712961,
0.15268385410308838,
0.15954451262950897,
-0.11697814613580704,
-0.15937459468841553,
0.45472249388694763,
-0.13040417432785034,
0.29435646533966064,
0.31018373370170593,
0.5242617726325989,
-0.057227980345487595,
-0.2323380559682846,
0.22964446246623993,
0.204945906996727,
-0.08840055763721466,
-0.23848232626914978,
0.03733660653233528,
0.03241138532757759,
0.5947214365005493,
0.15174663066864014,
0.1373191773891449,
-0.36455920338630676,
-0.21083207428455353,
-0.18145816028118134,
-0.5876524448394775,
0.043191611766815186,
-0.4292064607143402,
0.10557252168655396,
-0.050949569791555405,
0.24331998825073242,
0.36739644408226013,
0.1283247172832489,
-0.25101327896118164,
0.2568550109863281,
0.07855168730020523,
0.22174598276615143,
0.08743075281381607,
0.1894107162952423,
-0.07291538268327713,
-0.012713593430817127,
-0.3091343641281128,
-0.20667535066604614,
0.1341123878955841,
-0.30079302191734314,
0.5936535596847534,
-0.06829880177974701,
0.05357130244374275,
0.41518402099609375,
-0.07972373813390732,
0.2522116005420685,
0.1649474799633026,
0.5816727876663208,
0.2527076005935669,
-0.021743208169937134,
0.40677106380462646,
0.9101462364196777,
-0.06945415586233139,
0.15706808865070343,
-0.6597910523414612,
-0.5639584064483643,
0.00030592369148507714,
-0.21075257658958435,
-0.28530198335647583,
0.4331730306148529,
-0.2593855857849121,
-0.5901061296463013,
-0.17996667325496674,
-0.9283159375190735,
-1.0220128297805786,
0.05714727193117142,
-0.4996947646141052,
-0.1580323874950409,
0.24432948231697083,
-0.022682463750243187,
0.3190922737121582,
-0.26282256841659546,
-0.04738302901387215,
0.28794196248054504,
0.0871630385518074,
-0.4620321989059448,
-0.6111157536506653,
-0.49257537722587585,
-0.016278183087706566,
-0.2349252998828888,
-0.23872055113315582,
0.6543329358100891,
-0.5572348833084106,
0.20054949820041656,
-0.11628511548042297,
0.37039485573768616,
0.010256712324917316,
0.3269343674182892,
-0.1496267020702362,
0.2521570324897766,
-0.009554719552397728,
0.6427137851715088,
0.1475037783384323,
0.22027701139450073,
-0.20034152269363403,
-0.03548460081219673,
-0.27344098687171936,
-0.27428901195526123,
0.03795525059103966,
1.2919236421585083,
-0.6679803133010864,
-0.20403283834457397,
-0.05146472156047821,
0.08100387454032898,
-0.5792749524116516,
0.23492145538330078,
0.19525882601737976,
0.09055939316749573,
0.21408936381340027,
0.8529648780822754,
-0.11973748356103897,
-0.1016184613108635,
-0.20583468675613403,
-0.14415760338306427,
0.37168797850608826,
0.15382778644561768,
-0.6658158898353577,
0.3512389659881592,
0.21925662457942963,
-0.80157470703125,
-0.09696044027805328,
0.21907946467399597,
-0.05660335347056389,
0.2149723768234253,
-0.2155369073152542,
-0.22177982330322266,
0.101724773645401,
0.03873230889439583,
-0.6349279284477234,
0.2798685133457184,
-0.4574022889137268,
-0.3313872516155243,
-0.3461017310619354,
-0.4442129135131836,
0.3874932825565338,
0.493391215801239,
0.23213182389736176,
0.04580540955066681,
-0.18168476223945618,
-0.5602779388427734,
0.23172332346439362,
-0.033704210072755814,
0.3938995897769928,
-0.03611062839627266,
0.06964223086833954,
-0.22655363380908966,
-0.7446599006652832,
0.20909497141838074,
0.5347519516944885,
-0.11093111336231232,
-0.2919536530971527,
-0.06412459164857864,
-0.5672010183334351,
-0.7931469082832336,
-0.016274575144052505,
-0.16986846923828125,
-0.8287368416786194,
-0.1175689622759819,
-0.4058507978916168,
-0.1074749305844307,
0.6053921580314636,
0.32725149393081665,
-0.5941532254219055,
0.042112868279218674,
0.19675344228744507,
-0.09945343434810638,
-0.1983105093240738,
0.14372578263282776,
-0.07280940562486649,
-0.5488167405128479,
0.18445414304733276,
0.022557394579052925,
0.08697914332151413,
-0.34665435552597046,
0.2596725821495056,
0.3515998423099518,
0.2011503130197525,
-0.09606756269931793,
0.0922924131155014,
-0.031569138169288635,
-0.5836537480354309,
-0.01813604310154915,
-0.453118234872818,
0.44159141182899475,
0.32316136360168457,
-0.0023517932277172804,
0.2173946350812912,
0.7103736996650696,
-0.3232247531414032,
-0.02232561819255352,
-0.2252490222454071,
0.49242907762527466,
0.2847703993320465,
-0.7556391954421997,
-0.1013956144452095,
-0.07193327695131302,
-0.3002605438232422,
0.44413208961486816,
0.011021343991160393,
-0.6397235989570618,
-0.03683681786060333,
-0.010744662024080753,
-0.23452533781528473,
0.042853109538555145,
0.8667675256729126,
-0.19209085404872894,
0.6447915434837341,
0.06628482043743134,
0.1757730096578598,
-0.5866486430168152,
-0.2781884968280792,
-0.5315127372741699,
-0.16835395991802216,
0.3307521343231201,
-0.23382657766342163,
-0.3673516511917114,
0.49969515204429626,
0.5212941765785217,
-0.36893415451049805,
0.3485632836818695,
-0.10631775110960007,
-0.026727527379989624,
0.2215685099363327,
-0.24376341700553894,
0.1532047986984253,
-0.003357913810759783,
0.4790195822715759,
0.13607367873191833,
-0.40996217727661133,
0.12740245461463928,
0.8124151825904846,
0.43640661239624023,
0.5011511445045471,
0.07247854024171829,
-0.1300835758447647,
-0.2642935514450073,
0.19521816074848175,
-0.17378747463226318,
-0.14087694883346558,
-0.7542799711227417,
-0.0382688008248806,
0.25948020815849304,
-0.44958728551864624,
-0.1433863341808319,
0.14214742183685303,
0.42140454053878784,
-0.21852663159370422,
-0.06949206441640854,
0.2727172076702118,
-0.11079835891723633,
0.35116785764694214,
-0.06580355763435364,
-0.021388232707977295,
-0.3003656268119812,
0.5371448993682861,
0.13926643133163452,
-0.5002022981643677,
-0.6201903223991394,
-0.8036426305770874,
0.2879214882850647,
-0.4297504723072052,
0.14957228302955627,
0.16669681668281555,
0.8193618059158325,
0.3265710771083832,
0.23220552504062653,
0.24728459119796753,
-0.15177030861377716,
-0.8280001878738403,
-0.3547416627407074,
-0.11967220157384872,
-0.792795717716217,
-0.056751031428575516,
-0.36728888750076294,
-0.49719369411468506,
0.1040315181016922,
-0.6496461629867554,
-0.06781069934368134,
-0.2890366017818451,
-0.5902259945869446,
-0.5186242461204529,
0.11232217401266098,
-0.08028868585824966,
0.411695271730423,
-0.15834832191467285,
-0.2278733104467392,
0.014226322993636131,
0.22076991200447083,
0.42036423087120056,
-0.29469209909439087,
-0.12413822114467621,
-1.3918578624725342,
0.9824182391166687,
0.2061804234981537,
-0.8815250396728516,
0.09859657287597656,
0.39270418882369995,
-0.009042911231517792,
-0.19054633378982544,
-0.05534041300415993,
-0.6271676421165466,
0.2876042425632477,
-0.20196659862995148,
0.17086471617221832,
0.8860688805580139,
-0.22999899089336395,
0.21388126909732819,
0.1269518882036209,
-0.6873220801353455,
0.31613194942474365,
0.4609123468399048,
0.04682784900069237,
-0.0531604178249836,
0.05866934359073639,
0.600273847579956,
-0.09220795333385468,
0.533172607421875,
-0.24160294234752655,
0.36910197138786316,
0.23824644088745117,
0.5633387565612793,
0.0653223991394043,
-0.31143495440483093,
-0.34123876690864563,
0.26306816935539246,
-0.4320172667503357,
-0.4751080274581909,
0.4718621075153351,
-0.43666955828666687,
-0.49907252192497253,
0.9776596426963806,
0.5171597599983215,
0.49111035466194153,
-0.3201977014541626,
-0.043398428708314896,
-0.06672631949186325,
0.009032423608005047,
0.06942063570022583,
0.1113714948296547,
0.4522739052772522,
0.2765175998210907,
-0.19708658754825592,
-0.22940319776535034,
-0.17248834669589996,
-0.4770858883857727,
-0.48722371459007263,
0.2965388894081116,
0.15980467200279236,
-0.3670899271965027,
-0.5675367712974548,
0.05127560347318649,
-0.2163856327533722,
-0.2042020708322525,
0.23221458494663239,
-0.04826580360531807,
-0.3470499813556671,
-0.3860915005207062,
-0.16060662269592285,
-0.4613358974456787,
-0.19009929895401,
0.02384329028427601,
0.14323566854000092,
0.16123630106449127,
-0.7771545052528381,
-0.13050566613674164,
0.2802579998970032,
0.5781290531158447,
0.5406646132469177,
0.42171093821525574,
-0.1426158994436264,
0.6603342890739441,
-0.6104595065116882,
0.47382545471191406,
0.26783373951911926,
-0.6561160087585449,
0.33115154504776,
-0.010548313148319721,
0.24382229149341583,
0.1630622297525406,
-0.47168809175491333,
-0.11217261850833893,
0.35996612906455994,
-0.2743193507194519,
0.22879742085933685,
0.19257138669490814,
0.22072066366672516,
-0.3260001242160797,
-0.0675731897354126,
0.6948938369750977,
0.30424025654792786,
-0.15037888288497925,
0.20548854768276215,
-0.2031031996011734,
0.25456735491752625,
0.2613937556743622,
-0.42404136061668396,
0.5061877369880676,
-0.1622849404811859,
-0.403980553150177,
-0.21426008641719818,
0.3358096182346344,
0.4348312318325043,
-0.1694047749042511,
-0.05925827845931053,
-0.2143436223268509,
-0.12496309727430344,
-0.20068387687206268,
0.47898373007774353,
0.1071217730641365,
-0.22106416523456573,
-0.4076550006866455,
0.8504226207733154,
-0.7206265926361084,
0.07088392972946167,
0.21266113221645355,
-0.060115329921245575,
-0.621147871017456,
0.6250735521316528,
0.2760258615016937,
-1.015173077583313,
0.6802773475646973,
0.1479518860578537,
0.06720143556594849,
-0.814743161201477,
0.5649290084838867,
-0.4854993522167206,
-0.27027973532676697,
0.065118208527565,
0.24042099714279175,
-0.1173248216509819,
-0.27275699377059937,
0.21671466529369354,
-0.39222806692123413,
0.23008838295936584,
-0.1252857893705368,
-0.045962754637002945,
0.8752424716949463,
0.008898493833839893,
-0.3249318301677704,
-1.0930736064910889,
0.21160347759723663,
-0.0739181786775589,
-0.5319786071777344,
-0.12490557134151459,
0.1772720217704773,
0.1213139146566391,
-0.2936512529850006,
0.17855432629585266,
-0.37537357211112976,
0.24878673255443573,
0.22319133579730988
] |
228995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperion%20Cantos | Hyperion Cantos | The Hyperion Cantos is a series of science fiction novels by Dan Simmons. The title was originally used for the collection of the first pair of books in the series, Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion, and later came to refer to the overall storyline, including Endymion, The Rise of Endymion, and a number of short stories. More narrowly, inside the fictional storyline, after the first volume, the Hyperion Cantos is an epic poem written by the character Martin Silenus covering in verse form the events of the first book.
Of the four novels, Hyperion received the Hugo and Locus Awards in 1990; The Fall of Hyperion won the Locus and British Science Fiction Association Awards in 1991; and The Rise of Endymion received the Locus Award in 1998. All four novels were also nominated for various science fiction awards.
Works
Hyperion
First published in 1989, Hyperion has the structure of a frame story, similar to Geoffrey Chaucer's Canterbury Tales and Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron. The story weaves the interlocking tales of a diverse group of travelers sent on a pilgrimage to the Time Tombs on Hyperion. The travelers have been sent by the Church of the Final Atonement, alternately known as the Shrike Church, and the Hegemony (the government of the human star systems) to make a request of the Shrike. As they progress in their journey, each of the pilgrims tells their tale.
The Fall of Hyperion
This book concludes the story begun in Hyperion. It abandons the storytelling frame structure of the first novel, and is instead presented primarily as a series of dreams by John Keats.
Endymion
The story commences 274 years after the events in the previous novel. Few main characters from the first two books are present in the later two. The main character is Raul Endymion, an ex-soldier who receives a death sentence after an unfair trial. He is rescued by Martin Silenus and asked to perform a series of rather extraordinarily difficult tasks. The main task is to rescue and protect Aenea, a messiah coming from the distant past via time travel. The Catholic Church has become a dominant force in the human universe and views Aenea as a potential threat to their power. The group of Aenea, Endymion, and A. Bettik (an android) evades the Church's forces on several worlds, ending the story on Earth.
The Rise of Endymion
This final novel in the series finishes the story begun in Endymion, expanding on the themes in Endymion, as Raul and Aenea battle the Church and meet their respective destinies.
Short stories
The series also includes three short stories:
"Remembering Siri" (1983, included almost verbatim in Hyperion)
"The Death of the Centaur" (1990)
"Orphans of the Helix" (1999)
Development
The Hyperion universe originated when Simmons was an elementary school teacher, as an extended tale he told at intervals to his young students; this is recorded in "The Death of the Centaur", and its introduction. It then inspired his short story "Remembering Siri", which eventually became the nucleus around which Hyperion and The Fall of Hyperion formed. After the quartet was published came the short story "Orphans of the Helix". "Orphans" is currently the final work in the Cantos, both chronologically and internally.
The original Hyperion Cantos has been described as a novel published in two volumes, published separately at first for reasons of length. In his introduction to "Orphans of the Helix", Simmons elaborates:
Some readers may know that I've written four novels set in the "Hyperion Universe"—Hyperion, The Fall of Hyperion, Endymion, and The Rise of Endymion. A perceptive subset of those readers—perhaps the majority—know that this so-called epic actually consists of two long and mutually dependent tales, the two Hyperion stories combined and the two Endymion stories combined, broken into four books because of the realities of publishing.
Influences
Much of the appeal of the series stems from its extensive use of references and allusions from a wide array of thinkers such as Teilhard de Chardin, John Muir, Norbert Wiener, and to the poetry of John Keats, the famous 19th-century English Romantic poet, Norse Mythology, and the monk Ummon. A large number of technological elements are acknowledged by Simmons to be inspired by elements of Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems, and the Economic World.
The Hyperion series has many echoes of Jack Vance, explicitly acknowledged in one of the later books.
The title of the first novel, "Hyperion", is taken from one of Keats's poems, the unfinished epic Hyperion. Similarly, the title of the third novel is from Keats' poem Endymion. Quotes from actual Keats poems and the fictional Cantos of Martin Silenus are interspersed throughout the novels. Simmons goes so far as to have two artificial reincarnations of John Keats ("cybrids": artificial intelligences in human bodies) play a major role in the series.
The song Raspberry Jam Delta-v of Joe Satriani's album Crystal Planet is a tribute to Endymion: "The three Pax torchships drop from relativistic velocities under more than six hundred gravities of deceleration—what spacefarers for centuries have called "raspberry jam delta-v"—meaning, of course, that if the internal containment fields were to fail for a microsecond, the crews would be little more than a layer of raspberry jam on the deckplates."
Setting
Much of the action in the series takes place on the planet Hyperion. It is described as having one-fifth less gravity than Earth standard. Hyperion has a number of peculiar indigenous flora and fauna, notably Tesla trees, which are essentially large electricity-spewing trees. It is also a "labyrinthine" planet, which means that it is home to ancient subterranean labyrinths of unknown purpose. Most importantly, Hyperion is the location of the Time Tombs, large artifacts surrounded by "anti-entropic" fields that allow them to move backward through time. In the fictional universe of the Hyperion Cantos, the Hegemony of Man encompasses over 200 planets.
The Farcaster network was given to humanity by the TechnoCore and again it was another use of the Void Which Binds that allowed this instantaneous travel between worlds. Faster than light communications technology, Fatlines are said to operate through tachyon bursts. However, in later books it is revealed that they operate through the Void Which Binds. The Hawking Drive was developed by the Human scientists, allowing the faster than light travel which led to the Hegira (from the Arabic word , meaning 'migration'). The Gideon drive, a Core-provided starship drive, allows for near-instantaneous travel between any two points in human-occupied space. The drive's use kills any human on board a Gideon-propelled starship; thus, the technology is only of use with remote probes or when used in conjunction with the Pax's resurrection technology. The resurrection creche can regenerate someone carrying a cruciform from their remains. Treeships are living trees that are propelled by ergs (spider-like solid-state alien being that emits force fields) through space.
The Shrike
The region of the Tombs is also the home of the Shrike, a menacing half-mechanical, half-organic four-armed creature that features prominently in the series. It appears in all four Hyperion Cantos books and is an enigma in the initial two; its purpose is not revealed until the second book, but is still left nebulous. The Shrike appears to act both autonomously and as a servant of some unknown force or entity. In the first two Hyperion books, it exists solely in the area around the Time Tombs on the planet Hyperion. Its portrayal is changed significantly in the last two books, Endymion and The Rise of Endymion. In these novels, the Shrike appears effectively unfettered and protects the heroine Aenea against assassins of the opposing TechnoCore.
Surrounded in mystery, the object of fear, hatred, and even worship by members of the Church of the Final Atonement (the Shrike Cult), the Shrike's origins are described as uncertain. It is portrayed as composed of razorwire, thorns, blades, and cutting edges, having fingers like scalpels and long, curved toe blades. It has the ability to control the flow of time, and may thus appear to travel infinitely fast. The Shrike may kill victims in a flash or it may transport them to an eternity of impalement upon an enormous artificial 'Tree of Thorns,' or 'Tree of Pain' in Hyperion's distant future. The Tree of Thorns is described as an unimaginably large, metallic tree, alive with the agonized writhing of countless human victims of all ages and races. It is also hinted in the second book that the Tree of Thorns is actually a simulation generated by a mystical interface which connects to human brains via a strong and pulsing (as if it were alive) cord. The name Shrike is undoubtedly a reference to the Loggerhead Shrike, a small fierce bird that impales its victims on thorns, spines, or twigs.
See also
References
External links
Interview with Simmons where he mentions the origin of the Hyperion Cantos universe
"The whole of SF history as a theophany"—a review of the Endymion duology
Treeship
Science fiction book series
Works by Dan Simmons
Space opera novels
Artificial intelligence in fiction
Artificial wormholes in fiction
Fiction about consciousness transfer
Fiction about immortality
Cyborgs in fiction
Fiction about robots
Nanotechnology in fiction
Transhumanism in fiction
Religion in science fiction
Dystopian fiction
Post-apocalyptic fiction
Quantum fiction novels
Fiction about megastructures
Exploratory engineering
Terraforming
Novels about time travel | [
-0.8297319412231445,
0.3743741810321808,
-0.05342021584510803,
0.5478775501251221,
0.1748947948217392,
0.3044908940792084,
-0.1218734160065651,
0.41599828004837036,
0.12522119283676147,
-0.3036554455757141,
-0.7834761142730713,
0.3664761185646057,
-0.13517379760742188,
-0.013754567131400108,
0.6323680877685547,
-0.18112944066524506,
0.032600969076156616,
0.33155369758605957,
-0.39123252034187317,
-0.7196111083030701,
-0.18633423745632172,
-0.030704213306307793,
0.3411340117454529,
-0.8217796683311462,
0.017413068562746048,
-0.028678931295871735,
-0.06523668020963669,
0.0023713179398328066,
0.16409163177013397,
0.04955131560564041,
0.15907041728496552,
0.6796571016311646,
-0.5702918767929077,
-0.4914819896221161,
-0.250912606716156,
-0.3404638469219208,
-0.5010046362876892,
-0.7025322318077087,
-0.15211716294288635,
-0.33064550161361694,
0.11161913722753525,
0.5030643343925476,
0.7407276034355164,
0.02110193856060505,
0.1251702755689621,
0.00805988535284996,
-1.706371784210205,
-0.4285345673561096,
-1.4730554819107056,
-0.13763494789600372,
-0.1883496642112732,
0.6415849328041077,
0.6053030490875244,
0.01032625325024128,
0.03258166462182999,
1.2457400560379028,
-0.9940319657325745,
-0.06796643137931824,
-0.16384296119213104,
-0.3610301911830902,
0.3630269467830658,
0.4884881377220154,
0.02953515388071537,
0.014833414927124977,
-0.20518076419830322,
-0.604894757270813,
0.10794845968484879,
0.459272563457489,
0.5603171586990356,
-0.3624471127986908,
0.09002663195133209,
0.28230786323547363,
0.2863353192806244,
0.5527883768081665,
-0.11700976639986038,
-0.18621784448623657,
0.493095725774765,
-0.1635950803756714,
0.10533329844474792,
-0.061842478811740875,
-0.1778099536895752,
0.3668493330478668,
1.0157321691513062,
0.39112839102745056,
0.13388319313526154,
-0.15564246475696564,
-0.19438809156417847,
0.06843792647123337,
-0.027074791491031647,
0.6518378257751465,
-0.5510549545288086,
-0.7027523517608643,
0.2154979109764099,
0.25780361890792847,
0.39671143889427185,
-0.49644508957862854,
0.16573618352413177,
-0.0427694171667099,
-0.3033747673034668,
0.015331275761127472,
-0.10028816759586334,
0.26753196120262146,
-0.1409631371498108,
-0.3517679274082184,
-0.2858465611934662,
-0.06396561115980148,
0.25847241282463074,
0.13775011897087097,
0.7340116500854492,
0.20516273379325867,
-0.29954418540000916,
-0.003174934070557356,
0.04194958880543709,
0.3300037682056427,
0.2575710713863373,
0.05949980020523071,
0.09158642590045929,
-0.018103891983628273,
-0.6440428495407104,
-0.2872896194458008,
0.1647314876317978,
0.42299529910087585,
0.4939400553703308,
0.01875396817922592,
0.03250474855303764,
0.10773585736751556,
0.2074853628873825,
-0.08904539793729782,
-0.2795950770378113,
0.08680558204650879,
0.22155599296092987,
0.44370266795158386,
-0.494732528924942,
-0.39104172587394714,
0.11459114402532578,
0.2090895026922226,
0.44570139050483704,
0.1458829790353775,
-0.17525647580623627,
0.6582049131393433,
-0.0705467090010643,
-0.11258134245872498,
-1.0995612144470215,
0.13018175959587097,
0.21094290912151337,
-0.32405591011047363,
0.004963238723576069,
-0.10565629601478577,
-0.13799606263637543,
-0.1291675716638565,
0.30857419967651367,
0.015593989752233028,
-0.20826846361160278,
-0.0013273566728457808,
0.11271677166223526,
0.5736061334609985,
0.6767594218254089,
0.11177536845207214,
0.2619164288043976,
-0.2691991925239563,
0.26866579055786133,
-0.2532198131084442,
-0.3671950101852417,
-0.42009425163269043,
0.3553736209869385,
-0.650237500667572,
0.7258204221725464,
0.004390516318380833,
-0.28391608595848083,
0.17990006506443024,
-0.44513359665870667,
-0.3279179632663727,
0.13366220891475677,
-0.22388461232185364,
0.14995478093624115,
-0.06311675161123276,
1.5681298971176147,
1.375690221786499,
0.12864752113819122,
-0.4611716568470001,
-0.63104647397995,
0.12250789999961853,
-0.1246323511004448,
-0.5103222131729126,
0.6154555082321167,
-0.03205340728163719,
0.5193876028060913,
0.1683214157819748,
0.32999762892723083,
-0.17019197344779968,
-0.7928531765937805,
-0.5260927677154541,
1.010831356048584,
-0.2575679421424866,
1.2078917026519775,
-0.05118479207158089,
-0.7395261526107788,
0.24378101527690887,
0.134678915143013,
0.31369322538375854,
-0.27395278215408325,
0.22420459985733032,
0.39114612340927124,
-0.036282140761613846,
-0.11130758374929428,
0.38221481442451477,
-0.18985678255558014,
-0.18825273215770721,
0.1065678596496582,
0.47127893567085266,
0.43960049748420715,
-0.4298620820045471,
0.03494733199477196,
0.0007050372078083456,
-0.11868584156036377,
-0.44443753361701965,
-0.08704239875078201,
-0.06488078087568283,
0.04364607110619545,
-0.23757050931453705,
1.386320948600769,
-0.29893001914024353,
0.26663970947265625,
-0.060494475066661835,
-0.020063966512680054,
0.596651554107666,
0.43680545687675476,
-0.13474582135677338,
0.27578869462013245,
-0.46998104453086853,
-0.4029252827167511,
0.16602376103401184,
0.1897498518228531,
-0.6126246452331543,
0.7031599283218384,
-0.005725519731640816,
0.01787167228758335,
-0.26611027121543884,
0.34650731086730957,
-0.1951390653848648,
-0.15833687782287598,
-0.32552388310432434,
-0.37182214856147766,
0.7295404076576233,
0.4482908844947815,
0.06900221854448318,
-0.3024066984653473,
0.32739800214767456,
-0.48376232385635376,
-0.5574714541435242,
-0.5447356104850769,
0.7881568074226379,
-0.25646302103996277,
-0.22883674502372742,
-0.08140920847654343,
0.35498565435409546,
0.364278107881546,
-0.12783297896385193,
0.1401357650756836,
-0.16110670566558838,
-0.4274182617664337,
0.07413400709629059,
0.28671595454216003,
-0.10481426119804382,
0.09251786023378372,
-0.6587657332420349,
-0.19046740233898163,
-1.186057448387146,
0.09481599926948547,
0.05572589486837387,
-0.06879574060440063,
0.09090054035186768,
-0.38025963306427,
-0.1821940541267395,
-0.013316580094397068,
-0.2976651191711426,
-0.10522332787513733,
-0.15822550654411316,
-0.07121109962463379,
-0.541008472442627,
0.09865042567253113,
1.0178570747375488,
0.5274759531021118,
0.022823916748166084,
-0.5935201048851013,
-0.4155566692352295,
0.6308603882789612,
-0.5651243329048157,
-0.06055723875761032,
-0.23865950107574463,
-0.09235041588544846,
0.06944287568330765,
-0.18347668647766113,
-0.346632719039917,
-0.13252724707126617,
0.3878406286239624,
-0.7112818360328674,
0.22164340317249298,
-0.10915835201740265,
-0.01996339112520218,
-0.21867617964744568,
-0.022745506837964058,
-0.23331545293331146,
0.3090652525424957,
0.7819601893424988,
-0.05655569210648537,
-0.28897881507873535,
0.31579843163490295,
-5.79388952255249,
0.16758139431476593,
-0.4166814088821411,
-0.35019540786743164,
0.166005939245224,
0.336935430765152,
0.2869996428489685,
-0.19558537006378174,
-0.28089267015457153,
-0.37217873334884644,
-0.1413445621728897,
0.38982200622558594,
0.06786070764064789,
0.13368891179561615,
0.3036069869995117,
0.4767616391181946,
-0.26316672563552856,
0.1020609587430954,
-0.36720818281173706,
0.2309892773628235,
0.22128379344940186,
-0.11943601816892624,
-0.18889623880386353,
0.3383328914642334,
0.2674429416656494,
0.720248818397522,
-0.298149049282074,
0.09754502773284912,
-0.6309024691581726,
0.3669315278530121,
-0.05025040730834007,
-0.212867870926857,
-0.2805655300617218,
-0.02532176673412323,
-0.07642710953950882,
-0.24492989480495453,
0.5573210716247559,
0.3060925006866455,
0.4724779427051544,
-0.0024446402676403522,
-0.09448285400867462,
-0.013294494710862637,
0.008115017786622047,
-0.4816911220550537,
0.4183596074581146,
-0.3453904092311859,
-0.26948708295822144,
-0.11717141419649124,
-0.2900524437427521,
1.057043433189392,
0.34157970547676086,
-0.6774364709854126,
-0.2176302820444107,
0.13205452263355255,
0.43846574425697327,
0.12730886042118073,
0.2875347435474396,
-0.1804981231689453,
0.4033239781856537,
0.06276239454746246,
0.5203760266304016,
-0.1932121068239212,
0.0995711162686348,
-0.18213313817977905,
-0.3809860348701477,
0.08615132421255112,
0.20702937245368958,
0.00384051026776433,
0.15051205456256866,
0.389332115650177,
-0.55356365442276,
0.90593421459198,
0.2214394360780716,
-0.872901976108551,
-0.5515941977500916,
0.2261812388896942,
-0.31608596444129944,
-0.06161990389227867,
-0.0841236338019371,
-0.026834728196263313,
-0.1104017049074173,
-0.4300064146518707,
-0.685888409614563,
-0.07836063206195831,
0.14022061228752136,
-1.0129871368408203,
-0.4698605239391327,
0.036004506051540375,
-0.3115418255329132,
-0.33461660146713257,
0.6291483640670776,
-0.5688347816467285,
0.05950584635138512,
0.4700286090373993,
0.4072224497795105,
0.010657192207872868,
0.006264559458941221,
0.6104360222816467,
0.347146213054657,
-0.21665628254413605,
-0.15906238555908203,
-0.49942076206207275,
0.5366612672805786,
-0.3684309422969818,
-0.8021425604820251,
-0.03176407516002655,
-0.13240240514278412,
0.0975341796875,
0.16207759082317352,
-0.4277949631214142,
0.07999183982610703,
0.15185680985450745,
-0.4715118110179901,
-0.1597875952720642,
0.6936930418014526,
-0.28515538573265076,
0.0695217028260231,
0.14716485142707825,
0.08884496986865997,
0.057200949639081955,
-0.5750541687011719,
0.41950637102127075,
0.04266398027539253,
-0.4953262507915497,
-0.06213638186454773,
-0.04657957702875137,
0.3314160406589508,
0.15285414457321167,
0.4789241850376129,
0.6345697045326233,
-0.18668703734874725,
-0.06581709533929825,
0.8525740504264832,
0.2750221788883209,
-0.3724548816680908,
-1.0153090953826904,
-0.5124439001083374,
-0.04137890785932541,
-0.13852980732917786,
0.4953441917896271,
0.15329301357269287,
-0.006470100954174995,
0.12570302188396454,
0.3258140981197357,
0.01650349609553814,
0.029177125543355942,
0.1497642993927002,
-0.146146759390831,
-0.18823958933353424,
0.8412978649139404,
-0.16840872168540955,
0.1165066659450531,
1.2409590482711792,
-0.29278501868247986,
0.08920478820800781,
0.17965993285179138,
-0.2506445646286011,
0.40125226974487305,
-0.09221819043159485,
0.07818862795829773,
0.22027626633644104,
-0.6396612524986267,
-1.2092076539993286,
-0.08179265260696411,
0.08033564686775208,
-0.0010110469302162528,
-0.5599599480628967,
-0.91849684715271,
-0.5603371858596802,
0.22823354601860046,
0.15842795372009277,
-0.07347871363162994,
0.1374698430299759,
0.023790763691067696,
0.18735697865486145,
-0.1513664871454239,
-0.5288348197937012,
0.033452268689870834,
-0.14731694757938385,
-0.5271950364112854,
-0.13836005330085754,
-0.05983151122927666,
-0.2102402299642563,
-0.3923572599887848,
0.21285954117774963,
-0.5203760862350464,
-0.36664173007011414,
-0.2671157419681549,
-0.3458612859249115,
0.4810815453529358,
-0.1587052196264267,
0.7396599650382996,
0.4205974042415619,
0.07333039492368698,
0.0010995118645951152,
-0.4624421298503876,
-0.07854662835597992,
0.5111730098724365,
0.0527552105486393,
0.001847867271862924,
-0.05769195407629013,
0.20133578777313232,
-0.1650865077972412,
0.07190901786088943,
0.6716457605361938,
-0.7872743606567383,
0.29903078079223633,
-0.3156825304031372,
-0.11652782559394836,
0.6340251564979553,
-0.575564980506897,
-0.327389121055603,
-0.1892940253019333,
0.10999733209609985,
-0.4136112332344055,
0.30412888526916504,
0.07364080846309662,
-0.17331019043922424,
-0.624955952167511,
-0.4368404150009155,
0.0631498396396637,
-0.05758127197623253,
-0.6344066262245178,
-0.3441760241985321,
-0.5561974048614502,
-0.11597011983394623,
0.8519635200500488,
-0.6024911999702454,
0.6378830075263977,
-0.3707658648490906,
0.08067164570093155,
-0.31539225578308105,
-0.29859277606010437,
-0.18564338982105255,
0.1447574645280838,
0.3445315659046173,
0.16914719343185425,
0.325239896774292,
-0.005725837778300047,
-0.10964153707027435,
0.42763280868530273,
0.40023234486579895,
0.39939433336257935,
0.1847478300333023,
0.11195719242095947,
0.038714371621608734,
0.234297975897789,
-0.5287604928016663,
-0.5814534425735474,
-0.06101283058524132,
0.29797446727752686,
-0.3922308087348938,
-0.3580169379711151,
-0.5475794076919556,
0.8916082382202148,
-0.6858688592910767,
-0.10863716155290604,
-0.06673147529363632,
0.043810680508613586,
-0.24817290902137756,
0.24724911153316498,
-0.008708239533007145,
-0.38201531767845154,
0.4381427764892578,
-0.2018612027168274,
0.5808568000793457,
0.25780436396598816,
-0.3039860725402832,
0.12381956726312637,
-0.27795571088790894,
0.28145918250083923,
-0.18358272314071655,
0.06071801111102104,
0.6708521246910095,
-0.29245808720588684,
0.196407288312912,
-0.27987140417099,
-0.3915110230445862,
-0.24768893420696259,
-0.09974058717489243,
-0.29752588272094727,
0.46508076786994934,
-0.19027931988239288,
-0.4997206926345825,
0.1941683143377304,
-0.23618768155574799,
-0.1116226390004158,
-0.2545640468597412,
0.28063762187957764,
0.4682636559009552,
0.1918146163225174,
0.11908385902643204,
-0.24700315296649933,
-0.1434670239686966,
0.6876276731491089,
-0.2573005259037018,
-0.04241257160902023,
-0.27509596943855286,
-0.1479111909866333,
-0.30384835600852966,
-0.1122865304350853,
0.46463119983673096,
0.3292155861854553,
-0.19000837206840515,
0.7577366828918457,
0.3280409574508667,
-0.2413969784975052,
0.033003292977809906,
-0.2678145170211792,
0.5579649806022644,
0.6133643984794617,
-0.38531962037086487,
-0.19695311784744263,
0.7739772200584412,
-0.4051726758480072,
-0.26804104447364807,
0.38580507040023804,
-0.2525632083415985,
0.2360910326242447,
0.5578246116638184,
0.012796823866665363,
1.0064594745635986,
0.6030685305595398,
-0.5101365447044373,
-0.6390974521636963,
0.719545304775238,
-0.6239318251609802,
0.04863360896706581,
0.16012021899223328,
-0.05488267540931702,
0.7462601661682129,
0.08683256059885025,
-0.6104415059089661,
0.47153112292289734,
0.12823979556560516,
-0.46549171209335327,
0.21292467415332794,
-0.24708189070224762,
0.3413045406341553,
-0.0726814866065979,
-0.09055022895336151,
-0.6286848783493042,
-0.08040880411863327,
0.09689007699489594,
-0.24510939419269562,
0.25458723306655884,
0.03454025834798813,
0.27677860856056213,
-0.16222865879535675,
0.3186213970184326,
0.2623993158340454,
0.5942713618278503,
-0.032858215272426605,
-0.8379113078117371,
0.2525337338447571,
0.12355844676494598,
-0.197317436337471,
-0.07108934968709946,
-0.23214225471019745,
-0.514474630355835,
0.26332351565361023,
0.13929568231105804,
0.3620607852935791,
-0.285758912563324,
0.23481377959251404,
0.21783162653446198,
0.32176920771598816,
-0.32904601097106934,
0.18408332765102386,
-0.006422532722353935,
-0.02004869095981121,
0.09384366124868393,
-0.16441410779953003,
0.20127221941947937,
0.1864541620016098,
0.47097429633140564,
0.42685797810554504,
0.5247306823730469,
0.07631665468215942,
-0.09718573838472366,
-0.6991907358169556,
-0.3421618640422821,
-0.19400641322135925,
0.10049660503864288,
0.6599895358085632,
0.34635424613952637,
0.303390771150589,
-0.024540124461054802,
0.0354282446205616,
-0.479869544506073,
0.12731033563613892,
-0.4460536539554596,
-0.1612643599510193,
-0.14917713403701782,
-0.2854832112789154,
-0.48780637979507446,
-0.19375550746917725,
0.9498666524887085,
-0.414493203163147,
0.1671006828546524,
-0.0023758576717227697,
-0.6621406674385071,
0.3919832408428192,
0.17584073543548584,
-0.26932549476623535,
0.2675801217556,
-0.5091311931610107,
0.04743953421711922,
-0.7246496081352234,
0.17584854364395142,
0.13076899945735931,
0.6657484173774719,
-0.24060505628585815,
0.4323277175426483,
-0.12572669982910156,
-0.30263879895210266,
-0.08072520047426224,
0.06576012074947357,
0.6136825084686279,
-0.1638890951871872,
-0.13439834117889404,
0.15810783207416534,
-0.01044761948287487,
-0.06705965101718903,
-0.28732433915138245,
0.3487728238105774,
-0.14417800307273865,
0.42008450627326965,
-0.19853484630584717,
0.5825983285903931,
-0.09989757090806961,
0.17785757780075073,
-0.7363541126251221,
0.2506548762321472,
-0.12198219448328018,
-0.4341680407524109,
0.5358015298843384,
0.38405486941337585,
-0.15802143514156342,
-0.515231192111969,
-0.05768635869026184,
-0.08483586460351944,
0.16276970505714417,
0.17616300284862518,
-0.3592982292175293,
-0.2535306513309479,
-0.1039179116487503,
0.1622163951396942,
-0.2931806147098541,
0.3576986789703369,
0.09906727075576782,
0.31998780369758606,
-0.2043970376253128,
-0.4656517207622528,
-0.05090296268463135,
0.3086289167404175,
0.12108378857374191,
-0.3059653639793396,
0.888521134853363,
0.024197805672883987
] |
228998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Hitchens | Christopher Hitchens | Christopher Eric Hitchens (13 April 1949 – 15 December 2011) was a British-American author, journalist, orator and columnist. He wrote, co-wrote, edited or co-edited over 30 books, including five of essays on culture, politics and literature.
Hitchens originally described himself as a democratic socialist, and he was a member of various socialist organisations throughout his life, including the International Socialists. Hitchens eventually stopped describing himself as a socialist, but he continued to identify as a Marxist, supporting Marx's materialist conception of history. Hitchens was very critical of aspects of American foreign policy, such as American involvement in war crimes in Vietnam, Chile and East Timor. However, he also supported the United States in the Kosovo War, the Afghanistan War, the Iraq War and other military interventions.
Hitchens described himself as an anti-theist, who saw all religions as false, harmful and authoritarian. He argued for free expression and scientific discovery, and asserted that they were superior to religion as an ethical code of conduct for human civilisation. He also advocated separation of church and state. The dictum "What can be asserted without evidence can also be dismissed without evidence" has become known as Hitchens's razor.
A heavy smoker and drinker since his teenage years, Hitchens died from complications related to esophageal cancer in December 2011.
Life and career
Early life and education
Hitchens was born in Portsmouth, Hampshire, the elder of two boys; his brother, Peter, became a socially conservative journalist. Their parents, Eric Ernest Hitchens (1909–1987) and Yvonne Jean Hitchens (née Hickman; 1921–1973), met in Scotland when serving in the Royal Navy during World War II. His mother had been a Wren, a member of the Women's Royal Naval Service. She was Jewish, something Hitchens discovered later in life; he came to identify as a secular Jew.
Hitchens often referred to Eric simply as 'the commander'. Eric was deployed on , which took part in the sinking of the in the Battle of the North Cape on 26 December 1943. He paid tribute to his father's contribution to the war: "Sending a Nazi convoy raider to the bottom is a better day's work than any I have ever done." Eric later worked as a bookkeeper for boatbuilders, speedboat-manufacturers and at a prep school. Eric's naval career required the family to move from base to base throughout Britain and its dependencies, including to Malta, where Peter Hitchens was born in Sliema in 1951.
After attending two independent schools—Mount House School, Tavistock, Devon, from the age of eight, and the Leys School in Cambridgeshire—Hitchens was admitted to Balliol College, Oxford in 1967 where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics and was tutored by Steven Lukes and Anthony Kenny. He graduated in 1970 with a third-class degree. In his adolescence, he was "bowled over" by Richard Llewellyn's How Green Was My Valley, Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, R. H. Tawney's critique on Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, and the works of George Orwell. In 1968, he took part in the TV quiz show University Challenge.
In the 1960s, Hitchens joined the political left, drawn by disagreement over the Vietnam War, nuclear weapons, racism and oligarchy, including that of "the unaccountable corporation". He expressed affinity with the politically charged countercultural and protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s. He avoided the recreational drug use of the time, saying "in my cohort we were slightly anti-hedonistic ... it made it very much easier for police provocation to occur, because the planting of drugs was something that happened to almost everyone one knew." Hitchens was inspired to become a journalist after reading a piece by James Cameron.
Hitchens was bisexual during his younger days, and joked that as he aged, his appearance "declined to the point where only women would go to bed with [him]." He said he had sexual relations with two male students at Oxford who would later become Tory ministers during the prime ministership of Margaret Thatcher, although he would not reveal their names publicly.
Hitchens joined the Labour Party in 1965, but along with the majority of the Labour students' organisation was expelled in 1967, because of what Hitchens called "Prime Minister Harold Wilson's contemptible support for the war in Vietnam." Under the influence of Peter Sedgwick, who translated the writings of Russian revolutionary and Soviet dissident Victor Serge, Hitchens forged an ideological interest in Trotskyism and anti-Stalinist socialism. Shortly after, he joined "a small but growing post-Trotskyist Luxemburgist sect".
Journalistic career in the UK (1971–1981)
Early in his career Hitchens began working as a correspondent for the magazine International Socialism, published by the International Socialists, the forerunners of today's British Socialist Workers Party. This group was broadly Trotskyist, but differed from more orthodox Trotskyist groups in its refusal to defend communist states as "workers' states". Their slogan was "Neither Washington nor Moscow but International Socialism".
In 1971, after spending a year travelling the United States on a scholarship, Hitchens went to work at the Times Higher Education Supplement where he served as a social science correspondent. Hitchens was fired after six months in the job. Next he was a researcher for ITV's Weekend World.
In 1973 Hitchens went to work for the New Statesman, where his colleagues included the authors Martin Amis, whom he had briefly met at Oxford, as well as Julian Barnes and James Fenton, with whom he had shared a house in Oxford. Amis described him at the time as, "handsome, festive [and] gauntly left-wing". Around that time, the Friday lunches began, which were attended by writers including Clive James, Ian McEwan, Kingsley Amis, Terence Kilmartin, Robert Conquest, Al Alvarez, Peter Porter, Russell Davies and Mark Boxer. At the New Statesman Hitchens acquired a reputation as a left-winger while working as a war correspondent from areas of conflict such as Northern Ireland, Libya, and Iraq.
In November 1973, while in Greece, Hitchens reported on the constitutional crisis of the military junta. It became his first leading article for the New Statesman. In December 1977, Hitchens interviewed Argentine dictator Jorge Rafael Videla, a conversation he later described as "horrifying". In 1977, unhappy at the New Statesman, Hitchens defected to the Daily Express where he became a foreign correspondent. He returned to the New Statesman in 1979 where he became foreign editor.
American writings (1981–2011)
Hitchens went to the United States in 1981 as part of an editor exchange programme between the New Statesman and The Nation. After joining The Nation, he penned vociferous critiques of Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and American foreign policy in South and Central America.
Hitchens became a contributing editor of Vanity Fair in 1992, writing ten columns a year. He left The Nation in 2002 after profoundly disagreeing with other contributors over the Iraq War. There is speculation that Hitchens was the inspiration for Tom Wolfe's character Peter Fallow in the 1987 novel The Bonfire of the Vanities, but others—including Hitchens—believe it to be Spy Magazines "Ironman Nightlife Decathlete", Anthony Haden-Guest. In 1987, Hitchens's father died from cancer of the oesophagus, the same disease that would later claim his own life. In April 2007, Hitchens became a US citizen; he later stated that he saw himself as Anglo-American.
He became a media fellow at the Hoover Institution in September 2008. At Slate, he usually wrote under the news-and-politics column Fighting Words.
Hitchens spent part of his early career in journalism as a foreign correspondent in Cyprus. Through his work there he met his first wife Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, with whom he had two children, Alexander and Sophia. His son, Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, born in 1984, has worked as a policy researcher in London. Hitchens continued writing essay-style correspondence pieces from a variety of locales, including Chad, Uganda and the Darfur region of Sudan. In 1991, he received a Lannan Literary Award for Nonfiction.
Hitchens met Carol Blue in Los Angeles in 1989 and they married in 1991. Hitchens called it love at first sight. In 1999, Hitchens and Blue, both harsh critics of President Clinton, submitted an affidavit to the trial managers of the Republican Party in the impeachment of Bill Clinton. Therein they swore that their then friend Sidney Blumenthal had described Monica Lewinsky as a stalker. This allegation contradicted Blumenthal's own sworn deposition in the trial, and it resulted in a hostile exchange of opinion in the public sphere between Hitchens and Blumenthal. Following the publication of Blumenthal's The Clinton Wars, Hitchens wrote several pieces in which he accused Blumenthal of manipulating the facts. The incident ended their friendship and sparked a personal crisis for Hitchens, who was stridently criticised by friends for what they saw as a cynical and ultimately politically futile act.
Before Hitchens's political shift, the American author and polemicist Gore Vidal was apt to speak of Hitchens as his "dauphin" or "heir". In 2010, Hitchens attacked Vidal in a Vanity Fair piece headlined "Vidal Loco", calling him a "crackpot" for his adoption of 9/11 conspiracy theories. On the back of Hitchens's memoir Hitch-22, among the praise from notable figures, Vidal's endorsement of Hitchens as his successor is crossed out in red and annotated "NO, C.H." Hitchens's strong advocacy of the war in Iraq gained him a wider readership, and in September 2005 he was named as fifth on the list of the "Top 100 Public Intellectuals" by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines. An online poll ranked the 100 intellectuals, but the magazines noted that the rankings of Hitchens (5), Noam Chomsky (1), and Abdolkarim Soroush (15) were partly due to their respective supporters' publicising of the vote. Hitchens later responded to his ranking with a few articles about his status as such.
Hitchens did not leave his position writing for The Nation until after the 11 September attacks, stating that he felt the magazine had arrived at a position "that John Ashcroft is a greater menace than Osama bin Laden". The 11 September attacks "exhilarated" him, bringing into focus "a battle between everything I love and everything I hate" and strengthening his embrace of an interventionist foreign policy that challenged "fascism with an Islamic face." His numerous editorials in support of the Iraq War caused some to label him a neoconservative, although Hitchens insisted he was not "a conservative of any kind", and his friend Ian McEwan described him as representing the anti-totalitarian left. Hitchens recalls in his memoir having been "invited by Bernard-Henri Lévy to write an essay on political reconsiderations for his magazine La Regle du Jeu. I gave it the partly ironic title: 'Can One Be a Neoconservative?' Impatient with this, some copy editor put it on the cover as 'How I Became a Neoconservative.' Perhaps this was an instance of the Cartesian principle as opposed to the English empiricist one: It was decided that I evidently was what I apparently only thought." Indeed, in a 2010 BBC interview, he stated that he "still [thought] like a Marxist" and considered himself "a leftist."
In 2007, Hitchens published one of his most controversial articles entitled "Why Women Aren't Funny" in Vanity Fair. Relying mainly on anecdotal evidence, he argued that there is less societal pressure for women to practice humour and that "women who do it play by men's rules". Over the following year, Vanity Fair published several letters that it received, objecting to the tone or premise of the article, as well as a rebuttal by Alessandra Stanley. Amid further criticism, Hitchens reiterated his position in a video and written response.
In 2007, Hitchens's work for Vanity Fair won the National Magazine Award in the category "Columns and Commentary".
He was a finalist in the same category in 2008 for some of his columns in Slate but lost out to Matt Taibbi of Rolling Stone. Hitch-22 was short-listed for the 2010 National Book Critics Circle Award for Autobiography. He won the National Magazine Award for Columns about Cancer in 2011. Hitchens also served on the advisory board of Secular Coalition for America and offered advice to the Coalition on the acceptance and inclusion of nontheism in American life. In December 2011, prior to his death, Asteroid 57901 Hitchens was named after him.
Literature reviews
Hitchens wrote a monthly essay in The Atlantic and occasionally contributed to other literary journals. One of his books, Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, collected these works. In Why Orwell Matters, he defends Orwell's writings against modern critics as relevant today and progressive for his time. In the 2008 book Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq, and the Left, many literary critiques are included of essays and other books of writers, such as David Horowitz and Edward Said.
During a three-hour In Depth interview on Book TV, he named authors who influenced his views, including Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, Evelyn Waugh, Kingsley Amis, P. G. Wodehouse and Conor Cruise O'Brien. When asked what the difference between an autobiography and a memoir was, he replied “Look, everyone has a book inside of them ... which is exactly where I think it should, in most cases, remain”.
Professorships
Hitchens was a visiting professor in the following institutions:
University of California, Berkeley
The University of Pittsburgh
The New School of Social Research
Relationship with his brother
Christopher's only sibling was the journalist and author Peter Hitchens, who is two years younger. Christopher said in 2005 the main difference between the two is belief in the existence of God. Peter became a member of the International Socialists (forerunners of the modern Socialist Workers' Party) from 1968 to 1975 (beginning at age 17) after Christopher introduced him to them.
The brothers fell out after Peter wrote a 2001 article in The Spectator which allegedly characterised Christopher as a Stalinist. After the birth of Peter's third child, the brothers were reconciled. Peter's review of God Is Not Great led to a public argument between the brothers but no renewed estrangement. In the review, Peter claimed his brother's book made a number of incorrect assertions.
In 2007, the brothers appeared as panellists on BBC TV's Question Time, where they clashed on a number of issues. In 2008, in the US, they debated the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the existence of God. In 2010 at the Pew Forum, the pair debated the nature of God in civilisation. At the memorial service held for Christopher in New York, Peter read a passage from St Paul's Epistle to the Philippians which Christopher himself had read at their father's funeral.
Political views
In 2009, Hitchens was listed by Forbes magazine as one of the "25 most influential liberals in the U.S. media". The same article noted, however, that he would "likely be aghast to find himself on this list", as it reduces his self-styled radicalism to mere liberalism. Hitchens's political perspectives also appear in his wide-ranging writings, which include many dialogues. He said of Ayn Rand's Objectivism, "I have always found it quaint, and rather touching, that there is a movement in the US that thinks Americans are not yet selfish enough."
While Hitchens supported Israel's right to exist, he was critical of the Israeli government's handling of the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. Having long described himself as a socialist and a Marxist, Hitchens began his break from the established political left after what he called the "tepid reaction" of the Western left to the controversy over The Satanic Verses, followed by what he saw as the left's embrace of Bill Clinton and the anti-war movement's opposition to NATO intervention in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the 1990s. He later became a so-called liberal hawk and supported the War on Terror, but he had some reservations, such as his characterisation of waterboarding as torture after voluntarily undergoing the procedure. In January 2006, he joined four other individuals and four organisations, including the ACLU and Greenpeace, as plaintiffs in a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, challenging Bush's NSA warrantless surveillance; the lawsuit was filed with the ACLU.
Hitchens was an avid critic of President Slobodan Milošević of Serbia and other Serbian politicians of the 1990s. He called Milošević a "fascist" and a "nazi" after the Bosnian genocide and ethnic cleansing of Albanians. Hitchens often accused the Serbian government of committing numerous war crimes during the Yugoslav Wars. He denounced people like Noam Chomsky and Edward S. Herman, who criticized the NATO intervention there. Hitchens also criticized Croatian president Franjo Tuđman and the policies of the Croatian government, which he saw as reviving "Ustashe formations".
Hitchens was a supporter of the European Union. In an appearance on C-SPAN in 1993, Hitchens said, "As of 1992, there is now a Euro passport that makes you free to travel within the boundaries of ... member countries, and I've always liked the idea of European unity, and so I held out for a Euro passport. So I travel as a European." Speaking at the launch of his brother Peter Hitchens's book, The Abolition of Britain, at Conway Hall in London, Hitchens denounced the so-called Eurosceptic movement, describing it as "the British version of fascism". He went on to say, "Scepticism is a title of honour. These people are not sceptical. They're fanatical. They're dogmatic".
Critiques of specific individuals
Hitchens wrote book-length biographical essays on Thomas Jefferson (Thomas Jefferson: Author of America), Thomas Paine (Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man": A Biography) and George Orwell (Why Orwell Matters).
He also became known for excoriating criticisms of public contemporary figures, including Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton and Henry Kissinger, the subjects of three full-length texts: The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, No One Left to Lie To: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton, and The Trial of Henry Kissinger respectively. In 2007, while promoting his book God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Hitchens described the Christian evangelist Billy Graham as "a self-conscious fraud" and "a disgustingly evil man". Hitchens claimed that the evangelist, who had recently been hospitalised for intestinal bleeding, made a living by "going around spouting lies to young people. What a horrible career. I gather it's soon to be over. I certainly hope so."
In response to the comments, writers Nancy Gibbs and Michael Duffy published an article in Time in which, among other things, they challenged Hitchens's suggestion that Graham went into ministry to make money. They argued that during his career Graham "turn[ed] down million-dollar television and Hollywood offers." They also pointed out that having established the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association in 1950, Graham drew a straight salary, comparable to that of a senior minister, irrespective of the money raised by his meetings.
In 1999, Hitchens wrote a profile of Donald Trump for The Sunday Herald. Trump had expressed interest in running in the 2000 U.S. Presidential Election as a candidate for the Reform Party. Of Trump, Hitchens said, "Because the man with many monikers in many ways embodies his country and because this election cycle is now so absurd, and so much up for grabs, it is unwise to exclude anything ... The best guess has to be that here's a man who hates to be alone, who needs approval and reinforcement, who talks a better game than he plays, who is crude, hyperactive, emotional and optimistic." Hitchens had previously written that Trump demonstrated how "nobody is more covetous and greedy than those who have far too much."
Criticism of religion
Hitchens was an antitheist, and said that a person "could be an atheist and wish that belief in God were correct", but that "an antitheist, a term I'm trying to get into circulation, is someone who is relieved that there's no evidence for such an assertion." He often spoke against the Abrahamic religions. In a 2010 interview at New York Public Library, Hitchens stated that he was against infant circumcision. When asked by readers of The Independent (London) what he considered to be the "axis of evil", Hitchens replied "Christianity, Judaism, Islam – the three leading monotheisms." In debates, Hitchens often posed what has become known as "Hitchens's Challenge": to name at least one moral action that a person without a faith (e.g., an atheist or antitheist) could not possibly perform, and conversely, to name one immoral action that only a person with a faith could perform or has performed in the past.
In his best-seller God Is Not Great, Hitchens expanded his criticism to include all religions, including those rarely criticised by Western secularists, such as Buddhism and neo-paganism. Hitchens said that organised religion is "the main source of hatred in the world", calling it "violent, irrational, intolerant, allied to racism, tribalism, and bigotry, invested in ignorance and hostile to free inquiry, contemptuous of women and coercive toward children: [it] ought to have a great deal on its conscience". In the same work Hitchens says that humanity therefore needs a renewed Enlightenment. The book received mixed responses, ranging from praise in The New York Times for his "logical flourishes and conundrums" to accusations of "intellectual and moral shabbiness" in the Financial Times. God Is Not Great was nominated for a National Book Award on 10 October 2007.
God Is Not Great affirmed Hitchens's position in the "New Atheism" movement. Hitchens was made an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist International and the National Secular Society shortly after its release and he was later named to the Honorary Board of distinguished achievers of the Freedom From Religion Foundation. He also joined the advisory board of the Secular Coalition for America, a group of atheists and humanists. Hitchens said he would accept an invitation from any religious leader who wished to debate with him. On 30 September 2007, Richard Dawkins, Hitchens, Sam Harris, and Daniel Dennett met at Hitchens's residence for a private, unmoderated discussion lasting two hours. The event was videotaped and entitled "The Four Horsemen". In it, Hitchens stated at one point that he saw the Maccabean Revolt as the most unfortunate event in human history due to the reversion from Hellenistic thought and philosophy to messianism and fundamentalism that its success constituted.
That year, Hitchens began a series of written debates on the question "Is Christianity Good for the World?" with Christian theologian and pastor Douglas Wilson, published in Christianity Today magazine. This exchange eventually became a book with the same title published in 2008. During their promotional tour of the book, they were accompanied by the producer Darren Doane's film crew. Thence Doane produced the film Collision: Is Christianity GOOD for the World?, which was released on 27 October 2009. On 4 April 2009, Hitchens debated William Lane Craig on the existence of God at Biola University. On 19 October 2009, Intelligence Squared explored the question "Is the Catholic Church a force for good in the world?". John Onaiyekan and Ann Widdecombe argued that it was, while Hitchens joined Stephen Fry in arguing that it was not. The latter side won the debate according to an audience poll. On 26 November 2010, Hitchens appeared in Toronto, Ontario, at the Munk Debates, where he debated religion with former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, a convert to Roman Catholicism. Blair argued religion is a force for good, while Hitchens argued against that. Hitchens also debated with Larry Taunton, an evangelical Christian friend of his, on "God or no God," and Larry wrote a book about his friendship with Hitchens.
Throughout these debates, Hitchens became known for his persuasive and enthusiastic rhetoric in public speaking. "Wit and eloquence", "verbal barbs and linguistic dexterity" and "self-reference, literary engagement and hyperbole" are all elements of his speeches. The term "hitch-slap" has been used as an informal term among his supporters for a carefully crafted remark designed to humiliate his opponents. Hitchens's line "one asks wistfully if there is no provision in the procedures of military justice for them to be taken out and shot," condemning the perpetrators of the Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse, was cited by The Humanist as an example. A tribute in Politico stated that this was a trait Hitchens shared with fellow atheist and intellectual, Gore Vidal.
Personal life
Hitchens was raised nominally Christian and attended Christian boarding schools, but from an early age he declined to participate in communal prayers. Later in life, Hitchens discovered that he was of Jewish descent on his mother's side and that his Jewish ancestors were immigrants from Eastern Europe (including Poland). Hitchens was married twice, first to Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, in 1981; the couple had a son Alexander and a daughter Sophia.
In 1991, Hitchens married his second wife, Carol Blue, an American screenwriter, in a ceremony held at the apartment of Victor Navasky, editor of The Nation. They had a daughter together, Antonia. Hitchens considered reading, writing and public speaking not as a job or career but as "what I am, who I am, [and] what I love."
In November 1973, Hitchens's mother committed suicide in Athens in a pact with her lover, a defrocked clergyman named Timothy Bryan. The pair overdosed on sleeping pills in adjoining hotel rooms and Bryan slashed his wrists in the bathtub. Hitchens flew alone to Athens to recover his mother's body, initially under the impression that she had been murdered.
In 2007, after living in the US for 25 years, he became an American citizen (while retaining his UK citizenship).
Illness and death
On June 8, 2010, Hitchens was on tour in New York promoting his memoirs Hitch-22 when he was taken into emergency care suffering from a severe pericardial effusion. Soon after, he announced he was postponing his tour to undergo treatment for oesophageal cancer.
In a Vanity Fair piece titled "Topic of Cancer," he stated that he was undergoing treatment for cancer. He said that he recognised the long-term prognosis was far from positive and he would be a "very lucky person to live another five years." A heavy smoker and drinker since his teenage years, Hitchens acknowledged that these habits were likely to have contributed to his illness. During his illness, Hitchens was under the care of Francis Collins and was the subject of Collins's new cancer treatment, which maps out the human genome and selectively targets damaged DNA.
According to Christopher Buckley, before Hitchens died, his estranged friend Sidney Blumenthal wrote to Hitchens. Buckley said the letter contained words of "tenderness and comfort and implicit forgiveness."
Hitchens died of pneumonia on 15 December 2011 in the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, aged 62. In accordance with his wishes, his body was donated to medical research. Mortality, a collection of seven of Hitchens's Vanity Fair essays about his illness, was published posthumously in September 2012.
Reactions to death
Former British prime minister Tony Blair said, "Christopher Hitchens was a complete one-off, an amazing mixture of writer, journalist, polemicist and unique character. He was fearless in the pursuit of truth and any cause in which he believed. And there was no belief he held that he did not advocate with passion, commitment and brilliance. He was an extraordinary, compelling and colourful human being whom it was a privilege to know."
Richard Dawkins said of Hitchens, "He was a polymath, a wit, immensely knowledgeable, and a valiant fighter against all tyrants, including imaginary supernatural ones." Dawkins later described Hitchens as "probably the best orator I've ever heard", and called his death "an enormous loss".
American theoretical physicist and cosmologist Lawrence Krauss said, "Christopher was a beacon of knowledge and light in a world that constantly threatens to extinguish both. He had the courage to accept the world for just what it is and not what he wanted it to be. That's the highest praise, I believe, one can give to any intellect. He understood that the universe doesn't care about our existence or welfare, and he epitomized the realization that our lives have meaning only to the extent that we give them meaning." Bill Maher paid tribute to Hitchens on his show Real Time with Bill Maher, saying, "We lost a hero of mine, a friend, and one of the great talk show guests of all time." Salman Rushdie and English comedian Stephen Fry paid tribute at the Christopher Hitchens Vanity Fair Memorial 2012.
Three weeks before Hitchens's death, George Eaton of the New Statesman wrote, "He is determined to ensure that he is not remembered simply as a 'lefty who turned right' or as a contrarian and provocateur. Throughout his career, he has retained a commitment to the Enlightenment values of reason, secularism, and pluralism. His targets—Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton, Henry Kissinger, God—are chosen not at random, but rather because they have offended one or more of these principles. The tragedy of Hitchens's illness is that it came at a time when he enjoyed a larger audience than ever. The great polemicist is certain to be remembered, but, as he was increasingly aware, perhaps not as he would like." The Chronicle of Higher Education asked if Hitchens was the last public intellectual.
In 2015, an annual prize of $50,000 was established in his honour by The Dennis and Victoria Ross Foundation for "an author or journalist whose work reflects a commitment to free expression and inquiry, a range and depth of intellect, and a willingness to pursue the truth without regard to personal or professional consequence".
Film and television appearances
Books
1984 Cyprus. Quartet. Revised editions as Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger, 1989 (Farrar, Straus & Giroux) and 1997 (Verso)
1987 Imperial Spoils: The Curious Case of the Elgin Marbles, Hill and Wang
1988 Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question (contributor; co-editor with Edward Said) Verso, Reissued, 2001
1988 Prepared for the Worst: Selected Essays and Minority Reports Hill and Wang,
1990 The Monarchy: A Critique of Britain's Favorite Fetish, Chatto & Windus Ltd
1990 Blood, Class and Nostalgia: Anglo-American Ironies, Farrar Straus & Giroux (T)
1993 "For the Sake of Argument" Verso
1995 The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Verso
1997 The Parthenon Marbles: The Case for Reunification, Verso
1999 No One Left to Lie To: The Values of the Worst Family, original hardcover title: "No One Left to Lie To: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton," Verso
2000 Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, Verso
2001 The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Verso.
2001 Letters to a Young Contrarian, Basic Books
2002 Why Orwell Matters also Orwell's Victory, Basic Books,
2003 A Long Short War: The Postponed Liberation of Iraq. Plume/Penguin Group,
2004 Love, Poverty, and War: Journeys and Essays, Thunder's Mouth, Nation Books,
2005 Thomas Jefferson: Author of America, Eminent Lives/Atlas Books/HarperCollins Publishers,
2007 "Thomas Paine's Rights of Man: A Biography ", Atlantic Monthly Press,
2007 God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Twelve/Hachette Book Group USA/Warner Books, / Published in the UK as God is not Great: The Case Against Religion, Atlantic Books,
2007 The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Non-Believer, [Editor] Perseus Publishing.
2008 Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq and the Left (with Simon Cottee and Thomas Cushman), New York University Press,
2008 Is Christianity Good for the World? – A Debate (co-author, with Douglas Wilson), Canon Press,
2010 Hitch-22: A Memoir, Twelve,
2011 Arguably: Essays by Christopher Hitchens, Twelve. UK edition as Arguably: Selected Prose, Atlantic,
2012 Mortality, Twelve, . UK edition as Mortality, Atlantic Books,
2015 And Yet...: Essays, Simon & Schuster,
References
External links
2010 archive of official website
Contributor page at Vanity Fair
Columnist at Slate
Column archive at The Atlantic
Article archive at The Guardian
Christopher Hitchens
1949 births
2011 deaths
20th-century atheists
20th-century British non-fiction writers
20th-century British philosophers
20th-century British writers
20th-century English non-fiction writers
20th-century English philosophers
20th-century essayists
21st-century American philosophers
21st-century atheists
21st-century British non-fiction writers
21st-century British philosophers
21st-century English philosophers
21st-century English writers
21st-century essayists
Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford
American anti-capitalists
American anti-fascists
Jewish American atheism activists
American autobiographers
American cultural critics
American democratic socialists
American foreign policy writers
American humanists
20th-century American Jews
American male essayists
American male non-fiction writers
American Marxists
American media critics
21st-century American memoirists
American non-fiction writers
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American skeptics
American secularists
American social commentators
Anti-monarchists
Anti–Vietnam War activists
Atheism in the United Kingdom
Atheism in the United States
Atheist philosophers
Bisexual academics
Bisexual men
Bisexual writers
British anti-fascists
British atheism activists
British atheists
British autobiographers
British cultural critics
British emigrants to the United States
British foreign policy writers
British humanists
British Jews
British male essayists
British Marxists
British media critics
British memoirists
British non-fiction writers
British people of Polish-Jewish descent
British republicans
British sceptics
British secularists
British social commentators
Contestants on University Challenge
Conversationalists
Critics of alternative medicine
Critics of creationism
Critics of multiculturalism
Critics of new religious movements
Critics of Objectivism (Ayn Rand)
Critics of postmodernism
Critics of religions
Deaths from bronchopneumonia
Deaths from cancer in Texas
Deaths from esophageal cancer
Deaths from pneumonia in Texas
Drug policy reform activists
English anti-fascists
English atheist writers
English atheists
English autobiographers
English communists
English emigrants to the United States
English essayists
English humanists
English Jews
English literary critics
English male journalists
English male non-fiction writers
English Marxists
English memoirists
English non-fiction writers
English political commentators
English political philosophers
English political writers
English republicans
English sceptics
Epicurean philosophers
European democratic socialists
Genital integrity activists
Labour Party (UK) people
LGBT rights activists from England
LGBT rights activists from the United States
Male essayists
Materialists
New Statesman people
British opinion journalists
PEN/Diamonstein-Spielvogel Award winners
People educated at The Leys School
People from Portsmouth
People from Tavistock
People with acquired American citizenship
Philosophers of culture
Philosophers of literature
Philosophers of religion
Philosophers of social science
Philosophers of war
Political philosophers
Secular humanists
Slate (magazine) people
Social critics
Social philosophers
Socialist Workers Party (UK) members
The Atlantic (magazine) people
The Nation (U.S. magazine) people
Theorists on Western civilization
Vanity Fair (magazine) people
Writers about activism and social change
Writers about globalization
Writers about religion and science
Writers from Washington, D.C. | [
0.09910979866981506,
0.16629649698734283,
-0.5677726864814758,
-0.4395959675312042,
-0.22757884860038757,
0.6159093976020813,
0.17628811299800873,
-0.18414099514484406,
0.002668808214366436,
0.5350251197814941,
-0.4168984591960907,
0.28387558460235596,
-0.24834170937538147,
-0.17129555344581604,
0.22293135523796082,
-0.13346314430236816,
-0.16746535897254944,
-0.29736632108688354,
-0.8291262984275818,
-0.10624268651008606,
-0.38773080706596375,
0.2976865768432617,
0.0017335035372525454,
0.27424535155296326,
0.06126711145043373,
0.4713714122772217,
-0.27594977617263794,
-0.5680463910102844,
-0.20425844192504883,
-0.36518821120262146,
0.01615491323173046,
0.6222177147865295,
0.09578006714582443,
0.029935436323285103,
0.013223843649029732,
0.15637460350990295,
0.04672449827194214,
-0.3178348243236542,
-0.16915014386177063,
0.22170394659042358,
-0.07378435879945755,
0.27253228425979614,
-0.2524440288543701,
0.30832841992378235,
0.011039428412914276,
-0.5749239921569824,
-1.5924795866012573,
0.23093651235103607,
-0.5995221734046936,
-0.531627893447876,
-0.4039756953716278,
0.5611146092414856,
0.9700925946235657,
0.11627569794654846,
0.3888925611972809,
-0.03422464430332184,
-0.3735797107219696,
-0.4250144064426422,
0.34934377670288086,
-0.19511592388153076,
0.23486538231372833,
-0.23263059556484222,
0.1822054237127304,
-0.2038728892803192,
0.4057559072971344,
-0.40401706099510193,
-0.029770219698548317,
0.5429951548576355,
-0.09704367071390152,
-0.28796154260635376,
-0.20230332016944885,
-0.03384903073310852,
0.34035107493400574,
0.8524023294448853,
0.2794836461544037,
-0.4502396881580353,
0.5418481230735779,
0.4702149033546448,
0.12817984819412231,
-0.0338057205080986,
0.38122522830963135,
0.19472050666809082,
0.3464753031730652,
0.44695916771888733,
0.3372853100299835,
0.23041480779647827,
-0.19514119625091553,
0.14714975655078888,
-0.28492796421051025,
0.2971729338169098,
-0.09431561082601547,
-0.4971974492073059,
-0.000023377215256914496,
0.45345810055732727,
0.10839742422103882,
-0.033911578357219696,
0.1616443246603012,
0.13764172792434692,
0.20384913682937622,
-0.32998529076576233,
-0.5011506080627441,
0.2742314040660858,
0.8898180723190308,
-0.04126416891813278,
-0.5223608613014221,
-0.22337563335895538,
-0.2130862921476364,
-0.4930502474308014,
0.42793533205986023,
0.10084974765777588,
-0.40093111991882324,
0.19608576595783234,
-0.018819913268089294,
0.42102593183517456,
0.1379440426826477,
0.5697706341743469,
-0.2614026367664337,
-0.695113480091095,
-0.7910562753677368,
-0.17161062359809875,
-0.7234713435173035,
0.47670605778694153,
-0.18739928305149078,
0.03309611231088638,
-0.5313457250595093,
-0.2474704533815384,
0.15853933990001678,
-0.016950123012065887,
-0.5669172406196594,
0.5934339165687561,
0.03746936470270157,
0.8617749810218811,
-0.9994941353797913,
-0.035144321620464325,
-0.8233858346939087,
-0.21383696794509888,
0.09597374498844147,
0.1647699475288391,
-0.2422940582036972,
0.2776852548122406,
-0.16545850038528442,
0.2568739652633667,
-0.26052290201187134,
-0.3712117671966553,
0.40757644176483154,
0.10061272233724594,
-0.3898528218269348,
-0.14500556886196136,
0.009161286056041718,
-0.31781697273254395,
-0.05015626177191734,
0.014190582558512688,
0.2306632101535797,
-0.5434858798980713,
-0.09756490588188171,
0.6995273232460022,
0.5417529940605164,
0.19509954750537872,
0.07662918418645859,
0.07386031746864319,
0.4531600773334503,
-0.2638494372367859,
0.21380186080932617,
-0.004543483257293701,
-0.15293538570404053,
-0.01950807124376297,
0.4580024182796478,
-0.32822385430336,
0.04700213298201561,
0.19945234060287476,
-0.20230133831501007,
0.04853300377726555,
0.20076215267181396,
-0.24200303852558136,
0.16148798167705536,
0.5714683532714844,
0.5614308714866638,
0.3015582859516144,
0.23730430006980896,
-0.04699340835213661,
-0.5273776650428772,
-0.09906119108200073,
0.21068666875362396,
-0.08229858428239822,
0.06282888352870941,
-0.03532877564430237,
0.4209247827529907,
0.1379760056734085,
0.5481238961219788,
0.21467995643615723,
-0.4576416313648224,
-0.9162546992301941,
0.2685502767562866,
-0.12701494991779327,
0.5293248891830444,
0.20858801901340485,
0.20075583457946777,
0.6232810020446777,
0.5461101531982422,
0.6511065363883972,
-0.31100746989250183,
-0.40997347235679626,
0.15802104771137238,
-0.09734320640563965,
-0.022894635796546936,
0.43266716599464417,
0.37899458408355713,
0.17139962315559387,
-0.04289719834923744,
0.4485456347465515,
-0.0394192636013031,
-0.2928299903869629,
-0.12320433557033539,
1.0508633852005005,
-0.27354612946510315,
-0.8938227891921997,
-0.0006394488736987114,
0.33769679069519043,
0.7648933529853821,
-0.9494215846061707,
0.5930873155593872,
0.4478698670864105,
0.2039041966199875,
0.5174040794372559,
0.04739513620734215,
0.7966423034667969,
0.2555089592933655,
0.1208571195602417,
0.08562930673360825,
-0.5860313177108765,
-0.34751665592193604,
0.3973884582519531,
-0.3177659809589386,
-0.613834798336029,
0.054873403161764145,
-0.0009815838420763612,
-0.15274332463741302,
-0.6023865938186646,
0.048565275967121124,
-0.4759133458137512,
0.40299445390701294,
-0.14463986456394196,
-0.5410133600234985,
0.018545566126704216,
0.13453759253025055,
-0.005661802366375923,
0.00074614561162889,
0.1450350135564804,
-0.10856476426124573,
0.34452682733535767,
0.12001566588878632,
0.7709658145904541,
0.5085721015930176,
-0.00791630893945694,
0.13280291855335236,
0.3898991346359253,
-0.14586281776428223,
0.26814889907836914,
0.6153129935264587,
0.5951436161994934,
0.3787309229373932,
0.15854087471961975,
-0.002691182540729642,
0.27519506216049194,
-0.3905869126319885,
-0.31647202372550964,
0.25285211205482483,
-0.7865761518478394,
0.17413081228733063,
-0.40624353289604187,
0.4306545555591583,
-0.3978641927242279,
0.22820831835269928,
0.21988913416862488,
-0.008211138658225536,
-0.5047054290771484,
0.21280911564826965,
0.263569176197052,
-0.21395185589790344,
-0.3912205696105957,
0.3864653706550598,
0.4846768081188202,
-0.13775582611560822,
0.6016185879707336,
0.1693493276834488,
-0.5423229336738586,
-0.623773992061615,
0.0001114321275963448,
0.08158085495233536,
0.32245558500289917,
-0.3933752179145813,
0.9521396160125732,
0.0470612533390522,
0.15625055134296417,
-0.5919589996337891,
0.46256452798843384,
-0.29567015171051025,
-0.7109261155128479,
-0.26124125719070435,
0.19131144881248474,
-0.134214848279953,
0.6647512912750244,
0.10351226478815079,
0.3782497048377991,
0.5515499711036682,
0.03657431900501251,
-0.45074135065078735,
-0.05642889812588692,
-5.7641777992248535,
0.07672662287950516,
0.25514277815818787,
-0.3768271505832672,
0.34771308302879333,
0.5100007653236389,
0.33700260519981384,
-0.3411003351211548,
0.1186971515417099,
-0.047154322266578674,
0.2730479836463928,
0.3794041872024536,
-0.3400001525878906,
0.30039966106414795,
1.2095454931259155,
0.4554707407951355,
0.5025237798690796,
-0.1303425133228302,
0.5528278946876526,
0.4392823278903961,
-0.18132860958576202,
0.05845160782337189,
0.04167388379573822,
0.4832962155342102,
-0.45563340187072754,
0.5361494421958923,
-0.6452845931053162,
0.7628496289253235,
-0.5476557612419128,
-0.17865391075611115,
0.4186427593231201,
-0.37708163261413574,
-0.06594493985176086,
0.13145214319229126,
-0.30873629450798035,
-0.18329355120658875,
0.38811278343200684,
0.7766786217689514,
-0.3150416910648346,
-0.17607034742832184,
-0.1606542468070984,
-0.1727551817893982,
-0.39634642004966736,
-0.1821020394563675,
0.747884213924408,
-0.05655456334352493,
-0.4422372281551361,
0.09069434553384781,
-0.1323515772819519,
0.24127796292304993,
-0.07032010704278946,
0.9340328574180603,
-0.06955825537443161,
0.06335918605327606,
0.007786853238940239,
-0.19103552401065826,
0.33890974521636963,
-0.3335382640361786,
-1.0134888887405396,
-0.10571136325597763,
0.29663336277008057,
-0.024195801466703415,
-0.1649804711341858,
-0.15533654391765594,
-0.14743489027023315,
-0.20350506901741028,
-0.03825529292225838,
0.1358252912759781,
-0.07701197266578674,
-0.7215559482574463,
-0.717318058013916,
0.479910284280777,
0.1660156100988388,
-0.9899653792381287,
-0.19484500586986542,
-1.018344521522522,
0.5378584861755371,
0.4102444052696228,
-0.18103505671024323,
0.12645100057125092,
-0.031444091349840164,
-0.6056753396987915,
-0.10797273367643356,
0.49132999777793884,
0.3572845458984375,
0.02936677075922489,
-0.38992592692375183,
0.2568095326423645,
-0.06280841678380966,
-0.3707871735095978,
-0.3207976520061493,
-0.05463603511452675,
-0.33324703574180603,
0.7110593318939209,
0.1345137059688568,
0.2599286735057831,
-0.6922994256019592,
0.6278933882713318,
0.4576825797557831,
0.047858428210020065,
-0.5008861422538757,
-0.4283876419067383,
-0.00150109373498708,
-0.5034466981887817,
0.164458766579628,
-0.2420191615819931,
-0.15141819417476654,
0.2568744719028473,
0.5269613265991211,
-0.2174532562494278,
0.2544437646865845,
0.5130492448806763,
-0.1790018528699875,
-0.10421401262283325,
-0.16751272976398468,
-0.17855724692344666,
-0.15240253508090973,
0.2561514377593994,
0.35857126116752625,
0.4720899760723114,
-0.3426452875137329,
0.11620199680328369,
-0.05239264294505119,
-0.21610815823078156,
-0.0929190069437027,
-0.055671341717243195,
-0.3577518165111542,
-0.6542158126831055,
-0.0888134092092514,
0.515285313129425,
0.03201111778616905,
0.5833077430725098,
0.4756622314453125,
0.004233228974044323,
-0.07573718577623367,
-0.5980173349380493,
-0.7987657189369202,
-0.13838909566402435,
0.19735445082187653,
0.15383608639240265,
-0.08334147930145264,
-0.07754215598106384,
-0.00877340417355299,
0.06288889050483704,
0.5182288289070129,
-0.5904713273048401,
0.026516813784837723,
0.026982855051755905,
-0.1253102421760559,
0.6843355298042297,
0.5847874879837036,
0.247295081615448,
-0.26029202342033386,
-0.47121378779411316,
-0.056841619312763214,
0.3005068898200989,
-0.0826418399810791,
0.29779964685440063,
-0.41128069162368774,
-0.38784468173980713,
0.05314193665981293,
-0.19609810411930084,
-1.0066347122192383,
-0.22863329946994781,
0.29314950108528137,
-0.3155311644077301,
-0.45502132177352905,
-0.42905375361442566,
-0.2302156686782837,
-0.10145016759634018,
0.0906720831990242,
-0.7347864508628845,
-0.3906615972518921,
0.3062734305858612,
0.3457748591899872,
-0.038007382303476334,
0.010641448199748993,
-0.422947496175766,
-0.40480664372444153,
0.08878948539495468,
0.1445513218641281,
0.13606251776218414,
-0.7007632255554199,
-0.10893137753009796,
0.3031846582889557,
0.04284122213721275,
0.11091561615467072,
-0.7862812280654907,
-0.13600865006446838,
-0.20984098315238953,
0.17907696962356567,
-0.2704589068889618,
0.3097630739212036,
0.9035332798957825,
-0.17315536737442017,
-0.32243481278419495,
0.4293818473815918,
-0.9549082517623901,
-0.26690196990966797,
-0.49532121419906616,
-0.12701638042926788,
0.20079079270362854,
0.30594030022621155,
0.08240138739347458,
-0.046291500329971313,
-1.0259491205215454,
-0.5412551164627075,
0.04551597684621811,
0.01973365619778633,
0.7600817680358887,
-0.4680449664592743,
-0.21760430932044983,
-0.4332953095436096,
0.41332516074180603,
-0.09573928266763687,
0.11664345860481262,
-0.17209447920322418,
-0.25910985469818115,
-0.5375434756278992,
-0.3679685592651367,
-0.10137993842363358,
0.05588259920477867,
-0.36921021342277527,
-0.39536798000335693,
-0.2875618636608124,
0.3542722463607788,
0.14186778664588928,
-0.42751380801200867,
1.0486319065093994,
-0.29064109921455383,
-0.6834859251976013,
-0.4205131530761719,
-0.18705140054225922,
0.8637757301330566,
-0.14098985493183136,
0.10972651839256287,
-0.38309445977211,
-0.15123973786830902,
-0.006364348344504833,
0.24928471446037292,
0.6947759985923767,
0.7674857378005981,
0.3557884097099304,
-0.6148321032524109,
-0.10847314447164536,
0.43189573287963867,
0.6543201208114624,
-0.1913718581199646,
-0.21899573504924774,
0.3079002797603607,
0.37689700722694397,
-0.12672065198421478,
-0.4586079716682434,
-0.23295781016349792,
0.7276917099952698,
-0.6711671948432922,
-0.18849432468414307,
-0.4197580814361572,
0.1787223368883133,
0.026024360209703445,
0.31799742579460144,
-0.5261371731758118,
0.18593494594097137,
0.290147602558136,
0.12525911629199982,
0.3440437316894531,
0.4349321722984314,
0.3429276645183563,
-0.22044748067855835,
-0.33461445569992065,
-0.2641504406929016,
-0.21657708287239075,
-0.7100605368614197,
0.6161006689071655,
-0.15125373005867004,
0.1690647453069687,
0.4449310004711151,
-0.5274496078491211,
0.6117234826087952,
-0.037973664700984955,
-0.5220642685890198,
-0.13063205778598785,
0.09801343828439713,
-0.8523694276809692,
-0.2341008186340332,
-0.5158714652061462,
0.5055729150772095,
-0.09790147095918655,
-0.012807491235435009,
0.12139839679002762,
-0.7361193895339966,
0.10857627540826797,
-0.6315717101097107,
0.3470018804073334,
-0.08717293292284012,
-0.2109665870666504,
-0.12259369343519211,
0.6569421887397766,
-0.29167690873146057,
-0.16464738547801971,
-0.4469885230064392,
0.3094331622123718,
0.3431805372238159,
-0.555634617805481,
0.21818296611309052,
0.027481060475111008,
-0.2833177447319031,
-0.0817582830786705,
0.0014677225844934583,
-0.16182225942611694,
0.04285809025168419,
0.19164566695690155,
-0.16971389949321747,
0.976291835308075,
-0.0036372102331370115,
-0.41074326634407043,
0.39427608251571655,
-0.4293995499610901,
-0.06908784806728363,
-0.17936252057552338,
-0.028220610693097115,
0.13782139122486115,
0.3618724048137665,
-0.6490697264671326,
-0.153094083070755,
0.30201631784439087,
0.16843043267726898,
-0.012390713207423687,
-0.5501633286476135,
0.32417047023773193,
-0.04792867973446846,
0.18219611048698425,
-0.4189263880252838,
0.17895425856113434,
-0.04434319585561752,
-0.30867284536361694,
0.264451265335083,
-0.4395173490047455,
0.3404925465583801,
-0.1313028782606125,
-0.2014862298965454,
0.6362548470497131,
-0.07513029873371124,
0.01926690898835659,
-0.3322836458683014,
0.1504257768392563,
0.084737628698349,
0.4330010712146759,
-0.34522518515586853,
-0.0756300836801529,
0.5904293060302734,
0.6981322169303894,
0.09142004698514938,
-0.8585612177848816,
0.20072221755981445,
-0.4617268741130829,
0.4587309658527374,
-0.1277676522731781,
-0.6069813966751099,
-0.21085186302661896,
0.12520527839660645,
-0.3028984069824219,
0.2491067349910736,
0.333952933549881,
0.1318400651216507,
-0.23575280606746674,
0.355182021856308,
-0.7285871505737305,
0.22688175737857819,
0.628734290599823,
0.5727073550224304,
0.07594616711139679,
-0.43801888823509216,
0.707604706287384,
0.5448580384254456,
-0.009357274509966373,
1.0308281183242798,
-0.15512971580028534,
0.9723302125930786,
-0.011279284954071045,
-0.5112438201904297,
-0.47154614329338074,
0.10485571622848511,
0.0170938428491354,
0.20226925611495972,
-0.31901678442955017,
-0.29387497901916504,
0.15533210337162018,
-0.2592748701572418,
-0.08576784282922745,
0.21302354335784912,
-0.8429070711135864,
-0.6709973216056824,
0.5191748738288879,
-1.017469882965088,
0.040229927748441696,
-0.16643956303596497,
0.6866031289100647,
0.21961528062820435,
-0.3605947494506836,
-0.6008517146110535,
0.25332003831863403,
-0.29734790325164795,
-0.23859882354736328,
0.08349248766899109,
0.1764589101076126,
-0.014229752123355865,
-0.22524356842041016,
-1.0133520364761353,
0.2149222493171692,
0.30891868472099304,
0.031168218702077866,
-0.580803632736206,
0.1741786152124405,
-0.06867057085037231,
0.18018601834774017,
0.0249701626598835,
-0.07694726437330246,
0.22460302710533142,
-0.19093184173107147,
-0.22584055364131927,
0.4311367869377136,
-0.02598934806883335,
-0.29553958773612976,
0.1616661697626114,
0.2994813323020935,
0.2916317880153656,
0.2227538526058197,
-0.5355940461158752,
0.3931765556335449,
-0.26891985535621643,
0.0036496601533144712,
-0.28280386328697205,
-0.4566309452056885,
0.4829626679420471,
-0.4712502062320709,
0.7823357582092285,
0.9956933259963989,
0.2259237915277481,
-0.5167157053947449,
0.4103797972202301,
0.37116220593452454,
0.035196296870708466,
0.11543726921081543,
0.08669009804725647,
0.32710522413253784,
0.05732748284935951,
-0.36364611983299255,
-0.05026682838797569,
0.49841567873954773,
-0.022372402250766754,
-0.10304610431194305,
0.06782951205968857,
-0.8543444275856018,
0.28345736861228943,
0.052181798964738846,
-0.3515671491622925,
0.09815619140863419,
0.45315566658973694,
-0.41573983430862427
] |
229003 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Antrim | Richard Antrim | Richard Nott Antrim (December 17, 1907 – March 7, 1969) was an officer in the United States Navy who received the United States' highest military decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions as a prisoner of war during World War II. He retired in 1954 as a rear admiral.
Early life and career
Antrim was born in Peru, Indiana and entered Naval Reserve in 1926. He received an appointment to the United States Naval Academy in 1927 and graduated on June 4, 1931. He married Mary Jean Packard shortly before he graduated. He served briefly in the 11th Naval District before reporting to the battleship as fire control officer. Detached from that battleship in April 1932, he received flight instruction at the Naval Air Station (NAS), Pensacola, Florida, before serving consecutive tours of sea duty on the , and .
Subsequently, ordered to the Bethlehem Steel Corporation in Quincy, Massachusetts, Antrim assisted in fitting out and after her commissioning, served as a division officer in that heavy cruiser until the spring of 1936. After that time, he became assistant first lieutenant in before undergoing instruction in lighter-than-air (LTA) flight at NAS Lakehurst, New Jersey. Antrim subsequently received his naval aviator (LTA) designation, qualified for duty as an airship, kite, or free-balloon pilot. In the spring of 1938, Antrim arrived on the Asiatic Station and served as executive officer of before joining in December 1939, as her executive officer. The outbreak of war in the Pacific Ocean in December 1941 found Antrim still serving in that capacity.
World War II
During her brief wartime career, Pope played a significant part in three major engagements fought by the venerable Asiatic Fleet destroyers—the battles of Balikpapan, Badung Strait, and the Java Sea.
In the former, Pope delivered close-range attacks that momentarily helped to delay the Japanese landings at Balikpapan. During the action, Lieutenant Antrim selected targets for his guns and torpedoes, placing his shots accurately in the midst of a large Japanese convoy and thus inflicting damage to several enemy ships. After the Battle of Badung Strait, Pope's commanding officer, Commander Welford C. Blinn, reported that his executive officer was "highly deserving of commendation for the meritorious performance of his several duties before and throughout the action." Citing Antrim as a "ready assistant in navigation fire control, and torpedo fire," Blinn recommended him not only for a destroyer command but for a "decoration deemed appropriate." Antrim later received a Navy Cross for this service.
The Battle of the Java Sea (27 to February 28, 1942) ended all Allied hope of stemming the Japanese onslaught. In the wake of that action, the smashed Allied fleet attempted to escape the cordon of Japanese warships rapidly tightening the noose around Java. Among the small groups was one composed of the British heavy cruiser , the destroyer , and Pope.
The ships slipped out of Surabaya, Java, on the evening of February 28, but were spotted the next day by Japanese aircraft. A surface force of cruisers and destroyers located the fleeing trio, and a fierce action ensued, with Exeter and Encounter after having put up a stiff fight, going down under a deluge of Japanese shells. Pope, however, fought on, managing to make a temporary haven in a passing rain squall.
Unfortunately, the destroyer—an Asiatic Fleet flush decker "old enough to vote"—could not elude her pursuers. Ultimately, damaged by Japanese bombs, from aircraft summoned from the Japanese carrier Ryūjō, and by shells from the Japanese force, Pope began to sink, but not before all but one of her men had reached safety in life rafts and the destroyer's sole motor whaleboat. Antrim, wounded in the action, helped to gather the life rafts around the boat to facilitate the distribution of what meager supplies were available to the men. His devotion to duty during the ordeal inspired and sustained his shipmates' morale.
Prisoner of war
For three days and nights, Pope's survivors stuck together as a group until picked up by a Japanese warship and handed over to Japanese Army authorities at Makassar, in the Celebes Islands.
During the early part of his imprisonment at Makassar in April 1942, Antrim saw a Japanese guard brutally beating an American prisoner of war, Lt.(jg) Allan Jack Fisher, (SC), and successfully intervened, at great risk to his own life. For his conspicuous act of valor, Antrim later received the Medal of Honor.
Subsequently when the Japanese forced Antrim to take charge of a labor detail assigned the task of constructing slit trenches for protection during air raids, he carefully rearranged the construction work plans approved by the Japanese and gained their approval of his own ideas. Under the eyes of their captors, the POWs dug the slit trenches correctly, but in a curious pattern recognizable from the air as a giant US which clearly and craftily identified the occupants of the trenches. This audacious action possibly saved hundreds of prisoners of war from mistaken bombings by Allied planes. Antrim carried out the plan in spite of the fact that discovery of his trick would have resulted in instant beheading. For this, Antrim received a Bronze Star.
Post-war activities
Ultimately liberated after the war in the Far East ended in August 1945, Antrim returned to the United States and enjoyed rehabilitation leave before attending the Repatriated POW Refresher Course at the Washington Navy Yard, Washington, D.C. in May 1946. He then brushed up on his pilot training at NAS Lakehurst and later completed a course at the Naval War College. Antrim—who had been listed as missing since the sinking of Pope in March 1942—received the Medal of Honor and Bronze Star Medal from President Harry S. Truman in ceremonies at the White House on January 30, 1947.
Later, following a brief stint at the Fleet Sonar School, San Diego, California, in June and July 1947, Antrim went to sea in command of the destroyer . He next underwent further instruction at NAS Lakehurst, before assuming the duties of Assistant for Lighter-than-Air Planning and Programs Office of the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO), Washington, D.C., in December 1948.
Following further Washington duty—with the Policy Advisory Staff, Department of State, and the Psychological Strategy Board—Antrim commanded the attack transport during the Korean War before returning to the capital for a brief tour of duty as Head, Amphibious Warfare Matters Section, Office of the CNO, prior to his retirement on April 1, 1954. He was advanced to rear admiral on the retired list on the basis of his combat awards.
Later life
Rear Admiral Antrim died in Mountain Home, Arkansas on March 7, 1969. He was buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia.
Awards and decorations
His decorations include:
Medal of Honor citation
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while interned as a prisoner of war of the enemy Japanese in the city of Makassar, Celebes, Netherlands East Indies, in April 1942. Acting instantly on behalf of a naval officer who was subjected to a vicious clubbing by a frenzied Japanese guard venting his insane wrath upon the helpless prisoner, Comdr. (then Lt.) Antrim boldly intervened, attempting to quiet the guard and finally persuading him to discuss the charges against the officer. With the entire Japanese force assembled and making extraordinary preparations for the threatened beating, and with the tension heightened by 2,700 Allied prisoners rapidly closing in, Comdr. Antrim courageously appealed to the fanatic enemy, risking his own life in a desperate effort to mitigate the punishment. When the other had been beaten unconscious by 15 blows of a hawser and was repeatedly kicked by 3 soldiers to a point beyond which he could not survive, Comdr. Antrim gallantly stepped forward and indicated to the perplexed guards that he would take the remainder of the punishment, throwing the Japanese completely off balance in their amazement and eliciting a roar of acclaim from the suddenly inspired Allied prisoners. By his fearless leadership and valiant concern for the welfare of another, he not only saved the life of a fellow officer and stunned the Japanese into sparing his own life but also brought about a new respect for American officers and men and a great improvement in camp living conditions. His heroic conduct throughout reflects the highest credit upon Comdr. Antrim and the U.S. Naval Service.
Posthumous honor
In 1979, the was named in his honor.
See also
List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II
References
Attribution
External links
1907 births
1969 deaths
United States Navy personnel of World War II
United States Navy personnel of the Korean War
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Naval War College alumni
Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)
Recipients of the Bronze Lion
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
People from Mountain Home, Arkansas
World War II prisoners of war held by Japan
United States Naval Academy alumni
United States Naval Aviators
United States Navy rear admirals (upper half)
People from Peru, Indiana
World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor
American torture victims | [
-1.0200769901275635,
0.5680738091468811,
-1.1660232543945312,
-0.04174825921654701,
0.5064135789871216,
0.8088161945343018,
1.3124456405639648,
-0.49614575505256653,
-0.43078485131263733,
-0.3377952575683594,
-0.9947361946105957,
0.7422544956207275,
-0.5559521317481995,
0.10414481163024902,
0.22504666447639465,
0.7718684673309326,
0.20811760425567627,
0.23903700709342957,
-0.30445078015327454,
-0.5810033679008484,
-0.016583383083343506,
-0.5799203515052795,
-0.10099036246538162,
0.17870518565177917,
0.3704613745212555,
0.6343629956245422,
-0.31145915389060974,
-0.13884727656841278,
-0.41493770480155945,
0.05737938731908798,
-0.5273110270500183,
-0.17517085373401642,
0.28794899582862854,
-0.6879988312721252,
-0.714125394821167,
-0.27157917618751526,
-1.3642126321792603,
-0.7117836475372314,
0.20036640763282776,
0.8294118642807007,
-0.15528811514377594,
0.2510039210319519,
0.26456689834594727,
-0.16802352666854858,
0.312883198261261,
0.0977337583899498,
-1.555349349975586,
-0.39271798729896545,
-0.282023161649704,
0.04916525259613991,
-0.10622470825910568,
-0.18644890189170837,
-0.03737641125917435,
-0.0871066153049469,
0.49135154485702515,
0.03525837883353233,
0.0957241803407669,
-0.03254266083240509,
-0.1659892350435257,
-1.2924870252609253,
0.2813381850719452,
0.35368430614471436,
0.8127425312995911,
-0.8061925768852234,
-0.13899175822734833,
0.16650906205177307,
0.1836107224225998,
0.00720595195889473,
0.013977467082440853,
0.07522788643836975,
0.7709038853645325,
0.11593668162822723,
0.7810323238372803,
0.18942254781723022,
-0.16083891689777374,
-0.12396875023841858,
0.15849681198596954,
-0.1454475075006485,
-0.49866965413093567,
0.334523469209671,
0.33973556756973267,
-0.13428348302841187,
0.40749499201774597,
0.3255234658718109,
-0.3502332866191864,
0.8416852355003357,
-0.5182325839996338,
0.22181549668312073,
-0.355592280626297,
0.5670071840286255,
-0.3959226906299591,
-0.15545110404491425,
0.24041561782360077,
0.02621321566402912,
0.19451387226581573,
0.23293599486351013,
0.29332825541496277,
0.8733120560646057,
-0.05440310388803482,
-0.27475011348724365,
0.06314164400100708,
-0.2669537365436554,
0.3354947865009308,
0.16727666556835175,
-0.7124086022377014,
0.26436352729797363,
0.3448113203048706,
-0.28820323944091797,
0.2972559630870819,
-0.3935433328151703,
-0.34374091029167175,
-0.24199175834655762,
-0.08058051764965057,
-0.1422135978937149,
0.16713795065879822,
0.3609398901462555,
0.26007184386253357,
-0.6731978058815002,
-0.32657289505004883,
-0.13573913276195526,
-0.40545329451560974,
0.5569031834602356,
-0.33987271785736084,
0.4194483458995819,
-0.5280598402023315,
-0.31223657727241516,
-0.15335814654827118,
0.26918938755989075,
-0.5145302414894104,
0.5940064787864685,
0.24591881036758423,
0.8271635174751282,
-0.6059418320655823,
0.43988633155822754,
-0.5364746451377869,
0.03071649931371212,
-0.0873389020562172,
0.05045375972986221,
-0.4851464033126831,
-0.002583728637546301,
-0.9712747931480408,
-0.03283035010099411,
-0.13830021023750305,
0.22522994875907898,
0.07786384224891663,
-0.32418274879455566,
0.011324627324938774,
0.24067005515098572,
0.09170742332935333,
-0.6498017907142639,
0.39906045794487,
-0.46725326776504517,
0.13421650230884552,
-0.14069229364395142,
-0.33482059836387634,
0.3491557538509369,
0.6211023330688477,
0.33410024642944336,
0.011829566210508347,
0.23010388016700745,
-0.08514193445444107,
0.3078554570674896,
-0.16589896380901337,
0.8020738959312439,
0.3119566738605499,
0.6240300536155701,
0.5393888354301453,
-0.3124068081378937,
-0.7561201453208923,
0.25171422958374023,
0.5357187390327454,
-0.31091952323913574,
0.29177016019821167,
-0.5832273960113525,
-1.1269384622573853,
0.6548265814781189,
0.5820066332817078,
0.05805402249097824,
0.10159075260162354,
-1.066584587097168,
-0.5660870671272278,
0.13001297414302826,
0.6033027172088623,
0.15602123737335205,
0.20905524492263794,
-0.07905574142932892,
0.12059370428323746,
-0.817209005355835,
0.5455968379974365,
0.20432882010936737,
-0.5664942860603333,
-0.21834175288677216,
0.3067030608654022,
-0.43436485528945923,
0.8042201399803162,
-0.17517302930355072,
-0.9723883867263794,
0.6748917698860168,
0.43205782771110535,
0.6497888565063477,
0.38367927074432373,
-0.15062232315540314,
0.5695242881774902,
-0.41601958870887756,
0.12909412384033203,
0.6686022281646729,
0.6872881054878235,
0.541047215461731,
0.19396749138832092,
0.7439802885055542,
0.7804164290428162,
-0.0714903250336647,
-0.2698850929737091,
0.6807860732078552,
0.03794311359524727,
-0.3014189898967743,
0.38916105031967163,
-0.9619337916374207,
0.5600683093070984,
-0.7945536971092224,
0.2366524636745453,
-0.0048236846923828125,
0.5472749471664429,
0.3546099364757538,
0.36539193987846375,
1.1671617031097412,
-0.39609000086784363,
0.3303873836994171,
0.15018171072006226,
-0.254804402589798,
-0.11958406120538712,
-0.15771092474460602,
0.0793435275554657,
0.006350361276417971,
0.3078911006450653,
0.35235971212387085,
0.7941365838050842,
-0.16643694043159485,
0.2692842185497284,
-0.3516676127910614,
-0.2965564727783203,
0.25608643889427185,
0.13524717092514038,
-0.07859143614768982,
0.1465330570936203,
-0.1360521912574768,
0.15565793216228485,
0.2361191362142563,
0.11702016741037369,
-0.04933295026421547,
-0.16319139301776886,
0.12059342861175537,
0.3397631049156189,
-0.17181722819805145,
0.31922876834869385,
-0.5314210653305054,
-0.5257318615913391,
-0.16638775169849396,
-0.7331556081771851,
0.0648084506392479,
0.038546908646821976,
-0.056825533509254456,
0.01350907701998949,
0.29642558097839355,
0.23355941474437714,
-0.4684247076511383,
-0.6001099348068237,
-0.39106285572052,
0.34201693534851074,
0.462124228477478,
0.3074759244918823,
-0.2168702483177185,
0.5014631748199463,
0.18916700780391693,
0.6359580159187317,
0.46203145384788513,
-0.17906761169433594,
-0.014633316546678543,
-0.4294714331626892,
-0.910813570022583,
0.8778652548789978,
0.4971618354320526,
-0.29146578907966614,
-0.15461105108261108,
0.2487058788537979,
-0.33509910106658936,
-0.06736265867948532,
-0.4717198610305786,
-0.5467140078544617,
0.17508478462696075,
-0.4147138297557831,
0.38392460346221924,
-0.17230387032032013,
0.45516034960746765,
0.33584558963775635,
0.1884583979845047,
0.02654440328478813,
-0.587171733379364,
0.3301563560962677,
0.2189435064792633,
-0.7464740872383118,
0.17771093547344208,
-0.3221812844276428,
0.35214149951934814,
0.9205445051193237,
0.08695920556783676,
0.38412874937057495,
-0.2026139795780182,
-4.931790351867676,
0.4495970904827118,
0.28329986333847046,
-0.20233160257339478,
-0.28394243121147156,
0.2710115313529968,
0.3512025475502014,
-0.32218343019485474,
0.05979182943701744,
-0.6904848217964172,
0.35407599806785583,
0.3367878198623657,
0.5733209252357483,
0.03656766563653946,
0.1095297783613205,
-0.22136417031288147,
1.0654243230819702,
-0.44694551825523376,
0.21409033238887787,
0.1244494616985321,
-0.42547160387039185,
-0.08906625211238861,
-0.25708550214767456,
-0.38053250312805176,
-0.38741037249565125,
-0.10932055860757828,
-0.32791098952293396,
0.4786930978298187,
-0.42894282937049866,
-0.3594164550304413,
0.17612849175930023,
-0.09200803935527802,
0.04975557327270508,
-0.33910882472991943,
-0.1468893438577652,
-0.551358699798584,
-0.012665309943258762,
0.4859894812107086,
0.1825423538684845,
-0.07025979459285736,
0.00847080908715725,
-0.8158021569252014,
-1.1244781017303467,
-0.3176605701446533,
0.8260884284973145,
-0.3496539890766144,
-0.5136393904685974,
0.219500333070755,
-0.0253665279597044,
-0.5141056180000305,
0.5052002668380737,
0.3372707664966583,
0.615024983882904,
0.45673927664756775,
0.23717662692070007,
-0.07919638603925705,
-0.5395157337188721,
-0.24412164092063904,
-0.9829973578453064,
0.15732288360595703,
-0.09161229431629181,
-0.05316581577062607,
-0.08419568091630936,
-0.3582232892513275,
-0.17522692680358887,
-0.3919457495212555,
0.04389815032482147,
-0.13355550169944763,
-0.444518119096756,
0.019232619553804398,
0.13280850648880005,
1.5838278532028198,
0.7345884442329407,
-0.9968897104263306,
0.5390818119049072,
-0.4933946132659912,
0.036517444998025894,
-0.1113177165389061,
-0.3749677240848541,
-0.7106876373291016,
-0.022322041913866997,
-0.6415523886680603,
-0.1273386925458908,
0.2885582149028778,
0.1756003201007843,
0.46173807978630066,
-0.25639504194259644,
0.44315358996391296,
0.12294783443212509,
-0.42231306433677673,
0.27099135518074036,
0.40324530005455017,
-0.11394842714071274,
0.5178688168525696,
0.047364141792058945,
0.1457981914281845,
-0.29585593938827515,
0.7308477759361267,
0.5584919452667236,
-0.08085254579782486,
-0.1354271024465561,
-0.652310311794281,
0.5349487066268921,
-0.8931277990341187,
0.05460928753018379,
0.11831273883581161,
0.26107749342918396,
0.0883873775601387,
0.5899978280067444,
-0.02262306585907936,
-0.17480361461639404,
0.10879760980606079,
-0.00898416992276907,
0.12224806100130081,
0.5681473016738892,
-0.5472152829170227,
0.5193551778793335,
0.26462265849113464,
0.9464285373687744,
0.044686101377010345,
0.09656064212322235,
0.2597784399986267,
0.4063001573085785,
-0.2677077353000641,
0.689662754535675,
-0.6852150559425354,
0.1214132010936737,
-0.3226584792137146,
-0.4441322982311249,
0.14794345200061798,
0.11835864186286926,
1.6504943370819092,
-0.19153831899166107,
0.7004178762435913,
-0.7591511607170105,
-0.13624653220176697,
0.030239829793572426,
-0.36086511611938477,
0.2946087419986725,
0.5844380855560303,
0.3390345573425293,
-0.5127651691436768,
-0.40694835782051086,
-0.17210358381271362,
0.1351408213376999,
0.24622121453285217,
-0.19221088290214539,
-0.25446346402168274,
-0.18710443377494812,
0.39829161763191223,
-0.5181654095649719,
-1.144366979598999,
0.15149587392807007,
-0.6189516186714172,
-0.5075169801712036,
0.38125598430633545,
-0.37934979796409607,
0.526725709438324,
-0.6479811668395996,
-0.06533978134393692,
0.25013360381126404,
-0.09841673821210861,
-0.7667391896247864,
-0.22936101257801056,
0.053219426423311234,
-0.07462769746780396,
-0.1791173666715622,
-0.073954276740551,
-0.4213849604129791,
0.22125403583049774,
0.04755859076976776,
0.05064396932721138,
0.2542666792869568,
-0.2950069308280945,
-0.2006494104862213,
0.1416769027709961,
-0.3699113726615906,
-0.5761067867279053,
0.013436584733426571,
0.00798807479441166,
0.622357189655304,
0.06546097993850708,
-0.6652269959449768,
-0.20792201161384583,
0.4457831382751465,
-0.021540874615311623,
-0.21870267391204834,
0.12407059222459793,
-0.33390745520591736,
0.445527046918869,
-0.5566732287406921,
-1.078627586364746,
0.17398446798324585,
0.3907146453857422,
-0.5169875621795654,
0.213330939412117,
0.007187207695096731,
-0.17006734013557434,
-0.12494433671236038,
0.22443726658821106,
0.0018354600761085749,
-0.11903739720582962,
-0.8119178414344788,
0.1381576806306839,
-0.7114310264587402,
-1.391272783279419,
-0.326236367225647,
0.2392328679561615,
0.12780477106571198,
0.28698986768722534,
-0.40417271852493286,
-1.1890087127685547,
-0.5861841440200806,
0.5908505916595459,
0.22058765590190887,
0.40614500641822815,
-0.07159122079610825,
0.6853857636451721,
-0.363101065158844,
-0.542147159576416,
-0.63953697681427,
-0.3041028082370758,
0.07759107649326324,
0.1614391952753067,
-0.32578685879707336,
-0.016748372465372086,
0.06551401317119598,
-0.2716909945011139,
0.834750771522522,
0.2972131073474884,
-0.9521663784980774,
-0.1184576004743576,
-0.15525196492671967,
0.4285876452922821,
0.6211423277854919,
-0.15586921572685242,
0.7076387405395508,
-0.0956915020942688,
-0.5189130306243896,
0.1468331515789032,
0.6418229937553406,
1.4275689125061035,
0.36728495359420776,
-0.7166235446929932,
0.035419512540102005,
0.04086204618215561,
-0.02060253918170929,
-0.817035436630249,
-0.005068857688456774,
0.594575822353363,
0.5565156936645508,
-0.4022664725780487,
-0.3696480393409729,
0.08161774277687073,
1.2136510610580444,
-0.10052188485860825,
-0.17521077394485474,
0.03607778623700142,
0.013698163442313671,
-0.03355063498020172,
0.20147815346717834,
0.2197352796792984,
-0.4723174571990967,
0.4056422710418701,
0.24566562473773956,
-0.20881418883800507,
-0.6458063721656799,
0.11896640807390213,
-0.11158795654773712,
-0.39941710233688354,
-0.2873447835445404,
0.24175606667995453,
0.13336209952831268,
0.47104761004447937,
-0.7437090277671814,
0.8063945174217224,
0.4410387873649597,
-0.15981964766979218,
0.4304243326187134,
-0.4596131443977356,
-0.8276586532592773,
0.0012404995504766703,
-0.25056225061416626,
-0.4611291289329529,
-0.33777233958244324,
-0.7178652286529541,
0.3951753079891205,
-0.36737489700317383,
-0.12832246720790863,
-0.09894374012947083,
0.2330341637134552,
0.511961042881012,
-0.6857293248176575,
-0.3091370463371277,
0.30925214290618896,
-0.23177941143512726,
-0.24429869651794434,
0.9388843178749084,
0.12545473873615265,
0.3078354001045227,
-0.5385912656784058,
0.6001588106155396,
0.22264717519283295,
0.10482925176620483,
-0.4776890277862549,
-0.25064748525619507,
0.44172316789627075,
-0.3159397840499878,
-0.12499377131462097,
0.1370856612920761,
0.11496991664171219,
-0.32502856850624084,
0.31619060039520264,
-0.27556943893432617,
-0.8929301500320435,
-0.38204461336135864,
0.8105577826499939,
-0.716224193572998,
-0.5378714799880981,
0.16851669549942017,
-0.08661368489265442,
-0.11047125607728958,
0.4991394579410553,
0.3099728226661682,
0.6496902108192444,
0.9947535395622253,
-0.08065800368785858,
-0.3439696133136749,
-0.15722398459911346,
0.9950335025787354,
0.46921810507774353,
-1.0765618085861206,
-0.06230859458446503,
0.20346489548683167,
-0.36394819617271423,
0.430975079536438,
-0.04500354453921318,
-0.5536314845085144,
-0.5475695133209229,
0.3842167258262634,
-0.17525191605091095,
0.28518542647361755,
-0.5004191994667053,
-0.036127135157585144,
0.5065217018127441,
0.04725591838359833,
-0.673222541809082,
0.017164476215839386,
0.20556893944740295,
-0.1227775290608406,
0.20884402096271515,
-0.01132460217922926,
0.3740871250629425,
-0.12450319528579712,
-0.2591506540775299,
0.2860817015171051,
0.5859749913215637,
-0.1345357596874237,
-0.6942561864852905,
-0.17115876078605652,
-0.4874090552330017,
-0.6988852620124817,
1.4816672801971436,
0.15746518969535828,
-0.2552783191204071,
-0.28843653202056885,
0.03586575388908386,
-0.4364475607872009,
-0.10077158361673355,
0.4457469582557678,
0.0025253298226743937,
-0.08926678448915482,
-0.6786430478096008,
-0.13583305478096008,
-0.2602367699146271,
0.7902864813804626,
0.6379927396774292,
-0.08877934515476227,
-0.06115012615919113,
-0.0187526848167181,
-0.5524414777755737,
0.05722727254033089,
-0.3599657714366913,
-0.728380560874939,
-0.2584019601345062,
-0.4474106729030609,
-0.009442221373319626,
0.4359954297542572,
0.2782726287841797,
-0.39409327507019043,
0.5053268671035767,
-0.5225434899330139,
-0.5495251417160034,
0.5054164528846741,
0.3307972848415375,
0.5831181406974792,
0.4197360575199127,
0.911381185054779,
1.104584813117981,
0.5053878426551819,
-0.3677058815956116,
0.13829687237739563,
0.21583005785942078,
-0.7394120693206787,
-0.7426888942718506,
0.4083375334739685,
-0.24300163984298706,
-0.38592949509620667,
-0.44016313552856445,
0.2608216106891632,
0.06261596828699112,
0.6209883093833923,
-0.8315454721450806,
-0.011427587829530239,
-0.0418488010764122,
-0.15715308487415314,
1.2220841646194458,
-0.5036660432815552,
-0.11541616916656494,
-0.8908610939979553,
0.18698365986347198,
-0.5603790283203125,
-0.03397758677601814,
0.19920594990253448,
0.5476900339126587,
0.36269378662109375,
-0.08554614335298538,
-0.37182798981666565,
0.24072574079036713,
0.7650914192199707,
0.15692275762557983,
-0.9390184879302979,
-0.8130816221237183,
-0.14263495802879333,
-0.12906642258167267,
-0.8033424019813538,
0.3556557893753052,
-0.0724954754114151,
-0.1961745023727417,
-0.5702062249183655,
0.5406621098518372,
0.2623964846134186,
-0.5537318587303162,
-0.5237230062484741,
0.761903703212738,
0.2251797914505005,
0.2772837281227112,
-0.4355022609233856,
0.7015898823738098,
0.5700364112854004,
0.15922528505325317,
-0.33659064769744873,
0.68885737657547,
-0.8670859932899475,
0.3526758849620819,
0.4425033926963806,
0.028201544657349586,
0.6964646577835083,
0.20588280260562897,
0.27655062079429626
] |
229008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eloy%20Alfaro | Eloy Alfaro | José Eloy Alfaro Delgado (June 25, 1842 – January 28, 1912) often referred to as "The Old Warrior," was an Ecuadorian politician who served as the President of Ecuador from 1895 to 1901 and from 1906 to 1911. Eloy Alfaro emerged as the leader of the Liberal Party and became a driving force protect fairness, justice and liberty. He became one of the strongest opponents of the pro-Catholic conservative President Gabriel García Moreno (1821–1875). The "Viejo Luchador" (in Spanish) played a central role in the Liberal Revolution of 1895 and fought against conservatism for almost 30 years.
Alfaro's major political legacies are considered to be strengthened national unity, securing the integrity of Ecuador's borders, and the increased secularization of the country. Alfaro led the modernization of Ecuadorian society through the introduction of new ideas, education, and systems of public transport and communication, including the engineering feat of the Transandino Railway linking Guayaquil with Quito. Alfaro's effigy appeared on the Ecuadorian 50-cent coin from the 2000 issue, and the Ecuadorian Army's military college bears his name, as have two ships of the Ecuadorian Navy.
Biography
Rebellious youth
Alfaro was born in Montecristi, Manabí, on June 25, 1842. His father was don Manuel Alfaro y González, a Spanish Republican native of Cervera del Río Alhama, La Rioja, Spain who arrived in Ecuador as a political exile; his mother was doña María Natividad Delgado López.
Alfaro received his primary education in his place of birth. After graduation he dedicated himself to helping his father with his business negotiations. During his youth he aligned himself with anticlerical liberalism, a doctrine later embodied in the Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party. He fought against Presidents García Moreno, Borrero, Veintemilla and Camaño, and as a result he is traditionally known as the "Viejo Luchador" (Old Warrior). Eloy Alfaro experienced many serious difficulties in the various campaigns he initiated against the conservative Ecuadorian governments. He spent his fortune, acquired with the help of his Panamanian wife, Ana Paredes Arosemena, in those battles. Nine children were born of their marriage: Bolívar, Esmeraldas, Colombia, Colón, Bolívar(2), Ana María, América, Olmedo, and Colón Eloy; Rafael was born out of wedlock.
From a very early age Alfaro participated in acts of rebellion. He almost lost his life in the disastrous naval battle of Alajuela when he tried to disembark in Ecuador with a troop of revolutionaries and was defeated by Conservative Government forces. When his ship sank, he saved himself from drowning by clinging to a barrel. He participated in the battles of Montecristi, San Mateo, Esmeraldas, Guayaquil, Jaramijó, Gatazo, Cuenca, and Chasqui.
Alfaro was a model father and was magnanimous with friends and the destitute. He supported various liberals, such as the writer Juan Montalvo, to whom he offered monetary assistance. Once in power, he glorified the memory of Montalvo as a great teacher and an example to the Ecuadorian people. Even though Alfaro was not very well-educated, through force of character he was able to overcome this fault and impress others with his clear intelligence. During his exile, he travelled Central America and was granted the rank of "General de División" by the Nicaraguan Congress.
First presidency (1895–1901)
Alfaro, head of the Radical Liberals, was the leader of the Ecuadorian Liberal Revolution, carrying out a struggle that he waged from his youth in the 1860s until 1895 when the liberals finally took power in a coup d'état. In this uprising, he deposed President Vicente Lucio Salazar and declared himself a dictator on June 5, 1895 and was later named constitutional president from January 17, 1897 until September 1, 1901. The principal accomplishment of his first government was the introduction of the principle of secularism. Many public buildings in Quito including the Instituto Nacional Mejía and the first purpose build siege of the National Polytechnic School were commissioned in his administration to French architects.
Second presidency (1906–1911)
After initially supporting, but later coming to oppose, his successor, in 1906 he led another revolt, deposing elected President Lizardo García, being declared supreme dictator by the army and continuing in office until August 12, 1911. During this second presidency he enacted a number of changes, among them freedom of speech and the legalization of civil marriage and divorce. He constructed numerous public schools and inaugurated the right to a free and secular education. What is considered to be his greatest public work during this period was the completion of the Ferrocarril Transandino (Trans-Andean Railroad) connecting Guayaquil to Quito. Consistent with his anticlericalism, he suppressed the influence of the Catholic Church while in office. He seized much property of the Church, expelled religious orders and prohibited the establishment of any new monasteries or convents. His attempts to secularize Ecuadorian society were opposed by the Archbishop of Quito Federico González Suárez.
In 1911, he was removed from office by his former supporters. In 1911 he tried to strike a blow at the State in an attempt to return to power. He was captured near Guayaquil and sent to Quito on the railroad he had constructed. After he left office, during the administration of Emilio Estrada Carmona, Alfaro was severely critical of the government and his followers soon began to organize a series of military insurrections. Alfaro was exiled to Panama during the interim government of Carlos Freile Zaldumbide. He returned to Ecuador on January 4, 1912, and attempted another coup but was defeated, arrested and jailed by General Leonidas Plaza.
Assassination
On January 28, 1912, a group of pro-Catholic soldiers whose motto was "Muerte al indio Alfaro" (death to the Indian Alfaro), supported by a mob, broke into the prison where Alfaro and his colleagues were detained and dragged them along the cobbled streets of the city center. They were all dead when the horde arrived at the esplanade of El Ejido (city gardens) in the northern outskirts of town. The crowd finally burnt the corpses in the area where the present day park of El Ejido is located. (A monument was erected in the 1960s at the site.) Days later, Alfaro's remains were buried in Quito, in secret. They were transported to Guayaquil and deposited in a mausoleum there at some time in the 1940s. On the initiative of President Rafael Correa (in office from 2007 – 2017), some of the ashes of Eloy Alfaro were exhumed and re-interred with honors in the city of Montecristi, seat of the 2008 National Constitutional Convention.
References
External links
Manuel de Jesús Andrade Suárez (1912) Páginas de sangre; ó, Los asesinatos de Quito, el 28 de enero de 1912.
Pareja Diezcanseco, Alfredo (1944), La hoguera bárbara: Vida de Eloy Alfaro ("The Barbaric Bonfire: Life of Eloy Alfaro"; Published in Mexico).
Official Website of the Ecuadorian Government about the country President's History
Enciclopedia del Ecuador
1842 births
1912 deaths
1912 crimes
Presidents of Ecuador
Deaths by firearm in Ecuador
People murdered in Ecuador
Ecuadorian Freemasons
Ecuadorian Radical Liberal Party politicians
Murder in 1912 | [
-0.20079390704631805,
0.21400049328804016,
-0.2504844069480896,
0.4268184304237366,
-0.2778950333595276,
0.08239772915840149,
-0.12749220430850983,
0.44286179542541504,
-0.4535841941833496,
-0.39003655314445496,
0.01836344599723816,
0.621185302734375,
-0.09587135165929794,
0.21102796494960785,
-0.40468958020210266,
0.6241720914840698,
0.25365158915519714,
0.084559865295887,
-0.7116374969482422,
-0.025883162394165993,
-0.251020610332489,
-0.28307926654815674,
0.3038254380226135,
0.5772924423217773,
0.08938808739185333,
-0.02484949678182602,
-0.16031132638454437,
-0.17576980590820312,
0.09042453020811081,
-0.05350940674543381,
0.2682115435600281,
-0.552815854549408,
0.310268759727478,
0.28647270798683167,
-0.9456770420074463,
-0.212421253323555,
-0.43205690383911133,
-0.5453729629516602,
0.027350079268217087,
-0.0723676085472107,
-0.5921253561973572,
-0.015256770886480808,
0.15224230289459229,
-0.06631363928318024,
-0.3794659972190857,
-0.49459826946258545,
-0.8621754050254822,
0.4844019412994385,
-0.4804380238056183,
0.09123863279819489,
-0.7871543765068054,
0.5298805832862854,
0.38590383529663086,
-0.10502883791923523,
-0.3225715756416321,
-0.10982877761125565,
-0.469107449054718,
-0.2320602983236313,
-0.8444943428039551,
-0.9109764695167542,
0.4419373571872711,
0.5414222478866577,
0.32175567746162415,
-0.3322947323322296,
0.30514994263648987,
0.19258353114128113,
0.2961738407611847,
-0.265633761882782,
-0.10810752958059311,
0.028120826929807663,
-0.3709779679775238,
0.5381751656532288,
-0.01733425445854664,
-0.25840896368026733,
0.32699471712112427,
-1.1467088460922241,
-0.4451599717140198,
0.44547736644744873,
-0.27488499879837036,
0.46930283308029175,
-0.22617606818675995,
-0.7738367319107056,
0.5167233943939209,
0.29128777980804443,
-0.2776462733745575,
0.2033468335866928,
-0.15295979380607605,
0.8502941131591797,
-0.36746591329574585,
-0.32951056957244873,
-0.575778067111969,
-0.5830010771751404,
0.9610928893089294,
0.5095821619033813,
-0.36664536595344543,
-0.0542418472468853,
-0.20267696678638458,
-0.08851529657840729,
-0.7734391689300537,
-0.10908804088830948,
0.45100653171539307,
-0.22213132679462433,
0.22871161997318268,
-0.4931690990924835,
-0.38777613639831543,
0.032760631293058395,
-0.334034264087677,
0.20292848348617554,
-0.24832677841186523,
-0.6268251538276672,
-0.6016955375671387,
0.12629185616970062,
-0.36534127593040466,
-0.17069320380687714,
0.4156162142753601,
0.0723813846707344,
0.18049108982086182,
-0.35362377762794495,
-0.05581670626997948,
-0.06515341252088547,
-0.25803276896476746,
0.27499645948410034,
-0.23009175062179565,
0.2086605429649353,
-0.3020487129688263,
0.05154697969555855,
-0.000981016899459064,
-0.2036014050245285,
-0.34582433104515076,
0.13117660582065582,
0.6653865575790405,
0.2914576828479767,
-0.11973317712545395,
0.024853629991412163,
-0.2330736368894577,
-0.29910340905189514,
-0.23262961208820343,
0.260967880487442,
-0.1287062019109726,
-0.28940775990486145,
-0.47595295310020447,
-0.6140959858894348,
-0.3246869444847107,
-0.3587602972984314,
0.2527574896812439,
-0.587756872177124,
0.2185489535331726,
-0.3640784025192261,
0.6131348013877869,
-0.34676265716552734,
0.17335568368434906,
-0.5019552707672119,
-0.19391603767871857,
-0.13043926656246185,
-0.3789364993572235,
0.3888615369796753,
-0.007993555627763271,
-0.5691666007041931,
0.6485121250152588,
-0.03818443790078163,
0.2541808485984802,
-0.019130153581500053,
-0.15212282538414001,
0.1691638082265854,
0.3138875365257263,
-0.2118518203496933,
0.38004571199417114,
0.6472128629684448,
0.3951074182987213,
-0.09631262719631195,
-0.2050350159406662,
-0.22312240302562714,
0.41500574350357056,
-0.06194017082452774,
-0.5432470440864563,
0.6815798282623291,
0.17779040336608887,
-0.12593425810337067,
-0.06384918838739395,
0.04519368335604668,
-0.5072258710861206,
-0.5807068347930908,
-0.06445867568254471,
0.5299172401428223,
0.23602578043937683,
-0.1388622671365738,
0.30456075072288513,
0.07412426173686981,
0.9094225764274597,
-0.5092807412147522,
-0.27715274691581726,
-0.20578210055828094,
-0.29111164808273315,
-0.5714215040206909,
0.8454375267028809,
0.05944356694817543,
-0.38809719681739807,
1.1442252397537231,
-0.329729825258255,
0.5461958050727844,
-0.1241002231836319,
-0.06742314249277115,
0.44681546092033386,
0.2287660837173462,
0.2617386281490326,
0.3915673494338989,
0.3858088552951813,
0.791007399559021,
0.23015941679477692,
0.6772158145904541,
0.035882797092199326,
-0.1973618119955063,
-0.31842830777168274,
0.5365501642227173,
-0.43128305673599243,
-0.26680988073349,
-0.24124935269355774,
-0.38766634464263916,
0.1634550243616104,
0.4137382507324219,
0.7474135160446167,
-0.3360849916934967,
-0.5259625911712646,
0.663765013217926,
0.13201317191123962,
0.5674152374267578,
0.23641571402549744,
-0.32780516147613525,
0.507579505443573,
-0.6241715550422668,
0.11641205102205276,
-0.31596896052360535,
0.5769863724708557,
0.11425266414880753,
0.3892364203929901,
0.02923678606748581,
-0.06354021281003952,
-0.5049129724502563,
-0.31738245487213135,
-0.7025808691978455,
0.5692154169082642,
0.4119379222393036,
0.3897918462753296,
0.20954042673110962,
0.8013172745704651,
0.7690704464912415,
-0.6315764784812927,
0.8815605640411377,
-0.19425387680530548,
0.18084898591041565,
-0.01131887175142765,
0.4358949661254883,
0.33104899525642395,
-0.11121315509080887,
-0.052070800215005875,
-0.790247917175293,
0.09031600505113602,
-0.05433431267738342,
0.24536757171154022,
0.36115023493766785,
0.44069957733154297,
-0.5308428406715393,
0.10609354823827744,
0.3592144548892975,
0.35705044865608215,
0.006062325555831194,
-0.15928639471530914,
-0.8751261234283447,
-0.23264430463314056,
-0.4688282310962677,
0.23690010607242584,
0.17041008174419403,
0.042568791657686234,
0.15521453320980072,
-0.06510794907808304,
-0.31409943103790283,
-0.06529692560434341,
0.02346109412610531,
-0.9017147421836853,
-0.8416274189949036,
0.555185854434967,
1.3164881467819214,
-0.10092819482088089,
-0.3355414867401123,
-0.6916327476501465,
-0.41444599628448486,
-0.3006899952888489,
-0.7605612277984619,
-0.08917859196662903,
0.19468121230602264,
-0.17941462993621826,
0.725236713886261,
0.10072669386863708,
0.23268799483776093,
-0.22850829362869263,
0.16899941861629486,
0.16567841172218323,
-0.3012036383152008,
0.6178684234619141,
-0.49975407123565674,
-0.6441752910614014,
-0.29168474674224854,
0.05157003179192543,
0.27338460087776184,
0.5730900764465332,
-0.16706503927707672,
0.4058617055416107,
0.11260760575532913,
-5.643256664276123,
0.19682124257087708,
0.5602678656578064,
-0.6216676235198975,
-0.1660856008529663,
0.32165172696113586,
0.07752153277397156,
0.22860494256019592,
0.3962966203689575,
-0.5007563233375549,
0.18758666515350342,
0.48917004466056824,
0.5003721714019775,
0.4348992109298706,
0.19663548469543457,
0.8677045702934265,
0.09534895420074463,
-0.10897714644670486,
-0.22283846139907837,
0.12543299794197083,
0.20843684673309326,
-0.15986987948417664,
-0.41028153896331787,
0.945906937122345,
0.5642964839935303,
-0.0767049565911293,
-0.25813254714012146,
0.14498727023601532,
-0.7439948320388794,
-0.018858138471841812,
0.26665857434272766,
0.2686483561992645,
-0.16135375201702118,
0.007468423340469599,
-0.034364644438028336,
-0.06941086798906326,
0.5059468746185303,
0.40444064140319824,
-0.7634549736976624,
-0.3313322961330414,
0.07836458832025528,
-0.16102567315101624,
-0.5203617215156555,
0.1223137304186821,
0.1697218120098114,
-0.047489140182733536,
-0.30765005946159363,
-0.49647560715675354,
-0.22815757989883423,
0.22818775475025177,
-0.015221822075545788,
-0.08291203528642654,
0.4318969249725342,
-0.06355103850364685,
0.5501425862312317,
0.8175410032272339,
-0.005542542785406113,
0.1146765723824501,
-1.0102028846740723,
0.708970308303833,
0.26588961482048035,
0.18971528112888336,
-0.28826844692230225,
-0.2113942950963974,
-0.10032028704881668,
0.10957303643226624,
0.681649923324585,
-0.26151105761528015,
0.4256638288497925,
0.07543175667524338,
-0.0761040598154068,
0.9463822841644287,
-0.10409174114465714,
-1.0089117288589478,
-0.08062496781349182,
-0.2703956961631775,
-0.47570717334747314,
0.16965904831886292,
-0.8409332633018494,
-0.37210673093795776,
0.18450959026813507,
-0.34671100974082947,
-0.06012500077486038,
0.3391481041908264,
0.2860095798969269,
0.35792121291160583,
0.31023263931274414,
0.12932957708835602,
0.1323348879814148,
0.9908648133277893,
0.7948529720306396,
-0.49911433458328247,
0.024288762360811234,
-0.3571840226650238,
0.343556672334671,
0.3933715522289276,
-0.7598845362663269,
-0.14015257358551025,
0.6532242298126221,
0.42336443066596985,
0.08199625462293625,
0.37018969655036926,
0.8915948867797852,
-0.32618948817253113,
0.3476018011569977,
0.09744981676340103,
0.30727633833885193,
0.20604382455348969,
0.6016296744346619,
0.03642618656158447,
0.031201640143990517,
0.5854471325874329,
-0.5339258909225464,
-0.16949178278446198,
0.23440147936344147,
-0.3080299198627472,
0.0955142229795456,
-0.23722004890441895,
0.8545351624488831,
0.10484535247087479,
-0.3787882626056671,
0.04411988705396652,
-0.32225048542022705,
-0.2975656986236572,
-0.31684941053390503,
-0.11722692847251892,
0.34896236658096313,
0.45809754729270935,
0.41085511445999146,
-0.5530219674110413,
-0.28658434748649597,
0.4235963523387909,
0.4469798803329468,
0.24694374203681946,
0.39722323417663574,
-0.1966777890920639,
0.06536989659070969,
-0.833611011505127,
0.37306275963783264,
-0.4904896318912506,
-0.6995218992233276,
-0.520238995552063,
-0.3179941773414612,
0.016347583383321762,
0.4183821380138397,
0.11933286488056183,
-0.2520489990711212,
-0.16825807094573975,
-0.5641469955444336,
0.5882917642593384,
0.163404181599617,
-0.04960605874657631,
0.26249802112579346,
-0.09324172884225845,
-0.527349591255188,
0.3166355788707733,
-0.176335409283638,
-0.10319440066814423,
-0.2627118229866028,
-0.2821342349052429,
0.003758700331673026,
-0.08837369829416275,
-0.8971943259239197,
-0.19029203057289124,
0.02235584147274494,
0.45354127883911133,
-0.5102851390838623,
-0.34256017208099365,
-0.038845133036375046,
0.7213274240493774,
0.581486701965332,
-0.7851036190986633,
-0.48566266894340515,
-0.37594854831695557,
0.3860047459602356,
-0.5225192904472351,
-0.1594759225845337,
0.16558073461055756,
0.26106083393096924,
0.31269577145576477,
0.05186299607157707,
0.4889415204524994,
0.22229358553886414,
0.14506827294826508,
0.20745840668678284,
-0.3859466016292572,
-0.5024788975715637,
0.0502002127468586,
-0.5083805918693542,
0.21717111766338348,
0.41743120551109314,
0.5436547994613647,
-0.13942116498947144,
0.273153692483902,
-0.18385320901870728,
0.009447423741221428,
-0.4361352324485779,
-0.5469313859939575,
0.3466169536113739,
-0.28054457902908325,
-0.08446437120437622,
-0.45220625400543213,
-0.08239640295505524,
-0.13585978746414185,
-0.4530867636203766,
-0.4954124689102173,
0.009716876782476902,
-0.3941528797149658,
-0.12965522706508636,
0.2725662589073181,
-0.4318360984325409,
-0.6696456670761108,
-0.12528948485851288,
0.7505252957344055,
0.34137776494026184,
0.49797722697257996,
-0.3065744936466217,
-0.3022558093070984,
-0.6010771989822388,
-0.489031583070755,
-0.37653255462646484,
-0.00580652616918087,
0.22582781314849854,
0.332827627658844,
-0.3395099341869354,
0.30256447196006775,
0.0033108042553067207,
-0.4990510046482086,
0.89569091796875,
-0.2712056636810303,
0.35695627331733704,
0.009690633043646812,
-0.022949596866965294,
0.267047643661499,
-0.47722768783569336,
0.3177485466003418,
0.7205677628517151,
0.035497117787599564,
-0.1030307486653328,
0.10210110247135162,
0.37338787317276,
0.9999710917472839,
-0.3295757472515106,
0.23722852766513824,
0.16597147285938263,
0.338318794965744,
0.0300427358597517,
0.18056254088878632,
-0.18872618675231934,
-0.08206856995820999,
0.15582682192325592,
-0.35834747552871704,
-0.19925066828727722,
0.3236094117164612,
0.24162828922271729,
-1.026387095451355,
-0.11794076859951019,
0.37927740812301636,
0.003926216159015894,
0.03362685814499855,
-0.2575126886367798,
0.3967114984989166,
0.000434847577707842,
-0.41566920280456543,
0.04623788222670555,
-0.08767125010490417,
0.012441247701644897,
0.12739427387714386,
0.33375784754753113,
-0.1263301968574524,
-0.3002104163169861,
-0.10815395414829254,
-0.1459633857011795,
0.5593205094337463,
-0.08156703412532806,
-0.15991991758346558,
-0.17134980857372284,
0.4592910408973694,
0.011848452500998974,
0.03174355626106262,
-1.4029213190078735,
-0.11679257452487946,
-0.19374391436576843,
-0.11782979965209961,
-0.4312836527824402,
-0.992524266242981,
0.007503001019358635,
0.005500786937773228,
-0.2036144733428955,
0.20508497953414917,
-0.795235812664032,
0.4527647793292999,
0.14411181211471558,
-0.06621596962213516,
0.11320162564516068,
0.17335884273052216,
-0.6098315715789795,
0.5323119759559631,
-0.7684769630432129,
-0.3283669650554657,
-0.18364852666854858,
0.5726205706596375,
0.4002399444580078,
0.3192135691642761,
-0.7443913221359253,
-0.5540285706520081,
0.8256142735481262,
0.02695966325700283,
-0.152872234582901,
-0.04666101559996605,
-0.06337657570838928,
0.17787665128707886,
0.03875526413321495,
0.16434581577777863,
-0.6575180888175964,
0.2709853947162628,
0.4065224826335907,
0.28569045662879944,
-0.3306659460067749,
0.04369199648499489,
0.36743882298469543,
-0.0026495896745473146,
-0.13772529363632202,
-0.18505927920341492,
0.8010464906692505,
0.6851460337638855,
-0.40939897298812866,
-0.13400733470916748,
-0.29822826385498047,
0.20479294657707214,
-0.31361404061317444,
0.04328467696905136,
-0.3161495327949524,
0.6450805068016052,
-0.26689499616622925,
-0.030284147709608078,
0.5879732966423035,
-0.5377580523490906,
0.380207359790802,
0.5271177291870117,
0.661851167678833,
0.7484482526779175,
-0.5837924480438232,
0.2685016691684723,
0.2142711728811264,
-0.33744385838508606,
-0.6110226511955261,
0.3637644350528717,
0.41881632804870605,
-0.4376453757286072,
0.31038981676101685,
-0.28168022632598877,
0.027924133464694023,
-0.879508912563324,
-0.06855802237987518,
-0.07009368389844894,
0.03011399321258068,
0.21553701162338257,
0.2369571179151535,
0.23949269950389862,
-0.1574309766292572,
-0.11437620222568512,
0.3798984885215759,
-0.3321406841278076,
-0.19133388996124268,
0.682545006275177,
-0.13631053268909454,
-0.14380507171154022,
-0.23917214572429657,
0.18346403539180756,
-0.005465413443744183,
-0.2761819064617157,
-0.22227704524993896,
-0.08317679166793823,
0.2620569169521332,
0.3195860981941223,
0.7631526589393616,
0.5062897205352783,
-0.29111427068710327,
0.4435354471206665,
0.2271406650543213,
0.40919360518455505,
-0.12808987498283386,
-0.3845159411430359,
-0.23877863585948944,
-0.3480704128742218,
0.46641862392425537,
0.025775209069252014,
0.2789207398891449,
0.18457330763339996,
0.2258017659187317,
-0.5959051847457886,
-0.18795832991600037,
0.5352188944816589,
0.3304489552974701,
-0.2495570331811905,
-0.3792154788970947,
0.7285584807395935,
0.6075276136398315,
-0.5864261388778687,
0.016497056931257248,
-0.2667293846607208,
0.12573139369487762,
-0.17076531052589417,
-0.0035477126948535442,
-0.30483853816986084,
-0.26216214895248413,
0.04588227719068527,
-0.36209893226623535,
0.4598070979118347,
0.40543121099472046,
0.056157998740673065,
-0.5962567925453186,
0.47037559747695923,
-0.3847777843475342,
-0.09613130241632462,
0.29549357295036316,
-0.8011833429336548,
-0.6344954967498779,
-0.5219950675964355,
0.13128867745399475,
-0.413405179977417,
0.29751643538475037,
0.5112089514732361,
0.07825656980276108,
-0.2614721357822418,
0.4743560254573822,
0.39698171615600586,
0.015130411833524704,
0.4998563826084137,
-0.08656494319438934,
-0.2699364721775055,
-0.3530231714248657,
0.06397298723459244,
-0.24330736696720123,
-0.2948456108570099,
0.03702736273407936,
0.08860243856906891,
0.27695223689079285,
-0.3017924726009369,
0.3466135859489441,
0.2880844473838806,
0.7455723881721497,
-0.49887144565582275,
0.33358901739120483,
0.04318925738334656,
-0.44875839352607727,
0.04164453595876694,
0.10163619369268417,
0.27929818630218506,
0.41578876972198486,
0.1398027539253235,
0.8772886395454407,
-0.3044629395008087,
0.6480322480201721,
-0.2732325792312622,
-0.12750647962093353,
-0.8117817044258118,
0.5108326077461243,
-0.5326392650604248
] |
229017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latissimus%20dorsi%20muscle | Latissimus dorsi muscle | The latissimus dorsi () is a large, flat muscle on the back that stretches to the sides, behind the arm, and is partly covered by the trapezius on the back near the midline. The word latissimus dorsi (plural: latissimi dorsi) comes from Latin and means "broadest [muscle] of the back", from "latissimus" ()' and "dorsum" (). The pair of muscles are commonly known as "lats", especially among bodybuilders. The latissimus dorsi is the largest muscle in the upper body.
The latissimus dorsi is responsible for extension, adduction, transverse extension also known as horizontal abduction (or horizontal extension), flexion from an extended position, and (medial) internal rotation of the shoulder joint. It also has a synergistic role in extension and lateral flexion of the lumbar spine.
Due to bypassing the scapulothoracic joints and attaching directly to the spine, the actions the latissimi dorsi have on moving the arms can also influence the movement of the scapulae, such as their downward rotation during a pull up.
Structure
Variations
The number of dorsal vertebrae to which it is attached varies from four to eight; the number of costal attachments varies; muscle fibers may or may not reach the crest of the ilium.
A muscle slip, the axillary arch, varying from 7 to 10 cm in length, and from 5 to 15 mm in breadth, occasionally springs from the upper edge of the latissimus dorsi about the middle of the posterior fold of the axilla, and crosses the axilla in front of the axillary vessels and nerves, to join the under surface of the tendon of the pectoralis major, the coracobrachialis, or the fascia over the biceps brachii. This axillary arch crosses the axillary artery, just above the spot usually selected for the application of a ligature, and may mislead a surgeon. It is present in about 7% of the population and may be easily recognized by the transverse direction of its fibers. Guy et al. extensively described this muscular variant using MRI data and positively correlated its presence with symptoms of neurological impingement.
A fibrous slip usually passes from the upper border of the tendon of the Latissimus dorsi, near its insertion, to the long head of the triceps brachii. This is occasionally muscular, and is the representative of the dorsoepitrochlearis brachii of apes. This muscular form is found in ~5% of humans and is sometimes termed the latissimocondyloideus.
The latissimus dorsi crosses the inferior angle of the scapula. A study found that, of 100 cadavers dissected:
43% had "a substantial amount" of muscular fibers in the latissimus dorsi originating from the scapula.
36% had few or no muscular fibers, but a "soft fibrous link" between the scapula and the latissimus dorsi
21% had little or no connecting tissue between the two structures.
Triangles
The lateral margin of the latissimus dorsi is separated below from the obliquus externus abdominis by a small triangular interval, the lumbar triangle of Petit, the base of which is formed by the iliac crest, and its floor by the obliquus internus abdominis.
Another triangle is situated behind the scapula. It is bounded above by the trapezius, below by the latissimus dorsi, and laterally by the vertebral border of the scapula; the floor is partly formed by the rhomboideus major. If the scapula is drawn forward by folding the arms across the chest, and the trunk bent forward, parts of the sixth and seventh ribs and the interspace between them become subcutaneous and available for auscultation. The space is therefore known as the triangle of auscultation.
The latissimus dorsi can be remembered best for insertion as "A Miss Between Two Majors". As the latissimus dorsi inserts into the floor of the intertubercular groove of the humerus it is surrounded by two major muscles. The teres major inserts medially on the medial lip of the intertubercular groove and the pectoralis major inserts laterally onto the lateral lip.
Nerve supply
The latissimus dorsi is innervated by the sixth, seventh, and eighth cervical nerves through the thoracodorsal (long subscapular) nerve. Electromyography suggests that it consists of six groups of muscle fibres that can be independently coordinated by the central nervous system.
Function
The latissimus dorsi assists in depression of the arm with the teres major and pectoralis major. It adducts, extends, and internally rotates the shoulder. When the arms are in a fixed overhead position, the latissimus dorsi pulls the trunk upward and forward.
It has a synergistic role in extension (posterior fibers) and lateral flexion (anterior fibers) of the lumbar spine, and assists as a muscle of both forced expiration (anterior fibers) and an accessory muscle of inspiration (posterior fibers).
Most latissimus dorsi exercises concurrently recruit the teres major, posterior fibres of the deltoid, long head of the triceps brachii, among numerous other stabilizing muscles. Compound exercises for the 'lats' typically involve elbow flexion and tend to recruit the biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis for this function. Depending on the line of pull, the trapezius muscles can be recruited as well; horizontal pulling motions such as rows recruit both latissimus dorsi and trapezius heavily.
Training
The power/size/strength of this muscle can be trained with a variety of different exercises. Some of these include:
Vertical pulling movements such as pull-downs and pull-ups (including chin-ups)
Horizontal pulling movements such as bent-over row, T-bar row and other rowing exercises
Shoulder extension movements with straight arms such as straight-arm lat pulldowns and Pull-overs
Deadlift
Clinical significance
Tight latissimus dorsi has been shown to be a contributor to chronic shoulder pain and chronic back pain. Because the latissimus dorsi connects the spine to the humerus, tightness in this muscle can manifest as either sub-optimal glenohumeral joint (shoulder) function which leads to chronic pain or tendinitis in the tendinous fasciae connecting the latissimus dorsi to the thoracic and lumbar spine.
The latissimus dorsi is a potential source of muscle for breast reconstruction surgery after mastectomy (e.g. Mannu flap) or to correct pectoral hypoplastic defects such as Poland's syndrome. An absent or hypoplastic latissimus dorsi can be one of the associated symptoms of Poland's syndrome.
Cardiac support
For heart patients with low cardiac output and who are not candidates for cardiac transplantation, a procedure called cardiomyoplasty may support the failing heart. This procedure involves wrapping the latissimus dorsi muscles around the heart and electrostimulating them in synchrony with ventricular systole.
Injury
Injuries to the latissimus dorsi are rare. They occur disproportionately in baseball pitchers. Diagnosis can be achieved by visualization of the muscle and movement testing. MRI of the shoulder girdle will confirm the diagnosis. Muscle belly injuries are treated with rehabilitation while tendon avulsion injuries can be treated surgically, or with rehab. Regardless of treatment, patients tend to return to play without any functional losses.
Additional images
See also
Muscle energy techniques
References
External links
- "Superficial layer of the extrinsic muscles of the back."
Muscles of the upper limb
Shoulder adductors
Shoulder extensors
Shoulder medial rotators
Shoulder flexors
Spine lateral flexors | [
-0.22552324831485748,
-0.44149044156074524,
-0.30099841952323914,
-0.23131370544433594,
0.10731934010982513,
0.7131595611572266,
0.23965255916118622,
0.24921853840351105,
-0.407332181930542,
-0.6695963144302368,
-0.3467773497104645,
0.81001877784729,
-0.7318219542503357,
-0.70905601978302,
-0.07101728767156601,
0.33025407791137695,
0.1728716939687729,
0.10926336795091629,
0.12577830255031586,
-0.09284134954214096,
0.2710222899913788,
-0.2997192144393921,
0.9632517695426941,
-0.7019925713539124,
-0.1808319091796875,
-0.15356191992759705,
-0.06226976588368416,
0.8624215126037598,
-0.09454632550477982,
-0.5209584832191467,
-0.07872842252254486,
0.5237779021263123,
-0.09899893403053284,
-0.6368946433067322,
-0.7149286866188049,
-0.1921926885843277,
0.7124690413475037,
-0.49605780839920044,
0.23598253726959229,
-0.11391302198171616,
-0.01868324540555477,
0.22272782027721405,
-0.0823855772614479,
0.32124781608581543,
-0.7078351974487305,
-0.4296724796295166,
-0.8351959586143494,
0.415571391582489,
-0.5893069505691528,
-0.03231234848499298,
-0.19007591903209686,
0.402555376291275,
-0.3001210391521454,
0.17187285423278809,
0.13331499695777893,
0.545601487159729,
-1.0877816677093506,
0.4320426881313324,
0.6410564184188843,
-0.6386587023735046,
0.399840384721756,
0.1570853292942047,
0.1063031256198883,
0.2979307770729065,
0.19016066193580627,
1.0515868663787842,
-0.003389650024473667,
0.4971160888671875,
-0.15909484028816223,
0.24161328375339508,
-0.8774510025978088,
-0.030281390994787216,
-0.3053725063800812,
0.739430844783783,
-0.15777474641799927,
-0.00896901823580265,
-0.6827146410942078,
0.08981538563966751,
-0.14729376137256622,
-0.11138901859521866,
0.2998196482658386,
0.6442412734031677,
0.2701745927333832,
0.2303534597158432,
-0.4138701856136322,
0.36614981293678284,
-0.6672629714012146,
-0.16563640534877777,
-0.3275223970413208,
0.24478572607040405,
-0.27520114183425903,
-0.46746402978897095,
0.18806393444538116,
0.08268348127603531,
0.3606240153312683,
-0.11437402665615082,
0.17213258147239685,
-0.37108322978019714,
-0.15700572729110718,
-0.16100388765335083,
0.08980681747198105,
0.0760495588183403,
0.26948440074920654,
-0.5020574331283569,
-0.2851671874523163,
-0.17800433933734894,
-0.060682859271764755,
-0.4354866147041321,
-0.38018184900283813,
0.5128769874572754,
-0.5040972828865051,
0.003943026997148991,
-0.6089769601821899,
-1.0204557180404663,
-0.8541834950447083,
0.08805634826421738,
0.2964564263820648,
-0.14569854736328125,
-0.21341489255428314,
-0.3386520743370056,
0.015878988429903984,
0.7708644270896912,
-0.059500306844711304,
0.3995573818683624,
-0.4049263000488281,
0.4301820695400238,
0.2645956873893738,
0.11486832797527313,
0.21700771152973175,
0.43358543515205383,
0.47047796845436096,
0.7649639844894409,
0.48229414224624634,
0.06251692771911621,
-0.22331206500530243,
0.09785113483667374,
0.06893063336610794,
0.3074800372123718,
0.013902096077799797,
0.5007489919662476,
-0.27346929907798767,
-0.37232303619384766,
-0.7091064453125,
-0.46265909075737,
0.3320906162261963,
-0.7031235694885254,
-0.12318339198827744,
-0.1776656210422516,
-0.07494646310806274,
-0.49752920866012573,
0.788374125957489,
-0.05010054633021355,
0.11237846314907074,
0.09732261300086975,
-0.446007639169693,
0.46329933404922485,
1.0641534328460693,
-0.4095434546470642,
0.2633128762245178,
0.4097430408000946,
0.15842042863368988,
-0.16460226476192474,
-0.2788230776786804,
0.2365783005952835,
-0.24393625557422638,
-0.059201013296842575,
0.7170175909996033,
-0.2884768843650818,
-0.04257507994771004,
0.4257325232028961,
-0.46645861864089966,
-0.2739933133125305,
0.4156543016433716,
-0.26188355684280396,
-0.3583988547325134,
0.10883226990699768,
-0.33682096004486084,
0.37635549902915955,
0.4671282172203064,
-0.8295655250549316,
-0.5923104882240295,
0.30292314291000366,
0.052605483680963516,
0.059388503432273865,
0.3338109254837036,
-0.3230659067630768,
0.812035322189331,
-0.050386834889650345,
-0.130421444773674,
-0.05439681559801102,
-0.17971381545066833,
-0.25860679149627686,
0.0889495387673378,
-0.30652931332588196,
1.1785415410995483,
-0.3420194387435913,
-0.8503506183624268,
0.9311583638191223,
0.15191619098186493,
1.219211459159851,
-0.5849038362503052,
-0.5413604974746704,
0.36759743094444275,
-0.12032011151313782,
-0.5926989912986755,
0.503771185874939,
0.4205385148525238,
-0.0016619598027318716,
0.9925311803817749,
0.3619554340839386,
0.33367466926574707,
-0.206991046667099,
-0.30425846576690674,
-0.7618582844734192,
0.054976917803287506,
-0.5890612006187439,
-0.1430829018354416,
0.007106032222509384,
0.006458492483943701,
-0.20230798423290253,
1.0548055171966553,
-0.18217521905899048,
-0.27817201614379883,
0.1414920538663864,
-0.3774317800998688,
0.7682012319564819,
0.8686888217926025,
-0.13304345309734344,
-0.19967083632946014,
-0.941969096660614,
0.4973258972167969,
-0.22212594747543335,
0.06064155697822571,
-0.1747487336397171,
-0.43455395102500916,
-0.5721257925033569,
0.2623617649078369,
-0.9825933575630188,
0.5493676662445068,
-0.48388296365737915,
0.6685599088668823,
0.8018184304237366,
-0.7412375211715698,
-0.071198008954525,
0.10218504071235657,
0.13500022888183594,
0.6853548288345337,
1.1169228553771973,
-0.3178451359272003,
0.01888839527964592,
-0.1086263358592987,
0.5639798641204834,
0.10893788933753967,
-0.7988950610160828,
-0.3123013973236084,
-0.095321886241436,
0.54132479429245,
0.29632893204689026,
0.5634199380874634,
-0.1157129630446434,
-0.5314328670501709,
-0.22003333270549774,
0.7186940312385559,
0.01807359978556633,
-0.6081846952438354,
0.004745126701891422,
-0.15124893188476562,
-0.2965359389781952,
0.5079551339149475,
0.6079308986663818,
0.4046981930732727,
0.7003862857818604,
-0.4370139539241791,
0.2949591279029846,
-0.3554507791996002,
-0.37483760714530945,
0.07969652861356735,
0.36642947793006897,
-0.8944838047027588,
0.29487064480781555,
0.6939260959625244,
0.41763266921043396,
0.9517248868942261,
-0.3882685601711273,
-0.39287811517715454,
-0.31568795442581177,
0.3114567995071411,
0.14541831612586975,
-0.45367926359176636,
-0.18738088011741638,
-0.2046181708574295,
-0.6124760508537292,
-0.573574423789978,
0.5970802307128906,
-0.7697724103927612,
0.4008687436580658,
0.3507583439350128,
-0.19091401994228363,
0.46942976117134094,
-0.5722164511680603,
-0.32947924733161926,
0.10987377911806107,
0.14166715741157532,
-0.13549862802028656,
0.37686580419540405,
-0.36670881509780884,
-0.48873159289360046,
0.2869962453842163,
-4.713961124420166,
0.14806334674358368,
0.08620940148830414,
0.06730618327856064,
0.26265767216682434,
0.09269889444112778,
0.5498132705688477,
0.18592965602874756,
-0.37747785449028015,
-0.5698592066764832,
0.12551246583461761,
-0.3408932387828827,
-0.12011918425559998,
0.26663413643836975,
-0.028146259486675262,
0.4993608295917511,
-0.23410366475582123,
0.103130042552948,
0.1781075894832611,
0.7724086046218872,
-0.28797370195388794,
0.0003076643915846944,
-0.07395763695240021,
-0.3344805836677551,
0.3673349618911743,
0.5114220380783081,
-0.8521974682807922,
-0.23519615828990936,
-0.7467475533485413,
-0.46878689527511597,
-0.39662495255470276,
0.1933460533618927,
0.1756361424922943,
-0.30421727895736694,
-0.029498297721147537,
-0.2591154873371124,
0.313291996717453,
-0.067418672144413,
0.6068114042282104,
-0.2864154279232025,
-0.7791369557380676,
0.21534112095832825,
-0.2179814577102661,
0.030897146090865135,
0.39626604318618774,
-0.08416566252708435,
-0.6521820425987244,
-0.06781364977359772,
-0.022293200716376305,
1.0171061754226685,
-0.07956311106681824,
0.1941247135400772,
-0.41804835200309753,
0.36184826493263245,
0.44897571206092834,
-0.32018107175827026,
0.5003455281257629,
0.03302956745028496,
0.05322428047657013,
0.23359732329845428,
-0.07588988542556763,
-0.6413122415542603,
-0.6642580032348633,
-0.32837438583374023,
0.23955634236335754,
0.08744406700134277,
-0.1733434796333313,
-0.3419545888900757,
0.2939232289791107,
0.9189608693122864,
-0.09852452576160431,
0.8909198045730591,
0.2964106798171997,
-0.6272849440574646,
0.3342389464378357,
-1.096542239189148,
-0.4107481837272644,
-0.04094921052455902,
0.0211656354367733,
0.3136003315448761,
-0.4638880789279938,
-0.859039843082428,
-0.5068646669387817,
0.3660491406917572,
0.5172202587127686,
-0.4058726727962494,
0.02047550678253174,
0.0353754498064518,
-0.2249702662229538,
-0.0877813920378685,
0.22496140003204346,
-0.08412955701351166,
0.3952566981315613,
-0.17874278128147125,
-0.81611567735672,
0.4430587887763977,
-0.14111003279685974,
-0.0019952154252678156,
0.7134661078453064,
-0.6564739346504211,
1.4116017818450928,
-0.6101780533790588,
-0.17816759645938873,
-0.6186548471450806,
0.03783074766397476,
-0.9758053421974182,
-0.8138723373413086,
0.8144198060035706,
0.5814194679260254,
-0.0828663632273674,
0.09153158962726593,
-0.6032426357269287,
-0.4113246202468872,
0.1955539435148239,
0.09331433475017548,
-0.6096354126930237,
-0.6619852781295776,
-0.03750412166118622,
0.697270393371582,
-0.41672492027282715,
0.03177671134471893,
0.14804011583328247,
-0.10226795822381973,
-0.9931653141975403,
0.13866889476776123,
0.0283027533441782,
0.013199687004089355,
-0.024524608626961708,
-0.058837469667196274,
0.20385977625846863,
-0.4474482238292694,
-0.04370462894439697,
-0.07073262333869934,
0.6795355677604675,
-0.28487831354141235,
-0.4017205834388733,
-0.4303949773311615,
0.8137770891189575,
0.3158876299858093,
0.2749491035938263,
-0.23076355457305908,
0.553227961063385,
-0.5342905521392822,
-0.1890103667974472,
0.43216758966445923,
0.7606043815612793,
-0.1986365020275116,
0.17292097210884094,
-1.317294955253601,
0.7871870994567871,
0.6348260641098022,
-0.9951615929603577,
-0.3147449195384979,
-0.897376298904419,
0.11845412850379944,
-0.020642440766096115,
0.3071524500846863,
0.7602333426475525,
0.2581043541431427,
-0.7101448178291321,
-0.09476621448993683,
-0.10209371149539948,
-1.1369889974594116,
0.7900712490081787,
0.3063023090362549,
-0.7678626775741577,
-0.18204136192798615,
-1.4564404487609863,
-1.2216109037399292,
0.4271906316280365,
-0.13595451414585114,
0.1879153847694397,
-0.12985263764858246,
-0.3422682583332062,
0.10877204686403275,
-0.42845582962036133,
-0.6772831678390503,
0.407260000705719,
0.1606280356645584,
0.26431167125701904,
-0.109286367893219,
0.47099050879478455,
0.30012640357017517,
-0.06088949367403984,
0.3794383704662323,
-0.429265558719635,
-0.37915292382240295,
-1.0954934358596802,
-0.34712857007980347,
-0.7161436080932617,
0.6062276363372803,
0.22198930382728577,
0.25209057331085205,
-0.6392928957939148,
0.22713160514831543,
0.6393998861312866,
-0.3545529842376709,
1.0480819940567017,
-0.3307757079601288,
-0.7352343201637268,
0.38367578387260437,
1.0690656900405884,
-0.36091649532318115,
0.5821884274482727,
0.28923505544662476,
0.13775140047073364,
0.9060505032539368,
0.42220211029052734,
-0.601565420627594,
0.9928303360939026,
-0.1586298644542694,
-1.1944704055786133,
0.06983504444360733,
0.24467381834983826,
-0.8301544189453125,
0.24448221921920776,
-0.028708284720778465,
-0.5976541638374329,
-0.5447198152542114,
-0.44257962703704834,
-0.1508975476026535,
-0.637898325920105,
-0.45923271775245667,
-0.8051387071609497,
-0.09963589161634445,
-0.13257500529289246,
0.06408554315567017,
-0.3594198524951935,
1.3173768520355225,
-0.5217416286468506,
0.3274524509906769,
-0.11612649261951447,
0.2619509696960449,
-0.3719974756240845,
-0.6855564117431641,
0.5879416465759277,
-0.6887728571891785,
0.05373402684926987,
-0.09597355872392654,
-0.20657752454280853,
1.1434277296066284,
1.0390156507492065,
0.14575935900211334,
0.1883080154657364,
0.6140727996826172,
0.8747884035110474,
0.0658043846487999,
-0.7901026010513306,
-0.1368279755115509,
0.014485318213701248,
0.7561092972755432,
-0.33754974603652954,
-0.7028928399085999,
-0.14261631667613983,
0.24594512581825256,
-0.36692801117897034,
0.18632613122463226,
-0.2252875715494156,
-0.49830928444862366,
0.28703680634498596,
0.8803234100341797,
0.5409948825836182,
0.14188480377197266,
0.2767399549484253,
-0.3936680555343628,
0.8686808943748474,
0.04672912508249283,
-0.18440121412277222,
1.0746451616287231,
-0.8986923098564148,
-0.05792149901390076,
-0.43957453966140747,
0.21163173019886017,
0.053155116736888885,
-0.4687567353248596,
0.8597337603569031,
0.48379236459732056,
-0.16706962883472443,
0.3151262700557709,
-0.3788934350013733,
-0.2766312062740326,
0.6662454605102539,
0.3462887704372406,
-0.20693613588809967,
0.30453363060951233,
-0.29397663474082947,
-0.4941340982913971,
0.6915343403816223,
-0.07099924236536026,
0.6755150556564331,
-0.7015236616134644,
-1.1116430759429932,
-0.44341713190078735,
-0.5024836659431458,
0.12701746821403503,
0.7345655560493469,
-0.30865707993507385,
0.3840692639350891,
-0.28839901089668274,
-0.07754415273666382,
-0.8852620720863342,
0.7378665208816528,
0.3531056046485901,
-0.03276529163122177,
-0.17301632463932037,
0.4333449900150299,
0.27519679069519043,
-0.5229060053825378,
-0.111493319272995,
-0.23445896804332733,
-0.5073689818382263,
-0.5439672470092773,
0.2103208303451538,
0.8277381062507629,
-0.5495684742927551,
-0.23796625435352325,
0.5060024857521057,
-0.33584684133529663,
-0.06286045163869858,
1.2128397226333618,
-0.22711490094661713,
-0.0016566261183470488,
0.8025888204574585,
-0.5312719941139221,
-0.7997626066207886,
0.5778279900550842,
-0.786165177822113,
0.2088135927915573,
-0.14798082411289215,
1.177007794380188,
0.7000342607498169,
-0.3230004906654358,
-1.1833101511001587,
0.18286451697349548,
0.05485251545906067,
-0.7111791372299194,
0.41088926792144775,
-0.2675161361694336,
0.16046132147312164,
0.17028850317001343,
0.23447342216968536,
0.7428576946258545,
0.1900363564491272,
0.0071257674135267735,
-0.18450196087360382,
-0.19730594754219055,
0.11279620230197906,
0.05578428506851196,
0.4540603756904602,
0.11817429959774017,
0.6959760785102844,
-0.07026665657758713,
0.06741213798522949,
0.4955291152000427,
0.6406835317611694,
0.3122280538082123,
0.36561456322669983,
-0.23193448781967163,
0.05292189121246338,
0.31918856501579285,
-0.41926878690719604,
0.25870099663734436,
0.3498595356941223,
-0.5264238715171814,
-0.29003825783729553,
-0.1334836483001709,
0.8933666348457336,
-0.6121799945831299,
-0.5261529684066772,
-0.2098991572856903,
0.03272893652319908,
0.5319979786872864,
0.08232694864273071,
-0.31722861528396606,
0.661277174949646,
0.31005311012268066,
0.0542442761361599,
0.03834003210067749,
0.01368861272931099,
0.008030270226299763,
-0.4242737591266632,
-0.23098692297935486,
-0.37662380933761597,
-0.37769433856010437,
-0.057862624526023865,
-0.056241415441036224,
-0.0173916295170784,
-0.10786878317594528,
0.11576284468173981,
-0.4794984757900238,
0.1831047236919403,
-0.024572040885686874,
0.3415670096874237,
-0.6160911917686462,
0.07338198274374008,
-0.5844504237174988,
-0.845747172832489,
0.6251242756843567,
0.6079313158988953,
-0.45741838216781616,
0.6212660670280457,
0.3772319555282593,
0.11539870500564575,
-0.1117764562368393,
0.2979254722595215,
0.29308563470840454,
-0.06611596047878265,
0.8504263758659363,
-0.726013720035553,
0.04786628857254982,
-0.32890117168426514,
0.06301292777061462,
0.06349390745162964,
0.8556532263755798,
0.24662579596042633,
0.32262539863586426,
0.3908160924911499,
-0.7111806869506836,
-0.5413656830787659,
-0.21690092980861664,
-0.11340811848640442,
0.485390841960907,
-0.07952626794576645,
0.7547823190689087,
0.018604503944516182,
-0.032215289771556854,
0.2960774600505829,
-0.027511347085237503,
-1.1585078239440918,
0.2853013277053833,
-0.5046799182891846,
0.5092804431915283,
0.16419078409671783,
-0.17658019065856934,
-0.6781715154647827,
-0.21544449031352997,
0.1669710874557495,
0.6493050456047058,
0.28661027550697327,
-0.3312264680862427,
0.332196980714798,
-0.027704289183020592,
-0.03921220079064369,
0.2273447960615158,
0.8867211937904358,
0.13133259117603302,
-1.2423421144485474,
-0.9500922560691833,
0.40874412655830383,
0.2156154066324234,
0.9648171663284302,
-0.2506917417049408,
0.6476702690124512,
0.35050860047340393,
-0.5540308952331543,
0.7943677306175232,
0.5239487886428833,
-0.35992029309272766,
-0.18470291793346405,
0.2901776432991028
] |
229018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental%20System | Continental System | The Continental Blockade (), or Continental System, was the foreign policy of Napoleon Bonaparte against the United Kingdom during the Napoleonic Wars. As a response to the naval blockade of the French coasts enacted by the British government on 16 May 1806, Napoleon issued the Berlin Decree on 21 November 1806, which brought into effect a large-scale embargo against British trade. The embargo was applied intermittently, ending on 11 April 1814 after Napoleon's first abdication. The blockade caused little economic damage to the UK, although British exports to the continent (as a proportion of the UK's total trade) dropped from 55% to 25% between 1802 and 1806. As Napoleon realized that extensive trade was going through Spain and Russia, he invaded those two countries. His forces were tied down in Spain—in which the Spanish War of Independence was occurring simultaneously—and suffered severely in, and ultimately retreated from, Russia in 1812.
The Berlin Decree forbade the import of British goods into any European countries allied with or dependent upon France, and it installed the Continental System in Europe. All connections with Britain were to be cut, even the mail. British merchants smuggled in many goods and the Continental System was not a powerful weapon of economic war. There was some damage to British trade, especially in 1808 and 1812, but British control of the oceans led to replacement trade with North and South America, as well as large scale smuggling in Europe. The loss of Britain as a trading partner also hit the economies of France and its allies. Angry governments gained an incentive to ignore the Continental System, which led to the weakening of Napoleon's coalition.
Background
The United Kingdom was the central important force in encouraging and financing alliances against Napoleonic France. Napoleon was frustrated in his repeated attempts to defeat Britain. Attacks that involved naval power had all failed, with the systematic defeats of the combined French and Spanish navies. After the decisive defeat at Trafalgar, Napoleon made no attempt to rebuild his Navy. He turned instead to economic warfare, planning to ruin the British economy. It was thought that Britain depended completely upon trade with Europe for its prosperity, so cutting off trade with continental Europe would ruin the British economy and force it to sue for peace. A blockade was impossible because the Royal Navy controlled the seas, but if Napoleon controlled the ports of Europe, he could prevent British products from landing.
The Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade of the French and French-allied coasts, on 16 May 1806. Napoleon resorted instead to economic warfare. Britain was Europe's manufacturing and business center as a result of the Industrial Revolution. Napoleon believed it would be easy to take advantage of an embargo on trade with the European nations under his control, causing inflation and great debt to undermine the British strength. His position was strengthened by the Fall of Berlin in October 1806, bringing swathes of Prussia under his control.
In November 1806, having recently conquered or allied with every major power on the European continent, Napoleon, in retaliation to the British Order-in-Council of 17 May 1806 blockading all ports from Brest to the Elbe, issued the Berlin Decree forbidding his allies and conquests from trading with the British. Britain responded with further Orders in Council issued on 10 January and 11 November 1807. These forbade French trade with Britain, its allies or neutrals, and instructed the Royal Navy to blockade all French and allied ports, and to prevent all shipping whether neutral or not. Napoleon responded again with the Milan Decree of 1807, declaring that all neutral shipping using British ports or paying British tariffs were to be regarded as British and seized.
Napoleon's plan to defeat Britain was to destroy its ability to trade. As an island nation, trade was its most vital lifeline. Napoleon believed that if he could isolate Britain economically, he would be able to invade the nation after its economic collapse. Napoleon decreed that all commercial ships wishing to do business in Europe must first stop at a French port in order to ensure that there could be no trade with Britain. He also ordered all European nations and French allies to stop trading with Britain, and he threatened Russia with an invasion if they did not comply as well. His orders backfired in the Iberian Peninsula, especially in Portugal (being allied to Britain), setting off the Peninsular War. He pushed Russia too hard, both in terms of the Continental System, and in his demands for control over part of Poland. Napoleon's attempted 1812 invasion of Russia was a disaster which set the stage for his downfall.
Effects
United Kingdom
The System had mixed effects on British trade. The embargo encouraged British merchants to seek out new markets aggressively and to engage in smuggling with continental Europe. Napoleon's exclusively land-based customs enforcers could not stop British smugglers, especially as these operated with the connivance of Napoleon's chosen rulers of Spain, Westphalia and other German states. British exports to the Continent fell between 25% to 55% compared to pre-1806 levels. However, trade sharply increased with the rest of the world, covering much of the decline.
Britain, by Orders in Council, prohibited other countries (that is, its trade partners) from trading with France. The British countered the Continental system by threatening to sink any ship that did not come to a British port or chose to comply with France. This double threat created a difficult time for neutral nations like the United States. In response to this prohibition, the U.S. government adopted the Embargo Act of 1807 and eventually Macon's Bill No. 2. This embargo was designed as an economic counterattack to hurt Britain, but it proved even more damaging to American merchants. Together with the issues of the impressment of foreign seamen, and British support for Indian raids in the American west, tensions led to a declaration of war by the U.S. in the War of 1812. This war, not Napoleon's blockade, sharply reduced British trade with the United States.
The British economy suffered greatly in 1810 to 1812, especially in terms of high unemployment and inflation. This led to widespread protest and violence, but the middle classes and upper classes strongly supported the government, which used the army to suppress the working class unrest, especially the Luddite movement.
France and Continental Europe
The episode seriously hurt France itself. Shipbuilding, and its trades such as rope-making, declined, as did many other industries that relied on overseas markets, such as the linen industries. With few exports and lost profits, many industries were closed down. Southern France, especially the port cities of Marseille and Bordeaux, as well as the city of La Rochelle, suffered from the reduction in trade. Moreover, the prices of staple foods rose in most of continental Europe.
Napoleon's St. Cloud Decree in July 1810 opened the southwest of France and the Spanish frontier to limited British trade, and reopened French trade to the United States. It was an admission that his blockade had hurt his own economy more than the British. It had also failed to reduce British financial support for its allies. The industrialized north and east of France, and Wallonia (the south of today's Belgium) saw significantly increased profits due to the lack of competition from British goods (particularly textiles, which were produced much more cheaply in Britain).
In Italy, the agricultural sector flourished; but the Dutch economy, predicated on trade, suffered greatly as a result of the embargo. Napoleon's economic warfare was much to the chagrin of his own brother, King Louis I of Holland.
Scandinavia and the Baltic region
Britain's first response to the Continental system was to launch a major naval attack on the weakest link in Napoleon's coalition, Denmark. Although ostensibly neutral, Denmark was under heavy French and Russian pressure to pledge its fleet to Napoleon. London could not take the chance of ignoring the Danish threat. In the Second Battle of Copenhagen in August–September 1807, the Royal Navy bombarded Copenhagen, seized the Danish fleet, and assured control of the sea lanes in the North Sea and Baltic Sea for the British merchant fleet. The island of Heligoland off the west coast of Denmark was occupied in September 1807. This base made it easier for Britain to control trade to North Sea ports and to facilitate smuggling. The attacks against Copenhagen and Heligoland started the Gunboat War against Denmark, which lasted until 1814.
Sweden, Britain's ally in the Third Coalition, refused to comply with French demands and was attacked by Russia in February and by Denmark/Norway in March 1808. At the same time, a French force threatened to invade southern Sweden, but the plan was stopped as the Royal Navy controlled the Danish straits. The Royal Navy set up a base outside the port of Gothenburg in 1808 to simplify operations into the Baltic Sea. The Baltic campaign was under the command of admiral James Saumarez. In November 1810 France demanded that Sweden should declare war upon the United Kingdom and stop all trade. The result was a phoney war between Sweden and Britain. A second navy base was set up on the island of Hanö in the south of Sweden in 1810. These two bases were used to support convoys from Britain to Gothenburg, then through the Danish straits to Hanö. From Hanö the goods were smuggled to the many ports around the Baltic Sea. To further support the convoys, the small Danish island of Anholt was occupied in May 1809. A lighthouse on the island simplified navigation through the Danish straits.
Russia also chafed under the embargo, and in 1810 reopened trade with Britain. Russia's withdrawal from the system was a motivating factor behind Napoleon's decision to invade Russia in 1812, which proved the turning point of the war and his regime.
Portugal and Spain
Portugal openly refused to join the Continental System. In 1793, Portugal signed a treaty of mutual assistance with Britain. After the Treaty of Tilsit of July 1807, Napoleon attempted to capture the Portuguese Fleet and the House of Braganza, and to occupy the Portuguese ports. He failed, as Queen Maria I of Portugal took her fleet and transferred the Portuguese court to Brazil with a Royal Navy escort. The Portuguese population rose in revolt against the French invaders, with the help of the British Army under Arthur Wellesley, later the Duke of Wellington. Napoleon intervened, and the Peninsular War began in 1808. Napoleon also forced the Spanish royal family to abdicate their throne in favor of Napoleon's brother, Joseph.
References
Further reading
Aaslestad, Katherine B., and Johan Joor, eds. Revisiting Napoleon's Continental System: Local, Regional and European Experiences (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014). Wide-ranging essays by experts excerpt
Breunig, Charles. The Age of Revolution and Reaction 1789–1850 (1970), Chapter 2
Broers, Michael. Europe Under Napoleon (IB Tauris, 2014).
Crouzet, François. "Wars, blockade, and economic change in Europe, 1792–1815." Journal of Economic History 24#4 (1964): 567–88. in JSTOR
Godechot, Jacques, et al. The Napoleonic era in Europe (1971) pp. 126–39, 156–59.
Gottschalk, Louis R. The Era of the French Revolution. (1715–1815) (1929) pp. 373–99. online
Heckscher, Eli. The continental system: an economic interpretation (1922), the only global survey of the Continental System; online
Knight, Roger. Britain against Napoleon (2013) pp. 386–416.
Mowat, R. B. The Diplomacy of Napoleon (1924) pp. 190–206 online
O’Rourke, Kevin H. "War and welfare: Britain, France, and the United States 1807–14." Oxford Economic Papers 59.suppl 1 (2007): i8–i30, uses econometrics to argue Britain fared better than either France or the United States.
Rose, J. H. "Napoleon and English Commerce." English Historical Review 8#32 (1893): 704–25. online.
Ruppenthal, Roland. "Denmark and the Continental System." Journal of Modern History 15.1 (1943): 7–23. in JSTOR
Sloane, William M."The Continental System of Napoleon" Political Science Quarterly (1898) 12#2 213–31.online
External links
"Documents upon the Continental System", from napoleon-series.org
19th century in France
19th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Diplomacy
Economic nationalism
Economic warfare
Legislation of the War of 1812
Military history of France
Napoleon
Napoleonic Wars
Blockades involving the United Kingdom | [
-0.4690665006637573,
-0.4517885446548462,
-0.21763692796230316,
-0.21464210748672485,
0.26879793405532837,
0.21286237239837646,
0.36904048919677734,
0.7307358384132385,
-0.2553747892379761,
-0.29375889897346497,
-0.1922650784254074,
0.2312096208333969,
-0.36078500747680664,
0.38324490189552307,
0.007707114797085524,
0.48626595735549927,
0.6398125290870667,
-0.17427584528923035,
0.025863921269774437,
-0.05967745557427406,
-0.885947048664093,
0.5447065830230713,
0.09046263247728348,
-0.17785708606243134,
0.1680760532617569,
-0.5361953377723694,
0.7306311726570129,
-0.6766344904899597,
-0.005657666362822056,
-0.31794118881225586,
0.6179232001304626,
0.20528623461723328,
-0.837783932685852,
-0.28341853618621826,
-0.18221920728683472,
-0.37561237812042236,
-0.4997944235801697,
0.032651904970407486,
-0.5386453866958618,
-0.3884364664554596,
-0.1557345688343048,
-0.5353357791900635,
0.3077344596385956,
0.17276334762573242,
-0.5641125440597534,
-0.31181660294532776,
-1.3661478757858276,
0.3538258969783783,
-0.24416764080524445,
-0.6793498396873474,
-0.18325869739055634,
0.48597201704978943,
0.1541643589735031,
0.3111180365085602,
-0.2887832224369049,
0.04499370604753494,
-0.8807976245880127,
-0.6495540738105774,
0.10564790666103363,
-0.5699100494384766,
0.27537116408348083,
0.8386396169662476,
0.3449980318546295,
0.2695252299308777,
-0.14509911835193634,
-0.4443698823451996,
0.20767682790756226,
0.5973055958747864,
-0.23040787875652313,
-0.8651072978973389,
-0.24205106496810913,
0.01944955438375473,
0.023857539519667625,
-0.11143717169761658,
-0.04884955659508705,
-0.358515202999115,
0.21433831751346588,
0.09082947671413422,
-0.03828299418091774,
0.012341397814452648,
0.05888345465064049,
-0.15308554470539093,
0.6698776483535767,
-0.2668842077255249,
0.06646572798490524,
0.13579265773296356,
0.39285996556282043,
0.17909611761569977,
-0.285664826631546,
-0.05834827944636345,
0.2174716293811798,
0.2919372022151947,
0.5002752542495728,
-0.5756418108940125,
-0.10292071104049683,
-0.2646404802799225,
0.20565754175186157,
-0.19508151710033417,
0.4114455282688141,
0.12080460786819458,
-0.7253751754760742,
-0.08796364068984985,
0.6799067258834839,
0.1493200808763504,
-0.25578323006629944,
-0.2859402596950531,
0.290230929851532,
-0.674402117729187,
-0.4376574754714966,
0.09289350360631943,
0.0972360223531723,
-0.19015422463417053,
0.24931739270687103,
0.2337731420993805,
-0.26932021975517273,
-0.15070253610610962,
-0.41975027322769165,
-0.23994511365890503,
0.11583873629570007,
-0.34145477414131165,
0.20387916266918182,
0.39277586340904236,
0.08493659645318985,
-0.3271528482437134,
0.1849939227104187,
-0.41678446531295776,
0.4934898018836975,
0.047440193593502045,
-0.841839611530304,
-0.20802482962608337,
0.251335471868515,
0.8086863160133362,
-0.9286108613014221,
0.2386835813522339,
-0.6645902395248413,
-0.07288412749767303,
0.5563220977783203,
0.16788692772388458,
0.1420760154724121,
0.03686262294650078,
-0.11610608547925949,
-0.5533292293548584,
0.013096965849399567,
0.12321452051401138,
0.10400727391242981,
-0.057540036737918854,
0.48450785875320435,
-0.2736106514930725,
-0.14930692315101624,
-0.31003591418266296,
-0.01874106004834175,
0.2767063081264496,
0.02778664603829384,
0.18340834975242615,
0.1453469693660736,
-0.24858011305332184,
0.6701627969741821,
0.1022329181432724,
-0.10791948437690735,
-0.15013881027698517,
0.029368406161665916,
-0.07080069184303284,
-0.06396650522947311,
-0.08676682412624359,
0.3912818729877472,
-0.10196124762296677,
0.0792030617594719,
0.3511550724506378,
-0.03697758540511131,
0.06801430135965347,
-0.033119697123765945,
0.14085771143436432,
0.46452584862709045,
-0.06506539136171341,
0.14837591350078583,
0.6728121638298035,
0.49314936995506287,
0.6647365689277649,
0.7543299198150635,
-0.19547897577285767,
-0.45997777581214905,
0.5857540369033813,
0.3914916217327118,
-0.1498056948184967,
0.15175119042396545,
0.39057597517967224,
0.5394753813743591,
-0.1783921718597412,
-0.37816616892814636,
0.044005438685417175,
-0.012209386564791203,
-0.21455423533916473,
-0.24436217546463013,
-0.7198378443717957,
1.0870448350906372,
0.12493676692247391,
-0.5912396311759949,
0.46210014820098877,
0.21499979496002197,
0.2290201485157013,
-0.2494857758283615,
-0.42547619342803955,
0.4032628536224365,
0.2049865573644638,
-0.16495542228221893,
-0.006595454178750515,
0.017899833619594574,
-0.24278317391872406,
0.6579866409301758,
0.73603355884552,
-0.2017613798379898,
-0.7053918242454529,
0.366190642118454,
-0.05655953288078308,
0.09167651832103729,
-0.19370347261428833,
-0.3486138582229614,
0.3407803773880005,
-0.05936559662222862,
0.2659897208213806,
-0.07470837980508804,
-0.4490203857421875,
0.28411105275154114,
1.1630421876907349,
0.3355582654476166,
-0.008381914347410202,
0.06385400146245956,
0.323737233877182,
-0.0250188410282135,
-0.5303096175193787,
-0.15766623616218567,
-0.16977167129516602,
0.1700490266084671,
-0.21662898361682892,
0.5128587484359741,
-0.3097734749317169,
-0.2665587365627289,
-0.042976539582014084,
-0.5938848257064819,
-0.08459607511758804,
0.035213176161050797,
-0.1956397294998169,
-0.10316506773233414,
0.9164561033248901,
-0.4531097114086151,
0.2052643597126007,
-0.032463088631629944,
-0.017216475680470467,
0.5284596085548401,
-0.23114077746868134,
-0.4274826943874359,
0.5963623523712158,
-0.21681299805641174,
-0.20292839407920837,
0.3525374233722687,
-0.3166651129722595,
0.7467045187950134,
0.2628825306892395,
0.38834744691848755,
0.273773193359375,
-0.4987076222896576,
0.35683298110961914,
-0.142083540558815,
0.4320894777774811,
0.134428471326828,
-0.9288638234138489,
-0.29559755325317383,
-0.10094310343265533,
-0.20339573919773102,
0.0689709261059761,
0.4207637906074524,
-0.00405564159154892,
-0.39257383346557617,
-0.0713384822010994,
-0.04181729257106781,
-0.2784687578678131,
0.18554453551769257,
0.6219835877418518,
-0.3429994583129883,
-0.1863766461610794,
-0.109324611723423,
0.08728190511465073,
-0.43260160088539124,
-0.5477709174156189,
0.11567934602499008,
-0.9686099290847778,
-0.24262821674346924,
-0.6200488805770874,
0.2026408314704895,
0.28410157561302185,
-0.15325459837913513,
-0.02588849887251854,
-0.1014963909983635,
0.02664250321686268,
-0.3428066670894623,
0.8687592148780823,
-0.6166257858276367,
-0.040989235043525696,
0.3552611172199249,
-0.0341615229845047,
-0.6257581114768982,
-0.16994470357894897,
-0.2508251965045929,
0.6450175046920776,
0.42233940958976746,
-0.5093015432357788,
-0.5160584449768066,
0.23372136056423187,
-5.923904895782471,
0.36594438552856445,
0.32983270287513733,
0.22724251449108124,
-0.06964007765054703,
0.2963773012161255,
0.6650928854942322,
0.458763986825943,
0.20840075612068176,
0.02263033017516136,
0.4878348112106323,
0.0583033561706543,
-0.2067919820547104,
0.023454247042536736,
0.304589182138443,
0.13064619898796082,
0.1905561089515686,
-0.190214142203331,
-0.026209983974695206,
0.3209247291088104,
0.18573309481143951,
-0.06150512769818306,
0.46778959035873413,
0.43167421221733093,
0.2946677505970001,
-0.09069739282131195,
0.24237951636314392,
0.2831941843032837,
-0.02752058021724224,
0.49885761737823486,
-0.3493899703025818,
0.09891708940267563,
0.4722645878791809,
-0.2831740379333496,
-0.011184195056557655,
-0.5755612254142761,
0.6935593485832214,
0.8373388648033142,
-0.17790526151657104,
-0.15889914333820343,
0.039377909153699875,
0.7799817323684692,
0.09564395248889923,
0.5014914870262146,
0.2625609338283539,
-0.13970836997032166,
0.05588905140757561,
0.05802265182137489,
-0.28217628598213196,
0.551751971244812,
-0.2189333587884903,
0.4612419307231903,
0.15219227969646454,
-0.2693474292755127,
-0.21996630728244781,
-0.1316884160041809,
-0.10361671447753906,
-0.46108466386795044,
-0.6992365121841431,
0.5503804087638855,
0.47698521614074707,
-0.38993415236473083,
-0.34525954723358154,
0.42406901717185974,
0.41717442870140076,
-0.6452853679656982,
-0.8357159495353699,
-0.35128939151763916,
0.2365107536315918,
0.5159430503845215,
-0.14171499013900757,
0.1667749285697937,
0.48882192373275757,
-0.7697377800941467,
0.030354034155607224,
-0.20692837238311768,
0.17076937854290009,
-0.03955480083823204,
0.623758852481842,
0.03068939968943596,
-0.2909527122974396,
0.38708892464637756,
-0.19366271793842316,
0.5494643449783325,
0.32731717824935913,
0.11968323588371277,
0.02896534837782383,
0.6355284452438354,
-0.757121741771698,
0.1271492838859558,
-0.22087575495243073,
-0.17887182533740997,
0.19382770359516144,
0.06967958062887192,
0.11522307991981506,
0.3487929105758667,
-0.8067410588264465,
0.21228544414043427,
0.3978792130947113,
-0.23926308751106262,
0.646308422088623,
0.282053142786026,
0.13149498403072357,
-0.35794591903686523,
0.2895583212375641,
-0.02941192500293255,
0.12465179711580276,
0.3979434370994568,
0.09503470361232758,
-0.07734903693199158,
-0.09004510194063187,
0.47121596336364746,
-0.30200693011283875,
0.20761889219284058,
-0.005291913170367479,
0.21129268407821655,
-0.19339019060134888,
0.2039555460214615,
0.5358730554580688,
0.0611666738986969,
-0.03934047743678093,
0.7359855771064758,
-0.4195970296859741,
-0.20660288631916046,
0.22655144333839417,
-0.2437925487756729,
-0.3138720989227295,
-0.28867095708847046,
0.3764599561691284,
0.4348779022693634,
0.3350105285644531,
0.06527845561504364,
-0.0034926298540085554,
0.22793693840503693,
0.8104211091995239,
-0.19136522710323334,
-0.05483604967594147,
-0.12142975628376007,
-0.24277207255363464,
0.1333167999982834,
-0.27846482396125793,
-0.8194611668586731,
0.029192425310611725,
0.2897305488586426,
-0.10687866061925888,
-0.3357672095298767,
-0.09928622841835022,
-0.3208690881729126,
0.5021634101867676,
0.5831319093704224,
-0.0964367538690567,
0.031274620443582535,
0.48042288422584534,
-0.1864680051803589,
0.19808429479599,
-0.012679384090006351,
0.5439572334289551,
-0.35015666484832764,
-0.10843808948993683,
-0.35381725430488586,
0.48156291246414185,
-0.3882327973842621,
-0.38302895426750183,
-0.38090214133262634,
0.33156800270080566,
0.09604223817586899,
-0.7712674140930176,
-0.3111576735973358,
0.09863709658384323,
0.21917904913425446,
-0.01776401698589325,
-0.519891619682312,
-0.40430888533592224,
0.16196884214878082,
0.0014425704721361399,
0.2822665274143219,
-0.552085280418396,
-0.26402074098587036,
-0.30950912833213806,
-0.14010187983512878,
-0.13733451068401337,
-0.3975864350795746,
-0.499960720539093,
0.41946470737457275,
-0.028133589774370193,
-0.5189261436462402,
0.03391137719154358,
0.17394010722637177,
0.20450656116008759,
-0.1686425656080246,
0.13217271864414215,
0.02548830769956112,
-0.1935165822505951,
0.2924967408180237,
-0.4768323600292206,
-0.4055013656616211,
-0.24199576675891876,
0.7694661617279053,
-0.057083915919065475,
0.08485575020313263,
0.06993238627910614,
0.18365804851055145,
-0.18443384766578674,
-0.08289904147386551,
-0.2991844713687897,
0.005748355761170387,
0.21150502562522888,
-0.2653386890888214,
-0.1336434930562973,
0.6570550203323364,
-0.6453925967216492,
-0.23258966207504272,
-0.6775262355804443,
0.7829734086990356,
-0.048960477113723755,
-0.1563577651977539,
-0.5352351665496826,
-0.03370130807161331,
0.20881539583206177,
0.1052822470664978,
0.035448163747787476,
-0.1824934482574463,
-0.845870852470398,
-0.12981314957141876,
-0.5427285432815552,
0.5545784831047058,
0.511926531791687,
-0.4566042125225067,
-0.061042677611112595,
0.2668827474117279,
-0.15097662806510925,
-0.5736022591590881,
-0.13731181621551514,
0.30846551060676575,
0.41215407848358154,
0.013142029754817486,
0.45864132046699524,
0.02257230132818222,
-0.4962964355945587,
0.42747926712036133,
0.23272590339183807,
0.6547211408615112,
0.032364338636398315,
0.008491885848343372,
0.1699504405260086,
0.5462727546691895,
0.7026607990264893,
-0.3469381630420685,
-0.15296459197998047,
-0.24508488178253174,
-0.7378410696983337,
-0.24660898745059967,
-0.4268261194229126,
0.09808593988418579,
0.4296759068965912,
-0.3646192252635956,
0.07612117379903793,
0.052333541214466095,
-0.19882650673389435,
0.015895599499344826,
-0.29778268933296204,
-0.3166130781173706,
-0.5403410196304321,
-0.147476926445961,
0.07671177387237549,
-0.36722174286842346,
-0.10303002595901489,
-0.004876193590462208,
-0.7154380083084106,
-0.5911506414413452,
0.5439655780792236,
-0.7268749475479126,
-0.007346185855567455,
0.8453115224838257,
0.34452930092811584,
0.21205763518810272,
0.25555089116096497,
-0.4351766109466553,
0.5512062311172485,
-0.20289672911167145,
-0.5994304418563843,
-0.0333029143512249,
-0.06499993801116943,
-0.8515270352363586,
0.11625781655311584,
-0.7863339185714722,
-0.37507614493370056,
-0.16290511190891266,
0.32686278223991394,
-0.06920067220926285,
-0.38623741269111633,
0.18153303861618042,
-0.0015416191890835762,
-0.4156625270843506,
-0.5256779789924622,
0.4635074734687805,
-0.7058067917823792,
0.1374540627002716,
-0.09736694395542145,
0.09903348982334137,
-0.3614899218082428,
-0.34674176573753357,
-0.4613388478755951,
-0.0011083194985985756,
0.061774350702762604,
0.04087163880467415,
0.24601049721240997,
0.29009321331977844,
0.1584721952676773,
-0.18640586733818054,
0.18929126858711243,
-0.43251556158065796,
-0.24881844222545624,
0.047580230981111526,
-0.22865206003189087,
0.19261012971401215,
0.8135773539543152,
-0.6601546406745911,
0.06896404176950455,
0.4019143581390381,
0.5700453519821167,
0.3034486472606659,
-0.1321513056755066,
-0.2333761602640152,
0.720180869102478,
0.14374469220638275,
-0.16238488256931305,
0.4122243821620941,
-0.24508780241012573,
-0.12822653353214264,
0.22699971497058868,
0.28059491515159607,
-0.5840168595314026,
0.1795957088470459,
-0.4188156723976135,
-0.25016704201698303,
0.1757040172815323,
-0.47913870215415955,
0.29461944103240967,
0.04505293816328049,
0.31234362721443176,
0.27600884437561035,
-0.5151816010475159,
-0.26341676712036133,
-0.16099125146865845,
0.1791713684797287,
0.1925557255744934,
-0.26997917890548706,
-0.34189754724502563,
0.719130277633667,
0.715556263923645,
-0.15845610201358795,
0.22400309145450592,
-0.356037974357605,
0.7953417897224426,
-0.402951717376709,
-0.013380872085690498,
0.2825835347175598,
0.2880074679851532,
-0.758463978767395,
0.21732750535011292,
0.029179805889725685,
0.45166394114494324,
-0.3875633776187897,
0.44028937816619873,
0.6331818699836731,
0.19114816188812256,
-0.5604482293128967,
-0.2327827513217926,
0.15628720819950104,
0.041917383670806885,
-0.6319135427474976,
0.6504494547843933,
-0.07753507047891617,
-0.17928524315357208,
-0.07797791808843613,
0.37027716636657715,
0.36083582043647766,
0.453110009431839,
-0.17343206703662872,
-0.359182208776474,
-0.40568193793296814,
0.3643192946910858,
-0.4013017416000366,
-0.2668684720993042,
-0.07145083695650101,
-0.0023624636232852936,
-0.11104906350374222,
-0.7844340801239014,
0.03567316383123398,
-0.17934656143188477,
-0.2836483418941498,
-0.4303748607635498,
0.16692699491977692,
-0.129033163189888,
-0.07168186455965042,
0.3147002160549164,
0.8809608221054077,
0.12685474753379822,
-0.4703143537044525,
-0.03719916567206383,
0.3412906527519226,
-0.0980244055390358,
0.08908583968877792,
0.42946210503578186,
0.48575082421302795,
-0.5950539112091064,
0.15938161313533783,
-0.4630824029445648,
0.26067104935646057,
0.06715281307697296,
-0.23406009376049042,
-0.24343927204608917,
0.3236287534236908,
-0.19138269126415253,
0.08082549273967743,
0.45488908886909485,
-0.1323055624961853,
0.05808517336845398,
-0.11702513694763184,
0.5691060423851013,
0.20792803168296814,
-0.05807363986968994,
-0.27057141065597534,
-0.1548265814781189,
-0.07303034514188766,
0.6653916835784912,
0.09966392815113068,
0.07136829197406769,
1.2013612985610962,
0.03959793969988823,
-0.9956421256065369,
-0.6100088953971863,
0.1359586864709854,
-0.20876924693584442,
-0.6120831370353699,
0.5068476796150208,
0.16051922738552094,
0.022599609568715096,
-0.34997671842575073,
0.32430970668792725,
0.04648060351610184,
0.23307186365127563,
-0.09913275390863419,
0.2665691375732422,
-0.5061506628990173,
0.5493787527084351,
-0.14357498288154602,
-0.4021071791648865,
0.7309538125991821,
0.17349734902381897,
0.19803211092948914,
0.3991178274154663,
-0.31069841980934143,
0.2137676477432251,
-0.3928143382072449,
0.11400848627090454,
-0.7944364547729492,
0.14772887527942657,
0.32450374960899353
] |
229020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%20goose | Egyptian goose | The Egyptian goose (Alopochen aegyptiaca) is a member of the duck, goose, and swan family Anatidae. It is native to Africa south of the Sahara and the Nile Valley.
Egyptian geese were considered sacred by the Ancient Egyptians, and appeared in much of their artwork. Because of their popularity chiefly as an ornamental bird, escapees are common and feral populations have become established in Western Europe, the United States, and New Zealand.
Taxonomy
The Egyptian goose is believed to be most closely related to the shelducks (genus Tadorna) and their relatives, and is placed with them in the subfamily Tadorninae. It is the only extant member of the genus Alopochen, which also contains closely related prehistoric and recently extinct species. mtDNA cytochrome b sequence data suggest that the relationships of Alopochen to Tadorna need further investigation.
Etymology
The generic name Alopochen (literally, fox-goose) is based on Greek (alōpós, also alōpēx), "fox", and (chēn) "goose", referring to the ruddy colour of its back. The word χήν : chēn is grammatically of either masculine or feminine gender.
The species name aegyptiacus (or aegyptiaca) is from the Latin Aegyptiacus, "Egyptian".
Description
It swims well and in flight looks heavy, more like a goose than a duck, hence the English name. It is long.
The sexes of this species are identical in plumage but the males average slightly larger. There is a fair amount of variation in plumage tone, with some birds greyer and others browner, but this is not sex- or age-related. A large part of the wings of mature birds is white, but in repose the white is hidden by the wing coverts. When it is aroused, either in alarm or aggression, the white begins to show. In flight or when the wings are fully spread in aggression, the white is conspicuous.
The voices and vocalisations of the sexes differ, the male having a hoarse, subdued duck-like quack which seldom sounds unless it is aroused. The male Egyptian goose attracts its mate with an elaborate, noisy courtship display that includes honking, neck stretching and feather displays. The female has a far noisier raucous quack that frequently sounds in aggression and almost incessantly at the slightest disturbance when tending her young.
Distribution
This species breeds widely in Africa except in deserts and dense forests, and is locally abundant. They are found mostly in the Nile Valley and south of the Sahara. While not breeding, it disperses somewhat, sometimes making longer migrations northwards into the arid regions of the Sahel. It spread to Great Britain, Denmark, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy where there are self-sustaining populations which are mostly derived from escaped ornamental birds. Escapes have also bred on occasion in other places, such as Texas, Florida, California, and New Zealand.
The British population dates back to the 18th century, though only formally added to the British list in 1971. In Great Britain, it is found mainly in East Anglia, and in various locations along the River Thames, where it breeds at sites with open water, short grass and suitable nesting locations (either islands, holes in old trees or amongst epicormic shoots on old trees). During the winter, they are widely dispersed within river valleys, where they feed on short grass and cereals. In the United Kingdom in 2009, it was officially declared a non-native species. Accordingly, Egyptian geese in Great Britain may be shot without special permission if they cause problems.
In Europe, the species has been included since 2017 in the list of Invasive Alien Species of Union concern (the Union list). This implies that this species cannot be imported, bred, transported, commercialized, used, exchanged or intentionally released into the environment.
Behaviour
This is a largely terrestrial species, which will also perch readily on trees and buildings. Egyptian geese typically eat seeds, leaves, grasses and plant stems. Occasionally, they will eat locusts, worms, or other small animals. Until the goslings are a few weeks old and strong enough to graze, they feed largely on small aquatic invertebrates, especially freshwater plankton. As a result, if anoxic conditions lead to the production of botulinum toxin and it gets passed up the food chain via worms and insect larvae insensitive to the toxin, entire clutches of goslings feeding on such prey may die. The parents, who do not eat such organisms to any significant extent, generally remain unaffected.
Both sexes are aggressively territorial towards their own species when breeding and frequently pursue intruders into the air, attacking them in aerial "dogfights". Egyptian geese have been observed attacking aerial objects such as drones that enter their habitat as well. Neighbouring pairs may even kill another's offspring for their own offsprings' survival, as well as for more resources.
This species will nest in a large variety of situations, especially in holes in mature trees in parkland. The female builds the nest from reeds, leaves and grass and both parents take turns incubating the eggs. Egyptian geese usually pair for life. Both the male and female care for the offspring until they are old enough to care for themselves. Such parental care, however, does not include foraging for the young, who, being precocial, forage for themselves.
Gallery
References
External links
Egyptian Goose information from Birds of Britain
Egyptian Goose photos from Go Birding
Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Egyptian goose
Egyptian goose
Birds of Africa
Egyptian goose
Egyptian goose | [
0.1350269764661789,
0.4638936221599579,
-0.7290834784507751,
0.19099055230617523,
0.025800876319408417,
0.6293735504150391,
0.08911804854869843,
0.16447602212429047,
-0.7041226625442505,
-0.3278973698616028,
0.04800441116094589,
-0.3666563928127289,
-0.6661977767944336,
0.37016093730926514,
-0.2636582851409912,
0.3458082973957062,
0.07460274547338486,
0.6222874522209167,
0.10498284548521042,
-0.6157177090644836,
-0.0252937413752079,
-1.1594065427780151,
0.1708122193813324,
-0.28796032071113586,
0.029071062803268433,
-0.14140453934669495,
0.8219505548477173,
0.14298073947429657,
0.30209848284721375,
0.21658997237682343,
-0.24692964553833008,
0.6114683151245117,
0.4037560820579529,
-0.23118846118450165,
0.062298864126205444,
0.26749491691589355,
-0.2889416217803955,
-0.15930990874767303,
-0.3622297942638397,
-0.7128550410270691,
-0.1376742273569107,
-0.32980820536613464,
0.36893168091773987,
0.6020731329917908,
-0.5080186724662781,
-0.6553441286087036,
-0.4685458540916443,
0.9123536944389343,
-0.15372025966644287,
0.3244921565055847,
-0.17594802379608154,
0.24395084381103516,
-0.19863304495811462,
0.7592557668685913,
0.3655394911766052,
0.7552224397659302,
-0.7556939721107483,
0.13393081724643707,
0.14617939293384552,
-0.4456309378147125,
0.6461808681488037,
0.5847532153129578,
0.25845980644226074,
0.18034309148788452,
0.15504176914691925,
0.6052567958831787,
0.46980077028274536,
0.5384709239006042,
-0.35638105869293213,
-0.029256945475935936,
-0.12813889980316162,
-0.12220176309347153,
-0.5759921669960022,
0.5035862922668457,
-0.22457146644592285,
-0.10716398060321808,
0.1189865693449974,
-0.26150813698768616,
0.5434540510177612,
0.34727612137794495,
0.480151504278183,
-0.14224761724472046,
0.6951808929443359,
0.28405341506004333,
-0.306395560503006,
0.40662509202957153,
-0.7384176850318909,
-0.06986535340547562,
-0.4523869454860687,
-0.3884206712245941,
-0.29355213046073914,
-0.040879081934690475,
0.5984633564949036,
0.34523993730545044,
-0.4436221420764923,
0.42824316024780273,
-0.24066053330898285,
-0.3194082975387573,
0.7355977296829224,
-0.34972473978996277,
-0.2498520463705063,
0.24831196665763855,
-0.13566061854362488,
0.2471989542245865,
-0.4005470871925354,
-0.1238262727856636,
-0.3643859624862671,
-0.026682008057832718,
-0.1432531774044037,
0.08990069478750229,
-0.5214965343475342,
0.3586861491203308,
0.05152179300785065,
-0.26315855979919434,
-0.2307661473751068,
0.8098834156990051,
0.22445815801620483,
-0.41113749146461487,
-0.33568671345710754,
-0.1055208072066307,
0.2882048785686493,
0.855294942855835,
-0.21880504488945007,
-0.08988989144563675,
0.10885309427976608,
0.3222331404685974,
0.48057109117507935,
0.6815881729125977,
-0.4420168697834015,
-0.11356305330991745,
0.48502621054649353,
0.8706774711608887,
-0.3873775005340576,
0.15699762105941772,
-0.23904278874397278,
-0.340023010969162,
0.0854741781949997,
0.33565226197242737,
0.8934233784675598,
0.5646012425422668,
-1.5811257362365723,
-0.48040568828582764,
-0.6590262055397034,
0.160207137465477,
-0.29913535714149475,
-0.009344867430627346,
0.15689119696617126,
0.022252637892961502,
0.18036122620105743,
-0.13676117360591888,
-0.13361172378063202,
-0.4260348677635193,
0.15837937593460083,
-0.4048194885253906,
-0.25738945603370667,
-0.3306393027305603,
0.3303186595439911,
-0.12859173119068146,
0.27656665444374084,
-0.015394473448395729,
0.7760285139083862,
0.08292528986930847,
-0.335769921541214,
-0.2075091302394867,
0.2775524854660034,
0.12540316581726074,
0.3563637137413025,
0.32205426692962646,
-0.24131427705287933,
0.032558374106884,
-0.2758644223213196,
-0.030480528250336647,
0.8746231198310852,
-0.18192631006240845,
-0.4368641972541809,
-0.011557824909687042,
-0.12360883504152298,
0.09255672991275787,
0.84443199634552,
0.21500521898269653,
-0.6256558895111084,
0.2738146483898163,
0.060377947986125946,
-0.5072649121284485,
0.0681549534201622,
0.6007963418960571,
-0.011969836428761482,
0.2542373239994049,
0.042564164847135544,
-0.27133625745773315,
-0.1410841941833496,
0.026114532724022865,
-0.016422633081674576,
-0.22414739429950714,
0.6193329691886902,
0.002667379332706332,
-1.1323689222335815,
0.9544742107391357,
-0.3510892391204834,
0.6292588114738464,
-0.6309633851051331,
0.2686810791492462,
0.7210915684700012,
0.12270661443471909,
-0.48311758041381836,
0.5144562125205994,
-0.3508301377296448,
0.028852267190814018,
0.8095322847366333,
0.3216930627822876,
0.33496057987213135,
-0.5000156760215759,
0.1148064136505127,
0.19469086825847626,
0.08724581450223923,
0.26407188177108765,
-0.33755069971084595,
0.2554347515106201,
-0.05361942946910858,
0.10019522905349731,
0.9430647492408752,
-0.15895023941993713,
-0.4638909101486206,
0.28151944279670715,
-0.06435749679803848,
0.3153020143508911,
0.15185227990150452,
-0.16433797776699066,
-0.004425511229783297,
-0.2606356143951416,
-0.12962648272514343,
0.38388508558273315,
0.6991632580757141,
-0.28878480195999146,
-1.028407096862793,
-0.523187518119812,
0.3648986518383026,
-0.5836313962936401,
0.8902353644371033,
0.3060872554779053,
0.363421231508255,
0.634674608707428,
-0.3753304183483124,
0.07181839644908905,
0.04300161078572273,
-0.08338484168052673,
-0.05487276613712311,
0.3482806980609894,
-0.06949139386415482,
-0.7065551280975342,
0.01330502051860094,
0.9604272842407227,
0.5055679678916931,
-0.5262786746025085,
0.09958600252866745,
0.009337715804576874,
0.20699533820152283,
0.28869742155075073,
0.656862199306488,
-0.09787461906671524,
-0.07268449664115906,
0.39606162905693054,
-0.04882972687482834,
-0.10486967116594315,
0.4081366956233978,
-0.4168330729007721,
-0.6129562854766846,
-0.11108572781085968,
0.2795211374759674,
0.5481340289115906,
1.262492060661316,
0.0985904112458229,
-0.19589312374591827,
0.1264449954032898,
0.4647897779941559,
-0.12564177811145782,
-0.38671961426734924,
-0.45630356669425964,
-0.7079084515571594,
-0.7885550260543823,
0.060408156365156174,
0.6580201387405396,
0.557270884513855,
-0.1481330841779709,
0.10112367570400238,
-0.29132193326950073,
0.2009936273097992,
-0.9150374531745911,
0.1685531884431839,
-0.6571611166000366,
0.4022447466850281,
0.41063451766967773,
0.17076915502548218,
-0.14116741716861725,
-0.4798292815685272,
0.3545140027999878,
-0.3246133327484131,
0.5341906547546387,
0.43056827783584595,
-0.5516772270202637,
-0.5969072580337524,
0.5570425391197205,
-0.3296400010585785,
0.06716744601726532,
0.3701738119125366,
0.03929353505373001,
0.10083936899900436,
0.46277761459350586,
-5.593658447265625,
-0.09903855621814728,
-0.18504057824611664,
0.04175863787531853,
-0.44859665632247925,
0.14327244460582733,
0.2370968908071518,
-0.0927758738398552,
-0.3003607988357544,
0.06009719520807266,
0.48919016122817993,
-0.1709030419588089,
-0.2381814569234848,
0.3652861714363098,
0.26751792430877686,
0.22053974866867065,
-0.24058446288108826,
-0.558857798576355,
0.2782045602798462,
-0.1677614152431488,
0.1724606603384018,
0.51966792345047,
-0.4636862576007843,
0.4011581838130951,
0.14569255709648132,
-0.06014058366417885,
-0.18690060079097748,
-0.5693213939666748,
-0.9837703704833984,
-0.40803366899490356,
-0.2404024451971054,
-0.3578859865665436,
0.15625950694084167,
-0.23496979475021362,
0.15054921805858612,
-0.3035653531551361,
0.34221842885017395,
0.016143368557095528,
-0.014867067337036133,
-0.5256282091140747,
-0.3548886179924011,
-0.3328171670436859,
-0.15415766835212708,
-0.12623392045497894,
0.39086654782295227,
-0.3269061744213104,
-0.15718404948711395,
-0.27640271186828613,
0.14053700864315033,
0.5619121789932251,
-0.12765991687774658,
-0.2145138531923294,
0.0014461944811046124,
0.22008399665355682,
-0.015024230815470219,
0.45070165395736694,
0.1963072568178177,
0.21290655434131622,
-0.27296555042266846,
-0.05175314471125603,
0.8467613458633423,
-0.22130443155765533,
-0.11584752798080444,
-0.4565994441509247,
0.3138248026371002,
0.10759709030389786,
-0.07671403139829636,
-0.5347339510917664,
0.28792887926101685,
0.6247121095657349,
0.09295155107975006,
0.6205573081970215,
-0.7040987014770508,
-0.8942520618438721,
0.5999643206596375,
-0.6692780256271362,
-0.28742778301239014,
0.12074413895606995,
-0.35949885845184326,
-0.23514923453330994,
-0.0038924107793718576,
-0.6540824174880981,
-0.14609315991401672,
0.6842887997627258,
-0.2884867191314697,
-0.7087507843971252,
-0.12458367645740509,
-0.14779025316238403,
-0.31808707118034363,
0.18197102844715118,
1.2509037256240845,
-0.1560669243335724,
-0.01109704002737999,
0.41006985306739807,
0.0879221186041832,
0.46198397874832153,
0.2355005294084549,
-0.258312463760376,
0.6125854849815369,
-0.2715643048286438,
0.3735520541667938,
0.15694846212863922,
-0.3557223081588745,
-0.6429303884506226,
0.10358642786741257,
-0.2939245104789734,
0.15394659340381622,
0.25684770941734314,
0.989922821521759,
-0.3601587414741516,
-0.12922769784927368,
-0.28699588775634766,
-0.0893852636218071,
-0.009748057462275028,
0.2899895906448364,
0.012957260943949223,
1.0344514846801758,
0.5212444067001343,
0.654344916343689,
0.050375599414110184,
0.0023449521977454424,
-0.22179961204528809,
-0.4570322334766388,
-0.33119043707847595,
0.598495364189148,
-0.6056474447250366,
0.3421298563480377,
0.31778910756111145,
-0.7641746401786804,
-0.5532384514808655,
-0.5166972875595093,
-0.2684294581413269,
-0.2832699418067932,
-0.11636155098676682,
0.4300033748149872,
0.3254450857639313,
-0.2834784984588623,
-0.034031257033348083,
0.3448270261287689,
-0.04132845997810364,
-0.2012808471918106,
-0.11017651855945587,
-0.3063064515590668,
0.4271950125694275,
0.02835470251739025,
0.91261225938797,
0.14255762100219727,
0.15477581322193146,
-0.48080670833587646,
1.1031771898269653,
0.012106144800782204,
-0.0039010646287351847,
0.6606698632240295,
0.016892246901988983,
-0.1378888338804245,
-0.22274275124073029,
0.9077440500259399,
0.5825299024581909,
-0.3872581720352173,
-0.1260659545660019,
-0.05493902042508125,
-0.11039796471595764,
-0.6135265827178955,
0.0014983518049120903,
-0.09000499546527863,
0.16324923932552338,
-0.3641795516014099,
-0.4190700948238373,
0.1810886114835739,
0.6532928943634033,
0.3046025335788727,
-0.11830687522888184,
-0.39411666989326477,
0.29733818769454956,
0.3153228759765625,
-0.19323952496051788,
-0.537436306476593,
0.36759698390960693,
-0.6230458617210388,
-0.2199319303035736,
-0.21183548867702484,
0.22212228178977966,
-0.0169389471411705,
0.11194887012243271,
0.556547999382019,
-0.36835554242134094,
-0.16109409928321838,
-0.2589177191257477,
-0.11763675510883331,
0.15568669140338898,
0.18287146091461182,
0.27689048647880554,
0.07747653871774673,
0.12550731003284454,
-0.2914954125881195,
0.4970962405204773,
-0.008271998725831509,
0.12500613927841187,
-0.1819453239440918,
-0.5133594870567322,
0.44060686230659485,
0.1793542355298996,
0.061013828963041306,
0.3811025023460388,
-0.5939180254936218,
-0.582679033279419,
0.2852884531021118,
-0.1275387555360794,
-0.21968919038772583,
0.13899268209934235,
0.3453109562397003,
-0.6972479820251465,
0.16790728271007538,
0.5197572708129883,
-0.5358178019523621,
0.8753597140312195,
0.08195994049310684,
0.11087286472320557,
-0.15143494307994843,
0.30384939908981323,
-0.40560102462768555,
-0.19539785385131836,
0.30935871601104736,
-0.23512591421604156,
-0.5379188656806946,
0.35373836755752563,
0.5060123205184937,
-0.09970609843730927,
0.5098208785057068,
-0.37928691506385803,
0.49117133021354675,
0.09605718404054642,
-0.4508841633796692,
-0.16029387712478638,
-0.7324728965759277,
-0.3269842267036438,
-0.006839806213974953,
-0.16151438653469086,
0.12966056168079376,
0.3838667571544647,
0.39981359243392944,
0.5700068473815918,
0.2857842743396759,
-0.16537560522556305,
0.1243482232093811,
0.4692199230194092,
0.009623201563954353,
-0.6061645746231079,
-0.34840959310531616,
-0.18532691895961761,
0.4061633348464966,
0.025213487446308136,
-0.11041104793548584,
-0.7274796366691589,
0.441914439201355,
0.013433744199573994,
0.23518536984920502,
0.36968985199928284,
-0.37283119559288025,
-0.07685460895299911,
-0.02944948337972164,
0.6232709288597107,
-1.166055679321289,
0.29270923137664795,
-0.6510367393493652,
-0.22434300184249878,
-0.6494030952453613,
0.5365725159645081,
0.03249266743659973,
-0.1408548355102539,
-0.08315102756023407,
0.00433558551594615,
0.46935808658599854,
0.6416944265365601,
-0.09368918836116791,
0.09502597898244858,
-0.4270598590373993,
-0.617171585559845,
0.2646048963069916,
0.17623329162597656,
-0.5591292381286621,
-0.31555894017219543,
0.6841627359390259,
-0.08042728155851364,
-0.12253627926111221,
-0.2800503969192505,
-0.25251561403274536,
-0.22031572461128235,
0.2854820489883423,
-0.32028815150260925,
-0.1637146770954132,
0.08696646988391876,
-0.056663837283849716,
-0.11006899923086166,
0.40758854150772095,
0.2604389786720276,
0.4681636393070221,
0.5338840484619141,
0.07963460683822632,
-0.15708142518997192,
-1.2638846635818481,
0.3077687621116638,
0.0657208189368248,
0.12311255931854248,
-0.236657977104187,
0.05574474483728409,
0.07433509081602097,
-0.05908554792404175,
-0.28218498826026917,
0.29531899094581604,
0.7489736080169678,
-0.6349099278450012,
-0.3554043769836426,
0.061339206993579865,
0.3224773705005646,
0.03501272574067116,
0.2886161506175995,
-0.49551400542259216,
-0.0696859359741211,
0.43000859022140503,
0.09493327885866165,
0.23129986226558685,
0.4464234709739685,
0.11461059004068375,
-0.5552358031272888,
-0.388910174369812,
-0.6143929362297058,
-0.14180265367031097,
0.1424810290336609,
0.16757120192050934,
0.5188441872596741,
0.24915491044521332,
-0.3927938938140869,
-0.12664836645126343,
0.34870606660842896,
0.14107181131839752,
-0.34243232011795044,
-0.679287850856781,
-0.35786205530166626,
1.0181957483291626,
0.7977350950241089,
0.18389399349689484,
-0.09469246864318848,
-0.29676517844200134,
0.33623722195625305,
0.4849531948566437,
-0.5901672840118408,
-0.29011714458465576,
0.407065749168396,
-0.17319966852664948,
0.25862330198287964,
-0.5107580423355103,
0.09851719439029694,
-0.8269091248512268,
-0.04427649453282356,
0.3799494504928589,
-0.08709236234426498,
-0.2580798268318176,
-0.025338970124721527,
0.7564167380332947,
-0.14566437900066376,
-0.013273781165480614,
-0.0909779891371727,
0.07601849734783173,
-0.5954227447509766,
0.3892243206501007,
-0.4757528305053711,
-0.858105480670929,
-0.2740952968597412,
-0.4350845515727997,
-0.16124582290649414,
-0.6756030321121216,
-0.3800216317176819,
0.048459965735673904,
0.3336094319820404,
0.3185904026031494,
-0.39087197184562683,
0.3401280343532562,
-0.5338920950889587,
0.22224313020706177,
-0.4533715546131134,
-0.35175421833992004,
0.00560746481642127,
-0.721548318862915,
0.14513729512691498,
-0.25122445821762085,
-0.1696101278066635,
-0.5801385045051575,
-0.46607276797294617,
0.1625695377588272,
-0.06715259701013565,
-0.5722947716712952,
0.29004502296447754,
-0.24843765795230865,
-0.1936994194984436,
-0.545332670211792,
-0.24370376765727997,
0.46140581369400024,
-0.6564845442771912,
-0.03369753807783127,
0.34059229493141174,
0.16332973539829254,
0.4200243353843689,
0.29305046796798706,
0.06657297909259796,
-0.09824201464653015,
-0.42373713850975037,
0.17432399094104767,
-0.8071770071983337,
0.2687593400478363,
-0.060885146260261536,
0.42611634731292725,
0.06077888235449791,
0.2209623157978058,
0.38031959533691406,
-0.3833826780319214,
0.3834077715873718,
-0.9821467399597168,
-0.36034226417541504,
-0.3001558780670166,
-0.5576016306877136,
-0.7168607711791992,
-0.09952642768621445,
0.3511624038219452,
-0.3131489157676697,
-0.6102176308631897,
0.2353479266166687,
-0.1277066171169281,
-0.27104970812797546,
0.5021098852157593,
-0.24926120042800903,
0.42623522877693176,
-0.8502328395843506,
0.03337733820080757,
-0.5560183525085449,
-0.7208151817321777,
0.4421081244945526,
1.1844708919525146,
0.3001514971256256,
-0.21214939653873444,
0.5275782942771912,
-0.10435310006141663,
0.3964228332042694,
-0.20988035202026367,
0.14557766914367676,
-0.2836463153362274,
0.09161122143268585,
-0.6289627552032471,
-0.2271924614906311,
0.39850321412086487,
0.3448537588119507,
-0.10302657634019852,
0.005271239671856165,
-0.4927566647529602,
-0.5745232105255127,
-0.17728537321090698,
0.35173875093460083,
-0.7658905982971191,
0.4432907700538635,
0.03899374231696129
] |
229022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprinus | Cyprinus | Cyprinus is the genus of typical carps in family Cyprinidae. Most species in the genus are of East Asia origin with only the common carp (C. carpio) in Western Asia and Europe; this invasive species has also been introduced to many other regions around the world. Cyprinus are closely related to some more barb-like genera, such as Cyclocheilichthys and Barbonymus (tinfoils). The crucian carps (Carassius) of western Eurasia, which include the goldfish (C. auratus), are apparently not as closely related.
This genus's most widespread and well-known member is the common carp (C. carpio) species complex. Although traditionally considered a single species, recent authorities have split the European and West Asian populations from the East Asian, with the latter named C. rubrofuscus (syn. C. carpio haematopterus). Members of the species complex are famed as a food fish and have been widely traded and introduced since antiquity, but in certain areas has multiplied inordinately and become a pest. In its long use it has been domesticated, and a number of breeds have been developed for food and other purposes. The koi (from Japanese nishikigoi, 錦鯉) are well-known carp breeds, selectively bred for being enjoyed by spectators from above. Strictly speaking, koi is simply the Japanese name of the East Asian carp.
The other species of typical carp are generally found in more restricted areas of eastern Asia, centered on the Yunnan region. In some cases, they are endemic to a single lake, most notably Lake Erhai, as well as Lake Dian, Fuxian Lake, Lake Jilu, Lake Qilihu, Lake Xingyun and Lake Yi-Lung, which are all in Yunnan proper. Several of these species are seriously threatened and five are possibly already extinct: C. yilongensis (Lake Yi-Lung), C. yunnanensis (Lake Qilihu), C. daliensis (Lake Erhai), C. megalophthalmus (Lake Erhai) and C. fuxianensis (Fuxian Lake).
Species
The following species are currently recognized in the genus.
Cyprinus acutidorsalis H. L. Chen & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus barbatus H. L. Chen & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758
Cyprinus chilia H. W. Wu, G. R. Yang, P. Q. Yue & H. J. Huang, 1963
Cyprinus dai (V. H. Nguyễn & L. H. Doan, 1969)
Cyprinus daliensis H. L. Chen & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus exophthalmus Đ. Y. Mai, 1978
Cyprinus fuxianensis Yang et al., 1977
Cyprinus hieni T. T. Nguyen & A. T. Ho, 2003
Cyprinus hyperdorsalis V. H. Nguyễn, 1991
Cyprinus ilishaestomus H. L. Chen & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus intha Annandale, 1918
Cyprinus longipectoralis H. L. Chen & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus longzhouensis Y. J. Yang & H. Q. Huang, 1977
Cyprinus megalophthalmus H. W. Wu et al., 1963
Cyprinus melanes (Đ. Y. Mai, 1978)
Cyprinus micristius Regan, 1906
Cyprinus multitaeniata Pellegrin & Chevey, 1936
Cyprinus pellegrini T. L. Tchang, 1933
Cyprinus qionghaiensis C. H. Liu, 1981
Cyprinus quidatensis T. T. Nguyen, V. T. Le, T. B. Le & X. K. Nguyễn, 1999
Cyprinus rubrofuscus Lacépède, 1803
†Cyprinus yilongensis Yang et al., 1977
Cyprinus yunnanensis T. L. Tchang, 1933
Fossil species
†Cyprinus priscus von Meyer (fossil species from Miocene Germany)
Footnotes
References
(2007): Evolutionary origin of Lake Tana's (Ethiopia) small Barbus species: indications of rapid ecological divergence and speciation. Anim. Biol. 57(1): 39-48. (HTML abstract)
Cyprininae
Carp
Fauna of Yunnan
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Freshwater fish genera | [
-0.030976995825767517,
0.17353084683418274,
-0.6148372888565063,
0.5638864636421204,
-0.4359784424304962,
1.1750569343566895,
0.5061032176017761,
0.489825963973999,
-0.627133309841156,
-0.6252225637435913,
0.1941128373146057,
0.08861637115478516,
-0.3016451895236969,
0.6566038727760315,
0.7254751324653625,
0.46210265159606934,
-0.22506558895111084,
0.7173765897750854,
0.3076038062572479,
0.22985319793224335,
-0.16259482502937317,
-0.5451472401618958,
0.5516921877861023,
-0.5059812664985657,
-0.03893592208623886,
0.2630550265312195,
0.12938645482063293,
0.9070521593093872,
0.3895987272262573,
-0.543195903301239,
0.14924146234989166,
0.691096842288971,
-0.19027018547058105,
-0.05409375950694084,
-0.2764342725276947,
-0.8693180084228516,
-0.5116049647331238,
-0.5256338119506836,
-0.09707421809434891,
-0.41845396161079407,
-0.13155080378055573,
-0.21662858128547668,
0.5137747526168823,
0.1294107288122177,
0.033610861748456955,
-0.7365090847015381,
-1.1890909671783447,
0.10595065355300903,
-0.8954962491989136,
0.018892977386713028,
-0.05939803272485733,
0.15140971541404724,
-0.17776258289813995,
0.37585970759391785,
0.01651149056851864,
0.7194501161575317,
-1.0744991302490234,
-0.08942687511444092,
0.06334874778985977,
-0.4303126037120819,
0.27967676520347595,
0.3394453525543213,
0.45825403928756714,
0.2619628608226776,
0.30996906757354736,
0.9593230485916138,
0.4752497673034668,
0.8980646133422852,
-0.1964460015296936,
0.0048828888684511185,
0.034900784492492676,
-0.6498177647590637,
-0.13413305580615997,
0.9767107963562012,
-0.5905216932296753,
-0.4821411073207855,
-0.17196011543273926,
-0.09319274127483368,
0.8205894231796265,
-0.23025213181972504,
0.38936495780944824,
0.24068120121955872,
0.9570044279098511,
0.3730359673500061,
0.027184229344129562,
0.21893730759620667,
-0.2846510708332062,
-0.12415008246898651,
0.08832714706659317,
0.6153590679168701,
-0.4605279266834259,
-0.3407016694545746,
0.7356483340263367,
0.09678030014038086,
-0.467953622341156,
-0.2894473969936371,
-0.2191135734319687,
-0.09186245501041412,
0.2709100544452667,
0.0507529154419899,
-0.41068142652511597,
-0.027102939784526825,
-0.2408805787563324,
0.04189518466591835,
-0.2547115087509155,
0.09698770195245743,
-0.2779026925563812,
-0.5307593941688538,
0.023786228150129318,
0.05145607516169548,
-0.3856475055217743,
0.21287138760089874,
0.44721415638923645,
-0.16748803853988647,
-0.5914171934127808,
0.5389523506164551,
0.3377211093902588,
-0.2864202857017517,
0.1625892072916031,
-0.4721769690513611,
0.39055532217025757,
0.13516171276569366,
-0.017614006996154785,
0.29301443696022034,
-0.22488541901111603,
0.6115514636039734,
0.34617844223976135,
0.25519147515296936,
-0.46637943387031555,
-0.1396513283252716,
0.6682156324386597,
1.2144317626953125,
-0.18814033269882202,
-0.021781783550977707,
-0.15403006970882416,
0.002282168483361602,
-0.3355138301849365,
-0.06577187776565552,
-0.3757029175758362,
0.5005319714546204,
-0.5945603251457214,
-0.17619594931602478,
-1.1336880922317505,
0.061812080442905426,
0.39154988527297974,
0.08471835404634476,
0.10050041228532791,
-0.5475348830223083,
-0.20180058479309082,
-0.360282838344574,
0.13158655166625977,
0.4471074044704437,
0.2642095983028412,
0.36873096227645874,
-0.9505400657653809,
0.002261749468743801,
0.4166398048400879,
-0.45558521151542664,
0.8171539902687073,
0.18080204725265503,
0.18949763476848602,
0.33550208806991577,
-0.6694258451461792,
-0.34104984998703003,
-0.4746619462966919,
-0.0755995586514473,
-0.10560222715139389,
-0.14197789132595062,
-0.2863258719444275,
0.393981397151947,
-0.37068888545036316,
0.19587920606136322,
0.8854103684425354,
-0.05318928882479668,
0.2788795530796051,
-0.5777869820594788,
-0.32952964305877686,
0.6481066942214966,
0.5085875391960144,
-0.6655822992324829,
-0.5638744235038757,
0.3982769250869751,
-0.2778462767601013,
-0.02371799759566784,
0.15194877982139587,
-0.17149116098880768,
0.22068820893764496,
0.004468527156859636,
0.0611983947455883,
-0.43148496747016907,
-0.49181032180786133,
-0.542823314666748,
-0.4218238592147827,
0.44389915466308594,
1.2757813930511475,
-0.3754379451274872,
-0.6392782330513,
-0.07092256844043732,
-0.08432693779468536,
0.41917282342910767,
-0.861899733543396,
-0.2812979221343994,
0.3220295310020447,
0.16360145807266235,
-1.5268431901931763,
0.8627733588218689,
-0.11658024787902832,
-0.1328684687614441,
0.5554484128952026,
0.5804430842399597,
0.06117825210094452,
-0.6502605080604553,
-0.26753196120262146,
-0.79815673828125,
-0.20839561522006989,
0.19217346608638763,
-0.19251270592212677,
-0.06147700548171997,
-0.4316752552986145,
0.37872257828712463,
0.9301196336746216,
-0.6827758550643921,
-0.06572236120700836,
0.4947872757911682,
0.06506267935037613,
0.13201038539409637,
0.8201435208320618,
-0.25783684849739075,
-0.20472116768360138,
-0.8441959023475647,
0.32168179750442505,
0.362021267414093,
0.21447981894016266,
-0.7087344527244568,
-0.3677617907524109,
-0.3107679486274719,
-0.07996537536382675,
-0.539907693862915,
0.5456549525260925,
-0.08156943321228027,
0.2959279716014862,
0.5260633230209351,
-0.2676590085029602,
0.44261613488197327,
0.41283318400382996,
-0.40741807222366333,
0.049745045602321625,
0.3247319757938385,
0.060710396617650986,
-0.42147698998451233,
-0.17101959884166718,
0.8964308500289917,
0.7457575798034668,
-1.0938152074813843,
0.20697075128555298,
0.005384012591093779,
0.8280943036079407,
0.19526341557502747,
-0.058072544634342194,
-0.09652666747570038,
-0.34126177430152893,
0.28772008419036865,
0.40817272663116455,
0.21936434507369995,
0.16948045790195465,
0.051049716770648956,
-0.33894553780555725,
-0.15035894513130188,
0.3153611421585083,
0.5057538151741028,
0.535832405090332,
0.19667834043502808,
-0.4012746512889862,
-0.33375978469848633,
0.16634681820869446,
0.136333167552948,
-0.02528771013021469,
-0.3325556516647339,
-0.41782888770103455,
-0.6862791180610657,
-0.3052991032600403,
0.4804321527481079,
0.06989478319883347,
0.2770603597164154,
-0.20605985820293427,
-0.38220474123954773,
0.17201827466487885,
-0.29954320192337036,
-0.020390871912240982,
-0.5670623183250427,
0.0010422326158732176,
-0.04472595453262329,
-0.05011777579784393,
0.9734337329864502,
-0.7578893303871155,
-0.6654473543167114,
-0.672002375125885,
0.29167813062667847,
1.0522910356521606,
-0.6409063935279846,
-1.0095415115356445,
0.5456406474113464,
-0.2885051667690277,
0.13772842288017273,
0.38092413544654846,
-0.8742963075637817,
0.33901938796043396,
0.4968299865722656,
-5.040770530700684,
-0.058285750448703766,
-0.6964675784111023,
0.39113301038742065,
0.5875722765922546,
0.46658268570899963,
0.44940099120140076,
-0.5154024362564087,
-0.10353736579418182,
0.13008339703083038,
0.506605863571167,
0.7522857785224915,
-0.6344435811042786,
0.02123364806175232,
0.47092095017433167,
0.5147184729576111,
0.10953789949417114,
0.11709520220756531,
0.122171550989151,
-0.06474633514881134,
-0.3441311717033386,
0.45895302295684814,
-0.3415953814983368,
0.22276808321475983,
0.03149806708097458,
-0.62115079164505,
-0.4529620409011841,
-0.05655485391616821,
-0.5886557698249817,
0.4279949367046356,
-0.1022772267460823,
0.1350604146718979,
-0.516165018081665,
-0.22986233234405518,
-0.3809507489204407,
-0.6210918426513672,
0.16019819676876068,
-0.03663329780101776,
0.033542800694704056,
-0.1663833111524582,
-1.1476004123687744,
-0.4047592878341675,
0.3826594352722168,
-0.1450280100107193,
0.38915663957595825,
-0.0809393972158432,
0.04225197806954384,
-0.135123610496521,
0.14473043382167816,
1.3071480989456177,
-0.12454022467136383,
-0.4900406301021576,
0.3285585641860962,
0.8945506811141968,
0.5728508830070496,
-0.6476735472679138,
0.35189440846443176,
0.0025229391176253557,
-0.059740692377090454,
0.4009237587451935,
1.0886534452438354,
-0.598813533782959,
-0.01939481310546398,
-0.3164515495300293,
0.2625741958618164,
-0.9853689670562744,
-0.3051910102367401,
-0.06673456728458405,
0.14977258443832397,
0.10855835676193237,
-0.5285431742668152,
1.182169795036316,
-0.6388879418373108,
-0.8429238200187683,
0.28385666012763977,
-0.01776926964521408,
-0.8500673770904541,
0.47932329773902893,
-0.12202128767967224,
0.19338256120681763,
-0.0835498496890068,
-0.4620417356491089,
-0.23442792892456055,
0.635133683681488,
-0.0031800195574760437,
-0.5255056023597717,
-0.31169408559799194,
-0.052294664084911346,
0.3457764983177185,
-0.5120546221733093,
0.514305055141449,
-0.6984513998031616,
0.23033906519412994,
-0.44414931535720825,
-0.5073629021644592,
0.5318419337272644,
-0.31232282519340515,
0.40298476815223694,
0.20114761590957642,
-0.5235739350318909,
0.6726974248886108,
-0.13418956100940704,
-0.7006545066833496,
0.26024603843688965,
-0.28488898277282715,
-1.156760334968567,
0.6004418730735779,
0.2992217540740967,
0.6974402070045471,
-0.6592371463775635,
0.06350325793027878,
-0.44934046268463135,
-0.34589362144470215,
0.3152712285518646,
0.4424270987510681,
0.16809067130088806,
-0.28167569637298584,
0.16019223630428314,
0.2787434458732605,
0.4970587491989136,
-0.048446983098983765,
0.38369473814964294,
-0.5677688121795654,
0.3266964852809906,
-0.4120798408985138,
-0.48205721378326416,
0.07221363484859467,
-0.31268563866615295,
-0.7598108649253845,
-0.5341832637786865,
-0.09168018400669098,
0.18069973587989807,
-0.19506768882274628,
-0.2495354413986206,
0.028972992673516273,
-0.2822987139225006,
0.06032506003975868,
0.4617370665073395,
0.3099040389060974,
-0.2874681353569031,
-0.395106703042984,
0.009154001250863075,
-0.245285764336586,
0.18893961608409882,
0.7270582914352417,
0.5801799893379211,
-0.13019882142543793,
0.31114494800567627,
-0.709933876991272,
0.9225112795829773,
-0.25952818989753723,
-0.9436939358711243,
0.7262047529220581,
-0.4699035584926605,
0.2945716381072998,
-0.24323949217796326,
0.3210412263870239,
0.9476153254508972,
-0.272116094827652,
-0.31596797704696655,
0.05423862114548683,
0.02073863334953785,
-0.8017038106918335,
0.045166779309511185,
0.42535319924354553,
-0.11007849127054214,
-0.3858274221420288,
-0.4670281708240509,
0.12273019552230835,
0.5159207582473755,
0.10154981911182404,
-0.17368628084659576,
-0.829278290271759,
-0.5361244082450867,
0.4044618010520935,
-0.2848498821258545,
-0.8412176370620728,
0.5370850563049316,
0.13275456428527832,
-0.48033231496810913,
0.0544905848801136,
0.7583770751953125,
0.15358950197696686,
-0.4429202973842621,
0.583560585975647,
-0.4393847584724426,
0.09464537352323532,
-0.8315306901931763,
-0.36537161469459534,
0.1373106986284256,
-0.09724419564008713,
0.38500478863716125,
0.22832319140434265,
0.07059188187122345,
-0.5541115403175354,
-0.3631218373775482,
-0.3831729292869568,
0.1910174936056137,
-0.5032572150230408,
-1.0692723989486694,
0.28089600801467896,
0.9888925552368164,
0.13765494525432587,
0.36263683438301086,
0.18382656574249268,
-0.171945720911026,
0.6607475876808167,
-0.016871212050318718,
-0.5762266516685486,
0.30839061737060547,
0.3376213610172272,
-0.8478147983551025,
-0.2084069848060608,
0.8334171175956726,
-0.3302515745162964,
0.6264981627464294,
0.08198513090610504,
-0.2865482568740845,
-0.7035921216011047,
0.2989978790283203,
-0.5897747278213501,
-0.13518624007701874,
-0.18980532884597778,
-0.6434234976768494,
-0.6291939616203308,
0.3412111699581146,
0.3366687297821045,
-0.12171630561351776,
0.9218227863311768,
-0.5438674092292786,
-0.3467106223106384,
-0.3755445182323456,
0.7577994465827942,
-0.06593766808509827,
0.06948506832122803,
0.1332848072052002,
-0.37745949625968933,
0.15180470049381256,
-0.003564203856512904,
0.047443848103284836,
0.039558619260787964,
1.0911616086959839,
0.43159008026123047,
0.0019936179742217064,
-0.13981840014457703,
-0.3263918459415436,
0.015270339325070381,
-0.21206751465797424,
-0.5919732451438904,
-0.0636562630534172,
0.4800458550453186,
-0.36863353848457336,
-0.30423733592033386,
-0.39957740902900696,
0.5555769205093384,
-0.30649471282958984,
0.30537161231040955,
0.5399448275566101,
0.007150393445044756,
0.2618057131767273,
0.0567435584962368,
0.06654014438390732,
-0.5879191756248474,
0.5158901214599609,
-0.4526357352733612,
-0.020703643560409546,
-0.2070755511522293,
-0.18738506734371185,
0.5320234894752502,
-0.1925354301929474,
-0.5016157031059265,
-0.2568792402744293,
0.566594123840332,
0.7276208400726318,
-0.0756959319114685,
0.4259834885597229,
-0.41862624883651733,
-0.5117641687393188,
0.11094121634960175,
-0.036715317517519,
0.05905609950423241,
0.3908623158931732,
0.14434976875782013,
0.014623723924160004,
0.03671550378203392,
0.2986871302127838,
-0.23961547017097473,
-0.7519236207008362,
0.8725568056106567,
0.19905303418636322,
-0.4821900427341461,
0.4272555410861969,
0.5065587759017944,
0.658744215965271,
0.41436415910720825,
0.37335342168807983,
0.4218572676181793,
0.648391842842102,
-0.03981742262840271,
0.5784909129142761,
-0.7371934652328491,
0.3877738118171692,
0.3068724572658539,
-0.32120028138160706,
-0.1527213603258133,
0.243122398853302,
-0.01263049989938736,
0.18491528928279877,
0.21318873763084412,
0.40193191170692444,
0.2284475713968277,
-0.2567240595817566,
0.007563950959593058,
0.3177112340927124,
-0.38548973202705383,
0.19232073426246643,
0.8552338480949402,
-0.5378022193908691,
-0.1334267258644104,
0.35736361145973206,
0.01696751080453396,
0.35137006640434265,
0.5179539918899536,
-0.14115658402442932,
-0.635505735874176,
0.6353086829185486,
-1.3616256713867188,
-0.26162105798721313,
0.4472754895687103,
0.8392946124076843,
0.1723330020904541,
-0.3505544662475586,
-0.8212356567382812,
0.04977132007479668,
-0.1153690367937088,
-0.006902674213051796,
0.2318289428949356,
-0.36634451150894165,
0.029120763763785362,
0.8112316727638245,
0.6021921634674072,
0.3709254562854767,
0.22835370898246765,
0.2670797109603882,
-0.22994714975357056,
0.8040258884429932,
0.005445503629744053,
0.07260870188474655,
-0.10227731615304947,
-0.048615988343954086,
0.17554180324077606,
-0.09337309747934341,
0.0503135621547699,
-0.13448788225650787,
0.20511959493160248,
0.5403360724449158,
-0.14427492022514343,
-0.023666469380259514,
-0.019610045477747917,
-0.3416091799736023,
0.47364693880081177,
-0.22222460806369781,
0.24731040000915527,
-0.6398006677627563,
-1.2126168012619019,
0.41338610649108887,
0.16568300127983093,
-0.633445680141449,
-0.4583568871021271,
-0.06762862205505371,
-0.09560132771730423,
0.05381014570593834,
0.1001322790980339,
-0.14673876762390137,
0.6165156960487366,
0.1997179388999939,
-0.05403776466846466,
0.5930548310279846,
-0.1470762938261032,
0.04081049561500549,
-0.759490966796875,
0.23577909171581268,
0.062211669981479645,
0.03845374286174774,
0.2576608657836914,
0.2930576801300049,
0.06774068623781204,
-0.5574215650558472,
-0.6033468842506409,
-0.07333294302225113,
-0.3893246054649353,
-0.5805026292800903,
0.33775627613067627,
0.08427373319864273,
-0.4545263946056366,
-1.2410778999328613,
-0.41184350848197937,
0.851255476474762,
-0.22283898293972015,
-0.10428760945796967,
-0.09962274879217148,
0.1357879787683487,
-0.059380486607551575,
0.857461154460907,
0.3169887065887451,
0.031541578471660614,
-0.5173357725143433,
0.3330657184123993,
-0.6108090877532959,
0.3832768201828003,
0.1790408492088318,
0.03709346801042557,
-0.012279430404305458,
0.047908514738082886,
0.08696508407592773,
0.014069591648876667,
0.7038887739181519,
-0.5746356248855591,
-0.058108389377593994,
-0.5296737551689148,
-0.2135658860206604,
-0.6912104487419128,
-0.20916210114955902,
0.3964575529098511,
-0.19880717992782593,
0.052454233169555664,
0.5077008605003357,
0.3003762364387512,
-0.5412645936012268,
0.7006691694259644,
-0.6527911424636841,
0.5883567929267883,
-0.6002098321914673,
-0.07449827343225479,
0.12516941130161285,
-0.8282712697982788,
0.7430753111839294,
0.9772255420684814,
0.3413463830947876,
0.2579519748687744,
0.04734871909022331,
0.08098891377449036,
0.6547656059265137,
-0.4718084931373596,
-0.49821412563323975,
0.3491596579551697,
-0.9742810130119324,
-0.4894425570964813,
-0.5702301263809204,
-0.2758806645870209,
0.2848847210407257,
-0.36229243874549866,
0.24810472130775452,
0.42923516035079956,
-0.1535034030675888,
0.7137092351913452,
-0.19879809021949768,
-0.8661382794380188,
0.43339523673057556,
0.15574733912944794
] |
229023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Jones | George Jones | George Glenn Jones (September 12, 1931 – April 26, 2013) was an American musician, singer, and songwriter. He achieved international fame for his long list of hit records, including his best-known song "He Stopped Loving Her Today", as well as his distinctive voice and phrasing. For the last two decades of his life, Jones was frequently referred to as the greatest living country singer. Country music scholar Bill Malone writes, "For the two or three minutes consumed by a song, Jones immerses himself so completely in its lyrics, and in the mood it conveys, that the listener can scarcely avoid becoming similarly involved." The shape of his nose and facial features earned Jones the nickname "The Possum". Jones has been called "The Rolls Royce of Country Music" and had more than 160 chart singles to his name from 1955 until his death in 2013.
Born in Texas, Jones first heard country music when he was seven, and was given a guitar at the age of nine. His earliest influences were Roy Acuff and Bill Monroe, although the artistry of Hank Williams and Lefty Frizzell would crystallize his vocal style. He married his first wife, Dorothy Bonvillion, in 1950, and was divorced in 1951. He served in the United States Marine Corps and was discharged in 1953. He married Shirley Ann Corley in 1954. In 1959, Jones recorded "White Lightning", written by J. P. Richardson, which launched his career as a singer. His second marriage ended in divorce in 1968; he married fellow country music singer Tammy Wynette a year later. Years of alcoholism compromised his health and led to his missing many performances, earning him the nickname "No Show Jones". After his divorce from Wynette in 1975, Jones married his fourth wife, Nancy Sepulvado, in 1983 and became sober for good in 1999. Jones died in 2013, aged 81, from hypoxic respiratory failure.
Johnny Cash once said, "When people ask me who my favorite country singer is, I say, 'You mean besides George Jones?'"
Life and career
Early years (1931–1953)
George Glenn Jones was born on September 12, 1931, in Saratoga, Texas, and was raised in Colmesneil, Texas, with his brother and five sisters in the Big Thicket region of southeast Texas. His father, George Washington Jones, worked in a shipyard and played harmonica and guitar, while his mother, Clara (née Patterson), played piano in the Pentecostal Church on Sundays. During his delivery, one of the doctors dropped Jones and broke his arm. When he was seven, his parents bought a radio, and he heard country music for the first time. Jones recalled to Billboard in 2006 that he would lie in bed with his parents on Saturday nights listening to the Grand Ole Opry and insist that his mother wake him if he fell asleep so he could hear Roy Acuff or Bill Monroe. In his autobiography I Lived To Tell It All, Jones explains that the early death of his sister Ethel spurred on his father's drinking problem, and by all accounts, George Washington Jones could be physically and emotionally abusive to his wife and children when he drank. In the book George Jones: The Life and Times of a Honky Tonk Legend, Bob Allen recounts how George Washington Jones would return home in the middle of the night with his cronies roaring drunk, wake up a terrified George Glenn Jones, and demand that he sing for them or face a beating. In a CMT episode of Inside Fame dedicated to Jones' life, country music historian Robert K. Oermann marveled, "You would think that it would make him not a singer, because it was so abusively thrust on him. But the opposite happened; he became a chronic singer. He became someone who had to sing." In the same program, Jones admitted that he remained ambivalent and resentful towards his father up until the day he died and observed in his autobiography, "The Jones family makeup doesn't sit well with liquor...Daddy was an unusual drinker. He drank to excess, but never while working, and he probably was the hardest working man I've ever known." His father bought him his first guitar at age nine and he learned his first chords and songs at church, and several photographs show a young George busking on the streets of Beaumont.
He left home at 16 and went to Jasper, Texas, where he sang and played on the KTXJ radio station with fellow musician Dalton Henderson. From there, he worked at the KRIC radio station. During one such afternoon show, Jones met his idol, Hank Williams ("I just stared," he later wrote). In the 1989 video documentary Same Ole Me, Jones admitted, "I couldn't think or eat nothin' unless it was Hank Williams, and I couldn't wait for his next record to come out. He had to be, really, the greatest." He married his first wife Dorothy Bonvillion in 1950, but they divorced in 1951. He was enlisted in the United States Marines until his discharge in 1953. He was stationed in San Jose, California, for his entire service.
First recordings (1954–1957)
Jones married Shirley Ann Corley in 1954. His first record, the self-penned "No Money in This Deal", was recorded on January 19, and appeared in February on Starday Records, beginning the singer's association with producer and mentor H.W. "Pappy" Daily. The song was actually cut in Starday Records' co-founder Jack Starnes' living room and produced by Starnes. Jones also worked at KTRM (now KZZB) in Beaumont around this time. Deejay Gordon Baxter told Nick Tosches that Jones acquired the nickname "possum" while working there: "One of the deejays there, Slim Watts, took to calling him George P. Willicker Picklepuss Possum Jones. For one thing, he cut his hair short, like a possum's belly. He had a possum's nose and stupid eyes, like a possum." During his early recording sessions, Daily admonished Jones for attempting to sound too much like his heroes Hank Williams and Lefty Frizzell. In later years, Jones would have little good to say about the music production at Starday, recalling to NPR in 1996 that "it was a terrible sound. We recorded in a small living room of a house on a highway near Beaumont. You could hear the trucks. We had to stop a lot of times because it wasn't soundproof, it was just egg crates nailed on the wall and the big old semi trucks would go by and make a lot of noise and we'd have to start over again." Jones' first hit came with "Why Baby Why" in 1955. That same year, while touring as a cast member of the Louisiana Hayride, Jones met and played shows with Elvis Presley and Johnny Cash. "I didn't get to know him that well," Jones said of Presley to Nick Tosches in 1994. "He stayed pretty much with his friends around him in his dressing room. Nobody seemed to get around him much any length of time to talk to him." Jones would, however, remain a lifelong friend of Johnny Cash. Jones was invited to sing at the Grand Ole Opry in 1956.
With Presley's explosion in popularity in 1956, pressure was put on Jones to cut a few rockabilly sides, and he reluctantly agreed. His heart was never in it, however, and he quickly regretted the decision; in his autobiography, he joked, "During the years, when I've encountered those records, I've used them for Frisbees." He explained to Billboard in 2006: "I was desperate. When you're hungry, a poor man with a house full of kids, you're gonna do some things you ordinarily wouldn't do. I said, 'Well, hell, I'll try anything once.' I tried 'Dadgum It How Come It' and 'Rock It', a bunch of shit. I didn't want my name on the rock and roll thing, so I told them to put Thumper Jones on it and if it did something, good, if it didn't, hell, I didn't want to be shamed with it." Jones went on to say he unsuccessfully attempted to buy all the masters to keep the cuts from surfacing later, which they did.
Jones moved to Mercury in 1957. In early 1957, Jones teamed up with singer Jeannette Hicks, the first of several duet partners he would have over the years, and enjoyed yet another top-10 single with "Yearning". Starday Records merged with Mercury that same year, and Jones scored high marks on the charts with his debut Mercury release of "Don't Stop the Music". Meanwhile, Jones was travelling the black-top roads in a 1940s Packard with his name and phone number emblazoned on the side. Although he was garnering a lot of attention and his singles were making very respectable showings on the charts, Jones was still playing the "blood bucket" circuit of honky-tonks that dotted the rural countryside.
Commercial breakout (1959–1964)
In 1959, Jones had his first number one on the Billboard country chart with "White Lightnin'", ironically a more authentic rock and roll sound than his half-hearted rockabilly cuts. In the Same Ole Me retrospective, Johnny Cash insisted, "George Jones woulda been a really hot rockabilly artist if he'd approached it from that angle. Well, he was, really, but never got the credit for it." "White Lightnin'" was written by J. P. Richardson, better known as the Big Bopper. In I Lived To Tell It All, Jones confessed that he showed up for the recording session under the influence of a great deal of alcohol and it took him about 80 takes just to record his vocals.
One aspect of Jones' early career that might be overlooked is his success as a songwriter; he wrote or co-wrote many of his biggest hits during this period, several of which have become standards, such as "Window Up Above" (later a smash for Mickey Gilley in 1975) and "Seasons of My Heart" (a hit for Johnny Cash and also recorded by Willie Nelson and Jerry Lee Lewis). Jones wrote "Just One More" (also recorded by Cash), "Life To Go" (a top-five hit for Stonewall Jackson in 1959), "You Gotta Be My Baby", and "Don't Stop The Music" on his own and had a hand in writing "Color of the Blues" (covered by Loretta Lynn and Elvis Costello), "Tender Years", and "Tall, Tall Trees" (co-written with Roger Miller). Jones' most frequent songwriting collaborator was his childhood friend Darrell Edwards.
Jones signed with United Artists in 1962, and immediately scored one of the biggest hits of his career, "She Thinks I Still Care". His voice had grown noticeably deeper during this period, and he began cultivating the singing style that became uniquely his own. During his stint with UA, Jones recorded tribute albums to Hank Williams and Bob Wills, and cut an album of duets with Melba Montgomery, including the hit "We Must Have Been Out of Our Minds". Jones was also well on his way to gaining a reputation as a notorious hell-raiser. In his Rolling Stone tribute, Merle Haggard recalls:
"I met him at the Blackboard Café in Bakersfield, California, which was the place to go in '61. He was already famous for not showing up or showing up drunk, and he showed up drunk. I was onstage - I think I was singing Marty Robbins' 'Devil Woman' - and he kicked the doors of the office open and said 'Who the fuck is that?' It was one of the greatest compliments of my entire life when George Jones said I was his favorite country singer...In 1967, I released a ballad called "I Threw Away The Rose" and he was so impressed he actually jumped ship and left his tour, rented a Lear Jet and came to Amarillo, Texas. He told me my low note changed his life. "
On tour, Jones was always backed by the Jones Boys. Like Buck Owens' Buckaroos and Merle Haggard's Strangers, Jones worked with many musicians who were great talents in their own right, including Dan Schafer, Hank Singer, Brittany Allyn, Sonny Curtis, Kent Goodson, Bobby Birkhead, and Steve Hinson. In the 1980s and 1990s, bass player Ron Gaddis served as the Jones Boys' bandleader and sang harmony with Jones in concert. Lorrie Morgan (who married Gaddis) also toured as a backup singer for Jones in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Johnny Paycheck was the Jones Boys' bass player in the 1960s before going on to his own stardom in the 1970s.
Alcoholism and decline (1964–1979)
In 1964, Pappy Daily secured a new contract with Musicor records. For the rest of the 1960s, Jones would score only one number one (1967's "Walk Through This World With Me"), but he practically owned the country music charts throughout the decade. Significant hits include "Love Bug" (a nod to Buck Owens and the Bakersfield sound), "Things Have Gone to Pieces", "The Race Is On", "My Favorite Lies", "I'll Share My World with You", "Take Me" (a song he co-wrote and would later record with Tammy Wynette), "A Good Year for the Roses," and "If My Heart Had Windows". By this point, Jones' singing style had evolved from the full-throated, high lonesome sound of Hank Williams and Roy Acuff on his early Starday records to the more refined, subtle style of Lefty Frizzell. In a 2006 interview with Billboard, Jones acknowledged the fellow Texan's influence on his idiosyncratic phrasing: "I got that from Lefty. He always made five syllables out of one word."
Jones' binge drinking and use of amphetamines on the road caught up to him in 1967, and he had to be admitted into a neurological hospital to seek treatment for his drinking. Jones would go to extreme lengths for a drink if the thirst was on him. Perhaps the most famous drinking story concerning Jones occurred while he was married to his second wife Shirley Corley. Jones recalled Shirley making it physically impossible for him to travel to Beaumont, located 8 miles away, to buy liquor. Because Jones would not walk that far, she would hide the keys to each of their cars they owned before leaving. She did not, however, hide the keys to the lawn mower. Upset, Jones walked to the window and looked out over his property. He later described his thoughts in his memoir: "There, gleaming in the glow, was that ten-horsepower rotary engine under a seat. A key glistening in the ignition. I imagine the top speed for that old mower was five miles per hour. It might have taken an hour and a half or more for me to get to the liquor store, but get there I did." Years later Jones comically mocked the incident by making a cameo in the video for "All My Rowdy Friends Are Coming Over Tonight" by Hank Williams Jr. He also parodied the episode in the 1993 video for "One More Last Chance" by Vince Gill and in his own music video for the single "Honky Tonk Song" in 1996. Curiously, in her 1979 autobiography Stand By Your Man, Tammy Wynette claims the incident occurred while she was married to Jones, maintaining that she woke up at one o'clock in the morning to find her husband gone: "I got into the car and drove to the nearest bar 10 miles away. When I pulled into the parking lot, there sat our rider-mower right by the entrance. He'd driven that mower right down a main highway... He looked up and saw me and said, ‘Well, fellas, here she is now. My little wife, I told you she'd come after me.’"
Jones became aware of Tammy Wynette because their tours were booked by the same agency and their paths sometimes crossed after Wynette's first minor hit "Apartment #9" in 1966, which was written by Johnny Paycheck. Wynette was married to songwriter Don Chapel, who was also the opening act for her shows at the time. The three became friends, but eventually Jones took more than a passing fancy to Wynette, who was 11 years his junior and grew up listening to all of his records. According to his autobiography, Jones went to their house for supper, and while she was fixing the meal, Wynette and Chapel got into a heated exchange with Chapel calling his wife "a son of a bitch." Jones wrote: "I felt rage fly all over me. I jumped from my chair, put my hands under the dinner table, and flipped it over. Dishes, utensils, and glasses flew in all directions. Don and Tammy's eyes got about as big as the flying dinner plates." Jones professed his love for Wynette on the spot and the couple married in 1969.
They began touring together, and Jones bought out his contract with Musicor so he could record with Tammy and her producer Billy Sherrill on Epic Records (the singer had split with longtime producer Pappy Daily on acrimonious terms). Jones and Wynette became known as "Mr. & Mrs. Country Music" in the early 1970s, scoring several big hits, including "We're Gonna Hold On," "Let's Build A World Together", "Golden Ring", "Near You", and "(We're Not) The Jet Set". When asked about recording Jones and Wynette, Sherill told Dan Daley in 2002, "It did increase my scotch intake some. We started out trying to record the vocals together, but George drove Tammy crazy with his phrasing. He never, ever did it the same way twice. He could make a five-syllable word out of 'church.' Finally, Tammy said, 'Record George and let me listen to it, and then do my vocal after we get his on tape.' Tammy was a very quick study."
In October 1970, shortly after the birth of their only child Tamala Georgette, Jones was straitjacketed and committed to a padded cell at the Watson Clinic in Lakeland, Florida, after a drunken bender; he was kept there to detoxify for 10 days before being released with a prescription for Librium. Jones managed longer stretches of sobriety with Wynette than he had enjoyed in years, but as the decade wore on, his drinking and erratic behavior worsened, leading to the couple's divorce in 1976. Jones accepted the responsibility for the failure of the marriage, but vehemently denied Wynette's allegations in her autobiography that he beat her and fired a shotgun at her. Remarkably, Jones and Wynette continued playing shows and drawing crowds in the years after their divorce, as fans began to see their songs mirroring their stormy relationship. In 1980, they recorded the album Together Again and scored a hit with "Two Story House". (In the 2019 Ken Burns documentary Country Music, Sherrill remembered this time by comparing Jones and Wynette to "two wounded animals.") Jones also spoke publicly about his hopes for a reconciliation, and would jokingly reference Tammy in some of his songs - during performances of his 1981 hit "If Drinkin' Don't Kill Me (Her Memory Will)" he would sing "Tammy's memory will" - but the recrimination continued unabated. After years of sniping, Jones and Wynette appeared to make peace in the 1990s, recording a final album, One, and even touring together again before Wynette's death in 1998. In 1995, Jones told Country Weekly, "Like the old saying goes, it takes time to heal things and they've been healed quite a while."
Jones' pairing with Billy Sherrill at Epic Records came as a surprise to many; Sherrill and business partner Glenn Sutton are regarded as the defining influences of the countrypolitan sound, a smooth amalgamation of pop and country music that was popular during the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, a far cry from George's honky-tonk roots. Despite a shaky start, the success that Sherrill had with Jones proved to be his most enduring; although Billboard chart statistics show that Sherrill had his biggest commercial successes with artists such as Wynette and Charlie Rich, with Jones, Sherrill had his longest-lasting association. In Sherrill, Jones found what Andrew Meuller of Uncut described as "the producer capable of creating the epically lachrymose arrangements his voice deserved and his torment demanded...He summoned for Jones the symphonies of sighing strings that almost made the misery of albums like 1974's The Grand Tour and 1976's Alone Again sound better than happiness could possibly feel." In 1974, they scored a number-one hit with the instant classic "The Grand Tour" and followed that with "The Door" ("I've heard the sound of my dear old mother cryin'/and the sound of the train that took me off to war"), another number-one smash. Unlike most singers, who might have been overwhelmed by the string arrangements and background vocalists Sherrill sometimes employed on his records, Jones' voice, with its at times frightening intensity and lucid tone, could stand up to anything. While Jones wrote fewer songs himself - songwriters had been tripping over themselves pitching songs to him for years - he still managed to co-write several, such as "What My Woman Can't Do" (also recorded by Jerry Lee Lewis), "A Drunk Can't Be A Man", the harrowing "I Just Don't Give a Damn" (perhaps the greatest "lost classic" in the entire Jones catalogue), and "These Days (I Barely Get By)", which he had written with Wynette.
In the late 1970s, Jones spiraled out of control. Already drinking constantly, a manager named Shug Baggot introduced him to cocaine before a show because he was too tired to perform. The drug increased Jones' already considerable paranoia. During one drunken binge, he shot at, and very nearly hit, his friend and occasional songwriting partner Earl "Peanutt" Montgomery after Montgomery had quit drinking after finding religion. He was often penniless and acknowledged in his autobiography that Waylon Jennings and Johnny Cash came to his financial aid during this time. Jones also began missing shows at an alarming rate and lawsuits from promoters started piling up. In 1978, owing Wynette $36,000 in child support and claiming to be $1 million in debt, he filed for bankruptcy. Jones appeared incoherent at times, speaking in quarrelling voices that he would later call "the Duck" and "the Old Man". In his article "The Devil In George Jones", Nick Tosches states, "By February 1979, he was homeless, deranged, and destitute, living in his car and barely able to digest the junk food on which he subsisted. He weighed under a hundred pounds, and his condition was so bad that it took him more than two years to complete My Very Special Guests, an album on which Willie Nelson, Linda Ronstadt, Elvis Costello, and other famous fans came to his vocal aid and support. Jones entered Hillcrest Psychiatric Hospital in Birmingham, Alabama. Upon his release in January 1980, the first thing he did was pick up a six-pack."
Jones often displayed a sheepish, self-deprecating sense of humor regarding his dire financial standing and bad reputation. In June 1979, he appeared with Waylon Jennings on Ralph Emery's syndicated radio program, and at one point Jennings cracked, "It's lonely at the top." A laughing Jones replied, "It's lonely at the bottom, too! It's real, real lonely, Waylon." Despite his chronic unreliability, Jones was still capable of putting on a captivating live show. On Independence Day, 1976, he appeared at Willie Nelson's Fourth of July Picnic in Gonzales, Texas, in front of 80,000 younger, country-rock oriented fans. A nervous Jones felt out of his comfort zone and nearly bolted from the festival, but went on anyway and wound up stealing the show. The Houston Post wrote, "He was the undisputed star of this year's Willie Nelson picnic...one of the greatest." Penthouse called him "the spirit of country music, plain and simple, its Holy Ghost". The Village Voice added, "As a singer he is as intelligent as they come, and should be considered for a spot in America's all-time top ten." Jones began missing more shows than he made, however, including several highly publicized dates at the Bottom Line club in New York City. Former vice president of CBS Records Rick Blackburn recalls in the 1989 video Same Ole Me that the event had been hyped for weeks, with a lot of top press and cast members from Saturday Night Live planning to attend. "We'd made our plans, travel arrangements, and so forth. George excused himself from my office, left - and we didn't see him for three weeks. He just did not show up." Much like Hank Williams, Jones seemed suspicious of success and furiously despised perceived slights and condescension directed towards the music that he loved so dearly. When he finally played the Bottom Line in 1980, the New York Times called him "the finest, most riveting singer in country music."
Comeback (1980–1990)
By 1980, Jones had not had a number-one single in six years, and many critics began to write him off. However, the singer stunned the music industry in April when "He Stopped Loving Her Today" was released and shot to number one on the country charts, remaining there for 18 weeks. The song, written by Bobby Braddock and Curly Putman, tells the story of a friend who has never given up on his love; he keeps old letters and photos from back in the day and hangs on to hope that she would "come back again". The song reaches its peak in the chorus, revealing that he indeed stopped loving her—when he died—and the woman does return—for his funeral. Jones' interpretation, buoyed by his delivery of the line "first time I'd seen him smile in years", gives it a mournful, gripping realism. It is consistently voted as one of the greatest country songs of all time, along with "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry" by Hank Williams and "Crazy" by Patsy Cline.
According to producer Billy Sherrill and Jones himself, the singer hated the song when he first heard it. In Bob Allen's biography of the singer, Sherrill states, "He thought it was too long, too sad, too depressing and that nobody would ever play it...He hated the melody and wouldn't learn it." Sherrill also claims that Jones frustrated him by continually singing the song to the melody of the Kris Kristofferson hit "Help Me Make It Through the Night". In the Same Ole Me retrospective, Sherrill recalls a heated exchange during one recording session: "I said 'That's not the melody!' and he said 'Yeah, but it's a better melody.' I said 'It might be—Kristofferson would think so too, it's his melody!'" In the same documentary, Sherrill claims that Jones was in such bad physical shape during this period that "the recitation was recorded 18 months after the first verse was" and added that the last words Jones said about "He Stopped Loving Her Today" was "Nobody'll buy that morbid son of a bitch". Although he had disliked "He Stopped Loving Her Today" when it was first offered to him, Jones ultimately gave the song credit for reviving his flagging career, stating, "a four-decade career had been salvaged by a three-minute song". Jones earned the Grammy Award for Best Male Country Vocal Performance in 1980. The Academy of Country Music awarded the song Single of the Year and Song of the Year in 1980. It also became the Country Music Association's Song of the Year in both 1980 and 1981.
The success of "He Stopped Loving Her Today" led CBS Records to renew Jones' recording contract and sparked new interest in the singer. He was the subject of an hour-and-a-quarter-long HBO television special entitled George Jones: With a Little Help from His Friends, which had him performing songs with Waylon Jennings, Elvis Costello, Tanya Tucker, and Tammy Wynette, among others. Jones continued drinking and using cocaine, appearing at various awards shows to accept honors for "He Stopped Loving Her Today" obviously inebriated, like when he performed "I Was Country When Country Wasn't Cool" with Barbara Mandrell at the 1981 Country Music Association Awards. He was involved in several high-speed car chases with police, which were reported on the national news, and one arrest was filmed by a local TV crew; the video, which is widely available online, offers a glimpse into Jones' alter ego when drinking, as he argues with the police officer and lunges at the camera man. Conversely, when sober, Jones was known to be friendly and down to earth, even shy. In a 1994 article on Jones, Nick Tosches remarked that when he first interviewed the singer in April 1976, "One could readily believe the accounts by those who had known him for years: that he had not changed much at all and that he had been impervious to fame and fortune." In an unusually unguarded self-appraisal in 1981, the singer told Mark Rose of The Village Voice, "I don't show a lot of affection. I have probably been a very unliked person among family, like somebody who was heartless. I saved it all for the songs. I didn't know you were supposed to show that love person to person. I guess I always wanted to, but I didn't know how. The only way I could would be to do it in a song." Years later he commented to the Christian Broadcasting Network's Scott Ross about himself, "I think you're mad at yourself, I think that you're sayin' to yourself 'You don't deserve this. You don't deserve those fans. You don't deserve makin' this money.' And you're mad at yourself. And you beat up on yourself by drinkin' and losing friends that won't put up with that...It's just one terrible big mess you make out of your life." In 1982, Jones recorded the album A Taste of Yesterday's Wine with Merle Haggard; while Jones, in the wake of his condition, appeared underweight on the album cover, his singing was flawless. His run of hits also continued in the early 1980s, with the singer charting "I'm Not Ready Yet", "Same Ole Me" (backed by the Oak Ridge Boys)", "Still Doin' Time", "Tennessee Whiskey", "We Didn't See a Thing" (a duet with Ray Charles), and "I Always Get Lucky with You", which was Jones' last number one in 1984.
In 1981, Jones met Nancy Sepulvado, a 34-year-old divorcée from Mansfield, Louisiana. Sepulvado's positive impact on Jones' life and career cannot be overstated; she eventually cleaned up his finances, kept him away from his drug dealers (who reportedly kidnapped her daughter in retaliation), and managed his career. Jones always gave her complete credit for saving his life. Nancy, who did not drink, explained to Nick Tosches in 1994, "He was drinking but he was fun to be around. It wasn't love at first sight or anything like that. But I saw what a good person he was, deep down, and I couldn't help caring about him." Jones managed to quit cocaine, but went on a drunken rampage in Alabama in fall 1983, and was once again straitjacketed and committed to Hillcrest Psychiatric Hospital suffering from malnutrition and delusions. By that time, though, physically and emotionally exhausted, he really did want to quit drinking. In March 1984 in Birmingham, Alabama - at the age of 52 - Jones performed his first sober show since the early '70s. "All my life it seems like I've been running from something," he told the United Press International in June. "If I knew what it was, maybe I could run in the right direction, but I always seem to end up going the other way." Jones began making up many of the dates he had missed, playing them for free to pay back promoters, and began opening his concerts with "No Show Jones", a song he had written with Glen Martin that poked fun at himself and other country singers. Jones always stressed that he was not proud of the way he treated loved ones and friends over the years, and was ashamed of disappointing his fans when he missed shows, telling Billboard in 2006, "I know it hurt my fans in a way and I've always been sad about that, it really bothered me for a long time."
Mostly sober for the rest of the 1980s, Jones consistently released albums with Sherrill producing, including Shine On, Jones Country, You've Still Got A Place In My Heart, Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes, Wine Colored Roses (an album Jones would tell Jolene Downs in 2001 was one of his personal favorites), Too Wild Too Long, and One Woman Man. Jones' video for his 1985 hit "Who's Gonna Fill Their Shoes" won the CMA award for Video of the Year (Billy Sherrill makes a cameo as the bus driver).
Later years and death (1990–2013)
In 1990, Jones released his last proper studio album on Epic, You Oughta Be Here With Me. Although the album featured several stirring performances, including the lead single "Hell Stays Open All Night Long" and the Roger Miller-penned title song, the single did poorly and Jones made the switch to MCA, ending his relationship with Sherrill and what was now Sony Music after 19 years. His first album with MCA, And Along Came Jones, was released in 1991, and backed by MCA's powerful promotion team and producer Kyle Lehning (who had produced a string of hit albums for Randy Travis), the album sold better than his previous one had. However, two singles, "You Couldn't Get The Picture" and "She Loved A Lot In Her Time" (a tribute to Jones' mother Clara), did not crack the top 30 on the charts, as Jones lost favor with country radio, as the format was altered radically during the early 1990s. His last album to have significant radio airplay was 1992's Walls Can Fall, which featured the novelty song "Finally Friday" and "I Don't Need Your Rockin' Chair", a testament to his continued vivaciousness in old age. Despite the lack of radio airplay, Jones continued to record and tour throughout the 1990s and was inducted into the Country Music Hall of Fame by Randy Travis in 1992. In 1996, Jones released his autobiography I Lived To Tell It All with Tom Carter, and the irony of his long career was not lost on him, with the singer writing in its preface, "I also know that a lot of my show-business peers are going to be angry after reading this book. So many have worked so hard to maintain their careers. I never took my career seriously, and yet it's flourishing." He also pulled no punches about his disappointment in the direction country music had taken, devoting a full chapter to the changes in the country music scene of the 1990s that had him removed from radio playlists in favor of a younger generation of pop-influenced country stars. (Jones had long been a critic of country pop, and along with Wynette and Jean Shepard, he was one of the major backers of the Association of Country Entertainers, a guild promoting traditional country sounds that was founded in 1974; Jones's divorce from Wynette was a factor in the association's collapse.) Despite his absence from the country charts during this time, latter-day country superstars such as Garth Brooks, Randy Travis, Alan Jackson, and many others often paid tribute to Jones, while expressing their love and respect for his legacy as a true country legend who paved the way for their own success. On February 17, 1998, The Nashville Network premiered a group of television specials called The George Jones Show, with Jones as host. The program featured informal chats with Jones holding court with country's biggest stars old and new, and of course, music. Guests included Loretta Lynn, Trace Adkins, Johnny Paycheck, Lorrie Morgan, Merle Haggard, Billy Ray Cyrus, Tim McGraw, Faith Hill, Charley Pride, Bobby Bare, Patty Loveless, and Waylon Jennings, among others.
While Jones remained committed to "pure country", he worked with the top producers and musicians of the day and the quality of his work remained high. Some of his significant performances include "I Must Have Done Something Bad", "Wild Irish Rose", "Billy B. Bad" (a sarcastic jab at country music establishment trendsetters), "A Thousand Times A Day", "When The Last Curtain Falls", and the novelty "High-Tech Redneck". Jones' most popular song in his later years was "Choices", the first single from his 1999 studio album Cold Hard Truth. A video was also made for the song, and Jones won another Grammy for Best Male Country Vocal Performance. The song was at the center of controversy when the Country Music Association invited Jones to perform it on the awards show, but required that he perform an abridged version. Jones refused and did not attend the show. Alan Jackson was disappointed with the association's decision, and halfway through his own performance during the show, he signaled to his band and played part of Jones' song in protest.
On March 6, 1999, Jones was involved in an accident when he crashed his sport utility vehicle near his home. He was taken to the Vanderbilt University Medical Center (VUMC), where he was released two weeks later. In May of that year, Jones pleaded guilty to drunk-driving charges related to the accident. (In his memoir published three years earlier, Jones admitted that he sometimes had a glass of wine before dinner and that he still drank beer occasionally, but insisted, "I don't squirm in my seat, fighting the urge for another drink" and speculated, "perhaps I'm not a true alcoholic in the modern sense of the word. Perhaps I was always just an old fashioned drunk.")
The crash was a significant turning point, as he explained to Billboard in 2006: "when I had that wreck, I made up my mind, it put the fear of God in me. No more smoking, no more drinking. I didn't have to have no help, I made up my mind to quit. I don't crave it." After the accident, Jones went on to release The Gospel Collection in 2003, for which Billy Sherrill came out of retirement to produce. He appeared at a televised Johnny Cash Memorial Concert in Jonesboro, Arkansas, in 2003, singing "Big River" with Willie Nelson and Kris Kristofferson. In 2008, Jones received the Kennedy Center Honor along with Pete Townshend and Roger Daltrey of The Who, Barbra Streisand, Morgan Freeman, and Twyla Tharp. President George W. Bush disclosed that he had many of Jones' songs on his iPod. Jones also served as judge in 2008 for the 8th annual Independent Music Awards to support independent artists' careers. and Rolling Stone named him number 43 in their 100 Greatest Singers of All Time issue. An album titled Hits I Missed and One I Didn't, in which he covered hits he had passed on, as well as a remake of his own "He Stopped Loving Her Today", would be released as his final studio album. In 2012, Jones received the Grammy Lifetime Achievement award.
On March 29, 2012, Jones was taken to the hospital with an upper respiratory infection. Months later, on May 21, Jones was hospitalized again for his infection and was released five days later. On August 14, 2012, Jones announced his farewell tour, the Grand Tour, with scheduled stops at 60 cities. His final concert was held in Knoxville at the Knoxville Civic Coliseum on April 6, 2013.
Jones was scheduled to perform his final concert at the Bridgestone Arena on November 22, 2013. However, on April 18, 2013, Jones was taken to VUMC for a slight fever and irregular blood pressure. His concerts in Alabama and Salem were postponed as a result. Following six days in intensive care at VUMC, Jones died on April 26, 2013, at age 81. Former First Lady Laura Bush was among those eulogizing Jones at his funeral on May 2, 2013. Other speakers were Tennessee Governor Bill Haslam, former Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee, news personality Bob Schieffer, and country singers Barbara Mandrell and Kenny Chesney. Alan Jackson, Kid Rock, Ronnie Milsap, Randy Travis, Vince Gill, Patty Loveless, Travis Tritt, the Oak Ridge Boys, Charlie Daniels, Wynonna, and Brad Paisley provided musical tributes. The service was broadcast live on CMT, GAC, RFD-TV, The Nashville Network and FamilyNet as well as Nashville stations. SiriusXM and WSM 650AM, home of the Grand Ole Opry, broadcast the event on the radio. The family requested that contributions be made to the Grand Ole Opry Trust Fund or to the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum.
Jones was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in Nashville. His death made headlines all over the world; many country stations (as well as a few of other formats, such as oldies/classic hits) abandoned or modified their playlists and played his songs throughout the day. The week after Jones's death, "He Stopped Loving Her Today" re-entered the hot country songs at number 21.
Legacy
Jones tirelessly defended the integrity of country music, telling Billboard in 2006, "It's never been for love of money. I thank God for it because it makes me a living. But I sing because I love it, not because of the dollar signs." Jones also went out of his way to promote younger country singers that he felt were as passionate about the music as he was. "Everybody knows he's a great singer," Alan Jackson stated in 1995, "but what I like most about George is that when you meet him, he is like some old guy that works down at the gas station...even though he's a legend!"
Shortly after Jones' death, Andrew Mueller wrote about his influence in Uncut, "He was one of the finest interpretive singers who ever lifted a microphone...There cannot be a single country songwriter of the last 50-odd years who has not wondered what it might be like to hear their words sung by that voice." In an article for The Texas Monthly in 1994, Nick Tosches eloquently described the singer's vocal style: "While he and his idol, Hank Williams, have both affected generations with a plaintive veracity of voice that has set them apart, Jones has an additional gift—a voice of exceptional range, natural elegance, and lucent tone. Gliding toward high tenor, plunging toward deep bass, the magisterial portamento of his onward-coursing baritone emits white-hot sparks and torrents of blue, investing his poison love songs with a tragic gravity and inflaming his celebrations of the honky-tonk ethos with the hellfire of abandon." In the New Republic essay "Why George Jones ranks with Frank Sinatra and Billie Holiday," David Hajdu writes:
"Jones had a handsome and strange voice. His singing was always partly about the appeal of the tones he produced, regardless of the meaning of the words. In this sense, Jones had something in common with singers of formal music and opera, though his means of vocal production were radically different from theirs. He sang from the back of his throat, rather than from deep in his diaphragm. He tightened his larynx to squeeze sound out. He clenched his jaw, instead of wriggling it free. He forced wind through his teeth, and the notes sounded weirdly beautiful."
David Cantwell recalled in 2013, "His approach to singing, he told me once, was to call up those memories and feelings of his own that most closely corresponded to those being felt by the character in whatever song he was performing. He was a kind of singing method actor, creating an illusion of the real." In the liner notes to Essential George Jones: The Spirit of Country Rich Kienzle states, "Jones sings of people and stories that are achingly human. He can turn a ballad into a catharsis by wringing every possible emotion from it, making it a primal, strangled cry of anguish". In 1994, country music historian Colin Escott pronounced, "Contemporary country music is virtually founded on reverence for George Jones. Walk through a room of country singers and conduct a quick poll, George nearly always tops it." Waylon Jennings expressed a similar opinion in his song "It's Alright": "If we all could sound like we wanted to, we'd all sound like George Jones." In the wake of Jones's death, Merle Haggard pronounced in Rolling Stone, "His voice was like a Stradivarius violin: one of the greatest instruments ever made." Emmylou Harris wrote, "When you hear George Jones sing, you are hearing a man who takes a song and makes it a work of art - always," a quote that appeared on the sleeve of Jones' 1976 album The Battle. In the documentary Same Ole Me, several country music stars offer similar thoughts. Randy Travis: "It sounds like he's lived every minute of every word that he sings and there's very few people who can do that"; Tom T. Hall: "It was always Jones who got the message across just right"; and Roy Acuff: "I'd give anything if I could sing like George Jones".
In the same film, producer Billy Sherrill states, "All I did was change the instrumentation around him. I don't think he's changed at all."
Jones was the subject of the second season of the podcast Cocaine and Rhinestones, which contends Jones is the greatest country music singer ever.
Influence beyond country music
Unlike some of his contemporaries, Jones painstakingly adhered to country music. He never reached the top 40 of the Billboard Hot 100 and almost never had any of his music played on mainstream popular music stations in his career, but, ironically, without even trying, Jones' unabashed loyalty to strictly country arrangements attracted the admiration of musicians and songwriters from a wide range of genres. In an often-quoted tribute, Frank Sinatra called Jones "the second-best singer in America". In a Rolling Stone interview in 1969, Bob Dylan was asked what he thought was the best song released in the previous year, and he replied, "George Jones had one called 'Small Time Laboring Man'," and in his autobiography Chronicles, Dylan states that in the early 1960s, he was largely unimpressed by what he heard on the radio, and admits "Outside of maybe George Jones, I didn't listen to country music either." Country rock pioneer Gram Parsons was an avid George Jones fan and covered Jones' song "That's All It Took" on his first solo album. In the documentary Gram Parsons: Fallen Angel, famous rock groupie Pamela Des Barres recalls seeing Parsons singing Jones' song "She Once Lived Here" at an empty Whiskey A Go Go in Los Angeles: "It was my peak, peak moment, not sitting on Jimmy Page's amp...that was my peak moment." Parsons reignited Keith Richards' interest in country music in the early '70s, and after Jones' death in 2013, the guitarist wrote, "He possessed the most touching voice, the most expressive ways of projecting that beautiful instrument of anyone I can call to mind. You heard his heart in every note he sang." Richards recorded "Say It's Not You" with Jones for The Bradley Barn Sessions in 1994, and recalls in his autobiography hearing him sing for the first time when the Rolling Stones and Jones were on the same show in Texas in 1964: "They trailed in with tumbleweed following them, as if tumbleweed was their pet. Dust all over the place, a bunch of cowboys, but when George got up, we went whoa, there's a master up there." In the documentary The History of Rock 'N' Roll, Mick Jagger also cites Jones as one of his favorite country singers.
John Prine mentions Jones in his song "Jesus the Missing Years" and "Knockin' on Your Screen Door". Jones fan Elvis Costello had a surprise hit in the UK when he covered "A Good Year for the Roses" in 1981. Elliott Smith told an interviewer about his idea of Heaven: "George Jones would be singing all the time. It would be like New York in reverse: people would be nice to each other for no reason at all, and it would smell good." In a 2001 interview with Mark Binelli from Rolling Stone, Leonard Cohen asked, "Have you heard George Jones' last record Cold Hard Truth? I love to hear an old guy lay out his situation. He has the best voice in America." The day Jones died, Cohen performed "Choices" on stage in Winnipeg, Canada, as a tribute to the country legend. In 2013, Robbie Robertson told Uncut, "He was the Ray Charles of country music - the one who could make you cry with his voice...We wouldn't listen to country music, the guys in The Band, but we'd listen to George Jones..." Robert Plant told Uncuts Michael Bonner in 2014, "I now have to listen to George Jones once a day. Amazing singer. What a singer." James Taylor, who wrote "Bartender's Blues" with Jones in mind and sang background vocals with him on the recording, told Rolling Stone, "He sounds like a steel guitar. It's the way he blends notes, the way he comes up to them, the way he crescendos and decrescendos. The dynamic of it is very tight and very controlled - it's like carving with the voice." Other disparate artists who recorded with Jones include Dennis Locorriere and Ray Sawyer of Dr. Hook, Mark Knopfler, the Staples Singers, Leon Russell, B.B King, Blackberry Smoke, The Grateful Dead, and Linda Ronstadt. In 1995, Burt Reynolds wrote, "He is to country music what Spencer Tracy is to movies."
Duets
Jones was one of the greatest harmony singers in country music, and released many duets over the course of his long career. While his songs with Tammy Wynette are his most celebrated, Jones claimed in his autobiography that he felt his duets with Melba Montgomery were his best. Jones also recorded duet albums with Gene Pitney and his former bass player Johnny Paycheck. George's record with Paycheck, 1980's Double Trouble, is one of his most atypical records, and features him giving credible performances on numbers such as "Maybelline" and "You Better Move On." Jones also recorded the duet albums My Very Special Guests (1979), A Taste of Yesterday's Wine with Merle Haggard (1982), Ladies Choice (1984), Friends In High Places (1991), The Bradley Barn Sessions (1994), God's Country: George Jones And Friends (2006), a second album with Merle Haggard called Kickin' Out The Footlights...Again (2006), and Burn Your Playhouse Down (2008).
In addition to the many recordings Jones made with Tammy Wynette, some of his notable duets include:
"We Must Have Been Out of Our Minds" (with Melba Montgomery)
"We Sure Make Good Love" (with Loretta Lynn)
"Don't Be Ashamed Of Your Age" (with Jerry Lee Lewis)
"(I Don't Care) If Tomorrow Never Comes" (with Hank Williams, Jr.)
"Yesterday's Wine" (with Merle Haggard)
"C.C. Waterback" (with Merle Haggard)
"Love's Gonna Live Here" (with Buck Owens)
"You Never Looked That Good When You Were Mine" (with Patti Page)
"Size Seven Round (Made of Gold)" and "That's Good - That's Bad" (with Lacy J. Dalton)
"You Don't Seem To Miss Me" (with Patty Loveless)
"Night Life" (with Waylon Jennings)
"If You Can Touch Her At All" (with Lynn Anderson)
"Here We Are" and "All Fall Down" (with Emmylou Harris)
"The One I Loved Back Then (The Corvette Song)" and "Battle Scars" (with Tracy Lawrence)
"She Once Lived Here" and "You Can't Do Wrong and Get By" (with Ricky Skaggs)
"The Beer Run" (with Garth Brooks)
"Fiddle And Guitar Band" (with Charlie Daniels)
"I'm a One-Woman Man" (with Marty Stuart)
"If I Could Bottle This Up" and "I Always Get It Right With You" (with Shelby Lynn)
"Yearning" (with Jeanette Hicks)
"Patches" (with B.B. King)
"Flame In My Heart" (with Virginia Spurlock)
"Hallelujah, I Love Her So" (with Brenda Lee)
"A Few Ole Country Boys" (with Randy Travis)
"Milwaukee, Here I Come" (with Brenda Carter)
"All That We've Got Left" (with Vern Gosdin)
"Burn Your Playhouse Down" (with Keith Richards)
"A Good Year for the Roses" (with Alan Jackson)
"Half A Mind" & "Filipino Baby" (with Ernest Tubb)
"I Still Miss Someone", "I Got Stripes", and "I'll Say It's True" (with Johnny Cash)
"Walk Through This World with Me" (with Mark Chesnutt)
"Wonderful World Outside" and "Window Up Above" (with Ralph Stanley)
"Fourth Of July" (with Shooter Jennings)
"Making Believe" (with Merle Haggard)
“No Show Jones” (with Merle Haggard)
"Never Bit A Bullet Like This" (with Sammy Kershaw)
"Got To Get to Louisiana" (with T. Graham Brown)
"Will the Circle Be Unbroken" (with the Staple Singers)
"The Window Up Above" (with Leon Russell)
"I Gotta Get Drunk" and "Half a Man" (with Willie Nelson)
"The Race Is On" (with Travis Tritt)
"Rockin' Years" and "The Blues Man" (with Dolly Parton)
"Love Bug", "She Thinks I Still Care", and "Selfishness In Man" (with Vince Gill)
"This Bottle (In My Hand)" and "Don't Cry Darlin'" (with David Allan Coe)
"Hey George, Hey Hank" (with Hank Thompson)
"Murder on Music Row" (with Dierks Bentley)
"Waltz of the Angels" (with Margie Singleton)
"Keeping Up With The Jonesin'" (with Jamey Johnson)
"Country Boy" (with Aaron Lewis)
"Me And The Boys" (with Kevin Fowler)
"I'll Bring the Bottle" (with Charley Pride)
"Sugar Daddy" (with the Bellamy Brothers)
"Nothin' New For New Year" (with Harry Connick Jr.)
"We Didn't See a Thing" (with Ray Charles and Chet Atkins)
"We're Gonna Hold On" (with Wynonna Judd)
"Angel Band" (with Vestal Goodman)
"The Blues Man" (with Dolly Parton)
Discography
Number-one country hits
"White Lightning" (1959)
"Tender Years" (1961)
"She Thinks I Still Care" (1962)
"Walk Through This World with Me" (1967)
"We're Gonna Hold On" (with Tammy Wynette) (1973)
"The Grand Tour" (1974)
"The Door" (1975)
"Golden Ring" (with Tammy Wynette) (1976)
"Near You" (with Tammy Wynette) (1977)
"He Stopped Loving Her Today" (1980)
"Still Doin' Time" (1981)
"Yesterday's Wine" (with Merle Haggard) (1982)
"I Always Get Lucky with You" (1983)
See also
Academy of Country Music
List of country musicians
Country Music Association
List of best-selling music artists
Inductees of the Country Music Hall of Fame (1992 inductee)
References
Further reading
Jones, George, with Tom Carter, I Lived to Tell it All, Dell Publishing, 1997, .
Dawidoff, Nicholas, In the Country of Country: A Journey to the Roots of American Music, Vintage Books, 1998, .
Malone, Bill C., Country Music USA, University of Texas Press, 1985, .
Joel Whitburn's Top Country Songs, 1944 to 2005, Record Research, Menomonee Falls, WI, 2005, .
External links
1931 births
2013 deaths
American acoustic guitarists
American country singer-songwriters
American rockabilly guitarists
American country guitarists
American male singer-songwriters
Country Music Hall of Fame inductees
Epic Records artists
Gold Star Records artists
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
Grand Ole Opry members
Kennedy Center honorees
Mercury Records artists
Singer-songwriters from Texas
People from Beaumont, Texas
People from Hardin County, Texas
Starday Records artists
United Artists Records artists
United States Marines
United States National Medal of Arts recipients
Country musicians from Texas
Guitarists from Texas
American male guitarists
Baptists from Texas
20th-century American guitarists
People from Tyler County, Texas
People from Jasper, Texas
20th-century Baptists
20th-century American male singers
20th-century American singers | [
0.1273842602968216,
0.45704513788223267,
-0.9352766871452332,
0.12347771972417831,
0.3886546790599823,
0.5459816455841064,
0.6683716773986816,
-0.06733819097280502,
-0.08760541677474976,
-0.6585407257080078,
0.2807508707046509,
0.6244815587997437,
-0.5758134126663208,
0.20442168414592743,
-0.7451422810554504,
0.1816844344139099,
-0.27918171882629395,
-0.3165106475353241,
-0.21928197145462036,
-0.6477094292640686,
-0.5600254535675049,
-0.2698957324028015,
-0.03327643498778343,
-0.01185158733278513,
-0.3175337612628937,
0.6322424411773682,
-0.5761625170707703,
-0.14698931574821472,
0.47556260228157043,
0.21626344323158264,
0.005545156076550484,
0.3677855432033539,
0.8775364756584167,
-0.2890971004962921,
-0.39927929639816284,
0.4388101398944855,
-0.33181196451187134,
-0.4807312786579132,
0.18892337381839752,
0.1965455561876297,
-0.054910220205783844,
-0.2530088424682617,
0.6230536103248596,
-0.12824928760528564,
-0.10762514919042587,
-0.10603470355272293,
-1.353220820426941,
0.4086388349533081,
-0.32611674070358276,
-1.0166902542114258,
-0.36674076318740845,
0.5815058946609497,
0.24624404311180115,
0.0651412382721901,
-0.12000798434019089,
-0.3613165020942688,
0.3931393027305603,
0.1448897123336792,
-0.35784056782722473,
-0.20935963094234467,
-0.3097376227378845,
-0.321166455745697,
0.38716378808021545,
-0.5701337456703186,
0.02740020491182804,
0.20568928122520447,
-0.05944446846842766,
0.3317617177963257,
-0.033087607473134995,
0.29597008228302,
-0.22828035056591034,
0.536578893661499,
0.5113545656204224,
-0.5193999409675598,
0.2962547838687897,
-0.1925010234117508,
0.4278925061225891,
-0.5197290182113647,
-0.14063556492328644,
0.7005837559700012,
0.19131813943386078,
-0.46780088543891907,
0.6633860468864441,
0.33512699604034424,
0.020231943577528,
-0.38807398080825806,
-0.7916238903999329,
0.4392637610435486,
-0.88813316822052,
-0.005040751304477453,
-0.7069442868232727,
-0.3686760663986206,
-0.1291879266500473,
0.08751216530799866,
-0.6255729794502258,
-0.34616565704345703,
0.3072564899921417,
0.5376282930374146,
0.2564932405948639,
0.23266379535198212,
0.09559822827577591,
-0.5267627835273743,
0.27583616971969604,
-0.35894012451171875,
-0.7326441407203674,
0.04938016086816788,
-0.04932507500052452,
-0.3661681115627289,
-0.09400372952222824,
-0.0673624575138092,
-0.5073519349098206,
0.03226494789123535,
0.13988842070102692,
-0.22065797448158264,
0.3369945287704468,
0.7798516154289246,
-0.13519956171512604,
-0.2186180055141449,
-0.3693338632583618,
-0.18173697590827942,
-0.6664772033691406,
0.24308930337429047,
-0.0478261299431324,
-0.18869350850582123,
-0.9879389405250549,
0.40898221731185913,
0.042656704783439636,
0.03802599757909775,
-0.1511947363615036,
-0.22891274094581604,
0.5338279604911804,
0.7565611600875854,
0.06519565731287003,
-0.589730978012085,
-0.21451117098331451,
0.10218992829322815,
0.08657582849264145,
-0.07009386271238327,
-0.0531684048473835,
-0.15762300789356232,
0.07358250766992569,
-0.03649589419364929,
-0.8505576848983765,
-0.0980997234582901,
0.5233661532402039,
-0.19965918362140656,
0.011860760860145092,
-0.14559327065944672,
0.3692542314529419,
-0.0008093832875601947,
0.4223901927471161,
0.3271353244781494,
0.2642132043838501,
-0.03105686604976654,
-0.5308985710144043,
0.3056177794933319,
-0.1941547393798828,
0.13275931775569916,
0.3555443584918976,
-0.11884056031703949,
0.3357730507850647,
0.04017190635204315,
-0.011533296667039394,
0.25965529680252075,
0.1231398656964302,
0.24818392097949982,
-0.1820339411497116,
-0.014199660159647465,
-0.544079065322876,
-0.337454617023468,
-0.4295331537723541,
-0.051635559648275375,
-0.1937897950410843,
0.19654665887355804,
-0.23879732191562653,
0.1161336749792099,
0.910282552242279,
0.4598744809627533,
0.3283214867115021,
-0.23836088180541992,
-0.4035737216472626,
-0.6896199584007263,
0.4619964063167572,
0.4011245369911194,
0.398258775472641,
0.6052486896514893,
0.3988586962223053,
-0.1865883618593216,
0.7357521057128906,
-0.5582202076911926,
-0.4873873293399811,
-0.7093162536621094,
0.19619803130626678,
-0.21696363389492035,
0.4306374490261078,
0.4039764404296875,
-0.07865551859140396,
-0.003385887946933508,
0.5796645283699036,
0.4032554030418396,
0.10915100574493408,
-0.18947520852088928,
0.20910225808620453,
-0.5521570444107056,
0.3768948018550873,
0.23406340181827545,
0.7752760052680969,
-0.20985494554042816,
0.08522021025419235,
0.25598666071891785,
0.15432104468345642,
-0.675889790058136,
-0.1215297132730484,
0.40876320004463196,
-0.25486886501312256,
-1.201497197151184,
-0.4068073630332947,
-0.18863935768604279,
0.20803000032901764,
-0.6624118685722351,
0.5891149640083313,
0.3739360570907593,
-0.46686601638793945,
0.11300615221261978,
0.06715577840805054,
0.9381880760192871,
-0.4406372010707855,
-0.04340319335460663,
0.03309529647231102,
-0.201447531580925,
-0.21973967552185059,
0.3075070381164551,
-0.15381182730197906,
-0.47869813442230225,
0.4220350980758667,
0.6287646293640137,
0.24255655705928802,
-0.3707837760448456,
-0.4381506145000458,
-0.8005247712135315,
-0.13172069191932678,
0.02884318307042122,
-0.5918748378753662,
0.13505849242210388,
0.35844582319259644,
-0.004678011406213045,
-0.06713981181383133,
-0.684964656829834,
-0.37719717621803284,
0.5011234879493713,
0.11694030463695526,
0.5012069940567017,
0.7645885944366455,
0.5030180215835571,
-0.2660811245441437,
0.3389940857887268,
0.5123032331466675,
-0.2720157504081726,
-0.2518062889575958,
0.1720639020204544,
-0.1244506910443306,
0.11389939486980438,
0.34280893206596375,
0.1285882443189621,
-0.32846760749816895,
-0.6621369123458862,
-0.08245480805635452,
-0.31305569410324097,
0.12208199501037598,
-0.19986410439014435,
-0.010230888612568378,
-0.10240822285413742,
-0.1476970762014389,
0.4944334924221039,
0.25225797295570374,
0.4163300096988678,
-0.01943989098072052,
-0.18794989585876465,
-0.4032001793384552,
-0.9424064755439758,
0.6999976634979248,
0.8560609221458435,
-0.2041839361190796,
-0.4781101942062378,
-0.23237985372543335,
0.16256414353847504,
0.06947918981313705,
-0.4892632067203522,
0.11056011915206909,
0.3174784779548645,
-0.6620661020278931,
0.7703639268875122,
-0.25376006960868835,
0.20316776633262634,
0.047230154275894165,
0.26937028765678406,
-0.1700158417224884,
-0.5586637258529663,
-0.41821712255477905,
-0.1572662889957428,
-0.3110850155353546,
0.162472665309906,
-0.050156932324171066,
0.018358753994107246,
0.8547682762145996,
0.37942126393318176,
-0.2710534334182739,
-0.15853790938854218,
-5.557432651519775,
0.2536623179912567,
-0.09381309151649475,
-0.9506402015686035,
0.5247818231582642,
0.3997461497783661,
0.05250769108533859,
-0.5531448721885681,
0.027848107740283012,
-0.6715198159217834,
0.10035382956266403,
0.15197943150997162,
0.04019904136657715,
0.5871521830558777,
0.43106135725975037,
-0.08487734943628311,
0.8103195428848267,
-0.49153727293014526,
0.017925316467881203,
0.19663721323013306,
0.44918254017829895,
-0.40321388840675354,
-0.031186504289507866,
-0.06771641224622726,
-0.3156135380268097,
0.17841121554374695,
-0.22298994660377502,
-0.030428070574998856,
-0.626157820224762,
-0.3279578387737274,
-0.1398187130689621,
0.09801799803972244,
-0.16331639885902405,
-0.3235340416431427,
-0.08252938836812973,
-0.24207516014575958,
0.2774239480495453,
-0.005380361340939999,
0.06381502747535706,
-0.19522222876548767,
0.06278245151042938,
-0.25945794582366943,
-0.8641306757926941,
-0.2561035454273224,
-0.2507610321044922,
0.20279261469841003,
-0.014421898871660233,
-0.5813482403755188,
-0.35857027769088745,
0.9759507179260254,
0.3040744960308075,
-0.07053279876708984,
0.3611079156398773,
-0.425634503364563,
0.012960841879248619,
0.09381160885095596,
0.3652247190475464,
-0.0895041674375534,
-0.4260748624801636,
0.1315169334411621,
0.9720994830131531,
-0.2693346440792084,
-0.021703731268644333,
-0.4082382321357727,
-0.25227758288383484,
-0.6222753524780273,
0.00915127620100975,
0.4322797954082489,
0.07317957282066345,
-0.30239930748939514,
0.2137211412191391,
0.7669776082038879,
0.00915523711591959,
-1.5083853006362915,
0.1853308081626892,
-0.045212019234895706,
0.3076510429382324,
-0.09190215170383453,
-0.7187777161598206,
-0.4264608323574066,
0.1094871535897255,
-0.14050963521003723,
0.20082849264144897,
0.645797848701477,
0.29387062788009644,
0.205308198928833,
-0.4163387715816498,
0.6326051950454712,
-0.3778345584869385,
-0.3469448387622833,
0.09959080815315247,
-0.13108141720294952,
0.2037486582994461,
0.1927001178264618,
0.9090247750282288,
0.2870893180370331,
0.606787383556366,
0.4732399880886078,
0.4544402062892914,
0.2823789715766907,
-0.6335550546646118,
-0.3632386028766632,
0.4041825532913208,
-0.6116593480110168,
0.2132279872894287,
-0.10221237689256668,
0.1514672338962555,
-0.21337516605854034,
0.7800056338310242,
0.3222057819366455,
-0.12729418277740479,
0.260062575340271,
-0.34018582105636597,
-0.46961715817451477,
0.2183891236782074,
-0.9372307062149048,
0.5690418481826782,
0.13107608258724213,
0.2525354027748108,
0.4211569130420685,
0.2978070080280304,
0.48070552945137024,
0.5702667236328125,
0.05234687775373459,
-0.10052450746297836,
-0.003205635817721486,
0.1690816879272461,
-0.288126140832901,
-0.2063700258731842,
-0.027368631213903427,
-0.3169204890727997,
0.6131203174591064,
0.33244821429252625,
0.7469198107719421,
-0.3030725419521332,
-0.017511336132884026,
-0.8337540626525879,
-0.19633722305297852,
-0.1256476491689682,
0.004685665480792522,
0.060965389013290405,
-0.16375073790550232,
-0.09396108984947205,
0.07459496706724167,
0.29498082399368286,
0.20308461785316467,
0.13058945536613464,
0.1837412416934967,
-0.10895683616399765,
0.3566604554653168,
-0.29744213819503784,
-0.12594696879386902,
0.6865161061286926,
-0.9196099638938904,
-0.7022920250892639,
0.3011355996131897,
-0.43697211146354675,
-0.3393670916557312,
0.17664338648319244,
-0.2983211576938629,
-0.10208280384540558,
-0.5635336637496948,
-1.281286358833313,
0.2457338273525238,
-0.046030621975660324,
0.2253672033548355,
-0.1025218516588211,
0.15224559605121613,
-0.2464139610528946,
0.42364364862442017,
0.01891893707215786,
-0.11714380234479904,
-0.0817045196890831,
0.008064787834882736,
0.32684141397476196,
-0.21083547174930573,
-0.16315899789333344,
-0.1896173059940338,
0.12875235080718994,
0.03806997090578079,
-0.24638114869594574,
0.03253214433789253,
-1.0737513303756714,
-0.6186726689338684,
-0.23757793009281158,
-0.3433016538619995,
-0.6034923195838928,
-0.5831490159034729,
0.046529028564691544,
0.34359511733055115,
0.05349805951118469,
-0.4391726851463318,
0.31051895022392273,
0.7109457850456238,
-0.05969579517841339,
-0.0939493402838707,
0.2749849855899811,
-0.030103513970971107,
-0.1029248833656311,
-0.3423912525177002,
0.14011506736278534,
-0.4586736261844635,
-0.1720380336046219,
-0.15489239990711212,
0.056565843522548676,
-1.106826901435852,
0.06697136908769608,
-0.16439107060432434,
-0.09131255000829697,
0.37669891119003296,
-0.18820106983184814,
-0.6052711009979248,
-0.00015163928037509322,
0.4137607514858246,
-0.11510807275772095,
0.5319482088088989,
0.5648581385612488,
0.03003692254424095,
-0.2788859009742737,
-0.8393295407295227,
-0.3381589651107788,
-0.07777714729309082,
-0.12891323864459991,
0.5286646485328674,
-0.3763788342475891,
0.1864321082830429,
-0.2629462480545044,
-0.174214705824852,
0.5380602478981018,
-0.4579201936721802,
-0.11304003745317459,
0.015143218450248241,
0.06210293248295784,
0.41133344173431396,
-0.45002901554107666,
-0.053817737847566605,
0.3560621440410614,
0.21256119012832642,
0.009718067944049835,
-0.0006946923094801605,
0.493312269449234,
1.022935390472412,
0.0389564223587513,
0.06928829848766327,
0.03416518494486809,
-0.4210270643234253,
0.5433497428894043,
-0.13273294270038605,
0.13650760054588318,
-0.28841665387153625,
1.054701566696167,
0.16048966348171234,
-0.3500966429710388,
0.16316623985767365,
0.4874117374420166,
-0.13187798857688904,
-0.35671377182006836,
-0.055525340139865875,
0.31262949109077454,
-0.01350344903767109,
0.4033111333847046,
0.42024362087249756,
0.25274327397346497,
-0.11119741201400757,
0.008550428785383701,
0.18900881707668304,
-0.1330340951681137,
0.15601646900177002,
0.2753030061721802,
-0.5508031845092773,
-0.4803345501422882,
0.39290162920951843,
-0.22795803844928741,
0.660323441028595,
-0.3353957235813141,
0.35317686200141907,
0.3139100670814514,
-0.2930554449558258,
0.036131393164396286,
0.06878623366355896,
-0.8951752185821533,
0.22227737307548523,
-0.2481411099433899,
-0.13524174690246582,
-0.3053554892539978,
-0.2562369406223297,
-0.1861833930015564,
-0.18422065675258636,
0.2613012194633484,
-0.5680603981018066,
-0.21870453655719757,
0.42494186758995056,
0.005788904614746571,
0.6215946078300476,
-0.30537086725234985,
-0.342144250869751,
-0.08709795027971268,
0.9689693450927734,
-0.01924957148730755,
-0.23704226315021515,
-0.226605623960495,
0.4061688482761383,
0.6374136805534363,
0.21062195301055908,
0.6642134189605713,
-0.42400825023651123,
-0.03818458691239357,
-0.5436569452285767,
-0.6399387717247009,
0.42781832814216614,
0.6234884262084961,
-0.1324750781059265,
0.4069916307926178,
0.759880542755127,
-0.6441690921783447,
-0.13661977648735046,
0.9050278663635254,
-0.44346854090690613,
0.008408415131270885,
-0.045889269560575485,
-0.07499461621046066,
-0.21618002653121948,
0.43014031648635864,
0.1105196550488472,
0.3079238533973694,
0.7146451473236084,
0.12951813638210297,
-0.314402312040329,
0.1576237976551056,
0.046130988746881485,
0.20371660590171814,
-0.6361304521560669,
0.31421196460723877,
0.5528692007064819,
-0.2357940375804901,
-0.5535885095596313,
0.0709390640258789,
0.013113262131810188,
-0.3133758008480072,
0.4662242829799652,
-0.22076912224292755,
-0.2165960669517517,
0.2362358272075653,
0.43380841612815857,
0.8242378830909729,
-0.24717335402965546,
-0.12646639347076416,
0.5226483345031738,
-0.48732370138168335,
-0.9459829926490784,
0.21548214554786682,
0.08922456204891205,
0.2515335977077484,
-0.20433777570724487,
0.6989479660987854,
-0.16771353781223297,
0.22416487336158752,
-0.17308244109153748,
0.1630631387233734,
0.03616194427013397,
-0.03313757851719856,
-0.48347604274749756,
1.4996020793914795,
0.16613483428955078,
0.1679888516664505,
0.0009223290835507214,
-0.11471105366945267,
-0.39238646626472473,
-0.1290384978055954,
0.7641688585281372,
0.02993127889931202,
0.11893905699253082,
-0.34802839159965515,
0.9070620536804199,
-0.015668924897909164,
-0.16550341248512268,
0.38194823265075684,
0.09402359277009964,
0.04205852001905441,
-0.35882315039634705,
-0.4204361140727997,
0.0035572808701545,
-0.21924608945846558,
-0.5121598839759827,
0.00606713118031621,
-0.2890718877315521,
-0.23543238639831543,
-0.05135249346494675,
0.26463571190834045,
-0.5656014084815979,
0.44141992926597595,
-0.7318711876869202,
-0.476173996925354,
-0.06780225038528442,
-0.4644077718257904,
-0.1658990979194641,
-0.1498095840215683,
1.0132553577423096,
0.5424955487251282,
0.4242771863937378,
0.6140070557594299,
0.20396773517131805,
0.36076682806015015,
-0.16844874620437622,
-0.18195828795433044,
-0.07506560534238815,
-0.1550556868314743,
0.04836554080247879,
-0.8526153564453125,
0.6118869781494141,
0.0332329235970974,
0.7428423762321472,
-0.4503519833087921,
0.42956796288490295,
-0.7301110625267029,
-0.21491670608520508,
0.7009968161582947,
-0.3359784781932831,
-0.11589933931827545,
-0.07574889808893204,
0.39289531111717224,
0.4931503236293793,
0.05068386718630791,
-0.26212430000305176,
-0.21938030421733856,
0.3203701376914978,
0.20668064057826996,
-0.02391611412167549,
-0.04041879624128342,
0.5120835304260254,
-0.08038383722305298,
-0.22637568414211273,
-0.2940066456794739,
-0.14394178986549377,
-0.6538195013999939,
-0.7949907779693604,
0.8449023962020874,
1.014047384262085,
0.48466750979423523,
-0.7137513756752014,
0.7506055235862732,
0.3085070848464966,
0.19738341867923737,
0.14076408743858337,
-0.25290584564208984,
-0.1979539394378662,
0.4635445475578308,
-0.06812763214111328,
0.021995726972818375,
0.7895195484161377,
-0.14331196248531342,
-0.7721423506736755,
0.12745122611522675,
-0.3053464889526367,
0.4099900722503662,
-0.4306372404098511,
0.32106444239616394,
0.1876729279756546,
0.5952420830726624,
-0.038531504571437836
] |
229029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maersk%20Air | Maersk Air | Maersk Air A/S was a Danish airline which operated between 1969 and 2005. Owned by the A. P. Møller–Mærsk Group, it operated a mix of scheduled and chartered passenger and cargo services. Headquartered at Dragør, its main operating bases were Copenhagen Airport, Billund Airport and Esbjerg Airport. The airline had offshore helicopter operations from 1975 to 1999 and had three airline subsidiaries: Maersk Air UK, Maersk Commuter, and Star Air.
The airline was founded on the foundations on the purchase of Falck Air on 21 February 1969. Fokker F27s were bought and domestic services from Copenhagen to Odense and Stauning. From 1971 to 1995 Maersk participated in Danair, which held a monopoly on all domestic services. Maersk Air was heavily involved in the inclusive tours market during the 1970s, operating the Boeing 720B and 737-200. From 1981 Maersk started international flights, first out of Billund and from the 1990s out of Copenhagen.
Maersk Air gradually invested in new aircraft, including the Fokker 50, Boeing 737 Classic, and later the 737-700. During the 1990s the number of international services increased, often codesharing with foreign airlines. With the Danish airlines deregulated in 1995, Maersk first sought to compete with Scandinavian Airlines. They later created a cartel. After being exposed, the airline fell into a decline after 2001, posting large deficits from which it never recovered. The airline was bought by the FL Group and merged with Sterling Airlines in 2005.
History
Establishment
The A. P. Moller-Maersk Group's first investment in aviation was taken in 1937 when it bought a stake in Danish Air Lines, the flag carrier at the time. Its next step took place in 1967, when the group bought a Hawker Siddeley HS 125-3B as a corporate jet. At the time there were few options for Danish airlines. The charter market was dominated by Spies Rejser and Tjæreborgs Rejser, each with their own airlines—Conair and Sterling, respectively. Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) was the flag carrier and had the sole right to conduct international scheduled services, and freight charters could only be carried out if the entire load had a single shipper and recipient.
The establishment of the airline was approved by the group in 1969. The airline aimed at ad hoc charter with aircraft in the 50-seat market, and perhaps securing the rights to fly regional scheduled flights to smaller domestic airports. To secure a running organization, Maersk bought Falck Air on 21 February 1969 from the Falck Group. At the time Falck Air operated a fleet of two de Havilland Herons and two Hawker Siddeley HS 748 aircraft and a hangar at Copenhagen Airport, Kastrup. The Herons allowed Maersk to commence services from Copenhagen to Stauning Airport, a route taken over from Cimber Air. Meanwhile, the airline had ordered three Fokker F27 Friendships, the first which was delivered on 9 December. Operations to Odense Airport commenced on 26 December.
The new airline, Maersk Air I/S was officially incorporated on 1 January 1970. The same day it took over the assets in Falk Air along with its air operator's certificate, concessions and the operational responsibility for the HS-125. The initially scheduled operations consisted of five daily trip pairs from Copenhagen to Odense Airport, and two daily pairs to Stauning Airport. Norwegian-American Finn Rassmussen Ryssdal was hired as the airline's first director. He held the position for two years until he was replaced by another Norwegian, Johan Paus, former CEO of Scanair. As part of the establishment, Maersk entered the travel agency industry. Originally named Maersk Air Rejsebureau, was later named Maersk Travel.
Initial operations
The distribution of domestic routes was a contentious political issue. SAS held a privilege to commence any route they wanted, but lacked regional airlines to serve the smaller airports. It was complicated by the establishment of alternative domestic airlines in Norway and Sweden, Braathens SAFE and Linjeflyg, respectively. Danish authorities, therefore, asked the three scheduled carriers, SAS, Maersk, and Cimber, to negotiate to see if they could reach an agreement. An agreement was reached in November 1971, whereby the company Danair was established. Flights to Vágar Airport on the Faroe Islands commenced in 1971. Thisted Airport opened in 1971 and Maersk was allocated as the operator. The Thisted and Stauning services were transferred to Cimber Air in 1976, although Maersk continued to operate some services.
Maersk also aimed at serving the inclusive tours charter market. To gain better access to the market, Maersk bought two travel agents in December 1971, Raffels Rejser and Bangs Rejser. To better target the charter market, Maersk Air bought five used Boeing 720Bs in 1973. This was followed up with purchasing Unisol in 1974 and the three were merged to form a new agency under the brand Unisol and 120,000 annual trips. After having lost 100 million Danish krone (DKK) by 1979, Unison was sold to Tjæreborg in 1980. A participating cause was Unisol's inability to profile itself in a market dominated by two high-profile, yet diametrical, owners.
Maersk Air was contracted by Maersk Oil to operate to the latter's oil field in the North Sea. For this purpose, Maersk Air bought two Bell 212 helicopters. The airline stationed these at Esbjerg Airport and they commenced operations on 1 July 1975.
Maersk Air took delivery of its first two Boeing 737-200 Advanced in 1976. By 1981 the airline had taken delivery of fourteen aircraft. Some were leased to other carriers, including Guyana Airways, Malaysia Airlines and Tunisair. Others were used charter services, mostly to Danish inclusive tour operators. From 1983 three aircraft were entirely dedicated to this task. This was a highly competitive market, where Maersk had to compete with Conair, Sterling and Scanair, amongst others.
During the second half of the 1970s, Maersk focused on wet leasing their aircraft on the intercontinental market. Contracts included flying pilgrims from Morocco to Mecca and Scandinavians to North America. The 737-200s proved too large for domestic services. The F27s had been sold and the airline, therefore, determined that it needed to procure new turboprops. A decision was made to buy the de Havilland Dash 7, but in the meantime, the airline leased three HS 748s from 1980 to 1981. The first Dash 7 entered revenue service on 13 May 1981.
Maersk Air experienced falling profits at during the late 1970s. The revenue of DKK 535 million in 1979 fell to DKK 454 million in 1981, hitting a record loss of DKK 29 million in 1981. The company started hitting problems with liquidity and in 1981 was not able to pay its employees wages. Bjarne Hansen was hired as CEO that year. The number of bases for charter aircraft was reduced, cutting personnel costs. The two Beechcrafts were sold, as were nine other of the airline's twenty-four aircraft. A key part of this plan was not allowing the aircraft to remain idle during the day, thus maximizing revenue. The number of employees were reduced from 720 to 480. By 1985 the revenue had risen to DKK 898 million in 1985, allowing the airline to make a profit of DKK 112 million in 1985.
Starting in 1981 Maersk Air started flying a Bell 212 under contract with the Cabinet of the Faroe Islands. By then the helicopter fleet had reached five Bell 212s. From 1983 the petroleum activity increased and two larger Eurocopter AS332 Super Pumas.
Danair was reorganized from 27 September 1982. SAS's routes to Aalborg, Aarhus, and Rønne were taken into the Danair pool. Maersk on its side increased the number of departures on its services. The goal was to improve profitability. And although the scheme did rise passenger numbers, it failed to improve Maersk Air's financial performance in the domestic market. Stauning was dropped from Maersk and Danair's scheduled from 1 January 1983. From 1988 Maersk Air saw competition on its scheduled service to the Faroes, through the establishment of Atlantic Airways.
International
Maersk decided to look for possibilities to fly international routes. The first non-SAS international concession was in 1981 granted to Air Business from Esbjerg via Thistedt to Stavanger Airport, Sola in Norway, using an Embraer EMB-110 Bandeirante. Maersk Air bought the company in 1984 and bought two Short 360s. Soon the change to the concession was granted allowing the flight to operate from Aalborg instead of Thistedt, allowing for a greater catchment of passengers. The airline was kept as a regional subsidiary and took the name Maersk Commuter in 1988. It was dissolved in 1990.
Changes in European Community rules in 1984 allowed any carrier to operate intra-European routes, granted that they connected two regional airports. Maersk laid its eyes on Billund Airport, which was centrally located in Jutland and was classified as a regional airport. It was already a popular base for charter flights. London was a favored destination, but all the four primary airports were all categorized as primary airports. To exploit the new regulations, Maersk identified London Southend Airport, which was classified as a secondary airport. Maersk inaugurated the route on 29 November 1984 with two round trips, using Dash 7s. Due to the distance from the city Maersk could only market it as "London" if they included an onwards ticket with a train. The route carried about 12,000 passengers annually and failed to make a profit.
Maersk considered both Århus and Billund as the base for their Jutland operations, and settled for Billund. The next international route to inaugurate was to Cologne Bonn Airport in Germany in 1988, in cooperation with Lufthansa. It was flown with the Fokker 50, which had just entered into service with the airline. During the late 1980s Maersk Air started an expansion of its travel agencies, both domestically and abroad.
Based on the need for a replacement for the 737-200s, Boeing developed the shortened 737-500 on the request of Maersk and others. Maersk took delivery of its first -500 on 6 April 1990. From 1990 Maersk was free to compete on any intra-European international route. Using the new -500s, it focused on routes out of Billund, providing services to Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, Brussels Airport, London Gatwick Airport, Stockholm Arlanda Airport and Stavanger. In addition it flew from Copenhagen to London.
New airlines
Maersk Air Cargo, which only acted as a handling agent, was founded in 1982. Maersk Air was barred from operating a cargo fleet until deregulation in 1987. The Maersk Group then established Star Air. It took into use a fleet of F-27-600s. From 1993 it acquired a fleet of Boeing 727-100s and started hauling for United Parcel Service.
Maersk Air also decided to enter the British market. It bought part of the Plimsoll Line, which again bought Birmingham Executive Airways (BEA) and Brymon Airways. After a merger into Brymon European Airways and subsequent demerger, Maersk Air UK was founded on the foundations of BEA. It operated a series of international and domestic services out of Birmingham Airport, initially with a fleet of three Jetstream 31 and three BAC One-Elevens. Maersk signed a franchise agreement in which Maersk Air UK would fly with British Airways livery and flight codes, but at their own expense and their own aircraft and crew. The 1-11s were replaced with Boeing 737-500s in 1996. Bombardier CRJ200s were introduced two years later.
Maersk also secured a 49-percent stake in Estonian Air, after having beaten SAS in a privatization tender. Two of Maersk Air's Fokker 50s were leased to Estonian Air, who also took delivery of two 737-500s, replacing the older Soviet fleet.
Danish deregulation
Maersk Air began services from Billund to Frankfurt in 1993, and a year later it started flights from Copenhagen to Kristiansand. To meet the upcoming deregulation, Maersk carried out a major fleet rearrangement in 1993. The airline sold its Fokker 50s and leased them back. Meanwhile, it procured six Boeing 737-500s, which were delivered in 1996.
Unlike Cimber, Maersk initially declined to participate in SAS' frequent-flyer program, EuroBonus, which was founded in 1992. With the demise of Danair, Maersk Air focused on improving its international connections. Its primary strategy was to establish routes from Billund to European destinations with codeshare agreements with major European airlines. Gradually the services were upgraded from Fokker 50 to 737-500s. Danair was dissolved on 1 October 1995, when the domestic airline industry in Denmark was deregulated.
Maersk's success in Jutland was noticed by SAS, who in October 1996 opened its first service out of Billund, to Frankfurt. This was the first route in which the two airlines competed for head to head. In response, Maersk Air commenced services out of SAS' stronghold at Copenhagen Airport to Milan, Geneva and Stockholm the following year. Additional routes out of Billund were added in 1997. Flemming Knudsen took the position as CEO on 12 January 1998. On 3 March the first 737-700 was delivered, with Maersk Air being the European launch customer.
With its eight daily round trips, Maersk Air only captured ten percent of the market on the Copenhagen–Stockholm route, losing money on it. Maersk, therefore, started negotiations with British Airways and KLM to see if they could become part of an airline alliance. They were in close negotiations with what would become Oneworld, but pulled out in the last minute.
With the 14 June 1998 opening of the Great Belt Fixed Link, car, coach and rail transport became faster between Jutland and Funen on the one hand, and Zealand on the other, cutting travel time by an hour. This had an effect on patronage, with a significant drop in domestic traffic.
The same year the government introduced a domestic air tax of DKK 150 on all domestic flights, which further contributed to the fall in domestic ridership. Maersk Air anticipated a significant drop and reduced services from a 737-500 to a Fokker 50. Yet passenger numbers dropped to a third and the service was terminated on 13 June 1998. Ole Dietz took over as managing director on 1 March 1999.
After the Oneworld negotiations failed, Maersk Air turned to SAS in an attempt to initiate a cooperation. Negotiations commenced in early 1997, and the deal was announced on 8 October 1998, and took effect 28 March 1999. Maersk would adopt EuroBonus and codeshare all domestic flights, flights out of Copenhagen and select Billund services. In addition to the publicly stated clauses, the agreement also contained a series of illegal collusions. Maersk and SAS split up the market between them, so they no longer would fly on competing routes. This involved that Maersk Air would withdraw from its Copenhagen services to Stockholm and Geneva. Maersk Air also agreed to—gradually so to not awake suspicion—withdraw from its various codeshare agreements with other airlines than SAS.
The case was followed up by the EU Commission and the Danish authorities, who carried out a dawn raid on 15 June 2000. Maersk Air was sentenced to a fine of €17.5 million, while SAS was fined €43.75 million. As a consequence, Dietz resigned as CEO and Hansen, who had been appointed chairman, also withdrew. Flemming Ipsen was hired as a new CEO, while Troels Dilling was hired as chairman.
Decline
Maersk was struck by a series of labor disputes in 1998 and 1999. At the turn of the century Maersk Air fell into financial distress. The airline was struck hard by the 2001 airline recession, making a loss that year of DKK 341 million. Ridership increased in 2002, largely through the increased sale of discounted tickets. Maersk Air therefore turned to divest its non-core activities. Estonian Air was sold to SAS in 2003. The British subsidiary lost an accumulative DKK 325 million from 2000 through 2002. The company was therefore sold in a management buyout in 2003, with the airline becoming Duo Airways.
The Maersk Group was forced to issue more than DKK 700 million in the airline from 2002 to 2005. In late 2003 the Maersk Aircraft A/S was established to own the fleet, spurring speculation in the media that Maersk was planning of liquidating the company. The year gave a net loss of DKK 841 million.
In the years following the cartel case, almost the entire executive management of the airline was replaced. A large portion of the new management was without experience from the aviation industry. On 1 November 2003 Ipsen was replaced as CEO by Finn Øelund, who came from the same position in Air Greenland. He devised a new strategy, in which the airline would better utilize its fleet by placing flights closer to each other and flying throughout the day. He also proposed competing head-on with SAS, as he believed that Maersk Air with the new strategy could operate with lower costs than the consortium. Aircraft received a new white and dark blue livery, replacing the old light-blue Maersk colors. The airline adopted the slogan "fly as you like" and focused its route production on typical holiday destinations and cheap fares.
Since 2002 Maersk had seen competition in the scheduled market from Sterling, which had reorganized itself as a low-cost carrier targeting the Mediterranean leisure market. In 2005 Fred. Olsen & Co. sold the airline to FL Group. The Maersk Group announced on 30 June 2005 that it would sell Maersk Air to Sterling. Star Air and the corporate jet were kept out of the deal. Ownership of the 737 was also not included, and instead, there were leased to Sterling. The sales price of Maersk Air was never made public.
Operations
Maersk Air I/S was until 1996 organized as a partnership (), which was again owned by two subsidiaries within the Maersk Group. This allowed the company to report less detailed accounts, and hindered competitors from gaining as good a picture of the company's economic situation. Maersk Air I/S was reorganized in 1996. The partnership model was abandoned and instead, the airline became a limited company () directly under the mother company. Star Air on its side became a subsidiary of Maersk Air.
Half of Maersk Air's accumulative profits came from the sale of used aircraft. Inspired form the importance of crucial timing of purchase and sale of ships, Maersk Air made several advantages deals. One of the involved selling 737-200s at a higher price than they had paid for them. Maersk was an early customer of the Fokker 50, of which the first was delivered in 1988. As part of the purchase agreement, they would receive DKK one million per sold aircraft in the Nordic Counties. This turned out well as SAS and Braathens SAFE bought a combined twenty units.
From 1974 to 1999 Maersk Air operated a helicopter division out of Esbjerg Airport. These were contracted by Maersk Oil, which operated offshore oil platforms in the North Sea.
Throughout its existence, Maersk Air operated a corporate jet for the Maersk Group. Five different aircraft were used in series, first consisting of two Hawker Siddeley HS 125, since 1997 opting for a Bombardier Challenger 600. These were all named Jette Maersk and served two purposes. First, they were used for flying executives. Secondly, the aircraft were dispatched to send mechanics and spare parts of serve ships of Maersk Line and other shipping companies within the group. Because this could minimize downtime due to mechanical failure, the latter proved a highly profitable endeavor.
Ground handling
Initially, Maersk and the other major Danish airlines had a common ground handling company, Copenhagen Air Services, at the eponymous airport. In 1994 Maersk Air bought out the other owners of Copenhagen Air Services. Within three years it was making a DKK 46-million profit from a DKK 401-million revenue. In 1998 Maersk merged the company with the ground handling company owned by the Swedish Civil Aviation Administration, creating Novia. It operated ground handling services at the airports in Copenhagen, Stockholm-Arlanda and Gothenburg-Landvetter.
With the deregulation of the handling market from 1999, entranced with lower costs took over a substantial portion of the market. Novia failed to retain its profits and lost DKK 80 million from 1999 to 2001. The CAA sold to Aviapartner in 2001, but the cooperation was poor. Maersk Air eventually let the company be file for bankruptcy.
Subsidiary airlines
SAS held a 51-percent share of the company, while Maersk received 34 percent and Cimber 15 percent. Initially, it was to organize domestic flights and in the long run become a separate operator. Danair bought services from the three airlines, who retained flights to their respective destinations. Then Danair would set prices and sell tickets on the flights and the profits were paid out in relation to the ownership shares. The airlines were paid a fixed price, irrespective of their actual operating costs.
Maersk Commuter was based at Esbjerg Airport and operated as a subsidiary of Maersk Air between 1984 and 1990. It flew a single route, from Esbjerg via Aalborg to Stavanger. It operated a fleet of two Short 360s.
Maersk Air UK operated in the United Kingdom between 1993 and 2003. It operated under a franchise agreement with British Airways with its base at Birmingham Airport. It employed the BA branding, including aircraft livery, uniforms, in-flight service, and catering, as well as terminal services. It also employed BA's flight codes and reservation system. Flights qualified for miles on BA's frequent-flyer program, Executive Club.
Star Air was from 1996 to 2004 a cargo airline subsidiary of Maersk Air. It operated a fleet of cargo jetliners, notably the Boeing 727 and Boeing 757, on long-term contracts with United Parcel Service. These operations were based in UPS's main European hub at Cologne Bonn Airport in Germany.
A 49-percent stake in Estonian Air was owned by Maersk Air between 1996 and 2003. The flag carrier of Estonia was based at Tallinn Airport and flew a limited international network, using a combination of Boeing 737-500s and Fokker 50s.
Travel agencies
As part of the establishment, Maersk entered the travel agency industry. Originally named Maersk Air Rejsebureau, this department was later named Maersk Travel. It bought Expert Rejser in 1987 and established international agencies in London, Hong Kong, and Singapore. It gradually built up a nationwide network of travel agency outlets, in Ålborg, Århus, Copenhagen, Esbjerg, Herning, Horsens, Odense and Skive. In the following years it bought several smaller agencies and in 1990 entered a cooperation with DSB Rejsebureau. A common agency was established in Esbjerg and negotiations regarding a fusion were initiated. But both parent companies wanted to be the "locomotive" in the new company, and the deal fell through. Maersk Travel was merged with DFDS Travel in 1997, to create Maersk DFDS Travel. This proved a difficult process and Maersk pulled out of the new company in 1999.
Maersk also aimed at serving the inclusive tours charter market. To gain better access to the market, Maersk bought two travel agents in December 1971, Raffels Rejser and Bangs Rejser. This was followed up with purchasing Unisol in 1974 and the three were merged to form a new agency under the brand Unisol and 120,000 annual trips. Unisol—Denmark's third-largest inclusive tours travel agency—was placed under the industrial department in Maersk, while the airline reported directly to the executive administration. This caused a lack of coordination between the companies and Maersk never made money from the inclusive tours operations. After having lost 100 million Danish krone (DKK) by 1979, Unison was sold to Tjæreborg in 1980.
Fleet
The following is a list of aircraft operated by Maersk Air, including its helicopter and corporate jet divisions. It excludes aircraft operated by Star Air, Maersk Commuter, and Maersk Air UK. The list consists of the total number of aircraft operated by the airline (although the peak number operated may be lower), the year the type was first introduced and the year the last aircraft was taken out of service.
Accidents and incidents
Maersk Air has been subject to three write-off accidents, of which one resulted in fatalities:
The first accident took place on 27 December 1969, ten days after the accident aircraft, a Fokker F27 with registration OY-APD, had been delivered to the airline. It was being used for training flight in poor weather conditions at Bornholm Airport. After carrying out a touch and go, the aircraft failed to stay airborne due to icing on the wings. It slid off the runway and into the Baltic Sea.
On 25 January 1975 the F27 OY-APB was carrying out a landing on an wet and icy runway at Vágar Airport. Without having been informed of the conditions, the pilots veered the aircraft off the runway and collided with terrain.
The fatal accident took place on 2 January 1984. A Bell 212 with registration OY-HMC crashed into the North Sea during a flight from Esbjerg Airport to an oil platform. There arose a breach in the steering system and the pilots lost control of the helicopter. This caused the aircraft to start to spin and the pilots to reduce speed to regain control. This caused a loss of height and eventually brought the helicopter to an emergency landing on the water. Both pilots and a passenger were killed in the crash.
References
Bibliography
Defunct airlines of Denmark
Airlines established in 1969
Airlines disestablished in 2005
Danish companies established in 1969
2005 disestablishments in Denmark | [
0.09398972243070602,
0.45786118507385254,
-0.0003470342489890754,
-0.3495885729789734,
-0.42189961671829224,
0.40560299158096313,
0.5332385301589966,
0.153915673494339,
-0.35251179337501526,
0.09253576397895813,
-0.07193576544523239,
-0.3098444640636444,
-0.4539735019207001,
0.2914298474788666,
-0.33278053998947144,
-0.02281905896961689,
0.009326538071036339,
0.6934269666671753,
-0.5663896203041077,
-0.7310535311698914,
-0.28925028443336487,
0.09806757420301437,
0.9250743985176086,
-0.42787328362464905,
0.330321729183197,
-0.5885560512542725,
-0.35076627135276794,
0.8599418997764587,
0.4671785235404968,
-0.06095797196030617,
0.003407795913517475,
0.4424821734428406,
-0.32460135221481323,
-0.14279519021511078,
-0.48132601380348206,
0.0516510047018528,
0.39884281158447266,
-0.1925382763147354,
-0.3463781476020813,
0.09207383543252945,
-0.2952756881713867,
0.3632684350013733,
-0.15514233708381653,
0.045633696019649506,
0.6581266522407532,
-0.6522014737129211,
-1.4035193920135498,
-0.04010963439941406,
-0.33402878046035767,
0.33514928817749023,
-0.4694753885269165,
-0.3323352038860321,
0.21263277530670166,
0.6799763441085815,
0.4478583037853241,
0.2589583694934845,
-0.5433943867683411,
-0.058900173753499985,
-0.46497440338134766,
-0.03588028624653816,
1.0763033628463745,
0.1276545524597168,
-0.0605379082262516,
-0.27979907393455505,
0.5784352421760559,
0.23296864330768585,
0.19194307923316956,
0.29588887095451355,
0.3433712124824524,
-0.49340102076530457,
0.3306332230567932,
0.07689493894577026,
0.10380852222442627,
0.5216894149780273,
0.05483190342783928,
-0.6386594176292419,
0.416245698928833,
-0.4034106433391571,
0.1326366811990738,
-0.14714987576007843,
0.48011094331741333,
0.16165108978748322,
1.2605619430541992,
0.5203379392623901,
0.23386062681674957,
0.2078399658203125,
-0.754407525062561,
-0.2908850312232971,
-0.7695226073265076,
-0.12867215275764465,
-0.053164321929216385,
-0.7445163726806641,
0.22346004843711853,
0.3188967704772949,
0.10691053420305252,
0.1709793210029602,
-0.1977258026599884,
0.9022730588912964,
0.4209049642086029,
0.7182533144950867,
-0.3512789309024811,
0.46188175678253174,
-0.4404679536819458,
-0.2679394781589508,
-0.1811964511871338,
-0.35179418325424194,
-0.11535206437110901,
-0.19685840606689453,
-0.506061315536499,
0.2460305094718933,
-0.8879469633102417,
-0.17614123225212097,
-0.25071966648101807,
-0.11992532759904861,
0.16984863579273224,
0.3299507796764374,
0.11668035387992859,
-0.47905775904655457,
0.044661689549684525,
0.1270599365234375,
0.3097909986972809,
0.7447537183761597,
-0.6256018877029419,
-0.45248326659202576,
-0.5280675888061523,
0.1545417457818985,
0.3136212229728699,
0.4253019392490387,
-0.3596348762512207,
0.2564466893672943,
0.38393181562423706,
0.3925308585166931,
-0.7829732894897461,
0.7593400478363037,
-0.05644005909562111,
-0.10916798561811447,
0.661829948425293,
0.29349857568740845,
0.2809329330921173,
-0.08203137665987015,
-0.43101727962493896,
-0.2627764642238617,
-1.0813947916030884,
-0.38007983565330505,
0.7142361402511597,
0.18519771099090576,
0.17935438454151154,
0.08665944635868073,
-0.34375983476638794,
-0.2988632917404175,
0.23856838047504425,
0.1939738392829895,
-0.15223321318626404,
0.07786618918180466,
-0.27331027388572693,
0.06968924403190613,
-0.09550634026527405,
0.08408796042203903,
0.4741775095462799,
0.292397677898407,
0.1280750185251236,
0.6139054298400879,
-0.4102300703525543,
0.07182656973600388,
0.23874451220035553,
-0.31586435437202454,
-0.10132014006376266,
0.3145196735858917,
0.4941862225532532,
-0.106707364320755,
-0.46668943762779236,
-0.048913974314928055,
0.4129179120063782,
0.0162152461707592,
0.3313096761703491,
0.3081698417663574,
0.6626385450363159,
-0.20751652121543884,
-0.15770667791366577,
-0.3827824592590332,
-0.6143465042114258,
0.3688167333602905,
0.5796176791191101,
0.11242961138486862,
0.5639219284057617,
0.1893005669116974,
0.185977965593338,
0.09008442610502243,
0.41532954573631287,
-0.39073580503463745,
-0.5577958822250366,
-0.45471107959747314,
0.814816415309906,
-0.16695186495780945,
0.7474836111068726,
0.004940190352499485,
-0.3825666606426239,
0.8244217038154602,
-0.12792296707630157,
0.6161161065101624,
0.053247541189193726,
0.06456895917654037,
-0.02287956327199936,
-0.39827507734298706,
0.5260252356529236,
0.6428552269935608,
-0.14721618592739105,
-0.21108697354793549,
-0.03499417006969452,
0.9998177886009216,
-0.15693950653076172,
-0.09228173643350601,
0.3300550580024719,
-0.11179019510746002,
0.2952635884284973,
-0.3841642141342163,
-0.4109162390232086,
0.4747328460216522,
0.23349203169345856,
-0.2683977484703064,
0.9316545724868774,
0.15353740751743317,
-0.43416666984558105,
0.5241380333900452,
0.3230176866054535,
0.6896314024925232,
0.1915442794561386,
-0.09913645684719086,
0.006552106700837612,
-0.11704762279987335,
0.01522902026772499,
0.23002688586711884,
-0.03686105087399483,
-1.0073375701904297,
0.25782087445259094,
0.4703037142753601,
-0.04426829144358635,
-0.08378953486680984,
0.5657758116722107,
0.03149963915348053,
0.871383011341095,
-0.007156935054808855,
-0.5470583438873291,
0.8768506646156311,
0.5004260540008545,
0.396878719329834,
-0.21666887402534485,
-0.013715490698814392,
-0.43848416209220886,
-0.18257302045822144,
0.010507667437195778,
-0.33219221234321594,
-0.6259471774101257,
-0.47569623589515686,
-0.32909461855888367,
-0.16713543236255646,
0.5230449438095093,
-0.10481282323598862,
0.20381511747837067,
0.27242156863212585,
-0.37289026379585266,
-0.19114887714385986,
0.5975139141082764,
0.363858163356781,
-0.12556570768356323,
-0.5035860538482666,
-0.3433559834957123,
-0.568390965461731,
0.9088161587715149,
-0.15642862021923065,
0.2416374236345291,
-0.38734734058380127,
-0.013372646644711494,
0.06855849921703339,
-0.20506595075130463,
-0.09708990156650543,
-0.5142045021057129,
0.3147120773792267,
-0.28618380427360535,
0.04097741097211838,
0.40788722038269043,
0.4456137418746948,
0.3858906030654907,
-0.6871988773345947,
-0.2545826733112335,
0.6145151257514954,
0.22723236680030823,
0.08225218206644058,
-0.3168157637119293,
0.08372741937637329,
0.05517257750034332,
-0.19896869361400604,
-0.5467801690101624,
0.45207902789115906,
-0.07181285321712494,
0.08840537816286087,
-0.332090824842453,
0.19366972148418427,
0.5386801958084106,
-0.42879173159599304,
-0.7076466083526611,
0.1949172168970108,
-0.6574553847312927,
-0.24690556526184082,
-0.23770006000995636,
-0.4914973974227905,
-0.7685561776161194,
-0.7308764457702637,
-5.456236839294434,
-0.0895196944475174,
0.09790278226137161,
0.004774960223585367,
-0.23956045508384705,
0.1974896341562271,
0.19574905931949615,
-0.4582895338535309,
0.37378764152526855,
0.17691291868686676,
1.1049891710281372,
-0.14520806074142456,
0.26608777046203613,
0.7231206893920898,
0.3196234405040741,
0.7407492399215698,
0.7376709580421448,
0.013525952585041523,
0.2662467658519745,
-0.47815951704978943,
0.27024680376052856,
-0.4861278533935547,
-0.18790414929389954,
0.14074301719665527,
0.36826130747795105,
0.564113438129425,
-0.04483027383685112,
-0.09184841066598892,
-0.795296847820282,
-0.4274907112121582,
-0.18625375628471375,
-0.21092671155929565,
0.16501367092132568,
0.12834802269935608,
-0.018142130225896835,
-0.3625386357307434,
0.39751553535461426,
0.38210025429725647,
0.24687062203884125,
-0.5536767244338989,
0.0092239985242486,
0.4540945887565613,
-0.5147286057472229,
-0.6061251163482666,
0.02070126123726368,
0.011000274680554867,
-0.7079777717590332,
0.36571091413497925,
-0.3693152368068695,
1.219557523727417,
0.2550877630710602,
-0.22161291539669037,
0.19539204239845276,
0.39701613783836365,
-0.17042577266693115,
-0.6500620245933533,
-0.42001980543136597,
-0.482936292886734,
-0.07822009176015854,
0.6979281306266785,
0.4020763635635376,
0.2828637361526489,
0.19029149413108826,
-1.2227853536605835,
-0.7887182235717773,
0.07615435123443604,
0.2155912071466446,
-0.34420862793922424,
0.8120537996292114,
-0.20170313119888306,
0.006144517567008734,
0.6800627112388611,
-0.050494235008955,
-0.8654823303222656,
0.27766427397727966,
-1.0077838897705078,
0.4899279475212097,
0.08001788705587387,
-0.14833587408065796,
0.1374034881591797,
0.5683405995368958,
-0.4080013930797577,
-0.13270367681980133,
0.3580976128578186,
0.3598436117172241,
-0.5423552989959717,
-0.0789169892668724,
0.10340021550655365,
-0.4163687825202942,
-0.3613389730453491,
1.3156226873397827,
-0.557009220123291,
-0.03411146625876427,
0.8106633424758911,
-0.13537165522575378,
0.12057777494192123,
-0.03478308394551277,
-0.46524086594581604,
0.29647111892700195,
-0.6665099263191223,
0.6529186367988586,
-0.0009568776586093009,
-0.13160213828086853,
-0.2141738384962082,
-0.022550376132130623,
-0.8107712864875793,
-0.06669412553310394,
-0.3909461498260498,
0.5496964454650879,
0.05940091609954834,
0.6898663640022278,
-0.09333029389381409,
-0.27904224395751953,
-0.31398189067840576,
0.3188506066799164,
-0.10107412189245224,
-0.21106785535812378,
0.7009772062301636,
0.059884682297706604,
-0.3193417489528656,
-0.09598028659820557,
0.3302333950996399,
0.5978710055351257,
-0.7378910183906555,
-0.8631888628005981,
-0.014550434425473213,
0.011608457192778587,
0.6623769998550415,
-0.4022698402404785,
0.14086660742759705,
-0.06869887560606003,
0.561629056930542,
-0.20091566443443298,
-0.2275969684123993,
0.09158876538276672,
-0.5864143371582031,
-0.4388893246650696,
-0.2606675326824188,
0.3820796608924866,
0.008986841887235641,
0.00046883689356036484,
-0.30093875527381897,
0.13783104717731476,
0.1727849543094635,
0.3068145513534546,
0.9971182346343994,
0.3722722828388214,
-0.7042913436889648,
-0.26184022426605225,
0.2023606151342392,
-0.26189807057380676,
-0.08744703978300095,
0.5142561793327332,
-0.3439050614833832,
-0.19844983518123627,
-0.3518064022064209,
0.38498616218566895,
0.2562190294265747,
-0.5976051092147827,
-0.3039270043373108,
0.48349469900131226,
-0.3403909504413605,
-0.6641222238540649,
-0.21658729016780853,
-0.09690873324871063,
-0.2414737194776535,
-0.6633702516555786,
-0.3949149250984192,
-0.15396931767463684,
0.27814286947250366,
-0.06829828768968582,
-0.6073651909828186,
-0.5798470377922058,
-0.006041448563337326,
0.36716678738594055,
0.10070253163576126,
-0.45869728922843933,
-0.1313561201095581,
-0.4675511419773102,
-0.3265116810798645,
0.13574542105197906,
0.4671844244003296,
-0.8262923955917358,
0.17158973217010498,
0.7900869846343994,
-0.8318901658058167,
-0.007069266401231289,
-0.5166410803794861,
-0.10856180638074875,
-0.4186018407344818,
0.2564487159252167,
0.3736066222190857,
0.6628894209861755,
0.008907029405236244,
-0.0779198408126831,
-1.0473309755325317,
-0.452849417924881,
0.5702253580093384,
-0.006674037780612707,
-0.48732417821884155,
0.4172299802303314,
0.4405696392059326,
-0.25835463404655457,
-0.0021026332397013903,
-0.24788491427898407,
-0.7612401843070984,
0.4497012794017792,
0.047426737844944,
-0.2807956337928772,
0.2115577608346939,
-0.854354739189148,
-0.623185932636261,
-0.20111089944839478,
0.6737313866615295,
-0.6843595504760742,
0.0680200457572937,
0.19856037199497223,
-0.05803718417882919,
-0.17099617421627045,
-0.6688852906227112,
-0.19670870900154114,
-0.44742774963378906,
-0.955155074596405,
-0.18800924718379974,
-1.6205984354019165,
0.40767011046409607,
0.36555054783821106,
-0.28915032744407654,
0.28803953528404236,
-0.3612375259399414,
0.21271176636219025,
0.1268947869539261,
-0.2375587373971939,
-0.2835938036441803,
-0.4705328047275543,
0.12650662660598755,
0.135231152176857,
0.00898704119026661,
0.41384923458099365,
0.5485823154449463,
1.0060802698135376,
0.8244401216506958,
0.37873774766921997,
-0.23820748925209045,
-0.034048307687044144,
0.357759565114975,
0.4110911786556244,
-0.4301791191101074,
-0.2714281976222992,
0.1228027194738388,
-0.160773366689682,
-0.05027678236365318,
-0.3106837272644043,
0.1739012449979782,
1.1678646802902222,
-0.5338679552078247,
0.012459258548915386,
0.1960906982421875,
0.10821954905986786,
-0.3665964603424072,
-0.16972169280052185,
0.018199210986495018,
-0.8541581034660339,
0.2954859137535095,
0.012683435343205929,
0.5944663882255554,
-0.5458908081054688,
0.15833188593387604,
0.4216919243335724,
0.04008609056472778,
-0.07242447882890701,
-0.5004248023033142,
0.503283679485321,
-0.03820529580116272,
0.1205931007862091,
0.06289693713188171,
0.3044324815273285,
-0.7118809223175049,
0.2900351285934448,
0.1862947791814804,
-0.5455303192138672,
-0.212309330701828,
0.4320402443408966,
-0.34590044617652893,
-0.56461501121521,
-1.204831838607788,
-0.46549326181411743,
-0.11234045028686523,
-0.5451647639274597,
0.17060893774032593,
0.3648475408554077,
-0.16033676266670227,
-0.402223140001297,
0.12439239025115967,
-0.3365689218044281,
0.3906213641166687,
0.18404224514961243,
0.5664576292037964,
0.2890835106372833,
-0.28972670435905457,
-0.09852635860443115,
-0.07663743942975998,
-0.1363220363855362,
-0.15790517628192902,
0.2937225103378296,
-0.05637726932764053,
-0.1726677417755127,
-0.2230527698993683,
0.30554455518722534,
0.0008669095113873482,
0.2131158858537674,
-0.6738889217376709,
-0.6009544730186462,
0.7594363689422607,
-0.21798965334892273,
0.1369635909795761,
0.47224611043930054,
-0.5335280299186707,
0.012068389914929867,
-0.11042404919862747,
0.6215200424194336,
0.657203197479248,
0.016200216487050056,
0.07525239139795303,
-0.531113862991333,
0.7337883114814758,
-0.10425884276628494,
0.5544555187225342,
-0.039599742740392685,
-0.41051241755485535,
-0.01273970678448677,
-0.11830002814531326,
-0.5604242086410522,
0.5370038747787476,
0.31066450476646423,
0.07155457139015198,
0.043462127447128296,
-0.5045786499977112,
-0.11386364698410034,
0.14710140228271484,
-0.11442647129297256,
0.625394880771637,
0.43801745772361755,
-0.23078490793704987,
0.03960520401597023,
0.4067555069923401,
-0.0013390344101935625,
0.30858543515205383,
0.641231119632721,
0.045746635645627975,
0.09883458912372589,
-0.12492526322603226,
-0.2082822173833847,
-0.32450735569000244,
-0.4112919270992279,
0.48286136984825134,
-0.13727302849292755,
-0.7392755150794983,
-0.24578620493412018,
0.18845847249031067,
0.17953702807426453,
-0.26740923523902893,
-0.05623984709382057,
0.3642449975013733,
-0.6101013422012329,
-0.3990465998649597,
0.14392682909965515,
-0.898542046546936,
0.6566889882087708,
-0.054629359394311905,
-0.12711159884929657,
-0.140040785074234,
0.2637333869934082,
0.4950304329395294,
0.13154920935630798,
0.2323801964521408,
0.7677345275878906,
0.4323362708091736,
-0.07833658158779144,
0.16681553423404694,
-0.1877061277627945,
0.8139281272888184,
0.12514305114746094,
-0.9078416228294373,
-0.209302619099617,
-0.08869911730289459,
-0.27531400322914124,
0.2573411464691162,
0.4690901041030884,
-0.32137346267700195,
-0.1332034468650818,
-0.5297027826309204,
-0.11127213388681412,
0.13086563348770142,
-0.4800577461719513,
0.1355615109205246,
-0.12809637188911438,
0.3379018306732178,
0.11065784841775894,
-0.8658372163772583,
-0.1700727790594101,
0.36175546050071716,
0.013701830990612507,
0.722873330116272,
0.08916385471820831,
0.31773680448532104,
-0.5903239846229553,
0.3486408591270447,
0.4677068889141083,
0.9647422432899475,
0.3327814042568207,
0.2919028401374817,
-0.3096698522567749,
0.4115820527076721,
0.07915796339511871,
-0.35538992285728455,
0.7149871587753296,
-0.3235105276107788,
-0.34394270181655884,
0.4441239833831787,
-0.1438812017440796,
-0.16673366725444794,
-0.011490093544125557,
0.04371674358844757,
-0.009472470730543137,
-0.427692174911499,
0.027416575700044632,
0.164991557598114,
0.28807416558265686,
0.5303319096565247,
-0.19071649014949799,
-0.14575770497322083,
-0.29963013529777527,
0.04180033877491951,
-0.2403198927640915,
-0.2098926454782486,
-0.09560997784137726,
0.1427711844444275,
1.0297869443893433,
-0.23440228402614594,
0.08480843901634216,
-0.5339739322662354,
0.5849202275276184,
-0.08626767247915268,
0.1066417321562767,
-0.19334612786769867,
0.5039560794830322,
-0.6301596760749817,
-1.1271981000900269,
-0.2603895962238312,
0.16422139108181,
-0.7930440902709961,
0.48177626729011536,
-0.23132167756557465,
0.5904149413108826,
0.18500980734825134,
0.04490775987505913,
-0.4612363576889038,
0.1256103366613388,
-0.19538237154483795
] |
229032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea-Land | Sea-Land | Sea-Land or Sealand can refer to either:
Sea-Land Service, container shipping company
Sealand, North Sea micronation
Seeland Records, record company named for Sealand
Rånrike's Saevo mountain range, translated as "sea land"
See also Zealand, the largest island in Denmark. | [
0.3495343029499054,
-0.03395448252558708,
0.23382782936096191,
-0.19572004675865173,
0.1275082379579544,
0.10816376656293869,
-0.2519899606704712,
0.4690684676170349,
-0.4029795527458191,
-0.2449190318584442,
-0.5904725790023804,
0.05111232027411461,
0.021281052380800247,
0.5981705784797668,
-0.034941982477903366,
0.7183014154434204,
-0.03098294883966446,
0.4632342457771301,
-0.09426116943359375,
-0.21496517956256866,
-0.5207834243774414,
-0.18424813449382782,
0.322931170463562,
-0.3810940682888031,
0.4803820550441742,
-0.2939256429672241,
0.19363147020339966,
0.48223575949668884,
-0.18309450149536133,
0.23127838969230652,
-0.04786856845021248,
0.05633317306637764,
-0.6401336193084717,
0.17594750225543976,
0.10725023597478867,
-0.4555757939815521,
-0.5489230155944824,
-0.45297136902809143,
-0.7485947012901306,
-0.6609447002410889,
-0.3982018232345581,
-0.18089306354522705,
0.2302347868680954,
0.36865097284317017,
-0.5808323621749878,
-0.05403643473982811,
-1.224945068359375,
0.4404921233654022,
-0.41406872868537903,
0.7040531635284424,
-0.1760134994983673,
-0.0255086962133646,
-0.2154301553964615,
0.17104116082191467,
0.21469534933567047,
0.5547248125076294,
-0.49010756611824036,
0.04600564390420914,
0.08945480734109879,
-0.5660446286201477,
0.3900145888328552,
0.18621878325939178,
-0.23214025795459747,
0.4105459749698639,
0.5898734927177429,
0.0773339569568634,
0.08975433558225632,
0.2492264211177826,
-0.518409252166748,
-0.7277771234512329,
-0.18009552359580994,
0.05992215871810913,
-0.15450532734394073,
0.3973480463027954,
-0.38815274834632874,
-0.10435593128204346,
0.23322080075740814,
-0.3212423324584961,
0.1444682776927948,
0.1073070839047432,
-0.13577033579349518,
0.28242960572242737,
0.561949610710144,
-0.1644078493118286,
-0.2806989252567291,
0.026288146153092384,
-0.5300682187080383,
0.4301774501800537,
-0.9590933322906494,
0.6279176473617554,
1.0711406469345093,
0.01661909557878971,
0.6657247543334961,
-0.3962429165840149,
-0.02100926637649536,
-0.12210562825202942,
-0.04995099455118179,
0.16686095297336578,
0.15537238121032715,
0.10021506249904633,
-0.6979982852935791,
-0.06840364634990692,
0.39427199959754944,
0.06880011409521103,
-0.186158686876297,
-0.24158194661140442,
-0.19810990989208221,
0.25349268317222595,
0.12498293817043304,
0.11577174067497253,
-0.2179383784532547,
0.39807549118995667,
0.3497754633426666,
0.6839677691459656,
0.02382451668381691,
0.26246634125709534,
-0.026459723711013794,
-0.1911087930202484,
-0.19913601875305176,
-0.4453490972518921,
0.7194210290908813,
0.06529197841882706,
-0.1335652470588684,
-0.6869223117828369,
0.030240608379244804,
-0.2774066925048828,
0.2583294212818146,
0.4527661204338074,
-0.8138978481292725,
-0.19559305906295776,
-0.01771383546292782,
0.5139819383621216,
-0.323322057723999,
0.8727911114692688,
-0.5818954110145569,
-0.0010409158421680331,
0.1981402188539505,
-0.06467968970537186,
0.6477729082107544,
0.11544641107320786,
-1.1814895868301392,
-0.35346487164497375,
-0.7147147059440613,
-0.21789495646953583,
0.7017660737037659,
-0.2674509286880493,
0.14613734185695648,
-0.4650154113769531,
-0.7215624451637268,
0.17019852995872498,
0.04269763082265854,
0.4634644389152527,
0.13155703246593475,
0.09070262312889099,
-0.09093619883060455,
0.26387760043144226,
0.2638559341430664,
0.13270390033721924,
0.29058536887168884,
-0.17502698302268982,
-0.3316698968410492,
0.3683795928955078,
-0.019213842228055,
0.08896928280591965,
0.38514065742492676,
-0.2235427349805832,
-0.083506278693676,
0.3816336691379547,
-0.20957063138484955,
0.09068624675273895,
0.1474798172712326,
-0.07243499159812927,
0.7283589839935303,
0.45218348503112793,
-0.3335829973220825,
0.0935935378074646,
0.2060454934835434,
0.05416661500930786,
0.3649728298187256,
-0.17296431958675385,
-0.4503682553768158,
0.763472318649292,
0.41690748929977417,
-0.390188068151474,
-0.5740215182304382,
-0.20128367841243744,
0.20334631204605103,
0.2992478907108307,
0.24635404348373413,
-0.2044488489627838,
-0.2838612198829651,
-0.7064457535743713,
0.7490180134773254,
-0.20244431495666504,
0.5295165777206421,
-0.14196141064167023,
-0.2763955593109131,
0.7551223635673523,
-0.36466702818870544,
0.7470341920852661,
-0.43773242831230164,
-0.042685963213443756,
0.11387668550014496,
-0.5402548909187317,
-0.06965621560811996,
0.6353941559791565,
0.19168004393577576,
-0.20649628341197968,
0.40592631697654724,
0.056075189262628555,
0.061806097626686096,
-0.39023301005363464,
0.7908305525779724,
-0.12080032378435135,
0.5812302827835083,
-0.2183872014284134,
-0.1530676782131195,
0.24730971455574036,
0.17078374326229095,
-0.3816148340702057,
0.7316023707389832,
0.2569689154624939,
-0.20745080709457397,
0.2551420331001282,
0.14275012910366058,
0.3118422031402588,
-0.2834846079349518,
0.4097261428833008,
0.2863159775733948,
-0.554065465927124,
0.17433898150920868,
-0.030530137941241264,
0.28292155265808105,
-0.33544230461120605,
0.013204744085669518,
-0.08504585921764374,
0.265238881111145,
0.06206236779689789,
0.5805871486663818,
-0.0832534059882164,
-0.09375383704900742,
0.033388469368219376,
-0.28852570056915283,
0.4429660141468048,
0.44147956371307373,
0.09634494036436081,
0.07096119970083237,
-0.586821436882019,
-0.23784230649471283,
-0.12052655965089798,
-0.1537974327802658,
-0.01378087978810072,
-0.18273375928401947,
-0.013487163931131363,
0.12870578467845917,
-0.5962713956832886,
-0.40102866291999817,
0.26563724875450134,
0.3763766586780548,
-0.28275057673454285,
-0.5381291508674622,
0.08961479365825653,
-0.17770259082317352,
-0.06013071909546852,
0.007370879873633385,
-0.07366570085287094,
-0.2974405288696289,
-0.35148879885673523,
0.6420685648918152,
0.7549459338188171,
0.3191927671432495,
0.2642580270767212,
-0.48387011885643005,
-0.17591474950313568,
-0.6303998231887817,
-0.6360291242599487,
0.4983771741390228,
-0.2512902021408081,
0.13473208248615265,
-0.24685268104076385,
0.2549586892127991,
0.04743237420916557,
0.3470516800880432,
-0.8415752649307251,
0.4034290313720703,
-0.4910331964492798,
0.07068163901567459,
-0.1968185305595398,
-0.19229884445667267,
0.14186295866966248,
-0.12653358280658722,
-0.0025174333713948727,
0.02269992046058178,
0.15225166082382202,
0.24807238578796387,
0.18919405341148376,
0.19191958010196686,
-0.33375784754753113,
0.203830748796463,
-0.2989841103553772,
-0.6891480088233948,
-0.11540258675813675,
-0.018969645723700523,
0.015362584963440895,
0.35089632868766785,
-0.3717464804649353,
-0.46213623881340027,
-0.09146680682897568,
-5.857057094573975,
0.026375405490398407,
-0.3235214054584503,
-0.034655239433050156,
0.05884823575615883,
0.046240221709012985,
0.5732932686805725,
0.24023041129112244,
0.32487115263938904,
-0.40874600410461426,
0.19794617593288422,
0.07419697940349579,
0.2508896291255951,
0.1131608784198761,
1.102586030960083,
0.7479863166809082,
0.6146616339683533,
0.2554856240749359,
-0.03957502171397209,
0.0018820187542587519,
-0.21859803795814514,
-0.07443501055240631,
0.39831435680389404,
0.552146852016449,
0.22804321348667145,
0.6646581292152405,
-0.2910989224910736,
-0.4149216115474701,
-0.15904664993286133,
-0.27813953161239624,
0.1836392879486084,
-0.13317130506038666,
0.32675227522850037,
-0.201757550239563,
0.15587913990020752,
-0.17395633459091187,
0.30079206824302673,
0.43946143984794617,
0.35592469573020935,
-0.5946415066719055,
-0.12194902449846268,
0.7040013670921326,
0.25283482670783997,
-0.40151646733283997,
-0.018955444917082787,
-0.7527082562446594,
-0.1319596767425537,
0.25283417105674744,
-0.16850516200065613,
0.6670705080032349,
0.0345018245279789,
-0.09755614399909973,
0.09740196913480759,
-0.24356961250305176,
0.26188915967941284,
-0.3532858192920685,
0.4008582532405853,
-0.05323931574821472,
-0.3585398197174072,
-0.1379501223564148,
0.7831244468688965,
-0.47731029987335205,
-0.3088925778865814,
-0.6119220852851868,
0.09253688156604767,
-0.10280278325080872,
-0.6895466446876526,
-0.4499562382698059,
0.6768861413002014,
0.12765692174434662,
-0.5531195998191833,
0.12263577431440353,
0.2078208029270172,
-0.3454912602901459,
-0.16257603466510773,
-0.6810804605484009,
-0.23989887535572052,
0.06210998818278313,
0.311465322971344,
0.20753009617328644,
-0.41266947984695435,
0.1330508291721344,
-0.39415767788887024,
0.3956522047519684,
0.1524885892868042,
-0.8388952016830444,
-0.23835153877735138,
0.034867942333221436,
-0.2925010621547699,
-0.35013577342033386,
0.6180044412612915,
-0.4025121033191681,
0.825873076915741,
0.17430084943771362,
-0.014279147610068321,
0.267483651638031,
-0.1998189240694046,
-0.11983797699213028,
0.7361405491828918,
-0.8655169010162354,
1.000056266784668,
-0.09371393173933029,
0.16033175587654114,
-0.2952730059623718,
-0.011674417182803154,
-0.3143165707588196,
0.16508114337921143,
0.20297327637672424,
0.9599912762641907,
-0.03689843788743019,
0.02077694796025753,
0.6366626024246216,
-0.2739509642124176,
-0.5136599540710449,
0.017848702147603035,
0.11502131074666977,
-0.5255663394927979,
0.921887993812561,
0.8923391699790955,
-0.5430718064308167,
0.2108643352985382,
0.06473568826913834,
0.388803094625473,
-0.037292271852493286,
0.14953644573688507,
-0.06846190243959427,
0.13869483768939972,
0.28143736720085144,
-0.04585111886262894,
0.4883154034614563,
0.4281640648841858,
0.13184979557991028,
0.5258897542953491,
-0.5364289283752441,
0.33176037669181824,
-0.016739211976528168,
-0.21258963644504547,
-0.3205862045288086,
-0.42783311009407043,
-0.2724299728870392,
0.08390581607818604,
-0.8083749413490295,
0.3378986120223999,
0.49205490946769714,
0.20022618770599365,
0.21477703750133514,
-0.20258699357509613,
-0.038383230566978455,
0.4189556837081909,
0.5882294774055481,
-0.3921481966972351,
0.35433682799339294,
0.1940293163061142,
-0.5082923173904419,
0.03577924892306328,
-0.5970358848571777,
0.025972384959459305,
-0.04241172969341278,
-0.31215590238571167,
-0.41170117259025574,
0.14811734855175018,
-0.056902188807725906,
-0.7476550340652466,
0.20935827493667603,
0.0868263691663742,
-0.5330702662467957,
-0.5767741203308105,
-0.13000759482383728,
0.06626944988965988,
0.6959410905838013,
0.3049863576889038,
-1.0214341878890991,
-0.7222234606742859,
-0.347329705953598,
-0.17711609601974487,
0.222031369805336,
-0.12071476131677628,
0.2649507522583008,
-0.0748118981719017,
-0.0118053974583745,
0.2897022068500519,
-0.2547072768211365,
-0.2050962746143341,
0.6969069242477417,
0.5025635957717896,
-0.3253105580806732,
-0.08181186765432358,
0.15537074208259583,
-0.3897014856338501,
-0.10619735717773438,
0.15810373425483704,
0.08470027148723602,
0.501345157623291,
0.3266710638999939,
-0.1319037526845932,
-0.09387677162885666,
-0.20228275656700134,
0.49181413650512695,
0.021038390696048737,
0.18897229433059692,
0.5395415425300598,
0.1434985250234604,
-0.682616114616394,
-0.106230229139328,
0.07447531819343567,
-0.3467100262641907,
0.7515653967857361,
0.04255468770861626,
-0.29411154985427856,
0.13729043304920197,
-0.8030315637588501,
-0.3483861982822418,
-0.04284156113862991,
0.39568766951560974,
-0.47292691469192505,
0.005882809404283762,
0.28698715567588806,
-0.4367698132991791,
-0.1450897455215454,
-0.45923733711242676,
0.46355733275413513,
-0.08226266503334045,
-0.3201572299003601,
0.13408800959587097,
-0.17839807271957397,
0.3482765555381775,
0.12384062260389328,
-0.16323822736740112,
0.2668566107749939,
-0.09576395153999329,
0.007698726840317249,
-0.7253935933113098,
-0.22008170187473297,
0.0753537267446518,
-0.028093719854950905,
0.30144405364990234,
0.38643279671669006,
-0.5248610973358154,
0.10169485956430435,
0.300961971282959,
0.9517414569854736,
0.5716977715492249,
0.08951672911643982,
-0.43679872155189514,
-0.05647130683064461,
0.4433900713920593,
0.2761314809322357,
-0.8435990214347839,
-0.2906784415245056,
0.11894600093364716,
0.02235451713204384,
-0.5842617750167847,
-0.6987338066101074,
-0.09538011997938156,
0.9295330047607422,
-0.04302622750401497,
0.08792222291231155,
0.06902161985635757,
-0.23009906709194183,
0.04798901826143265,
0.3330036401748657,
-0.15869611501693726,
-0.33004939556121826,
-0.0009445633622817695,
0.5921734571456909,
-0.7133382558822632,
-0.9527513980865479,
0.28360989689826965,
0.027738386765122414,
-0.12247147411108017,
-0.1288364827632904,
0.23536226153373718,
0.9065070152282715,
0.18359893560409546,
0.4811684191226959,
-0.04397444427013397,
0.28040993213653564,
-0.6089343428611755,
0.088032566010952,
0.09802170842885971,
-0.8774823546409607,
-0.0874643623828888,
0.32295942306518555,
-0.3959570825099945,
-0.22568216919898987,
-0.2809188663959503,
0.018266931176185608,
-0.11450809240341187,
0.15113238990306854,
-0.472587525844574,
0.30863821506500244,
-0.40340131521224976,
-0.12391439825296402,
-0.03365566208958626,
-0.5111109614372253,
-0.018720833584666252,
0.15572893619537354,
0.4962731897830963,
0.4014204442501068,
-0.11702950298786163,
-0.7770645022392273,
0.49349841475486755,
-0.6016103625297546,
-1.0066547393798828,
0.6044243574142456,
0.14104212820529938,
0.17582345008850098,
-0.33328843116760254,
0.41530370712280273,
-0.5506845712661743,
0.5294538140296936,
-0.015970353037118912,
-0.2508261203765869,
0.9517368674278259,
0.3327536880970001,
-0.007216546218842268,
0.5396679639816284,
-0.6244083642959595,
0.09308777004480362,
0.39408692717552185,
0.2880590260028839,
-0.2657022476196289,
-0.2690575420856476,
0.4530259072780609,
0.33217769861221313,
0.4043782651424408,
-0.1455693393945694,
-0.6978184580802917,
0.22837767004966736,
0.4016360342502594,
0.3583773374557495,
-0.011026009917259216,
-0.30827683210372925,
0.1687021702528,
-0.5583622455596924,
-0.02384650707244873,
-0.01848471537232399,
-0.37285611033439636,
-0.4688747823238373,
0.7733312845230103,
0.09681864082813263,
0.15899579226970673,
-0.34415653347969055,
-0.4513804018497467,
-0.35741114616394043,
-0.0783519521355629,
0.050497446209192276,
-0.05825556069612503,
-0.21587224304676056,
-0.09924104809761047,
0.24023866653442383,
-0.4203647971153259,
0.003781849518418312,
-0.1194886639714241,
-0.40313664078712463,
-0.17039065062999725,
-0.1671292930841446,
-0.37435659766197205,
-0.11877954751253128,
-0.2543119490146637,
-0.24507562816143036,
0.48464494943618774,
0.4254818856716156,
0.10048515349626541,
0.04239137843251228,
-0.22036895155906677,
0.522761344909668,
-0.9063495397567749,
0.37095606327056885,
-0.0031985470559448004,
0.2808365225791931,
0.4451243579387665,
-0.3590129613876343,
-0.2905886471271515,
-0.4057176411151886,
0.38887718319892883,
0.3207874596118927,
0.32174283266067505,
0.11553900688886642,
-0.542192280292511,
-0.3662473261356354,
0.16123607754707336,
0.22589895129203796,
-0.8189709186553955,
0.07851944118738174,
-0.3988049328327179,
0.25011444091796875,
0.044292598962783813,
-0.4546853005886078,
0.9168814420700073,
0.49896830320358276,
-0.6769219040870667,
0.16349777579307556,
0.026642626151442528,
-0.24431762099266052,
-0.07630439102649689,
-0.17227745056152344,
1.078075647354126,
0.4228358864784241,
-0.2522309422492981,
-0.3078988492488861,
0.40481168031692505,
0.06667839735746384,
0.09361385554075241,
-0.498404860496521,
0.18398398160934448,
-0.3976755142211914,
0.22099921107292175,
0.13061897456645966,
0.4821397066116333,
0.5803358554840088,
-0.0704202875494957,
-0.27505379915237427,
-0.16890352964401245,
-0.1573999971151352,
-0.20505395531654358,
0.5573111772537231,
-0.14036555588245392,
0.20250414311885834,
-0.2171686589717865,
0.09917749464511871,
0.02024178020656109,
-0.5356844067573547,
0.2046535164117813,
0.18729521334171295,
-0.08661730587482452,
0.12897227704524994,
0.1973227858543396,
-0.8029370903968811,
0.6740117073059082,
-0.016976239159703255,
0.3232916295528412,
-1.0306938886642456,
0.21321086585521698,
-0.05490044131875038,
-0.4971088171005249,
-0.42112651467323303,
0.18616238236427307,
0.06971284747123718,
-0.513393223285675,
-0.030916817486286163,
0.12420064955949783,
-0.18794578313827515,
0.053759608417749405,
-0.23375055193901062,
-0.4511064887046814,
0.20660485327243805,
-0.09078095853328705,
-0.9242557287216187,
0.26829808950424194,
0.5543139576911926,
-0.9739320874214172,
0.8899676203727722,
0.2494780570268631,
0.39307042956352234,
0.01025022380053997,
0.370558500289917,
-0.40475666522979736,
-0.09618857502937317,
0.405598521232605
] |
229035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rarotonga | Rarotonga | Rarotonga is the largest and most populous of the Cook Islands. The island is volcanic, with an area of , and is home to almost 75% of the country's population, with 13,007 of a total population of 17,434. The Cook Islands' Parliament buildings and international airport are on Rarotonga. Rarotonga is a very popular tourist destination with many resorts, hotels and motels. The chief town, Avarua, on the north coast, is the capital of the Cook Islands.
Captain John Dibbs, master of the colonial brig Endeavour, is credited as the European discoverer on 25 July 1823, while transporting the missionary Reverend John Williams.
Geography
Rarotonga is a kidney-shaped volcanic island, in circumference, and wide on its longest (east-west) axis. The island is the summit of an extinct Pliocene or Pleistocene volcano, which rises 5000 meters from the seafloor. The island was formed between 2.3 to 1.6 million years ago, with a later stage of volcanism between 1.4 and 1.1 million years ago. While its position is consistent with being formed by the Macdonald hotspot, its age is too young, and its formation is attributed to a short-lived Rarotonga hotspot, or to rejuvenated volcanism at Aitutaki.
The core of the island consists of densely forested hills cut by deep valleys, the eroded remnants of the original volcanic cone. The hills are drained by a number of radial streams, including the Avatiu Stream and Takuvaine Stream. Te Manga, at 658 m (2,140 ft) above sea level, is the highest peak on the island. Ikurangi, a smaller peak, overlooks the capital.
The hills are surrounded by a low coastal plain consisting of beaches, a storm ridge, lowland swamps, and alluvial deposits. This in turn is surrounded by a fringing reef, which ranges from 30 to 900 metres wide. The reef is shallow, with a maximum depth of 1.5m, and has a number of passages, notably at Avarua, Avatiu and Ngatangiia. Beyond the reef crest, the outer reef slopes steeply to deep water.
The lagoon is at its widest off the southeast coast in the area of the Muri Lagoon. This area contains four small islets or motu. From north to south, the islets are:
Motutapu,
Oneroa,
Koromiri,
Taakoka,
Another small islet, Motutoa, lies on the reef flat on the northwest coast.
Natural environment
The interior of the island is dominated by eroded volcanic peaks cloaked in dense vegetation. Paved and unpaved roads allow access to valleys but the interior of the island remains largely unpopulated due to forbidding terrain and lack of infrastructure.
Takitumu Conservation Area
A tract of 155 ha of land has been set aside in the south-east as the Takitumu Conservation Area to protect native birds and plants, especially the Vulnerable Rarotonga monarch or kakerori. Other threatened birds resident in the conservation area include the Rarotonga fruit dove and Rarotonga starling, and the site has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International.
History
The earliest evidence of human presence in the Southern Cook Islands has been dated to around AD 1000. Oral tradition tells that Rarotonga was settled by various groups, including Ata-i-te-kura, Apopo-te-akatinatina and Apopo-te-ivi-roa in the ninth century, and Tangi'ia Nui from Tahiti and Karika from Samoa in 1250. An early ariki, Toi, is said to have built Te Ara Nui o Toi or Ara Metua, a paved road that encircles the island, though the sites adjacent to it are dated to 1530. Trading contact was maintained with the Austral Islands, Samoa and the Marquesas to import basalt that was used for making local adze heads, while a pottery fragment found on Ma'uke has been traced to Tongatapu to the west, the main island of Tonga. The ultimate origin of almost all the islanders’ settlement cargo can be traced back to Southeast Asia: not just their chickens, Pacific rats, Polynesian pigs, Pacific dogs and crops, but also several kinds of lizards and snails. Among the species that are understood to have reached Rarotonga by this means are at least two species of geckos and three of skinks. Likewise, the ultimate origin of almost 30 of their crops lies in the west.
According to New Zealand Māori tradition, Kupe, the discoverer of Aotearoa, visited Rarotonga, and the Māori migration canoes Tākitimu, Te Arawa, Tainui, Mātaatua, Tokomaru and Kurahaupō passed through on their way to Aotearoa.
Fletcher Christian visited the island in 1789 on but did not land. Captain Theodore Walker sighted the island in 1813 on the ship Endeavour. The first recorded landing by a European was Captain Philip Goodenough with William Wentworth in 1814 on the schooner Cumberland. On 25 July 1823, while transporting the missionary Reverend John Williams, the Endeavour returned to Rarotonga. Papeiha, a London Missionary Society evangelist from Bora Bora, went ashore to teach his religion. Further missionaries followed, and by 1830 the island had converted to Christianity.
From 1830 to 1850, Rarotonga was a popular stop for whalers and trading schooners, and trade began with the outside world. The missionaries attempted to exclude other Europeans as a bad influence, and in 1845 Rarotongan ariki prohibited the sale of land to Europeans, though they were allowed to rent land on an annual basis. Despite a further ban on foreign settlement in 1848, European traders began to settle. In 1865, driven by rumours that France planned to annex the islands, the ariki of Rarotonga unsuccessfully petitioned Governor George Grey of New Zealand for British protection. In 1883 the Royal navy de facto recognised the ariki of Rarotonga as an independent government. By this time Makea Takau Ariki had become paramount among the ariki, and was recognised as the "Queen of Rarotonga" on a visit to New Zealand. In 1888 the island became a British protectorate after a petition from the ariki. In 1901, it was annexed by New Zealand.
Oranges had been introduced by the Bounty mutineers, and after annexation developed into a major export crop, though exports had been disrupted by poor shipping. In 1945 the industry was revived with a government-led citrus replanting scheme, and in 1961 a canning factory was opened to allow the export of juice. The industry survived until the 1980s, but collapsed after New Zealand adopted Rogernomics and removed privileged market access.
An airstrip was built in 1944, leading to regular flights to Fiji, Tonga, Samoa and Aitutaki. The airport and better shipping links saw the beginnings of large-scale migration to New Zealand. Emigration increased further in the early 1970's when the airport was upgraded, but this was balanced by immigration from elsewhere in the Cook Islands.
Flooding in April and May 1967 damaged bridges on the island and caused widespread crop losses, raising risks of a food shortage. An unnamed tropical cyclone in December of that year left hundreds homeless and caused widespread devastation after demolishing homes and offices in Avarua. In December 1976 80% of the island's banana crop was destroyed by tropical cyclone Kim. In January 1987 Tropical Cyclone Sally made a thousand people homeless and damaged 80% of the buildings in Avarua.
Demographics and settlements
The population of Rarotonga was 13007 in 2016.
The island is traditionally divided into three tribal districts or vaka. Te Au O Tonga on the northern side of the island (Avarua is the capital), Takitumu on the eastern and southern side and Puaikura on the western side. For administrative purposes it is divided into five Land Districts. The Land District of Avarua is represented under vaka Te Au O Tonga, the Land Districts of Matavera, Ngatangiia and Titikaveka are represented under vaka Takitumu and the Land District Arorangi is represented under vaka Puaikura.
In 2008, the three vaka councils of Rarotonga were abolished.
Area attractions
Palm-studded white sandy beaches fringe most of the island, and there is a popular cross-island walk that connects Avatiu valley with the south side of the island. It passes the Te Rua Manga, the prominent needle-shaped rock visible from the air and some coastal areas. Hikes can also be taken to the Raemaru, or flat-top mountain. Other attractions include Wigmore Falls (Papua Falls) and the ancient marae, Arai te Tonga.
Popular island activities include snorkeling, scuba diving, bike riding, kite surfing, hiking, deep-sea fishing, boat tours, scenic flights, going to restaurants, dancing, seeing island shows, squash, tennis, zipping around on mopeds, and sleeping on the beach. There are many churches open for service on Sunday, with a cappella singing. People congregate at the sea wall that skirts the end of the airport's runway to be "jetblasted" by aircraft.
Transport
Rarotonga has three harbours, Avatiu, Avarua and Avana, of which only Avatiu harbour is of commercial significance. The Port of Avatiu serves a small fleet of inter-island and fishing vessels, with cargo ships regularly visiting from New Zealand via other Pacific Islands ports. Large cruise ships regularly visit Rarotonga but the port is too small for cruise ships to enter and they are required to anchor off shore outside the harbour.
The island is encircled by a main road, Ara Tapu, that traces the coast. Three-quarters of Rarotonga is also encircled by the ancient inner road, Ara Metua. Approximately 29 km long, this road was constructed in 11th century and for most or all of its whole length was paved with large stone slabs. Along this road are several important marae, including Arai Te Tonga, the most sacred shrine in Rarotonga. Due to the mountainous interior, there is no road crossing the island. Rarotonga has only two bus routes: clockwise and anticlockwise. The clockwise bus runs from morning operating an hourly schedule until a last service at 11pm. The anti-clockwise route leaves Avarua on the half-hour, with the last service at 4.30 pm. Although there are bus stops, the buses pick up and set down anywhere en route.
Rarotonga International Airport is the international airport of the Cook Islands. Air Rarotonga operates domestic inter-island flights: daily flights to Aitutaki, regular flights to Atiu, Mangaia, Mauke and Mitiaro, and occasional flights to the remote northern atolls of Manihiki, Tongareva (Penrhyn) and Pukapuka.
As of 2017 Air New Zealand operates weekly direct flights to and from Los Angeles and Sydney, in addition to five flights a week from Auckland. An additional six flights per week from Auckland are operated by Jetstar (3) and Virgin Australia (3). Air Tahiti operates one or two flights per week direct to and from Papeete, depending on the season.
In the media
The travel writer Robert Dean Frisbie died on the island, after having lived there only briefly.
The 1995 album Finn by the Finn Brothers ends with the song "Kiss the Road of Rarotonga", which was inspired by a motorcycle accident that Tim Finn had during a visit there.
The U.S. television series Survivor: Cook Islands was filmed on Aitutaki, one of the islands in the southern group. One of the tribes was called Rarotonga (or Raro for short).
A number of feature-length films are linked to Rarotonga: Merry Christmas, Mr. Lawrence, depicting a Japanese POW camp for British prisoners in the island of Java in the year 1942, was filmed here, The Other Side of Heaven, which is set in Niuatoputapu, Tonga, but was filmed in part on Rarotonga, and Johnny Lingo which was set here.
In the 2008 film Nim's Island, Rarotonga is portrayed as a waypoint for fictional adventure writer Alexandra Rover (Jodie Foster) on her journey from San Francisco to a South Pacific island.
In 1951 Mexican writers Yolanda Vargas Dulché and Guillermo de la Parra wrote Rarotonga, a comic book whose plot unfolds on the island. The heroine of the story is called Zonga, an enigmatic woman with superhuman powers. The comic inspired a Mexican movie filmed in 1978 and a song by the Mexican rock band Café Tacuba.
The 1948 film Another Shore has as its central character an Irish civil servant who fantasises about going to live on Rarotonga.
Smooth Walker (Howard Hesseman) books a flight to Rarotonga in the 1983 film Doctor Detroit.
Former New Zealand cricket captain John Wright's 1990 autobiography is titled Christmas in Rarotonga.
See also
Auparu – in Cook Islands mythology, Auparu ("gentle dew") is a stream in Rarotonga, the bathing-place of nymphs or fairies.
Nukutere College – the country's only Roman Catholic secondary school
Roman Catholic Diocese of Rarotonga
Treaty of Rarotonga – 1985 South Pacific Nuclear Free Zone Treaty
References
External links
History of districts and villages
FAQ, cookislands.travel
Original Tapere subdivision of Rarotonga
Islands of the Cook Islands
Important Bird Areas of the Cook Islands | [
0.03011126071214676,
0.01286278385668993,
-0.7857087254524231,
-0.49415114521980286,
-0.6033598184585571,
0.8329829573631287,
0.5206770896911621,
-0.04258021339774132,
-0.8296986818313599,
-0.25409477949142456,
-0.36181944608688354,
-0.033494096249341965,
-0.10193982720375061,
0.6211790442466736,
-0.308474600315094,
0.730592668056488,
0.4794374406337738,
0.4801083207130432,
0.08776608109474182,
-0.08558323234319687,
-0.27400025725364685,
-0.2484554499387741,
0.055222976952791214,
0.18115562200546265,
0.5518678426742554,
-0.1949976086616516,
0.015184285119175911,
0.34146133065223694,
0.36605125665664673,
0.19244778156280518,
0.3545737564563751,
0.6357990503311157,
-0.2073293775320053,
-0.004521120805293322,
0.38498231768608093,
-0.7886170744895935,
0.7184737920761108,
-0.4714658856391907,
-0.1204875260591507,
0.010621252469718456,
-0.09104248136281967,
-0.4442453384399414,
0.5833047032356262,
0.510224461555481,
-0.0849008560180664,
-0.42609718441963196,
-1.0948357582092285,
0.8482767939567566,
-0.5560210347175598,
0.5692775845527649,
-0.8158310055732727,
-0.06040985509753227,
0.5223086476325989,
0.5713377594947815,
0.4985966384410858,
0.8301200866699219,
-0.7905713319778442,
0.32034701108932495,
0.03529983013868332,
-0.31641533970832825,
-0.3964710533618927,
0.32878637313842773,
-0.030633816495537758,
-0.3318673372268677,
0.09510533511638641,
0.02517601102590561,
-0.11907069385051727,
0.2532408833503723,
0.023453213274478912,
-0.1493341624736786,
-0.28314247727394104,
-0.0340723991394043,
0.024237291887402534,
0.05160563439130783,
-0.8336012959480286,
-0.2977473735809326,
-0.5863167643547058,
0.3542398512363434,
0.16704757511615753,
-0.0839836522936821,
-0.22626933455467224,
0.01990360952913761,
0.015277148224413395,
-0.4267144799232483,
0.7913280725479126,
-0.013020114973187447,
-0.08882761001586914,
-0.48907342553138733,
0.07163265347480774,
0.82860267162323,
-0.46860939264297485,
0.14325831830501556,
0.1957813799381256,
-0.25917351245880127,
-0.5995675325393677,
-0.36635810136795044,
-0.2787414491176605,
0.3415752947330475,
0.2123548835515976,
0.10041898488998413,
-0.1037662997841835,
0.07420932501554489,
1.0744132995605469,
-0.02126985974609852,
-0.46608808636665344,
-0.9054814577102661,
-0.3374139964580536,
-0.3780861794948578,
0.19097267091274261,
-0.36736059188842773,
-0.7853550314903259,
-0.10751707851886749,
0.17106983065605164,
-0.2181617170572281,
-0.34788843989372253,
0.16822457313537598,
0.12812428176403046,
-0.319997102022171,
-0.5156476497650146,
-0.7594009041786194,
0.7973097562789917,
0.06783054769039154,
-0.19802887737751007,
1.0358868837356567,
-0.2775806486606598,
0.308014839887619,
0.5722043514251709,
0.1774909794330597,
-0.23168383538722992,
0.017657490447163582,
0.047871172428131104,
0.6673552393913269,
-0.6403713822364807,
0.01768231764435768,
-0.08114910870790482,
-0.5032736659049988,
-0.3032274544239044,
0.3484364151954651,
1.0112895965576172,
-0.10109236091375351,
-1.2855898141860962,
0.02496080845594406,
-0.553665041923523,
-0.02934373915195465,
0.18129494786262512,
0.10500621795654297,
-0.9271028637886047,
-0.22151455283164978,
0.05413513258099556,
-0.883084774017334,
-0.15480464696884155,
-0.5759109854698181,
0.022402027621865273,
0.0807841569185257,
0.3706445097923279,
-0.4113450050354004,
0.8559534549713135,
-0.5728005170822144,
0.3184077739715576,
0.30909672379493713,
0.22507955133914948,
0.08795137703418732,
0.699174165725708,
0.19489388167858124,
0.3186420500278473,
0.06253854930400848,
0.26738181710243225,
0.37460485100746155,
0.6256706118583679,
0.3299024701118469,
-0.40678665041923523,
-0.09092087298631668,
0.20331871509552002,
-0.2273738831281662,
-0.4774003028869629,
-0.8049716949462891,
0.021540576592087746,
0.23639488220214844,
0.5311521887779236,
-0.33039504289627075,
-0.5188280940055847,
0.2706019878387451,
-0.016679950058460236,
0.023438669741153717,
0.21436402201652527,
-0.13821928203105927,
0.11939485371112823,
0.09917225688695908,
-0.17654743790626526,
0.20073957741260529,
0.1948440968990326,
-0.6969004273414612,
0.5661687850952148,
0.0770685151219368,
0.5346287488937378,
0.6193482279777527,
0.06836502999067307,
0.989884614944458,
0.9160376787185669,
0.7771849632263184,
-0.05823269113898277,
0.38644373416900635,
0.7848859429359436,
-0.07555953413248062,
-0.8863573670387268,
0.4850401282310486,
0.13167738914489746,
0.032357510179281235,
0.554962694644928,
-0.13280560076236725,
-0.4999549984931946,
-0.40568315982818604,
0.17673243582248688,
-0.16822965443134308,
-0.28600388765335083,
-0.25928595662117004,
0.16203154623508453,
0.20632359385490417,
0.2587938904762268,
-0.5729500651359558,
0.4948076903820038,
0.6935199499130249,
-0.11369572579860687,
-0.07081810384988785,
0.3622051775455475,
1.0219420194625854,
0.24428586661815643,
0.03225818648934364,
0.24827544391155243,
0.6613887548446655,
0.15978561341762543,
-0.15029236674308777,
-0.09547542035579681,
0.1432228684425354,
-0.22440367937088013,
-0.2718919515609741,
0.15662892162799835,
-0.6282529830932617,
0.5404525399208069,
-0.05156944319605827,
0.35583001375198364,
0.5556697845458984,
-0.8843641877174377,
0.10725428909063339,
0.6322842836380005,
0.2018023133277893,
-0.283873587846756,
-0.408054918050766,
-0.36393818259239197,
0.41223177313804626,
0.2832472026348114,
-0.6974009275436401,
0.3371051251888275,
0.4601351320743561,
0.3300349712371826,
-0.746766209602356,
-0.5370020270347595,
-0.4448801279067993,
0.5453842878341675,
-0.24122634530067444,
-0.550300657749176,
-0.07671230286359787,
0.0549197755753994,
-0.02648553065955639,
0.12083171308040619,
-0.6997334957122803,
0.20894910395145416,
-0.5596311688423157,
0.2895042598247528,
-0.019288552924990654,
0.5089002251625061,
-0.8579684495925903,
-0.5254719853401184,
-0.6905498504638672,
0.12133509665727615,
-0.4121716022491455,
-0.5707584619522095,
-0.2877596616744995,
-0.3723738193511963,
0.008151604793965816,
0.4708172380924225,
0.734143078327179,
-0.15032917261123657,
-1.3107423782348633,
-0.40086522698402405,
0.6533836722373962,
0.8064476251602173,
-0.2005164921283722,
-0.6869068741798401,
0.4337143003940582,
-0.3616073727607727,
-0.7685995697975159,
-0.32121309638023376,
0.12019909918308258,
0.07206917554140091,
-0.05613068863749504,
0.05578446015715599,
0.567409098148346,
0.2015884667634964,
-0.840478777885437,
-0.1919962465763092,
-0.02028130739927292,
0.18093238770961761,
-0.7000483870506287,
-0.11645061522722244,
-0.17443011701107025,
-0.18237851560115814,
-0.42519843578338623,
-5.0939106941223145,
0.23139475286006927,
-0.23219351470470428,
-0.10084162652492523,
0.2275538593530655,
-0.16823752224445343,
0.43480223417282104,
-0.3659237027168274,
0.4716275632381439,
-0.30079954862594604,
0.19466368854045868,
-0.0053449091501533985,
-0.26368024945259094,
0.7866930961608887,
-0.04765555262565613,
0.6101592779159546,
0.1737416684627533,
0.4350704848766327,
0.567985475063324,
0.38949573040008545,
-0.37655168771743774,
0.3898802399635315,
-0.5901689529418945,
0.16193021833896637,
-0.08966952562332153,
0.7236915826797485,
-0.36593595147132874,
-0.9751547574996948,
-0.4653223752975464,
-0.34950435161590576,
-0.7717894911766052,
-0.10992427170276642,
0.17585596442222595,
-0.4486014246940613,
0.10615065693855286,
-0.18928419053554535,
0.13431058824062347,
0.04882945865392685,
0.23601683974266052,
-0.5726842284202576,
-0.279528945684433,
-0.19555912911891937,
0.7079348564147949,
0.2349308431148529,
0.7893519401550293,
-0.6439701318740845,
-0.46397122740745544,
-0.3617332875728607,
-0.35558873414993286,
0.9998157024383545,
0.3616607189178467,
0.6187125444412231,
0.5202295184135437,
-0.19742406904697418,
-0.061332158744335175,
0.3439882695674896,
0.2614409923553467,
-0.022842952981591225,
-0.2776826024055481,
0.5184853076934814,
0.09933330118656158,
-0.4968757629394531,
0.000725624558981508,
-0.30587032437324524,
-0.1598982810974121,
0.04522848129272461,
-0.018027832731604576,
0.20477086305618286,
0.3375602960586548,
-0.24863725900650024,
-0.610419750213623,
-0.08793307840824127,
-0.31153249740600586,
-0.985888659954071,
-0.016582194715738297,
-0.7027644515037537,
-0.986291766166687,
0.5558220148086548,
0.2865487337112427,
-0.39204806089401245,
-0.6504837274551392,
-0.26755234599113464,
-0.7303860783576965,
0.6940698027610779,
0.31907644867897034,
-0.6426488757133484,
-0.7939038872718811,
-0.11651870608329773,
-0.1781921088695526,
-0.17921321094036102,
0.12870439887046814,
-0.32552123069763184,
0.6413629055023193,
0.2700388431549072,
0.0808233842253685,
0.8490663766860962,
0.3150554299354553,
0.10256937891244888,
0.7326632142066956,
0.1618349850177765,
0.5117484927177429,
-0.31144607067108154,
-0.5197333097457886,
0.16256792843341827,
-0.054822664707899094,
0.0204559825360775,
0.42733728885650635,
0.5176615118980408,
0.7531599998474121,
0.12172045558691025,
0.05292174592614174,
-0.3522583544254303,
-0.6072273254394531,
-0.06575196981430054,
0.6416805982589722,
-0.09749661386013031,
-0.01174652948975563,
0.6456875205039978,
0.6793026328086853,
0.0006615237798541784,
0.343161404132843,
-0.13441713154315948,
-0.010902573354542255,
0.3101040720939636,
0.4946964383125305,
0.05205358937382698,
-0.1570480763912201,
-0.27151599526405334,
-0.31574273109436035,
0.16891351342201233,
0.5567333102226257,
-0.691267192363739,
0.4335182011127472,
-0.28592464327812195,
0.007763646077364683,
0.2164917290210724,
-0.060665301978588104,
-0.5309963226318359,
-0.09207227826118469,
-0.08307091146707535,
-0.2986432611942291,
0.3458104133605957,
-0.22764065861701965,
0.8525576591491699,
-0.0841987282037735,
0.2604570686817169,
0.13198283314704895,
-0.5154476165771484,
-0.303127259016037,
-0.009025564417243004,
-0.2506195604801178,
-1.053499460220337,
0.00114155444316566,
-0.754106342792511,
-0.08524375408887863,
0.09286560118198395,
0.15267033874988556,
0.19758595526218414,
-0.6619589924812317,
-0.22861334681510925,
0.04840785264968872,
-0.9440962076187134,
-0.6049968004226685,
-0.20912854373455048,
-0.23686107993125916,
-0.6409981846809387,
-0.8037582039833069,
-0.1856965869665146,
-0.5305355787277222,
0.2818455100059509,
0.38757067918777466,
-0.4939613342285156,
-0.299623042345047,
-0.011124828830361366,
0.8264197111129761,
-0.7858332395553589,
0.06430257856845856,
0.5065614581108093,
-0.018336761742830276,
0.017865579575300217,
-0.5141937136650085,
0.6462852954864502,
-0.20988747477531433,
0.607029139995575,
0.35081061720848083,
-0.2752980589866638,
-0.33907508850097656,
0.01174671296030283,
0.4457540214061737,
0.08861149102449417,
0.2508471608161926,
0.3999599814414978,
-0.3360663950443268,
0.3374340832233429,
-0.5081039667129517,
-0.40727174282073975,
0.39282462000846863,
0.07155673950910568,
0.025013742968440056,
-0.32869356870651245,
-0.11128931492567062,
0.19406025111675262,
-0.3167433738708496,
0.017039839178323746,
0.702564001083374,
0.40183672308921814,
0.9931677579879761,
0.2999252676963806,
-0.5753111243247986,
0.12082706391811371,
-0.3612280488014221,
-0.3889558017253876,
-0.054267819970846176,
0.8558504581451416,
-0.9988357424736023,
-0.043858543038368225,
0.6946160197257996,
-0.8682567477226257,
0.3012682795524597,
-0.04788650572299957,
-0.25316596031188965,
-0.3458462357521057,
0.4464242160320282,
-0.690296471118927,
-0.5183160901069641,
0.9094623923301697,
0.030091553926467896,
-0.5615388751029968,
0.6156918406486511,
-1.061012864112854,
0.22733664512634277,
-0.33810845017433167,
0.5343981981277466,
0.49701976776123047,
-0.09115360677242279,
0.4771219789981842,
-0.14841045439243317,
-0.10837256163358688,
0.49698877334594727,
1.2084143161773682,
0.26744183897972107,
1.125868797302246,
0.13341285288333893,
-0.4164738953113556,
-0.6595460772514343,
0.17320670187473297,
0.24800194799900055,
-0.058196187019348145,
-0.6721144318580627,
0.06203611567616463,
0.19958707690238953,
-0.2444494664669037,
-0.2834760248661041,
-0.2534717321395874,
0.2123110592365265,
-0.0157025009393692,
0.45667457580566406,
0.30914542078971863,
-0.18426071107387543,
-0.1909758597612381,
0.6480284929275513,
0.10264486074447632,
-0.0676279291510582,
0.5242248773574829,
0.8151401281356812,
-0.1582006961107254,
-0.5673487782478333,
-0.4340530037879944,
0.5719825625419617,
-0.06083253026008606,
-0.4672258496284485,
-0.48393505811691284,
0.6562017202377319,
0.09267599135637283,
0.16397738456726074,
-0.02754933014512062,
0.008452597074210644,
-0.3600463271141052,
0.44191229343414307,
-0.2983017861843109,
0.27792808413505554,
0.31107962131500244,
0.4838475286960602,
-0.18960241973400116,
0.3836277425289154,
-0.6788307428359985,
-0.9644708037376404,
-0.04567403346300125,
-0.9686102867126465,
0.32538941502571106,
-0.12795157730579376,
-0.8762099146842957,
0.6508786678314209,
0.010892240330576897,
0.5533256530761719,
0.29286035895347595,
0.4050061106681824,
0.022670404985547066,
-0.30231648683547974,
0.2875329256057739,
-0.8766070008277893,
0.9052138924598694,
0.13250605762004852,
0.029186725616455078,
0.11897219717502594,
-0.10677199810743332,
-0.25325247645378113,
-0.48220735788345337,
0.21687361598014832,
0.021968267858028412,
0.5232589840888977,
0.14715959131717682,
-0.047698453068733215,
0.948762834072113,
-0.7422847151756287,
0.4376150369644165,
0.9298802614212036,
-0.793364405632019,
-0.20671245455741882,
0.9929640889167786,
-0.2260196954011917,
-1.1144795417785645,
0.42234963178634644,
0.8817234635353088,
0.7362071871757507,
0.2884836792945862,
-0.22643262147903442,
-0.5871034264564514,
1.1943734884262085,
0.49327611923217773,
0.20948545634746552,
0.1325208991765976,
-0.2137698382139206,
0.44319280982017517,
-0.8751499056816101,
-0.759097695350647,
0.16805751621723175,
-0.20889274775981903,
-0.5445622801780701,
1.0234640836715698,
1.2200466394424438,
-0.037029482424259186,
-0.4235125482082367,
-0.24888382852077484,
0.14691373705863953,
0.045606330037117004,
0.5114037990570068,
-0.22951550781726837,
0.15461724996566772,
0.0891232043504715,
0.6376222968101501,
0.0014671124517917633,
0.2677474617958069,
-0.37336593866348267,
-0.1235315352678299,
0.31118544936180115,
-0.2127171903848648,
-0.730736494064331,
-0.23926256597042084,
-0.2869262099266052,
-0.10018965601921082,
-0.09980861842632294,
0.269026517868042,
0.5083635449409485,
-0.02837415225803852,
-0.5128704309463501,
0.2408612072467804,
-0.35845598578453064,
-0.47556546330451965,
0.004846249241381884,
0.04247060418128967,
0.4935035705566406,
-0.2228473573923111,
-0.35024359822273254,
0.2065480798482895,
0.6665503978729248,
-0.1716180145740509,
0.4353531301021576,
-0.05924256518483162,
0.09963519126176834,
-0.6988916397094727,
-0.4009852409362793,
-0.5057962536811829,
-1.018236517906189,
0.2737327218055725,
-0.42407286167144775,
0.10740011930465698,
-0.5335242748260498,
-0.6481902599334717,
0.8464222550392151,
0.4806557595729828,
-0.21100468933582306,
-0.1690557599067688,
0.09042251110076904,
-0.9606753587722778,
-0.27969035506248474,
0.07466480880975723,
0.299020916223526,
0.26635244488716125,
-0.13318218290805817,
0.3645710349082947,
0.893212080001831,
0.4281231164932251,
0.37036189436912537,
0.1779666393995285,
0.4639403522014618,
0.11396969854831696,
-0.2503620386123657,
-0.524031400680542,
-0.22101707756519318,
-0.3186262547969818,
0.6177252531051636,
-0.21577990055084229,
0.3749164044857025,
0.00787388812750578,
0.44065994024276733,
0.22782102227210999,
-0.1561943143606186,
0.035006266087293625,
0.20923613011837006,
0.0358119010925293,
-0.7475185990333557,
0.3876502215862274,
0.7296774387359619,
-0.17137782275676727,
-0.4388335049152374,
-0.4975850284099579,
0.04293609783053398,
-1.0503597259521484,
0.16231900453567505,
-0.11070049554109573,
0.3334601819515228,
-0.1259145587682724,
-0.24343225359916687,
-0.35541704297065735,
-0.2868238687515259,
0.17332306504249573,
0.6908165812492371,
0.22072654962539673,
-0.14607574045658112,
-0.29776301980018616,
0.04838161915540695,
-0.004806003533303738,
0.5936262607574463,
-0.2555888295173645,
-0.15868662297725677,
-0.5252780318260193,
-0.5294833779335022,
-0.41907045245170593,
-0.02335190214216709,
0.6537218689918518,
-0.26355692744255066,
0.373031884431839,
-0.17858485877513885,
-0.28125691413879395,
-0.7050229907035828,
0.43583574891090393,
-0.5287115573883057,
0.666954517364502,
0.4149013161659241
] |
229038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Spadafora | Paul Spadafora | Paul Ross Spadafora (born September 5, 1975) is an American retired professional boxer. He is the former IBF lightweight champion of the world, and has challenged once for a light welterweight world title.
Personal background
Known as "The Pittsburgh Kid", Spadafora is from McKees Rocks, a borough outside of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. His childhood was poverty-stricken: his father died of a drug overdose when he was nine, and he was homeless for several weeks as a teenager. He started boxing when he was eleven, and left school in 9th grade to focus on it.
Amateur career
Spadafora had a fruitful amateur career, winning 75 of 80 bouts.
Professional career
Paul Spadafora was trained by Tom Yankello. On October 18, 1995, Spadafora made his professional debut, winning a four-round knockout of Steve Maddux. He won a total of four fights in his initial year.
In 1996, he fought eight times, winning all, six by knockout. In 1997, he fought six times, but his percentage of knockout wins dropped considerably when he only won two of those six bouts by knockout.
In 1998, he continued his winning ways throughout the year, winning all six bouts, three by knockout. One of the KO's took place on the exhibition bout card, featuring long-retired veteran Dan Maloney and Tim Witherspoon.
He began 1999 by raising his quality of opposition, facing the veteran Rocky Martinez. He won that fight by a unanimous decision, and after one more win he and Israel Cardona met in Chester for the I.B.F.'s vacant world crown on August 20. An underdog in the betting lines, Spadafora nevertheless became world champion, defeating Cardona in a 12-round decision. Then he retained the title with an 11-round knockout of Renato Cornett to finish the year.
He opened 2000 with a 12-round decision over Victoriano Sosa to retain the title, and subsequently defended his title again by knockout over Mike Griffith in round 11, and beat Billy Irwin in a 12-round decision to close the year.
By 2001, Spadafora was already a regular on the HBO Boxing television show. He retained the title with a 12-round decision over Joel Perez and won one non-title fight that year.
He began 2002 by retaining his title over Angel Manfredy with a 12-round decision. His only other bout that year was a 12-round decision win over Dennis Holbaek, also with his world title on the line.
Fight for unification
In 2003, Spadafora and WBA world champion Leonard Dorin from Romania decided to meet to try to unify their world titles. They met on May 18, but the fight was declared a draw, both boxers remaining as world champions in their respective organizations.
On June 27 of the same year, Spadafora announced he was relinquishing the IBF World Lightweight title to move to the Jr. Welterweight division because he was having trouble making weight in the Lightweight division.
Spadafora next fought on July 17, 2004, knocking out Costa Rica's Francisco Campos in ten rounds.
Troubles outside the ring
Spadafora was an alcoholic from a young age and at one point also abused drugs. He pleaded guilty to aggravated assault for shooting his girlfriend Nadine Russo in the chest in October 2003 after a night of drinking, and in February 2005 was sentenced to six months in a bootcamp-style rehabilitation center. He had by then become engaged to Russo and she had borne his second child. He ultimately went to prison for the crime.
In September and October 2011, Spadafora was twice arrested on DUI charges. The following September he pleaded guilty.
On September 23, 2012, his manager filed suit against him in Allegheny County court for breach of contract.
Comeback
Despite his troubles outside the ring, Spadafora repeatedly expressed his intention to return to the ring. In November 2006 he returned after a 32-month layoff to stop Jesus Francisco Zepeda in round five at the Avalon Hotel in Erie, Pennsylvania.
On April 25, 2008, again in Erie, Spadafora returned to the ring to fight Shad Howard. Spadafora repeatedly connected with sharp jabs and combinations en route to an 80–72 unanimous decision.
In 2010 he defeated Italian boxer Ivan Fiorletta by knock out. In August 2012 he defeated Humberto Toledo.
His record stands at 49–1–1 with 19 knockouts.
Titles in boxing
|-
References
External links
Official Website
Boxers from Pennsylvania
1975 births
Living people
People from McKees Rocks, Pennsylvania
Sportspeople from Pennsylvania
International Boxing Federation champions
People of Calabrian descent
American people of Italian descent
American boxers of Italian descent
American male boxers
Lightweight boxers | [
-0.34611111879348755,
-0.19530628621578217,
-0.48138928413391113,
-0.37185534834861755,
0.13004249334335327,
0.444494366645813,
0.4781811237335205,
-0.07388261705636978,
-0.27718180418014526,
-0.22262948751449585,
0.26424849033355713,
0.5835717916488647,
-0.8139920234680176,
-0.10881245136260986,
0.08687027543783188,
0.008037866093218327,
0.0913262739777565,
0.15468941628932953,
0.35367506742477417,
0.07184912264347076,
-0.36405149102211,
-0.031210223212838173,
0.34123510122299194,
-0.10274389386177063,
-0.756195068359375,
0.7126362919807434,
-0.3301104009151459,
-0.07623302191495895,
-0.056306637823581696,
-0.14878594875335693,
0.7785810232162476,
0.2094716876745224,
0.32332685589790344,
-0.7189862132072449,
-0.3231525719165802,
0.14482584595680237,
0.490757554769516,
-0.4537654221057892,
0.05192573741078377,
0.2911067306995392,
-0.49603042006492615,
0.4694176912307739,
0.18019312620162964,
0.030260838568210602,
0.09509559720754623,
0.1025754064321518,
-1.199727177619934,
-0.17646464705467224,
-0.4893917739391327,
-0.5297049283981323,
-0.12658140063285828,
-0.8457525372505188,
0.2078220248222351,
0.13939069211483002,
-0.17837843298912048,
-0.04192332923412323,
-0.39042162895202637,
-0.13016286492347717,
0.08192571997642517,
-0.46201008558273315,
-0.07215246558189392,
-0.07237570732831955,
0.6174351572990417,
-0.7149413824081421,
0.48499664664268494,
0.19647853076457977,
0.45979559421539307,
0.39923879504203796,
-0.05497586354613304,
0.022073859348893166,
-0.16259142756462097,
0.045289091765880585,
0.5160219669342041,
-0.10304582118988037,
0.46808698773384094,
-0.6443453431129456,
-0.1759202778339386,
0.34460631012916565,
-0.12189565598964691,
0.28124329447746277,
0.13488095998764038,
-0.4391024708747864,
0.12731902301311493,
0.30369701981544495,
0.02994263358414173,
0.016898809000849724,
-0.6231578588485718,
0.027710655704140663,
-0.49959856271743774,
0.4604908227920532,
-0.7696419954299927,
-0.12966343760490417,
0.45709317922592163,
0.31720608472824097,
0.13712210953235626,
-0.2698974013328552,
-0.19751723110675812,
0.8627435564994812,
0.1051897406578064,
-0.04701249301433563,
-0.24219845235347748,
-0.31009888648986816,
0.49970197677612305,
-0.3073336184024811,
-0.20710714161396027,
-0.22629708051681519,
0.41224443912506104,
-0.05399288609623909,
-0.16154856979846954,
-0.47368738055229187,
-0.6805794835090637,
0.18991559743881226,
-0.19020633399486542,
-0.2940281629562378,
-0.17440754175186157,
0.4597504734992981,
0.2672369182109833,
-0.36752215027809143,
-0.16810861229896545,
-0.4533853232860565,
-0.17873598635196686,
0.6097940802574158,
-0.16203449666500092,
0.3167056143283844,
-0.7184553742408752,
0.3268200159072876,
0.4246651232242584,
0.09265037626028061,
-0.11641586571931839,
0.4509010910987854,
0.03642909601330757,
0.6712143421173096,
-0.5023288726806641,
0.47187572717666626,
-0.6178511381149292,
0.38228434324264526,
0.6828307509422302,
-0.008778104558587074,
-0.14669114351272583,
-0.3117879033088684,
-0.18903803825378418,
-0.3278282582759857,
-0.8243128657341003,
0.09790664911270142,
-0.22023329138755798,
-0.04768091067671776,
0.5189045071601868,
0.0622185580432415,
0.32399502396583557,
-0.10472068935632706,
-0.1795775592327118,
0.5817611217498779,
0.09068071097135544,
-0.3990059792995453,
-0.29202741384506226,
0.5108225345611572,
0.6820346117019653,
-0.37901321053504944,
0.7046971917152405,
0.240889772772789,
0.4637775421142578,
-0.17840410768985748,
-0.297018826007843,
0.1897154003381729,
0.8333846926689148,
0.07031255960464478,
0.5258694291114807,
-0.44645237922668457,
0.24821846187114716,
0.4185810685157776,
-0.006494700908660889,
0.21026606857776642,
-0.11490339040756226,
-0.45508795976638794,
-0.28608089685440063,
0.13717235624790192,
0.5505436658859253,
0.2850514054298401,
-0.1427581012248993,
-0.5321509838104248,
-0.5116724967956543,
-0.9042234420776367,
0.20168256759643555,
0.580109179019928,
0.8588337302207947,
-0.13470646739006042,
0.7812994718551636,
-0.3034454882144928,
0.6496304869651794,
0.1508910059928894,
-0.36657312512397766,
-0.7396318316459656,
0.4775922894477844,
0.045003991574048996,
0.8605610132217407,
-0.07011844962835312,
-0.325910747051239,
-0.007141290698200464,
0.33478599786758423,
0.5166866779327393,
-0.6531909704208374,
-0.15384094417095184,
0.023431919515132904,
-0.019350973889231682,
-0.04663028568029404,
0.7272433042526245,
0.7632576823234558,
0.5335860848426819,
0.46462753415107727,
1.1472535133361816,
0.4398975074291229,
-0.2558726370334625,
-0.5138131380081177,
0.4680362045764923,
-0.5934833884239197,
-0.45673319697380066,
-0.49066272377967834,
-0.03949597477912903,
0.5577042102813721,
-0.928616464138031,
0.6893365979194641,
0.3781245946884155,
-0.18875983357429504,
0.6692915558815002,
-0.013763544149696827,
1.0215083360671997,
-0.18517836928367615,
-0.016262603923678398,
-0.1384020894765854,
-0.8229475617408752,
0.8109170794487,
0.2370850145816803,
-0.38552358746528625,
-0.9280998706817627,
0.295761376619339,
0.05038692429661751,
0.5244430899620056,
-0.8591777682304382,
-0.2953687310218811,
-0.8621954321861267,
0.2698276937007904,
0.37499910593032837,
-0.437102735042572,
-0.22913821041584015,
-0.10730254650115967,
-0.0497589036822319,
0.5331824421882629,
0.8551321029663086,
-0.3758132755756378,
0.1489812433719635,
0.11885455995798111,
0.49059945344924927,
0.5185200572013855,
-0.2866544723510742,
0.283382385969162,
0.321686327457428,
-0.4228908121585846,
0.18528369069099426,
0.14665059745311737,
-0.7491548657417297,
0.10681301355361938,
0.13203522562980652,
0.24015319347381592,
0.23958417773246765,
0.36154904961586,
-0.42869916558265686,
-0.2994785010814667,
-0.30785810947418213,
0.037864524871110916,
-0.4211592376232147,
0.5421619415283203,
-0.08039345592260361,
-0.22206348180770874,
-0.7147547006607056,
0.06817111372947693,
0.6014072895050049,
0.07243233174085617,
-0.35426485538482666,
-0.29889851808547974,
-0.9252648949623108,
0.44922593235969543,
0.8308838605880737,
-0.018862009048461914,
-0.19091838598251343,
-0.3705250024795532,
-0.18453162908554077,
0.02507900819182396,
-0.3082806468009949,
-0.6035042405128479,
0.22738663852214813,
-0.36145853996276855,
0.41375792026519775,
-0.6817531585693359,
0.6795661449432373,
-0.4446714520454407,
0.15996785461902618,
-0.1644885241985321,
-0.3757709562778473,
0.3579988181591034,
-0.4890381991863251,
0.11288811266422272,
0.1906462460756302,
-0.005753111559897661,
0.10410851240158081,
0.26932796835899353,
-0.24977895617485046,
-0.4206746816635132,
-0.2127096951007843,
-5.424396991729736,
0.4557274281978607,
-0.11396685987710953,
0.07329991459846497,
0.48331570625305176,
-0.0020279118325561285,
-0.02668706141412258,
-0.3561907112598419,
0.15989795327186584,
-0.14785151183605194,
-0.036787934601306915,
0.13980484008789062,
0.4298892021179199,
0.3722805082798004,
-0.001115771010518074,
0.5242762565612793,
0.48556098341941833,
-0.573896586894989,
0.42510586977005005,
0.7197325825691223,
-0.18485116958618164,
0.13801364600658417,
-0.3999292850494385,
-0.1442072093486786,
-0.29283174872398376,
0.30360132455825806,
-0.625953733921051,
0.4262501299381256,
-0.33114784955978394,
-0.2016037404537201,
0.032066553831100464,
0.5306756496429443,
-0.6266019940376282,
-0.013285459019243717,
0.16142748296260834,
-0.25142335891723633,
0.7748903036117554,
0.31408706307411194,
-0.4138345420360565,
-0.33843812346458435,
0.29221290349960327,
-0.17528346180915833,
-0.940551221370697,
-0.08981361985206604,
0.7203214168548584,
-0.09239857643842697,
-0.708702802658081,
-0.4805155396461487,
-0.1318800151348114,
1.012226939201355,
0.2413261979818344,
-0.23386873304843903,
0.308705598115921,
0.8780844211578369,
0.7246158719062805,
0.14722272753715515,
0.34351617097854614,
-0.25272905826568604,
-0.3248143792152405,
0.5073708891868591,
-0.33514341711997986,
-0.9929247498512268,
0.07685491442680359,
-0.5578102469444275,
0.0518694631755352,
0.17981074750423431,
0.5014660954475403,
-0.077483631670475,
0.16291077435016632,
0.009066441096365452,
-0.48164892196655273,
0.5548627376556396,
-0.35841235518455505,
-1.1598880290985107,
0.30014747381210327,
-0.34567826986312866,
0.11200051754713058,
0.03533095493912697,
-0.7333850860595703,
-0.5986891984939575,
0.20698480308055878,
-0.5488035678863525,
-0.0763508528470993,
-0.08239296823740005,
0.27244219183921814,
0.13233274221420288,
0.1104976236820221,
0.46074315905570984,
-0.38127362728118896,
0.39590293169021606,
0.3087754249572754,
-0.027925405651330948,
-0.24396826326847076,
-0.15638822317123413,
0.26428359746932983,
0.07678940147161484,
0.2649737298488617,
0.32829907536506653,
0.6583433151245117,
-0.14371871948242188,
0.07139402627944946,
-0.6439123749732971,
-0.29442378878593445,
-0.6444816589355469,
0.4174988865852356,
0.0028797981794923544,
0.037970855832099915,
0.2907193601131439,
0.4574320614337921,
0.03239348158240318,
0.7727864384651184,
0.010901553556323051,
-0.8499450087547302,
-0.07427626848220825,
0.45064347982406616,
0.16687317192554474,
-0.4947716295719147,
-0.2545121908187866,
0.5076078772544861,
0.5436893701553345,
0.13642200827598572,
-0.058480020612478256,
-0.16559617221355438,
-0.19758273661136627,
-0.328006386756897,
-0.18128874897956848,
-0.06338606774806976,
0.04374907910823822,
-0.21288424730300903,
0.14841854572296143,
-0.2416306734085083,
0.6878809928894043,
-0.22959163784980774,
0.1434580236673355,
0.13934426009655,
0.2546229362487793,
-0.016127200797200203,
-0.5294813513755798,
0.5102431178092957,
0.1115170270204544,
-0.08797312527894974,
-0.5700131058692932,
0.15377424657344818,
0.15010976791381836,
0.26029565930366516,
0.22884827852249146,
-0.17542946338653564,
0.16543205082416534,
-0.6480138301849365,
0.8146653771400452,
0.5124636888504028,
-0.4692515730857849,
0.05133891478180885,
-0.4549097716808319,
-0.47425326704978943,
0.5746321678161621,
-0.17087562382221222,
-0.22682799398899078,
-0.09116065502166748,
-0.44788920879364014,
0.5034995079040527,
-0.21948103606700897,
-1.0345078706741333,
0.20917630195617676,
0.1139671802520752,
-0.16336923837661743,
-0.6684366464614868,
-0.5032369494438171,
-0.9976333379745483,
0.43929725885391235,
0.34576988220214844,
-0.8220841288566589,
-0.37830650806427,
-0.7286620140075684,
-0.09227824956178665,
-0.51729816198349,
-0.08427023142576218,
-0.03635154664516449,
-0.01066178921610117,
0.19929322600364685,
0.3149895966053009,
0.1731099784374237,
-0.6676219701766968,
-0.3121933937072754,
0.15352240204811096,
0.03241437301039696,
-0.5143044590950012,
-0.5432937741279602,
0.020004617050290108,
0.19656258821487427,
0.18743880093097687,
0.011310074478387833,
0.22146542370319366,
0.367523729801178,
0.008562276139855385,
-0.38457340002059937,
-0.20757831633090973,
-0.013389170169830322,
-0.4076460301876068,
-0.6993684768676758,
0.08204534649848938,
0.04829166457056999,
-0.32288309931755066,
0.41089171171188354,
-0.45281684398651123,
-0.5337644219398499,
0.5129604339599609,
0.5482187867164612,
-0.16239245235919952,
0.42288416624069214,
-0.01684117503464222,
-0.2665168046951294,
-0.18030187487602234,
0.6870802044868469,
-0.1668386161327362,
0.12440234422683716,
-0.3081299960613251,
0.8938446044921875,
-0.6067028045654297,
-0.8188150525093079,
-0.23839613795280457,
-0.525279700756073,
-0.6834234595298767,
-0.1333094984292984,
-0.4083259105682373,
0.34914907813072205,
0.25918048620224,
-0.09895525127649307,
0.5632667541503906,
0.09507173299789429,
-0.7509865164756775,
-0.12222213298082352,
0.24421322345733643,
-0.09880396723747253,
-0.23304115235805511,
0.15544497966766357,
-0.2264372706413269,
0.5893326997756958,
-0.030993137508630753,
0.04171842709183693,
0.5928041934967041,
1.3964051008224487,
0.07574161887168884,
0.03135158121585846,
0.2799994647502899,
0.3339177072048187,
0.738916277885437,
-0.295922189950943,
0.024688147008419037,
-0.011375652626156807,
0.6732480525970459,
0.28189709782600403,
-0.7764045000076294,
0.5786610841751099,
0.9976732730865479,
-0.36546358466148376,
0.04826357215642929,
-0.18590550124645233,
0.12431838363409042,
0.1992449015378952,
0.3315708041191101,
0.48579680919647217,
-0.3131393492221832,
0.32519418001174927,
-0.15784810483455658,
-0.1749906837940216,
-0.16366046667099,
-0.3580319583415985,
0.0928087830543518,
-0.6171357035636902,
-0.2626008689403534,
-0.37329161167144775,
0.2641441226005554,
1.1278342008590698,
-0.43975138664245605,
0.3825489580631256,
0.482667475938797,
-0.22611095011234283,
-0.21941350400447845,
-0.07585688680410385,
-0.3482101261615753,
-0.06619539856910706,
-0.3892255127429962,
-0.5868302583694458,
-0.5143510699272156,
-0.3574669063091278,
0.009768928401172161,
0.10349345952272415,
-0.26403680443763733,
0.1495829075574875,
-0.4719385802745819,
0.18247219920158386,
-0.5099935531616211,
-0.2350875437259674,
-0.2850387990474701,
-0.32677656412124634,
-0.7226738929748535,
0.3932654559612274,
-0.37374135851860046,
0.032916080206632614,
-0.29667985439300537,
0.804031252861023,
0.24415402114391327,
0.03853048011660576,
0.2818022072315216,
-0.25710612535476685,
-0.19625195860862732,
-0.5348888635635376,
-0.06359577924013138,
0.12427431344985962,
-0.06041303277015686,
-0.39308106899261475,
0.2789877653121948,
-0.08362286537885666,
-0.6776515245437622,
0.6012179851531982,
0.8076549172401428,
-0.11182808130979538,
-0.2913256883621216,
0.05217577517032623,
0.10141469538211823,
-0.20374077558517456,
0.9664391279220581,
-0.17453740537166595,
0.31615135073661804,
0.7264665961265564,
-0.3576967120170593,
0.16422484815120697,
0.17567968368530273,
-0.10042531788349152,
-0.22859090566635132,
-0.25958237051963806,
-0.39444032311439514,
0.5410372018814087,
0.4192441999912262,
-0.38445186614990234,
0.3648296892642975,
-0.08669604361057281,
0.37676137685775757,
0.3440369665622711,
-0.6267223954200745,
0.8237836360931396,
0.2859850823879242,
0.551654040813446,
-0.18268413841724396,
-0.13724283874034882,
-0.23508471250534058,
0.6494675874710083,
-0.06914208084344864,
-0.39398470520973206,
-0.2538476288318634,
-0.2578918933868408,
0.3535446226596832,
-0.32630613446235657,
0.08900103718042374,
-0.11388758569955826,
0.5098474025726318,
-0.5565904378890991,
-0.8166846036911011,
-0.2737906575202942,
0.18740591406822205,
-0.464451402425766,
1.299124002456665,
0.28613045811653137,
-0.24701905250549316,
-0.6365678310394287,
-0.8321219682693481,
-0.5468608736991882,
-0.5567899942398071,
0.5075601935386658,
-0.0421186126768589,
0.12241798639297485,
-0.11502444744110107,
0.7270613312721252,
-0.004811162129044533,
0.509712278842926,
0.21594664454460144,
-0.3338831961154938,
-0.762266218662262,
-0.21736477315425873,
-0.5387712121009827,
0.3005243241786957,
-0.7798150181770325,
-0.08248936384916306,
0.20015451312065125,
0.13433705270290375,
-0.4356689155101776,
0.5127820372581482,
0.2381313592195511,
-0.4474676251411438,
-0.11497550457715988,
-0.87888103723526,
-0.20141127705574036,
0.2357487678527832,
-0.12410812079906464,
-0.10793979465961456,
-0.13758637011051178,
0.6192772388458252,
1.013712763786316,
-0.0544109120965004,
0.05697683244943619,
0.08062750101089478,
-0.20377303659915924,
-0.12068811804056168,
-0.5656118988990784,
-0.3620590269565582,
-0.35231342911720276,
0.41606882214546204,
-0.09317852556705475,
0.87781822681427,
0.08756951987743378,
0.1312284618616104,
-0.44082891941070557,
0.3835504949092865,
-0.17902371287345886,
0.9424120783805847,
0.4968957304954529,
-0.46846503019332886,
0.009241018444299698,
-0.2117825299501419,
0.13803355395793915,
-0.14305652678012848,
0.3559657335281372,
0.3272228240966797,
0.2658807933330536,
-0.17791470885276794,
0.06998314708471298,
0.450581431388855,
-0.5030727386474609,
0.6311092972755432,
0.15970106422901154,
-0.5631301999092102,
-0.5050733089447021,
0.0016316035762429237,
-0.22739426791667938,
-0.921476423740387,
0.6005874276161194,
0.5974578857421875,
1.03754723072052,
-0.6895412802696228,
1.0217903852462769,
-0.03653695434331894,
0.49288246035575867,
-0.619990885257721,
-0.08215226233005524,
-0.1556595414876938,
-0.047330066561698914,
-0.36715972423553467,
0.5051024556159973,
0.4438459575176239,
0.029489323496818542,
-0.16975711286067963,
0.8078687191009521,
-0.2678699493408203,
0.16687026619911194,
0.709686279296875,
-0.20314528048038483,
0.3323681950569153,
0.11032024025917053,
-0.5359600782394409
] |
229041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Girl%20%28disambiguation%29 | Girl (disambiguation) | A girl is a young female human.
Girl or The Girl may also refer to:
Film
Girl (1965 film), a Yugoslav film directed by Mladomir Puriša Đorđević
Girl (1994 film), an Australian film directed by Peter Thompson
Girl (1998 film), an American drama film starring Dominique Swain
Girl (2018 film), a Belgian drama film
Girl (2020 film), an American-Canadian thriller film
The Girl (1987 film), a British-Swedish film directed by Arne Mattsson
The Girl (2000 film), a French-American romantic drama film directed by Sande Zeig
The Girl (2009 film), a Swedish drama film directed by Fredrik Edfeldt
The Girl (2012 independent film), a film starring Abbie Cornish
The Girl (2012 TV film), a British film directed by Julian Jarrold
The Girl (2014 film), a Chinese romantic comedy film
Girlhood (film), a 2014 French coming-of-age drama film
Literature
Girl (comics), a set index article
Girl (UK comics), a comic published by Hulton Press, 1951–1964
Girl (Vertigo), a 1996 mini-series by Peter Milligan
Girl Comics, a title from Timely Comics, Atlas Comics and Marvel Comics
The Girl (novel), a 1978 novel by Meridel Le Sueur
"Girl" (short story), by Jamaica Kincaid
Girl (Nelson novel), a 1994 novel by Blake Nelson
The Girl: A Life in the Shadow of Roman Polanski, a memoir by Samantha Geimer
Girl (O'Brien novel), a 2019 novel by Edna O'Brien
Music
Girl (band), an English all-male glam rock band
Albums
Girl (Dannii Minogue album), 1997
Girl (Eskimo Joe album), 2001
Girl (Magic Dirt album), 2008
Girl (Maren Morris album), 2019
The Girl (album), 2012 album by Charlotte Perrelli
Girl (Pharrell Williams album), stylized as G I R L, released in 2014
Songs
"Girl" (Beatles song)
"Girl" (Beck song)
"Girl" (Davy Jones song)
"Girl" (Destiny's Child song)
"Girl" (Maren Morris song)
"Girl" (Paul Wall song)
"Girl" (The Time song), written by Prince, who later recorded a different song with the same title (see below)
"Girl" (William Wei song)
"Girl (Why You Wanna Make Me Blue)", a song by The Temptations
"Girl", by Anouk from Hotel New York
"Girl", by Built to Spill
"Girl", by The Internet from Ego Death
"Girl", by Pat Benatar from Go
"Girl", by Prince, B-side of the single "America"
"Girl", by Pseudo Echo from Love an Adventure
"Girl", by The Records from Shades in Bed (also known as The Records)
"Girl", by Robots in Disguise from Get RID!
"Girl", by Stereophonics from Language. Sex. Violence. Other?
"Girl", by Too Short from Don't Stop Rappin'
"Girl", by Tori Amos from Little Earthquakes
"Girl (You Captivate Me)", a song by Question Mark & The Mysterians
"Girlie", a song by English trio, The Peddlers.
Other uses
Girl (Chinese constellation)
Girl Skateboard Company, an American skateboard company
Daughter
See also
Girls (disambiguation)
The Girls (disambiguation)
"Run the World (Girls)", 2011 song by Beyoncé Knowles | [
-0.23546060919761658,
-0.20519500970840454,
-0.5473535060882568,
0.08820495754480362,
-0.542988121509552,
-0.059273917227983475,
0.6295419335365295,
0.24837295711040497,
-0.3402255177497864,
0.021042009815573692,
-0.5998395085334778,
0.032174479216337204,
-0.11526232212781906,
0.040677234530448914,
-0.28415924310684204,
0.15719181299209595,
0.3353706896305084,
0.4724031686782837,
-0.15964855253696442,
-0.3202938437461853,
-0.19720441102981567,
-0.13614363968372345,
-0.16083581745624542,
-0.4946952760219574,
0.3436084985733032,
-0.1433180868625641,
0.1811385303735733,
0.3653460443019867,
0.3786363899707794,
-0.4589930474758148,
-0.4903029501438141,
0.1264941543340683,
0.16632238030433655,
0.10793797671794891,
0.1671418696641922,
-0.1311851590871811,
0.0315173901617527,
-0.5449953079223633,
-0.1590076982975006,
-0.7845163941383362,
-0.3550780713558197,
-0.2524937391281128,
-0.19273915886878967,
0.3648689389228821,
-0.6985273361206055,
-0.10589730739593506,
-1.4585046768188477,
0.08344622701406479,
-0.32895809412002563,
-0.22041021287441254,
-0.32320213317871094,
0.0891936868429184,
0.09900341928005219,
0.32015350461006165,
-0.04433444142341614,
0.1351195126771927,
-0.32185789942741394,
-0.08184398710727692,
0.18361084163188934,
-0.21739496290683746,
0.7845714092254639,
-0.06853640824556351,
0.2342936247587204,
0.19883444905281067,
0.3855946958065033,
0.7928672432899475,
-0.03613893315196037,
0.09771713614463806,
-0.6589726805686951,
-0.5170372128486633,
-0.5267137885093689,
-0.34357893466949463,
0.09354640543460846,
0.1663489192724228,
-0.5412712097167969,
-0.17104016244411469,
0.1873108148574829,
-0.33176830410957336,
0.5137155652046204,
-0.21251621842384338,
-0.5804252028465271,
0.7659839391708374,
0.2957701086997986,
-0.3029502034187317,
0.19327886402606964,
0.08641273528337479,
-0.293892502784729,
0.22365374863147736,
-0.5254666209220886,
0.41983988881111145,
0.1397065967321396,
0.01430543977767229,
0.3725857734680176,
0.22343747317790985,
-0.16929437220096588,
0.27959802746772766,
0.23940695822238922,
0.016249705106019974,
0.5239092111587524,
-0.26224055886268616,
-0.16940927505493164,
-0.2700555622577667,
0.3305222690105438,
-0.3573709726333618,
-0.5532028675079346,
-0.6039358377456665,
0.18151062726974487,
0.12304435670375824,
-0.20749516785144806,
-0.2154058963060379,
-0.4522654414176941,
0.36750590801239014,
-0.25426357984542847,
0.44006603956222534,
-0.15830494463443756,
0.39499688148498535,
-0.12454888224601746,
0.5636259913444519,
-0.29569560289382935,
-0.19611963629722595,
-0.3379402160644531,
0.052786123007535934,
0.12248925864696503,
-0.05793006718158722,
0.3816075623035431,
0.16889168322086334,
0.621070384979248,
0.7732369899749756,
-0.12804269790649414,
0.27661216259002686,
0.13457129895687103,
0.6728509068489075,
-0.030187834054231644,
0.23212005198001862,
0.07319799065589905,
-0.5374024510383606,
0.32208341360092163,
0.3852424919605255,
0.02653467282652855,
-0.034337274730205536,
-0.8082318305969238,
0.17441830039024353,
-0.9313159584999084,
0.22362598776817322,
0.40390926599502563,
0.15405549108982086,
0.18197618424892426,
0.006040425971150398,
-0.13861916959285736,
0.02425193600356579,
-0.19122391939163208,
0.09763920307159424,
-0.10306162387132645,
0.10596003383398056,
-0.19467242062091827,
-0.2987579107284546,
0.013738037087023258,
-0.010072593577206135,
-0.2910240590572357,
0.33381712436676025,
-0.3575562834739685,
0.31026214361190796,
-0.31199949979782104,
-0.10834971070289612,
0.31169557571411133,
-0.6591393947601318,
0.1078929454088211,
0.2300281822681427,
-0.2973022162914276,
0.16839858889579773,
-0.03006152994930744,
-0.4645213484764099,
-0.32018375396728516,
0.24435746669769287,
-0.04408014938235283,
0.1456606686115265,
0.33339905738830566,
-0.38702866435050964,
0.24806846678256989,
-0.16841140389442444,
-0.6193227767944336,
0.397175133228302,
0.21045546233654022,
0.07068765163421631,
-0.12963935732841492,
0.050343479961156845,
-0.24225260317325592,
0.502358078956604,
-0.21861545741558075,
-0.3126322627067566,
-0.15271921455860138,
-0.08800661563873291,
0.0789286270737648,
-0.11187639087438583,
0.7470002770423889,
-0.3782743513584137,
-0.48766326904296875,
0.5319751501083374,
-0.03151058405637741,
0.0003438759595155716,
0.16303005814552307,
-0.07828471064567566,
-0.1868537962436676,
0.0703129842877388,
-0.4146285951137543,
1.011301875114441,
0.4227049946784973,
0.41910114884376526,
-0.08002593368291855,
0.35463353991508484,
-0.15256240963935852,
0.0986834317445755,
0.3388892412185669,
-0.2211671769618988,
0.10785096883773804,
0.46222689747810364,
-0.500144898891449,
0.3134063184261322,
0.7197059988975525,
-0.5587485432624817,
0.3830997049808502,
-0.38786569237709045,
0.22714737057685852,
-0.3790924847126007,
-0.14697308838367462,
0.6502187252044678,
0.16209042072296143,
0.10890385508537292,
0.3025798201560974,
-0.9264830350875854,
-0.0025607640855014324,
0.49127742648124695,
0.5041020512580872,
0.1570388376712799,
-0.5386344790458679,
0.04007500037550926,
0.27414262294769287,
-0.161207914352417,
0.6450178027153015,
-0.04675930738449097,
-0.25249776244163513,
-0.06229626014828682,
0.085530586540699,
0.029311342164874077,
0.2924439311027527,
0.02482200413942337,
0.058464422821998596,
0.1492440551519394,
-0.40543097257614136,
0.003315810114145279,
0.10042519867420197,
0.08806192129850388,
0.1537848711013794,
-0.08691181242465973,
0.15634828805923462,
-0.3048909604549408,
-0.5173542499542236,
-0.09111179411411285,
0.5281694531440735,
-0.20933914184570312,
-0.23231171071529388,
0.1215442344546318,
0.021803932264447212,
-0.001344542484730482,
-0.27154257893562317,
0.3998772203922272,
-0.3575288653373718,
-0.2584337592124939,
0.4703625440597534,
0.8018160462379456,
0.09383337199687958,
0.31673747301101685,
-0.6701940894126892,
-0.6463707685470581,
-0.5283865332603455,
-0.25900766253471375,
0.6595829129219055,
-0.020101262256503105,
-0.060807954519987106,
-0.45390018820762634,
0.08695241063833237,
0.22773806750774384,
0.41309916973114014,
-0.5754132270812988,
0.07788737118244171,
-0.6130348443984985,
0.3890431821346283,
0.1885560154914856,
-0.05972788855433464,
-0.5184840559959412,
-0.40463122725486755,
0.6055802702903748,
-0.33301758766174316,
-0.09143203496932983,
0.7495632767677307,
0.12427107244729996,
-0.10419051349163055,
0.24131080508232117,
0.30817729234695435,
-0.14194375276565552,
-0.15715093910694122,
0.16375195980072021,
-0.23517408967018127,
-0.2979189157485962,
-0.0026860947255045176,
0.12177663296461105,
0.1286936104297638,
0.1291198432445526,
-6.191021919250488,
0.13480274379253387,
-0.22004081308841705,
-0.12180743366479874,
-0.31333813071250916,
-0.023477446287870407,
0.5736720561981201,
0.12852340936660767,
-0.3182283043861389,
0.368181049823761,
-0.19054557383060455,
0.06061071902513504,
0.04085603356361389,
0.023000014945864677,
0.4998866021633148,
0.14833170175552368,
0.4009985029697418,
-0.29917460680007935,
-0.14520172774791718,
0.167794868350029,
-0.16311277449131012,
0.7225221991539001,
-0.26683980226516724,
0.3114880919456482,
-0.09398186206817627,
-0.10119857639074326,
0.20334488153457642,
-0.1663939356803894,
-0.5279650092124939,
-0.3041234016418457,
0.3488345146179199,
0.26401829719543457,
0.02781134471297264,
0.04753631353378296,
0.11565747857093811,
0.2815287709236145,
0.5970654487609863,
-0.0312021616846323,
0.07679291814565659,
0.21511904895305634,
-0.3734590411186218,
0.3616594672203064,
0.35832011699676514,
0.04043511673808098,
0.26059356331825256,
-0.08725839853286743,
-0.45657995343208313,
-0.41127869486808777,
-0.4009384214878082,
0.37238186597824097,
-0.0704616978764534,
-0.11420054733753204,
0.2572510540485382,
0.13385657966136932,
0.43891575932502747,
0.10910674184560776,
0.6012604236602783,
0.16512134671211243,
-0.46659258008003235,
-0.2415083795785904,
0.3428698182106018,
-0.12211459875106812,
0.18706338107585907,
-0.5371567010879517,
0.12588398158550262,
-0.07586796581745148,
-0.5309080481529236,
-0.23728643357753754,
0.3945564031600952,
0.3462139666080475,
-0.18086081743240356,
-0.07160436362028122,
0.2630389630794525,
-0.640720784664154,
0.1916850209236145,
-0.20610204339027405,
-0.5533695220947266,
0.29271841049194336,
-0.13878871500492096,
-0.14669650793075562,
0.19829072058200836,
-0.5496020317077637,
-0.2006421983242035,
0.24152806401252747,
0.1253802329301834,
-0.5682059526443481,
0.1360417753458023,
0.11487413197755814,
-0.2817153036594391,
0.14674659073352814,
0.9056140780448914,
0.4289870262145996,
0.09703049808740616,
0.21083791553974152,
-0.08577115833759308,
0.6339426040649414,
0.12175291776657104,
-0.30514052510261536,
0.4804863929748535,
-0.38778582215309143,
0.22926288843154907,
-0.37021729350090027,
-0.2929416000843048,
0.0008378063212148845,
-0.21802908182144165,
-0.45085299015045166,
-0.5687286257743835,
0.20523861050605774,
0.6834142208099365,
-0.3649677336215973,
0.5211747288703918,
0.09367790073156357,
-0.45008158683776855,
0.0903271809220314,
0.6343613266944885,
0.2559400200843811,
-0.14017590880393982,
0.944003164768219,
0.6707474589347839,
0.03235754743218422,
-0.07602565735578537,
0.5354669690132141,
0.16077326238155365,
-0.4928227961063385,
-0.6055809259414673,
-0.17264632880687714,
-0.17397570610046387,
0.14506956934928894,
-0.17259441316127777,
0.3872012197971344,
0.15435828268527985,
0.5642836093902588,
0.09564611315727234,
-0.7297758460044861,
0.2411372810602188,
-0.25924408435821533,
-0.47767913341522217,
0.5381832718849182,
-0.3318268954753876,
-0.5771704316139221,
0.07141090929508209,
-0.41334936022758484,
-0.10918129980564117,
0.3100263774394989,
0.6407267451286316,
-0.23154400289058685,
0.14054980874061584,
-0.4025079011917114,
-0.17180344462394714,
0.54514479637146,
0.0030566665809601545,
-0.30564191937446594,
1.0319509506225586,
-0.2996802031993866,
-0.2662687301635742,
-0.10664863884449005,
0.4674648642539978,
0.26600340008735657,
-0.36641278862953186,
0.0014255052665248513,
-0.3324127495288849,
-0.9464841485023499,
-0.6849451065063477,
-0.09084630012512207,
0.43980687856674194,
0.25371253490448,
-0.2879375219345093,
-0.33285680413246155,
-0.04853394255042076,
0.5116270780563354,
0.05578656122088432,
-0.40129515528678894,
-0.31102827191352844,
-0.02956121787428856,
0.24702708423137665,
-0.14504078030586243,
0.5353482961654663,
0.3460310399532318,
0.04834793880581856,
0.023730628192424774,
0.2832728624343872,
-0.3960075080394745,
-0.04201662912964821,
0.31638771295547485,
0.5156012177467346,
0.264635294675827,
-0.002255164785310626,
0.17357729375362396,
-0.6282517313957214,
-0.08526519685983658,
-0.12228544801473618,
-0.0664205253124237,
0.6351934671401978,
0.06416056305170059,
-0.176480233669281,
0.09910362213850021,
-0.25883209705352783,
-0.10800373554229736,
0.1485430896282196,
-0.42098620533943176,
-0.05273636057972908,
0.1767227053642273,
-0.3978325426578522,
0.21608367562294006,
0.2847937047481537,
-0.9246762990951538,
0.3551633954048157,
-0.2940053939819336,
-0.41088613867759705,
-0.15238551795482635,
-0.3158368468284607,
-0.22530193626880646,
-0.28641214966773987,
-0.0014491865877062082,
0.031874507665634155,
-0.2185894101858139,
-0.12154202163219452,
-0.10731855034828186,
-0.46640801429748535,
-0.500578761100769,
0.5064585208892822,
-0.1431523561477661,
-0.2861202657222748,
0.08539164811372757,
0.2708098292350769,
0.09357775002717972,
0.2807125151157379,
-0.21721836924552917,
0.7958810329437256,
0.33580124378204346,
0.15022018551826477,
0.24502094089984894,
-0.00490156514570117,
-0.33063074946403503,
-0.4945782721042633,
-0.5531225204467773,
0.13731679320335388,
-0.07577668130397797,
0.1267825812101364,
-0.009841087274253368,
0.6280130743980408,
0.6704552173614502,
-0.35580897331237793,
-0.1579095423221588,
0.026223748922348022,
-0.0620291531085968,
-0.010998284444212914,
-0.674465537071228,
-0.6326984763145447,
0.13349631428718567,
-0.04723102226853371,
-0.26877790689468384,
-0.3440455496311188,
-0.1849955916404724,
0.5894594192504883,
0.24539302289485931,
-0.18909773230552673,
-0.5577757358551025,
0.10056479275226593,
0.1647253781557083,
0.2055773288011551,
-0.3453371226787567,
-0.09716489911079407,
-0.11998258531093597,
-0.08011673390865326,
0.11953415721654892,
-0.4582347571849823,
0.875625491142273,
0.08876413851976395,
-0.45384377241134644,
0.21761132776737213,
-0.04098481684923172,
0.35725778341293335,
0.4407065808773041,
-0.08578404039144516,
-0.11433212459087372,
-0.6180680990219116,
-0.07897679507732391,
-0.12820568680763245,
0.08904951065778732,
0.16979292035102844,
-0.10794927179813385,
0.09800006449222565,
0.0767037644982338,
0.16882894933223724,
0.43215829133987427,
0.35696104168891907,
-0.3315249979496002,
-0.8470261693000793,
-0.18856880068778992,
-0.04857539385557175,
0.09861467033624649,
-0.20642733573913574,
0.252289354801178,
0.23105163872241974,
0.01880035735666752,
-0.048227131366729736,
0.217580184340477,
0.5145214796066284,
-0.3165026009082794,
-0.42081964015960693,
0.277937650680542,
0.43103188276290894,
-0.46685856580734253,
0.3540409207344055,
0.10392709821462631,
0.2612132132053375,
-0.4404231309890747,
0.285880982875824,
-0.11493155360221863,
0.2051999270915985,
0.21334902942180634,
0.3709802031517029,
0.26667845249176025,
-0.028460592031478882,
0.10120857506990433,
0.1724875271320343,
-0.11792260408401489,
0.23195363581180573,
0.148372620344162,
0.330716609954834,
-0.25000864267349243,
0.6063979268074036,
0.26849251985549927,
-0.3266594409942627,
0.08431152999401093,
-0.17096176743507385,
0.04415630176663399,
0.3285953104496002,
0.2538969814777374,
0.652362048625946,
0.2066534161567688,
0.29444923996925354,
0.26118341088294983,
-0.04871990904211998,
-0.3859434425830841,
0.3924071788787842,
-0.050333332270383835,
-0.48124292492866516,
0.7560630440711975,
0.5233964920043945,
0.084698386490345,
-0.35864782333374023,
0.2633591890335083,
-0.20712243020534515,
0.5009657740592957,
0.15838275849819183,
0.13154952228069305,
-0.07868308573961258,
0.4470405578613281,
-0.0015150001272559166,
0.1994370073080063,
0.12432350963354111,
-0.3360130786895752,
-0.025241278111934662,
-0.013466560281813145,
0.15783394873142242,
-0.07628584653139114,
-0.4926714301109314,
-0.9323772192001343,
-0.23401348292827606,
0.21945936977863312,
0.3201415240764618,
0.3049168884754181,
0.13682197034358978,
-0.1749439388513565,
-0.08213672041893005,
-0.0066329604014754295,
-0.41656073927879333,
-0.11061575263738632,
0.4527248442173004,
0.10117320716381073,
-0.02647007256746292,
0.23244039714336395,
0.2676708698272705,
0.16682712733745575,
0.5254719257354736,
0.19053345918655396,
-0.18129944801330566,
-0.784858763217926,
-0.3726261556148529,
0.454407662153244,
-0.13394701480865479,
0.02356596477329731,
-0.12889978289604187,
-0.3468795716762543,
0.24609845876693726,
0.4107903242111206,
-0.16483893990516663,
0.19571848213672638,
0.23679006099700928,
-0.02635619230568409,
-0.006593234837055206,
-0.07475442439317703,
-0.6093356609344482,
0.23275811970233917,
0.03526567295193672,
0.647767186164856,
0.35396215319633484,
0.16522596776485443,
-0.35687965154647827,
-0.4162217676639557,
-0.30337661504745483,
0.12850601971149445,
-0.3090212941169739,
0.4055700898170471,
-0.5674813389778137,
-0.08449441194534302,
-0.585167646408081,
0.15185654163360596,
1.0213030576705933,
-0.6893123984336853,
0.016286736354231834,
0.1580006182193756,
0.25004565715789795,
0.07305175811052322,
-0.06309754401445389,
-0.01255697663873434,
0.1682160496711731,
-0.1621178388595581,
-0.18617428839206696,
-0.17522947490215302,
-0.02794930525124073,
0.13975970447063446,
-0.5394937992095947,
-0.0019927246030420065,
-0.08703088760375977,
0.23470208048820496,
-0.18949775397777557,
-0.17749929428100586,
0.009142964147031307,
0.313630610704422,
-0.17131522297859192,
0.38335877656936646,
0.03173530846834183,
0.16133730113506317,
0.5004839897155762,
0.10912474244832993,
0.0681392177939415,
0.04332892969250679,
0.02626730315387249,
-0.2517821192741394,
-0.22227317094802856,
0.15919829905033112,
-1.955177664756775,
0.08418911695480347,
-0.20703203976154327,
0.01791958138346672,
-0.3165315091609955,
-0.1564939171075821,
0.14428281784057617,
0.018989812582731247,
0.22151875495910645,
-0.2752057909965515,
-0.39177224040031433,
0.15111564099788666,
0.26184970140457153,
-0.4683775305747986,
-0.3318617343902588,
0.49867209792137146
] |
229045 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pager | Pager | A pager (also known as a beeper or bleeper) is a wireless telecommunications device that receives and displays alphanumeric or voice messages. One-way pagers can only receive messages, while response pagers and two-way pagers can also acknowledge, reply to and originate messages using an internal transmitter.
Pagers operate as part of a paging system which includes one or more fixed transmitters (or in the case of response pagers and two-way pagers, one or more base stations), as well as a number of pagers carried by mobile users. These systems can range from a restaurant system with a single low-power transmitter, to a nationwide system with thousands of high-power base stations.
Pagers were developed in the 1950s and 1960s, and became widely used by the 1980s. In the 21st century, the widespread availability of cellphones and smartphones has greatly diminished the pager industry. Nevertheless, pagers continue to be used by some emergency services and public safety personnel, because modern pager systems' coverage overlap, combined with use of satellite communications, can make paging systems more reliable than terrestrial-based cellular networks in some cases, including during natural and man-made disasters. This resilience has led public safety agencies to adopt pagers over cellular and other commercial services for critical messaging.
In Japanese, it's commonly called a pocket bell (ポケットベル, poketto beru) or pokeberu (ポケベル), this is an example of wasei-eigo.
History
The first telephone pager system was patented in 1949 by Alfred J. Gross.
One of the first practical paging services was launched in 1950 for physicians in the New York City area. Physicians paid US$12 per month for the service and carried a pager that would receive phone messages within of a single transmitter tower. The system was manufactured by the Reevesound Company and operated by Telanswerphone. In 1960, John Francis Mitchell combined elements of Motorola's walkie-talkie and automobile radio technologies to create the first transistorized pager, and from that time, paging technology continued to advance and pager adoption among emergency personnel is still popular as of July 2016.
In 1962, the Bell System, the U.S. telephone monopoly, presented its Bellboy radio paging system at the Seattle World's Fair. Bellboy was the first commercial system for personal paging. It also marked one of the first consumer applications of the transistor (invented by Bell Labs in 1947), for which three Bell Labs inventors received a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956. Solid-state circuitry enabled the Bellboy pager, about the size of a small TV remote device, to fit into a customer's pocket or purse, quite a feat at that time. The Bellboy was a terminal that notified the user when someone was trying to call them. When the person received an audible signal (a buzz) on the pager, the user found a telephone and called the service centre, which informed the user of the caller's message. In the mid-1980s, tone and voice radio paging became popular among emergency responders and professionals. Tone and voice pagers were activated either by a local base station, or through a telephone number assigned to each individual pager. Bell System Bellboy radio pagers each used three reed receiver relays, each relay tuned to one of 33 different frequencies, selectively ringing a particular customer when all three relays were activated at the same time—a precursor of DTMF. The ReFLEX protocol was developed in the mid-1990s.
While Motorola announced the end of its new pager manufacturing in 2001, pagers remained in use in large hospital complexes. First responders in rural areas with inadequate cellular coverage are often issued pagers.
The 2005 London bombings resulted in overload of TETRA systems by the emergency services and showed that pagers, with their absence of necessity to transmit an acknowledgement before showing the message, and the related capability to operate on very low signal levels, are not completely outclassed by their successors. Volunteer firefighters, EMS paramedics and rescue squad members usually carry pagers to alert them of emergency call outs for their department. These pagers receive a special tone from a fire department radio frequency.
Restaurant pagers were in wide use in the 2000s. Customers were given a portable receiver that would usually vibrate, flash, or beep when a table became free or when their meal was ready. Pagers have been popular with birdwatchers in Britain and Ireland since 1991, with companies Rare Bird Alert and Birdnet Information offering news of rare birds sent to pagers that they sell.
The U.S. paging industry generated $2.1 billion in revenue in 2008, down from $6.2 billion in 2003. In Canada, 161,500 Canadians paid $18.5 million for pager service in 2013. Telus, one of the three major mobile carriers, announced the end to its Canadian pager service as of 31 March 2015, but rivals Bell, Rogers and PageNet intend to continue service.
Today, companies like Visiplex offer similar solutions for onsite pager systems in the medical, education and commercial sectors.
Decline
The UK National Health Service is thought to use over 10% of remaining pagers in 2017 (130,000), with an annual cost of £6.6 million. Matt Hancock, (then) Secretary of State for Health and Social Care, announced in February 2019 that the 130,000 pagers still in use were to be phased out. NHSX announced plans in May 2020 to replace pagers and bleepers with "more modern communication tools," accelerated by the pressure placed on the service by the COVID-19 pandemic in England. In August 2020, a new procurement framework for clinical communications was launched which is intended to phase out pagers by the end of 2021, replacing them with "dedicated clinical-facing communication and tasks management tools" from 25 approved suppliers.
In Japan, more than ten million pagers were active in 1996. On 1 October 2019, Japan's last paging service provider shut down radio signals and terminated its service.
Design
Many paging network operators now allow numeric and textual pages to be submitted to the paging networks via email. A significant convenience for users given the widespread adoption of email, and commonalities in delivery assurances. This can result in pager messages being delayed or lost. Older forms of message submission using the Telelocator Alphanumeric Protocol involve modem connections directly to a paging network and are less subject to these delays. For this reason, older forms of message submission retain their usefulness for disseminating highly-important alerts to users such as emergency services personnel.
Common paging protocols include TAP, FLEX, ReFLEX, POCSAG, GOLAY, ERMES and NTT. Past paging protocols include Two-tone and 5/6-tone. In the United States, pagers typically receive signals using the FLEX protocol in the 900 MHz band. Commercial paging transmitters typically radiate 1000 watts of effective power, resulting in a much wider coverage area per tower than a mobile phone transmitter, which typically radiates around 0.6 watts per channel. Although FLEX paging networks tend to have stronger in-building coverage than mobile phone networks, commercial paging service providers will work with large institutions to install repeater equipment in the event that service is not available in needed areas of the subscribing institution's buildings. This is especially critical in hospital settings where emergency staff must be able to reliably receive pages to respond to patient needs.
Unlike mobile phones, most one-way pagers do not display any information about whether a signal is being received or about the strength of the received signal. Since one-way pagers do not contain transmitters, one-way paging networks have no way to track whether a message has been successfully delivered to a pager. Because of this, if a one-way pager is turned off or is not receiving a usable signal at the time a message is transmitted, the message will not be received and the sender of the message will not be notified of this fact. In the mid-1990s, some paging companies began offering a service, which allowed a customer to call their pager-number and have numeric messages read back to them. This was useful for times when the pager was off or out of the coverage area, as it would know what pages were sent to the subscriber even if the subscriber never actually received the page. Other radio bands used for pagers include the 400 MHz band, the VHF band and the FM commercial broadcast band (88–108&MHz). Other paging protocols used in the VHF, 400 MHz UHF and 900 MHz bands include POCSAG and ERMES. Pagers using the commercial FM band receive a subcarrier, called the Subsidiary Communications Authority, of a broadcast station. On-site paging systems in hospitals, unlike wide area paging systems, are local area services. Hospitals commonly use on-site paging for communication with staff and increasingly for contacting waiting patients when their appointment is due. These offer waiting patients the opportunity to leave the waiting area, but still be contacted.
Operation
Paging systems are operated by commercial carriers, often as a subscription service and they are also operated directly by end users as private systems. Commercial carrier systems tend to cover a larger geographical area than private systems, while private systems tend to cover their limited area more thoroughly and deliver messages faster than commercial systems. In all systems, clients send messages to pagers, an activity commonly referred to as paging. System operators often assign unique phone numbers or email addresses to pagers (and pre-defined groups of pagers), enabling clients to page by telephone call, e-mail and SMS. Paging systems also support various types of direct connection protocols, which sacrifice global addressing and accessibility for a dedicated communications link. Automated monitoring and escalation software clients, often used in hospitals, IT departments and alarm companies, tend to prefer direct connections because of the increased reliability. Small paging systems, such as those used in restaurant and retail establishments, often integrate a keyboard and paging system into a single box, reducing both cost and complexity.
Paging systems support several popular direct connection protocols, including TAP, TNPP, SNPP and WCTP, as well as proprietary modem- and socket-based protocols. Additionally, organizations often integrate paging systems with their Voice-mail and PBX systems, conceptually attaching pagers to a telephone extension and set up web portals to integrate pagers into other parts of their enterprise. A paging system alerts a pager (or group of pagers) by transmitting information over an RF channel, including an address and message information. This information is formatted using a paging protocol, such as 2-tone, 5/6-tone, GOLAY, POCSAG, FLEX, ERMES, or NTT. Two-way pagers and response pagers typically use the ReFLEX protocol.
Modern paging systems typically use multiple base transmitters to modulate the same signal on the same RF channel, a design approach called simulcast. This type of design enables pagers to select the strongest signal from several candidate transmitters using FM capture, thereby improving overall system performance. Simulcast systems often use satellite to distribute identical information to multiple transmitters and GPS at each transmitter to precisely time its modulation relative to other transmitters. The coverage overlap, combined with use of satellite communications, can make paging systems more reliable than terrestrial based cellular networks in some cases, including during natural and man-made disaster. This resilience has led public safety agencies to adopt pagers over cellular and other commercial services for critical messaging.
Categories
Pagers themselves vary from very cheap and simple beepers, to more complex personal communications equipment, falling into eight main categories.
Beepers or tone-only pagers Beepers or tone-only pagers are the simplest and least expensive form of paging. They were named beepers because they originally made a beeping noise, but current pagers in this category use other forms of alert as well. Some use audio signals, others light up and some vibrate, often used in combination. The majority of restaurant pagers fall into this category.
Voice/tone Voice/Tone pagers enable pager users to listen to a recorded voice message when an alert is received.
Numeric Numeric Pagers contain a numeric LCD display capable of displaying the calling phone number or other numeric information generally up to 10 digits. The display can also convey pager codes, a set of number codes corresponding to mutually understood pre-defined messages.
Alphanumeric Alphanumeric pagers contain a more sophisticated LCD capable of displaying text and icons. These devices receive text messages, often through email or direct connection to the paging system. The sender must enter a message, either numeric and push # or, text & push # or a verbal message. The pager does not automatically record the sender's number; the pager will beep but no message can be seen or heard if none has been entered.
Response Response pagers are alphanumeric pagers equipped with built-in transmitters, with the ability to acknowledge/confirm messages. They also allow the user to reply to messages by way of a multiple-choice response list, and to initiate "canned" messages from pre-programmed address and message lists. These devices are sometimes called "1.5-way pagers" or "1.7-way pagers" depending on capabilities.
Two-way Two-way pagers are response pagers with built-in QWERTY keyboards. These pagers allow the user to reply to messages, originate messages and forward messages using free-form text as well as "canned" responses.
One-way modems One-way modems are controllers with integrated paging receivers, which are capable of taking local action based on messages and data they receive.
Two-way modems Two-way modems have capabilities similar to one-way modems. They can also confirm messages and transmit their own messages and data.
Security
Pagers also have privacy advantages compared with cellular phones. Since a one-way pager is a passive receiver only (it sends no information back to the base station), its location cannot be tracked. However, this can also be disadvantageous, as a message sent to a pager must be broadcast from every paging transmitter in the pager's service area. Thus, if a pager has nationwide service, a message sent to it could be intercepted by criminals or law enforcement agencies anywhere within the nationwide service area.
In popular culture
As is the case with many new technologies, the functionality of the pager shifted from necessary professional use to a social tool integrated in one's personal life. During the rise of the pager, it became the subject of various forms of media, most notably in the 1990s hip-hop scene. Upcoming mainstream artists such as Ice Cube, Method Man and A Tribe Called Quest began referencing forthcoming mobile technologies, in particular the pager. A Tribe Called Quest's single "Skypager" directly speaks of the importance of such a wireless communication device. "Q-Tip" conveys that the Skypager "serves an important communicative function for a young professional with a full calendar." Three 6 Mafia's "2-Way Freak," Sir Mix-A-Lot's "Beepers" and "Bug a Boo" from Destiny's Child also make reference to pagers.
Illicit drug dealers used pagers to great effect during the 1990s to conduct commerce, using them to arrange meetings with buyers. Associate superintendent for Dade County Public Schools in Florida James Fleming once called them "the most dominant symbol of the drug trade" and schools have previously forbidden students from carrying them because of the ease with which they could be "used to arrange illegal drug sales."
See also
Minitor
Plectron
Simple Network Paging Protocol
Text messaging
Wireless Communications Transfer Protocol
References
External links
NotePage technical support—Technical information on protocols, carriers, etc.
800Beepers User Manuals
800Beepers Enhanced Options / Services
Consumer electronics
Obsolete technologies
Telecommunications equipment
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1949
American inventions
20th-century inventions | [
0.08354461938142776,
0.2786324620246887,
0.07271288335323334,
0.2808919847011566,
0.2120489627122879,
-0.14652079343795776,
0.04144813492894173,
-0.04828482121229172,
-0.08934208750724792,
-0.61883544921875,
-0.76068115234375,
0.419894278049469,
-0.5015427470207214,
0.26999765634536743,
-0.0009164335788227618,
0.3180238902568817,
0.5974341630935669,
0.34094083309173584,
-0.1116865947842598,
-0.6591342687606812,
-0.3659537136554718,
0.11867456883192062,
-0.026606345549225807,
-0.6958598494529724,
0.48781922459602356,
0.05824188515543938,
-0.16526475548744202,
-0.06335683166980743,
-0.513242781162262,
0.07946880906820297,
0.278688907623291,
-0.09820222854614258,
0.458534300327301,
0.10235792398452759,
0.2339807003736496,
0.06516680121421814,
-0.31495845317840576,
-0.09059678018093109,
-0.48662859201431274,
-0.29571348428726196,
-0.4426374137401581,
-0.11685206741094589,
0.2111520618200302,
0.49114131927490234,
-0.1327388733625412,
-0.09025581181049347,
-1.7550853490829468,
0.20056116580963135,
0.02761816792190075,
0.5126261115074158,
-0.4037333130836487,
0.5477572083473206,
-0.008010158315300941,
0.6718271374702454,
0.14302968978881836,
0.21982096135616302,
0.216502383351326,
-0.258670836687088,
0.344878226518631,
-0.2461419701576233,
0.05606161430478096,
-0.5661161541938782,
-0.13366003334522247,
0.06508653610944748,
0.4024650454521179,
0.061480794101953506,
-0.021154996007680893,
-0.15103477239608765,
-0.6910538077354431,
-0.23963624238967896,
-0.1506994068622589,
-0.42997607588768005,
0.027276715263724327,
-0.24869996309280396,
-0.10934153944253922,
-0.007527557201683521,
-0.02590906247496605,
-0.32934466004371643,
-0.040344271808862686,
-0.029895855113863945,
-0.39612528681755066,
1.3004580736160278,
0.14524014294147491,
0.16380077600479126,
0.28057268261909485,
0.14185604453086853,
-0.5914039611816406,
0.5801688432693481,
-0.5046879053115845,
0.04713664576411247,
0.3148026168346405,
-0.3761651813983917,
0.3246367871761322,
0.1868918240070343,
-0.018615368753671646,
-0.5293498635292053,
-0.1382090300321579,
-0.07821504026651382,
-0.011709614656865597,
0.2228011041879654,
-0.0831092894077301,
0.10842810571193695,
1.0055714845657349,
-0.16148865222930908,
-0.25772908329963684,
0.1558407098054886,
-0.22239993512630463,
-0.27341988682746887,
-0.05350840836763382,
0.08562548458576202,
-0.084335558116436,
-0.059117238968610764,
-0.09537430107593536,
0.1344970464706421,
-0.34772416949272156,
0.27422165870666504,
0.24445998668670654,
0.44851043820381165,
0.061622485518455505,
0.06180179491639137,
0.5032448172569275,
0.5031319856643677,
0.3558110296726227,
-0.28564760088920593,
-0.0046429503709077835,
-0.22839324176311493,
0.3925315737724304,
0.5359821915626526,
-0.313856303691864,
-0.007273450493812561,
0.114817313849926,
0.8215115666389465,
0.0837363675236702,
0.4068937301635742,
-0.19507621228694916,
0.5250316858291626,
0.20799994468688965,
-0.06764388829469681,
0.24648769199848175,
0.3178160488605499,
-0.3955764174461365,
-0.05175860598683357,
-0.4063701033592224,
-0.5548040866851807,
0.2919924557209015,
-0.009700215421617031,
-0.21092469990253448,
-0.3892587423324585,
-0.6080611944198608,
-0.15741939842700958,
-0.3724391758441925,
0.20389218628406525,
0.42166683077812195,
0.14485299587249756,
-0.44222408533096313,
-0.3730029761791229,
0.2543855607509613,
-0.27665388584136963,
0.01874622330069542,
-0.2321123480796814,
0.0012951937969774008,
0.36719369888305664,
-0.9165029525756836,
0.20837752521038055,
0.20457817614078522,
0.09473798424005508,
0.3954935669898987,
0.584326446056366,
0.5203922390937805,
0.07777856290340424,
0.03045758046209812,
-0.012091212905943394,
0.24599459767341614,
0.171616792678833,
-0.13065031170845032,
0.3183467388153076,
0.6643630266189575,
-0.11255490779876709,
0.7880983352661133,
-0.09980898350477219,
-0.5713697671890259,
-0.16956211626529694,
0.05040796473622322,
0.12496930360794067,
-0.10355541110038757,
-0.06200699508190155,
0.3847833573818207,
-0.09667578339576721,
-0.2779192626476288,
-0.42438897490501404,
-0.3248891830444336,
-0.7184330821037292,
-0.30226969718933105,
-0.1969452202320099,
0.8746575713157654,
-0.49675458669662476,
-0.4792114794254303,
0.6651532649993896,
0.2453356236219406,
0.1152263879776001,
-0.01799014024436474,
0.09631109982728958,
0.4367929697036743,
-0.5460085272789001,
-0.4225063621997833,
0.4008726179599762,
0.5455439686775208,
0.3387152850627899,
-0.00672523770481348,
-0.06649843603372574,
0.2408309429883957,
-0.1216888278722763,
0.6928808689117432,
0.04044163599610329,
0.047811929136514664,
0.13795676827430725,
-0.42305800318717957,
0.03953932598233223,
-0.3758779466152191,
-0.037075143307447433,
0.31623193621635437,
-0.1647208333015442,
-0.5268681645393372,
1.2890350818634033,
-0.3167136013507843,
0.7849199175834656,
0.15381167829036713,
0.29077407717704773,
0.7322155237197876,
-0.4447563588619232,
0.01167486235499382,
-0.2751445770263672,
0.08834651112556458,
-0.13313502073287964,
-0.9879426956176758,
0.15906460583209991,
0.1904986947774887,
-0.006057831458747387,
0.21372734010219574,
-0.09007056802511215,
0.12407025694847107,
0.06317959725856781,
-0.2893522381782532,
-0.09578131139278412,
0.43489179015159607,
-0.2142394781112671,
-0.3713200092315674,
0.30334365367889404,
0.38648924231529236,
-0.019384266808629036,
-0.05735091492533684,
-0.01594468764960766,
0.20903074741363525,
-0.5319497585296631,
0.045177701860666275,
-0.15316176414489746,
-0.08406539261341095,
0.09858264029026031,
0.31170979142189026,
0.23744627833366394,
-0.4041292667388916,
0.3048969805240631,
-0.07319154590368271,
-0.11465742439031601,
-0.6134833097457886,
-0.4220198094844818,
0.04526061937212944,
-0.008303627371788025,
0.38176167011260986,
0.6813213229179382,
0.09878754615783691,
0.38801833987236023,
-0.6127296686172485,
-0.4890363812446594,
-0.3507935106754303,
-0.9017191529273987,
1.0436899662017822,
0.051246874034404755,
0.07511915266513824,
-0.33358991146087646,
0.12983021140098572,
-0.1514459103345871,
0.7097473740577698,
-0.6111961603164673,
-0.04226893186569214,
-0.46753987669944763,
0.27784448862075806,
-0.12628957629203796,
-0.2997239828109741,
0.01594613678753376,
-0.8660304546356201,
0.34849563241004944,
0.05123153328895569,
0.7266097068786621,
0.5168880224227905,
0.4879474341869354,
0.552793025970459,
-0.05908859521150589,
0.3410263955593109,
-0.4300016760826111,
-0.26180145144462585,
-0.16516372561454773,
-0.3573887348175049,
-0.38375017046928406,
-0.3890974819660187,
-0.30330777168273926,
0.18639642000198364,
-0.1649882048368454,
-5.903718948364258,
0.08768397569656372,
-0.02855047397315502,
-0.9841441512107849,
0.03124317154288292,
0.4281083643436432,
0.5224797129631042,
-0.3943677842617035,
0.1656675785779953,
0.2243153601884842,
-0.1677091121673584,
0.23295599222183228,
0.6185705661773682,
-0.038042500615119934,
0.704714298248291,
-0.08053690940141678,
0.10673093795776367,
-0.05418789014220238,
-0.021203599870204926,
-0.15479351580142975,
-0.06853313744068146,
0.06847921013832092,
0.44062286615371704,
0.3416978120803833,
0.03774087503552437,
-0.090526282787323,
-0.10385603457689285,
-0.11175338178873062,
0.29365313053131104,
-0.06968572735786438,
0.49173110723495483,
-0.09699176251888275,
-0.15430304408073425,
-0.17619846761226654,
-0.0670468881726265,
-0.07636380195617676,
0.6719843149185181,
0.2642078697681427,
-0.029200615361332893,
-0.2228783518075943,
0.6023008227348328,
0.9652464985847473,
0.2592443823814392,
-0.3969038426876068,
0.26756981015205383,
0.06690964847803116,
-0.03550517186522484,
-0.7939852476119995,
-0.4547732472419739,
0.2388579249382019,
-0.367609441280365,
0.11572270840406418,
0.3214595913887024,
0.010154856368899345,
0.30438539385795593,
-0.10452572256326675,
0.1482364684343338,
-0.28121107816696167,
-0.5282537341117859,
-0.1737944334745407,
0.1766442060470581,
-0.282012015581131,
-0.46522045135498047,
-0.4676969051361084,
0.02055993117392063,
-0.23351237177848816,
-0.624668538570404,
-0.30633923411369324,
1.005202054977417,
0.19266457855701447,
-0.512251079082489,
-0.18171145021915436,
0.588201642036438,
-0.8719875812530518,
0.5150431394577026,
-0.5377241969108582,
0.3407929837703705,
-0.24181516468524933,
-0.11385458707809448,
-0.25887569785118103,
-0.264494389295578,
0.15604591369628906,
-0.4119366407394409,
0.06067558750510216,
-0.05116187408566475,
-0.6827782392501831,
-0.42313820123672485,
-0.004843305330723524,
-0.13733766973018646,
-0.08597579598426819,
0.9916244149208069,
-0.0771346241235733,
0.24371518194675446,
-0.10048072040081024,
0.3174445927143097,
-0.022174546495079994,
0.20700106024742126,
0.22008846700191498,
0.5763362050056458,
0.05854884162545204,
0.5292518138885498,
0.07810879498720169,
-0.25578656792640686,
-0.8343758583068848,
-0.11055301874876022,
0.17564021050930023,
-0.8038830161094666,
-0.30959007143974304,
0.4758572578430176,
0.22618132829666138,
-0.6353439688682556,
0.1656353622674942,
-0.6425396800041199,
-0.43231111764907837,
-0.008761916309595108,
0.1306997686624527,
-0.17320382595062256,
0.4745503067970276,
0.08295551687479019,
-0.5593652129173279,
0.06366109102964401,
0.2063828408718109,
0.16137021780014038,
-0.16175855696201324,
-0.648910403251648,
-0.3766002655029297,
-0.34337055683135986,
-0.00009102821059059352,
0.14573577046394348,
-0.577458381652832,
1.151980996131897,
0.20580331981182098,
0.1685348004102707,
0.10659351199865341,
0.06547210365533829,
-0.2937871813774109,
-0.02687453106045723,
0.3934609591960907,
0.04547524079680443,
-0.5597084760665894,
-0.047891877591609955,
-0.7163907885551453,
0.1542421579360962,
0.14853288233280182,
0.999308168888092,
-0.19001470506191254,
-0.2502982020378113,
-0.2341410368680954,
0.2614684998989105,
0.09039553999900818,
-0.4752141535282135,
-0.32322534918785095,
0.3322080373764038,
-0.3932161033153534,
-0.016464684158563614,
-0.20157097280025482,
0.20264215767383575,
-0.06202055886387825,
0.1089651808142662,
-0.5513433814048767,
0.04415810853242874,
0.2700856328010559,
-0.7865158319473267,
-0.0673433169722557,
-0.4470698833465576,
0.011761149391531944,
-0.517890214920044,
0.10528253018856049,
0.30194467306137085,
0.3886999487876892,
-0.3289060592651367,
-0.17584268748760223,
-0.37750324606895447,
0.07951678335666656,
0.3323514461517334,
0.4571547508239746,
0.31152796745300293,
0.5141032934188843,
-0.03074575960636139,
-0.1331128627061844,
0.11254268884658813,
-0.1269286721944809,
-0.07224918901920319,
0.5466278791427612,
0.43949076533317566,
-0.4194180965423584,
-0.11058781296014786,
0.2324065864086151,
-0.3456844091415405,
-0.7951576113700867,
-0.14503781497478485,
-0.006227615289390087,
0.018397700041532516,
-0.4600115418434143,
-0.24262990057468414,
-0.4407811760902405,
-0.16848339140415192,
0.4463247060775757,
-0.04887403920292854,
-0.4259306788444519,
-0.1472250074148178,
0.20680105686187744,
-0.817432165145874,
0.23547129333019257,
-0.11138945072889328,
-0.4403047263622284,
0.23262757062911987,
-0.24554970860481262,
-0.38367700576782227,
0.6452383995056152,
-0.06510668992996216,
-0.07343874126672745,
0.038664039224386215,
0.17320165038108826,
-0.2715226411819458,
0.1450924277305603,
-0.22438915073871613,
-0.19309626519680023,
0.07357918471097946,
-0.4576849341392517,
0.0808253139257431,
-0.03025653585791588,
-0.23053176701068878,
0.5172746181488037,
-0.1748037040233612,
-0.3083491325378418,
0.3496621549129486,
-0.45428338646888733,
0.7354616522789001,
0.03499453142285347,
0.025905147194862366,
-0.25459882616996765,
0.013057146221399307,
-0.2745898962020874,
-0.07990014553070068,
-0.7268481850624084,
-0.5037129521369934,
-0.05530093237757683,
0.10394183546304703,
0.8503168821334839,
0.04072083905339241,
0.47859153151512146,
-0.37649720907211304,
-0.3369915783405304,
-0.1898241937160492,
0.7004187107086182,
0.040828995406627655,
-0.9655856490135193,
-0.7839425206184387,
0.9060161709785461,
0.31416192650794983,
-0.12577082216739655,
-0.3913348317146301,
0.23364585638046265,
0.4368686079978943,
0.29694536328315735,
-0.21108447015285492,
-0.1738131195306778,
0.22115853428840637,
0.6466711759567261,
-0.09015140682458878,
-0.1656889170408249,
-0.20669162273406982,
0.4187495708465576,
0.39145809412002563,
-0.1784946322441101,
-0.2441011518239975,
-0.09688668698072433,
0.07648725807666779,
-0.0970020666718483,
0.23867328464984894,
0.06787917762994766,
0.917372465133667,
0.05880327522754669,
0.4611513018608093,
0.13944163918495178,
0.39839449524879456,
-0.22855830192565918,
0.011828101240098476,
0.5349954962730408,
-0.17870768904685974,
-0.2891104221343994,
0.09661558270454407,
-0.273098886013031,
0.43308597803115845,
-0.31898078322410583,
0.48046401143074036,
-0.009627049788832664,
-0.43808433413505554,
-0.4130341708660126,
-0.5735330581665039,
0.5760622620582581,
-0.1843455582857132,
0.76474928855896,
-0.04799993708729744,
0.06595399975776672,
0.0352359339594841,
0.27344614267349243,
-0.10540225356817245,
-0.2272350788116455,
-0.3382834792137146,
0.1814691573381424,
0.23200787603855133,
-0.62227863073349,
0.39655792713165283,
0.003561285324394703,
0.09971161931753159,
-0.7094820737838745,
-0.7403806447982788,
-0.3538360595703125,
-0.21478530764579773,
0.04564657062292099,
0.3330705463886261,
0.17966972291469574,
-0.08906405419111252,
-0.26149001717567444,
0.740576446056366,
0.2042994201183319,
0.10043208301067352,
0.0337851457297802,
0.18695585429668427,
-0.1884634643793106,
-0.0548955500125885,
0.008848083205521107,
-0.19654077291488647,
0.38054895401000977,
0.15095873177051544,
-0.42146679759025574,
-0.030937880277633667,
0.14100004732608795,
0.8733567595481873,
0.20560093224048615,
0.15670672059059143,
0.5022844076156616,
-0.3767343759536743,
-0.6717857718467712,
0.0805891677737236,
-0.07171076536178589,
-0.8224564790725708,
0.6509909629821777,
0.25372758507728577,
0.4087335467338562,
0.057000596076250076,
0.47406816482543945,
0.0019382851896807551,
0.5431740880012512,
0.5463048815727234,
0.5844479203224182,
-0.316664457321167,
0.2970052659511566,
0.022230230271816254,
0.13936975598335266,
0.33582696318626404,
0.2800021469593048,
0.025111937895417213,
-0.4610598385334015,
0.6004379987716675,
-0.28594982624053955,
0.1345323622226715,
-0.5066712498664856,
-0.3053572475910187,
0.3679666519165039,
0.16219773888587952,
0.1751551330089569,
-0.31039199233055115,
-0.03872277960181236,
0.17895491421222687,
-0.759499728679657,
0.45254042744636536,
0.10723959654569626,
0.12027759850025177,
0.944450318813324,
-0.40463075041770935,
0.3138558864593506,
-0.6008704304695129,
-0.5398041009902954,
0.4892941415309906,
0.2493804544210434,
-0.17533569037914276,
0.10105803608894348,
0.028744379058480263,
-0.09126703441143036,
0.04336131364107132,
-0.8607455492019653,
-0.10048111528158188,
-0.09104357659816742,
-0.44910454750061035,
0.2941773235797882,
0.2000454217195511,
0.046726010739803314,
0.02329174056649208,
-0.752869188785553,
-0.10653091222047806,
-0.42696312069892883,
0.038741447031497955,
0.3785448968410492,
0.7326244711875916,
0.5983878374099731,
0.4151713252067566,
0.25665169954299927,
-0.25266730785369873,
0.11319934576749802,
0.03395862504839897,
-0.18378274142742157,
-0.9148476123809814,
0.15067598223686218,
-0.05105917528271675,
-0.05493093281984329,
-0.3765120506286621,
0.1663435995578766,
0.8019183874130249,
-0.20180854201316833,
0.03888316452503204,
0.03340964391827583,
-0.0011315352749079466,
0.45425212383270264,
0.664996862411499,
-0.43816640973091125,
0.16476970911026,
-0.2167915552854538,
0.34445473551750183,
0.043199699372053146,
0.1717388778924942,
-0.28036659955978394,
0.33369868993759155,
-0.06021157652139664,
0.3497416079044342,
-0.0014087718445807695,
-0.451737642288208,
0.0361904613673687,
-0.37485161423683167,
-0.17705963551998138,
-0.39534682035446167,
0.26252296566963196,
-0.01610637828707695,
-0.019724968820810318,
-0.3704482614994049,
-0.0029265035409480333,
0.5390981435775757,
-0.382612943649292,
0.03229130804538727,
0.16070443391799927,
-0.17334114015102386,
-0.19471804797649384,
-1.445196270942688,
0.03222440183162689,
0.2888999879360199,
-0.31694740056991577,
-0.46036162972450256,
0.27318939566612244,
0.06768598407506943,
-0.8821536302566528,
0.26001858711242676,
0.15360023081302643,
0.3553168475627899,
0.6459715962409973,
0.3996281921863556,
-0.1654544472694397,
-0.46321746706962585,
0.5340136289596558
] |
229046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Bailey | Old Bailey | The Central Criminal Court of England and Wales, commonly referred to as the Old Bailey after the street on which it stands, is a criminal court building in central London, one of several that houses the Crown Court of England and Wales. The street outside follows the route of the ancient wall around the City of London, which was part of the fortification's bailey, hence the metonymic name.
The Old Bailey has been housed in a succession of court buildings on the street since the sixteenth century, when it was attached to the medieval Newgate gaol. The current main building block was completed in 1902, designed by Edward William Mountford; its architecture is recognised and protected as a Grade II* listed building. An extension South Block was constructed in 1972, over the former site of Newgate gaol which was demolished in 1904.
The Crown Court sitting in the Old Bailey hears major criminal cases from within Greater London. In exceptional cases, trials may be referred to the Old Bailey from other parts of England and Wales. As with most courts in England and Wales, trials at the Old Bailey are open to the public; however, they are subject to stringent security procedures.
History
The court originated as the sessions house of the Lord Mayor and Sheriffs of the City of London and of Middlesex. In addition to sessions court, the Old Bailey also held trials, similar to the traveling Courts of Assize held in other parts of England and Wales. The original medieval court was first mentioned in 1585; it was next to the older Newgate Prison, and seems to have grown out of the endowment to improve the gaol and rooms for the sheriffs, made possible by a gift from Richard Whittington. It was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666 and rebuilt in 1674, with the court open to the weather to prevent the spread of disease.
In 1734, it was refronted, enclosing the court and reducing the influence of spectators: this led to outbreaks of typhus, notably in 1750 when 60 people died, including the Lord Mayor and two judges. It was rebuilt again in 1774 and a second courtroom was added in 1824. Over 100,000 criminal trials were carried out at the Old Bailey between 1674 and 1834.
In 1834, it was renamed as the Central Criminal Court and its jurisdiction extended beyond that of London and Middlesex to the whole of the English jurisdiction for trials of major cases. Her Majesty's Courts and Tribunals Service manages the courts and administers the trials but the building itself is owned by the City of London Corporation, which finances the building, the running of it, the staff and the maintenance out of their own resources.
The court was envisaged as that where only criminals accused of crimes committed in the City and Middlesex were tried. However, in 1856, there was public revulsion at complaints sent to police against doctor William Palmer that he was a poisoner and murderer. This led to fears that he could not receive a fair trial in his native Staffordshire. The Central Criminal Court Act 1856 was passed to enable his trial, and others with a public profile, to be held at the Old Bailey.
The Old Bailey adjoined Newgate Prison until the jail's 1902 closure. Hangings were a public spectacle in the street outside until May 1868. The condemned would be led along Dead Man's Walk between the buildings, and many were buried in the walk itself. Large, rowdy crowds sometimes gathered and pelted the condemned with rotten fruit and vegetables and stones. After 28 people were crushed to death when a pie-seller's stall overturned, a secret tunnel was made between the prison and St Sepulchre's church opposite the crossroads, to allow the chaplain to minister to the condemned without having to force his way through crowds.
The present building dates from 1902 and was officially opened by King Edward VII on 27 February 1907. It was designed by E. W. Mountford and co-occupies the site of the demolished prison. Above the main entrance is inscribed the admonition: "Defend the Children of the Poor & Punish the Wrongdoer".
On the dome above the court stands the court's symbolic gilt bronze statue of Lady Justice by sculptor F. W. Pomeroy (made 1905–1906). She holds a sword in her right hand and the scales of justice in her left. The statue is popularly supposed to show blind Justice, but the figure is not blindfolded: the courthouse brochures explain that this is because Lady Justice was originally not blindfolded, and because her "maidenly form" is supposed to guarantee her impartiality which renders the blindfold redundant.
During the Blitz of World War II, the Old Bailey was bombed and severely damaged, but reconstruction work restored most of it in the early 1950s. In 1952, the restored interior of the Grand or Great Hall of the Central Criminal Court was once again open. This hall (underneath the dome) is decorated with paintings commemorating the Blitz, as well as quasi-historical scenes of St Paul's Cathedral with nobles outside. Running around the entire hall are a series of axioms, some of biblical reference. They read:
Between 1968 and 1972, a new South Block, designed by the architects Donald McMorran and George Whitby, was built to accommodate more modern courts.
In 1973, the Belfast Brigade of the Provisional IRA exploded a car bomb in the street outside, killing one and injuring 200 people. A shard of glass is preserved as a reminder, embedded in the wall at the top of the main stairs.
The hall (and its floor) was decorated with many busts and statues, chiefly of British monarchs, but also of legal figures, and those who achieved renown by campaigning for improvement in prison conditions from 1700 to 1900. This part of the building also housed the stenographers' offices until the stenographers were replaced by technology in March 2012.
Management
Until 2017, the court manager was known by the title of the Secondary of the City of London, an ancient title of a City officer.
Judges
All judges sitting in the Old Bailey are addressed as "My Lord" or "My Lady" whether they are High Court, circuit judges or recorders. The Lord Mayor and aldermen of the City of London are entitled to sit on the judges' bench during a hearing but do not participate in hearings. Where a ceremonial tradition is followed, a judge, sitting sole, sits off-centre in case the Lord Mayor were to decide to come in, who would take the centre chair. The most senior permanent judge of the Central Criminal Court has the title of Recorder of London, and their deputy has the title of Common Serjeant of London. The position of "Recorder of London" is distinct from that of a recorder, which is a part-time judicial office, holders of which sit part-time as judges of the Crown or county courts. Many criminal law advocates with QC/KC status and leading profiles sit as recorders across the London region. The recent Recorders of London have been:
1975–1990 – Sir James Miskin
1990–1998 – Sir Lawrence Verney
1998–2004 – Michael Hyam
2004–2013 – Peter Beaumont
2013–2015 – Brian Barker
2015–2019 – Nicholas Hilliard
2020–present – Mark Lucraft
Civic role
The court house originated as part of the City of London's borough judicial system, and it remains so. The Recorder and the Common Serjeant are City officers, and the Recorder is a member of the Common Council because he is also a member of the Court of Aldermen. The City's sheriffs and the Lord Mayor are justices there, but their jurisdiction is now nominal. The sheriffs are resident with the senior judges in the complex. In Court 1 are benches set aside for the committee of Bridge House Estates, the owner of the building.
Gallery
See also
Bow Street Magistrates' Court
Courts of England and Wales
Horseferry Road Magistrates' Court
Royal Courts of Justice
References
External links
Court information
HM Courts Service – current cases listed at this court
The Proceedings of the Old Bailey London 1674 to 1913 – Archive of case details
Central Criminal Court from the City of London website
Old Bailey photographs at 100 years old (from BBC)
From Rumpole to the Ripper, Crippen to the Krays: The Old Bailey turns 100, Duncan Campbell, The Guardian, 27 February 2007
View from Google Maps
Copy of Sunday Times article including rare picture of Grand Hall
Voices from the Old Bailey – BBC Radio 4 dramatisations of 18th century cases
Old Bailey, The
Crown Courts
Edwardian architecture in London
Grade II* listed buildings in the City of London
Grade II* listed government buildings
Government buildings with domes
Old Bailey, The
1907 establishments in England | [
0.22206935286521912,
-0.05332786589860916,
0.15749458968639374,
-0.6437941789627075,
0.6697661876678467,
0.29399481415748596,
0.4784654378890991,
0.019489401951432228,
-0.6004536151885986,
-0.3263848125934601,
-0.2564612030982971,
-0.08841750770807266,
-0.444924533367157,
0.34445837140083313,
-0.207728773355484,
0.11225029826164246,
0.6025733351707458,
-0.32954707741737366,
0.6788378357887268,
-0.31096065044403076,
-0.08273759484291077,
0.1640070229768753,
-0.5615121722221375,
-0.11760111153125763,
0.49015024304389954,
-0.3493839502334595,
0.1594420075416565,
-0.2920527160167694,
-0.6603047251701355,
-0.17394784092903137,
0.2825279235839844,
-0.005009030923247337,
-0.3875568211078644,
-0.02144678682088852,
0.22790278494358063,
-0.13469991087913513,
-0.05055104196071625,
-0.42863449454307556,
-0.028106272220611572,
-0.6833956241607666,
0.2268674373626709,
-0.08307380229234695,
-0.2856498658657074,
0.26665475964546204,
-0.39842158555984497,
-0.16937020421028137,
-1.1376477479934692,
0.45583629608154297,
-0.5972820520401001,
0.27118954062461853,
-0.5885359644889832,
0.45674434304237366,
-0.17124567925930023,
-0.3966601490974426,
0.36957451701164246,
-0.05869340896606445,
-0.5505157709121704,
-0.360184907913208,
0.6816607117652893,
0.3655208647251129,
0.12257728725671768,
0.4622442126274109,
0.031066730618476868,
0.4424816071987152,
-0.1125379353761673,
-0.15979266166687012,
0.5575577616691589,
0.10907068848609924,
-0.3525451719760895,
0.2605251967906952,
-0.19540269672870636,
-0.049055084586143494,
0.030835021287202835,
0.29694098234176636,
-0.8212120532989502,
-0.31895002722740173,
0.48410680890083313,
-0.2466994673013687,
-0.061935871839523315,
0.2740822732448578,
0.5636841058731079,
0.03736161068081856,
0.07885699719190598,
0.007243670988827944,
0.6631883382797241,
-0.11938466876745224,
-1.2464576959609985,
-0.2518913745880127,
-0.9160282611846924,
0.38614407181739807,
-0.5822364091873169,
0.6498584151268005,
-0.3539133071899414,
0.21792961657047272,
-0.4369884431362152,
-0.05380113050341606,
0.565918505191803,
0.17613662779331207,
0.5050671100616455,
0.4690178334712982,
-0.37347331643104553,
0.024005547165870667,
0.4380386471748352,
-0.5438751578330994,
0.2886938750743866,
0.18858449161052704,
-0.3908991515636444,
-0.2384505420923233,
-0.04734469950199127,
0.0595974363386631,
-0.2428000569343567,
-0.1854231208562851,
-0.1987713724374771,
0.6821144819259644,
0.2212514728307724,
0.3405396640300751,
0.6213542222976685,
-0.21137388050556183,
-0.4216020703315735,
-0.0761277973651886,
-0.7567898631095886,
0.46065062284469604,
-0.23855949938297272,
0.7641848921775818,
-0.20352588593959808,
-0.2904023230075836,
0.035819161683321,
0.6826748251914978,
-0.5682520866394043,
-0.22108577191829681,
0.1346493810415268,
0.9306514263153076,
0.0009942578617483377,
-0.2642911374568939,
-0.04276048764586449,
0.33434075117111206,
-0.020507866516709328,
-0.2301417887210846,
0.7421873807907104,
0.5713184475898743,
-0.23649151623249054,
-0.6192795634269714,
0.06384578347206116,
0.4421805441379547,
0.26291438937187195,
-0.6644538640975952,
-0.1570454239845276,
-0.45651084184646606,
-0.3595753014087677,
0.0308734942227602,
0.27583637833595276,
0.3778979480266571,
-0.6514441967010498,
-0.5968682169914246,
0.02603844366967678,
0.5566630363464355,
0.394413560628891,
-0.15586048364639282,
-0.5787112712860107,
0.15327851474285126,
-0.29334303736686707,
-0.40179669857025146,
0.06879867613315582,
-0.08343130350112915,
-0.02524731308221817,
0.28136518597602844,
0.21122144162654877,
-0.19227318465709686,
-0.5675075650215149,
-0.16440582275390625,
-0.5505287647247314,
-0.26454877853393555,
0.8706714510917664,
0.04683392122387886,
-0.36869072914123535,
-0.20919401943683624,
0.657648503780365,
0.05329761654138565,
0.3541520833969116,
-0.1411864161491394,
-0.3529416024684906,
0.34512799978256226,
0.3929207921028137,
0.3308992385864258,
0.1499491184949875,
0.1051587462425232,
0.42148393392562866,
0.0376773327589035,
-0.35304880142211914,
-0.4117300510406494,
-0.17259615659713745,
0.459663450717926,
0.08293695747852325,
-0.17561383545398712,
1.1096569299697876,
0.10897038131952286,
0.08004085719585419,
0.6713259220123291,
-0.6169017553329468,
0.6915624737739563,
0.17502963542938232,
0.18692007660865784,
0.7213083505630493,
-0.4111163020133972,
-0.08487489074468613,
-0.1963222473859787,
0.4306565821170807,
-0.08304238319396973,
0.20540538430213928,
0.117784284055233,
0.2501817047595978,
-0.6142883896827698,
-0.0325377993285656,
0.030949193984270096,
0.320161908864975,
-0.3239152431488037,
0.1524631381034851,
-0.2326098084449768,
-0.23869729042053223,
-0.9224296808242798,
0.993370532989502,
-0.09771986305713654,
0.6972967386245728,
0.28662240505218506,
-0.5243148803710938,
0.07952497154474258,
-0.3894452452659607,
0.2941814064979553,
0.3993838429450989,
-0.7562636137008667,
-0.14983037114143372,
0.11220269650220871,
0.34430304169654846,
-0.21480996906757355,
0.43483051657676697,
-0.4258726239204407,
-0.18202558159828186,
0.2828636169433594,
0.049733228981494904,
-0.31254518032073975,
0.1603388488292694,
-0.33233919739723206,
-0.06482063978910446,
0.36907026171684265,
0.08586488664150238,
-0.17838609218597412,
-0.12471713125705719,
0.7311556339263916,
-0.7100511193275452,
-0.29372477531433105,
0.5611377954483032,
-0.0035348946694284678,
0.5758368968963623,
0.02961921878159046,
0.5732614398002625,
-0.3846665322780609,
0.10590358823537827,
0.07400885969400406,
-0.05091626197099686,
0.16021236777305603,
-0.5195190906524658,
0.11397852748632431,
-0.11506041884422302,
0.0574825257062912,
-0.23746353387832642,
-0.023629216477274895,
0.12281933426856995,
-1.0086171627044678,
0.593765377998352,
-0.1893714964389801,
0.0913226306438446,
-0.5124372839927673,
-0.021116329357028008,
0.38165584206581116,
0.26314184069633484,
-0.12339849770069122,
0.7955586910247803,
0.1553291380405426,
-0.09770884364843369,
-0.04978940263390541,
0.12114214897155762,
0.10667147487401962,
0.14692845940589905,
-0.3726280629634857,
0.19840961694717407,
-0.45324546098709106,
-0.15529531240463257,
-0.641856849193573,
-0.3897060453891754,
0.3025420904159546,
-0.35290443897247314,
0.6307680010795593,
-0.1573571115732193,
0.22523845732212067,
-0.04790647700428963,
0.5780961513519287,
-0.28273844718933105,
0.06888022273778915,
0.14459416270256042,
-0.3160020112991333,
-0.010575169697403908,
0.6867343187332153,
-0.07195670157670975,
0.5554803609848022,
0.4595722556114197,
-0.3600866198539734,
-0.5413308143615723,
0.11557506769895554,
-5.739614963531494,
0.05820077657699585,
-0.19324927031993866,
-0.16948607563972473,
0.22944886982440948,
-0.17040427029132843,
0.33362874388694763,
-0.185560405254364,
0.11505912989377975,
-0.8943716287612915,
0.3741774559020996,
0.046330761164426804,
0.30439943075180054,
0.15890474617481232,
0.5667164921760559,
0.22394412755966187,
-0.06818293035030365,
-0.14385025203227997,
0.33927369117736816,
0.14544855058193207,
0.047677572816610336,
-0.12045365571975708,
-0.0917295441031456,
-0.31553974747657776,
-0.2900048494338989,
0.3434086740016937,
-0.631820023059845,
0.04953748360276222,
-0.6526958346366882,
-0.6875610947608948,
0.19711720943450928,
-0.4761413335800171,
-0.31836453080177307,
-0.3953384757041931,
-0.038318708539009094,
0.6921793818473816,
0.1057581976056099,
0.4437026083469391,
-0.1454683542251587,
-0.15017686784267426,
0.31547054648399353,
0.46281543374061584,
0.27287179231643677,
0.5216063857078552,
0.5357061624526978,
-0.5489068031311035,
-0.38916876912117004,
0.0328984372317791,
-0.37783172726631165,
0.1827380359172821,
-0.6183932423591614,
0.641057014465332,
0.3699207007884979,
0.14239074289798737,
-0.21262425184249878,
-0.18377956748008728,
-0.17165201902389526,
-0.10168644785881042,
0.04358307644724846,
0.018136167898774147,
0.46497923135757446,
-0.8801470994949341,
-0.3338676393032074,
-0.0966590940952301,
-0.12674401700496674,
-0.6541748046875,
-0.18133197724819183,
0.5858356952667236,
0.3929353356361389,
0.388162225484848,
0.06419360637664795,
-0.14927594363689423,
0.012674408033490181,
-0.6086336374282837,
0.18594203889369965,
0.01580994389951229,
0.02705620974302292,
-0.31451231241226196,
0.4041785001754761,
-0.08684442937374115,
-0.16246673464775085,
-0.152169868350029,
-0.3477094769477844,
-0.09949257969856262,
-0.07831230759620667,
-0.8594967126846313,
-0.44402945041656494,
0.7969067692756653,
-0.7114040851593018,
-0.23431462049484253,
-0.3358611464500427,
-0.7797147631645203,
-0.086110420525074,
0.20862223207950592,
0.33191147446632385,
-0.2577667236328125,
0.47952550649642944,
-0.14538134634494781,
0.3741148114204407,
0.4799732565879822,
0.6051353812217712,
-0.022335203364491463,
0.4689442813396454,
-0.25173458456993103,
0.0664372444152832,
-0.20888422429561615,
-0.006347890477627516,
1.0000109672546387,
0.5529866814613342,
-0.3831627666950226,
-0.09338916093111038,
-0.03318824991583824,
0.02703838236629963,
-0.5076620578765869,
-0.1790185570716858,
-0.6917009353637695,
-0.2461605817079544,
0.16738879680633545,
-0.31737545132637024,
0.10280804336071014,
-0.24166207015514374,
-0.03187379986047745,
0.25885796546936035,
0.5223543047904968,
-0.7360830307006836,
0.1191077008843422,
0.6341939568519592,
0.4740850329399109,
-0.006183585152029991,
-0.3965926468372345,
-0.2249296009540558,
0.002991270739585161,
-0.04950667545199394,
0.3190965950489044,
-0.5486968755722046,
0.10998494923114777,
-0.4239768087863922,
-0.24546384811401367,
0.43306124210357666,
0.43336936831474304,
0.2496609389781952,
-0.23011045157909393,
0.5643413066864014,
0.11639245599508286,
0.4493543207645416,
0.03987755626440048,
-0.07629211992025375,
0.17756716907024384,
-0.24093377590179443,
0.14085997641086578,
-0.17189399898052216,
0.2366276979446411,
-0.17029419541358948,
-0.5036768317222595,
-0.3086167573928833,
-0.26181960105895996,
0.3419632613658905,
0.5240817666053772,
0.03898075595498085,
0.11269254982471466,
0.1223909854888916,
-0.04804042726755142,
-0.38405245542526245,
-0.3591145873069763,
0.1667555421590805,
-0.22098799049854279,
0.09804371744394302,
0.34279587864875793,
-0.6139311790466309,
0.07522565871477127,
-0.2446720004081726,
-0.46862930059432983,
-0.1310930848121643,
-0.09781309217214584,
0.14538559317588806,
0.6705399751663208,
-0.43782469630241394,
0.035334262996912,
-0.2529696226119995,
0.2870942950248718,
-0.2779620587825775,
-0.20562434196472168,
-0.0902353823184967,
0.8000016808509827,
0.23768319189548492,
-0.13676267862319946,
-0.1591670662164688,
0.07069112360477448,
0.4809908866882324,
-0.8513843417167664,
0.568752646446228,
-0.7774139642715454,
0.08664176613092422,
0.5181323289871216,
-0.30658507347106934,
-0.8175428509712219,
0.2420438528060913,
0.018384702503681183,
-0.030819091945886612,
-0.3081416189670563,
0.1381901204586029,
0.14317233860492706,
-0.6236438751220703,
0.3294436037540436,
0.6307645440101624,
-0.3354167342185974,
0.4701045751571655,
-0.22699037194252014,
0.3209579586982727,
0.3994121849536896,
-0.48138269782066345,
-0.9874733090400696,
0.04245609790086746,
0.9940941333770752,
-0.6281716823577881,
-0.9510648250579834,
0.3772486746311188,
-0.07861372083425522,
-0.36067140102386475,
-0.06821393966674805,
0.03492839261889458,
-0.6420656442642212,
-0.3979113698005676,
0.15569950640201569,
-0.8282337188720703,
0.9325828552246094,
0.4077003598213196,
-0.6857836842536926,
0.3768628239631653,
-0.314040869474411,
0.14575965702533722,
0.03327539935708046,
0.6937018632888794,
0.5254687666893005,
0.0433819405734539,
-0.2516458034515381,
-0.16739754378795624,
-0.31260743737220764,
-0.03844188526272774,
0.5572410821914673,
0.5647007822990417,
1.1712970733642578,
0.23141786456108093,
-0.2524746060371399,
-0.04848093539476395,
-0.02750549465417862,
0.310457319021225,
0.14780265092849731,
-0.22824378311634064,
0.4503058195114136,
-0.13349312543869019,
0.21267032623291016,
0.4316655993461609,
0.026711633428931236,
0.050579920411109924,
-0.2547776699066162,
0.6571414470672607,
-0.3101155161857605,
0.17502452433109283,
-0.3203533887863159,
0.19799886643886566,
-0.4113563597202301,
0.004466433078050613,
0.12857379019260406,
0.2518492639064789,
-0.14286868274211884,
-0.460886150598526,
-0.47282689809799194,
0.273244172334671,
-0.619094729423523,
0.005024288780987263,
-0.2622440457344055,
0.3229122757911682,
0.4485613703727722,
0.31083744764328003,
-0.09993801265954971,
-0.41338634490966797,
-0.02373669482767582,
0.2756516933441162,
-0.007021272089332342,
-0.3162660300731659,
0.10336790233850479,
0.18563678860664368,
-1.1113353967666626,
0.23998169600963593,
-0.2561808228492737,
0.4811755418777466,
0.19090165197849274,
0.02339516393840313,
-0.5739288926124573,
-0.1939622163772583,
-0.5571064352989197,
0.09693136811256409,
0.6619254350662231,
-0.4386345148086548,
0.11810167878866196,
-0.13374249637126923,
0.8056853413581848,
0.7040833234786987,
0.13617894053459167,
-0.8016712665557861,
0.33255869150161743,
-0.32087111473083496,
-0.5589781999588013,
0.29177919030189514,
0.02675207331776619,
-0.15666773915290833,
0.1000545397400856,
-0.3204832375049591,
-0.14164964854717255,
-0.10054489225149155,
-0.3365645110607147,
0.5301281809806824,
0.44559913873672485,
-0.3426779806613922,
-0.49942025542259216,
0.29479706287384033,
-0.6477521657943726,
0.2902214825153351,
0.16748403012752533,
-0.089521624147892,
0.11574327945709229,
0.3259860575199127,
-0.07529592514038086,
-0.13688009977340698,
0.7336122393608093,
-0.047306060791015625,
-0.11418275535106659,
-0.5319997668266296,
0.45230403542518616,
0.37648704648017883,
-0.337572306394577,
-0.5098786950111389,
0.6053608655929565,
-0.2630690336227417,
-0.25299468636512756,
0.5469412207603455,
-0.6435225605964661,
0.13564017415046692,
-0.25580018758773804,
0.7982994914054871,
-0.2204759120941162,
-0.8810301423072815,
0.12312052398920059,
-0.5715469717979431,
0.386342853307724,
0.3550030589103699,
-0.5274137854576111,
-0.057816848158836365,
0.3239092528820038,
0.6165515184402466,
-0.2391689270734787,
0.7146173119544983,
0.3085077702999115,
0.4349859952926636,
0.11284598708152771,
0.05697330832481384,
0.1741253137588501,
-0.2450137734413147,
-0.03976519778370857,
0.2392544150352478,
0.5300875306129456,
0.14519594609737396,
-0.23308686912059784,
-0.592936098575592,
0.6440567374229431,
0.5155176520347595,
0.07642964273691177,
-0.2627831995487213,
-0.2671962380409241,
-0.3973277509212494,
-0.10386195778846741,
-0.3101900517940521,
-0.42520543932914734,
-0.19265976548194885,
-0.33593907952308655,
0.27505019307136536,
0.40944674611091614,
0.9610852003097534,
-0.2515186667442322,
0.3452325165271759,
-0.3929027318954468,
0.30403950810432434,
-0.7773393988609314,
0.1849212795495987,
-0.5865703821182251,
-0.4247412383556366,
0.17977213859558105,
-0.6005398631095886,
-0.1262201964855194,
-0.046543434262275696,
-0.2568386495113373,
0.366769403219223,
-0.3380008339881897,
-0.36536744236946106,
-0.4503476321697235,
0.24346277117729187,
0.8061328530311584,
-0.2655300199985504,
0.25630873441696167,
0.1938600242137909,
0.8177186846733093,
-0.9063653349876404,
0.04811112955212593,
-0.3065875470638275,
0.9407285451889038,
-0.15554417669773102,
-0.25716230273246765,
-0.11506365984678268,
0.49446550011634827,
0.43661680817604065,
-0.19481897354125977,
-0.14822445809841156,
0.08906442672014236,
-0.9006941318511963,
0.9787909984588623,
0.2270854115486145,
-0.04437174275517464,
-0.41317760944366455,
-0.07305184751749039,
0.24231472611427307,
0.15857379138469696,
0.32530543208122253,
-0.1589614599943161,
-0.044756971299648285,
-0.5051048398017883,
0.5742968916893005,
-0.07958157360553741,
-0.17942580580711365,
0.5423758625984192,
0.3279535174369812,
-0.02778904139995575,
-0.9603803157806396,
0.1305447518825531,
-0.335591197013855,
0.40153077244758606,
0.7351827621459961,
0.5824698209762573,
-0.19728845357894897,
0.0698665902018547,
-0.3297869861125946,
0.3138554096221924,
0.2717455327510834,
-0.15107211470603943,
0.40242093801498413,
0.23577730357646942,
-0.44335076212882996,
-0.50419682264328,
-0.5622754693031311,
0.7380940914154053,
0.32827815413475037,
-0.43051400780677795,
0.12328629195690155,
-0.25945135951042175,
0.3491165041923523,
-0.37109366059303284,
0.003288957290351391,
-0.15478816628456116,
0.2295723408460617,
-0.227487713098526
] |
229047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enough%20%28film%29 | Enough (film) | Enough is a 2002 American thriller film directed by Michael Apted. The movie is based on the 1998 novel Black and Blue, by Anna Quindlen, which was a New York Times bestseller. It stars Jennifer Lopez as Slim, an abused wife who learns to fight back. Enough garnered generally negative reviews from film critics.
Plot
Slim (Jennifer Lopez) is a waitress in a Los Angeles diner where she meets Mitch Hiller (Billy Campbell), who wards off a rude man trying to hit on her. They eventually marry, have a daughter named Gracie (Tessa Allen), and live happily in an expensive house.
Some years later, Slim finds out Mitch has been cheating on her and, when she threatens to leave, he begins to beat and threaten her. He insists that because he's the breadwinner, he gets to do whatever he likes, and he won't end his affair unless she wants to fight him.
Slim goes to Mitch's mother (Janet Carroll) about the abuse, but she is unsympathetic and implies the abuse is Slim's fault. Her best friend Ginny (Juliette Lewis) tells her to leave him and press charges, but when she goes to the police, even they are unable to offer any help.
Mitch tells Slim he knows she discussed the abuse with his mother, beating her again, and she realizes she has no other choice but to take Gracie and leave. Slim enlists her friends to help her and Gracie escape late at night, but Mitch foils the plan. After some struggle, they all escape.
Mitch freezes and empties Slim's bank accounts, leaving her unable to rent a room. Tracking her down at a cheap motel, he tries to break into the room, but she escapes with Gracie, moving to Seattle to stay with an old friend, Joe (Dan Futterman).
The next day, men posing as police detectives show up and threaten Joe, damaging his apartment. Slim then goes to her wealthy, estranged father, Jupiter (Fred Ward). Even though Slim sent several unanswered letters to him as a child, Jupiter claims he's unaware of her existence and believes she's just after money, offering her only $12. Slim and Gracie briefly find refuge at a commune, where Jupiter later contacts her, revealing that Mitch's associates had threatened him, which piqued his interest. He sends her a large sum of money, which allows her to set up a new life under a new identity, and he lets her know to reach out if she needs more.
Joe visits Slim, but Mitch tracks her down and she escapes with Gracie. Consulting a lawyer, she's warned there is little she can do. Slim then goes into hiding in San Francisco and sends Gracie away to safety while she trains in Krav Maga self defense. She breaks into Mitch's new home and hides his guns, jams the phone, plants fake letters saying she is there to discuss custody of Gracie, and awaits his return. When he arrives, they fight and Slim beats Mitch unconscious, before she eventually knocks him off a balcony to his death. The police regard her actions as self-defense. Slim and Gracie reunite and go to live with Joe in Seattle.
Cast
Production
Casting and filming
Enough, produced by Columbia Pictures, is directed by Michael Apted and written by Nicholas Kazan. On November 9, 2000, New York Daily News reported that Lopez was in talks to star in Enough, "which follows a newly married young woman's descent into domestic violence after her dream man physically abuses her, causing her to go on the run". Sandra Bullock was originally cast to play Slim, a waitress. In November 2000 Variety magazine reported that Bullock had to back out of Enough because of scheduling conflict with another film.
On May 19, 2001, it was reported that Lopez was cast as Slim, and Once and Again actor Billy Campbell was cast as Mitch, a "wealthy contractor" and Slim's abusive husband. Juliette Lewis, Noah Wyle, Dan Futterman and Fred Ward were also announced to be co-starring in the film. According to Basham, filming began on May 21, 2001, and took place on location in Los Angeles, San Francisco, Port Townsend and Seattle. During a documentary featured on a special edition DVD of the film, Kazan said Lopez was "very good" at creating the character on film "through unscripted details, physical gestures and fiddling with props." He described her emotional acting as "perfect pitch". Apted, who had heard rumors that Lopez was a diva, described her as "fantastic" and good to work with. He also noted Lopez "very much on the case, and that was very impressive." Years later, in 2008, Lopez revealed that during the filming of Enough, she overworked and had a nervous breakdown: "I was suffering from a lack of sleep. And I did have a kind of nervous breakdown. I froze up on set. Well, not on a set, but in my trailer. I was like, I don't want to move, I don't want to talk, I don't want to do anything. It was on that movie, Enough. Yeah, I did. I had a nervous breakdown."
Themes
Enough is a thriller film which also details an abusive relationship. Kazan said it's "About the worst aspect of the male psyche is that males have been taught, traditionally, to expect to get what they want. Much of the problems that men have, or the problems that men impose on women, have to do with feeling like they're entitled, and that women should do what men want." Ryan J. Downey of MTV News said "Is America ready to see its favorite iced-up, well-manicured diva, Jennifer Lopez, all glammed-down and kicking ass as a battered wife?".
Explaining the concept of the film, Lopez stated: "There's twists and turns and it's exciting ... but it also has a message, which is what attracted me to it in the first place, which is an empowering thing." Describing its message, she said "[If] you're in these negative situations, negative relationships, whatever, you can get out ... The power to get out of those things is always within yourself. That's the message of the movie." When Lopez read the script, she knew she was "going to have to do [the] whole sequence at the end" which featured an act that required her to "become a believable lean, mean fighting machine." Lopez then thought she should learn T'ai Chi or Tae Kwon Do, but was worried about learning it at an expert level in a short period of time. Her personal trainer then suggested that she study Krav Maga, the "official self-defense system of the Israeli Defense Forces which has recently become trendy in the States. The fighting style focuses on combating realistic scenarios with moves that are based on common, instinctual reactions", according to MTV News. Talking about the system, Lopez said: "[Krav Maga] levels out the playing field between men and women ... Where it doesn't matter how big or tall or strong you are. You can actually maneuver around that. It's about getting out of the way, counter attacking and using whatever you can to get the upper hand."
During an interview with Lopez, journalist Diane Sawyer of ABC News noted that people "in the abuse counseling industry, have said you can't tell women that, they can't do that. That something that's dangerous, even to see it in their minds." Lopez responded by stating: "Well, you know, this is a movie that has the touches upon those themes, but really, it's a thriller ... it's about empowering yourself in any situation, you know, that you have. When I read the script, I saw it as, you have the power within yourself, no matter how severe the situation can be, to change whatever that is, to find that power within yourself to change any negative situation."
Release
Enough was planned to be released in September 2001, but was pushed back to "early" 2002. It was released on May 24, 2002. With a production budget of $38 million, the film did make a profit. After its opening week, Enough ranked at No. 5 on the American Box Office chart, grossing over $14 million having been screened across 2,623 theaters. The next week, it grossed $6.8 million, dropping to No. 7 at the box office, and grossed $3.7 million after its third week, falling to No. 9. Ultimately, Enough grossed $40 million domestically and a total of $51.8 million worldwide.
Home media
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released the DVD of Enough on October 8, 2002, in Dolby Digital English and French languages, as well as subtitles. A VHS edition was released on March 4, 2003. A special widescreen edition containing an aspect ratio of 2.40:1 was released on September 16, 2003; it also included Spanish language options. It has a range of extras which includes three deleted scenes: "Strip Joint Break In", "Enough Is Enough" and "Krav Maga: Contact Combat". Lopez's music video for the song's soundtrack "Alive" is also included. During a "making-of" documentary for the film entitled "Max on the Set: Enough" Lopez stated she was attracted to Enough because it was "like a female Rocky". Cynthia Fuchs from PopMatters wrote an in-depth review of the special edition DVD release, and said: "Just why this film needs a second DVD release is unclear, except for the apparent diktat that there is no such thing as enough or even too much J-Lo".
Critical reception
The film earned generally negative reviews from critics, although some praised Lopez's performance. On Rotten Tomatoes, 22% of critics gave the film positive reviews, based on 125 reviews. The site's consensus states: "Enough exploits the serious issue of spousal abuse to make an illogical, unintelligent thriller." On Metacritic, the film had an average score of 25% based on reviews from 32 critics. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade A- on scale of A to F.
Stephen Holden of The New York Times said Lopez "holds the screen in a star performance that has less to do with acting than with embodying a forceful, streetwise woman who stands up for herself", while commenting that its preview had "audience gasping" and "Enough does a better job than most movies of sustaining a mood of palpable physical menace, then confirming your worst fears". Alice King of Entertainment Weekly described the film's plot as "arduously nonsensical" and felt that Lopez lacked connection with her on-screen daughter Tessa Allen, commenting that: "All this to protect a helium-voiced little girl with whom Lopez has so little chemistry, it's as if she's handling garbage rather than a small child." Blake French from Contactmusic.com was underwhelmed with the development of the film, and was critical that the film does not use Slim's old friend and romantic interest enough, nor does it develop Slim's real and adopted father figures while it "uses the tiresome old 'kid' cliché. Gracie is, as always, just old enough to understand the situation, but not quite old enough to make an actual impact in the story." French did praise Lopez in the end sequence, "By the final scenes, despite their obviousness, I was as engrossed in the movie as I could have been, actually rooting for J. Lo to kick some bad guy butt". Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle wrote: "Lopez has an image of being sexy and tough, but her appeal as an actress is that she's down to earth and that her emotions are accessible. There's nothing cold about her." Additionally, LaSalle felt that "It's the most tension-producing movie out there right now", stating that "it has the biggest visceral kick, capable of inspiring blood lust in otherwise peaceful viewers.
ReelViews' James Berardinelli said Enough is director "[Michael] Apted at his most commercial, and, unfortunately, his least compelling." Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice called Campbell the film's "primary power source", "His steely gaze and overbearing quietude are forever tainted; "Once and Again" doesn't stand a chance in Lifetime reruns". Robert Koehler of Variety was negative, "Enough, a thriller detailing how a good wife gets back at an evil, possessive husband, is never provocative enough to generate strong emotional response." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times called the film "tacky material" and was surprised to "see a director like Michael Apted and an actress like Jennifer Lopez" involved in it. Paula Nechack of the Seattle Post-Intelligencer called Enough "implausible and ugly" and felt that it had already been done by actresses including Julia Roberts and Ashley Judd, and its script was "more than enough of a mess to tarnish her box-office luster." Maitland McDonagh of TV Guide reviewed the film negatively, but praised the ending sequence, "If ever a movie was undermined by its packaging, it's this formulaic thriller about a resourceful battered wife and the brutal husband who won't let her go ... the entire promotional campaign is driven by the last 20 minutes, in which Slim becomes a lean, mean fighting machine and kicks the bastard's ass". Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said "the film's idiocy works for Lopez: Every diva needs at least one camp classic on her résumé". Desson Thomson from The Washington Post emphasized his disappointment with the film, stating: "In terms of actual social conscience, the movie gets a demagogic, rabble-rousing F. It also gets a failed grade for honest writing."
Jennifer Lopez was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Actress for her performance in the film (as well as for Maid in Manhattan) but lost in a tie to both Madonna for Swept Away and Britney Spears for Crossroads.
Soundtrack
The official score for Enough was composed by David Arnold, and released by Audio CD on June 4, 2002. In addition to its score, Lopez recorded the song entitled "Alive", which she co-wrote with her then-husband Cris Judd. Although it served as the song's soundtrack and was used during the film, it does not appear on the film's score.
References
External links
2002 films
2000s action drama films
2002 thriller drama films
American action drama films
American films
American thriller drama films
Columbia Pictures films
English-language films
Films scored by David Arnold
Films about domestic violence
Films based on American novels
Films directed by Michael Apted
Films produced by Irwin Winkler
Films set in San Francisco
Films shot in Washington (state)
2002 drama films
Films about stalking
Mother and daughter films
Films about divorce | [
0.41393953561782837,
-0.4072491526603699,
-0.13266350328922272,
0.24653926491737366,
0.28562256693840027,
-0.007732597179710865,
0.7187380194664001,
-0.37331151962280273,
-0.24643054604530334,
0.1222359836101532,
0.48426106572151184,
0.9637628793716431,
-0.34476009011268616,
0.13114598393440247,
0.25758421421051025,
-0.1289573758840561,
0.670793354511261,
0.6902621984481812,
-0.1730472594499588,
-0.8926697373390198,
-0.3724643290042877,
-0.41552239656448364,
0.5700212717056274,
-0.1817813515663147,
-0.488620400428772,
0.39313799142837524,
0.07545197755098343,
0.026957811787724495,
0.14104056358337402,
0.273769736289978,
0.5644680261611938,
-0.07889382541179657,
-0.3464210033416748,
-0.24910512566566467,
-0.15002796053886414,
0.25926473736763,
-0.2928254008293152,
0.4673982858657837,
-0.2594880163669586,
-0.10078495740890503,
-0.061104223132133484,
-0.2804912030696869,
0.1481153815984726,
-0.13685449957847595,
-0.44415420293807983,
-0.3595457673072815,
-0.9016605019569397,
0.007009406574070454,
-0.41461873054504395,
-0.27489909529685974,
-0.09433232247829437,
-0.009442483074963093,
0.5564847588539124,
0.06996653228998184,
0.4210832417011261,
0.5551397204399109,
-0.3639278709888458,
0.5333787202835083,
0.06545314937829971,
-0.5448909997940063,
-0.2388729602098465,
-0.03928397223353386,
0.5923325419425964,
-0.25925737619400024,
-0.026794107630848885,
0.2169400006532669,
-0.09728282690048218,
0.5289818048477173,
0.6004251837730408,
-0.4329380393028259,
-0.051668763160705566,
-0.9137011170387268,
0.043188177049160004,
0.19943052530288696,
0.07309582829475403,
-0.22407251596450806,
0.5184979438781738,
0.14752104878425598,
-0.09989922493696213,
0.11871717125177383,
-0.2826083302497864,
0.38406193256378174,
0.6148177981376648,
0.139748215675354,
-0.188923642039299,
-0.4286150634288788,
0.23369523882865906,
0.3932809829711914,
-0.24233382940292358,
0.05252755060791969,
0.16510328650474548,
-0.12806349992752075,
0.04816531389951706,
0.09171286970376968,
0.214541494846344,
-0.09851892292499542,
-0.0955839604139328,
-0.18265368044376373,
0.5807223320007324,
0.12088584154844284,
0.25279879570007324,
0.18913426995277405,
0.3047448694705963,
-0.7220951914787292,
-0.31900620460510254,
0.31412988901138306,
-0.06568756699562073,
-0.24863819777965546,
0.13218779861927032,
-0.27317723631858826,
-0.12649548053741455,
0.36443379521369934,
-0.4884374141693115,
0.04013650119304657,
-0.4113914668560028,
0.7161462306976318,
0.21748310327529907,
0.19967910647392273,
-0.2967151999473572,
-0.2473364770412445,
-0.016636701300740242,
0.7801214456558228,
0.401841938495636,
0.9469030499458313,
-0.23129601776599884,
0.44822055101394653,
0.20583662390708923,
0.2514537274837494,
-0.2077465057373047,
0.14299850165843964,
0.2660665512084961,
0.22709432244300842,
-0.25760623812675476,
-0.2115674912929535,
-0.2250167578458786,
-0.015759045258164406,
0.4810640513896942,
0.3382467031478882,
-0.45124927163124084,
-0.5165562629699707,
-0.4567524492740631,
0.17992697656154633,
-0.8834334015846252,
0.20345458388328552,
0.6495685577392578,
-0.20647692680358887,
0.33588358759880066,
0.057044487446546555,
-0.27257952094078064,
0.07559601217508316,
0.2784985303878784,
0.3938415050506592,
0.18549449741840363,
-0.47760507464408875,
-0.12996108829975128,
0.4678513705730438,
0.07941537350416183,
0.025894075632095337,
-0.16208362579345703,
0.13326619565486908,
0.22030174732208252,
0.041993726044893265,
0.49959760904312134,
-0.6891400218009949,
-0.03300968557596207,
-0.559689998626709,
-0.010044356808066368,
-0.23280884325504303,
-0.14776356518268585,
0.10102318227291107,
0.45382845401763916,
0.6434820294380188,
0.2954705059528351,
-0.24371623992919922,
0.20002980530261993,
0.1665494292974472,
0.5003272294998169,
0.6977977156639099,
0.09899156540632248,
0.06683336943387985,
-0.5578472018241882,
0.4226304292678833,
0.32653191685676575,
-0.31080755591392517,
0.24664954841136932,
0.06720655411481857,
-0.09553263336420059,
0.39758235216140747,
-0.29183971881866455,
-0.11464182287454605,
-0.4594845175743103,
-0.6082954406738281,
0.7413560748100281,
-0.3481375575065613,
0.5455676913261414,
-0.10007539391517639,
-0.35074010491371155,
0.4202321171760559,
0.15383797883987427,
0.24434664845466614,
0.14856575429439545,
-0.6378427147865295,
0.09942524880170822,
0.40928247570991516,
-0.8218191266059875,
0.5890365839004517,
0.3978838324546814,
0.304418683052063,
0.20014116168022156,
0.23629102110862732,
0.17794260382652283,
-0.3685651123523712,
0.10139680653810501,
0.2469789683818817,
0.13011208176612854,
-0.09574170410633087,
-0.5463178753852844,
0.29918599128723145,
0.28884264826774597,
-0.22452516853809357,
0.6985996961593628,
0.2656463086605072,
-0.16698896884918213,
0.06866571307182312,
-0.22311708331108093,
0.7545067667961121,
0.17961238324642181,
0.2919457256793976,
-0.009574994444847107,
-0.46073105931282043,
-0.4672325551509857,
0.7916039228439331,
-0.7222261428833008,
-0.20290908217430115,
0.7093789577484131,
0.005933323409408331,
0.42596885561943054,
0.26735273003578186,
0.3689001500606537,
-0.3261844515800476,
0.28847259283065796,
0.45511525869369507,
-0.22699157893657684,
0.1927299201488495,
0.21431991457939148,
0.12202920019626617,
0.47379595041275024,
-0.3969080150127411,
-0.18338064849376678,
0.05914062634110451,
-0.20608459413051605,
-0.19297373294830322,
0.3370850682258606,
-0.13651123642921448,
0.05676767975091934,
-0.12535350024700165,
-0.1360456347465515,
-0.04676967114210129,
0.3648989796638489,
-0.23625357449054718,
-0.014535440132021904,
0.24047431349754333,
0.09563611447811127,
0.11584984511137009,
0.22282087802886963,
-0.6451131701469421,
-1.0325716733932495,
-0.7730730175971985,
-0.05874153599143028,
0.2543570399284363,
-0.07719913870096207,
-0.2680920362472534,
-0.26864075660705566,
-0.38343167304992676,
0.008729342371225357,
-0.20793801546096802,
0.05957557633519173,
-0.03880714625120163,
-0.7108775973320007,
-0.671636700630188,
0.7270100116729736,
0.9894804358482361,
0.21700480580329895,
-0.4463571012020111,
0.23342660069465637,
0.06285610049962997,
0.28606516122817993,
-0.2128186970949173,
-0.5625194311141968,
-0.559046745300293,
0.06384310126304626,
-0.1497345119714737,
0.002988878171890974,
-0.42903420329093933,
0.337312251329422,
0.1508011370897293,
-0.07173437625169754,
0.3197419047355652,
0.08296618610620499,
0.1931280791759491,
-0.3670092821121216,
0.5811851620674133,
-0.5721878409385681,
0.19568823277950287,
-0.02305806428194046,
-0.05357975512742996,
-0.14329832792282104,
-0.7601121664047241,
-5.861305236816406,
0.5145140886306763,
0.04968488961458206,
0.25240981578826904,
0.36052361130714417,
-0.3925418555736542,
0.1785455346107483,
-0.24419653415679932,
0.07591670751571655,
-0.0771932378411293,
-0.29609227180480957,
-0.06738633662462234,
-0.1377236694097519,
0.022298792377114296,
0.10127950459718704,
0.1001015231013298,
0.22965270280838013,
0.150931254029274,
-0.07812345027923584,
0.46873393654823303,
-0.4496646523475647,
0.08572693914175034,
0.08858627080917358,
-0.35401496291160583,
0.21476349234580994,
0.9639443159103394,
-0.30412042140960693,
-0.041353899985551834,
-0.8068641424179077,
-0.2117317169904709,
-0.5402684807777405,
-0.11629603803157806,
0.09664519876241684,
-0.27477139234542847,
-0.7056823968887329,
0.011725813150405884,
0.34315234422683716,
-0.4187341332435608,
-0.28108125925064087,
-0.16045071184635162,
-0.5293112993240356,
0.441655695438385,
-0.3243769109249115,
-0.2279103547334671,
0.4003256559371948,
0.03276531398296356,
-0.6140069365501404,
-0.7615583539009094,
0.4061340093612671,
0.27976465225219727,
0.26210683584213257,
-0.04607928544282913,
-0.15783850848674774,
0.050223760306835175,
0.38039857149124146,
0.28197529911994934,
0.4641920328140259,
0.3785706162452698,
0.036696452647447586,
0.2529378831386566,
0.08999483287334442,
0.2955228090286255,
0.17085601389408112,
0.11359889805316925,
-0.004874560050666332,
0.3867098391056061,
0.5360298156738281,
-0.1653549075126648,
-0.1463117003440857,
0.261913925409317,
0.408291757106781,
0.3268515467643738,
0.3977535367012024,
-0.6632415056228638,
-0.41002246737480164,
-0.2416863590478897,
-0.22995194792747498,
0.1826867014169693,
-0.6189354062080383,
-0.19928213953971863,
-0.15912964940071106,
-0.06611167639493942,
0.4490271210670471,
-0.2191290259361267,
0.24745921790599823,
0.22247284650802612,
-0.17411209642887115,
-0.37026482820510864,
0.05444103106856346,
-0.053268302232027054,
0.4925990104675293,
-0.5391954779624939,
0.04464253783226013,
0.5805181264877319,
0.7112959027290344,
0.6148380637168884,
0.3709706962108612,
0.7034375071525574,
0.277249813079834,
-0.10083284974098206,
0.0495644174516201,
-0.5349341630935669,
0.10063426196575165,
-0.7799674868583679,
-0.317184180021286,
-0.6374437212944031,
0.008059602230787277,
0.9292677044868469,
0.38472285866737366,
-0.7416991591453552,
0.4189707040786743,
-0.1244363933801651,
-0.12724865972995758,
-0.45893609523773193,
-0.030080894008278847,
-0.31993773579597473,
0.04090495780110359,
0.38926389813423157,
0.30133122205734253,
-0.019948028028011322,
0.08577212691307068,
0.6167275309562683,
0.027217987924814224,
-0.24143771827220917,
-0.8723224997520447,
0.14699864387512207,
-0.044544119387865067,
0.0015576676232740283,
-0.27267950773239136,
0.2359670251607895,
-0.800402045249939,
0.21129226684570312,
0.11424650996923447,
-0.0158406849950552,
0.1811566948890686,
-1.1393694877624512,
-0.48670169711112976,
0.6018695831298828,
-0.24560849368572235,
0.3985104262828827,
0.36934518814086914,
-0.04791703447699547,
-0.41128671169281006,
0.175685316324234,
0.6133606433868408,
-0.18061739206314087,
0.19410595297813416,
-0.0581304170191288,
-0.5863333344459534,
0.3646368682384491,
0.1714639514684677,
-0.3871053159236908,
1.0869026184082031,
-0.4054925739765167,
-0.37275269627571106,
0.13377442955970764,
0.34248656034469604,
-0.0989094004034996,
-0.06181003153324127,
-0.1695052683353424,
-0.014817279763519764,
-0.351313978433609,
-0.9413313269615173,
0.11059994995594025,
0.7536402940750122,
-1.025205135345459,
-0.40546873211860657,
-0.733961284160614,
-0.7410185933113098,
0.44356951117515564,
0.441165953874588,
-0.3545699119567871,
0.3430851697921753,
0.6375494599342346,
-0.026333201676607132,
-0.05583886057138443,
-0.03149878606200218,
-0.045491863042116165,
-0.009454242885112762,
0.28267765045166016,
-0.14827558398246765,
-0.20455794036388397,
-0.6294916868209839,
-0.18081045150756836,
0.18812836706638336,
-0.332797646522522,
-0.495373010635376,
-0.30053555965423584,
-0.5296069383621216,
-0.05849654972553253,
0.060909904539585114,
0.5545588731765747,
0.4877876341342926,
-0.1879417449235916,
-0.4723946154117584,
-0.3803376853466034,
0.09699421375989914,
0.06558044254779816,
-0.459815114736557,
-0.09479167312383652,
0.35448917746543884,
0.6701551079750061,
-0.7702794075012207,
-0.10140848904848099,
0.43634918332099915,
-0.6861942410469055,
0.7356058955192566,
0.4566914737224579,
-0.20576904714107513,
0.40291664004325867,
-0.31631454825401306,
-0.2978469133377075,
-0.4128090739250183,
-0.3041059076786041,
0.14365611970424652,
-0.3483072817325592,
0.8821142911911011,
-0.04555134102702141,
-0.12078545987606049,
-1.1174958944320679,
-0.19990238547325134,
-0.8544890880584717,
-0.5103640556335449,
-0.4382341504096985,
-0.7923200726509094,
0.12238017469644547,
0.3271699547767639,
-0.594721794128418,
0.21075916290283203,
-0.5030598640441895,
-0.5888425707817078,
0.04401114210486412,
-0.1033027172088623,
0.8749244213104248,
-0.6122734546661377,
0.04891229048371315,
-0.5174412727355957,
-0.0153966611251235,
0.37519538402557373,
-0.15101614594459534,
0.3873911499977112,
0.6785908937454224,
0.1697075068950653,
0.05412451550364494,
-0.1876857578754425,
0.41518133878707886,
-0.5798046588897705,
-0.41591525077819824,
-0.24579156935214996,
-0.39561325311660767,
0.09180009365081787,
-0.2841460704803467,
-0.47010475397109985,
-0.4711161255836487,
0.6422120928764343,
-0.2516547739505768,
0.5812505483627319,
0.1142028421163559,
-0.32921409606933594,
0.275479257106781,
0.039919257164001465,
0.3096873462200165,
-0.7571801543235779,
0.36861446499824524,
-0.1466773897409439,
-0.0765790194272995,
0.23759597539901733,
-0.6418250203132629,
0.04928518086671829,
0.0004325829795561731,
-0.45551300048828125,
0.13497062027454376,
-0.10901816934347153,
-0.18782484531402588,
-0.2147957980632782,
0.0626000389456749,
-0.36547744274139404,
-0.2860275208950043,
0.1920050084590912,
-0.17247389256954193,
-0.28550660610198975,
0.27943694591522217,
-0.11639814078807831,
-0.46449148654937744,
-0.5668348073959351,
-0.11991919577121735,
0.02335762418806553,
-0.5781705379486084,
-0.4075774848461151,
-0.0276216808706522,
-0.11642911285161972,
-0.38477668166160583,
-0.20279911160469055,
-0.6100324392318726,
0.19117212295532227,
-0.6520514488220215,
-0.16492347419261932,
0.14675667881965637,
-0.3889579176902771,
-0.5071800947189331,
-0.08852661401033401,
0.34358811378479004,
-0.1955033242702484,
-0.09832030534744263,
0.3458912968635559,
-0.08922377973794937,
0.41331595182418823,
-0.19878941774368286,
0.03832010552287102,
-0.24585339426994324,
0.13313016295433044,
-0.5519300699234009,
0.6284307837486267,
0.9610289335250854,
-0.38580870628356934,
0.3471571207046509,
0.815929651260376,
-0.34168076515197754,
0.05413210764527321,
0.15470057725906372,
-0.0599539540708065,
-0.7106046676635742,
0.5189594030380249,
-0.0940515473484993,
-0.17606431245803833,
0.5570293068885803,
0.19941885769367218,
0.47686371207237244,
0.4716697931289673,
0.1719149500131607,
0.18594568967819214,
-0.22726696729660034,
0.04019328951835632,
0.015534298494458199,
0.19804154336452484,
-0.2214592695236206,
0.290626585483551,
0.2888975441455841,
0.10476792603731155,
0.7032943367958069,
-0.006561884190887213,
0.09432324022054672,
0.39005741477012634,
0.33662155270576477,
0.2384217083454132,
0.18856486678123474,
0.18125611543655396,
0.16063182055950165,
0.7410082221031189,
-0.03969964385032654,
0.22317682206630707,
0.12040950357913971,
-0.11585689336061478,
-0.13390448689460754,
0.16447463631629944,
0.16589678823947906,
0.12247423827648163,
-0.02961484156548977,
0.17447863519191742,
-0.4795556664466858,
-0.04863639920949936,
-0.3701823949813843,
0.29283925890922546,
0.7974694967269897,
0.4178447425365448,
-0.024076411500573158,
-0.268507182598114,
0.10502124577760696,
-0.4337885081768036,
-0.017666852101683617,
-0.03454795107245445,
0.5163666009902954,
0.21194317936897278,
-0.10251297056674957,
0.06209864094853401,
0.5060001611709595,
-0.45333054661750793,
-0.1586412936449051,
0.34699109196662903,
-0.39732736349105835,
0.05087533965706825,
-0.2242887318134308,
-0.46330347657203674,
0.01851080358028412,
0.43319541215896606,
0.009922533296048641,
-0.1931011825799942,
-0.022952906787395477,
0.11262436956167221,
-0.47232651710510254,
-0.07914107292890549,
-0.5964194536209106,
-0.6006336808204651,
0.00280211865901947,
-0.673751950263977,
-0.23185716569423676,
-0.2657800316810608,
0.6813292503356934,
0.07661283016204834,
-0.029409421607851982,
0.6066355109214783,
-0.08266235142946243,
-0.09893232583999634,
0.7884337306022644,
-0.02798427827656269,
0.10476432740688324,
-0.7008691430091858,
0.2639442980289459,
-1.2850536108016968,
0.2826908826828003,
0.38897836208343506,
0.4425075948238373,
0.05414898321032524,
0.11256726086139679,
0.3463411033153534,
-0.5721694231033325,
0.4694638252258301,
0.15579193830490112,
0.5519340634346008,
-0.1111268475651741,
-0.11385522782802582,
-0.04289877787232399,
-0.20580847561359406,
0.562813937664032,
-0.3876453936100006,
0.11844484508037567,
0.682752788066864,
-0.1576506495475769,
-0.16501934826374054,
0.5889968872070312,
-0.1258181929588318,
0.5321194529533386,
0.08835010230541229,
0.16206695139408112,
-0.06547868251800537,
0.207948699593544,
0.5019326210021973,
0.40105143189430237,
-0.13740435242652893,
-0.13139890134334564,
0.1903071403503418,
-0.09748571366071701,
-0.3119209408760071,
0.4181731343269348,
-0.8860639333724976,
-0.8779135942459106,
-0.4256412982940674,
-0.47201070189476013,
-0.6196112632751465,
0.7100404500961304,
0.1883402317762375,
-0.67208331823349,
0.4278576076030731,
-0.6243273615837097,
-0.8270865678787231,
0.843708336353302,
0.267118901014328,
0.42664650082588196,
0.22243887186050415,
-0.10032766312360764
] |
229051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Margaret%20Campbell%2C%20Duchess%20of%20Argyll | Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll | Ethel Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll (née Whigham, formerly Sweeny; 1 December 1912 – 25 July 1993), was a British socialite best remembered for her much-publicised divorce from her second husband, Ian Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll, in 1963, which featured salacious photographs and scandalous stories.
Birth and youth
Ethel Margaret Whigham was the only child of Helen Mann Hannay and George Hay Whigham, a Scottish millionaire who was chairman of the Celanese Corporation of Britain and North America. She spent the first 14 years of her life in New York City, where she was educated privately at the Hewitt School. Her beauty was much spoken of, and she had youthful romances with Prince Aly Khan, millionaire aviator Glen Kidston and publishing heir Max Aitken, later the second Lord Beaverbrook.
In 1928 the future actor David Niven, then 18, had sex with 15-year-old Margaret Whigham during a holiday at Bembridge on the Isle of Wight. To the fury of her father, she became pregnant as a result. She was taken into a London nursing home for a secret abortion. "All hell broke loose," remembered her family cook, Elizabeth Duckworth. Margaret Whigham did not mention the episode in her 1975 memoirs, but she continued to adore Niven until the day he died. She was among the VIP guests at his London memorial service.
In 1930, she was presented at Court in London and was known as the debutante of that year. Shortly afterwards, she announced her engagement to Charles Guy Fulke Greville, 7th Earl of Warwick. However, the wedding did not take place because she preferred Charles Sweeny, an American amateur golfer from a wealthy Pennsylvania family. Her numerous early romances included an affair with Prince George, Duke of Kent.
First marriage
On 21 February 1933, following her conversion to his Roman Catholicism, Margaret Whigham married American businessman Charles Francis Sweeny (1910–1993) at the Brompton Oratory, London. Such had been the publicity surrounding her Norman Hartnell wedding dress that the traffic in Knightsbridge was blocked for three hours. For the rest of her life, she was associated with glamour and elegance, being a firm client of Hartnell, Victor Stiebel and Angéle Delanghe in London before and after the war. She had three children with Charles Francis Sweeny: a daughter, who was stillborn at eight months in late 1933; another daughter, Frances Helen (born 1937, who married Charles Manners, 10th Duke of Rutland), and a son, Brian Charles (1940–2021). Before these pregnancies, she suffered eight miscarriages.
In 1943, Margaret Sweeny had a near fatal fall down a lift shaft while visiting her chiropodist on Bond Street. "I fell forty feet to the bottom of the lift shaft", she later recalled. "The only thing that saved me was the lift cable, which broke my fall. I must have clutched at it, for it was later found that all my finger nails were torn off. I apparently fell on to my knees and cracked the back of my head against the wall".
Intermarital relationships
The Sweenys divorced in 1947. After the end of her first marriage, she was briefly engaged to a Texas-born banker, Joseph Thomas, of Lehman Brothers, but he fell in love with another woman and the engagement was broken. She also had a serious romantic relationship with Theodore Rousseau, curator of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, who was, she recalled, "highly intelligent, witty and self-confident to the point of arrogance". That romance also ended without the couple formalising their liaison, since the mother of two "feared that Ted was not 'stepfather material'". Still, she observed in her memoirs, "[W]e continued to see each other constantly."
Second marriage
On 22 March 1951, she became the third wife of Ian Douglas Campbell, 11th Duke of Argyll. She wrote later in life:
(In fact, she was not mentioned in Cole Porter's original version of "You're the Top". The lyrics were later anglicised for the British version of the song by P. G. Wodehouse, who changed two lines from "You're an O'Neill drama / You're Whistler's mama!" to "You're Mussolini / You're Mrs Sweeny".) According to Lyndsy Spence, a biographer of the Duchess, the Duke of Argyll forged a deed of sale (sometimes called a deed of gift, thus offering various items from Inveraray Castle as security) before their marriage in exchange for her money used to restore his family home at Inveraray, and wiretapped her car. The Duchess herself forged letters purporting the sons from her husband's second marriage (his marriage to Louise) were illegitimate and attempted to acquire a baby she could claim to be her husband's heir.
Divorce from the Duke of Argyll
Within a few years, the marriage was falling apart. The Duke was known to be addicted to drink, gambling and prescription drugs, and was described as physically violent and emotionally cruel by his first two wives, whose money he tried to use for maintaining Inveraray Castle. He suspected his wife of infidelity and, while she was in New York, he engaged a locksmith to break open a cupboard at their Mayfair home, 48 Upper Grosvenor Street. The evidence discovered resulted in the 1963 divorce case, in which the Duke of Argyll accused his wife of infidelity and included a set of Polaroid photographs of the Duchess naked, save for her signature three-strand pearl necklace, in the company of another man. There were also photographs of the Duchess fellating a naked man whose face was not shown. It was speculated that this "headless man" was the Minister of Defence Duncan Sandys (later Lord Duncan-Sandys, son-in-law of Winston Churchill), who offered to resign from the cabinet.
A list of as many as 88 men with whom the Duke believed his wife had consorted was produced. The list is said to include two government ministers and three members of the British royal family. The judge commented that the Duchess had indulged in "disgusting sexual activities". Lord Denning was called upon by the government to track down the "headless man". He compared the handwriting of the five leading "suspects", (Duncan Sandys; Douglas Fairbanks, Jr.; John Cohane, an American businessman; Peter Combe, a former press officer at the Savoy Hotel; and Sigismund von Braun, brother of the German scientist Wernher von Braun) with the captions written on the photographs. It is claimed that this analysis proved that the man in question was Fairbanks, then long married to his second wife, but this was not made public. Granting the divorce, Lord Wheatley, the presiding judge, said the evidence established that the Duchess of Argyll "was a completely promiscuous woman whose sexual appetite could only be satisfied with a number of men". He continued: "Her attitude to the sanctity of marriage was what moderns would call 'enlightened' but which in plain language was wholly immoral." Many of the men the Duchess was alleged to have slept with were homosexual; she was unwilling to divulge this as sexual acts between men were illegal in the UK at the time.
The Duchess never revealed the identity of the "headless man", and Fairbanks always denied the allegation. Long afterwards, it was claimed that there were actually two "headless men" in the photographs, Fairbanks and Sandys, the latter identified on the basis of the Duchess's statement that "the only Polaroid camera in the country at that time had been lent to the Ministry of Defence".
In 2013 the daughter-in-law of the 11th Duke, Lady Colin Campbell, stated that the "headless man" was an American executive called Bill Lyons.
In 1963, the Duke of Argyll married an American, Mathilda Coster Mortimer Heller, and 10 years later died of a stroke aged 69.
Final years
The Duchess wrote a memoir, Forget Not, which was published by W. H. Allen Ltd in 1975, and was reviewed negatively for its name-dropping and air of entitlement. She also lent her name as author to a guide to entertaining. With her fortune diminished, she opened her London house at 48 Upper Grosvenor Street, which had been decorated for her parents in 1935 by Syrie Maugham, for paid tours. Her extravagant lifestyle and ill-considered investments left her largely penniless by the time she died.
In 1978, her debts forced her to move from Upper Grosvenor Street and relocate with her maid to a suite at the Grosvenor House Hotel. In April 1988, on the evening after the Grand National, she appeared on a Channel 4 After Dark discussion about horse racing "so she said, to put the point of view of the horse", later walking out of the programme "because she was so very sleepy". In 1990, unable to pay the hotel bills, she was evicted, and with the support of friends and her first husband moved to an apartment.
Her children later placed her in a nursing home in Pimlico, London. The Duchess died in penury in 1993 after a bad fall in the nursing home. She was buried alongside her first husband, Charles Sweeny, who had died only four months earlier, in Brookwood Cemetery in Woking, Surrey.
She had asked Charles Castle in 1974 to write her biography, but reneged. He then published The Duchess Who Dared – The Life of Margaret, Duchess of Argyll in 1994. It was reprinted in 1995 by Pan Books, and in 2021, to coincide with the TV series A Very British Scandal, by Swift Press.
Personality
The Duchess once told The New York Times: "I don't think anybody has real style or class any more. Everyone's got old and fat." She described herself as "always vain". Another quote gives an insight into her personality: "Always a poodle, only a poodle! That, and three strands of pearls!" she said. "Together they are absolutely the essential things in life."
In popular culture
Powder Her Face, a chamber opera based on major events in the Duchess's life, received its premiere at the Cheltenham Music Festival in 1995. The English composer Thomas Adès wrote the music, and novelist Philip Hensher contributed the libretto; the Festival, along with the Almeida Opera, commissioned the piece. The opera's Duchess character, an image of the real woman refracted through an astringent camp sensibility, invites both sympathy and contempt for her by design.
Her divorce from the Duke of Argyll was dramatised in the Amazon/BBC's A Very British Scandal, written by Sarah Phelps and broadcast in 2021, starring Claire Foy as the Duchess.
References
External links
Margaret, Duchess of Argyll at the National Portrait Gallery
1912 births
1993 deaths
Scottish socialites
Burials at Brookwood Cemetery
Margaret, Duchess of Argyll
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Scottish Roman Catholics
People from Renfrewshire
Hewitt School alumni
People from New York City | [
-0.6052047610282898,
0.15938551723957062,
-0.09361245483160019,
-0.3516416847705841,
-0.033607956022024155,
0.3065505027770996,
0.538155734539032,
-0.3744426965713501,
-0.694922685623169,
0.514596164226532,
-0.42407867312431335,
0.48727157711982727,
0.021308915689587593,
0.9818052649497986,
-0.08622453361749649,
0.38401103019714355,
0.05668143928050995,
0.3041006922721863,
-0.5425850749015808,
-0.23161187767982483,
0.055440932512283325,
-0.15407615900039673,
-0.08650721609592438,
0.3626525104045868,
0.4565499722957611,
0.30046457052230835,
0.3515997529029846,
-0.20505966246128082,
0.41402122378349304,
0.14260804653167725,
0.39835140109062195,
0.05881465598940849,
0.5749581456184387,
-0.30237486958503723,
-0.19155849516391754,
0.03143652528524399,
0.04292171075940132,
-0.25670674443244934,
-0.06643922626972198,
-0.2539726793766022,
-0.18039482831954956,
-0.180657759308815,
-0.23521551489830017,
0.06330730020999908,
-0.0942387506365776,
-0.38218557834625244,
-1.0782532691955566,
0.310723215341568,
-0.10474886745214462,
0.4147009551525116,
-0.36321765184402466,
0.3651912212371826,
0.8783243894577026,
-0.016148753464221954,
-0.03604050353169441,
-0.05523918941617012,
-0.9805247187614441,
0.178677499294281,
0.005932718049734831,
-0.5696302056312561,
0.6179916262626648,
0.14825451374053955,
0.33280107378959656,
0.17054589092731476,
0.0024822440464049578,
0.48489367961883545,
0.02571321837604046,
0.4591551423072815,
-0.25675758719444275,
-0.2493898719549179,
0.5289387106895447,
0.15174981951713562,
0.5305394530296326,
0.3337583839893341,
-0.2727833390235901,
0.5649077892303467,
-0.07243234664201736,
-0.8808481097221375,
0.5067283511161804,
-0.1396607756614685,
0.04677790030837059,
-0.22689148783683777,
0.20817174017429352,
0.028111107647418976,
0.3258197605609894,
-0.03506047651171684,
-0.1839536875486374,
0.9018555879592896,
-0.11898845434188843,
0.6997851133346558,
-0.4349495768547058,
0.30030444264411926,
0.35313311219215393,
0.06333380937576294,
-0.0036383247934281826,
-0.3864905834197998,
0.6578100919723511,
-0.1091894805431366,
-0.2090505212545395,
-0.4127109944820404,
-0.00667143240571022,
0.3041659891605377,
-0.23629027605056763,
-0.5329499244689941,
-1.0743896961212158,
-0.2344137728214264,
-0.3416861593723297,
-0.3814341127872467,
-0.13398340344429016,
-0.19982193410396576,
-0.42344409227371216,
0.07680480182170868,
0.221117302775383,
-0.39132919907569885,
-0.3589165210723877,
0.11039259284734726,
0.08598732948303223,
-0.6135587096214294,
-0.34419307112693787,
-0.26821914315223694,
0.5482213497161865,
-0.5756198167800903,
-0.14403243362903595,
0.1605171114206314,
0.08172964304685593,
-0.26511150598526,
0.006339033134281635,
-0.01280948519706726,
-0.8325589895248413,
0.5478813648223877,
0.016771875321865082,
0.7434455156326294,
-0.8035036325454712,
-0.01264343224465847,
0.33570241928100586,
-0.3315291702747345,
0.08554597944021225,
-0.22148515284061432,
0.9493352770805359,
0.11105842143297195,
-0.7740710377693176,
1.0051625967025757,
-0.8828799724578857,
-0.19116699695587158,
0.45432043075561523,
0.08988005667924881,
-0.41214972734451294,
0.30785781145095825,
-0.43771854043006897,
-0.2125968486070633,
-0.33222779631614685,
-0.5653558373451233,
0.2976224422454834,
-1.2761791944503784,
-0.10280468314886093,
0.3598916828632355,
0.6115818619728088,
0.2253882884979248,
0.2670850455760956,
0.2429829239845276,
0.008237631991505623,
0.378444641828537,
0.1002601757645607,
0.11354969441890717,
0.7694216370582581,
-0.08932653069496155,
-0.15995723009109497,
0.03548800200223923,
-0.5538423657417297,
0.3072739243507385,
-0.6508368849754333,
0.311821311712265,
0.35986024141311646,
0.15962493419647217,
-0.3757762014865875,
0.8569681644439697,
-0.33482784032821655,
0.10439680516719818,
0.04382332041859627,
-0.5017373561859131,
-0.7259106636047363,
0.15428957343101501,
-0.3146473467350006,
0.2551775574684143,
0.27822309732437134,
0.3725097179412842,
-0.29218772053718567,
-0.38817399740219116,
0.2689530849456787,
0.46600544452667236,
-0.44877511262893677,
-0.4000195264816284,
0.2668708264827728,
0.34736138582229614,
0.6019099354743958,
-0.011900330893695354,
-0.28320959210395813,
0.27577394247055054,
0.4099675714969635,
0.9690251350402832,
-0.154079869389534,
-0.2263541966676712,
-0.13944140076637268,
-0.5082257390022278,
-0.26273199915885925,
-0.007221301551908255,
0.01789175719022751,
0.26397931575775146,
0.28352758288383484,
1.0691512823104858,
-0.21619540452957153,
-0.7889472842216492,
0.34914106130599976,
0.38478806614875793,
-0.27483153343200684,
-0.281715452671051,
-0.1067446917295456,
-0.16038379073143005,
0.3701116442680359,
-0.4798572063446045,
-0.1117231473326683,
0.6151564121246338,
-0.39389172196388245,
0.47661036252975464,
-0.4589281380176544,
0.16003303229808807,
-0.47742754220962524,
0.556796669960022,
0.2503286600112915,
-0.5362166166305542,
-0.15644800662994385,
0.20047986507415771,
0.32329899072647095,
-0.018726179376244545,
0.5914214253425598,
0.2513238787651062,
-0.38084909319877625,
0.3129786550998688,
0.22931057214736938,
-0.3521520495414734,
0.10047166049480438,
0.06931687891483307,
-0.2858319580554962,
0.8667954802513123,
-0.17765246331691742,
0.2610510289669037,
-0.44144946336746216,
0.03319055587053299,
0.11750400066375732,
-0.11830548197031021,
0.6123355627059937,
0.39891061186790466,
-0.0877060517668724,
-0.05365140736103058,
0.1565270721912384,
-1.0242232084274292,
-0.036412689834833145,
0.48395493626594543,
0.06988551467657089,
0.6612692475318909,
0.20619963109493256,
0.6269126534461975,
-0.03030654788017273,
0.2383880615234375,
0.03437541797757149,
0.3335072994232178,
0.15456750988960266,
-0.7951594591140747,
0.20611034333705902,
-0.08378849923610687,
-0.23202089965343475,
-0.27256089448928833,
-0.6116824746131897,
0.0949505940079689,
0.2857341170310974,
-0.032426901161670685,
-0.22584214806556702,
0.2675246000289917,
-0.41747233271598816,
-0.5258403420448303,
0.2127293050289154,
0.3379211723804474,
0.10246254503726959,
-0.7718963027000427,
-0.29326075315475464,
0.4937673807144165,
-0.028685862198472023,
-0.19387826323509216,
-0.4174920320510864,
0.2160862237215042,
-0.29756975173950195,
-0.071086585521698,
0.1984935700893402,
-0.1191786378622055,
-0.12489339709281921,
0.4200182855129242,
-0.4924194812774658,
0.1323905885219574,
0.3112441301345825,
-0.16353532671928406,
-0.7682610154151917,
0.43610888719558716,
-0.2252899706363678,
0.18171310424804688,
0.18534427881240845,
0.3644450306892395,
0.3735320568084717,
-0.2699503004550934,
-5.373806953430176,
0.05541345477104187,
-0.20106588304042816,
-0.40729889273643494,
0.19271515309810638,
0.1467370092868805,
0.5078774690628052,
-0.41544410586357117,
0.07985501736402512,
0.12694011628627777,
0.563565194606781,
-0.046670664101839066,
0.2776070237159729,
0.28314658999443054,
0.3473343253135681,
0.06423909962177277,
0.29515090584754944,
0.03808004781603813,
-0.2357548177242279,
0.6440237760543823,
-0.024973373860120773,
0.186386376619339,
-0.444260835647583,
0.5218910574913025,
-0.39187657833099365,
0.5479986071586609,
0.0034221308305859566,
-0.874131977558136,
-1.0154324769973755,
-0.5940912365913391,
-0.44912779331207275,
0.2783361077308655,
0.26583173871040344,
0.35146036744117737,
-0.2511841356754303,
-0.23024696111679077,
0.17014306783676147,
0.12088467925786972,
-0.24811799824237823,
-0.20111018419265747,
-0.17865745723247528,
-0.044165074825286865,
0.18342626094818115,
0.2601519525051117,
0.32823270559310913,
-0.22731585800647736,
-0.7911780476570129,
-0.07437609881162643,
0.040211983025074005,
0.2658458948135376,
-0.741731584072113,
-0.07698937505483627,
0.43790388107299805,
-0.18312972784042358,
-0.35367530584335327,
0.8297384977340698,
-0.5336448550224304,
0.19038507342338562,
-0.9310449957847595,
0.07312905043363571,
0.2296850085258484,
-0.42730018496513367,
0.4642970860004425,
0.2336486428976059,
-0.1271287351846695,
0.12889283895492554,
-0.2060224562883377,
0.6814978122711182,
0.24174998700618744,
-0.10760416090488434,
-0.3480644226074219,
0.2891685366630554,
0.033512163907289505,
-1.1487255096435547,
-0.2627210319042206,
-0.841600239276886,
-0.22374534606933594,
0.5119827389717102,
-0.21249182522296906,
-0.38136547803878784,
0.2682912051677704,
0.2154638022184372,
0.395930677652359,
0.5146699547767639,
-0.45177745819091797,
-0.7666392922401428,
-0.18693575263023376,
0.2778770923614502,
0.10211245715618134,
0.3314310908317566,
0.02589379996061325,
0.18036366999149323,
-0.3711898624897003,
0.7184532284736633,
-0.09872062504291534,
-0.057144153863191605,
-0.14028041064739227,
0.39116981625556946,
0.08534318208694458,
0.20630355179309845,
-0.3848856985569,
-0.5603033900260925,
0.17136572301387787,
-0.33111971616744995,
-0.4471336901187897,
-0.3057280480861664,
-0.2137131690979004,
0.16530701518058777,
0.2523998022079468,
-0.5527347326278687,
0.1344013214111328,
0.15726014971733093,
0.32494667172431946,
-0.45098012685775757,
0.4719432592391968,
-0.44388172030448914,
-0.20365308225154877,
0.26411160826683044,
0.6820069551467896,
-0.016968488693237305,
-0.03368798643350601,
-0.05912570655345917,
-0.44700977206230164,
0.20104172825813293,
0.28995591402053833,
0.2351115345954895,
1.0156776905059814,
-0.9554164409637451,
-0.6736809015274048,
0.7758920192718506,
0.21586237847805023,
-0.15708762407302856,
-0.004248145967721939,
0.09970209002494812,
0.3157765865325928,
-0.7247692346572876,
-0.25945043563842773,
-0.4753967523574829,
0.07428272068500519,
0.007789061404764652,
0.11963929235935211,
0.16753748059272766,
-0.44306886196136475,
0.3907773792743683,
0.251304566860199,
0.3919614255428314,
0.09112277626991272,
-0.22462469339370728,
0.019898561760783195,
0.6539202928543091,
-0.785820722579956,
-0.6011962294578552,
0.3816511929035187,
-0.5690665245056152,
-0.5299291610717773,
0.2806883156299591,
-0.544072151184082,
0.6277972459793091,
-0.5115613341331482,
0.08555803447961807,
-0.9268289804458618,
-0.024193959310650826,
-1.0972288846969604,
-0.23317237198352814,
0.30315133929252625,
0.2285761833190918,
-0.37716594338417053,
-0.2796838879585266,
-0.276030033826828,
1.0370197296142578,
-0.5081744194030762,
-0.6506298184394836,
0.2679773271083832,
-0.2601124048233032,
0.3634067177772522,
0.3115966320037842,
0.0035618478432297707,
0.42074111104011536,
0.5453292727470398,
0.44194740056991577,
-0.036150574684143066,
0.09164335578680038,
-0.380802720785141,
0.716227114200592,
1.040473222732544,
0.26888561248779297,
-0.9730568528175354,
-0.27193474769592285,
0.11730261892080307,
0.512230396270752,
0.5975890159606934,
-0.1871928572654724,
0.22117480635643005,
0.8303484916687012,
-0.8504171967506409,
-0.1246563270688057,
0.03407645598053932,
0.07683078199625015,
0.11505544185638428,
-0.09626458585262299,
-0.12431640923023224,
0.912994384765625,
0.30988991260528564,
-0.07996048778295517,
0.07825055718421936,
-1.2022610902786255,
0.32556551694869995,
-0.3217570185661316,
-0.4566146433353424,
1.0824601650238037,
0.07782544940710068,
-0.305309534072876,
0.3960920572280884,
1.132286548614502,
-0.1175309494137764,
0.4571364223957062,
-0.17876943945884705,
-0.7803059816360474,
0.05364525318145752,
-0.26881811022758484,
-0.6004510521888733,
-0.45948582887649536,
-0.24229831993579865,
0.17097817361354828,
-0.5989822745323181,
0.3334466814994812,
0.14768929779529572,
-0.46179935336112976,
0.5042795538902283,
0.09107370674610138,
0.30702105164527893,
0.656006932258606,
-0.2946394979953766,
0.44601118564605713,
0.06956396996974945,
-0.46231359243392944,
0.8482427597045898,
0.08185619115829468,
0.12205670028924942,
0.4885382652282715,
0.913673996925354,
0.8365530371665955,
0.733372151851654,
-0.4395032823085785,
-0.02164635993540287,
-0.1641787439584732,
0.20186777412891388,
-0.9913840889930725,
0.31636369228363037,
0.5423240661621094,
0.44402459263801575,
-0.8230605721473694,
-0.7051535844802856,
-0.8673481941223145,
0.526460587978363,
-0.9946621060371399,
0.22748132050037384,
-0.125934898853302,
0.24689261615276337,
0.21700908243656158,
0.005312314257025719,
0.34669187664985657,
-0.14237619936466217,
-0.2999313175678253,
0.03328758850693703,
0.42567452788352966,
-0.11700110882520676,
-0.29544132947921753,
0.32136908173561096,
0.30793604254722595,
0.40974435210227966,
-0.5733590126037598,
0.04649787396192551,
-0.5819863677024841,
-0.656557559967041,
0.531414270401001,
-0.021571507677435875,
-0.7321867346763611,
0.4071822464466095,
-0.9477027058601379,
-0.6737032532691956,
0.02945120446383953,
0.316533625125885,
-0.29000234603881836,
0.2624967396259308,
-0.7591619491577148,
-0.02406899258494377,
-0.23440751433372498,
-0.4352499544620514,
0.2269555777311325,
-0.1516280621290207,
-0.012663785368204117,
0.6164063811302185,
-0.018243368715047836,
0.3723123073577881,
0.4000778794288635,
-0.5364552736282349,
0.35994434356689453,
-0.7726467847824097,
0.05620340257883072,
-0.7271449565887451,
0.34296754002571106,
0.24029843509197235,
0.08890090137720108,
-0.09176937490701675,
-0.5501927733421326,
-0.04702726751565933,
-0.47576624155044556,
0.35664665699005127,
0.005679958034306765,
0.13600750267505646,
0.01338375173509121,
0.3844597041606903,
0.08836627006530762,
-0.5591335892677307,
-0.09518317878246307,
0.17403365671634674,
-0.17440713942050934,
-0.027139857411384583,
-0.3073328733444214,
0.09988642483949661,
0.5824868679046631,
-0.040611982345581055,
0.3723990023136139,
0.28493067622184753,
0.400383859872818,
-0.036688290536403656,
0.5892437696456909,
0.12130481004714966,
0.5101534724235535,
-0.0804218053817749,
-0.05796089395880699,
-0.04573105648159981,
0.31710267066955566,
-0.4258728623390198,
-0.35788172483444214,
0.4625840187072754,
-0.6220143437385559,
0.4194171130657196,
0.5143433809280396,
0.36486923694610596,
0.4609731435775757,
-0.3766884207725525,
-0.27015456557273865,
0.3127880096435547,
0.6253155469894409,
0.2761642038822174,
0.44302183389663696,
0.6944946646690369,
-0.39594438672065735,
0.5199574828147888,
-0.12843571603298187,
0.28575828671455383,
-0.9191304445266724,
0.24303852021694183,
0.8840925097465515,
0.322028249502182,
-0.5394889116287231,
-0.3983694314956665,
0.16493496298789978,
-0.846817672252655,
-0.05966988205909729,
0.24865059554576874,
0.44415542483329773,
0.32254624366760254,
-0.8404017686843872,
0.3315030634403229,
-0.29447561502456665,
0.6115935444831848,
0.08250569552183151,
0.632461428642273,
0.09034135192632675,
-0.3714616298675537,
-0.3332878351211548,
0.4474174976348877,
-0.0698399618268013,
0.3030155897140503,
0.45190972089767456,
-0.10984276980161667,
0.12433822453022003,
-0.3706749379634857,
-0.2658597528934479,
0.1378258317708969,
-0.8187494277954102,
-0.08008455485105515,
-0.02981617860496044,
0.2070571482181549,
-0.17613230645656586,
0.09591115266084671,
-0.08537552505731583,
1.257805347442627,
-0.321712851524353,
-0.6284224390983582,
0.523193359375,
-0.5605607628822327,
-0.26225802302360535,
-0.030154602602124214,
0.32875844836235046,
0.8249242901802063,
-0.0011289732065051794,
-0.7299734354019165,
0.6676412224769592,
-0.21075695753097534,
0.2235574722290039,
-0.5636212229728699,
0.327889621257782,
0.12579086422920227,
-0.5086967945098877,
-1.0079354047775269,
-0.10234993696212769,
-0.6419080495834351,
-0.312053382396698,
-0.11172851920127869,
0.4525893032550812,
-0.543006956577301,
-0.140781968832016,
0.9553292989730835,
-0.2927660644054413,
-0.2735419273376465,
-0.26958364248275757,
0.0677701011300087,
-0.9591009616851807,
0.4842486083507538,
0.6183784008026123,
-0.06073865666985512,
-0.010990714654326439,
-0.17997559905052185,
0.006156660616397858,
0.04156142845749855,
0.5939732193946838,
-0.26539257168769836,
0.5340365171432495,
-0.03931189328432083,
0.2163935750722885,
0.1368783861398697,
0.07339853793382645,
-0.34697115421295166,
0.4003255367279053,
-0.13453781604766846,
0.2735268771648407,
-0.009761796332895756,
-0.22148014605045319,
-0.10807158052921295,
-0.22885902225971222,
0.2106853574514389,
0.198445662856102,
-0.4121391475200653,
-0.326819509267807,
-0.27126771211624146,
-0.12004777789115906,
-0.3200504183769226,
-0.326224684715271,
0.2378116399049759,
-1.1968406438827515,
0.1124517172574997,
-0.8590310215950012,
-0.22040046751499176,
-0.7281069755554199,
0.027431387454271317,
0.07228944450616837
] |
229052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qilin | Qilin | The qilin (; ) is a legendary hooved chimerical creature that appears in Chinese mythology, and is said to appear with the imminent arrival or passing of a sage or illustrious ruler. Qilin are a specific type of the mythological family of one-horned beasts. The qilin also appears in the mythologies of other cultures, such as Japanese and Korean mythology, where it is known as the kirin.
Origins
The earliest references to the qilin are in the 5th century BCE Zuo Zhuan.
The legendary image of the qilin became associated with the image of the giraffe in the Ming dynasty. The identification of the qilin with giraffes began after Zheng He's 15th-century voyage to East Africa (landing, among other places, in modern-day Somalia). The Ming Dynasty bought giraffes from the Somali merchants along with zebras, incense, and various other exotic animals. Zheng He's fleet brought back two giraffes to Nanjing and they were referred to as "qilins", with giraffe meaning geri in Somali. The Emperor proclaimed the giraffes magical creatures, whose capture signaled the greatness of his power.
It is said that the female is called the lin (), the male is called the qi () and "qilin" is a designation for the whole species. However, "lin" alone often carries the same generic meaning.
The identification between the qilin and the giraffe is supported by some attributes of the qilin, including its herbivory and quiet nature. Its reputed ability to "walk on grass without disturbing it" may be related to the giraffe's long, thin legs. Also, the qilin is described as having antlers like a deer and scales like a dragon or fish; since the giraffe has horn-like "ossicones" on its head and a tessellated coat pattern that looks like scales, it is easy to draw an analogy between the two creatures. The identification of qilin with giraffes has had a lasting influence: even today, the same word is used for the mythical animal and the giraffe in both Korean and Japanese.
Axel Schuessler reconstructs 's Old Chinese pronunciation as *gərin. Finnish linguist Juha Janhunen tentatively compares *gərin to an etymon reconstructed as *kalimV, denoting "whale"; and represented in the language isolate Nivkh and four different language families Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic and Samoyedic, wherein *kalay(ә)ng means "whale" (in Nenets) and *kalVyǝ "mammoth" (in Enets and Nganasan). As even aborigines "vaguely familiar with the underlying real animals" often confuse the whale, mammoth, and unicorn: they conceptualized the mammoth and whale as aquatic, as well as the mammoth and unicorn possessing a single horn; for inland populations, the extant whale "remains... an abstraction, in this respect being no different from the extinct mammoth or the truly mythical unicorn." However, Janhunen cautiously remarks that "[t]he formal and semantic similarity between *kilin < *gilin ~ *gïlin 'unicorn' and *kalimV 'whale' (but also Samoyedic *kalay- 'mammoth') is sufficient to support, though perhaps not confirm, the hypothesis of an etymological connection", and also notes a possible connection between Old Chinese and Mongolian (*)kers ~ (*)keris ~ (*)kiris "rhinoceros" (Khalkha: ).
Description
Qilin generally have Chinese dragon-like features: similar heads with antlers, eyes with thick eyelashes, manes that always flow upward, and beards. The body is fully or partially scaled and often shaped like an ox, deer, or horse. They are always shown with cloven hooves. While dragons in China (and thus qilin) are also most commonly depicted as golden, qilin may be of any color or even various colors, and can be depicted as bejeweled or exhibiting a jewel-like brilliance. Common color choices for depictions are often associated with the elements, precious metals, stars, and gemstones, but can additionally include earth-tones and modest browns.
The qilin is depicted throughout a wide range of Chinese art, sometimes with parts of their bodies on fire. On occasion, they will have feathery features or decorations, fluffy curly tufts of hair, as depicted in Ming Dynasty horse art on various parts of the legs, from fetlocks to upper legs, or even with decorative fish-like fins as embellishments, or carp fish whiskers, or scales. It is said their auspicious voice sounds like the tinkling of bells, chimes, and the wind.
There are variations in the appearance of the qilin in historical China, owing to cultural differences between dynasties and regions. During the Jin dynasty, the qilin was depicted as wreathed in flame and smoke, with a dragon-like head, scales, and the body of a powerful hooved beast such as a horse. In the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), the qilin was represented as an oxen-hoofed animal with a dragon-like head surmounted by a pair of horns and flame-like head ornaments. The qilin of China's subsequent Manchu Qing dynasty (1644–1911) was a particular fanciful animal with the head of a dragon, the antlers of a deer, the skin and scales of a fish, the hooves of an ox and tail of a lion.
According to Taoist mythology, although they can look fearsome, qilin only punish the wicked; thus there exist accounts of court trials and judgments based on qilin divinely knowing whether a defendant is good or evil, guilty or innocent, in ancient lore and stories.
In Buddhist-influenced depictions, qilin will refuse to walk upon grass for fear of harming a single blade, and thus are often depicted walking upon the clouds or the water. As they are divine and peaceful creatures, their diets do not include flesh. They take great care when they walk to never tread on a living creature, and appear only in areas ruled by a wise and benevolent leader, which can include a household. Qilin can become fierce if a pure person is threatened by a malicious one, spouting flames from their mouths and exercising other fearsome powers that vary from story to story.
Legends tell that qilin have appeared in the garden of the legendary Yellow Emperor and in the capital of Emperor Yao; both events bore testimony to the benevolent nature of the rulers. It has also been told that the birth of the great sage Confucius was foretold by the arrival of a qilin. Qilin are also thought to be symbols of luck, good omens, protection, prosperity, success and longevity by the Chinese; they may additionally appear as symbols of fertility, often depicted as bringing a baby to a family.
In ritual dances
Some stories state that qilin are sacred pets (or familiars) of the deities. In the hierarchy of traditional dances performed by the Chinese (e.g., lion dance, dragon dance), they rank highly, and are third only to the dragon and phoenix.
In the qilin dance, movements are characterized by fast, powerful strokes of the head. The Qilin Dance is often regarded as a hard dance to perform due to the weight of the head, the stances involved, and the emphasis on sudden bursts of energy ().
Qilin as unicorns
In modern times, the depictions of qilin have often fused with the Western concept of unicorns. Qilin () is often translated into English as "unicorn", and can sometimes be depicted as having a single horn - although this is misleading, as qilin may also be depicted as having two horns, and a separate word, "one-horned beast" () is used in modern Chinese for "unicorns". A number of different Chinese mythical creatures can be depicted with a single horn, and a qilin, even if depicted with one horn, would be called a "one-horned qilin" in Chinese, not a "unicorn".
Nevertheless, the mythical and etymological connections between the creatures have been noted by various cultural studies and even the Chinese government, which has minted silver, gold, and platinum commemorative coins depicting both archetypal creatures.
Other cultural representations
East Asia
Japan
Kirin, which has also come to be used in the modern Japanese word for a giraffe, are similar to qilin. Japanese art tends to depict the kirin as more deer-like than in Chinese art. Alternatively, it is depicted as a dragon shaped like a deer, but with an ox's tail instead of a lion's tail. They are also often portrayed as partially unicorn-like in appearance, but with a backwards curving horn.
In the post-Qin Chinese hierarchy of mythological animals, the qilin is ranked as the third most powerful creature (after the dragon and phoenix), but in Japan, the kirin occupies the top spot. This is following the style of the ancient Chinese, as qilin was ranked higher than the dragon or phoenix before the Qin dynasty. During the Zhou dynasty, the qilin was ranked the highest, the phoenix ranked second, and the dragon the third.
Korea
Girin or kirin () is the Korean form of qilin. It is described as a maned creature with the torso of a deer, an ox tail with the hooves of a horse. The girin were initially depicted as more deer-like, however over time they have transformed into more horse-like. They were one of the four divine creatures along with the dragon, phoenix and turtle. Girin were extensively used in Korean royal and Buddhist arts.
In modern Korean, the term "girin" is used for "giraffe".
Southeast Asia
Thailand
In Thailand, the qilin is known as "" (), and is a member of the pantheon of Thai Himapant forest mythical animals. It is most probable that the Gilen was introduced into the pantheon under the influence of the Tai Yai who came down from Southern China to settle in Siam in ancient times, and the legend was probably incorporated into the Himapant legends of Siam in this manner. The Gilen is a mixture of various animals, which come from differing elemental environments, representing elemental magical forces present within each personified creature. Many of the Himapant animals actually represent gods and devas of the Celestial Realms, and bodhisattvas, who manifest as personifications which represent the true nature of each creature deity through the symbolism of the various body parts amalgamated into the design of the Mythical creature.
In Phra Aphai Mani, the masterpiece epic poem of Sunthorn Phu, a renowned poet of the 18th century. There is a monster that is Sudsakorn's steed, one of the main characters in the epic. This creature was called "Ma Nin Mangkorn" (, "ceylonite dragon horse"), it is depicted as it has diamond fangs, ceylonite scales, and a birthmark on the tongue. It was a mixture of horse, dragon, deer antlers, fish scales, and Phaya Nak tail, with has black sequins all over. Its appearance resembles a qilin.
Vietnam
In Vietnam, the qilin is referred to as . The origins of the is descended from the Chinese qilin, and shares many similar features, such as the head of a dragon or tiger, mane of a lion, the hooves of an ox or horse, the tail of a lion or ox, scales of a fish, and it can have either 1 or 2 horns or antlers.
Other representations in media
The qilin has also been frequently depicted in contemporary and modern works of literature, art and other media:
In Jorge Luis Borges's Book of Imaginary Beings, there is a section on "The Unicorn of China".
Dodongo, a monster in the 1966 Tsuburaya Productions series Ultraman takes the form of a giant kirin, and faces Ultraman in battle after his master, the Mummy Man, was killed while attempting to fight the SSSP. After being injured by the SSSP's weapons, Dodongo became enraged and began mindlessly attacking, forcing Ultraman to kill him.
In Takashi Miike's The Great Yokai War, the hero is bitten during a street festival by the dancer's kirin head. According to local custom that makes him the next "kirin rider", a hero who defeats malevolent yokai; he is seen riding the kirin through the skies at the climax of the film.
In The Twelve Kingdoms anime series, based on the fantasy novels by Fuyumi Ono, the monarch of each kingdom is chosen by a kirin, who then becomes his or her principal counselor.
In the Dungeons & Dragons universe, the Ki-rin are monsters in the Oriental Adventures setting, cited as an example of how D&D uses influences from many places.
The computer game NetHack, which draws heavily from Dungeons & Dragons among other sources, includes the ki-rin as an angelic being and a minion of lawful gods.
In the video game series Final Fantasy, Kirin is one of the Espers (summoned monsters) in Final Fantasy VI and Final Fantasy Tactics Advance. Kirin also makes an appearance as the strongest of the "gods" in Final Fantasy XI, and is a mount available in Final Fantasy XIV.
In Gosei Sentai Dairanger, Kazu of the Heavenly Time Star uses his Chi to manifest the power of the kirin to become the and pilots the .
At the beginning of 47 Ronin, a Kirin is sent to kill Lord Asano in the forest of Akō, where it is then hunted by his samurai.
In the video game series Monster Hunter, the Kirin are classified as one of the Elder Dragons. Resembling a unicorn covered in scales, they are extremely agile and can summon lightning at will.
The Kirin Brewery Company, Limited () is a Japanese brewery company which has a Kirin prominently featured on its logo.
In My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic, kirin are introduced in the season eight episode "Sounds of Silence". They are here depicted as a type of pony. When angered they transform into fiery destructive creatures known as nirik (their name spelled backwards).
In Naruto, Sasuke Uchiha uses a lightning-themed technique called "Kirin" against his brother during their climactic confrontation. The technique takes the form of a kirin head with a body composed of bolts of lightning.
In the Marvel Studios film Shang-Chi and the Legend of the Ten Rings, the qilin appear alongside other creatures of Chinese mythology as inhabitants of the mystical realm of Ta-Lo. As Shang-Chi, Katy, Xialing, and Trevor Slattery are driving through Ta-Lo, they nearly run into a qilin herd.
Gallery
See also
Nian
Chinthe
Chimera
Chinese dragon
Four Holy Beasts
Giraffe
Longma
Pixiu
Questing Beast
Serpopard
Shaanxi Kylins
Shisa
Singha
Sin-you
Sudsakorn (involving a similar creature that aided the protagonist, known as Mar Nin Mang Korn)
Unicorn
Xiezhi
Yali
References
External links
Chinese legendary creatures
Fictional giraffes
Four benevolent animals
Japanese legendary creatures
Korean legendary creatures
Mythological deer
Unicorns | [
-0.21133680641651154,
-0.26834219694137573,
0.05710683390498161,
0.04668930172920227,
0.07650858163833618,
0.47604092955589294,
0.09626643359661102,
0.3403843939304352,
0.033642400056123734,
-0.19632934033870697,
-0.8646047711372375,
0.13155826926231384,
-0.05457006394863129,
0.20141814649105072,
-0.47317883372306824,
-0.0541224330663681,
0.6835689544677734,
0.3388008773326874,
-0.03729507327079773,
-0.3575913906097412,
-0.602205753326416,
-0.18563975393772125,
0.15297414362430573,
-0.43078598380088806,
0.2695007026195526,
0.08493120223283768,
-0.019719872623682022,
0.07143539935350418,
0.033021941781044006,
-0.12153665721416473,
-0.08332663029432297,
0.5188456177711487,
0.044715315103530884,
-0.09591951221227646,
-0.33231794834136963,
0.043065860867500305,
-0.47797688841819763,
-0.0471457839012146,
-0.1114332303404808,
-0.17598171532154083,
0.20712849497795105,
0.12678246200084686,
0.26826637983322144,
0.634531557559967,
-0.6251608729362488,
-0.6887767910957336,
-2.046801805496216,
0.4648941159248352,
-0.597536563873291,
-0.28346705436706543,
-0.48996731638908386,
0.8894755840301514,
-0.05726557597517967,
0.24761050939559937,
0.03351176530122757,
0.25808706879615784,
-0.6303083896636963,
-0.5185678005218506,
0.19181504845619202,
-0.3343532979488373,
0.5490821599960327,
0.24508896470069885,
0.8201639652252197,
0.24930299818515778,
-0.13547760248184204,
0.3280455470085144,
0.3109756112098694,
0.14876870810985565,
0.07379593700170517,
-0.43880462646484375,
0.2091330885887146,
0.5139597654342651,
-0.37019288539886475,
0.051233161240816116,
-0.9553050994873047,
0.10305643826723099,
-0.3416125178337097,
-0.10185448080301285,
0.5957972407341003,
0.3790642023086548,
-0.545781135559082,
0.12787117063999176,
1.0806076526641846,
0.09730157256126404,
0.08826892822980881,
-0.003041062969714403,
0.06072910502552986,
0.5796487927436829,
-0.3047947883605957,
0.20578555762767792,
0.016092350706458092,
-0.5456921458244324,
0.3554099202156067,
0.15887033939361572,
-0.7760175466537476,
-0.5035147070884705,
0.12232961505651474,
-0.04020822420716286,
-0.15157942473888397,
0.0023428366985172033,
-0.013995503075420856,
0.18972846865653992,
0.12449882924556732,
-0.5213486552238464,
-0.6903446316719055,
-0.24700064957141876,
-0.041610561311244965,
-0.42223137617111206,
-0.38289448618888855,
-0.10831889510154724,
-0.9859147071838379,
0.15660500526428223,
0.1521373987197876,
0.39333635568618774,
0.22177913784980774,
0.19579292833805084,
-0.5858923196792603,
-0.4503892660140991,
-0.09490592777729034,
0.18787962198257446,
0.4953855574131012,
-0.07840606570243835,
-0.10532675683498383,
-0.5649576187133789,
0.828856885433197,
-0.09265492111444473,
0.17651835083961487,
0.29781103134155273,
-0.11863590776920319,
-0.1674955040216446,
0.5142313241958618,
0.6648613810539246,
-0.35795336961746216,
-0.4004655182361603,
-0.02470485121011734,
-0.15894092619419098,
0.12201511859893799,
0.02843504771590233,
0.6297602653503418,
0.365863174200058,
-0.9454907178878784,
0.12915024161338806,
-0.7587572336196899,
-0.1301710158586502,
0.0881853848695755,
0.28121259808540344,
-0.28965792059898376,
-0.5374646782875061,
-0.2888737916946411,
-0.32004305720329285,
-0.36056357622146606,
0.007863176055252552,
0.34596747159957886,
0.04051655903458595,
-0.05660300701856613,
0.08180757611989975,
0.11772424727678299,
-0.3349228501319885,
0.28701144456863403,
-0.34464582800865173,
-0.29920637607574463,
0.15434275567531586,
-0.6455725431442261,
0.19658520817756653,
0.15801750123500824,
0.11382434517145157,
0.4403056800365448,
0.4653985798358917,
-0.03525485470890999,
0.057665254920721054,
-0.5086793303489685,
0.3279736042022705,
0.5486394762992859,
0.3701989948749542,
-0.23663373291492462,
-0.013523240573704243,
0.20826999843120575,
-0.5180473327636719,
0.46255186200141907,
-0.23190021514892578,
-0.9734299778938293,
0.38646331429481506,
-0.07025986164808273,
0.2279665768146515,
0.14170588552951813,
0.13363967835903168,
-0.02573055401444435,
0.22984708845615387,
-0.25620925426483154,
-0.2033797800540924,
-0.34855934977531433,
-0.12278425693511963,
0.04412852227687836,
0.27847397327423096,
0.7146493792533875,
-0.1348993480205536,
-0.14740413427352905,
1.3814882040023804,
0.03400920331478119,
0.010855047963559628,
0.030596910044550896,
-0.44129425287246704,
0.22219586372375488,
0.45312008261680603,
-0.5625092387199402,
0.08822178095579147,
0.04743202403187752,
0.6245137453079224,
0.41703200340270996,
-0.36193355917930603,
0.0003916606947313994,
-0.1090240404009819,
0.343833863735199,
-0.22084634006023407,
0.01614643633365631,
0.13506990671157837,
-0.6636614203453064,
-0.05658906698226929,
-0.2881459593772888,
-0.5356863737106323,
0.9400849938392639,
-0.23688046634197235,
-0.18655626475811005,
0.6695828437805176,
0.24791936576366425,
1.2096370458602905,
0.2676951587200165,
-0.00925108976662159,
-0.05703563988208771,
-0.4945504367351532,
-0.6194212436676025,
-0.6002299785614014,
0.05258973315358162,
-0.3433696925640106,
-0.4829094111919403,
-0.15677186846733093,
0.4166058599948883,
-0.29959097504615784,
0.22518359124660492,
-0.5922608971595764,
0.09417003393173218,
0.2727729082107544,
-0.36774563789367676,
-0.010379279032349586,
0.17069794237613678,
0.15118254721164703,
-0.43873336911201477,
0.3283795714378357,
0.21113711595535278,
-0.3223744034767151,
0.46099841594696045,
0.3680016100406647,
0.1735769361257553,
-0.0702623501420021,
0.48201248049736023,
-0.5045961141586304,
-0.3003371059894562,
0.2317095547914505,
0.5310425162315369,
0.27261337637901306,
-0.22402790188789368,
0.33083871006965637,
-0.14622287452220917,
-0.2946603298187256,
-0.2353401631116867,
-0.43376868963241577,
0.40165281295776367,
-0.4155079126358032,
1.1381926536560059,
0.3986668288707733,
0.0883869081735611,
-0.2565993666648865,
-0.5574102997779846,
-0.06057169288396835,
-0.6221135854721069,
-0.8688519597053528,
0.41959673166275024,
0.15491849184036255,
-0.570537269115448,
-0.4432293474674225,
-0.26326197385787964,
0.3355790674686432,
0.11932520568370819,
-0.6557304263114929,
0.2575022280216217,
-0.86818927526474,
-0.24582725763320923,
-0.036427807062864304,
0.46684709191322327,
-0.06259335577487946,
-0.6824917793273926,
0.29798009991645813,
-0.03922430798411369,
0.2839567959308624,
-0.32576480507850647,
0.5712916254997253,
0.252879798412323,
0.3786303400993347,
0.6730809211730957,
-0.09535673260688782,
-0.060025785118341446,
-0.04767859727144241,
0.06184015050530434,
0.06239272281527519,
0.4808449447154999,
0.12713173031806946,
0.13782083988189697,
0.6696467399597168,
-5.760216236114502,
0.0035437336191534996,
0.1242857277393341,
-0.18499211966991425,
0.21857012808322906,
0.5478852987289429,
0.5825110673904419,
0.2140829712152481,
0.00254876003600657,
0.41768911480903625,
-0.28785648941993713,
0.005328775383532047,
0.04003198444843292,
0.0637940764427185,
-0.20215147733688354,
0.4006146788597107,
-0.3235529065132141,
-0.29628247022628784,
0.04994843527674675,
-0.05457010120153427,
-0.7648184895515442,
0.23168760538101196,
-0.3772887885570526,
1.3745397329330444,
-0.45824873447418213,
0.3663347363471985,
-0.1912074089050293,
-0.4427867829799652,
-0.11316563189029694,
0.07188214361667633,
-0.3713712692260742,
-0.6198757290840149,
-0.015321677550673485,
0.10418222099542618,
-0.24227967858314514,
-0.3356616795063019,
0.52565997838974,
-0.23156867921352386,
0.6465338468551636,
-0.05459972470998764,
-0.8534289598464966,
0.3734082579612732,
-0.17706355452537537,
-0.009961768984794617,
0.43767479062080383,
-0.7334188222885132,
-0.1573130190372467,
-0.39384597539901733,
-0.3647160530090332,
0.07371385395526886,
-0.1416456550359726,
-0.10934906452894211,
0.3689480721950531,
-0.22687815129756927,
0.4507768154144287,
0.6164733171463013,
-0.1675633043050766,
-0.0063526201993227005,
-0.9518046975135803,
-0.08651962876319885,
0.6565096974372864,
-0.31470784544944763,
-0.603742778301239,
0.15598469972610474,
0.24669483304023743,
-0.16761822998523712,
-0.46323642134666443,
-0.44443461298942566,
0.18037089705467224,
0.5716331601142883,
-0.37068235874176025,
-0.21406474709510803,
0.22150053083896637,
-1.0531343221664429,
0.7143688201904297,
0.13982723653316498,
-0.4431387484073639,
0.31314560770988464,
0.17130506038665771,
0.19490481913089752,
-0.41659826040267944,
-0.10558613389730453,
0.19571539759635925,
0.5045177340507507,
0.27216532826423645,
-0.6945847272872925,
0.2732701599597931,
-0.12401580065488815,
-0.21300937235355377,
0.2301938831806183,
0.996066153049469,
0.039603061974048615,
0.5280329585075378,
-0.12059220671653748,
0.23989422619342804,
0.8456559181213379,
-0.0729052722454071,
-0.17246247828006744,
0.3331872522830963,
0.17891836166381836,
0.9937981963157654,
0.22175118327140808,
-0.3669321835041046,
-0.15211649239063263,
-0.41302168369293213,
-0.06172391027212143,
0.4227551519870758,
0.44794565439224243,
0.9320812821388245,
-0.13962265849113464,
-0.5753758549690247,
0.40874814987182617,
-0.16099870204925537,
-0.06976909190416336,
0.6061526536941528,
0.19238239526748657,
0.2789174020290375,
0.4779846966266632,
0.3517985939979553,
0.32347699999809265,
-0.0756843090057373,
0.8378037810325623,
-0.210626021027565,
-0.41090527176856995,
-0.0275762677192688,
-0.21354235708713531,
-0.14516828954219818,
0.19876286387443542,
-0.024582892656326294,
-0.7054813504219055,
0.9129478931427002,
-0.7404725551605225,
-0.057169247418642044,
-0.21883757412433624,
-0.37348654866218567,
-0.3146591782569885,
-0.5506212115287781,
-0.7040107250213623,
-0.6017497777938843,
-0.32481181621551514,
-0.11507133394479752,
-0.20225687325000763,
-0.17550282180309296,
-0.060388632118701935,
0.4586724638938904,
-0.6299843788146973,
-0.2685059905052185,
0.1026940867304802,
-0.3859306871891022,
0.8046092391014099,
0.3526532053947449,
-0.5224539041519165,
0.421820729970932,
-0.3357553482055664,
-0.8667681217193604,
0.4366557002067566,
0.07692278176546097,
-0.11824570596218109,
0.07511992007493973,
0.2875225245952606,
-0.23530146479606628,
-0.5429165363311768,
-0.4744603931903839,
0.07936042547225952,
-0.2073935866355896,
-0.528602659702301,
-0.10176718980073929,
-0.20625650882720947,
0.47528913617134094,
0.2156728059053421,
-0.1055319681763649,
0.31325793266296387,
-0.4651132822036743,
0.5269046425819397,
0.5007131695747375,
0.21601635217666626,
-0.12132168561220169,
0.23209162056446075,
-0.10459905862808228,
-0.09394519776105881,
-0.14211978018283844,
0.17030365765094757,
-0.05863869562745094,
0.12552089989185333,
0.33720862865448,
0.1161082461476326,
0.280367374420166,
-0.03177361935377121,
-0.6507763862609863,
0.25566571950912476,
-0.09590963274240494,
0.270622193813324,
-0.19480518996715546,
0.3842052221298218,
-0.5927097201347351,
0.2040291726589203,
-0.20660805702209473,
0.16189038753509521,
-0.078672394156456,
0.22314247488975525,
0.259501188993454,
0.35448983311653137,
-0.24294345080852509,
-0.2355395257472992,
0.6504141092300415,
-1.0522316694259644,
0.2874053716659546,
-0.20163659751415253,
0.14206373691558838,
-0.040970709174871445,
-0.14031825959682465,
-0.43979278206825256,
-0.04818978160619736,
-0.3757469058036804,
-0.07942887395620346,
-0.30805692076683044,
-0.10514884442090988,
-0.37941306829452515,
-0.11889468878507614,
-0.2870892882347107,
-0.04407305642962456,
0.026835601776838303,
-0.07087115198373795,
-0.49728235602378845,
-0.11035194993019104,
-0.6733322739601135,
0.040898069739341736,
-0.4513939619064331,
0.4047480821609497,
0.10997138917446136,
-0.015834691002964973,
0.4973713457584381,
0.3298894762992859,
0.27426677942276,
-0.4390062689781189,
-0.2229979783296585,
0.183089017868042,
-0.3668299615383148,
0.2482772320508957,
0.503390371799469,
0.06509672850370407,
0.6329084038734436,
-0.38413217663764954,
-0.07724646478891373,
-0.37617796659469604,
0.9881583452224731,
-0.20870070159435272,
-0.2829596996307373,
-0.5048096179962158,
0.06952563673257828,
0.6237504482269287,
-0.15992270410060883,
-0.19074717164039612,
-0.4806724786758423,
0.13164862990379333,
-0.513839602470398,
0.7293872833251953,
0.4613437354564667,
0.22454607486724854,
-0.047245342284440994,
-0.5528806447982788,
-0.3568124771118164,
0.11125612258911133,
-0.1629115641117096,
-0.3353121876716614,
0.31465592980384827,
-0.2917006313800812,
0.002714970149099827,
0.08457398414611816,
-0.2534491717815399,
0.23632265627384186,
-0.1636790633201599,
0.6672302484512329,
0.1492147296667099,
-0.45070573687553406,
-0.1615147590637207,
-0.3458734154701233,
-0.059313226491212845,
-0.46960580348968506,
-0.04272755607962608,
-0.404369056224823,
0.018156366422772408,
-0.12884314358234406,
0.5279201865196228,
0.11587526649236679,
-0.4330294728279114,
0.6434774398803711,
0.09278423339128494,
0.29215335845947266,
-0.4477127194404602,
-0.6252894997596741,
0.47592660784721375,
0.13090287148952484,
0.3476482033729553,
-0.3183949887752533,
0.47378993034362793,
0.2618764340877533,
0.09144430607557297,
-0.2349110245704651,
0.2060277909040451,
-0.7369614839553833,
-0.3264123797416687,
0.6792991161346436,
-0.10936523228883743,
-0.02661333978176117,
-0.05359949544072151,
0.2678532004356384,
-0.3529849648475647,
-0.6727738976478577,
0.21125072240829468,
0.30812790989875793,
0.31077519059181213,
0.052224352955818176,
0.47818151116371155,
0.33201590180397034,
-0.009756023995578289,
-0.21677877008914948,
-0.433349072933197,
-0.013319159857928753,
0.24453315138816833,
0.2156132012605667,
0.019960451871156693,
0.13365337252616882,
0.37492576241493225,
0.035416990518569946,
0.36576026678085327,
-0.22660189867019653,
0.23416002094745636,
0.47452622652053833,
0.587563693523407,
0.5416367650032043,
0.4135759472846985,
0.23834192752838135,
-0.05151933804154396,
0.5013861060142517,
-1.0145952701568604,
0.4525054097175598,
-0.9767481088638306,
-0.2725841999053955,
0.4739946722984314,
0.41273099184036255,
0.4830687642097473,
0.00002468533239152748,
-0.24799929559230804,
-0.109900563955307,
0.5483068227767944,
0.37058255076408386,
0.9049482345581055,
-0.42625176906585693,
-0.12445317208766937,
0.7091556191444397,
0.30047607421875,
-0.037987757474184036,
-0.5739619135856628,
0.5061975717544556,
-0.07708067446947098,
-0.20732031762599945,
-0.02662765048444271,
-0.14285361766815186,
-0.01295973639935255,
-0.24500562250614166,
0.6872270703315735,
0.6983742117881775,
-0.18200582265853882,
-0.4727569818496704,
0.5888723134994507,
-0.44268760085105896,
-0.797718346118927,
-0.211485356092453,
-0.3810494840145111,
0.3458644449710846,
0.32093697786331177,
-0.22478120028972626,
0.3077448904514313,
-0.06021595001220703,
0.09553789347410202,
0.597751259803772,
0.221151202917099,
-0.12027762085199356,
0.6726810932159424,
-0.37508854269981384,
0.14863620698451996,
0.14768105745315552,
-0.4888971149921417,
0.5081099271774292,
0.42805716395378113,
-0.18749359250068665,
0.08845705538988113,
-0.25686022639274597,
0.4856818914413452,
-0.05214596167206764,
0.1052970141172409,
0.15946438908576965,
0.3305220603942871,
0.4547586441040039,
0.21592076122760773,
-0.5356582999229431,
0.6093050241470337,
-0.2641414999961853,
0.7689540982246399,
0.12255335599184036,
0.11066187918186188,
0.37738102674484253,
0.12094771862030029,
-0.5651527643203735,
0.04528249055147171,
-0.5129112601280212,
-0.17125868797302246,
-0.7355430722236633,
-0.17500288784503937,
0.7323036193847656,
-0.1447582244873047,
0.1866251677274704,
0.44096794724464417,
0.13338477909564972,
0.22213494777679443,
0.42144912481307983,
0.36492180824279785,
-0.1681966334581375,
-0.7349708676338196,
-0.335096150636673,
0.2644759714603424,
0.09246614575386047,
0.3114689886569977,
-0.2631981372833252,
0.11346026510000229,
0.25568926334381104,
-0.4942837655544281,
-0.7686082720756531,
0.21111860871315002,
-0.7482634782791138,
-0.5127614736557007,
-0.19042275846004486,
-0.01167350821197033,
0.19176062941551208,
-0.3485925793647766,
0.31250521540641785,
0.4917241930961609,
0.32573214173316956,
-0.03500918298959732,
0.08832403272390366,
0.14203694462776184,
0.3436497747898102,
0.14443854987621307,
-0.27057334780693054,
0.0994061827659607,
-0.30719485878944397,
-0.2339622676372528,
-0.6481419801712036,
-0.0748501718044281,
0.08349311351776123,
-0.4042860269546509,
0.2630132734775543,
-0.3128523528575897,
-0.1107272282242775,
0.408354789018631,
-0.04005308821797371,
-0.08142570406198502,
-0.35959577560424805,
0.1343076378107071
] |
229056 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncation | Truncation | In mathematics and computer science, truncation is limiting the number of digits right of the decimal point.
Truncation and floor function
Truncation of positive real numbers can be done using the floor function. Given a number to be truncated and , the number of elements to be kept behind the decimal point, the truncated value of x is
However, for negative numbers truncation does not round in the same direction as the floor function: truncation always rounds toward zero, the floor function rounds towards negative infinity. For a given number , the function ceil is used instead.
In some cases is written as . See Notation of floor and ceiling functions.
Causes of truncation
With computers, truncation can occur when a decimal number is typecast as an integer; it is truncated to zero decimal digits because integers cannot store non-integer real numbers.
In algebra
An analogue of truncation can be applied to polynomials. In this case, the truncation of a polynomial P to degree n can be defined as the sum of all terms of P of degree n or less. Polynomial truncations arise in the study of Taylor polynomials, for example.
See also
Arithmetic precision
Floor function
Quantization (signal processing)
Precision (computer science)
Truncation (statistics)
References
External links
Wall paper applet that visualizes errors due to finite precision
Numerical analysis
ja:端数処理 | [
-0.34957948327064514,
0.4832552671432495,
-0.179392471909523,
0.16811883449554443,
-0.11161897331476212,
0.22283636033535004,
-0.17113639414310455,
-0.11075311154127121,
-0.21551404893398285,
-0.26424258947372437,
-0.4750460386276245,
0.3398391902446747,
-0.13410185277462006,
0.26844003796577454,
0.03377751633524895,
0.7449026703834534,
0.26248130202293396,
-0.15680864453315735,
-0.38927412033081055,
-0.34150269627571106,
0.18108247220516205,
0.33663102984428406,
-0.09284354001283646,
-0.7048680186271667,
0.4827784597873688,
-0.24923059344291687,
-0.16584600508213043,
-0.24366606771945953,
-0.4304902255535126,
0.12408179044723511,
0.13042104244232178,
0.4782864451408386,
0.06874758750200272,
0.014327061362564564,
0.02385086379945278,
-0.14732465147972107,
0.4292672872543335,
-0.38635697960853577,
0.23171468079090118,
-0.1313357651233673,
0.24769942462444305,
-0.1693444550037384,
0.5294037461280823,
-0.09199462085962296,
-0.19902712106704712,
-0.2906336784362793,
-1.5784070491790771,
-0.19474267959594727,
-0.34085941314697266,
-0.11708143353462219,
-0.9186151027679443,
0.0956268459558487,
-0.10525226593017578,
0.9260160326957703,
-0.14189593493938446,
0.7868204116821289,
-0.572770357131958,
-0.1972397267818451,
0.2717898488044739,
-0.08903563767671585,
0.4525473415851593,
0.3247940242290497,
-0.20461809635162354,
0.18200577795505524,
0.28309744596481323,
0.45886901021003723,
-0.24296124279499054,
0.1546410620212555,
-0.4789673388004303,
-0.10961803793907166,
-0.698601484298706,
-0.5323911905288696,
-0.6640997529029846,
0.35220155119895935,
-0.5365392565727234,
0.075780488550663,
-0.2046958953142166,
0.27088063955307007,
-0.009405089542269707,
0.10800222307443619,
-0.3212515711784363,
0.40449219942092896,
0.7535700798034668,
-0.2853102684020996,
0.5125911831855774,
0.008942696265876293,
-0.9481157064437866,
0.021229969337582588,
-0.5027444958686829,
0.43436720967292786,
0.03165644407272339,
-0.4123491644859314,
0.005342983175069094,
-0.15564493834972382,
-0.3076954782009125,
-0.08669435977935791,
0.9204868674278259,
-0.3899936378002167,
0.41640520095825195,
0.14827311038970947,
0.2814929485321045,
-1.0024809837341309,
0.985837459564209,
0.19553543627262115,
-0.41288337111473083,
-0.509775698184967,
-0.23334699869155884,
-0.1313757300376892,
0.6125890612602234,
-0.3023003339767456,
-0.8946465253829956,
0.31321409344673157,
0.5080508589744568,
-0.14863038063049316,
-0.5719537138938904,
-0.22606076300144196,
-0.16553416848182678,
0.3576454818248749,
-0.0735655128955841,
-0.3947035074234009,
0.09250573068857193,
0.5501782298088074,
-0.06102079525589943,
0.31148502230644226,
-0.09783666580915451,
0.5355191230773926,
0.44865280389785767,
1.2356351613998413,
-0.5192985534667969,
-0.021811606362462044,
0.0914197489619255,
0.6395520567893982,
0.4902053475379944,
-0.5888387560844421,
-0.25353166460990906,
-0.33343106508255005,
-0.21392831206321716,
-0.09447113424539566,
0.152913436293602,
-0.21994437277317047,
-0.06657698005437851,
-0.1432972252368927,
-0.31698256731033325,
-0.3210131824016571,
0.7078154683113098,
-0.17239606380462646,
-0.01788928173482418,
-0.2514321506023407,
-0.3439145088195801,
0.3734975755214691,
0.3143838047981262,
0.1024567261338234,
-0.30244266986846924,
-0.05040192976593971,
-0.4684716761112213,
0.012054935097694397,
0.1677165925502777,
0.019360138103365898,
-0.4673008620738983,
0.33899086713790894,
-0.39626553654670715,
-0.3106898367404938,
-0.1850109100341797,
-0.11671293526887894,
0.20523034036159515,
-0.5757161378860474,
1.0653539896011353,
0.745635449886322,
-0.1987404227256775,
0.5086865425109863,
-0.4364159405231476,
-0.07331544160842896,
0.2885866165161133,
-0.03714010491967201,
-0.6509487628936768,
0.14751623570919037,
0.10385823994874954,
-0.016186662018299103,
0.6785077452659607,
0.26530975103378296,
-0.8904329538345337,
0.4788275957107544,
0.3477669954299927,
0.37626197934150696,
0.10280580073595047,
-0.4798557758331299,
0.3541199266910553,
-0.5868381261825562,
0.4083181321620941,
-0.20748664438724518,
-0.24860182404518127,
0.13882747292518616,
0.06531192362308502,
-0.8718029856681824,
0.9147329926490784,
0.1527101695537567,
-0.645463228225708,
0.17900246381759644,
-0.10889041423797607,
0.5359142422676086,
-0.6379234194755554,
0.1368369460105896,
0.35842806100845337,
0.35720470547676086,
-0.10493304580450058,
1.0393582582473755,
0.0398390106856823,
0.33666080236434937,
-0.26160985231399536,
0.9584910273551941,
-0.07418500632047653,
-0.11614491790533066,
0.41238391399383545,
-0.11794444918632507,
0.1168547123670578,
-0.11304666846990585,
-0.40090212225914,
0.12084987014532089,
-0.48213738203048706,
-0.033452022820711136,
0.2430090755224228,
0.12988147139549255,
-0.375410258769989,
0.22131162881851196,
-0.10852035880088806,
0.8270772099494934,
0.22283734381198883,
0.7741369605064392,
0.4450920522212982,
-0.3969235420227051,
0.04102887958288193,
0.0076520382426679134,
0.6346591711044312,
0.08010072261095047,
-0.1995069533586502,
0.28260377049446106,
0.2510335445404053,
-0.41658011078834534,
0.4373486042022705,
-0.3417290449142456,
-0.4056940972805023,
0.1531723290681839,
-0.11089405417442322,
-0.2343524843454361,
0.2863420248031616,
0.2182706594467163,
-0.49584832787513733,
-0.27021369338035583,
-0.014271766878664494,
-0.11415434628725052,
0.09299912303686142,
0.31449276208877563,
0.2546328902244568,
-0.28250280022621155,
-0.2684265971183777,
0.08692709356546402,
0.21532270312309265,
0.3655061721801758,
0.6131817102432251,
0.17302632331848145,
-0.022844836115837097,
-0.4993000626564026,
0.5958103537559509,
-0.5294403433799744,
-0.9833690524101257,
-0.4452536106109619,
-0.7509445548057556,
0.4296339154243469,
0.9192224144935608,
0.20008252561092377,
0.04698142781853676,
-0.3780961334705353,
-0.621235191822052,
-0.2982787489891052,
-0.5388228893280029,
-0.6466028690338135,
-0.22404752671718597,
0.28025445342063904,
-1.1936391592025757,
-0.3537057340145111,
0.26763981580734253,
0.007821053266525269,
0.010850402526557446,
-0.6554121375083923,
-0.4021914005279541,
-0.20422431826591492,
0.3722247779369354,
-0.3596165180206299,
0.10540103912353516,
-0.106582872569561,
-0.49946048855781555,
0.02623993158340454,
-0.2716982066631317,
0.019412627443671227,
0.8097183108329773,
0.6519523859024048,
-0.14463041722774506,
-0.5570034980773926,
0.02520652860403061,
-0.387001097202301,
-0.09759891033172607,
-0.2285219132900238,
0.012899589724838734,
-0.2248561829328537,
-0.8506138324737549,
-0.384287565946579,
-0.37152767181396484,
0.1394912302494049,
-5.458001136779785,
0.12450046837329865,
-0.5005529522895813,
-0.3155279755592346,
-0.615384042263031,
0.34235307574272156,
0.17415036261081696,
0.4776599109172821,
-0.6548847556114197,
-0.16294319927692413,
-0.3727010190486908,
-0.8039160370826721,
-0.4563800096511841,
0.4186706840991974,
0.6110808253288269,
0.12636040151119232,
0.7273747324943542,
-0.4005543887615204,
0.14487235248088837,
1.0306724309921265,
0.21583716571331024,
-0.1993880569934845,
0.38267216086387634,
0.28795477747917175,
0.14827431738376617,
0.2984071671962738,
-0.01197347417473793,
0.29965654015541077,
-0.5105541348457336,
-0.12922920286655426,
-0.07621339708566666,
-0.1394187957048416,
0.00516354339197278,
-0.697104811668396,
-0.1197182759642601,
0.5792331695556641,
0.6189530491828918,
-0.5660279393196106,
0.42918139696121216,
0.05282798036932945,
-0.09159037470817566,
1.0413992404937744,
0.2556249797344208,
0.17532053589820862,
0.9039922952651978,
-0.04505446180701256,
-0.22497212886810303,
0.2626052498817444,
-0.464092880487442,
0.23628315329551697,
-0.4055332541465759,
0.3240084648132324,
0.14509357511997223,
-0.36108076572418213,
0.20084728300571442,
-0.4386993944644928,
0.25524210929870605,
-0.6891877055168152,
-0.5041142106056213,
0.102362722158432,
0.6960359215736389,
-0.7676884531974792,
0.21876324713230133,
-0.5138171911239624,
-0.3229649066925049,
-0.787095844745636,
-0.8034928441047668,
-0.49344003200531006,
0.4751775562763214,
0.5293376445770264,
-0.28981199860572815,
0.053274430334568024,
0.43424171209335327,
-0.3232036232948303,
-0.16697223484516144,
-0.3009481132030487,
0.16508367657661438,
0.36204028129577637,
0.34794560074806213,
0.31189075112342834,
-0.3611067235469818,
-0.20102724432945251,
-0.8540301322937012,
0.5888599157333374,
0.31937503814697266,
-0.09840445965528488,
-0.8551186919212341,
0.14304515719413757,
-0.5471985340118408,
-0.3380083739757538,
0.6261124610900879,
-0.009189466945827007,
0.4086373746395111,
0.2310611605644226,
-0.15832115709781647,
-0.17646153271198273,
0.447586327791214,
-0.1299133002758026,
0.37798160314559937,
-0.11954553425312042,
0.3751280903816223,
-0.08168501406908035,
0.39932388067245483,
0.24969758093357086,
0.014827677048742771,
0.002681408077478409,
-0.3599759042263031,
0.633901834487915,
0.09958280622959137,
-0.24861232936382294,
-0.7571801543235779,
0.5173845291137695,
-0.12452893704175949,
-0.19310250878334045,
-0.0665588453412056,
0.05428684130311012,
-0.4897253215312958,
-0.15281125903129578,
0.27028802037239075,
-0.4488259553909302,
-0.20219898223876953,
0.08685895055532455,
0.08603812009096146,
-0.2730526626110077,
-0.33882904052734375,
-0.26625722646713257,
-0.37957465648651123,
0.41554591059684753,
0.08559685200452805,
0.018447495996952057,
-0.13505545258522034,
0.7664802074432373,
0.288354754447937,
0.17766211926937103,
0.07360076904296875,
-0.859858512878418,
0.08065365254878998,
0.7412487864494324,
-0.5179063677787781,
-0.5682924389839172,
0.8336228132247925,
-0.004496647510677576,
0.1742909848690033,
-0.395033061504364,
0.788302481174469,
0.06458642333745956,
0.12231379747390747,
-0.5708860158920288,
-0.6395301818847656,
0.9746514558792114,
-0.11537236720323563,
-0.6284406185150146,
0.4924270212650299,
-0.5120353698730469,
0.7832359671592712,
0.18553727865219116,
-0.19388830661773682,
0.3959331214427948,
-0.03767664358019829,
-0.4755684435367584,
0.33485302329063416,
-0.012581752613186836,
-0.42689403891563416,
-0.91746586561203,
0.13063658773899078,
0.01454142201691866,
-0.5903906226158142,
0.057649124413728714,
-0.244532972574234,
0.4569664001464844,
0.1934373527765274,
-0.03137725964188576,
-0.35238969326019287,
-0.3941808044910431,
0.19272953271865845,
-0.1162533313035965,
0.023349162191152573,
0.4012170732021332,
0.26848340034484863,
-0.4272298216819763,
-0.08053713291883469,
-0.43660998344421387,
-0.1777757853269577,
0.5270446538925171,
0.7723420858383179,
-0.7192540168762207,
0.038183312863111496,
0.26390647888183594,
-0.5911533832550049,
-0.6473125219345093,
0.4325064718723297,
-0.27031105756759644,
0.2023463100194931,
-0.3049449920654297,
-0.14205846190452576,
-0.28801143169403076,
0.0007873119902797043,
0.863318145275116,
-0.44774413108825684,
-0.6196580529212952,
-0.05899180471897125,
0.5247887969017029,
-0.5334882140159607,
0.26822176575660706,
0.9160110950469971,
-0.5414076447486877,
0.21257835626602173,
0.22831124067306519,
-0.6388668417930603,
0.725195050239563,
-0.2333688884973526,
-0.5735588073730469,
-0.5307614207267761,
-0.6917331218719482,
0.02587875723838806,
-0.026322316378355026,
0.3133726119995117,
-0.14231078326702118,
-0.23541346192359924,
-0.7249920964241028,
0.6343278884887695,
-0.7221555709838867,
-0.14199258387088776,
0.02378775179386139,
0.1951625943183899,
-0.35937950015068054,
-0.14280635118484497,
-0.1844409555196762,
0.8477649092674255,
0.011674522422254086,
-0.4376632571220398,
-0.33627814054489136,
0.04631517082452774,
-0.17159518599510193,
-0.3146863579750061,
-0.12529908120632172,
-0.9295893311500549,
0.582858681678772,
-0.5427378416061401,
-0.15923164784908295,
0.31092211604118347,
0.33817288279533386,
0.5853461623191833,
-0.24695946276187897,
0.0275045745074749,
0.06366422772407532,
0.3202865421772003,
-0.7259587645530701,
-0.2996399402618408,
0.3773811161518097,
-0.0271470844745636,
-0.060990508645772934,
-0.9377009868621826,
-0.11431699246168137,
0.22324082255363464,
0.5339241027832031,
0.06993569433689117,
-0.37164196372032166,
0.5085650086402893,
1.0858285427093506,
0.0658607929944992,
-0.6136980652809143,
-0.23656904697418213,
0.13600870966911316,
0.14806969463825226,
0.7127522230148315,
0.32131227850914,
0.21616369485855103,
0.3677997291088104,
-0.5294755697250366,
0.2535480260848999,
-0.6559929847717285,
0.6314842700958252,
-0.04597177356481552,
0.5158789157867432,
-0.11354585736989975,
0.30618008971214294,
0.18440261483192444,
-0.009207703173160553,
-0.8246835470199585,
0.3070553243160248,
-0.01946908049285412,
0.28797897696495056,
-0.37122341990470886,
0.5783568024635315,
-0.02919871173799038,
0.25294920802116394,
0.4468838572502136,
-0.010552004911005497,
0.3742453455924988,
-1.2054038047790527,
0.3536289632320404,
-0.043043024837970734,
0.6922175884246826,
-0.12818017601966858,
0.16962730884552002,
0.6391705274581909,
0.6820595860481262,
-0.024286895990371704,
-0.22916585206985474,
-0.16138620674610138,
0.5336864590644836,
0.2059636116027832,
-0.4754566550254822,
0.0762108564376831,
0.414866179227829,
0.13544155657291412,
-0.3927738070487976,
-0.06950648874044418,
0.013505252078175545,
0.33050915598869324,
0.06997209042310715,
0.16801920533180237,
0.48733317852020264,
0.030842702835798264,
-0.26570871472358704,
0.9047507047653198,
-0.15617141127586365,
0.11765886098146439,
0.4591565430164337,
-0.3095252811908722,
-0.14833922684192657,
0.6915812492370605,
-0.9299850463867188,
-0.7146393656730652,
0.05254616215825081,
0.30463647842407227,
0.16682521998882294,
0.19964468479156494,
-0.06689894199371338,
0.5223547220230103,
0.40808045864105225,
-0.3455979824066162,
0.15539871156215668,
-0.423449844121933,
-0.5666584372520447,
0.051143988966941833,
-0.29953238368034363,
0.028371265158057213,
0.20814332365989685,
0.9275497198104858,
0.8265355825424194,
-0.11833811551332474,
0.27317899465560913,
-0.05052995681762695,
0.25326380133628845,
0.30408021807670593,
0.1649940460920334,
-0.5869942307472229,
0.6393976807594299,
0.2810736298561096,
0.2939678430557251,
0.11748197674751282,
0.006335381418466568,
-0.01508740708231926,
-0.23670463263988495,
0.548964262008667,
-0.08952391892671585,
0.33967506885528564,
-0.012934069149196148,
-0.24945242702960968,
0.3049952983856201,
0.2667388617992401,
-0.5052384734153748,
0.15774323046207428,
-0.08840732276439667,
0.9719956517219543,
-0.5483697652816772,
0.23717395961284637,
0.22616177797317505,
-0.11566726118326187,
0.91836017370224,
-0.050597138702869415,
0.18447880446910858,
0.08143506944179535,
-0.1459052413702011,
0.2608928680419922,
0.5228827595710754,
-0.22077472507953644,
0.0669679343700409,
-0.18342730402946472,
-0.2484084814786911,
-0.5281484723091125,
-0.34618526697158813,
-0.13316205143928528,
-0.4149552285671234,
0.4935964047908783,
0.025926640257239342,
-0.6214705109596252,
0.5597708821296692,
0.09740105271339417,
-0.18212983012199402,
-0.1239093616604805,
-0.4755266010761261,
-0.05491040647029877,
0.3895481824874878,
-0.46451401710510254,
1.1045407056808472,
0.2965148985385895,
-0.07956835627555847,
-0.33074888586997986,
-0.30607613921165466,
0.7050031423568726,
-0.3109981417655945,
-0.5381169319152832,
0.3284394443035126,
0.056762512773275375,
0.23106908798217773,
-0.1411714106798172,
0.16735704243183136,
0.41560110449790955,
-0.22917798161506653,
-0.06550552695989609,
0.41522690653800964,
-0.547793984413147,
-0.02587783895432949,
0.2154211699962616,
-0.137209951877594,
0.1265297532081604,
-0.1223372370004654,
-0.3641520142555237,
0.410854697227478,
-0.3849281668663025,
0.44680964946746826,
-0.38463422656059265,
-0.2532323896884918,
0.5116956233978271,
-0.08284618705511093,
0.004490113351494074,
0.11972414702177048,
-0.22681733965873718,
0.20623870193958282,
-0.41934406757354736,
0.3255547881126404,
-0.2675546705722809,
-0.9094199538230896,
0.3230002224445343,
0.13447076082229614,
0.29711437225341797,
-0.36168020963668823,
-0.23949049413204193,
0.47914576530456543,
-0.3665330708026886,
0.812122642993927,
-0.7563815712928772,
0.6666632890701294,
-0.6453807353973389,
-0.5065809488296509,
-0.510554850101471,
0.339661180973053,
0.48177245259284973,
-0.14204376935958862,
-0.15400917828083038,
0.014700187370181084,
0.19956080615520477,
-0.09424850344657898,
0.2912144958972931,
-0.5361881852149963,
-0.23209533095359802,
1.227842926979065
] |
229058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%20adult | Young adult | A young adult is generally a person in the years following adolescence. Definitions and opinions on what qualifies as a young adult vary, with works such as Erik Erikson's stages of human development significantly influencing the definition of the term; generally, the term is often used to refer to adults in approximately the 20s and 30s age range. The young adult stage in human development precedes middle adulthood.
Time co-ordinates
For a variety of reasons, timelines on young adulthood cannot be exactly defined—producing different results according to the different mix of overlapping indices (legal, maturational, occupational, sexual, emotional and the like) employed, or on whether 'a developmental perspective... [or] the socialization perspective is taken. 'Sub-phases in this timetable of psycho-social growth patterns... are not rigid, and both social change and individual variations must be taken into account'—not to mention regional and cultural differences. Arguably indeed, with people living longer, and also reaching puberty earlier, 'age norms for major life events have become highly elastic' by the twenty-first century.
Some have suggested that, after Pre-adulthood... in the first 20 years or so... the second era, Early Adulthood, lasts from about age 17 to 45... the adult era of greatest energy and abundance and of greatest contradiction and stress.' Within that framework, 'the Early Adult Transition (17–22) is a developmental bridge between pre-adulthood and early adulthood', recognizing that 'the transition into adulthood is not a clear-cut dividing line'. One might alternatively speak of 'a Provisional Adulthood (18–30)... [&] the initiation to First Adulthood' as following that. Alternatively, MIT has generally defined "young adulthood" as 18 to 22 or 25.
Despite all such fluidity, there is broad agreement that it is essentially the twenties and thirties which constitute Early adulthood... the basis for what Levinson calls the Dream—a vision of his [or her] goals in life which provide motivation and enthusiasm for the future.'
Health
Young/prime adulthood can be considered the healthiest time of life and young adults are generally in good health, subject neither to disease nor the problems of senescence. Strength and physical performance reach their peak from 18 to 39 years of age. Flexibility may decrease with age throughout adulthood.
Women reach their peak fertility in their early 20s.
At age 30
75% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
91% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.
At age 35
66% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
84% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.
At age 40
44% will have a conception ending in a live birth within one year
64% will have a conception ending in a live birth within four years.
In developed countries, mortality rates for the 18–40 age group are typically very low. Men are more likely to die at this age than women, particularly in the 18–25 group: reasons include car accidents and suicide. Mortality statistics among men and women level off during the late twenties and thirties, due in part to good health and less risk-taking behavior.
Regarding disease, cancer is much less common in young than in older adults. Exceptions are testicular cancer, cervical cancer, and Hodgkin's lymphoma. In sub-Saharan Africa, HIV/AIDS has hit the early adult population particularly hard. According to a United Nations report, AIDS has significantly increased mortality of between ages 20 to 55 for African males and 20 to 45 for African females, reducing the life expectancy in South Africa by 18 years and in Botswana by 34 years.
Erik Erikson's theories of early adulthood
According to Erik Erikson, in the wake of the adolescent emphasis upon identity formation, 'the young adult, emerging from the search for and insistence on identity, is eager and willing to fuse their identity with that of others. He [or she] is ready for intimacy, that is, the capacity to commit... to concrete affiliations and partnerships.' To do so means the ability 'to face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon: in the solidarity of close affiliations, in orgasms and sexual unions, in close friendships and in physical combat'. Avoidance of such experiences 'because of a fear of ego-loss may lead to a deep sense of isolation and consequent self-absorption'.
Where isolation is avoided, the young adult may find instead that 'satisfactory sex relations... in some way take the edge off the hostilities and potential rages caused by the oppositeness of male and female, of fact and fancy, of love and hate'; and may grow into the ability to exchange intimacy, love and compassion.
In modern societies, young adults in their late teens and early 20s encounter a number of issues as they finish school and begin to hold full-time jobs and take on other responsibilities of adulthood; and 'the young adult is usually preoccupied with self-growth in the context of society and relationships with others.' The danger is that in 'the second era, Early Adulthood... we must make crucially important choices regarding marriage, family, work, and lifestyle before we have the maturity or life experience to choose wisely.'
While 'young adulthood is filled with avid quests for intimate relationships and other major commitments involving career and life goals', there is also "a parallel pursuit for the formulation of a set of moral values". Erikson has argued that it is only now that what he calls the 'ideological mind' of adolescence gives way to 'that ethical sense which is the mark of the adult.'
Reaching adulthood in modern society is not always a linear or clean transition. As generations continue to adapt, new markers of adulthood are created that add different social expectations of what it means to be an adult.
Daniel Levinson's Theory of Adult Development
Daniel Levinson argued that developmental sequences continue to occur as we transition into adulthood. Levinson's theory centers around Erik Erikson's conception of life courses. This theory of Erikson includes patterns and relationships of events for the person's life that distinguishes them. The study of the life courses covers all aspects of the life relationships, internal and external feelings, bodily changes, and the good and bad times that are experienced. Preadulthood, Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood are the four eras that constitute the life course. Preadulthood begins with conception and continues to roughly the age of 22. During these years the person grows from being extremely dependent and undifferentiated to being a more independent responsible adult. This is the era that we see the most biopsychosocial growth. The Early Adulthood Transition is part of this first stage while also being a part of the second stage, this is from the age of 17 to 22. Here is when the preadulthood era begins to draw to a close and the transition to early adulthood begins. It is here that the individual begins to modify their relationship from the preadult world so that they fit better to the adult world they are creating. The second era Early adulthood begins at age 17 and goes till 45. It begins during the early adulthood transition, and has the greatest amount of energy, contradiction and stress. This is typically the time for forming and pursuing aspirations, finding a place in society, forming families and as the era ends establishing a solid position in the adult world. The third period (Middle Adulthood) begins at age 45 and goes till 65, here we begin to see a decline in our biological capacities, the decline is not enough to completely deplete us of the energy we had during early adulthood and it allows for us to continue to have a socially valuable life. The final era is late adulthood this begins with age 65 and goes till death. In this era the individual has to find a new balance between involvement with society and the self. The individual is experiencing more fully the process of dying and here should be given the ability to freely choose the mode of life.
Settling down
After the relative upheaval of the early 30s, the middle to late 30s are often characterized by settling down: 'the establishment phase', involving 'what we would call major life investments—work, family, friends, community activities, and values.' With the making of the major investments in life the individual makes deeper commitments investing more of himself to these commitments he's made. What has been termed 'the Culminating Life Structure for Early Adulthood (33–40) is the vehicle for completing this era and realizing our youthful aspirations.' People in their thirties may increase the financial and emotional investments they make in their lives, and may have been employed long enough to gain promotions and raises. They often become more focused on advancing their careers and gaining stability in their personal lives—'with marriage and child-rearing,' starting a family, coming to the fore as priorities.
Gail Sheehy, however, signposts the same twenties/thirties division rather differently, arguing that nowadays 'the twenties have stretched out into a long Provisional Adulthood', and that in fact 'the transition to the Turbulent Thirties marks the initiation to First Adulthood.'
Midlife transition
Young Adulthood then draws to its close with 'the Midlife Transition, from roughly age 40 to 45'—producing 'a brand-new passage in the forties, when First Adulthood ends and Second Adulthood begins.' It is here in this Midlife Transition that we often find there is an ending of early adulthood as well as individuals making changes in their lives, with the biggest change being the career they are in. Early adulthood can be seen as ended as a person stops seeking adult status or wanting to feel like an adult By the time we reach the midlife transition we move from talking about how old we are to bolster our reputation and emphasize how young they are. In the midlife transition individuals start to focus on the things that become important in their lives that effect their personal lives. Those individuals focus more on the present than the future and the past. Levinson thought midlife to be a time of development of crisis. However, research today in the United States shows that individuals do not experience a midlife crisis. Instead individuals report midlife to be a freeing and satisfying period of life. An important thing to consider as we go through the midlife transition is the physical changes that we experience (outside of the changes that occur to the individual's character). Body image is an important aspect of the physical changes that are often experienced, and midlife transition may necessitate changes to one's perceived body image.
Here in the Midlife transition the issue isn't whether the individual has achieved or failed in accomplishing the goals they formed in the previous era. Rather the issue at hand is what the individual should be doing with the experience of disparity between one's goals and one's outcomes. In this transitional period from early adulthood to middle adulthood, the changes we make tend to focus less on the self and more on the relationships that we have.
See also
Emerging adulthood
Quarter-life crisis
Twenty something
Thirty something
Twixter
Young professional
Youth
Young adult fiction
References
Notes
|Erik H. Erikson, Joan M. Erikson, The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version (W. W. Norton, 1998),
Adulthood
Human development
Youth | [
-0.20988759398460388,
0.4679645895957947,
-0.1794971525669098,
-0.0012973886914551258,
0.26080453395843506,
-0.0637931376695633,
0.4100945293903351,
0.569137692451477,
-0.06279828399419785,
-0.4794813394546509,
-0.5706029534339905,
0.3492397367954254,
0.6960314512252808,
-0.13326133787631989,
0.007801528554409742,
0.25810182094573975,
0.3442448377609253,
0.7113324999809265,
0.35064664483070374,
-0.7200629115104675,
-0.7134106755256653,
-0.48910388350486755,
0.22868071496486664,
-0.2665790617465973,
0.7582136392593384,
-0.49573493003845215,
0.44509389996528625,
-0.12949669361114502,
0.2622279226779938,
-1.0416253805160522,
-0.5531408786773682,
-0.04658910632133484,
0.08269739896059036,
0.35009339451789856,
0.06019099801778793,
0.16106534004211426,
0.06430160254240036,
-0.30214986205101013,
0.2854129374027252,
-0.637988269329071,
0.18141284584999084,
-0.10566934943199158,
0.06330642849206924,
0.045353569090366364,
-0.29645681381225586,
-0.7892851233482361,
-1.6759339570999146,
0.017215227708220482,
-0.18361739814281464,
-0.44552910327911377,
-0.4194434583187103,
0.23737667500972748,
0.7297393679618835,
-0.07998030632734299,
-0.19975261390209198,
-0.10467984527349472,
-0.23226936161518097,
-0.03495585173368454,
0.21896368265151978,
0.2982485890388489,
0.8749489188194275,
0.1500600427389145,
0.04011576622724533,
0.0596349723637104,
0.17463648319244385,
0.3192192018032074,
0.4029005169868469,
0.2952938675880432,
-0.2307261973619461,
-0.4161090552806854,
-0.644525408744812,
-0.38406115770339966,
0.14360469579696655,
0.2026870995759964,
-0.44759729504585266,
-0.1389777660369873,
0.3723137676715851,
0.14983464777469635,
-0.09877610206604004,
-0.40413737297058105,
-0.0783558115363121,
0.8807592988014221,
0.2505605220794678,
0.10006492584943771,
0.1132526621222496,
0.2750955820083618,
0.26814037561416626,
0.4693302810192108,
-0.3257051706314087,
0.4739299714565277,
0.06585647165775299,
0.0627044141292572,
0.5137404799461365,
0.4470196068286896,
0.6220343112945557,
0.22280538082122803,
0.26132771372795105,
0.6583415865898132,
0.270197331905365,
0.25488874316215515,
0.6256750226020813,
0.35651153326034546,
0.0443357415497303,
-0.6855196356773376,
-0.0523773618042469,
-0.4414079487323761,
0.5959317684173584,
-0.35733750462532043,
-0.2918769121170044,
-0.9364411234855652,
-0.09130106121301651,
-0.010829211212694645,
-0.6289875507354736,
0.6470381617546082,
0.3993048667907715,
0.771058201789856,
-0.067569300532341,
0.03762499615550041,
-0.27997666597366333,
-0.16979646682739258,
-0.3886672854423523,
-0.34795081615448,
-0.5773670077323914,
-0.4068293273448944,
-0.17076270282268524,
0.4986934959888458,
0.09457696229219437,
0.40115559101104736,
0.3908264935016632,
-0.1805233210325241,
0.16807150840759277,
0.3105916380882263,
-0.3469724655151367,
-0.15604665875434875,
-0.13900713622570038,
-0.02336866781115532,
0.28003454208374023,
-0.01047059241682291,
0.5619678497314453,
0.4958350956439972,
-0.637857973575592,
-0.4382167458534241,
-0.5682603120803833,
-0.3556309938430786,
0.48113593459129333,
-0.05451776087284088,
0.02418477088212967,
-0.5846140384674072,
-0.631311297416687,
-0.04056669399142265,
0.24292145669460297,
-0.4211936295032501,
-0.3940483033657074,
0.3506203889846802,
-0.07131825387477875,
-0.5493307709693909,
0.40117985010147095,
-0.14934703707695007,
0.00564211281016469,
0.14463938772678375,
0.005267424508929253,
0.079776830971241,
-0.5605140924453735,
-0.22392886877059937,
0.13888683915138245,
-0.1723920702934265,
0.3568594455718994,
-0.28454628586769104,
0.0460718609392643,
0.1065339744091034,
-0.04785047844052315,
0.07970856875181198,
-0.09912799298763275,
-0.2997547388076782,
-0.36371558904647827,
-0.08364070951938629,
0.30668771266937256,
0.2894721031188965,
0.1587410569190979,
-0.23361437022686005,
-0.373627632856369,
0.4491010010242462,
0.21885176002979279,
0.09705690294504166,
0.2757069170475006,
-0.28994882106781006,
-0.4056856334209442,
0.34179750084877014,
-0.36240726709365845,
-0.32462096214294434,
0.32600292563438416,
-0.47607654333114624,
0.40935224294662476,
-0.2385411560535431,
0.9430012106895447,
-0.6197638511657715,
0.2508225440979004,
0.8149574995040894,
-0.1882796734571457,
0.2892093360424042,
-0.03673360496759415,
-0.0746835246682167,
0.19575074315071106,
0.17475625872612,
-0.8900122046470642,
0.8100314736366272,
0.5324556827545166,
0.11672331392765045,
0.4069611430168152,
-0.16426552832126617,
-0.1578870415687561,
0.1456853151321411,
-0.016629494726657867,
0.11889323592185974,
0.01641809567809105,
0.13905420899391174,
0.045318592339754105,
0.5371383428573608,
-0.10612809658050537,
0.06749384850263596,
0.38070377707481384,
-0.41504862904548645,
0.11075777560472488,
0.12524843215942383,
-0.1327352076768875,
0.5793318152427673,
0.5252304077148438,
-0.10900901257991791,
0.04738863557577133,
-0.5201918482780457,
-0.03618037700653076,
0.14980857074260712,
0.4215199053287506,
0.12395729869604111,
-0.66293865442276,
0.1444922536611557,
-0.15635071694850922,
-0.580965518951416,
-0.08671911060810089,
-0.07692352682352066,
-0.07746782153844833,
0.03463887423276901,
-0.13444282114505768,
0.32420188188552856,
0.437493234872818,
0.253913938999176,
-0.09016875922679901,
0.9139344692230225,
-0.6808516383171082,
-0.19277331233024597,
-0.26014062762260437,
0.07210087031126022,
0.294463574886322,
-0.09623900800943375,
-0.07165034860372543,
-0.5797924995422363,
-0.6006183624267578,
0.42092210054397583,
0.16369129717350006,
-0.023201333358883858,
-0.3337835669517517,
-0.2776431143283844,
0.5683650374412537,
0.29023849964141846,
-0.4231592118740082,
0.21288146078586578,
-0.17492946982383728,
-0.7127657532691956,
0.1274038553237915,
0.541009247303009,
0.3232223093509674,
0.230414018034935,
-0.44949671626091003,
-0.44381311535835266,
-0.027556629851460457,
0.20048603415489197,
0.5194414258003235,
-0.07825055718421936,
-0.045254576951265335,
-0.15842217206954956,
0.4100039601325989,
0.6708876490592957,
0.46542155742645264,
-0.07603877037763596,
-0.41907697916030884,
-0.4397549629211426,
0.21049128472805023,
-0.08735129237174988,
-0.19437088072299957,
-0.12076549977064133,
-0.09656992554664612,
0.24274297058582306,
-0.294963002204895,
0.15811161696910858,
0.7797147631645203,
0.42616498470306396,
-0.06547848880290985,
0.3738153576850891,
0.4565727114677429,
-0.042988404631614685,
-0.0008024137350730598,
0.03734087944030762,
-0.5664253830909729,
0.03364532068371773,
0.33655500411987305,
0.1523851603269577,
0.09561234712600708,
-0.32550880312919617,
-5.839480876922607,
-0.04502098634839058,
-0.6851692795753479,
-0.6763077974319458,
-0.1339196115732193,
-0.07958172261714935,
0.7164081931114197,
-0.7022245526313782,
-0.4731687605381012,
0.6770516633987427,
-0.2057228982448578,
0.2639731466770172,
0.12173880636692047,
0.14099697768688202,
0.3056330680847168,
0.07017195224761963,
0.18782372772693634,
0.17887048423290253,
-0.2846989631652832,
0.015940751880407333,
0.08879152685403824,
-0.21642877161502838,
-0.6786795258522034,
0.4815288186073303,
0.39361000061035156,
-0.42587152123451233,
0.34368547797203064,
-0.32504886388778687,
-0.5127095580101013,
-0.2635989189147949,
0.07716251164674759,
0.024922851473093033,
0.30021822452545166,
0.05276266112923622,
0.2217116802930832,
0.215144544839859,
0.7184738516807556,
0.37996405363082886,
0.8486320376396179,
-0.19692988693714142,
-0.3698180615901947,
-0.05725272372364998,
0.25108417868614197,
0.44205719232559204,
0.4631249010562897,
-0.029933670535683632,
-0.11844711005687714,
-0.3779531717300415,
-0.24865573644638062,
0.5722474455833435,
0.1004631519317627,
0.357974112033844,
-0.3309893012046814,
0.00282245222479105,
0.7147242426872253,
0.10658702999353409,
0.09561211615800858,
-0.0652284100651741,
-0.19242413341999054,
-0.4424557089805603,
0.31267234683036804,
0.07800040394067764,
-0.06954420357942581,
-0.47327229380607605,
-0.3557552695274353,
-0.5267298221588135,
-0.627960741519928,
-0.2582697570323944,
-0.018844271078705788,
0.7727720141410828,
-0.3905670642852783,
-0.15744948387145996,
0.27495312690734863,
-0.7594814300537109,
-0.012783540412783623,
-0.5906968712806702,
-0.23216091096401215,
0.6528035998344421,
-0.3254029154777527,
-0.7235966324806213,
0.1344737708568573,
0.20691019296646118,
-0.5859795808792114,
0.5154656171798706,
-0.05766787752509117,
-0.2631601393222809,
0.17882710695266724,
0.3156603276729584,
-0.4290676414966583,
-0.24877850711345673,
0.9127413034439087,
0.04472832754254341,
-0.08783823251724243,
-0.2033356875181198,
0.056832507252693176,
0.2472841888666153,
0.42568060755729675,
-0.00320197525434196,
0.17607007920742035,
-0.8627215027809143,
0.13478852808475494,
0.1515132635831833,
-0.26308029890060425,
0.2201244831085205,
-0.37753167748451233,
-0.40173953771591187,
-0.1264703869819641,
0.23477314412593842,
1.2242062091827393,
-0.38942018151283264,
-0.04241339489817619,
-0.07983756065368652,
-0.4104556143283844,
-0.26511961221694946,
0.021530479192733765,
-0.24130301177501678,
-0.23910532891750336,
0.7357715964317322,
0.024851225316524506,
-0.014196136966347694,
-0.4887705445289612,
0.10184965282678604,
-0.12305045127868652,
-0.17135080695152283,
-0.9418772459030151,
-0.3682941794395447,
-0.09893859177827835,
0.07413487881422043,
-0.3549492657184601,
0.13980607688426971,
0.9384540319442749,
0.6098704934120178,
-0.1397845596075058,
-0.7524081468582153,
-0.16690683364868164,
-0.4943150579929352,
0.07524197548627853,
-0.16340404748916626,
0.19863387942314148,
-0.5628990530967712,
0.07007469236850739,
0.07058010250329971,
0.03749964013695717,
-0.2568819224834442,
0.32539594173431396,
-0.05459418147802353,
0.047839485108852386,
-0.14771023392677307,
-0.4436267912387848,
0.1896992027759552,
0.32996895909309387,
-0.21611280739307404,
0.4872541129589081,
0.15285833179950714,
-0.5218236446380615,
-0.24802811443805695,
-0.14178906381130219,
-0.312447726726532,
-0.21099542081356049,
0.022205904126167297,
-0.13829666376113892,
-0.32755047082901,
-0.798366367816925,
-0.14188234508037567,
0.9310289025306702,
0.35640859603881836,
-0.47713759541511536,
-0.13584965467453003,
0.013963722623884678,
0.6123902797698975,
0.6621121168136597,
-0.5301376581192017,
-0.18319272994995117,
-0.7391629219055176,
0.18403176963329315,
-0.2309126853942871,
0.21309176087379456,
-0.19938410818576813,
-0.3831285536289215,
-0.6379031538963318,
-0.07324334979057312,
-0.5609802603721619,
-0.041942138224840164,
-0.03854290768504143,
0.0547327995300293,
0.13248124718666077,
0.10166887193918228,
-0.545346200466156,
-0.6489061117172241,
-0.1764199435710907,
-0.16000136733055115,
-0.44263750314712524,
0.5387445092201233,
-0.13009469211101532,
-0.10817275196313858,
-0.12265286594629288,
-0.28607508540153503,
0.47002142667770386,
-0.05135710909962654,
-0.0969383493065834,
-0.051965247839689255,
-0.20478424429893494,
-0.5234653353691101,
0.2175503969192505,
0.4761350154876709,
-0.7373285293579102,
-0.07478503882884979,
-0.33792170882225037,
-0.3795274794101715,
0.3026863932609558,
-0.5931882858276367,
-0.4737868309020996,
0.1127765104174614,
0.024894803762435913,
0.3169299364089966,
0.2502741515636444,
-0.12689697742462158,
-0.2081964761018753,
-0.27379533648490906,
-0.02558925747871399,
0.5443801283836365,
0.07555092126131058,
-0.772091805934906,
-0.3047887086868286,
0.1425504982471466,
0.3149421513080597,
0.31112217903137207,
-0.7401343584060669,
0.6747078895568848,
-0.0477701760828495,
-0.07434854656457901,
0.20263729989528656,
0.5016737580299377,
-0.5714682936668396,
-0.35813450813293457,
-0.5997118949890137,
-0.4820508658885956,
-0.09387630224227905,
0.43021103739738464,
0.6923554539680481,
0.14530636370182037,
0.6987626552581787,
0.043039314448833466,
-0.40906545519828796,
-0.07675584405660629,
0.14978677034378052,
0.2432779222726822,
-0.7115750908851624,
-0.703053891658783,
0.6234137415885925,
-0.10080933570861816,
-0.4856712520122528,
0.08897864818572998,
-0.11009832471609116,
0.3648242950439453,
0.36274096369743347,
-0.5716312527656555,
0.03809192404150963,
0.10108103603124619,
0.19957037270069122,
0.12163718044757843,
-0.5331417918205261,
-0.2627754509449005,
0.3779078423976898,
0.616773784160614,
0.17616529762744904,
-0.39727261662483215,
0.391110360622406,
0.2140563279390335,
0.04402172937989235,
-0.02353375218808651,
0.1275225728750229,
0.6735723614692688,
-0.03409375995397568,
0.16547948122024536,
-0.15304400026798248,
-0.08790507912635803,
-0.05342348664999008,
-0.16729682683944702,
-0.08009447902441025,
0.3143986165523529,
0.4990916848182678,
0.5478076934814453,
-0.36432698369026184,
0.052116867154836655,
-0.5515360832214355,
0.18481555581092834,
-0.03916409984230995,
-0.816648542881012,
-0.11754146218299866,
0.2783423066139221,
0.00948266126215458,
-0.7518398761749268,
0.4214037358760834,
0.3030066192150116,
0.7949237823486328,
0.28234967589378357,
-0.050977569073438644,
-0.017755374312400818,
0.0512559711933136,
-0.4502823054790497,
0.8820416331291199,
0.19805537164211273,
-0.887015163898468,
0.2190815955400467,
0.13624915480613708,
-0.1748374104499817,
-0.06240088865160942,
0.2374342530965805,
0.11174584180116653,
0.08962669968605042,
0.31741762161254883,
0.6496610045433044,
0.7045245170593262,
-0.2235502004623413,
-0.07053889334201813,
-0.15220780670642853,
-0.15152373909950256,
0.031957898288965225,
-0.10153414309024811,
0.04626655578613281,
0.0973963662981987,
0.3575325310230255,
-0.17007672786712646,
-0.05966610088944435,
0.47771739959716797,
0.06481032073497772,
0.13359826803207397,
0.13986818492412567,
0.22861488163471222,
0.5302948951721191,
0.21533289551734924,
0.3168233633041382,
0.7718122601509094,
-0.03532691299915314,
-0.23271043598651886,
0.3021355867385864,
-0.7855111956596375,
-0.16853612661361694,
0.46019333600997925,
1.2815990447998047,
0.14718285202980042,
-0.2878853678703308,
0.2518099248409271,
0.14422616362571716,
0.1586625725030899,
0.21075420081615448,
0.5147713422775269,
-0.026453997939825058,
-0.16050995886325836,
0.8575261235237122,
-0.5277884006500244,
0.26559925079345703,
-0.09757857024669647,
0.22876319289207458,
-0.33282509446144104,
-0.12329897284507751,
-0.2636999189853668,
-0.5878573656082153,
-0.9330331087112427,
-0.3632652163505554,
0.3394050598144531,
0.6542037129402161,
-0.23725858330726624,
0.382782906293869,
-0.46382173895835876,
0.4402235448360443,
0.056083377450704575,
0.15167611837387085,
-0.3275783956050873,
0.27305707335472107,
0.707834005355835,
-0.1585693359375,
-0.14958851039409637,
0.26081758737564087,
-0.09855251759290695,
-0.001838238094933331,
0.15901906788349152,
-0.08785664290189743,
-0.444316565990448,
-0.413163959980011,
-0.22616636753082275,
0.0541289821267128,
-0.35535892844200134,
-0.02039012312889099,
-0.14816661179065704,
0.7934260368347168,
0.3311942517757416,
-0.4413483440876007,
-0.07460767775774002,
0.3187161386013031,
-0.21033264696598053,
0.39616861939430237,
-0.06646072119474411,
-0.7455347180366516,
0.11845663189888,
0.12370463460683823,
1.084281086921692,
0.10651664435863495,
0.3535446226596832,
-0.4862918257713318,
0.035752054303884506,
-0.7034072279930115,
-0.02976507879793644,
-0.09295672923326492,
0.4090111553668976,
-0.17785800993442535,
-0.2496013641357422,
-0.2092030644416809,
0.18871377408504486,
1.1718156337738037,
0.013547933660447598,
0.25208935141563416,
0.15906627476215363,
0.16850483417510986,
0.6357128620147705,
0.009294217452406883,
-0.20516660809516907,
0.1852974146604538,
-0.3590599596500397,
-0.07453282177448273,
-0.09033330529928207,
0.47234097123146057,
0.4247540831565857,
-0.3570101857185364,
0.36806443333625793,
-0.23604504764080048,
0.1334964483976364,
0.018938666209578514,
-0.07802239060401917,
-0.39294055104255676,
-0.25649482011795044,
0.10945403575897217,
1.0213406085968018,
-0.06256309896707535,
-0.3085554540157318,
0.6937738656997681,
-0.4801122844219208,
0.711351752281189,
0.07489217072725296,
-0.46300047636032104,
-0.41656017303466797,
0.8868868350982666,
0.32255369424819946,
-1.178731083869934,
-0.24817852675914764,
-0.04188576713204384,
-0.3133026361465454,
-0.4219573736190796,
-0.5700716972351074,
-0.09523168951272964,
-0.7750327587127686,
0.0794346034526825,
0.025001391768455505,
-0.4601705074310303,
-0.07111607491970062,
-0.12662053108215332,
-0.635158896446228,
-0.1347970962524414,
0.12323178350925446
] |
229059 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s%20PGA%20Championship | Women's PGA Championship | The Women's PGA Championship (branded as the KPMG Women's PGA Championship for sponsorship reasons) is a women's professional golf tournament. First held in 1955, it is one of five majors on the LPGA Tour. It is not recognized as a major by the Ladies European Tour, which does not recognize any of the three majors played in the United States.
Formerly known as the LPGA Championship, the LPGA announced in 2014 that the PGA of America would become a partner of the event, and that it would be renamed the Women's PGA Championship beginning in 2015—becoming a sister event to the men's PGA Championship (in a similar manner to the U.S. Women's Open being a sister event to the men's U.S. Open). The partnership included a new title sponsorship agreement with KPMG, an increase in purse, and a commitment by NBC to provide network television coverage of the weekend rounds. The PGA of America partnership also allowed the tournament to be held at various top courses around the United States. Previously, the LPGA Championship had been usually held at a consistent location each year, most recently near Rochester, New York as part of a title sponsorship agreement with Western New York-based supermarket chain Wegmans.
Professional-amateur controversy
Prior to 2005, the LPGA Championship had a "professionals only" rule. This is similar to the men's PGA Championship, but contrasts with the U.S. and British Opens, which have long had both amateur and professional entrants through qualifying (henceforth the term "open"). Until its takeover by the PGA of America in 2015, the tournament was the LPGA's own event, and the LPGA was created specifically to provide opportunities for women in professional golf.
In 2005 this rule was revoked, effectively to allow 15-year-old amateur Michelle Wie to compete, in order to attract more media coverage and sell more tickets, though this was not publicly acknowledged by the LPGA. Some professionals objected to this move, as they felt that places given to amateurs would come at the expense of the LPGA Tour's less successful professionals, who need to play regularly to make a living. One of the leading professionals, Laura Davies, stated objections to the change were shortsighted.
At the time, Wie had made the cut in all five majors that she had played, with two top-ten finishes, and had also played twice in the Sony Open in Hawaii on the PGA Tour, but missed both cuts. Despite the controversy, she outscored all but one of the pros in the 2005 LPGA Championship and was the runner-up, three strokes behind three-time champion Annika Sörenstam.
In 2006, the LPGA Championship reverted to its "professionals only" status, with only pros in the field. Wie had turned professional the previous October, upon signing multimillion-dollar endorsement contracts with Nike, Sony, and other sponsors.
Tournament names
Tournament names through the years:
Winners
Note: Green highlight indicates scoring records.
Multiple champions
{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%;
| style="background: #FFFFCC"|Grand Slam winners ‡
|}
The defending champion has retained the title on seven occasions, most recently in 2015:
2015 – Inbee Park
2014 – Inbee Park
2005 – Annika Sörenstam
2004 – Annika Sörenstam
2000 – Juli Inkster
1984 – Patty Sheehan
1961 – Mickey Wright
Through 2017, three consecutive championships has been achieved only twice, by Sörenstam (2005) and Park (2015).
Sites by state
Future sites
Since the PGA of America took control of the tournament, venues will often bid for both a men's, women's, and seniors' PGA Championship together. Aronimink Golf Club, which hosted the men's in 1962 and seniors in 2003, was awarded a joint bid for the 2020 women's and 2027 men's. Congressional Country Club was awarded the 2025 seniors and both the 2022 and 2027 women's championships. Baltusrol Golf Club, which had hosted the 2005 and 2016 men's championships, was awarded the 2023 women's and 2029 men's championships together. The tournament will also be held at the PGA of America's new home in Frisco, Texas.
M = Denotes PGA Championship
S = Denotes Senior PGA Championship
References
External links
Coverage on the LPGA Tour's official site
LPGA Tour events
Women's major golf championships
Golf, Women
Recurring sporting events established in 1955
1955 establishments in Indiana | [
-0.22358374297618866,
-0.1867598295211792,
-0.03409763053059578,
-0.23533912003040314,
0.11231931298971176,
0.053628887981176376,
0.010780991055071354,
0.07156326621770859,
-0.8106979727745056,
0.16338758170604706,
0.003485114313662052,
0.3289468288421631,
0.08157821744680405,
0.10585999488830566,
-0.07267244160175323,
0.06966542452573776,
0.9902897477149963,
0.35571491718292236,
0.16856329143047333,
-1.1019489765167236,
-0.1755409985780716,
0.1290399432182312,
1.0287729501724243,
-0.3990594148635864,
-0.7807743549346924,
0.08171842247247696,
-0.029926639050245285,
-0.4765707850456238,
-0.05726056918501854,
0.30682316422462463,
-0.15124763548374176,
-0.36202776432037354,
0.9123339653015137,
0.057539328932762146,
0.050040051341056824,
0.2639825940132141,
0.5661933422088623,
0.30423590540885925,
-0.3275200128555298,
0.018240218982100487,
-0.9042516350746155,
-0.36431190371513367,
-0.13737773895263672,
1.257047414779663,
0.05311579257249832,
0.27138015627861023,
-1.6742327213287354,
0.2826079726219177,
-0.8116949200630188,
0.04248439520597458,
-0.15353748202323914,
0.055062755942344666,
0.7243427038192749,
0.6845399737358093,
0.6134129762649536,
0.29722902178764343,
-0.25481295585632324,
0.011413158848881721,
-0.48579907417297363,
-0.4208854138851166,
0.6309083700180054,
0.20100736618041992,
0.18214082717895508,
-0.18692801892757416,
0.3408716022968292,
0.05849049985408783,
-0.2775999903678894,
0.2978668212890625,
-0.24228155612945557,
-0.42250990867614746,
0.2535291314125061,
-0.5448023676872253,
-0.2241867482662201,
-0.04311234503984451,
0.22726385295391083,
-0.4325554668903351,
0.06547969579696655,
0.08995599299669266,
0.686631441116333,
-0.29978153109550476,
-0.053092002868652344,
-0.008773893117904663,
0.744592010974884,
0.34311917424201965,
0.44306424260139465,
0.3052339255809784,
-0.3028707504272461,
-0.5304000973701477,
0.04892905429005623,
0.783563494682312,
-0.45746734738349915,
-0.01945258304476738,
0.7713218927383423,
-0.051950905472040176,
-0.16460967063903809,
-0.6646590828895569,
0.6634901762008667,
0.04295460507273674,
0.5313559770584106,
-0.22063012421131134,
0.09526172280311584,
0.15964846312999725,
0.11051444709300995,
-0.29870298504829407,
-0.32596921920776367,
0.3412478268146515,
-0.5598563551902771,
-1.083983063697815,
-0.06080865487456322,
0.3601817190647125,
-0.39299431443214417,
0.3425424098968506,
0.1764933168888092,
-0.1321505457162857,
-0.02414661832153797,
0.44982704520225525,
0.3361071050167084,
-0.23978525400161743,
-0.053179752081632614,
-0.0028877202421426773,
0.3340321481227875,
-0.2343352735042572,
0.32811135053634644,
0.5177516341209412,
0.2835747301578522,
0.2455960512161255,
0.05382446199655533,
0.816137969493866,
-0.32681015133857727,
-0.19342932105064392,
0.3297674059867859,
-0.024346886202692986,
-0.3601318299770355,
0.5175110697746277,
0.004467930179089308,
-0.4136335551738739,
0.46391943097114563,
-0.4300212264060974,
0.9267680644989014,
0.37567052245140076,
-0.8275976777076721,
0.19509200751781464,
-0.5324822068214417,
-0.8986828923225403,
0.5402798652648926,
0.3259837031364441,
0.2563810348510742,
-0.12763364613056183,
-0.3770045042037964,
0.24134467542171478,
-0.13666336238384247,
-0.053136155009269714,
0.06755860149860382,
-0.3361281156539917,
-0.7525849342346191,
0.6105121970176697,
0.8644686937332153,
-0.3195457458496094,
0.0690859779715538,
0.40392768383026123,
0.11624527722597122,
-0.3241095542907715,
0.15253213047981262,
-0.10492818802595139,
0.1962825506925583,
-0.2793985903263092,
0.8425253033638,
0.14260411262512207,
0.04401629790663719,
0.17496217787265778,
-0.509914219379425,
0.05271467566490173,
1.0579602718353271,
-0.49623194336891174,
-0.38801419734954834,
-0.11993762105703354,
-0.34973472356796265,
0.1778460144996643,
0.08065343648195267,
-0.04887343570590019,
-0.5255827307701111,
0.02852049097418785,
0.42933234572410583,
-0.6749951839447021,
0.9797152280807495,
-0.3796122968196869,
-0.06432504206895828,
-0.13492368161678314,
-0.02802182547748089,
0.0080497395247221,
0.0882876068353653,
-0.4491996765136719,
0.30115601420402527,
0.5312568545341492,
0.2889835238456726,
-0.33571863174438477,
-0.4064207971096039,
1.0628892183303833,
-0.3383496105670929,
-0.4862855076789856,
0.20419247448444366,
0.095502570271492,
-0.13921068608760834,
-0.5700495839118958,
-0.5461365580558777,
0.2578083574771881,
0.206399068236351,
-0.09063277393579483,
0.29582247138023376,
0.3085007667541504,
0.013615894131362438,
-0.6731168031692505,
-0.3045719265937805,
0.2637147009372711,
0.1510339230298996,
0.23612718284130096,
-0.2475990653038025,
0.4204823076725006,
0.6170339584350586,
0.2169962227344513,
0.7496731877326965,
0.8368344306945801,
0.25555357336997986,
0.08100273460149765,
-0.8672771453857422,
0.5678361058235168,
-1.0128135681152344,
0.4410891830921173,
0.09345768392086029,
0.4477824866771698,
0.6715166568756104,
0.3021729588508606,
0.26281866431236267,
-0.48023661971092224,
0.1796775907278061,
-0.5956183075904846,
-0.1480800211429596,
-0.11302609741687775,
0.2584174573421478,
-0.5416098833084106,
0.3118121325969696,
0.7822266221046448,
-0.5261022448539734,
0.45145663619041443,
-0.23526354134082794,
-0.49518582224845886,
-0.1929531693458557,
0.07741329818964005,
-0.06749231368303299,
-0.93766188621521,
0.6822484731674194,
0.10809095203876495,
0.5816439390182495,
-0.1823273003101349,
-0.7944802045822144,
-0.2731800377368927,
-0.603247880935669,
0.05803663283586502,
0.8522811532020569,
0.1989051103591919,
0.3489362597465515,
0.3882640600204468,
0.14962776005268097,
0.5899844765663147,
-0.19775155186653137,
-0.3915564715862274,
-0.6758252382278442,
-0.6612896919250488,
0.09287123382091522,
0.16801632940769196,
-0.2632213830947876,
0.513289213180542,
-0.5884484052658081,
-0.2780580520629883,
-0.4242878556251526,
0.011214206926524639,
-0.6355146765708923,
0.08503206074237823,
-1.0388329029083252,
-0.599021315574646,
0.25079160928726196,
0.24804455041885376,
0.9607437252998352,
-0.54909348487854,
-0.5391915440559387,
0.24082468450069427,
0.12431501597166061,
0.2769014537334442,
0.09952938556671143,
0.24685753881931305,
-0.2334071844816208,
0.27917158603668213,
-0.4188884198665619,
-0.24076569080352783,
1.0721651315689087,
-0.10955256968736649,
-0.4431675374507904,
0.5134938955307007,
0.4886344373226166,
-0.29098057746887207,
0.14974677562713623,
0.3072701692581177,
0.018261682242155075,
-0.4771592617034912,
0.1562020182609558,
0.007235019467771053,
-0.3185681104660034,
-0.771425724029541,
-5.3602705001831055,
0.2306065410375595,
-0.3978009521961212,
0.04703851789236069,
-0.1090334877371788,
-0.4133201539516449,
0.04672621563076973,
-0.002560719382017851,
-0.42986661195755005,
-0.032551877200603485,
0.41343948245048523,
-0.06935681402683258,
-0.5209571123123169,
-0.33947518467903137,
0.10299023985862732,
0.7659368515014648,
0.35009336471557617,
-0.6425324082374573,
0.1926167607307434,
-0.015044452622532845,
0.05480986461043358,
0.23421408236026764,
0.08695308119058609,
0.20085366070270538,
0.15592269599437714,
0.1884775608778,
-0.7763128876686096,
-0.8839514255523682,
-0.46833160519599915,
-0.16238714754581451,
0.027267877012491226,
-0.11936357617378235,
-0.7281503677368164,
0.5736022591590881,
-0.09543787688016891,
0.09449725598096848,
0.5310434103012085,
-0.18233546614646912,
0.15648365020751953,
-0.28477635979652405,
-0.296095073223114,
0.8508709073066711,
0.2638759911060333,
0.04323754459619522,
1.0229969024658203,
-0.32077261805534363,
-0.41905879974365234,
-0.24652084708213806,
-0.15261510014533997,
0.08969978988170624,
0.12430866807699203,
-0.2050885707139969,
0.36058613657951355,
-0.3621825575828552,
0.1944526731967926,
0.11877163499593735,
-0.2250814586877823,
0.038648925721645355,
0.13344815373420715,
-0.23143699765205383,
-0.20359575748443604,
-0.39191508293151855,
1.0270421504974365,
-0.515939474105835,
-0.22123128175735474,
-0.5390895009040833,
-0.1757410317659378,
0.5424820780754089,
0.4277409315109253,
0.41148078441619873,
0.7434383630752563,
0.6759926676750183,
-0.45917847752571106,
-0.7930852174758911,
0.1299625039100647,
-0.7471329569816589,
0.23274314403533936,
0.19430652260780334,
-0.18238548934459686,
-0.05632058531045914,
0.9921368360519409,
-0.01117796916514635,
0.4804834723472595,
-0.16058501601219177,
0.26207202672958374,
-0.719379186630249,
0.5852625966072083,
-0.037215299904346466,
-0.34304922819137573,
0.6033466458320618,
-0.47721946239471436,
-0.17211368680000305,
0.38492393493652344,
0.8380725383758545,
-0.07592247426509857,
0.4817023277282715,
0.39295002818107605,
0.19588905572891235,
-0.3100888431072235,
-0.41569915413856506,
-0.05304957926273346,
-0.6533574461936951,
0.087525874376297,
-0.7517890930175781,
-0.7307698726654053,
-0.12024804204702377,
-0.24184450507164001,
0.5491171479225159,
0.8539736270904541,
-0.36635276675224304,
0.10021938383579254,
-0.22341157495975494,
0.037405189126729965,
-0.21095958352088928,
0.21395443379878998,
0.3523111343383789,
-0.47880253195762634,
0.10285517573356628,
0.10647045820951462,
-0.7961766719818115,
-0.07428806275129318,
0.267410546541214,
0.10003189742565155,
-0.2695063352584839,
0.793939471244812,
-0.06719833612442017,
0.09798850119113922,
0.26806479692459106,
-0.33542558550834656,
0.39112919569015503,
0.18476858735084534,
0.4562026858329773,
-0.00003519394886097871,
0.06679896265268326,
0.34184446930885315,
-0.015958301723003387,
-0.5653326511383057,
0.5449533462524414,
-0.6763314008712769,
-0.0542730838060379,
0.09899434447288513,
-0.006213495973497629,
-0.2305998057126999,
0.11281120777130127,
-0.057768017053604126,
0.027739301323890686,
-0.5518269538879395,
0.25207096338272095,
-0.3223547637462616,
0.5742079615592957,
-0.28637388348579407,
-0.6163594126701355,
0.8770777583122253,
-0.921126127243042,
0.3009093105792999,
-0.10074023902416229,
0.19733762741088867,
0.19200211763381958,
-0.5674348473548889,
-1.1886042356491089,
0.06277580559253693,
-0.22143997251987457,
-0.5739793181419373,
0.24315275251865387,
-0.29940515756607056,
0.07135286927223206,
0.2746378183364868,
-0.6193458437919617,
-0.6965525150299072,
0.605211615562439,
0.854939341545105,
-0.46880754828453064,
-0.6903068423271179,
-0.5078769326210022,
0.4898114800453186,
-0.019617371261119843,
0.09031935036182404,
-0.002057858044281602,
-0.031610630452632904,
-0.48916223645210266,
0.15109297633171082,
-0.593117356300354,
-0.30466198921203613,
0.40517640113830566,
0.5316616296768188,
0.28953930735588074,
0.021739806979894638,
0.1236681342124939,
-0.018947672098875046,
0.23664569854736328,
0.056845419108867645,
0.1954975128173828,
0.5558508038520813,
-0.1372383087873459,
-0.48434436321258545,
0.06315673142671585,
0.39527153968811035,
0.6546846628189087,
-0.5450266599655151,
-0.1431579887866974,
0.3103545308113098,
0.6134780645370483,
-0.287137508392334,
0.6427363157272339,
1.1319353580474854,
-0.21930302679538727,
-0.07115177810192108,
-0.06373219937086105,
-0.26136481761932373,
0.2357216328382492,
0.15166407823562622,
0.2470870018005371,
0.5866358280181885,
0.47648048400878906,
-0.24858614802360535,
-0.26533961296081543,
0.4895658493041992,
-0.09197311103343964,
-0.4808644652366638,
0.0139377536252141,
-0.37009957432746887,
-0.4880516231060028,
-0.5741272568702698,
-0.2616192102432251,
-0.5764115452766418,
0.21618379652500153,
-0.0163385272026062,
-0.49417543411254883,
0.6631144881248474,
0.18640542030334473,
-0.4128689467906952,
-0.3467790186405182,
0.033881787210702896,
-0.7359586954116821,
1.156467080116272,
-0.23442985117435455,
0.0309927798807621,
0.31107601523399353,
-0.1187092736363411,
-0.45434513688087463,
-0.2569340169429779,
0.63282710313797,
-0.22253063321113586,
-0.5855106711387634,
-0.3854614198207855,
-0.20848585665225983,
-0.32608625292778015,
-0.5241488814353943,
-0.3354553282260895,
0.5940890908241272,
0.7387187480926514,
-0.22677811980247498,
0.14940500259399414,
-0.08970377594232559,
0.5549453496932983,
-0.6482794880867004,
-0.15333135426044464,
-0.26035043597221375,
-0.6178723573684692,
-0.12527136504650116,
-0.31250762939453125,
-0.05246278643608093,
-0.7624701857566833,
0.423753023147583,
-0.34090542793273926,
0.3971122205257416,
-0.4496852457523346,
-0.918553352355957,
-0.7568985819816589,
-0.19736990332603455,
-0.1053592786192894,
-0.0776369646191597,
0.013531995005905628,
0.5730916261672974,
0.07055778056383133,
0.8111178874969482,
0.2642635405063629,
-0.8794299364089966,
-0.4469912648200989,
0.5057860016822815,
0.026928644627332687,
-0.24789465963840485,
-0.2917988896369934,
-0.17467939853668213,
0.6360731720924377,
-0.7037598490715027,
-0.12226810306310654,
0.14930005371570587,
-0.2795286178588867,
-0.5003092288970947,
0.42935267090797424,
-0.0036669126711785793,
-0.10946106165647507,
-0.30204007029533386,
0.2872559428215027,
0.1949603408575058,
0.51692795753479,
0.34945249557495117,
0.1930941939353943,
-0.531579315662384,
-0.7111630439758301,
0.3873474597930908,
0.3073418140411377,
0.5470463037490845,
-0.5270700454711914,
-0.016305359080433846,
-1.1580711603164673,
0.05463181063532829,
-0.5701211094856262,
0.17793984711170197,
-0.2914365828037262,
-0.29479774832725525,
0.4858740568161011,
0.6352063417434692,
-0.6505509614944458,
0.11704637855291367,
-0.22356539964675903,
-0.6268815398216248,
-0.2484002411365509,
0.4084089398384094,
-0.7136645317077637,
-0.10277953743934631,
0.5153316259384155,
0.4639132022857666,
0.211449533700943,
0.5443677306175232,
-0.05711839348077774,
0.013682530261576176,
0.4395400583744049,
0.003710296470671892,
0.46857115626335144,
0.23094773292541504,
-0.5214453935623169,
1.0731406211853027,
0.012985842302441597,
-0.33352309465408325,
-0.3749435245990753,
-0.5341060757637024,
0.269218385219574,
0.24700510501861572,
0.43890058994293213,
0.655548632144928,
0.7244136333465576,
-0.30559271574020386,
-0.19505339860916138,
-0.003371182596310973,
-0.23121090233325958,
0.2774495780467987,
-0.11388736218214035,
-0.4115855395793915,
0.27646756172180176,
-0.21028006076812744,
0.12022242695093155,
0.19206666946411133,
0.674201250076294,
-0.2936426103115082,
0.6947581768035889,
-0.08868476748466492,
-0.13649354875087738,
0.14656400680541992,
0.09130825102329254,
-0.02350282482802868,
0.2470768839120865,
0.09208663552999496,
-0.5167329907417297,
-0.2441246509552002,
0.046524468809366226,
0.20482075214385986,
-0.09982863813638687,
0.2537268400192261,
0.24889490008354187,
0.23011064529418945,
-0.1965670883655548,
0.0182295311242342,
0.06764695048332214,
0.08644784241914749,
-0.27104315161705017,
0.21995671093463898,
0.18599407374858856,
0.6032979488372803,
-0.1791849285364151,
0.5841435790061951,
-0.1093837320804596,
-0.3784295916557312,
-0.6996691823005676,
-0.5794296860694885,
-0.43685203790664673,
0.45671629905700684,
-0.10723976790904999,
0.418535441160202,
0.169112890958786,
-0.5077627301216125,
-0.325105220079422,
-0.014986811205744743,
0.33652886748313904,
-0.1577625870704651,
0.16651813685894012,
0.6204316020011902,
0.7935048341751099,
0.6870930790901184,
-0.4438704252243042,
-0.08078879863023758,
0.2798011004924774,
0.8449082374572754,
-0.3455556333065033,
-0.2103261798620224,
-0.25837716460227966,
-0.05315720662474632,
0.4070492088794708,
0.2927122116088867,
0.16310079395771027,
-0.21329574286937714,
-0.06384864449501038,
0.8744876384735107,
-0.13072708249092102,
0.06903078407049179,
1.4629619121551514,
0.07062914222478867,
-0.1038733720779419,
-0.533479630947113,
-0.5473309755325317,
-0.1405169814825058,
0.11468644440174103,
0.5813905000686646,
-0.26902228593826294,
0.07325015217065811,
-0.39040184020996094,
-0.5108145475387573,
0.06035374104976654,
0.13892409205436707,
-0.543777346611023,
-0.5751251578330994,
-0.5943859219551086,
0.41240406036376953,
-0.1783730834722519,
-0.7041579484939575,
0.054853200912475586,
0.3740547299385071,
0.5342673063278198,
-0.6158643364906311,
-0.46348634362220764,
-0.0969730019569397,
-0.12266744673252106,
-0.3936077654361725,
-0.13537715375423431,
0.6529731154441833,
0.12354738265275955,
-0.5453683137893677,
-0.27966421842575073,
0.24207988381385803,
-0.2888736128807068,
-0.39716213941574097,
0.2136998176574707,
-0.644114077091217,
-0.2569575011730194,
-0.0488131046295166,
0.36027681827545166,
-0.525226891040802,
0.01083315908908844,
0.1297600418329239
] |
229060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20age | Old age | Old age refers to ages nearing or surpassing the life expectancy of human beings, and is thus the end of the human life cycle. Terms and euphemisms for people at this age include old people, the elderly (worldwide usage), OAPs (British usage which stands for Old Age Pensioner), seniors (American usage), senior citizens (American usage), older adults (in the social sciences), and the elders (in many cultures—including the cultures of aboriginal people).
Elderly people often have limited regenerative abilities and are more susceptible to disease, syndromes, injuries and sickness than younger adults. The organic process of ageing is called senescence, the medical study of the aging process is called gerontology, and the study of diseases that afflict the elderly is called geriatrics. The elderly also face other social issues around retirement, loneliness, and ageism.
Old age is not a definite biological stage, as the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.
In 2011, the United Nations proposed a human rights convention that would specifically protect older people.
Definitions
Definitions of old age include official definitions, sub-group definitions, and four dimensions as follows.
Official definitions
Most developed Western countries set the age of 60 to 65 for retirement, which generally marks the transition from middle to old age. That age range is also usually a requirement for becoming eligible for senior social programs. However, in other countries and societies, old age can begin as early as the mid-40s or as late as one's 70s.
Old age cannot be universally defined because it differs according to the context. The United Nations, for example, considers old age to be 60 years or older. In contrast, a 2001 joint report by the U.S. National Institute on Aging and the World Health Organization [WHO] Regional Office for Africa set the beginning of old age in Sub-Saharan Africa at 50. This lower threshold stems primarily from a different way of thinking about old age in developing nations. Unlike in the developed world, where chronological age determines retirement, societies in developing countries determine old age according to a person's ability to make active contributions to society. This number is also significantly affected by lower life expectancy rates throughout the developing world.
Sub-group definitions
Gerontologists have recognized the very different conditions that people experience as they grow older within the years defined as old age. In developed countries, most people in their 60s and early 70s are still fit, active, and able to care for themselves. However, after 75, they will become increasingly frail, a condition marked by serious mental and physical debilitation.
Therefore, rather than lumping together all people who have been defined as old, some gerontologists have recognized the diversity of old age by defining sub-groups. One study distinguishes the young old (60 to 69), the middle old (70 to 79), and the very old (80+). Another study's sub-grouping is young-old (65 to 74), middle-old (75–84), and oldest-old (85+). A third sub-grouping is "young old" (65–74), "old" (74–84), and "old-old" (85+). Describing sub-groups in the 65+ population enables a more accurate portrayal of significant life changes.
Two British scholars, Paul Higgs and Chris Gilleard, have added a "fourth age" sub-group. In British English, the "third age" is "the period in life of active retirement, following middle age". Higgs and Gilleard describe the fourth age as "an arena of inactive, unhealthy, unproductive, and ultimately unsuccessful ageing".
Dimensions
Key Concepts in Social Gerontology lists four dimensions: chronological, biological, psychological, and social. Wattis and Curran add a fifth dimension: developmental. Chronological age may differ considerably from a person's functional age. The distinguishing marks of old age normally occur in all five senses at different times and different rates for different persons. In addition to chronological age, people can be considered old because of the other dimensions of old age. For example, people may be considered old when they become grandparents or when they begin to do less or different work in retirement.
Senior citizen
Senior citizen is a common euphemism for an old person used in American English, and sometimes in British English. It implies that the person being referred to is retired. This in turn usually implies that the person is over the retirement age, which varies according to country. Synonyms include old age pensioner or pensioner in British English, and retiree and senior in American English. Some dictionaries describe widespread use of "senior citizen" for people over the age of 65.
When defined in an official context, senior citizen is often used for legal or policy-related reasons in determining who is eligible for certain benefits available to the age group.
It is used in general usage instead of traditional terms such as old person, old-age pensioner, or elderly as a courtesy and to signify continuing relevance of and respect for this population group as "citizens" of society, of senior rank.
The term was apparently coined in 1938 during a political campaign. Famed caricaturist Al Hirschfeld claimed on several occasion that his father Isaac Hirschfeld invented the term 'senior citizen'. It has come into widespread use in recent decades in legislation, commerce, and common speech. Especially in less formal contexts, it is often abbreviated as "senior(s)", which is also used as an adjective.
In commerce, some businesses offer customers of a certain age a "senior discount". The age at which these discounts are available varies from 55, 60, 62 or 65 upwards, and other criteria may also apply. Sometimes a special "senior discount card" or other proof of age needs to be obtained and produced to show entitlement.
Age qualifications
The age which qualifies for senior citizen status varies widely. In governmental contexts, it is usually associated with an age at which pensions or medical benefits for the elderly become available. In commercial contexts, where it may serve as a marketing device to attract customers, the age is often significantly lower.
In the United States, the standard retirement age is currently 66 (gradually increasing to 67).
In Canada, the OAS (Old Age Security) pension is available at 65 (the Conservative government of Stephen Harper had planned to gradually increase the age of eligibility to 67, starting in the years 2023–2029, although the Liberal government of Justin Trudeau is considering leaving it at 65), and the CPP (Canada Pension Plan) as early as age 60.
The AARP allows couples in which one spouse has reached the age of 50 to join, regardless of the age of the other spouse.
Signs
The distinguishing characteristics of old age are both physical and mental. The marks of old age are so unlike the marks of middle age that legal scholar Richard Posner suggests that, as an individual transitions into old age, he/she can be thought of as different persons "time-sharing" the same identity.
These marks do not occur at the same chronological age for everyone. Also, they occur at different rates and order for different people. Marks of old age can easily vary between people of the same chronological age.
A basic mark of old age that affects both body and mind is "slowness of behavior". This "slowing down principle" finds a correlation between advancing age and slowness of reaction and physical and mental task performance. However, studies from Buffalo University and Northwestern University have shown that the elderly are a happier age group than their younger counterparts.
Physical
Physical marks of old age include the following:
Bone and joint. Old bones are marked by "thinning and shrinkage". This might result in a loss of height (about two inches (5 cm) by age 80), a stooping posture in many people, and a greater susceptibility to bone and joint diseases such as osteoarthritis and osteoporosis.
Chronic diseases. Some older persons have at least one chronic condition and many have multiple conditions. In 2007–2009, the most frequently occurring conditions among older persons in the United States were uncontrolled hypertension (34%), diagnosed arthritis (50%), and heart disease (32%).
Chronic mucus hypersecretion (CMH) "defined as coughing and bringing up sputum . . . is a common respiratory symptom in elderly persons."
Dental problems. May have less saliva and less ability for oral hygiene in old age which increases the chance of tooth decay and infection.
Digestive system. About 40% of the time, old age is marked by digestive disorders such as difficulty in swallowing, inability to eat enough and to absorb nutrition, constipation and bleeding.
Essential tremor (ET) is an uncontrollable shaking in a part of the upper body. It is more common in the elderly and symptoms worsen with age.
Eyesight. Presbyopia can occur by age 50 and it hinders reading especially of small print in low lighting. Speed with which an individual reads and the ability to locate objects may also be impaired. By age 80, more than half of all Americans either have a cataract or have had cataract surgery.
Falls. Old age spells risk for injury from falls that might not cause injury to a younger person. Every year, about one-third of those 65 years old and over half of those 80 years old fall. Falls are the leading cause of injury and death for old people.
Gait change. Some aspects of gait normally change with old age. Gait velocity slows after age 70. Double stance time (i.e., time with both feet on the ground) also increases with age. Because of gait change, old people sometimes appear to be walking on ice.
Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.
Hearing. By age 75 and older, 48% of men and 37% of women encounter impairments in hearing. Of the 26.7 million people over age 50 with a hearing impairment, only one in seven uses a hearing aid. In the 70–79 age range, the incidence of partial hearing loss affecting communication rises to 65%, predominantly among low-income males.
Hearts can become less efficient in old age with a resulting loss of stamina. In addition, atherosclerosis can constrict blood flow.
Immune function. Less efficient immune function (Immunosenescence) is a mark of old age.
Lungs might expand less well; thus, they provide less oxygen.
Mobility impairment or loss. "Impairment in mobility affects 14% of those between 65 and 74, but half of those over 85." Loss of mobility is common in old people. This inability to get around has serious "social, psychological, and physical consequences".
Pain afflicts old people at least 25% of the time, increasing with age up to 80% for those in nursing homes. Most pains are rheumatological or malignant.
Sexuality remains important throughout the lifespan and the sexual expression of "typical, healthy older persons is a relatively neglected topic of research". Sexual attitudes and identity are established in early adulthood and change minimally over the course of a lifetime. However, sexual drive in both men and women may decrease as they age. That said, there is a growing body of research on people's sexual behaviours and desires in later life that challenges the "asexual" image of older adults. People aged 75–102 continue to experience sensuality and sexual pleasure. Other known sexual behaviours in older age groups include sexual thoughts, fantasies and erotic dreams, masturbation, oral sex, vaginal and anal intercourse.
Skin loses elasticity, becomes drier, and more lined and wrinkled.
Wounds and injuries take longer to heal.
Wounds and injuries are more likely to leave permanent scars.
Sleep trouble holds a chronic prevalence of over 50% in old age and results in daytime sleepiness. In a study of 9,000 persons with a mean age of 74, only 12% reported no sleep complaints. By age 65, deep sleep goes down to about 5%.
Taste buds diminish so that by age 80 taste buds are down to 50% of normal. Food becomes less appealing and nutrition can suffer.
Over the age of 85, thirst perception decreases, such that 41% of the elderly drink insufficiently.
Urinary incontinence is often found in old age.
Voice. In old age, vocal cords weaken and vibrate more slowly. This results in a weakened, breathy voice that is sometimes called an "old person's voice".
Mental
Mental marks of old age include the following:
Highly Adaptable is what describes most people in their old age. Despite the stressfulness of old age, the words "agreeable" and "accepting" are used commonly to describe people of old age. However, the dependence that comes with old age induces feelings of incompetence and worthlessness in a minority from having to rely on others for many different basic living functions.
Caution follows closely with old age. This antipathy toward "risk-taking" stems from the fact that old people have less to gain and more to lose by taking risks than younger people because of the remaining length of their lifespan that is left.
Depressed mood. According to Cox, Abramson, Devine, and Hollon (2012), old age is a risk factor for depression caused by prejudice (i.e., "deprejudice"). When people are prejudiced against the elderly and then become old themselves, their anti-elderly prejudice turns inward, causing depression. "People with more negative age stereotypes will likely have higher rates of depression as they get older." Old age depression results in the over-65 population having the highest suicide rate.
Fear of crime in old age, especially among the frail, sometimes weighs more heavily than concerns about finances or health and restricts what they do. The fear persists in spite of the fact that old people are victims of crime less often than younger people.
Increasing fear of health loss.
Mental disorders afflict about 15% of people aged 60+ according to estimates by the World Health Organization. Another survey taken in 15 countries reported that mental disorders of adults interfered with their daily activities more than physical problems.
Reduced mental and cognitive ability may afflict old age. Memory loss is common in old age due to the decrease in speed of information being encoded, stored, and retrieved. It takes more time to learn the same amount of new information. Dementia is a general term for memory loss and other intellectual abilities serious enough to interfere with daily life. Its prevalence increases in old age from about 10% at age 65 to about 50% over age 85. Alzheimer's disease accounts for 50 to 80 percent of dementia cases. Demented behavior can include wandering, physical aggression, verbal outbursts, depression, and psychosis.
Set in one's ways, or stubbornness, describes a mind set many people have in old age. A study of over 400 distinguished men and women in old age found a "preference for the routine". Explanations include old age's toll on the "fluid intelligence" and the "more deeply entrenched" ways of the old.
Perspectives
Middle-age
Many books written by authors in middle adulthood depict a few common perceptions on old age. One writer notices the change in his parents: they move slowly, they have lost strength, they repeat stories, their minds wander, and they fret. Another writer sees her aged parents and is bewildered: they refuse to follow her advice, they are obsessed with the past, they avoid risk, they live at a "glacial pace".
Other writers treat the perceptions of middle-age people regarding their own old age. In her The Denial of Aging, Dr. Muriel R. Gillick, a baby boomer, accuses her contemporaries of believing that by proper exercise and diet they can avoid the scourges of old age and proceed from middle age to death. Studies find that many people in the 55–75 range can postpone morbidity by practicing healthy lifestyles. These discourses take part in a general idea of successful ageing. However, at about age 80, all people experience similar morbidity. Even with healthy lifestyles, most 85+ people will undergo extended "frailty and disability".
Old-age
Early old age is a pleasant time; children are grown, work is over, and there is time to pursue interests. Many people are also willing to get involved in community and activist organizations to promote their well-being. In contrast, perceptions of old age by writers 80+ years old (old age in the real meaning of the term) tend to be negative.
writes that the first man to talk about his old age was an Egyptian scribe who lived 4,500 years ago. The scribe addressed God with a prayer of lament:
O Sovereign my Lord! Oldness has come; old age has descended. Feebleness has arrived; dotage is here anew. The heart sleeps wearily every day. The eyes are weak, the ears are deaf, the strength is disappearing because of weariness of the heart and the mouth is silent and cannot speak. The heart is forgetful and cannot recall yesterday. The bone suffers old age. Good is become evil. All taste is gone. What old age does to men is evil in every respect.
Minois comments that the scribe's "cry shows that nothing has changed in the drama of decrepitude between the age of the Pharaoh and the atomic age" and "expresses all the anguish of old people in the past and the present".
Lillian Rubin, active in her 80s as an author, sociologist, and psychotherapist, opens her book 60 on Up: The Truth about Aging in America with "getting old sucks. It always has, it always will." Dr. Rubin contrasts the "real old age" with the "rosy pictures" painted by middle-age writers.
Writing at the age of 87, Mary C. Morrison describes the heroism required by old age: to live through the disintegration of one's own body or that of someone you love. Morrison concludes, "old age is not for the fainthearted." In the book Life Beyond 85 Years, the 150 interviewees had to cope with physical and mental debilitation and with losses of loved ones. One interviewee described living in old age as "pure hell".
Societal
Based on his survey of old age in history, Georges Minois concludes that "it is clear that always and everywhere youth has been preferred to old age." In Western thought, "old age is an evil, an infirmity and a dreary time of preparation for death." Furthermore, death is often preferred over "decrepitude, because death means deliverance".
"The problem of the ambiguity of old age has . . . been with us since the stage of primitive society; it was both the source of wisdom and of infirmity, experience and decrepitude, of prestige and suffering."
In the Classical period of Greek and Roman cultures, old age was denigrated as a time of "decline and decrepitude". "Beauty and strength" were esteemed and old age was viewed as defiling and ugly. Old age was reckoned as one of the unanswerable "great mysteries" along with evil, pain, and suffering. "Decrepitude, which shrivels heroes, seemed worse than death."
The Medieval and Renaissance periods depicted old age as "cruel or weak".
Historical periods reveal a mixed picture of the "position and status" of old people, but there has never been a "golden age of aging". Studies have disproved the popular belief that in the past old people were venerated by society and cared for by their families. Veneration for and antagonism toward the aged have coexisted in complex relationships throughout history. "Old people were respected or despised, honoured or put to death according to circumstance."
In ancient times, although some strong and healthy people lived until they were over 70, most died before they were 50. The general understanding is that those who lived into their 40s were treated with respect and awe. In contrast, those who were frail were seen as a burden and ignored or in extreme cases killed. People were defined as "old" because of their inability to perform useful tasks rather than their years.
"The Olympians did not like old people." Their youth rebelled against the old, driving them off or killing them.
Although he was skeptical of the gods, Aristotle concurred in the dislike of old people. In his Ethics, he wrote that "old people are miserly; they do not acknowledge disinterested friendship; only seeking for what can satisfy their selfish needs."
The 16th-century Utopians, Thomas More and Antonio de Guevara, allowed no decrepit old people in their fictional lands.
For Thomas More, on the island of Utopia, when people are so old as to have "out-lived themselves" and are terminally ill, in pain, and a burden to everyone, the priests exhort them about choosing to die. The priests assure them that "they shall be happy after death." If they choose to die, they end their lives by starvation or by taking opium.
Antonio de Guevara's utopian nation "had a custom, not to live longer than sixty five years". At that age, they practiced self-immolation. Rather than condemn the practice, Bishop Guevara called it a "golden world" in which people "have overcome the natural appetite to desire to live".
In the Modern period, the "cultural status" of old people has declined in many cultures. Joan Erikson observed that "aged individuals are often ostracized, neglected, and overlooked; elders are seen no longer as bearers of wisdom but as embodiments of shame."
Research on age-related attitudes consistently finds that negative attitudes exceed positive attitudes toward old people because of their looks and behavior. In his study Aging and Old Age, Posner discovers "resentment and disdain of older people" in American society.
Harvard University's implicit-association test measures implicit "attitudes and beliefs" about Young vis a vis Old. Blind Spot: Hidden Biases of Good People, a book about the test, reports that 80% of Americans have an "automatic preference for the young over old" and that attitude is true worldwide. The young are "consistent in their negative attitude" toward the old. Ageism documents that Americans generally have "little tolerance for older persons and very few reservations about harboring negative attitudes" about them.
Despite its prevalence, ageism is seldom the subject of public discourse.
In 2014, a documentary film called The Age of Love used humor and the poignant adventures of 30 seniors who attend a speed dating event for 70 to 90-year-olds and discover how the search for romance changes—or does not change—from childhood to old age.
Simulated
Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "there is one form of experience that belongs only to those that are old – that of old age itself." Nevertheless, simulations of old age attempt to help younger people gain some understanding.
Texas A&M University offers a plan for an "Aging Simulation" workshop. The workshop is adapted from Sensitizing People to the Processes of Aging.
Some of the simulations follow:
Sight: Wearing swimmer's goggles with black paper pasted to lens with only a small hole to simulate tunnel vision,
Hearing: Use ear plugs to dull the sound of people talking.
Touch: Wearing thick gloves, button a shirt or buckle a belt.
Dexterity: With tape around several fingers, unscrew a jar lid.
Mobility and Balance: Carry packages in one hand while using a walker.
The Macklin Intergenerational Institute conducts Xtreme Aging workshops, as depicted in The New York Times. A condensed version was presented on
NBC's Today Show and is available online. One exercise was to lay out 3 sets of 5 slips of paper. On set #1, write your 5 most enjoyed activities; on set #2, write your 5 most valued possessions; on set #3, write your 5 most loved people. Then "lose" them one by one, trying to feel each loss, until you have lost them all as happens in old age.
Frailty
Most people in the age range of 60–80 (the years of retirement and early old age), enjoy rich possibilities for a full life, but the condition of frailty distinguished by "bodily failure" and greater dependence becomes increasingly common after that. In the United States, hospital discharge data from 2003 to 2011 shows that injury was the most common reason for hospitalization among patients aged 65+.
Gerontologists note the lack of research regarding and the difficulty in defining frailty. However, they add that physicians recognize frailty when they see it.
A group of geriatricians proposed a general definition of frailty as "a physical state of increased vulnerability to stressors that results from decreased reserves and disregulation in multiple physiological systems".
Frailty is a common condition in later old age
but different definitions of frailty produce diverse assessments of prevalence. One study placed the incidence of frailty for ages 65+ at 10.7%. Another study placed the incidence of frailty in age 65+ population at 22% for women and 15% for men. A Canadian study illustrated how frailty increases with age and calculated the prevalence for 65+ as 22.4% and for 85+ as 43.7%.
A worldwide study of "patterns of frailty" based on data from 20 nations found (a) a consistent correlation between frailty and age, (b) a higher frequency among women, and (c) more frailty in wealthier nations where greater support and medical care increases longevity.
In Norway, a 20-year longitudinal study of 400 people found that bodily failure and greater dependence became prevalent in the 80+ years. The study calls these years the "fourth age" or "old age in the real meaning of the term". Similarly, the "Berlin Aging Study" rated over-all functionality on four levels: good, medium, poor, and very poor. People in their 70s were mostly rated good. In the 80–90 year range, the four levels of functionality were divided equally. By the 90–100 year range, 60% would be considered frail because of very poor functionality and only 5% still possessed good functionality.
In the United States, the 85+ age group is the fastest growing, a group that is almost sure to face the "inevitable decrepitude" of survivors. (Frailty and decrepitude are synonyms.)
Markers
Three unique markers of frailty have been proposed: (a) loss of any notion of invincibility, (b) loss of ability to do things essential to one's care, and (c) loss of possibility for a subsequent life stage.
Old age survivors on-average deteriorate from agility in their 65–80s to a period of frailty preceding death. This deterioration is gradual for some and precipitous for others. Frailty is marked by an array of chronic physical and mental problems which means that frailty is not treatable as a specific disease. These problems coupled with increased dependency in the basic activities of daily living (ADLs) required for personal care add emotional problems: depression and anxiety. In sum, frailty has been depicted as a group of "complex issues," distinct but "causally interconnected," that often include "comorbid diseases", progressive weakness, stress, exhaustion, and depression.
Misconceptions
Johnson and Barer did a pioneering study of Life Beyond 85 Years by interviews over a six-year period. In talking with 85-year-olds and older, they found some popular conceptions about old age to be erroneous. Such erroneous conceptions include (1) people in old age have at least one family member for support, (2) old age well-being requires social activity, and (3) "successful adaptation" to age-related changes demands a continuity of self-concept. In their interviews, Johnson and Barer found that 24% of the 85+ had no face-to-face family relationships; many have outlived their families. Second, that contrary to popular notions, the interviews revealed that the reduced activity and socializing of the over-85s does not harm their well-being; they "welcome increased detachment". Third, rather than a continuity of self-concept, as the interviewees faced new situations they changed their "cognitive and emotional processes" and reconstituted their "self–representation".
Care and costs
Frail people require a high level of care. Medical advances have made it possible to "postpone death" for years. This added time costs many frail people "prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering".
According to a study by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ), the rate of emergency department visits was consistently highest among patients ages 85 years and older in 2006–2011 in the United States. Additionally, patients aged 65+ had the highest percentage of hospital stays for adults with multiple chronic conditions but the second highest percentage of hospital costs in 2003–2014.
These final years are also costly in economic terms. One out of every four Medicare dollars is spent on the frail in their last year of life . . . in attempts to postpone death.
Medical treatments in the final days are not only economically costly, they are often unnecessary, even harmful. Nortin Hadler, M.D. warns against the tendency to medicalize and overtreat the frail. In her Choosing Medical Care in Old Age, Michael R. Gillick M.D. argues that appropriate medical treatment for the frail is not the same as for the robust. The frail are vulnerable to "being tipped over" by any physical stress put on the system such as medical interventions.
In addition to everyday care, frail elderly people and others with disabilities are particularly vulnerable during natural disasters. They may be unable or unwilling to evacuate to avoid a hurricane or wildfire.
Death
Old age, death, and frailty are linked because approximately half the deaths in old age are preceded by months or years of frailty.
Older Adults' Views on Death is based on interviews with 109 people in the 70–90 age range, with a mean age of 80.7. Almost 20% of the people wanted to use whatever treatment that might postpone death. About the same number said that, given a terminal illness, they would choose assisted suicide. Roughly half chose doing nothing except live day by day until death comes naturally without medical or other intervention designed to prolong life. This choice was coupled with a desire to receive palliative care if needed.
About half of older adults suffer multimorbidity, that is, they have three or more chronic conditions. Medical advances have made it possible to "postpone death," but in many cases this postponement adds "prolonged sickness, dependence, pain, and suffering," a time that is costly in social, psychological, and economic terms.
The longitudinal interviews of 150 age 85+ people summarized in Life Beyond 85 Years found "progressive terminal decline" in the year prior to death: constant fatigue, much sleep, detachment from people, things, and activities, simplified lives. Most of the interviewees did not fear death; some would welcome it. One person said, "Living this long is pure hell."
However, nearly everyone feared a long process of dying. Some wanted to die in their sleep; others wanted to die "on their feet".
The study of Older Adults' Views on Death found that the more frail people were, the more "pain, suffering, and struggles" they were enduring, the more likely they were to "accept and welcome" death as a release from their misery. Their fear about the process of dying was that it would prolong their distress. Besides being a release from misery, some saw death as a way to reunion with departed loved ones. Others saw death as a way to free their caretakers from the burden of their care.
Religiosity
Generally speaking, old people have always been more religious than young people. At the same time, wide cultural variations exist.
In the United States, 90% of old age Hispanics view themselves as very, quite, or somewhat religious. The Pew Research Center's study of black and white old people found that 62% of those in ages 65–74 and 70% in ages 75+ asserted that religion was "very important" to them. For all 65+ people, more women (76%) than men (53%) and more blacks (87%) than whites (63%) consider religion "very important" to them. This compares to 54% in the 30–49 age range.
In a British 20-year longitudinal study, less than half of the old people surveyed said that religion was "very important" to them, and a quarter said they had become less religious in old age. The late-life rise in religiosity is stronger in Japan than in the United States, but in the Netherlands it is minimal.
In the practice of religion, a study of 60+ people found that 25% read the Bible every day and over 40% look at religious TV. Pew Research found that in the age 65+ range, 75% of whites and 87% of blacks pray daily.
Participation in organized religion is not a good indicator of religiosity because transportation and health problems often hinder participation.
Demographic changes
In the industrialized countries, life expectancy and, thus, the old age population have increased consistently over the last decades. In the United States the proportion of people aged 65 or older increased from 4% in 1900 to about 12% in 2000. In 1900, only about of the nation's citizens were 65 or older (out of 76 million total American citizens). By 2000, the number of senior citizens had increased to about 35 million (of 280 million US citizens). Population experts estimate that more than Americans—about 17 percent of the population—will be 65 or older in 2020. By 2050, it is projected that at least 400,000 Americans will be 100 or older.
The number of old people is growing around the world chiefly because of the post–World War II baby boom and increases in the provision and standards of health care. By 2050, 33% of the developed world's population and almost 20% of the less developed world's population will be over 60 years old.
The growing number of people living to their 80s and 90s in the developed world has strained public welfare systems and has also resulted in increased incidence of diseases like cancer and dementia that were rarely seen in premodern times. When the United States Social Security program was created, persons older than 65 numbered only around 5% of the population and the average life expectancy of a 65-year-old in 1936 was approximately 5 years, while in 2011 it could often range from 10 to 20 years. Other issues that can arise from an increasing population are growing demands for health care and an increase in demand for different types of services.
Of the roughly 150,000 people who die each day across the globe, about two thirds—100,000 per day—die of age-related causes. In industrialized nations, the proportion is much higher, reaching 90%.
Psychosocial aspects
According to Erik Erikson's "Stages of Psychosocial Development", the human personality is developed in a series of eight stages that take place from the time of birth and continue on throughout an individual's complete life. He characterises old age as a period of "Integrity vs. Despair", during which a person focuses on reflecting back on his life. Those who are unsuccessful during this phase will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair. Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting death. Coping is a very important skill needed in the aging process to move forward with life and not be 'stuck' in the past. The way a person adapts and copes, reflects his aging process on a psycho-social level.
For people in their 80s and 90s, Joan Erikson added a ninth stage in The Life Cycle Completed: Extended Version. As she wrote, she added the ninth stage because the Integrity of the eighth stage imposes "a serious demand on the senses of elders" and the Wisdom of the eighth stage requires capacities that ninth stage elders "do not usually have".
Newman & Newman also proposed a ninth stage of life, Elderhood. Elderhood refers to those individuals who live past the life expectancy of their birth cohorts. There are two different types of people described in this stage of life. The "young old" are the healthy individuals who can function on their own without assistance and can complete their daily tasks independently. The "old old" are those who depend on specific services due to declining health or diseases. This period of life is characterized as a period of "immortality vs. extinction". Immortality is the belief that your life will go on past death, some examples are an afterlife or living on through one's family. Extinction refers to feeling as if life has no purpose.
Theories
Social theories, or concepts, propose explanations for the distinctive relationships between old people and their societies.
One theory, proposed in 1961, is the disengagement theory, which proposes that, in old age, a mutual disengagement between people and their society occurs in anticipation of death. By becoming disengaged from work and family responsibilities, according to this concept, people are enabled to enjoy their old age without stress. This theory has been subjected to the criticism that old age disengagement is neither natural, inevitable, nor beneficial. Furthermore, disengaging from social ties in old age is not across the board: unsatisfactory ties are dropped and satisfying ones kept.
In opposition to the disengagement theory, the activity theory of old age argues that disengagement in old age occurs not by desire, but by the barriers to social engagement imposed by society. This theory has been faulted for not factoring in psychological changes that occur in old age as shown by reduced activity, even when available. It has also been found that happiness in old age is not proportional to activity.
According to the continuity theory, in spite of the inevitable differences imposed by their old age, most people try to maintain continuity in personhood, activities, and relationships with their younger days.
Socioemotional selectivity theory also depicts how people maintain continuity in old age. The focus of this theory is continuity sustained by social networks, albeit networks narrowed by choice and by circumstances. The choice is for more harmonious relationships. The circumstances are loss of relationships by death and distance.
Life expectancy
Life expectancy by nation at birth in the year 2011 ranged from 48 years to 82. Low values indicate high death rates for infants and children.
In most parts of the world women live, on average, longer than men; even so, the disparities vary between 12 years in Russia to no difference or higher life expectancy for men in countries such as Zimbabwe and Uganda.
The number of elderly persons worldwide began to surge in the second half of the 20th century. Up to that time (and still true in underdeveloped countries), five or less percent of the population was over 65. Few lived longer than their 70s and people who attained advanced age (i.e. their 80s) were rare enough to be a novelty and were revered as wise sages. The worldwide over-65 population in 1960 was one-third of the under 5 population. By 2013, the over-65 population had grown to equal the under 5 population. The over-65 population is projected to double the under five by 2050.
Before the surge in the over-65 population, accidents and disease claimed many people before they could attain old age, and health problems in those over 65 meant a quick death in most cases. If a person lived to an advanced age, it was due to genetic factors and/or a relatively easy lifestyle, since diseases of old age could not be treated before the 20th century.
In October 2016, a group of scientists identified the maximum human lifespan at an average age of 115, with an absolute upper limit of 125 years. However, the concept of a maximum lifespan of humans is still widely debated among the scientific community.
Benefits
German chancellor Otto von Bismarck created the world's first comprehensive government social safety net in the 1880s, providing for old age pensions.
In the United States of America, and the United Kingdom, 65 (UK 60 for women) was traditionally the age of retirement with full old age benefits.
In 2003, the age at which a United States citizen became eligible for full Social Security benefits began to increase gradually, and will continue to do so until it reaches 67 in 2027. Full retirement age for Social Security benefits for people retiring in 2012 is age 66. In the United Kingdom, the state pension age for men and women will rise to 66 in 2020 with further increases scheduled after that.
Originally, the purpose of old age pensions was to prevent elderly persons from being reduced to beggary, which is still common in some underdeveloped countries, but growing life expectancies and older populations have brought into question the model under which pension systems were designed. By 1990, the United States was spending 30 per cent of its budget on the elderly, compared with 2 per cent on education. The dominant perception of the American old age population changed from "needy" and "worthy" to "powerful" and "greedy," old people getting more than their share of the nation's resources. However, in 2011, using a Supplemental Poverty Measure (SPM), the old age American poverty rate was measured as 15.9%.
Assistance: devices and personal
In the United States in 2008, 11 million people aged 65+ lived alone: 5 million or 22% of ages 65–74, 4 million or 34% of ages 75–84, and 2 million or 41% of ages 85+. The 2007 gender breakdown for all people 65+ was men 19% and women 39%.
Many new assistive devices made especially for the home have enabled more old people to care for their own activities of daily living (ADL). Some examples of devices are a medical alert and safety system, shower seat (making it so the person does not get tired in the shower and fall), a bed cane (offering support to those with unsteadiness getting in and out of bed) and an ADL cuff (used with eating utensils for people with paralysis or hand weakness).
A Swedish study found that at age 76, 46% of the subjects used assistive devices. When they reached age 86, 69% used them. The subjects were ambivalent regarding the use of the assistive devices: as "enablers" or as "disablers". People who view assistive devices as enabling greater independence accept and use them, whereas those who see them as symbols of disability reject them. However, organizations like Love for the Elderly aim to combat such age-related prejudice by educating the public about the importance of appreciating growing older, while also providing services of kindness to elders in senior homes.
Even with assistive devices as of 2006, 8.5 million Americans needed personal assistance because of impaired basic activities of daily living required for personal care or impaired instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) required for independent living. Projections place this number at 21 million by 2030 when 40% of Americans over 70 will need assistance. There are many options for such long-term care to those who require it. There is home care in which a family member, volunteer, or trained professional will aid the person in need and help with daily activities. Another option is community services which can provide the person with transportation, meal plans, or activities in senior centers. A third option is assisted living where 24-hour round-the-clock supervision is given with aid in eating, bathing, dressing, etc. A final option is a nursing home which provides professional nursing care.
Artistic depiction
A scholarly literature has emerged, especially in Britain, showing historical trends in the visual depiction of old age.
See also
Activist ageing
Ageing
Ageism
Aging in dogs
Aging in place
Centenarian
Elder rights
Elder village
Elderly care
Food preferences in older adults and seniors
Geriatric care management
Gerontology
Gerascophobia
International Day of Older Persons
List of the verified oldest people
Oldest people
Pensioner
Paternal age effect
Respect for the Aged Day
Retirement home
Silver Alert
Supercentenarian
Successful ageing
References
External links
Milton Crum, "I'm Old" at Association of Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplains or at The Center for Spiritual Resources, http://thecsr.org/resource-directory/im-old-an-essay-on-aging-by-milton-crum/#sthash.e87C5Jyc.dpuf .
Laura Carstensen – research at Stanford university's Life-span Development Laboratory, and Stanford Center on Longevity .
Milton Crum, "I'm Frail" at Association of Hospice & Palliative Care Chaplains, http://www.ahpcc.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2013/04/imfrail.pdf.
Scams targeting the elderly (NCOA)
"National Institute of Senior Centers", National Council on Aging, http://www.ncoa.org/national-institute-of-senior-centers
"Senior Corps", Corporation for National & Community Service, http://www.nationalservice.gov/programs/senior-corps
Gerontology
Elder law
Social constructionism
Diseases and disorders
Disability
Biology | [
0.4288557171821594,
0.5471228957176208,
0.12933529913425446,
-0.16172806918621063,
0.046538662165403366,
0.2647985517978668,
0.664743185043335,
0.8177686929702759,
-0.10425654798746109,
-0.9644173979759216,
-0.18099763989448547,
-0.0678524449467659,
0.31015267968177795,
1.0401033163070679,
-0.3622026741504669,
0.21394109725952148,
-0.17063409090042114,
0.7314924001693726,
-0.39770960807800293,
-0.308388352394104,
-0.5920238494873047,
0.04664876312017441,
0.5661620497703552,
-0.3884526193141937,
0.05836061015725136,
-0.6051572561264038,
0.0713089257478714,
-0.2961881458759308,
-0.1601983904838562,
-0.17650532722473145,
-0.19922806322574615,
-0.2263098508119583,
-0.24064965546131134,
0.10140968859195709,
-0.06947412341833115,
-0.34552648663520813,
-0.12679257988929749,
-0.19094163179397583,
0.050344809889793396,
-0.23248612880706787,
-0.05912927910685539,
-0.025255141779780388,
0.12586727738380432,
0.6935824155807495,
-0.8138196468353271,
-0.4131619334220886,
-1.1989039182662964,
0.09123406559228897,
-0.34300124645233154,
-0.2942194640636444,
-0.4605925679206848,
-0.271175742149353,
0.418406218290329,
-0.07951828837394714,
-0.19628138840198517,
-0.08132261037826538,
-0.03513539209961891,
0.08548864722251892,
0.04664942994713783,
0.04792210832238197,
0.9553985595703125,
-0.3504812717437744,
-0.6386071443557739,
-0.20405049622058868,
0.029194507747888565,
-0.1572841852903366,
0.38472822308540344,
-0.0848359614610672,
-0.1320585161447525,
-0.04683917388319969,
-0.3247527778148651,
-0.005659834481775761,
0.03618553280830383,
0.40911605954170227,
-0.42596644163131714,
-0.27370819449424744,
0.0021510233636945486,
-0.23389609158039093,
0.1870570033788681,
-0.5671597123146057,
0.10462237149477005,
0.30614256858825684,
0.4637638330459595,
-0.1602879911661148,
0.34519025683403015,
-0.00019067559333052486,
0.32751327753067017,
0.2580283582210541,
-0.6188703179359436,
0.634776771068573,
0.2353874146938324,
0.01881686970591545,
0.9694820642471313,
0.6640195846557617,
0.07618645578622818,
0.048469312489032745,
0.3330465853214264,
-0.021992675960063934,
-0.46209225058555603,
0.1617693156003952,
0.2237694412469864,
-0.21308384835720062,
0.5350644588470459,
-0.9761499166488647,
0.5392482876777649,
-0.6063854694366455,
0.20777498185634613,
-0.04874540492892265,
0.5012176632881165,
-0.9649967551231384,
-0.2209804505109787,
0.38106098771095276,
-0.27285394072532654,
0.6114187836647034,
-0.18956458568572998,
0.3239416480064392,
-0.19195778667926788,
-0.29844680428504944,
0.2814825177192688,
-0.18778008222579956,
-0.18231992423534393,
0.26648202538490295,
-0.41583171486854553,
-0.5503156781196594,
-0.396107941865921,
0.5887260437011719,
0.21192990243434906,
0.07020625472068787,
-0.3318330645561218,
-0.3986409902572632,
0.22938597202301025,
0.45110633969306946,
-0.3938326835632324,
-0.45367586612701416,
0.2646535038948059,
0.08825253695249557,
0.39060139656066895,
0.3923344314098358,
0.69377601146698,
0.013991808518767357,
-0.43951892852783203,
-0.9256342053413391,
-0.9557662606239319,
0.41659268736839294,
0.42517486214637756,
-0.14563894271850586,
0.23885467648506165,
-0.7713721394538879,
0.07012049108743668,
0.050256505608558655,
-0.06018288806080818,
-0.2555631697177887,
-0.029989754781126976,
0.15228189527988434,
-0.16387343406677246,
-0.18492551147937775,
0.009463652037084103,
-0.028613077476620674,
-0.055334582924842834,
-0.04747029393911362,
0.18319033086299896,
-0.337673157453537,
0.07915111631155014,
0.05172235146164894,
0.2113574594259262,
-0.018793435767292976,
0.5522777438163757,
0.5181835293769836,
-0.17674757540225983,
0.14007514715194702,
-0.2314504086971283,
0.1065976619720459,
0.3165673613548279,
-0.48715224862098694,
-0.6798900365829468,
0.2577354311943054,
0.44176384806632996,
0.5590320229530334,
0.35217952728271484,
-0.08989595621824265,
-0.4827084541320801,
-0.07351958751678467,
0.22982196509838104,
0.7860006093978882,
0.3537907302379608,
-0.5144744515419006,
-0.002686502179130912,
0.14139263331890106,
-0.22435319423675537,
-0.23299269378185272,
-0.22147057950496674,
-0.3276844322681427,
0.5675732493400574,
-0.718347430229187,
0.5090842843055725,
-0.5118572115898132,
-0.05558973178267479,
0.8126237988471985,
-0.04491947218775749,
0.690762460231781,
-0.07492884248495102,
-0.06640519946813583,
0.0387524850666523,
0.00888094399124384,
-0.1161782518029213,
1.2914193868637085,
-0.07020143419504166,
0.36080485582351685,
0.5164097547531128,
0.06341289728879929,
0.11847714334726334,
-0.4524948298931122,
0.1098661869764328,
0.050326861441135406,
0.02502887137234211,
0.5132269859313965,
-0.2510783076286316,
0.08125347644090652,
-0.8803170919418335,
-0.25009024143218994,
0.32906636595726013,
-0.2061554491519928,
0.3711344599723816,
-0.3276153802871704,
0.1741965264081955,
0.18453237414360046,
0.020736457780003548,
-0.04779898747801781,
0.674607515335083,
-0.8853370547294617,
0.317229688167572,
-0.16762934625148773,
-0.03884454444050789,
0.47958433628082275,
-0.08526909351348877,
-0.3183567523956299,
-0.00649802153930068,
-0.13664937019348145,
-0.17265576124191284,
-0.2695649564266205,
0.19124674797058105,
-0.0868099257349968,
-0.2056548297405243,
0.14001908898353577,
0.5160325169563293,
0.2801542580127716,
0.09637941420078278,
0.3175237476825714,
-1.1893095970153809,
-0.05883142352104187,
0.21021820604801178,
0.1573149859905243,
0.24828286468982697,
0.12918905913829803,
-0.17845332622528076,
-0.38670068979263306,
-0.5243002772331238,
0.31486648321151733,
0.4426559805870056,
-0.16271889209747314,
-0.06369467824697495,
-0.5265329480171204,
0.6607505083084106,
-0.3503252863883972,
-0.32292303442955017,
-0.614058792591095,
-0.4112967550754547,
-1.0899981260299683,
0.1553114354610443,
0.2580468952655792,
0.607991635799408,
0.30469706654548645,
-0.33394956588745117,
-0.2625282108783722,
0.15523844957351685,
-0.24428735673427582,
0.9235602617263794,
-0.47429803013801575,
-0.5976681709289551,
0.4630584716796875,
0.6426420211791992,
1.0646995306015015,
0.056227151304483414,
-0.445392906665802,
-0.40159666538238525,
-0.5051406025886536,
0.47806069254875183,
-0.09586343169212341,
0.17028650641441345,
0.31535249948501587,
-0.25810784101486206,
0.5470941066741943,
-0.16922877728939056,
0.22122886776924133,
0.536204993724823,
0.09005039930343628,
0.3999166488647461,
-0.44754016399383545,
0.4093002676963806,
-0.14299772679805756,
-0.34811949729919434,
-0.2211482971906662,
-0.49175798892974854,
0.37794896960258484,
-0.3713846504688263,
-0.2433735728263855,
-0.23112675547599792,
-0.14572040736675262,
-5.7702717781066895,
0.03379661217331886,
-0.4130423963069916,
-0.7266024351119995,
-0.016380252316594124,
0.05648421868681908,
0.9761263132095337,
0.1897730827331543,
-0.5390104055404663,
-0.05092719569802284,
0.1800386756658554,
0.05822135880589485,
0.5093768239021301,
1.018376350402832,
0.42296460270881653,
0.14570601284503937,
0.41953301429748535,
0.2432277798652649,
-0.49632737040519714,
0.22624070942401886,
0.3309933543205261,
0.00560245243832469,
-0.3146096467971802,
0.7190991640090942,
0.3537502586841583,
-0.023264268413186073,
-0.03697137534618378,
-0.11981391161680222,
-0.49530208110809326,
0.10005553811788559,
0.30892831087112427,
-0.23363666236400604,
0.34158360958099365,
-0.08816149085760117,
0.10822679847478867,
0.3525873124599457,
0.28084754943847656,
0.4570991098880768,
0.3782665431499481,
-0.3485182523727417,
0.009442107751965523,
0.2637811303138733,
0.09485086053609848,
0.2901768684387207,
0.3356954753398895,
0.18215811252593994,
-0.1822371482849121,
0.0697907879948616,
-0.04872303083539009,
0.678875744342804,
-0.39304545521736145,
0.4176782965660095,
0.7630570530891418,
-0.4386421740055084,
-0.191213458776474,
0.21614855527877808,
0.020718639716506004,
0.05037623643875122,
-0.16922198235988617,
-0.48365318775177,
0.005882165394723415,
-0.2953299880027771,
0.14894211292266846,
-0.2625312805175781,
-0.04227476939558983,
-0.35527196526527405,
-0.6894107460975647,
-0.3655671179294586,
0.10521159321069717,
0.23196659982204437,
-0.2670968174934387,
0.2150997668504715,
0.29859524965286255,
-0.7343268394470215,
-0.20559410750865936,
-0.6345005035400391,
-0.20148421823978424,
0.42197245359420776,
0.01957838237285614,
-0.3155551552772522,
0.26591795682907104,
-0.47318586707115173,
-0.6109639406204224,
0.5544693470001221,
0.23598036170005798,
-0.43451935052871704,
-0.0677691102027893,
0.2673976421356201,
-0.36592215299606323,
0.0892927274107933,
0.5912538170814514,
-0.18115799129009247,
-0.1862013041973114,
-0.49661439657211304,
0.2913190424442291,
0.5992677807807922,
-0.03059188462793827,
0.19099223613739014,
0.8824774622917175,
0.17451928555965424,
0.42388829588890076,
-0.045335233211517334,
0.3607250452041626,
-0.24494080245494843,
-0.4922035038471222,
-0.3825525939464569,
-0.16650667786598206,
0.5106573700904846,
0.7347424626350403,
-0.30833059549331665,
0.21477866172790527,
0.2311812937259674,
-0.21367549896240234,
-0.11893190443515778,
0.16608932614326477,
-0.06510161608457565,
-0.5989877581596375,
1.0446799993515015,
0.5853127241134644,
0.22308261692523956,
0.20595845580101013,
0.022034261375665665,
-0.47381412982940674,
-0.30529335141181946,
-0.1550901234149933,
-0.0458175428211689,
-0.04734538123011589,
0.33757081627845764,
-0.15412475168704987,
-0.419203519821167,
0.08201062679290771,
0.9100902676582336,
0.39968636631965637,
0.07062892615795135,
-0.19046221673488617,
-0.25001439452171326,
0.3055715262889862,
-0.14344145357608795,
-0.008225047029554844,
-0.9117354154586792,
0.2166985422372818,
-0.3735074996948242,
0.05461306497454643,
-0.021552981808781624,
0.1222614124417305,
0.23380625247955322,
0.19518283009529114,
-0.3202676475048065,
-0.17779742181301117,
0.4153992533683777,
-0.2244114875793457,
-0.40630823373794556,
0.33715197443962097,
-0.11906395852565765,
-0.6927475929260254,
-0.3416603207588196,
0.14802668988704681,
0.021876608952879906,
-0.12664435803890228,
-0.6265890598297119,
-0.40429845452308655,
-0.4737550616264343,
-0.6658291816711426,
-0.15238791704177856,
0.49769294261932373,
0.24250727891921997,
-0.2480492740869522,
-0.06028840318322182,
-0.34586361050605774,
0.6506922245025635,
0.07167842984199524,
0.4290383458137512,
-0.4655166566371918,
-0.5826115012168884,
0.3177430331707001,
-0.4217563271522522,
-0.1575046330690384,
-0.3102668821811676,
0.031953565776348114,
-0.5539982914924622,
0.3043024241924286,
-0.16427317261695862,
-0.41605308651924133,
0.012640998698771,
-0.009072518907487392,
-0.11522932350635529,
0.14136241376399994,
-0.010527600534260273,
-0.6303452253341675,
-0.12578275799751282,
0.26371800899505615,
-0.11643204838037491,
-0.08133653551340103,
-0.3929549753665924,
-0.22511334717273712,
-0.2001323103904724,
-0.01878824084997177,
0.2997742295265198,
0.10545822232961655,
0.07272397726774216,
0.7720714211463928,
0.02444680593907833,
-0.8116187453269958,
0.1333189457654953,
0.8572463393211365,
-0.9702020287513733,
-0.1760115921497345,
-0.32845810055732727,
-0.6525922417640686,
0.3338957130908966,
-0.9087561368942261,
-0.5459850430488586,
0.034420982003211975,
0.2861327528953552,
0.06392241269350052,
0.25658953189849854,
-0.07775428146123886,
-0.32754209637641907,
-0.029045581817626953,
-0.5965437293052673,
0.6166534423828125,
0.5450137853622437,
-0.5152629017829895,
0.11538231372833252,
-0.09753035008907318,
0.04211929813027382,
0.40173977613449097,
0.041559088975191116,
0.39273130893707275,
-0.5770059823989868,
-0.19408267736434937,
0.2510637044906616,
0.09010954946279526,
-0.5320985317230225,
-0.029640818014740944,
-0.3804190754890442,
0.11855494230985641,
-0.2201865315437317,
-0.10715828835964203,
0.5911411046981812,
0.2686675786972046,
0.2319580316543579,
0.1042984277009964,
-0.44503265619277954,
-0.45674753189086914,
0.13300621509552002,
0.07641188055276871,
-0.5133384466171265,
-0.4246348738670349,
0.25068461894989014,
-0.02428477257490158,
-0.70163494348526,
-0.5899944305419922,
0.004074084106832743,
0.29330965876579285,
-0.19664011895656586,
0.2686081826686859,
-0.29940712451934814,
0.35893070697784424,
-0.12543506920337677,
0.42557844519615173,
-0.31686854362487793,
0.1994483321905136,
0.04041191190481186,
0.6117220520973206,
0.49103063344955444,
-0.3760959506034851,
0.7638565897941589,
0.8050294518470764,
-0.13683433830738068,
0.45203426480293274,
0.055835772305727005,
0.06528833508491516,
-0.2025347799062729,
0.39222878217697144,
0.027052389457821846,
-0.2712339758872986,
0.17897191643714905,
-0.2821377217769623,
-0.407308429479599,
0.4421390891075134,
0.45655950903892517,
-0.04290061816573143,
-0.2545669972896576,
-0.031529948115348816,
-0.737540066242218,
0.6308130025863647,
-0.338206022977829,
-0.39150330424308777,
-0.371911883354187,
-0.6117929220199585,
0.17742978036403656,
0.023938976228237152,
0.5774719715118408,
0.1092059388756752,
0.4325316250324249,
-0.2832900285720825,
0.41277071833610535,
0.16663120687007904,
-0.48481494188308716,
-0.2772672474384308,
0.4527859389781952,
0.34749335050582886,
-0.427590012550354,
0.4144650399684906,
-0.1771528422832489,
0.23495033383369446,
0.1054711565375328,
-0.048629119992256165,
0.017891040071845055,
0.5907416939735413,
0.6691383719444275,
0.5604461431503296,
0.7963457107543945,
-0.0578397698700428,
-0.43062084913253784,
0.15849940478801727,
0.009366173297166824,
0.20247243344783783,
0.30787140130996704,
-0.04682920500636101,
-0.25350886583328247,
0.5561182498931885,
-0.3603525459766388,
0.2058195024728775,
0.9275235533714294,
-0.11164767295122147,
0.11562545597553253,
-0.18839234113693237,
0.427396297454834,
0.5670251250267029,
-0.12478896230459213,
0.08603469282388687,
0.6790409088134766,
-0.29236236214637756,
-0.6719153523445129,
0.34468141198158264,
-0.4614742696285248,
-0.22750738263130188,
0.6814027428627014,
1.2658997774124146,
0.15054786205291748,
-0.4830266833305359,
0.27505773305892944,
-0.4468908905982971,
0.30132991075515747,
-1.1413589715957642,
0.4551491439342499,
0.318412184715271,
-0.38380977511405945,
0.516436755657196,
-0.4464225769042969,
0.20403821766376495,
-0.19987013936042786,
0.3560775816440582,
-0.5087547898292542,
0.45082512497901917,
-0.23866082727909088,
0.03381136804819107,
-0.47460272908210754,
-0.21882180869579315,
0.420495867729187,
0.4614185094833374,
-0.3489846885204315,
0.36577391624450684,
-0.32768717408180237,
0.1052016168832779,
-0.2744644284248352,
-0.41095781326293945,
-0.09954483062028885,
0.6098690032958984,
0.5543245077133179,
-0.010446904227137566,
-0.3709348738193512,
0.33699288964271545,
0.08853080123662949,
0.28821271657943726,
0.2179633378982544,
-0.00941462442278862,
-0.5571963787078857,
-0.5313749313354492,
-0.5415149927139282,
0.15664257109165192,
-0.3231281340122223,
-0.26897040009498596,
0.05373356491327286,
0.23733511567115784,
0.6251296401023865,
-0.22406597435474396,
0.1346670538187027,
0.4702880084514618,
0.07182028889656067,
-0.2051154375076294,
-0.2301395982503891,
-0.6459514498710632,
-0.6423100829124451,
-0.0045376974157989025,
0.6392475366592407,
-0.2643882632255554,
-0.04694975167512894,
0.048469625413417816,
-0.3504217267036438,
0.05313798412680626,
0.02823686972260475,
-0.3193035125732422,
0.3464333117008209,
-0.1601656675338745,
-0.04749317094683647,
-0.3504588305950165,
0.4730563163757324,
0.42827144265174866,
-0.5094209313392639,
-0.18884208798408508,
0.4099278151988983,
-0.22363537549972534,
-0.11275573819875717,
-0.21992692351341248,
-0.1327448934316635,
0.015048392117023468,
-0.6687242388725281,
0.24313946068286896,
-0.15526533126831055,
-0.014037270098924637,
-0.36754074692726135,
-0.1922663152217865,
0.2085297852754593,
0.057578615844249725,
0.24422846734523773,
-0.217972069978714,
0.6705686450004578,
-0.5704202651977539,
0.44535064697265625,
-0.361447274684906,
0.2789153456687927,
-0.506027102470398,
-0.40384116768836975,
0.34071752429008484,
-0.3604503571987152,
0.0105082206428051,
-0.21968592703342438,
-0.2948192358016968,
-0.16746100783348083,
0.6040870547294617,
0.2619931697845459,
-1.1235681772232056,
-0.09288278967142105,
-0.4110238552093506,
-0.044671956449747086,
-0.42718327045440674,
0.11910807341337204,
-0.13586489856243134,
-0.073076993227005,
0.6561282277107239,
0.05130203813314438,
0.09207503497600555,
-0.08687259256839752,
0.0950385108590126,
-0.3673003315925598,
0.41591954231262207,
0.570244550704956
] |
229061 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior | Senior | Senior (shortened as Sr.) means "the elder" in Latin and is often used as a suffix for the elder of two or more people in the same family with the same given name, usually a parent or grandparent. It may also refer to:
Senior (name), a surname or given name
Senior (education), a student in the final year of high school, college or university
Senior citizen, a common designation for a person 65 and older in UK and US English
Senior (athletics), an age athletics category
Senior status, form of semi-retirement for United States federal judges
Senior debt, a form of corporate finance
Senior producer, a title given usually to the second most senior person of a film of television production.
Art
Senior (album), a 2010 album by Röyksopp
Seniors (film), a 2011 Indian Malayalam film
Senior (film), a 2015 Thai film
The Senior, a 2003 album by Ginuwine
The Seniors, a 1978 American comedy film
See also
Pages that begin with "Senior"
Senioritis, colloquial term used in the United States and Canada
Sr. (disambiguation)
Twelfth grade, also called senior year of high school
Wise old man, archetype
Men
Ageing | [
-0.6217706799507141,
0.43339887261390686,
-0.14791817963123322,
-0.4277074635028839,
-0.4725143015384674,
-0.1298341006040573,
0.7916343212127686,
0.15164348483085632,
-0.6170640587806702,
-0.19392305612564087,
-0.14060866832733154,
0.38139814138412476,
0.26243212819099426,
0.24013644456863403,
0.33369943499565125,
0.43659570813179016,
-0.03163060173392296,
0.8641563057899475,
0.4300319254398346,
-0.6358229517936707,
-0.23682431876659393,
-0.043667811900377274,
-0.003712660865858197,
-0.4992716908454895,
0.49143195152282715,
0.11027787625789642,
0.1424408107995987,
0.25045278668403625,
-0.3166201114654541,
-0.08342315256595612,
-0.15157443284988403,
-0.09674985706806183,
0.30983197689056396,
0.20577754080295563,
0.06166069209575653,
-0.39045989513397217,
0.5405740141868591,
-0.7570180892944336,
0.40783727169036865,
-0.10379616171121597,
-0.414071649312973,
-0.2550384998321533,
0.34151947498321533,
0.0940401628613472,
-0.05344844236969948,
-0.5512786507606506,
-1.5155296325683594,
-0.09244347363710403,
-0.14503887295722961,
-0.04104560241103172,
-0.052071649581193924,
0.7754576206207275,
0.14591826498508453,
0.007078962866216898,
-0.4866504371166229,
0.07965787500143051,
0.05239750072360039,
0.13114194571971893,
0.26953762769699097,
-0.2564750611782074,
0.8026594519615173,
0.22660207748413086,
-0.21293234825134277,
0.4483911693096161,
0.46276530623435974,
0.7289460301399231,
-0.2868788242340088,
0.5747949481010437,
-0.6762853264808655,
0.4672352373600006,
-0.44749170541763306,
-0.3537653386592865,
0.1842236965894699,
-0.3622712790966034,
0.1959572285413742,
-0.312321275472641,
-0.2554784119129181,
0.2995974123477936,
-0.37663108110427856,
-0.2819717526435852,
0.29714781045913696,
0.05038190260529518,
0.22417110204696655,
0.28643617033958435,
0.35292595624923706,
0.5801040530204773,
-0.2220240831375122,
-0.5497525334358215,
0.1480253040790558,
0.8722248077392578,
-0.636861264705658,
-0.09784671664237976,
0.7477731704711914,
-0.2932301461696625,
0.12679660320281982,
-0.09317522495985031,
0.0725896880030632,
0.4542922377586365,
0.16146904230117798,
-0.2524186074733734,
-0.1482829749584198,
0.38998013734817505,
0.3307819068431854,
-0.3068926930427551,
-0.34727662801742554,
-0.05462478846311569,
-0.052541784942150116,
-0.08939683437347412,
-0.05444538593292236,
-1.3245452642440796,
-0.3207005560398102,
-0.18953055143356323,
-0.4494378864765167,
0.07719197124242783,
-0.31510138511657715,
1.0968947410583496,
0.33702632784843445,
-0.30940961837768555,
-0.052547406405210495,
-0.3394331634044647,
-0.12195146828889847,
0.24112048745155334,
-0.5593748092651367,
-0.313663125038147,
0.19288739562034607,
0.4656912684440613,
0.5544335842132568,
0.05634292587637901,
0.6368979811668396,
0.08812485635280609,
0.033602356910705566,
0.43671607971191406,
-0.12041035294532776,
0.36661893129348755,
-0.15436819195747375,
-0.36330023407936096,
0.24290518462657928,
0.1809108406305313,
-0.08422266691923141,
-0.19853191077709198,
-0.5527526140213013,
-0.19680052995681763,
-0.7854386568069458,
-0.5605344772338867,
0.3240358531475067,
0.5092087388038635,
-0.09968498349189758,
-0.1190180703997612,
-0.12057311087846756,
-0.32977497577667236,
0.35306140780448914,
-0.7759324908256531,
-0.02113826386630535,
0.218197762966156,
-0.023928597569465637,
0.0890107974410057,
0.1889028698205948,
-0.6789456605911255,
0.2639058828353882,
0.4115085005760193,
-0.21864484250545502,
0.19033677875995636,
-0.11017856001853943,
0.21765893697738647,
0.5113369822502136,
-0.021146662533283234,
-0.27295899391174316,
-0.6109688878059387,
-0.023028075695037842,
-0.1595824658870697,
0.17628884315490723,
-0.09862732142210007,
0.23928534984588623,
-0.5029356479644775,
0.2589642107486725,
0.30593711137771606,
0.8928069472312927,
0.2738994359970093,
0.23404169082641602,
-0.8048579096794128,
-0.24611473083496094,
0.1411408632993698,
0.12584294378757477,
0.11782565712928772,
0.15338443219661713,
-0.16762344539165497,
0.1792757660150528,
-0.0051524220034480095,
0.08027221262454987,
0.054234590381383896,
-0.04539604112505913,
-0.3589373528957367,
0.24766501784324646,
-0.2751242518424988,
1.1279009580612183,
-0.2838257849216461,
-0.10267253965139389,
0.3599461019039154,
0.303060919046402,
0.6149569749832153,
0.024386495351791382,
-0.23463423550128937,
0.4854367673397064,
-0.2602992653846741,
-0.5655056834220886,
1.5689811706542969,
0.5011051893234253,
0.41197431087493896,
0.4860396683216095,
0.2695399820804596,
0.16239869594573975,
-0.09155736863613129,
-0.4276498258113861,
-0.09630072116851807,
0.1589638590812683,
-0.18159641325473785,
0.139719158411026,
-0.39388057589530945,
-0.4149503707885742,
0.19741104543209076,
0.17351970076560974,
-0.6249929070472717,
0.07443518191576004,
0.6117915511131287,
-0.27642929553985596,
0.2530140280723572,
0.5125213265419006,
-0.1301993429660797,
-0.346626341342926,
-0.3242238163948059,
0.5127723217010498,
-0.2185569852590561,
-0.1296181082725525,
-0.18716563284397125,
-0.3586614727973938,
-0.0685507282614708,
-0.5659277439117432,
-0.4208180010318756,
0.19868437945842743,
-0.2566019892692566,
-0.20759473741054535,
0.33452531695365906,
-0.06578049063682556,
0.11624660342931747,
0.20507179200649261,
-0.11924632638692856,
0.5265690088272095,
0.7112202644348145,
-0.7914893627166748,
-0.05977846309542656,
0.04206353798508644,
0.23952190577983856,
0.5562978386878967,
-0.5152697563171387,
0.43424904346466064,
-0.20399723947048187,
0.1043509989976883,
0.30122876167297363,
0.07901546359062195,
-0.36047735810279846,
-0.1744743287563324,
0.01853838749229908,
0.14520183205604553,
0.10520859807729721,
-0.5571209192276001,
0.10245008021593094,
-0.35653525590896606,
-0.264116495847702,
0.3462398052215576,
0.06243688613176346,
-0.4492379426956177,
0.0700150653719902,
0.011828715912997723,
-1.3991094827651978,
0.14207406342029572,
0.0864260196685791,
0.16320207715034485,
0.09988976269960403,
0.029227793216705322,
-0.13798944652080536,
0.3629518151283264,
0.3156565725803375,
0.5636076927185059,
-0.3578299283981323,
-0.5952937006950378,
0.20305271446704865,
0.29979264736175537,
0.2103477120399475,
0.11401627212762833,
-0.3110620677471161,
-0.12923552095890045,
-0.18367154896259308,
-0.4871899485588074,
0.613849401473999,
0.4590854048728943,
-0.3665574789047241,
-0.1440977305173874,
0.5562471747398376,
0.43519124388694763,
-0.1193842962384224,
-0.4545929729938507,
0.7043358087539673,
-0.27956393361091614,
-0.23739482462406158,
0.2032313495874405,
0.6696146726608276,
-0.7149483561515808,
-0.43525388836860657,
-5.631152629852295,
0.08938008546829224,
-0.32502853870391846,
-0.3984224498271942,
0.14797119796276093,
-0.35850170254707336,
0.2591822147369385,
-0.3365727365016937,
-0.34165793657302856,
0.6397562623023987,
0.5208600759506226,
0.3439616560935974,
0.07979852706193924,
0.03534632921218872,
0.11689989268779755,
0.34028488397598267,
0.5561196804046631,
0.014061507768929005,
-0.01830405183136463,
0.3168638348579407,
-0.1975284069776535,
0.5703291893005371,
-0.27884620428085327,
-0.30364641547203064,
0.4934655725955963,
0.8403104543685913,
0.1546517163515091,
-0.10182198137044907,
-0.7892224788665771,
-0.27440690994262695,
0.41450434923171997,
0.2013736069202423,
0.35377469658851624,
-0.1433306634426117,
-0.3860926926136017,
-0.44512805342674255,
0.1359284222126007,
0.2736838459968567,
0.6816124320030212,
0.21355277299880981,
-0.5558342337608337,
0.03271733224391937,
-0.14224138855934143,
-0.06628644466400146,
0.34052568674087524,
0.7562955617904663,
-0.3559952974319458,
0.006861880421638489,
-0.20572715997695923,
0.5940237045288086,
-0.1175183355808258,
-0.30989858508110046,
0.4976709485054016,
0.028251660987734795,
0.8610852360725403,
0.10196186602115631,
0.3692827522754669,
-0.2058912217617035,
-0.049327999353408813,
0.009411626495420933,
0.61649489402771,
-0.2560243010520935,
-0.2444295585155487,
-0.32814645767211914,
0.17767049372196198,
-0.5878771543502808,
0.18128672242164612,
-0.09262961149215698,
0.19152489304542542,
0.6082765460014343,
0.29208964109420776,
-0.1739335060119629,
0.27220138907432556,
-1.0038760900497437,
0.18802884221076965,
-0.1616562157869339,
-0.10785050690174103,
0.6675493121147156,
-0.5075293183326721,
-0.2719944417476654,
0.16040711104869843,
0.16265642642974854,
-0.27393820881843567,
0.4685697555541992,
-0.27530086040496826,
0.3245907425880432,
0.26205503940582275,
0.6803516149520874,
-0.5106122493743896,
0.094198077917099,
0.19456623494625092,
0.24986742436885834,
-0.0654396340250969,
0.3140885829925537,
-0.6044015884399414,
0.3813098669052124,
0.560181736946106,
-0.252093642950058,
0.1514306366443634,
-0.7719360589981079,
0.10647014528512955,
-0.2536696195602417,
-0.23983216285705566,
-0.4869639277458191,
-0.724458634853363,
-0.22974899411201477,
-0.5986596941947937,
0.3687746524810791,
0.651755154132843,
-0.5748117566108704,
0.17312581837177277,
-0.5097202658653259,
-0.5221836566925049,
0.05744658410549164,
1.2799756526947021,
0.0813741683959961,
-0.5675402879714966,
0.5508120059967041,
0.25013360381126404,
0.6479203104972839,
-0.060691822320222855,
0.22725322842597961,
-0.42327481508255005,
0.29585957527160645,
-0.8902751803398132,
-0.07568826526403427,
-0.1689964234828949,
-0.036716073751449585,
-0.6737949252128601,
-0.11437194049358368,
1.0671769380569458,
0.1529754400253296,
-0.01306028850376606,
0.09709368646144867,
0.04391093924641609,
-0.08836989849805832,
-0.1826062649488449,
0.3018958568572998,
0.5999308228492737,
-0.6151942610740662,
0.032526448369026184,
-0.08111608028411865,
-0.40026816725730896,
0.14262746274471283,
0.12762461602687836,
0.3398348093032837,
-0.20216716825962067,
-0.32189449667930603,
0.05267966166138649,
0.4311206042766571,
0.22563134133815765,
-0.6067606210708618,
0.36621081829071045,
-0.3852492570877075,
-0.4028848707675934,
-0.125501811504364,
-0.3696226179599762,
-0.3662101924419403,
-0.6118883490562439,
-0.6115817427635193,
-0.10835174471139908,
-0.17101122438907623,
-0.7300350666046143,
-0.09092232584953308,
0.7884249687194824,
-0.05853522941470146,
0.010249528102576733,
-0.859942615032196,
-0.30453863739967346,
0.6194388270378113,
-0.46702733635902405,
-0.3506302237510681,
-0.46890559792518616,
-0.6723506450653076,
0.4492531716823578,
0.05514560267329216,
0.03647633269429207,
-0.05599097162485123,
0.24377544224262238,
-0.12032022327184677,
0.2868199944496155,
-0.1269797831773758,
-0.15472640097141266,
0.7464687824249268,
0.0758972242474556,
-0.52826327085495,
0.03931461647152901,
-0.1800876408815384,
-0.05710722133517265,
0.42952558398246765,
0.20471163094043732,
-0.41034427285194397,
0.7539418339729309,
-0.031639810651540756,
-0.4395236074924469,
-0.22932659089565277,
0.03910805284976959,
0.15895338356494904,
-0.28889113664627075,
-0.279226690530777,
0.07500001788139343,
0.06045801565051079,
-0.3550966680049896,
0.27863097190856934,
0.4448590874671936,
-0.2009790986776352,
0.03848031535744667,
-0.06224715709686279,
-1.1013871431350708,
0.45562735199928284,
0.3667890727519989,
-0.9259417057037354,
0.16811464726924896,
0.21586237847805023,
0.15995772182941437,
-0.010039557702839375,
-0.27941665053367615,
-0.023748675361275673,
-0.23373962938785553,
-1.0688577890396118,
0.16496329009532928,
-0.2914566099643707,
-0.5927355289459229,
-0.6501991152763367,
0.09377915412187576,
-0.00334607413969934,
0.007020451128482819,
-0.5955167412757874,
0.9528390765190125,
-0.37017834186553955,
-0.4490484297275543,
-0.07496809959411621,
0.06445546448230743,
-0.1664150506258011,
-0.23948243260383606,
-0.13706821203231812,
-0.31483444571495056,
-0.21513092517852783,
0.3110262453556061,
0.644670844078064,
0.06026647612452507,
0.862587034702301,
0.28041064739227295,
-0.8025913834571838,
-0.562648594379425,
-0.3167700171470642,
0.5844443440437317,
-0.8473003506660461,
0.2872357964515686,
0.4666164815425873,
0.14796307682991028,
-0.6033247709274292,
-0.23567388951778412,
-0.13520623743534088,
0.924344003200531,
-0.37659403681755066,
-0.3015054166316986,
0.14910240471363068,
-0.028404243290424347,
0.05837835744023323,
-0.296416312456131,
0.27881959080696106,
-0.24465298652648926,
0.9679814577102661,
0.015338988043367863,
0.6325105428695679,
-0.6241586804389954,
0.11009547114372253,
0.4748569130897522,
-0.31315773725509644,
-0.5267069339752197,
-0.3250252604484558,
0.49012473225593567,
0.32266712188720703,
-0.10254517197608948,
0.045751821249723434,
-0.47096511721611023,
-0.1594437211751938,
-0.3083118498325348,
0.12561357021331787,
0.5282061100006104,
0.6411465406417847,
0.31821417808532715,
-0.372786283493042,
0.6087853908538818,
-0.5052890777587891,
-0.11803635209798813,
-0.1565868854522705,
-0.6226658225059509,
0.5304463505744934,
-0.236191526055336,
0.03934800997376442,
-0.6965897679328918,
0.2863364517688751,
-0.20223531126976013,
-0.2545962333679199,
-0.3793479800224304,
0.42254894971847534,
-0.47305846214294434,
0.09325186163187027,
-0.5353408455848694,
0.8214821219444275,
0.047883085906505585,
0.25008323788642883,
0.20787858963012695,
0.3024064898490906,
-0.27115488052368164,
-0.44855669140815735,
0.2973621189594269,
0.2210293710231781,
-0.35456743836402893,
0.04109841212630272,
0.4097520709037781,
0.5298265218734741,
-0.7255344986915588,
0.3033829629421234,
0.37898796796798706,
-0.1226959228515625,
0.05201802775263786,
0.10843044519424438,
0.3277752995491028,
0.034614309668540955,
0.19590386748313904,
0.38307681679725647,
-0.8036852478981018,
0.7770140171051025,
-0.3268101215362549,
-0.518495500087738,
0.6503398418426514,
0.25068601965904236,
0.29185834527015686,
-0.06219685450196266,
-0.15342655777931213,
0.2435627579689026,
-0.22243058681488037,
-0.3717070519924164,
0.6979790925979614,
-0.2552040219306946,
-0.010929714888334274,
0.17610061168670654,
0.2864673435688019,
0.28847670555114746,
-0.16118481755256653,
-0.08792416751384735,
0.4659643769264221,
-0.1798253357410431,
0.2329024076461792,
0.03660101071000099,
0.0876014232635498,
-0.4390278458595276,
0.25564080476760864,
0.047116510570049286,
0.28043612837791443,
0.022608794271945953,
-0.015961255878210068,
0.1296728253364563,
-0.22441481053829193,
-0.6384739279747009,
-0.19578152894973755,
-1.2271589040756226,
-0.08981149643659592,
0.05127161368727684,
0.29107165336608887,
0.23366746306419373,
-0.11228635907173157,
-0.44992199540138245,
0.8284055590629578,
0.4112139940261841,
-0.17246894538402557,
0.47040215134620667,
-0.05914890766143799,
0.5325933694839478,
0.0971369743347168,
-0.011031324043869972,
0.4609545171260834,
0.10989149659872055,
0.43069836497306824,
-0.034260835498571396,
0.16338221728801727,
0.4631730020046234,
0.0785955861210823,
-0.13056959211826324,
-0.25311341881752014,
-0.7720928192138672,
-0.20998677611351013,
0.20472562313079834,
-0.05915304273366928,
0.28602761030197144,
-0.3806195557117462,
0.2531891465187073,
0.2032274454832077,
-0.06138643994927406,
0.06626439839601517,
0.11023146659135818,
-0.6423363089561462,
0.17668282985687256,
0.09215406328439713,
0.8203211426734924,
0.41074177622795105,
0.24255481362342834,
-0.10823122411966324,
0.16865679621696472,
-0.2464383989572525,
0.32616427540779114,
-0.08023687452077866,
0.2586372494697571,
-0.5916533470153809,
-0.43346279859542847,
-0.19206015765666962,
0.4317949414253235,
0.13921669125556946,
0.24543608725070953,
-0.06067085266113281,
0.5568858981132507,
-0.4003375470638275,
0.21444813907146454,
0.24502046406269073,
-0.3912363350391388,
-0.005335434339940548,
-0.12424524873495102,
-0.029091786593198776,
0.1505194455385208,
0.9394930601119995,
0.6122182607650757,
-0.4575425386428833,
0.28844496607780457,
-0.30984073877334595,
0.35725316405296326,
-0.026560358703136444,
-0.23355351388454437,
-0.540174663066864,
-0.20574218034744263,
-0.2774047553539276,
0.3764662742614746,
-0.14198145270347595,
-0.10581754893064499,
0.2768099009990692,
0.1094280406832695,
0.4779438376426697,
0.23267707228660583,
0.013793513178825378,
-0.24963752925395966,
0.8537946939468384,
0.05327606573700905,
-2.3403992652893066,
-0.09594401717185974,
-0.3249959945678711,
-0.5962230563163757,
-0.17946234345436096,
-0.43604063987731934,
0.046889301389455795,
-0.13226443529129028,
0.09876932203769684,
0.11389348655939102,
0.10832758247852325,
-0.24373461306095123,
-0.3574085831642151,
-0.3511331379413605,
0.08801931142807007,
-0.37091323733329773
] |
229062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troisdorf | Troisdorf | Troisdorf () is a city in the Rhein-Sieg-Kreis (district), in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
Geography
Troisdorf is located approximately 22 kilometers south of Cologne and 13 kilometers north east of Bonn.
Division of the city
Troisdorf consists of 12 districts (population as of April, 2014):
Troisdorf-Mitte (16,414 inhabitants)
Altenrath (2,292 inhabitants)
Bergheim (5,750 inhabitants)
Eschmar (3,078 inhabitants)
Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hütte (7,161 inhabitants)
Kriegsdorf (3,129 inhabitants)
Müllekoven (1,793 inhabitants)
Oberlar (6,100 inhabitants)
Rotter See (3,918 inhabitants)
Sieglar (8,668 inhabitants)
Spich (12,765 inhabitants)
West (5,367 inhabitants)
Total: 76,435 inhabitants
History
Troisdorf became a free city in 1952. In 1969, the urban area expanded with the annexation of the township of Sieglar and the villages of Altenrath and Friedrich-Wilhelms-Hütte (total population in 1969: about 51,000). The first large settlements in this area go back to the 9th and 10th century (Eschmar and Sieglar 832, Bergheim 987). The first churches in this area were built around 700 AD in Bergheim (St. Lambertus).
Troisdorf is home to about 9,600 foreign nationals. The two most numerous foreign national groups are Turks (3,100) and Greeks (1,600). On June 4, 1972, Troisdorf founded the first advisory council for foreign citizens in Germany. In the years following the Peaceful Revolution and German reunification of 1989/1990 many migrants from Russia and other East European countries settled in Troisdorf.
Demographics
On April, 2014, Troisdorf had a population of 76,435 according to official records. 11% of the population are foreign migrants.
Troisdorf has a predominantly Christian population: Roman Catholics, Protestants, Baptists, Jehovah's Witnesses and other Christian denominations, along with Muslim, Orthodox Christian and Jewish populations of non-indigenous origin. Troisdorf is one of the German cities where its mosque includes a minaret, built for the local Islamic community.
Mayors
1969–1975: Josef Ludwig (CDU)
1975–1993: Hans Jaax (SPD)
1993–1998: Uwe Göllner (SPD)
1998–1999: Walter Bieber (SPD)
1999–2009: Manfred Uedelhoven (CDU)
2009-2020: Klaus-Werner Jablonski (CDU)
2020–incumbent: Alexander Biber (CDU)
Notable places
Europe's only picture-book museum is located in Troisdorf at the Wissem Castle.
Twin towns – sister cities
Troisdorf is twinned with:
Évry-Courcouronnes, France (1972)
Genk, Belgium (1990)
Heidenau, Germany (1990)
Redcar and Cleveland, United Kingdom (1990)
Corfu, Greece (1996)
Nantong, China (1997)
Özdere, Turkey (2004)
Notable people
John Siberch (c. 1476–1554), pioneering printer and friend of Erasmus
Walter Stern (1896–1970), art critic and broadcaster
Paul Schäfer (1921–2010), cult leader, founder of Colonia Dignidad
Rupert Neudeck (1939–2016), humanitarian worker, founder of the Cap Anamur
Tom Buhrow (born 1958), news anchor
Sebastian Pufpaff (born 1976), comedian
Lena Schöneborn (born 1986), pentathlonist, Olympic champion
Sabine Lisicki (born 1989), tennis player
Mitchell Weiser (born 1994), footballer
References
External links | [
-0.42031919956207275,
0.4173073172569275,
0.5717810988426208,
-0.42818930745124817,
-0.6469443440437317,
0.553502082824707,
1.203318476676941,
-0.42142125964164734,
-0.09129967540502548,
-0.5424783825874329,
-0.20141513645648956,
-0.2146369069814682,
0.00544700538739562,
0.5312466621398926,
0.10664620250463486,
0.4645986557006836,
0.6806209087371826,
0.5792363286018372,
0.35021960735321045,
-0.9865478873252869,
0.0796167403459549,
-0.2620697617530823,
0.5211485624313354,
0.39038169384002686,
0.1001654863357544,
0.08898331224918365,
0.173103466629982,
0.016262507066130638,
0.16232015192508698,
0.08750671148300171,
0.199907124042511,
0.9920604825019836,
-0.08754679560661316,
0.06291916221380234,
0.2146848887205124,
0.2987164556980133,
-0.14544646441936493,
-0.6703189611434937,
0.3523809611797333,
-0.769592821598053,
-0.5047982931137085,
0.22601833939552307,
0.18836748600006104,
-0.3477439284324646,
-0.0002741527569014579,
-1.2513995170593262,
-1.3679256439208984,
0.16298899054527283,
-1.211772084236145,
0.09327288717031479,
-0.54355388879776,
-0.3915794789791107,
0.48507359623908997,
0.5944241881370544,
-0.22845883667469025,
-0.15615415573120117,
-1.2972981929779053,
0.17051535844802856,
0.5742142200469971,
0.07750829309225082,
-0.14871107041835785,
0.05683288723230362,
-0.16905707120895386,
0.15332554280757904,
0.4708887040615082,
0.4194992780685425,
0.047307949513196945,
1.0144321918487549,
-0.27397584915161133,
-0.7306200861930847,
-0.532368004322052,
-0.30617251992225647,
0.12909986078739166,
-0.3968479633331299,
-0.03263574838638306,
-0.5845764875411987,
-0.7397021651268005,
-0.1180872917175293,
-0.1637195199728012,
0.07390197366476059,
-0.2706400454044342,
-0.31074294447898865,
0.7952585816383362,
-0.22481833398342133,
0.4872954189777374,
0.2017739713191986,
-0.46210402250289917,
-0.06660374253988266,
-0.8317539095878601,
0.5195583701133728,
0.04076869413256645,
-0.6288259625434875,
-0.3194904029369354,
-0.2328658550977707,
0.2211492508649826,
-0.05523794889450073,
0.5219860672950745,
0.038914792239665985,
0.5708522200584412,
0.5935354828834534,
0.11262401938438416,
-0.3982519507408142,
0.9777785539627075,
0.03030429594218731,
0.00045444112038239837,
-0.230025514960289,
-0.35431209206581116,
-0.8356221318244934,
0.1886502206325531,
-0.565191388130188,
-0.5499315857887268,
0.32755449414253235,
0.1880612075328827,
-0.2991112768650055,
-0.3322215974330902,
0.566015362739563,
0.47031262516975403,
-0.002726959064602852,
-0.22893667221069336,
0.11446268111467361,
0.3073394000530243,
0.7919653654098511,
-0.4096057116985321,
0.40311259031295776,
-0.20381590723991394,
-0.3594856560230255,
0.14725637435913086,
0.826620876789093,
-0.5785936713218689,
0.4500388205051422,
0.5745522379875183,
0.9160450100898743,
-0.0039368001744151115,
-0.08514881879091263,
-0.40804287791252136,
-0.10116350650787354,
-0.022907180711627007,
0.4397403299808502,
0.20750047266483307,
-0.11069542914628983,
-1.050844669342041,
0.28310373425483704,
-0.591377317905426,
-0.16473926603794098,
-0.08894429355859756,
0.1276048719882965,
-0.39128127694129944,
-0.4353192150592804,
0.3009471595287323,
-0.3567298352718353,
0.08687151223421097,
0.27348485589027405,
-0.39192837476730347,
-0.06313004344701767,
-0.41686102747917175,
0.36176347732543945,
0.39508089423179626,
0.22030489146709442,
0.32863515615463257,
0.43848279118537903,
0.9730944633483887,
-0.2308882474899292,
0.722413957118988,
0.4477896988391876,
0.43667781352996826,
-0.31330421566963196,
-0.46189793944358826,
0.12517067790031433,
0.25502678751945496,
-0.11421023309230804,
-0.26159432530403137,
-0.055713362991809845,
0.08046595007181168,
-0.24175676703453064,
0.9170809984207153,
-0.39367273449897766,
0.4623918831348419,
0.05774473398923874,
0.08088483661413193,
-0.20523986220359802,
-0.6759234666824341,
0.6180475354194641,
0.08557932078838348,
0.1337231546640396,
0.5527867674827576,
0.7788161039352417,
-0.4265687167644501,
0.1412051022052765,
0.030850712209939957,
0.39605513215065,
-0.2041856348514557,
-0.9180620908737183,
0.38748350739479065,
0.27641674876213074,
1.2927290201187134,
0.37034669518470764,
0.00895257480442524,
0.18727926909923553,
-0.4586770534515381,
-0.08271569013595581,
-1.161831259727478,
-0.6108256578445435,
1.1966278553009033,
0.21210746467113495,
-0.6563157439231873,
0.6814951300621033,
-0.19411063194274902,
-0.344083309173584,
-0.2667519152164459,
0.8505730628967285,
0.12947909533977509,
-0.5042749047279358,
-0.18858160078525543,
0.33577361702919006,
0.057871703058481216,
-0.4699769914150238,
-0.8617812991142273,
-0.22929558157920837,
-0.07626434415578842,
-0.07180554419755936,
0.5307427644729614,
0.29080837965011597,
-0.014150845818221569,
0.01572105847299099,
-0.24206143617630005,
0.48853641748428345,
0.6654807329177856,
0.37070125341415405,
-0.2996065318584442,
-1.1593449115753174,
0.5056705474853516,
0.834554135799408,
0.4790495038032532,
-0.4234142601490021,
-0.2518351078033447,
-0.5470454692840576,
-0.06307237595319748,
-0.32384568452835083,
0.3705123960971832,
-0.7472476959228516,
0.23914621770381927,
0.3069228231906891,
-0.3968254029750824,
0.16528497636318207,
0.23133423924446106,
0.8673554062843323,
-0.06395760923624039,
-0.057406891137361526,
-0.17019419372081757,
-0.7528137564659119,
0.07125179469585419,
0.6972621083259583,
0.5243558287620544,
-0.41734838485717773,
0.6718186140060425,
-0.011747459881007671,
-0.0638662725687027,
0.47467830777168274,
-0.10028120130300522,
0.6549420356750488,
-0.15556813776493073,
0.35109588503837585,
0.41410067677497864,
-0.4030325412750244,
-0.41760343313217163,
0.23396101593971252,
0.2051093578338623,
-0.24094116687774658,
0.0491444393992424,
0.19940787553787231,
0.13063421845436096,
-0.39377352595329285,
-0.30621033906936646,
-0.24747993052005768,
-0.27891379594802856,
-0.43075206875801086,
-0.33157482743263245,
0.654949426651001,
-0.5601443648338318,
-0.2717229425907135,
0.5441325306892395,
0.9054948091506958,
-0.2446117401123047,
-1.0014108419418335,
0.5089775323867798,
0.42934808135032654,
0.686661422252655,
0.3399624228477478,
-0.08194936066865921,
0.06481631100177765,
-0.17968198657035828,
0.047243550419807434,
-0.5298985242843628,
-0.05151001736521721,
0.028419481590390205,
-0.35092008113861084,
-0.3296392858028412,
0.27616408467292786,
0.40029773116111755,
0.15008334815502167,
-0.6357241868972778,
0.37053608894348145,
-0.49658796191215515,
0.27989858388900757,
-0.5025187730789185,
-0.550388753414154,
0.018326357007026672,
-0.08620350807905197,
-4.7278618812561035,
-0.5695507526397705,
-0.16430944204330444,
-0.30051708221435547,
-0.4123499393463135,
-0.2677895724773407,
0.3318377137184143,
-0.2927219271659851,
0.04959079250693321,
0.5071390271186829,
0.19643838703632355,
-0.3799241781234741,
0.1533830314874649,
0.3501571714878082,
0.805637538433075,
0.07714543491601944,
-0.03335670381784439,
0.050433915108442307,
-0.11343950778245926,
-0.5411568880081177,
0.07779005914926529,
0.3289434313774109,
0.3177749812602997,
0.5426769852638245,
0.19398556649684906,
0.10550665110349655,
0.18599604070186615,
-0.29331842064857483,
-0.9339651465415955,
-0.7472257614135742,
0.453725665807724,
-0.08570050448179245,
-0.22174178063869476,
0.11590113490819931,
-0.679282009601593,
-0.35369375348091125,
0.4047617018222809,
0.09071685373783112,
0.19331809878349304,
-0.41589924693107605,
0.35342323780059814,
0.8502786755561829,
0.4004575312137604,
0.013894276693463326,
0.43523794412612915,
-0.2371978461742401,
-0.8392119407653809,
0.019453277811408043,
-0.10064250230789185,
1.5060776472091675,
0.3905281722545624,
-0.598712146282196,
1.0519882440567017,
-0.3369206190109253,
-0.05556444451212883,
-0.44565561413764954,
0.05140800029039383,
0.29344576597213745,
-0.08664046227931976,
1.3757691383361816,
0.6575470566749573,
-0.06162204593420029,
-0.24134676158428192,
-0.3498765230178833,
-0.35137075185775757,
-0.2859324812889099,
-0.20196489989757538,
0.2352621704339981,
-0.34729889035224915,
0.004877001047134399,
-0.21400333940982819,
0.9763404726982117,
-0.5051084160804749,
-0.6962816715240479,
-0.13331395387649536,
-0.7865081429481506,
-1.06700599193573,
-0.3476806879043579,
0.01753772236406803,
-0.45017367601394653,
-0.0433240607380867,
-0.7546520233154297,
0.7291259765625,
0.5852437019348145,
0.39095625281333923,
0.017720837146043777,
-0.7692685723304749,
-0.13419511914253235,
0.20731422305107117,
-0.2533734440803528,
0.28295087814331055,
-0.47248759865760803,
0.4294763505458832,
0.4889790713787079,
-0.9629935026168823,
1.2114871740341187,
-0.050438571721315384,
0.287502259016037,
-0.3311260938644409,
-0.06328272819519043,
0.5240516662597656,
0.003989981487393379,
0.20523807406425476,
0.5776828527450562,
-0.19116832315921783,
-0.17334924638271332,
0.8060265779495239,
0.26950618624687195,
0.4176875054836273,
0.03284133970737457,
0.03244617581367493,
0.036355677992105484,
-0.036348115652799606,
-0.9369804263114929,
0.9775856137275696,
-0.6569879055023193,
-1.2587538957595825,
0.9613068699836731,
-0.27320510149002075,
0.509638249874115,
0.7560716867446899,
-0.09381312131881714,
0.19273030757904053,
-0.05264833942055702,
-0.3866911828517914,
0.4351516664028168,
-0.08270193636417389,
0.049303945153951645,
-0.11713838577270508,
0.5875436663627625,
-0.19755086302757263,
0.15818630158901215,
-0.49372199177742004,
-0.853556752204895,
-0.01465877890586853,
-0.6737116575241089,
-0.23690830171108246,
-0.14980733394622803,
0.21491236984729767,
0.1362917274236679,
1.3386965990066528,
0.32230496406555176,
-0.998746395111084,
0.318157434463501,
-0.6803486347198486,
0.2806413173675537,
0.24636955559253693,
-0.2773481607437134,
-0.9481655359268188,
0.5236493945121765,
-0.601136326789856,
-0.31484463810920715,
0.5441974401473999,
-0.40534499287605286,
-0.12666025757789612,
0.31543004512786865,
0.2710159420967102,
0.5883886814117432,
0.6286901235580444,
0.12403189390897751,
-0.3982219696044922,
-0.16595236957073212,
-0.8773200511932373,
0.40679237246513367,
0.5255367159843445,
0.15351657569408417,
-0.2643855810165405,
0.08624739199876785,
-0.5425379276275635,
0.6729449033737183,
0.6263366937637329,
-0.4241265654563904,
-0.3266546130180359,
0.03276385739445686,
-0.16274510324001312,
0.0477425791323185,
-0.03344196453690529,
0.5874090194702148,
0.07728391885757446,
-0.4127438962459564,
0.2368391752243042,
0.5809975862503052,
-0.03847738355398178,
0.7391637563705444,
0.42617544531822205,
-0.5121750235557556,
-0.21870066225528717,
0.1599378138780594,
-0.7000570893287659,
-0.48656272888183594,
0.42467567324638367,
-0.45609384775161743,
0.12979549169540405,
-0.18641623854637146,
-0.3767993748188019,
-1.5853852033615112,
0.13535615801811218,
-0.818639874458313,
-0.5711919069290161,
-0.28272131085395813,
0.166221022605896,
0.4715524911880493,
-0.03884929418563843,
0.7465716004371643,
0.30813515186309814,
-0.8011276721954346,
0.3894475996494293,
0.833096444606781,
-0.12948064506053925,
0.016925187781453133,
-0.8520767688751221,
-0.5534371733665466,
0.3243885636329651,
0.28451231122016907,
-0.24038758873939514,
0.185217946767807,
0.23627890646457672,
-0.8948484063148499,
-1.0104433298110962,
0.12458136677742004,
-1.1685404777526855,
-0.2724161446094513,
-0.6522796154022217,
-0.4710419774055481,
-0.613137423992157,
0.2658223509788513,
-0.06793690472841263,
-0.8753127455711365,
1.1780147552490234,
-0.9342023730278015,
-0.5475220680236816,
0.2194458395242691,
0.575002908706665,
0.13027894496917725,
-0.45233622193336487,
-0.16989155113697052,
0.137960284948349,
0.34232601523399353,
0.42619073390960693,
0.12639601528644562,
0.13097332417964935,
0.5908397436141968,
0.580623209476471,
-0.5234367251396179,
0.32694634795188904,
-0.5363394021987915,
0.8213517665863037,
-0.32045778632164,
-0.9987871646881104,
0.6924517154693604,
-0.18601956963539124,
0.44347304105758667,
-0.4073701500892639,
-0.2381090372800827,
0.7430797815322876,
0.08383726328611374,
-0.18794505298137665,
0.6442537903785706,
0.47038647532463074,
0.2662023603916168,
-0.24517908692359924,
0.13287639617919922,
0.016051843762397766,
0.21032054722309113,
0.12222346663475037,
-0.023301661014556885,
-0.027386853471398354,
-0.5454153418540955,
0.23112602531909943,
-0.4188717007637024,
-0.5612080097198486,
-0.34342890977859497,
-0.3965534269809723,
-0.2059577852487564,
0.019842037931084633,
0.19301863014698029,
-0.7067595720291138,
-0.7782768607139587,
-0.16800864040851593,
-0.38834908604621887,
-0.5376967787742615,
-0.016468042507767677,
-0.2912472188472748,
-0.06738176196813583,
0.20661933720111847,
-0.42952752113342285,
-0.8376739621162415,
0.1244310662150383,
-0.8103384971618652,
0.41299155354499817,
-0.39082109928131104,
-0.08760752528905869,
-0.3763495087623596,
0.2597697377204895,
0.42300179600715637,
0.011938290670514107,
0.10203885287046432,
0.33543115854263306,
-0.5220664739608765,
-0.13793711364269257,
-0.5121979713439941,
-0.17970648407936096,
0.2983509600162506,
-0.6290528178215027,
0.46797457337379456,
0.23693957924842834,
-0.5896471738815308,
0.007150776218622923,
0.11252209544181824,
0.6901465058326721,
0.38548749685287476,
-0.2766106426715851,
-0.18051780760288239,
0.8434778451919556,
-0.2022002935409546,
1.1314398050308228,
0.7934299111366272,
-0.2011181265115738,
-0.02509794384241104,
0.5332698225975037,
0.09776568412780762,
-0.08220761269330978,
1.1339807510375977,
1.0771976709365845,
-0.3763679265975952,
1.1340456008911133,
0.54524827003479,
-0.32873252034187317,
0.06194451451301575,
0.16551247239112854,
-0.050037067383527756,
0.38393253087997437,
-0.4177486002445221,
-0.06769846379756927,
-0.7351524829864502,
-0.2029077410697937,
-0.4313913881778717,
0.0873693972826004,
-0.2527525722980499,
-0.17920899391174316,
-0.42850834131240845,
0.7276155352592468,
-0.3160356879234314,
0.44880297780036926,
0.21927937865257263,
0.17163898050785065,
-0.10750649124383926,
-0.11921638995409012,
0.24180324375629425,
-0.3236384987831116,
0.7410687804222107,
0.23528660833835602,
-0.023307666182518005,
-0.6232645511627197,
-0.030861746519804,
0.9853028059005737,
0.329395592212677,
-0.6304956674575806,
-0.11791230738162994,
-0.06351133435964584,
0.23530548810958862,
-0.9492964744567871,
0.007520918268710375,
0.07333717495203018,
-0.37180060148239136,
-0.9184100031852722,
-0.2411337047815323,
-0.26951321959495544,
-0.20357175171375275,
0.4940955340862274,
-0.027986297383904457,
-0.16420339047908783,
-0.044056136161088943,
-0.34454256296157837,
0.6009048223495483,
0.019760316237807274,
0.26280999183654785,
-0.0386376678943634,
-0.34427961707115173,
0.4930558204650879,
-0.30191442370414734,
0.16300217807292938,
-0.28321388363838196,
0.8498319983482361,
-0.5836495757102966,
-0.21609391272068024,
0.3270643651485443,
-0.30067819356918335,
0.5729390978813171,
-0.9663761854171753,
0.45598936080932617,
0.32332104444503784,
-0.014100559987127781,
0.022039230912923813,
-0.28467920422554016,
0.040343403816223145,
-0.034864090383052826,
1.1831330060958862,
-0.005363733507692814,
0.25573667883872986,
-0.034895457327365875,
0.5558837652206421,
-0.2928485870361328,
0.2648669481277466,
0.15867815911769867,
0.7719466090202332,
-0.2623540461063385,
0.357986181974411,
-0.528418779373169,
0.80052649974823,
0.4138120114803314,
0.4795994460582733,
0.26388034224510193,
0.38103029131889343,
0.06881768256425858,
-0.44808152318000793,
0.4683823883533478,
-0.20538738369941711,
-0.22234126925468445,
0.11113584786653519,
0.34692704677581787,
-0.1130760908126831,
0.28165876865386963,
0.13118094205856323,
-0.39897051453590393,
-0.14135567843914032,
-0.35698872804641724,
-0.0003696435014717281,
-0.37420654296875,
0.14179539680480957,
-0.21806995570659637,
0.153106689453125,
-0.6427239179611206,
-0.38338154554367065,
-0.5945950746536255,
0.3915538489818573,
0.004979474935680628,
0.182088702917099,
0.686839759349823,
-0.2431267499923706,
-0.4952841103076935,
-0.2279905080795288,
0.08529386669397354,
0.27821433544158936,
-1.2227516174316406,
1.14276123046875,
-0.8313256502151489,
-0.4455728232860565,
-0.34059277176856995,
0.27397388219833374,
-0.07841890305280685,
-0.29489046335220337,
0.04355350509285927,
-0.44291362166404724,
-0.24938176572322845,
0.0881689265370369,
-0.07402665168046951,
-0.2558467984199524,
0.5554978847503662,
-0.33583495020866394
] |
229063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schizoid%20personality%20disorder | Schizoid personality disorder | Schizoid personality disorder (, often abbreviated as SPD or SzPD) is a personality disorder characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency toward a solitary or sheltered lifestyle, secretiveness, emotional coldness, detachment and apathy. Affected individuals may be unable to form intimate attachments to others and simultaneously possess a rich and elaborate but exclusively internal fantasy world. Other associated features include stilted speech, a lack of deriving enjoyment from most activities, feeling as though one is an "observer" rather than a participant in life, an inability to tolerate emotional expectations of others, apparent indifference when praised or criticized, a degree of asexuality, and idiosyncratic moral or political beliefs. Symptoms typically start in late childhood or adolescence.
The cause of SPD is uncertain, but there is some evidence of links and shared genetic risk between SPD, other cluster A personality disorders (such as schizotypal personality disorder) and schizophrenia. Thus, SPD is considered to be a "schizophrenia-like personality disorder". It is diagnosed by clinical observation, and it can be very difficult to distinguish SPD from other mental disorders (such as autism spectrum disorder, with which it may sometimes overlap).
The effectiveness of psychotherapeutic and pharmacological treatments for the disorder has yet to be empirically and systematically investigated. This is largely because people with SPD rarely seek treatment for their condition. Originally, low doses of atypical antipsychotics were also used to treat some symptoms of SPD, but their use is no longer recommended. The substituted amphetamine bupropion may be used to treat associated anhedonia. However, it is not general practice to treat SPD with medications, other than for the short-term treatment of acute co-occurring disorders (e.g. depression). Talk therapies such as cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) may not be effective, because people with SPD may have a hard time forming a good working relationship with a therapist.
SPD is a poorly studied disorder, and there is little clinical data on SPD because it is rarely encountered in clinical settings. Studies have generally reported a prevalence of less than 1% It is more commonly diagnosed in males than in females. SPD is linked to negative outcomes, including a significantly compromised quality of life, reduced overall functioning even after 15 years and one of the lowest levels of "life success" of all personality disorders (measured as "status, wealth and successful relationships"). Bullying is particularly common towards schizoid individuals. Suicide may be a running mental theme for schizoid individuals, though they are not likely to actually attempt it. Some symptoms of SPD (e.g. solitary lifestyle and emotional detachment), however, have been stated as general risk factors for serious suicidal behaviour.
Signs and symptoms
People with SPD are often aloof, cold and indifferent, which causes interpersonal difficulty. Most individuals diagnosed with SPD have trouble establishing personal relationships or expressing their feelings meaningfully. They may remain passive in the face of unfavorable situations. Their communication with other people may be indifferent and terse at times. Schizoid personality types often lack the ability to assess the impact of their own actions in social situations.
A person with SPD may feel suffocated when their personal space is violated and take actions to avoid this feeling. People who have SPD tend to be happiest when in relationships in which their partner places few emotional or intimate demands on them and does not expect phatic or social niceties. It is not necessarily people they want to avoid, but negative or positive emotional expectations, emotional intimacy and self-disclosure. Therefore, it is possible for individuals with SPD to form relationships with others based on intellectual, physical, familial, occupational or recreational activities, as long as there is no need for emotional intimacy. Donald Winnicott explains this is because schizoid individuals "prefer to make relationships on their own terms and not in terms of the impulses of other people." Failing to attain that, they prefer isolation. In general, friendship among schizoids is usually limited to one person, often also schizoid, forming what has been called a union of two eccentrics; "within it – the ecstatic cult of personality, outside it – everything is sharply rejected and despised".
Although there is the belief people with schizoid personality disorder are complacent and unaware of their feelings, many recognize their differences from others. Some individuals with SPD who are in treatment say "life passes them by" or they feel like living inside a shell; they see themselves as "missing the bus" and speak of observing life from a distance.
Aaron Beck and his colleagues report that people with SPD seem comfortable with their aloof lifestyle and consider themselves observers, rather than participants in the world around them. But they also mention that many of their schizoid patients recognize themselves as socially deviant (or even defective) when confronted with the different lives of ordinary people – especially when they read books or see movies focusing on relationships. Even when schizoid individuals may not long for closeness, they can become weary of being "on the outside, looking in". These feelings may lead to depression or depersonalization. If they do, schizoid people often experience feeling "like a robot" or "going through life in a dream".
According to Guntrip, Klein and others, people with SPD may possess a hidden sense of superiority and lack dependence on other people's opinions. This is very different from the grandiosity seen in narcissistic personality disorder, which is described as "burdened with envy" and with a desire to destroy or put down others. Additionally, schizoids do not go out of their way to achieve social validation. Unlike the narcissist, the schizoid will often keep their creations private to avoid unwelcome attention or the feeling that their ideas and thoughts are being appropriated by the public.
The related schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia are reported to have ties to creative thinking, and it is speculated that the internal fantasy aspect of schizoid personality disorder may also be reflective of this thinking. Alternatively, there has been an especially large contribution of people with schizoid symptoms to science and theoretical areas of knowledge, including maths, physics, economics, etc. At the same time, people with SPD are helpless at many practical activities due to their symptoms.
Secret schizoids
Many schizoid individuals display an engaging, interactive personality, contradicting the observable characteristic emphasized by the DSM-5 and ICD-10 definitions of the schizoid personality. Guntrip (using ideas of Klein, Fairbairn and Winnicott) classifies these individuals as "secret schizoids", who behave with socially available, interested, engaged and involved interaction yet remain emotionally withdrawn and sequestered within the safety of the internal world. Klein distinguishes between a "classic" SPD and a "secret" SPD, which occur "just as often" as each other. Klein cautions one should not misidentify the schizoid person as a result of the patient's defensive, compensatory interaction with the external world. He suggests one ask the person what their subjective experience is, to detect the presence of the schizoid refusal of emotional intimacy and preference for objective fact.
Frequently, a schizoid individual's social functioning improves, sometimes dramatically, when the individual knows he is an anonymous participant in a real-time conversation or correspondence, e.g. in an online chatroom or message board. Indeed, it is often the case the individual's online correspondent will report nothing amiss in the individual's engagement and affect. A 2013 study looking at personality disorders and Internet use found that being online more hours per day predicted signs of SPD. Additionally, SPD correlated with lower phone call use and fewer Facebook friends.
Descriptions of the schizoid personality as "hidden" behind an outward appearance of emotional engagement have been recognized since 1940, with Fairbairn's description of "schizoid exhibitionism", in which the schizoid individual is able to express a great deal of feeling and to make what appear to be impressive social contacts yet in reality gives nothing and loses nothing. Because they are "playing a part", their personality is not involved. According to Fairbairn, the person disowns the part they are playing, and the schizoid individual seeks to preserve their personality intact and immune from compromise. The schizoid's false persona is based around what those around them define as normal or good behaviour, as a form of compliance. Further references to the secret schizoid come from Masud Khan, Jeffrey Seinfeld and Philip Manfield, who give a description of an SPD individual who "enjoys" public speaking engagements but experiences great difficulty in the breaks when audience members would attempt to engage him emotionally. These references expose the problems in relying on outer observable behavior for assessing the presence of personality disorders in certain individuals.
Schizoid fantasy
A pathological reliance on fantasizing and preoccupation with inner experience is often part of the schizoid withdrawal from the world. Fantasy thus becomes a core component of the self in exile, though fantasizing in schizoid individuals is far more complicated than a means of facilitating withdrawal.
Fantasy is also a relationship with the world and with others by proxy. It is a substitute relationship, but a relationship nonetheless, characterized by idealized, defensive and compensatory mechanisms. This is self-contained and free from the dangers and anxieties associated with emotional connection to real persons and situations. Klein explains it as "an expression of the self struggling to connect to objects, albeit internal objects. Fantasy permits schizoid patients to feel connected, and yet still free from the imprisonment in relationships. In short, in fantasy one can be attached (to internal objects) and still be free." This aspect of schizoid pathology has been generously elaborated in works by R. D. Laing, Donald Winnicott and Ralph Klein.
Sexuality
People with SPD are sometimes sexually apathetic, though they do not typically suffer from anorgasmia. Their preference to remain alone and detached may cause their need for sex to appear to be less than that of those who do not have SPD. Sex often causes individuals with SPD to feel that their personal space is being violated, and they commonly feel that masturbation or sexual abstinence is preferable to the emotional closeness they must tolerate when having sex. Significantly broadening this picture are notable exceptions of SPD individuals who engage in occasional or even frequent sexual activities with others.
Fairbairn notes that schizoids can fear that in a relationship, their needs will weaken and exhaust their partner, so they feel forced to disown them and move to satisfy solely the needs of the partner. The net result of this is a loss of dignity and sense of self within any relationship they enter, eventually leading to intolerable frustration and friction. Appel notes that these fears result in the schizoid's negativism, stubbornness and reluctance to love. Thus, a central conflict of the schizoid is between an immense longing for relationships but a deep anxiety and avoidance of relationships, manifested by the choosing of the "lesser evil" of abandoning others.
Individuals with SPD have long been noted to have an increased rate of unconventional sexual tendencies, though if present, these are rarely acted upon. The schizoid is often labelled asexual or presents with "a lack of sexual identity". Kernberg states that this apparent lack of a sexuality does not represent a lack of sexual definition but rather a combination of several strong fixations to cope with the same conflicts. People with SPD are often able to pursue any fantasies with content on the Internet while remaining completely unengaged with the outside world.
Akhtar's profile
American psychoanalyst Salman Akhtar provided a comprehensive phenomenological profile of SPD in which classic and contemporary descriptive views are synthesized with psychoanalytic observations. This profile is summarized in the table reproduced below that lists clinical features that involve six areas of psychosocial functioning and are organized by "overt" and "covert" manifestations.
"Overt" and "covert" are intended to denote seemingly contradictory aspects that may both simultaneously be present in an individual. These designations do not necessarily imply their conscious or unconscious existence. The covert characteristics are by definition difficult to discern and not immediately apparent. Additionally, the lack of data on the frequency of many of the features makes their relative diagnostic weight difficult to distinguish at this time. However, Akhtar states that his profile has several advantages over the DSM in terms of maintaining historical continuity of the use of the word schizoid, valuing depth and complexity over descriptive oversimplification and helping provide a more meaningful differential diagnosis of SPD from other personality disorders.
Causes
Some evidence suggests the cluster A personality disorders have shared genetic and environmental risk factors, and there is an increased prevalence of schizoid personality disorder in relatives of people with schizophrenia and schizotypal personality disorder. Twin studies with schizoid personality disorder traits (e.g. low sociability and low warmth) suggest these are inherited. Besides this indirect evidence, the direct heritability estimates of SPD range from 50 to 59%. To Sula Wolff, who did extensive research and clinical work with children and teenagers with schizoid symptoms, "schizoid personality has a constitutional, probably genetic, basis." The link between SPD and being underweight may also point to the involvement of biological factors.
In general, prenatal caloric malnutrition, premature birth and a low birth weight are risk factors for being afflicted by mental disorders and may contribute to the development of schizoid personality disorder as well. Those who have experienced traumatic brain injury may be also at risk of developing features reflective of schizoid personality disorder.
Other historical researchers had hypothesized excessively perfectionist, unloving or neglectful parenting could play a role.
Diagnosis
DSM-5 criteria
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a widely used manual for diagnosing mental disorders. DSM- 5 still includes schizoid personality disorder with the same criteria as in DSM-IV. In the DSM-5, SPD is described as a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of expression of emotions in interpersonal settings, beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts, as indicated by at least four of the following:
Neither desires nor enjoys close relationships, including being part of a family.
Almost always chooses solitary activities.
Has little, if any, interest in having sexual experiences with another person.
Takes pleasure in few, if any, activities.
Lacks close friends or confidants other than first-degree relatives.
Appears indifferent to the praise or criticism of others.
Shows emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity.
According to the DSM, those with SPD may often be unable to, or will rarely express aggressiveness or hostility, even when provoked directly. These individuals can seem vague or drifting about their goals and their lives may appear directionless. Others view them as indecisive in their actions, self-absorbed, absent-minded and detached from their surroundings (''not with it'' or ''in a fog''). Excessive daydreaming is often present. In cases with severe defects in the capacity to form social relationships, dating and marriage may not be possible.
ICD-10 criteria
The Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders of ICD-10 lists schizoid personality disorder under (F60.1).
The general criteria of personality disorder (F60) should be met first. In addition, at least four of the following criteria must be present:
Few, if any, activities provide pleasure.
Displays emotional coldness, detachment, or flattened affectivity.
Limited capacity to express warm, tender feelings for others as well as anger.
Appears indifferent to either praise or criticism from others.
Little interest in having sexual experiences with another person (taking into account age).
Almost always chooses solitary activities.
Excessive preoccupation with fantasy and introspection.
Neither desires, nor has, any close friends or confiding relationships (or only one).
Marked insensitivity to prevailing social norms and conventions; if these are not followed, this is unintentional.
Guntrip criteria
Ralph Klein, Clinical Director of the Masterson Institute, delineates the following nine characteristics of the schizoid personality as described by Harry Guntrip:
Introversion
Withdrawnness
Narcissism
Self-sufficiency
A sense of superiority
Loss of affect
Loneliness
Depersonalization
Regression
The description of Guntrip's nine characteristics should clarify some differences between the traditional DSM portrait of SPD and the traditional informed object relations view. All nine characteristics are consistent. Most, if not all, must be present to diagnose a schizoid disorder.
More details about each of the characteristics can be found in the Harry Guntrip article.
Millon's subtypes
Theodore Millon restricted the term "schizoid" to those personalities who lack the capacity to form social relationships. He characterizes their way of thinking as being vague and void of thoughts and as sometimes having a "defective perceptual scanning". Because they often do not perceive cues that trigger affective responses, they experience fewer emotional reactions.
For Millon, SPD is distinguished from other personality disorders in that it is "the personality disorder that lacks a personality." He criticizes that this may be due to the current diagnostic criteria: They describe SPD only by an absence of certain traits, which results in a "deficit syndrome" or "vacuum". Instead of delineating the presence of something, they mention solely what is lacking. Therefore, it is hard to describe and research such a concept.
He identified four subtypes of SPD. Any individual schizoid may exhibit none or one of the following:
Differential diagnosis
While SPD shares several symptoms with other mental disorders, there are some important differentiating features:
Comorbidity
SPD is often found to be comorbid with at least one of several disorders or pathologies. Sometimes, a person with SPD may meet criteria for an additional personality disorder; when this happens, it is most often avoidant, schizotypal or paranoid PD. Alexithymia (the inability to identify and describe emotions) is often present in SPD. Sharon Ekleberry suggests that some people with schizoid personality features may occasionally experience instances of brief reactive psychosis when under stress.
Substance use disorder
Very little data exists for rates of substance use disorder among people with SPD, but existing studies suggest they are less likely to have substance abuse problems than the general population. One study found that significantly fewer boys with SPD had alcohol problems than a control group of non-schizoids. Another study evaluating personality disorder profiles in substance abusers found that substance abusers who showed schizoid symptoms were more likely to abuse one substance rather than many, in contrast to other personality disorders such as borderline, antisocial or histrionic, which were more likely to abuse many.
American psychotherapist Sharon Ekleberry states that the impoverished social connections experienced by people with SPD limit their exposure to the drug culture and that they have limited inclination to learn how to do illegal drugs. Describing them as "highly resistant to influence", she additionally states that even if they could access illegal drugs, they would be disinclined to use them in public or social settings, and because they would be more likely to use alcohol or cannabis alone than for social disinhibition, they would not be particularly vulnerable to negative consequences in early use.
Suicide
Suicide may be a running theme for schizoid individuals, in part due to the knowledge of the large-scale ostracism that would result if their idiosyncratic views were revealed and their experience that most, if not all people, are unrelatable or have polar opposite reactions to them on societally sensitive issues, though they are not likely to actually attempt it. They might be down and depressed when all possible connections have been cut off, but as long as there is some relationship or even hope for one the risk will be low. The idea of suicide is a driving force against the person's schizoid defenses. As Klein says: "For some schizoid patients, its presence is like a faint, barely discernible background noise, and rarely reaches a level that breaks into consciousness. For others, it is an ominous presence, an emotional sword of Damocles. In any case, it is an underlying dread that they all experience." Often among people with SPD, there is a rationally grounded and reasoned position on why they want to die, and this "suicidal construct" takes a stable position in the mind. Demonstrative suicides or suicide blackmail, as seen in cluster B personality disorders such as borderline, histrionic or antisocial, are extremely rare among schizoid individuals. Schizoids tend to hide their suicidal thoughts and intentions. A 2011 study on suicidal inpatients at a Moscow hospital found that schizoids were the least common patients, while those with cluster B personality disorders were the most common.
Asperger syndrome
Several studies have reported an overlap or comorbidity with the autism spectrum disorder Asperger syndrome. Asperger syndrome had traditionally been called "schizoid disorder of childhood", and Eugen Bleuler coined both the terms "autism" and "schizoid" to describe withdrawal to an internal fantasy, against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance. In a 2012 study of a sample of 54 young adults with Asperger syndrome, it was found that 26% of them also met criteria for SPD, the highest comorbidity out of any personality disorder in the sample (the other comorbidities were 19% for obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, 13% for avoidant personality disorder and one female with schizotypal personality disorder). Additionally, twice as many men with Asperger syndrome met criteria for SPD than women. While 41% of the whole sample were unemployed with no occupation, this rose to 62% for the Asperger's and SPD comorbid group. Tantam suggested that Asperger syndrome may confer an increased risk of developing SPD. A 2019 study found that 54% of a group of males aged 11 to 25 with Asperger syndrome showed significant SPD traits, with 6% meeting full diagnostic criteria for SPD, compared to 0% of a control.
In the 2012 study, it was noted that the DSM may complicate diagnosis by requiring the exclusion of a pervasive developmental disorder (PDD) before establishing a diagnosis of SPD. The study found that social interaction impairments, stereotyped behaviours and specific interests were more severe in the individuals with Asperger syndrome also fulfilling SPD criteria, against the notion that social interaction skills are unimpaired in SPD. The authors believe that substantial subgroup of people with autism spectrum disorder or PDD have clear "schizoid traits" and correspond largely to the "loners" in Lorna Wing's classification The autism spectrum (Lancet 1997), described by Sula Wolff. The authors of the 2019 study hypothesised that it is extremely likely that historic cohorts of adults diagnosed with SPD either also had childhood-onset autistic syndromes or were misdiagnosed. They stressed that further research to clarify overlap and distinctions between these two syndromes was strongly warranted, especially given that high-functioning autism spectrum disorders are now recognised in around 1% of the population.
Low weight
A study which looked at the body mass index (BMI) of a sample of both male adolescents diagnosed with SPD and those diagnosed with Asperger syndrome found that the BMI of all patients was significantly below normal. Clinical records indicated abnormal eating behaviour by some patients. Some patients would only eat when alone and refused to eat out. Restrictive diets and fears of disease were also found. It was suggested that the anhedonia of SPD may also cover eating, leading schizoid individuals to not enjoy it. Alternatively, it was suggested that schizoid individuals may not feel hunger as strongly as others or not respond to it, a certain withdrawal "from themselves".
Anti-social conduct
Another study looked at rates of anti-social conduct in boys with either schizoid personality disorder or Asperger syndrome compared with a control group of non-schizoid individuals and found the incidence of anti-social conduct to be the same in both groups. However, the schizoid boys stole significantly less. Upon follow-up in adulthood, out of a matched group of 19 boys with SPD and 19 boys without, four of the schizoid boys reported having exclusively internal violent fantasies (concerned with Zulu wars, abattoirs, fascists and communists and a collection of knives, respectively), which were pursued entirely by themselves, while the only non-schizoid subject to report a violent fantasy life shared his with a group of young men (dressing up and riding motorcycles as a self-styled "panzer" group).
An absent parent or socio-economic disadvantage did not seem to affect the risk of anti-social conduct in schizoid individuals as much as it did in non-schizoid individuals. Absent parents and parental socio-economic disadvantage were also less common in the schizoid group.
Controversy
The original concept of the schizoid character developed by Ernst Kretschmer in the 1920s comprised an amalgamation of avoidant, schizotypal and schizoid traits. It was not until 1980 and the work of Theodore Millon that led to splitting this concept into three personality disorders (now schizoid, schizotypal and avoidant). This caused debate about whether this was accurate or if these traits were different expressions of a single personality disorder.
A 2012 article suggested that two different disorders may better represent SPD: one affect-constricted disorder (belonging to schizotypal PD) and a seclusive disorder (belonging to avoidant PD). They called for the replacement of the SPD category from future editions of the DSM by a dimensional model which would allow for the description of schizoid traits on an individual basis.
Some critics such as Nancy McWilliams of Rutgers University and Parpottas Panagiotis of European University Cyprus argue that the definition of SPD is flawed due to cultural bias and that it does not constitute a mental disorder but simply an avoidant attachment style requiring more distant emotional proximity. If that is true, then many of the more problematic reactions these individuals show in social situations may be partly accounted for by the judgements commonly imposed on people with this style. However, impairment is mandatory for any behaviour to be diagnosed as a personality disorder. SPD seems to satisfy this criterion because it is linked to negative outcomes. These include a significantly compromised quality of life, reduced overall functioning even after 15 years and one of the lowest levels of "life success" of all personality disorders (measured as "status, wealth and successful relationships"). However, determination of what qualify as "impairments" or as "negative outcomes" is itself potentially subject to cultural bias. People with SPD may not regard a lack of social-status or successful relationships, for example, as a harm. Furthermore, correlation with negative outcomes does not necessarily demonstrate that these outcomes were directly caused by the schizoidal traits. Rather, it may be that these outcomes are the result of discrimination against people with SPD, who may be viewed as abnormal.
Treatment
People with schizoid personality disorder rarely seek treatment for their condition. This is an issue found in many personality disorders, which prevents many people who are afflicted with these conditions from coming forward for treatment: they tend to view their condition as not conflicting with their self-image and their abnormal perceptions and behaviors as rational and appropriate. There are little data on the effectiveness of various treatments on this personality disorder because it is seldom seen in clinical settings. However, those in treatment have the option of medication and psychotherapy.
Medication
No medications are indicated for directly treating schizoid personality disorder, but certain medications may reduce the symptoms of SPD as well as treat co-occurring mental disorders. The symptoms of SPD mirror the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, such as anhedonia, blunted affect and low energy, and SPD is thought to be part of the "schizophrenic spectrum" of disorders, which also includes the schizotypal and paranoid personality disorders, and may benefit from the medications indicated for schizophrenia. Originally, low doses of atypical antipsychotics like risperidone or olanzapine were used to alleviate social deficits and blunted affect. However, a 2012 review concluded that atypical antipsychotics were ineffective for treating personality disorders.
In contrast, the substituted amphetamine bupropion may be used to treat anhedonia. Likewise, modafinil may be effective in treating some of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia, which are reflected in the symptomatology of SPD and therefore may help as well. Lamotrigine, SSRIs, TCAs, MAOIs and hydroxyzine may help counter social anxiety in people with SPD if present, though social anxiety may not be a main concern for the people who have SPD. However, it is not general practice to treat SPD with medications, other than for the short-term treatment of acute co-occurring axis I conditions (e.g. depression).
Psychotherapy
Despite the relative emotional comfort, psychoanalytic therapy of schizoid individuals takes a long time and causes many difficulties. Schizoids are generally poorly involved in psychotherapy due to difficulties in establishing empathic relations with a psychotherapist and low motivation for treatment.
Supportive psychotherapy is used in an inpatient or outpatient setting by a trained professional that focuses on areas such as coping skills, improvement of social skills and social interactions, communication and self-esteem issues. People with SPD may also have a perceptual tendency to miss subtle differences in expression. That causes an inability to pick up hints from the environment because social cues from others that might normally provoke an emotional response are not perceived. That in turn limits their own emotional experience. The perception of varied events only increases their fear for intimacy and limits them in their interpersonal relationships. Their aloofness may limit their opportunities to refine the social skills and behavior necessary to effectively pursue relationships.
Besides psychodynamic therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) can be used. But because CBT generally begins with identifying the automatic thoughts, one should be aware of the potential hazards that can happen when working with schizoid patients. People with SPD seem to be distinguished from those with other personality disorders in that they often report having few or no automatic thoughts at all. That poverty of thought may have to do with their apathetic lifestyle. But another possible explanation could be the paucity of emotion many schizoids display, which would influence their thought patterns as well.
Socialization groups may help people with SPD. Educational strategies in which people who have SPD identify their positive and negative emotions also may be effective. Such identification helps them to learn about their own emotions and the emotions they draw out from others and to feel the common emotions with other people with whom they relate. This can help people with SPD create empathy with the outside world.
Shorter-term treatment
The concept of "closer compromise" means that the schizoid patient may be encouraged to experience intermediate positions between the extremes of emotional closeness and permanent exile. A lack of injections of interpersonal reality causes an impoverishment in which the schizoid individual's self-image becomes increasingly empty and volatilized and leads the individual to feel unreal. To create a more adaptive and self-enriching interaction with others in which one "feels real", the patient is encouraged to take risks through greater connection, communication and sharing of ideas, feelings and actions. Closer compromise means that while the patient's vulnerability to anxieties is not overcome, it is modified and managed more adaptively. Here, the therapist repeatedly conveys to the patient that anxiety is inevitable but manageable, without any illusion that the vulnerability to such anxiety can be permanently dispensed with. The limiting factor is the point at which the dangers of intimacy become overwhelming and the patient must again retreat.
Klein suggests that patients must take the responsibility to place themselves at risk and to take the initiative for following through with treatment suggestions in their personal lives. It is emphasized that these are the therapist's impressions and that he or she is not reading the patient's mind or imposing an agenda but is simply stating a position that is an extension of the patient's therapeutic wish. Finally, the therapist directs attention to the need to employ these actions outside of the therapeutic setting.
Longer-term therapy
Klein suggests that "working through" is the second longer-term tier of psychotherapeutic work with schizoid patients. Its goals are to change fundamentally the old ways of feeling and thinking and to rid oneself of the vulnerability to those emotions associated with old feelings and thoughts. A new therapeutic operation of "remembering with feeling" that draws on D. W. Winnicott's concepts of false self and true self is called for. The patient must remember with feeling the emergence of his or her false self through childhood and remember the conditions and proscriptions that were imposed on the individual's freedom to experience the self in company with others.
Remembering with feeling ultimately leads the patient to understand that he or she had no opportunity to choose from a selection of possible ways of experiencing the self and of relating with others and had few, if any, options other than to develop a schizoid stance toward others. The false self was simply the best way in which the patient could experience the repetitive predictable acknowledgement, affirmation and approval necessary for emotional survival while warding off the effects associated with the abandonment depression.
If the goal of shorter-term therapy is for patients to understand that they are not the way they appear to be and can act differently, then the longer-term goal of working through is for patients to understand who and what they are as human beings, what they truly are like and what they truly contain. The goal of working through is not achieved by the patient's sudden discovery of a hidden, fully formed talented and creative self living inside, but is a process of slowly freeing oneself from the confinement of abandonment depression in order to uncover a potential. It is a process of experimentation with the spontaneous, nonreactive elements that can be experienced in relationship with others.
Working through abandonment depression is a complicated, lengthy and conflicted process that can be an enormously painful experience in terms of what is remembered and what must be felt. It involves mourning and grieving for the loss of the illusion that the patient had adequate support for the emergence of the real self. There is also a mourning for the loss of an identity, the false self, which the person constructed and with which he or she has negotiated much of his or her life. The dismantling of the false self requires relinquishing the only way that the patient has ever known of how to interact with others. This interaction was better than not to have a stable, organized experience of the self, no matter how false, defensive or destructive that identity may be.
The dismantling of the false self "leaves the impaired real self with the opportunity to convert its potential and its possibilities into actualities." Working through brings unique rewards, of which the most important element is the growing realization that the individual has a fundamental, internal need for relatedness that may be expressed in a variety of ways. "Only schizoid patients", suggests Klein, "who have worked through the abandonment depression ... ultimately will believe that the capacity for relatedness and the wish for relatedness are woven into the structure of their beings, that they are truly part of who the patients are and what they contain as human beings. It is this sense that finally allows the schizoid patient to feel the most intimate sense of being connected with humanity more generally, and with another person more personally. For the schizoid patient, this degree of certainty is the most gratifying revelation, and a profound new organizer of the self experience."
Development and course
SPD can be first apparent in childhood and adolescence with solitariness, poor peer relationships and underachievement in school. This may mark these children as different and make them subject to teasing.
Being a personality disorder, which is usually chronic and long-lasting mental conditions, schizoid personality disorder is not expected to improve with time without treatment; however, much remains unknown because it is rarely encountered in clinical settings.
Epidemiology
SPD is uncommon in clinical settings (about 2.2%) and occurs more commonly in males. It is rare compared with other personality disorders, with a prevalence estimated at less than 1% of the general population.
Philip Manfield suggests that the "schizoid condition", which roughly includes the DSM schizoid, avoidant and schizotypal personality disorders, is represented by "as many as forty percent of all personality disorders." Manfield adds "This huge discrepancy [from the ten percent reported by therapists for the condition] is probably largely because someone with a schizoid disorder is less likely to seek treatment than someone with other axis-II disorders."
A 2008 study assessing personality and mood disorder prevalence among homeless people at New York City drop-in centres reported an SPD rate of 65% among this sample. The study did not assess homeless people who did not show up at drop-in centres, and the rates of most other personality and mood disorders within the drop-in centres was lower than that of SPD. The authors noted the limitations of the study, including the higher male-to-female ratio in the sample and the absence of subjects outside the support system or receiving other support (e.g., shelters) as well as the absence of subjects in geographical settings outside New York City, a large city often considered a magnet for disenfranchised people.
A University of Colorado Colorado Springs study comparing personality disorders and Myers–Briggs Type Indicator types found that the disorder had a significant correlation with the Introverted (I) and Thinking (T) preferences.
History
The term "schizoid" was coined in 1908 by Eugen Bleuler to designate a human tendency to direct attention toward one's inner life and away from the external world, a concept akin to introversion in that it was not viewed in terms of psychopathology. Bleuler labeled the exaggeration of this tendency the "schizoid personality". He described these personalities as "comfortably dull and at the same time sensitive, people who in a narrow manner pursue vague purposes".
In 1910, August Hoch introduced a very similar concept called the "shut-in" personality. Characteristics of it were reticence, seclusiveness, shyness and a preference for living in fantasy worlds, among others. In 1925, Russian psychiatrist Grunja Sukhareva described a "schizoid psychopathy" in a group of children, resembling today's SPD and Asperger's. About a decade later Pyotr Gannushkin also included Schizoids and Dreamers in his detailed typology of personality types.
Studies on the schizoid personality have developed along two distinct paths. The "descriptive psychiatry" tradition focuses on overtly observable, behavioral and describable symptoms and finds its clearest exposition in the DSM-5. The dynamic psychiatry tradition includes the exploration of covert or unconscious motivations and character structure as elaborated by classic psychoanalysis and object-relations theory.
The descriptive tradition began in 1925 with the description of observable schizoid behaviors by Ernst Kretschmer. He organized those into three groups of characteristics:
Unsociability, quietness, reservedness, seriousness and eccentricity.
Timidity, shyness with feelings, sensitivity, nervousness, excitability, fondness of nature and books.
Pliability, kindliness, honesty, indifference, silence and cold emotional attitudes.
These characteristics were the precursors of the DSM-III division of the schizoid character into three distinct personality disorders: schizotypal, avoidant and schizoid. Kretschmer himself, however, did not conceive of separating these behaviors to the point of radical isolation but considered them to be simultaneously present as varying potentials in schizoid individuals. For Kretschmer, the majority of schizoids are not either oversensitive or cold, but they are oversensitive and cold "at the same time" in quite different relative proportions, with a tendency to move along these dimensions from one behavior to the other.
The second path, that of dynamic psychiatry, began in 1924 with observations by Eugen Bleuler, who observed that the schizoid person and schizoid pathology were not things to be set apart. Ronald Fairbairn's seminal work on the schizoid personality, from which most of what is known today about schizoid phenomena is derived, was presented in 1940. Here, Fairbairn delineated four central schizoid themes:
The need to regulate interpersonal distance as a central focus of concern.
The ability to mobilize self-preservative defenses and self-reliance.
A pervasive tension between the anxiety-laden need for attachment and the defensive need for distance that manifests in observable behavior as indifference.
An overvaluation of the inner world at the expense of the outer world.
Following Fairbairn, the dynamic psychiatry tradition has continued to produce rich explorations on the schizoid character, most notably from writers Nannarello (1953), Laing (1965), Winnicott (1965), Guntrip (1969), Khan (1974), Akhtar (1987), Seinfeld (1991), Manfield (1992) and Klein (1995).
See also
Counterphobic attitude
Dissociation (psychology)
Hermit
Hikikomori
Recluse
Schizothymia
Schizotypy
Sluggish cognitive tempo
References
External links
The biological foundations of the schizoid process
NY Times article "Like a Fish Needs a Bicycle: For Some People, Intimacy Is Toxic"
Psychology Today (2017): The Disappearance of the Schizoid Personality
Cluster A personality disorders
Schizophrenia | [
0.12316906452178955,
0.398512601852417,
-0.7863511443138123,
0.028860723599791527,
-0.4180186986923218,
0.052923984825611115,
1.129468560218811,
0.6224126219749451,
-0.14635306596755981,
-0.43063193559646606,
-0.262750506401062,
-0.1754816472530365,
-0.5555191040039062,
0.35667097568511963,
0.04678964242339134,
0.714630126953125,
0.757401704788208,
0.7065993547439575,
-0.3663187325000763,
0.13219118118286133,
-0.6413031816482544,
-0.5726141333580017,
0.024563368409872055,
-0.5101366639137268,
0.025683743879199028,
-0.011088546365499496,
0.2787250578403473,
-0.08923555165529251,
0.05770912766456604,
-0.44061145186424255,
-0.10130594670772552,
0.5228157639503479,
0.4019952416419983,
-0.1575668901205063,
-0.02056131139397621,
0.4780050814151764,
-0.6267175674438477,
-0.4383600354194641,
-0.10108762979507446,
-0.4269143342971802,
-0.13684231042861938,
-0.30172502994537354,
-0.05312959849834442,
0.5688923597335815,
-0.13415397703647614,
-0.13310526311397552,
-1.555356740951538,
0.4260876774787903,
-0.32307687401771545,
-0.058700792491436005,
0.1612996608018875,
0.7300069332122803,
1.2023152112960815,
0.3075837194919586,
0.08238144963979721,
0.17665645480155945,
-0.96185702085495,
-0.33798450231552124,
0.5976318120956421,
-0.11540379375219345,
0.544343888759613,
-0.12896166741847992,
0.26598164439201355,
-0.2086138278245926,
-0.25778093934059143,
0.06271503865718842,
-0.16866040229797363,
0.5453745722770691,
-0.7329705953598022,
-0.16694746911525726,
-0.4961939752101898,
-0.21771898865699768,
0.4857671558856964,
0.20398668944835663,
-0.6519462466239929,
0.2972991168498993,
0.11108656227588654,
-0.5592447519302368,
-0.07029502838850021,
-0.22702760994434357,
-0.23053716123104095,
1.1765689849853516,
0.37546029686927795,
0.37622880935668945,
0.35277876257896423,
-0.06950794160366058,
-0.4590226709842682,
1.137566089630127,
-0.41234269738197327,
0.30578407645225525,
-0.02760172076523304,
0.38610199093818665,
0.8630281686782837,
0.12639528512954712,
0.1424180418252945,
0.19325995445251465,
0.6962607502937317,
-0.0934404656291008,
0.08618035912513733,
0.2804659307003021,
0.7329440116882324,
0.7595476508140564,
0.23676930367946625,
-0.30312052369117737,
0.3356122076511383,
-0.40978845953941345,
0.18040210008621216,
-0.6165746450424194,
-0.36775702238082886,
-0.45607131719589233,
-1.3806325197219849,
0.4535519480705261,
-0.4780060648918152,
-0.3713831603527069,
-0.9000282287597656,
0.39431747794151306,
0.025871198624372482,
0.1712464690208435,
-0.16831102967262268,
-0.45173513889312744,
-0.3562013506889343,
-0.48434534668922424,
-0.49480265378952026,
-0.022935574874281883,
-0.6228736042976379,
0.35569965839385986,
-0.23001965880393982,
0.26689794659614563,
0.10762783139944077,
0.08235577493906021,
0.09701583534479141,
0.4879629909992218,
-0.1606249362230301,
-0.1850191056728363,
0.22526253759860992,
-0.14034323394298553,
0.7125573754310608,
0.15050417184829712,
0.4403146207332611,
0.22623072564601898,
-0.49512800574302673,
-0.8775792717933655,
-0.7568018436431885,
-0.013490834273397923,
0.31265372037887573,
-0.10037171095609665,
0.29478251934051514,
0.12971282005310059,
-0.2100946009159088,
-0.4244025945663452,
-0.21455144882202148,
-0.15118448436260223,
-0.12646348774433136,
0.009726375341415405,
0.00035631144419312477,
-0.2062261551618576,
-0.15537750720977783,
-0.5311139225959778,
0.6963439583778381,
0.15654908120632172,
0.23164838552474976,
-0.14793601632118225,
-0.6365127563476562,
0.08982677757740021,
0.5361511707305908,
-0.19624164700508118,
-0.04257848486304283,
0.135310098528862,
-0.20296701788902283,
0.8381515741348267,
-0.48564451932907104,
0.3693438768386841,
0.1971001774072647,
-0.5078878998756409,
0.25870224833488464,
0.060783129185438156,
-0.06754496693611145,
0.24110113084316254,
0.35152819752693176,
-0.20471782982349396,
-0.5795289278030396,
-0.09689468890428543,
0.4365275800228119,
-0.8313000798225403,
0.14195142686367035,
-0.36018192768096924,
0.5021237134933472,
-0.14712107181549072,
-0.44423869252204895,
-0.3421437442302704,
-0.6871339678764343,
-0.7076507806777954,
0.5482752919197083,
0.2506183683872223,
1.6217106580734253,
-0.6854522228240967,
-0.8076293468475342,
0.414438396692276,
0.6647272706031799,
0.18613439798355103,
-0.009456549771130085,
-0.7077268958091736,
0.04491005465388298,
0.29597529768943787,
-0.8759771585464478,
-0.19332580268383026,
-0.09188780933618546,
-0.28178268671035767,
-0.2696649432182312,
-0.054136861115694046,
0.10990854352712631,
-1.0699392557144165,
0.19601057469844818,
-0.08956651389598846,
-0.11612387746572495,
-0.017235534265637398,
-0.47891080379486084,
0.34997332096099854,
-0.8431165814399719,
-0.28277337551116943,
0.45078781247138977,
-0.5964300632476807,
-0.515507161617279,
0.9199621677398682,
0.0636792927980423,
0.5835092067718506,
0.670339822769165,
-0.14799737930297852,
1.3991550207138062,
-0.7178327441215515,
0.22772060334682465,
0.47895196080207825,
0.1892252117395401,
-0.6689185500144958,
-0.19506646692752838,
0.3346129357814789,
0.12357909232378006,
-0.6800808906555176,
-0.28425872325897217,
-0.8975826501846313,
-0.03238866478204727,
-0.11386343836784363,
-0.5965194702148438,
0.17066000401973724,
0.40582799911499023,
-0.41211679577827454,
-0.264900803565979,
0.8507741093635559,
-1.2843679189682007,
0.16753754019737244,
-0.1493891179561615,
0.9646025896072388,
0.5456317067146301,
-1.0376447439193726,
0.16953808069229126,
0.23613819479942322,
0.5235581398010254,
-0.2586720287799835,
-0.3585852086544037,
-0.6756722331047058,
-0.7446377873420715,
0.615521252155304,
-0.13326658308506012,
-0.011024841107428074,
-0.25595879554748535,
-0.6876955628395081,
0.14979784190654755,
-0.17587372660636902,
0.6196584701538086,
-0.053423020988702774,
1.3413153886795044,
-0.5359863042831421,
-0.8064692616462708,
0.07369273900985718,
-0.7429413199424744,
-0.6879023909568787,
-0.10443554818630219,
-0.0007103004609234631,
-0.5134821534156799,
0.4034181833267212,
0.33607354760169983,
0.8816693425178528,
0.34264904260635376,
-0.037968460470438004,
-0.3322894871234894,
-0.35062721371650696,
-0.010690263472497463,
-0.11007034033536911,
-0.01737336441874504,
-0.7426565289497375,
-0.3499947786331177,
0.5294742584228516,
-0.08585033565759659,
0.3933296203613281,
0.10483758896589279,
0.11942888051271439,
0.4005793631076813,
0.4146842956542969,
0.3302021622657776,
-0.19891947507858276,
0.014153310097754002,
0.18361124396324158,
-0.4423469305038452,
-0.15301886200904846,
0.12099473923444748,
0.20727942883968353,
-0.21647822856903076,
0.03627564758062363,
-4.821721076965332,
-0.029789408668875694,
-0.3356185555458069,
-0.42799845337867737,
0.30552205443382263,
0.5064634680747986,
1.0435839891433716,
-0.35987627506256104,
-0.7954179048538208,
0.09661202132701874,
-0.6304405927658081,
0.2876233160495758,
-0.012209161184728146,
0.21710246801376343,
0.026653656736016273,
-0.008433974348008633,
-0.10694105923175812,
-0.5147075653076172,
0.03002672828733921,
0.21617306768894196,
-0.250156044960022,
0.8229145407676697,
-0.45354047417640686,
0.6736385226249695,
-0.14038124680519104,
0.48260682821273804,
0.21912966668605804,
-0.1667901873588562,
-0.9799332618713379,
-0.12291952222585678,
0.30133068561553955,
-0.5291610956192017,
-0.20035797357559204,
-0.3163093030452728,
-0.28577423095703125,
0.5236959457397461,
0.41011539101600647,
0.40286391973495483,
-0.4911991059780121,
-0.6548680663108826,
-0.7324304580688477,
0.02502237819135189,
-0.2228720337152481,
0.39203357696533203,
0.9952551126480103,
0.5917335152626038,
-0.22784283757209778,
-0.7503276467323303,
-0.4966089427471161,
0.7585337162017822,
-0.05708543583750725,
-0.17926476895809174,
0.09352128952741623,
0.6055887937545776,
0.1742045283317566,
-0.05149279534816742,
0.5109376907348633,
-0.6608182191848755,
-0.3512178361415863,
0.09809359163045883,
0.5258685350418091,
0.12259642779827118,
-0.2856699824333191,
-0.7063434720039368,
0.119614377617836,
-0.07901027798652649,
-0.30477264523506165,
-0.20852982997894287,
0.7910374999046326,
-0.1172180026769638,
0.234633207321167,
0.3049928843975067,
0.29139798879623413,
-0.8973473310470581,
0.5179283618927002,
-0.5162841081619263,
-0.26964592933654785,
-0.1649162322282791,
0.18800300359725952,
0.12443161010742188,
-0.2595710754394531,
0.18682678043842316,
-0.4539373219013214,
0.04158826172351837,
0.37633174657821655,
-0.819983184337616,
-0.015629807487130165,
0.8295457363128662,
-0.6185494065284729,
0.1585758626461029,
0.25179237127304077,
0.4405525028705597,
0.6366676092147827,
0.3217923045158386,
0.04392344504594803,
1.4917622804641724,
0.5626341700553894,
0.7946547865867615,
0.7325692176818848,
-0.48750993609428406,
0.3563469648361206,
-0.5498450994491577,
-0.12093748152256012,
-0.2545226216316223,
-0.34013935923576355,
-0.22428077459335327,
-0.3385050296783447,
0.44920963048934937,
0.6346268057823181,
-0.3621111214160919,
0.49746933579444885,
-0.18538907170295715,
-0.6754680275917053,
-0.7669447660446167,
0.695096492767334,
0.032681211829185486,
-0.5606157183647156,
1.1770589351654053,
0.6520233154296875,
-0.10033177584409714,
0.10047196596860886,
0.6221309900283813,
-0.39007699489593506,
-0.10895489901304245,
-0.20383213460445404,
-0.027353845536708832,
0.108381487429142,
0.05130751430988312,
-0.2773202061653137,
0.07297501713037491,
0.3214552402496338,
0.21085552871227264,
0.13282541930675507,
0.22349533438682556,
-0.3142971694469452,
-0.766732931137085,
-0.217160165309906,
0.5308896899223328,
-0.344699501991272,
-1.001246690750122,
0.10558933764696121,
0.05380963906645775,
-0.4156368672847748,
0.40106815099716187,
0.6753058433532715,
-0.18264511227607727,
-0.29062438011169434,
-0.10927838087081909,
-0.28963160514831543,
0.3651629388332367,
0.22186672687530518,
-0.33891794085502625,
-0.41250374913215637,
-0.14038580656051636,
-0.34481778740882874,
0.2327273041009903,
0.21339114010334015,
0.1947256326675415,
0.3664340674877167,
-0.286154180765152,
-0.3660634160041809,
-0.6148119568824768,
-1.1396745443344116,
-0.214628666639328,
-0.015113686211407185,
-0.0695597231388092,
-0.4498584568500519,
-1.0552566051483154,
-0.18521475791931152,
0.6063616871833801,
-0.7055062055587769,
0.02434205636382103,
-0.15185271203517914,
-0.26831185817718506,
0.67128586769104,
-0.25560083985328674,
-0.4167051613330841,
0.13786226511001587,
-0.004728489555418491,
0.21659673750400543,
-0.6712753772735596,
-0.29672810435295105,
-0.2610360085964203,
0.5919599533081055,
0.6725426316261292,
0.26689034700393677,
0.08190777897834778,
0.21476225554943085,
-0.34256482124328613,
-0.054480504244565964,
0.3323498070240021,
0.11042168736457825,
0.11623074114322662,
0.42692840099334717,
-0.3446984887123108,
0.3415764570236206,
-0.11915692687034607,
0.4206247925758362,
0.46223247051239014,
-0.45928823947906494,
0.1578022688627243,
0.5602309703826904,
-0.20622168481349945,
0.3314536213874817,
1.5780731439590454,
-0.7527187466621399,
0.2117670476436615,
-0.18448670208454132,
-0.9441204071044922,
0.37436798214912415,
-0.3988268971443176,
-0.5173967480659485,
-0.47083479166030884,
0.20004799962043762,
-0.5473207235336304,
0.07085214555263519,
0.15298376977443695,
-1.1067899465560913,
-0.40377163887023926,
0.14325840771198273,
0.2004537433385849,
0.3129419982433319,
-0.38095712661743164,
-0.4310053884983063,
-0.9933956265449524,
-0.4653744697570801,
0.3177635371685028,
-0.3189794421195984,
1.002353549003601,
0.12582223117351532,
-0.24764683842658997,
0.3204609751701355,
0.2029844969511032,
-0.46206504106521606,
-0.3588425815105438,
-0.8712826371192932,
0.13110870122909546,
0.39295268058776855,
0.4237859547138214,
0.0530959852039814,
0.5920186638832092,
0.6583764553070068,
0.17227119207382202,
-0.8030163049697876,
-0.0013348186621442437,
-0.3465476334095001,
0.5963726043701172,
-0.8144553303718567,
-0.4523719251155853,
0.21518376469612122,
0.3886912167072296,
0.040048811584711075,
-0.6202993988990784,
-0.3087661862373352,
1.0457347631454468,
0.17192448675632477,
0.045501142740249634,
-1.0533027648925781,
0.13269725441932678,
-0.1712012141942978,
-0.051215071231126785,
-0.0642840787768364,
0.19714142382144928,
0.8345495462417603,
0.04636240378022194,
-0.2875328063964844,
0.15323375165462494,
0.08458639681339264,
0.7056761384010315,
-1.0593265295028687,
0.17825199663639069,
-0.14397834241390228,
0.5547074675559998,
0.10068842768669128,
-0.27221837639808655,
0.07822316884994507,
0.06956572085618973,
-0.8276870846748352,
-0.10842621326446533,
0.4093915522098541,
0.3931516408920288,
-0.13993507623672485,
0.20267586410045624,
-0.4082856774330139,
0.8173093795776367,
-0.8544727563858032,
-0.21193446218967438,
-0.7063164710998535,
-0.6447358131408691,
-0.39304685592651367,
-0.36864861845970154,
-0.13477842509746552,
-0.2547500729560852,
0.5280381441116333,
-0.07757621258497238,
0.19209259748458862,
-0.11897648870944977,
-0.28646180033683777,
-0.2596014440059662,
0.04654214158654213,
-0.5161823630332947,
0.35439518094062805,
0.0005415386985987425,
-0.5915386080741882,
0.46060287952423096,
0.08243628591299057,
-0.27269425988197327,
-0.7674829363822937,
0.2079288214445114,
0.33649495244026184,
0.20490874350070953,
-0.22882534563541412,
0.6872607469558716,
0.9281817078590393,
-0.2775295674800873,
0.5400255918502808,
0.3670816719532013,
-0.067263163626194,
0.5888888835906982,
0.3289683759212494,
0.42487165331840515,
0.057750605046749115,
0.8230137825012207,
-0.2772376537322998,
0.3766045868396759,
0.48016953468322754,
0.0641673356294632,
0.24146004021167755,
0.9565800428390503,
0.7136853337287903,
1.0050146579742432,
0.3571561872959137,
-0.32427334785461426,
0.9547510147094727,
0.14674870669841766,
-0.13107755780220032,
0.2847484350204468,
-0.12465338408946991,
-0.7498252987861633,
0.33263328671455383,
0.26214680075645447,
-0.09316350519657135,
0.3359464406967163,
0.5875679850578308,
-0.13434533774852753,
0.8763871788978577,
-0.16169358789920807,
0.6111125349998474,
-0.06573783606290817,
-0.6554766297340393,
0.8322847485542297,
-0.3130929172039032,
0.1560591161251068,
-0.15782663226127625,
0.2848207652568817,
-0.2854328751564026,
0.45964160561561584,
-0.4537295699119568,
-0.8847988843917847,
0.026717079803347588,
-0.07119757682085037,
0.4444454312324524,
-0.13836216926574707,
0.3854333162307739,
0.30480948090553284,
-0.4917754828929901,
0.2988061308860779,
-0.32541197538375854,
0.283135324716568,
0.3484942317008972,
0.26259273290634155,
0.14977502822875977,
-0.022267429158091545,
0.27431005239486694,
0.5614266395568848,
-0.43029922246932983,
0.4400283992290497,
0.5801091194152832,
-0.08332473784685135,
-0.41395649313926697,
-0.1942358911037445,
-0.07814627885818481,
-0.7865918874740601,
-0.5419117212295532,
0.453585147857666,
-0.12457596510648727,
-0.0913451537489891,
0.43427151441574097,
0.2884792685508728,
0.20894308388233185,
0.0062060607597231865,
0.019644025713205338,
0.40341565012931824,
-0.29932981729507446,
0.3277053236961365,
0.4575628638267517,
-0.31800219416618347,
0.40756526589393616,
0.21718430519104004,
-0.3458327054977417,
0.02646004967391491,
0.11067138612270355,
-0.3134065568447113,
0.1904931366443634,
-1.0831594467163086,
0.5546423196792603,
-0.2816876471042633,
-0.21726395189762115,
-1.3357232809066772,
0.37086209654808044,
0.3177073299884796,
0.21750608086585999,
0.1243910938501358,
1.230566382408142,
0.12420190125703812,
0.7883808612823486,
1.005672574043274,
-0.3613959550857544,
-0.5247949361801147,
-0.595156729221344,
0.8099479675292969,
-0.00905577838420868,
0.9533335566520691,
0.1834724247455597,
-0.6472883224487305,
0.2338007390499115,
0.5945009589195251,
-0.6986539959907532,
-0.16832798719406128,
-0.13935309648513794,
-0.5293135046958923,
0.6892554759979248,
0.1193174347281456,
0.6695973873138428,
-0.5224441289901733,
-0.4177989959716797,
0.6502022743225098,
0.45034676790237427,
0.02114168368279934,
0.06734981387853622,
-0.014822820201516151,
-0.9113708138465881,
0.16252772510051727,
-0.02364882081747055,
-0.22696474194526672,
0.06778720021247864,
-0.6278418898582458,
-0.5274366736412048,
-0.2189747393131256,
-0.32245054841041565,
0.31107965111732483,
-0.46314704418182373,
-0.6410043835639954,
-0.10535094141960144,
-0.2992059886455536,
0.2982259690761566,
-0.17702366411685944,
-0.614424467086792,
-0.32281529903411865,
0.18910889327526093
] |
229070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooks%27s%20law | Brooks's law | Brooks's law is an observation about software project management according to which "adding manpower to a late software project makes it later". It was coined by Fred Brooks in his 1975 book The Mythical Man-Month. According to Brooks, under certain conditions, an incremental person when added to a project makes it take more, not less time.
Explanations
According to Brooks himself, the law is an "outrageous oversimplification", but it captures the general rule. Brooks points to the main factors that explain why it works this way:
It takes some time for the people added to a project to become productive. Brooks calls this the "ramp up" time. Software projects are complex engineering endeavors, and new workers on the project must first become educated about the work that has preceded them; this education requires diverting resources already working on the project, temporarily diminishing their productivity while the new workers are not yet contributing meaningfully. Each new worker also needs to integrate with a team composed of several engineers who must educate the new worker in their area of expertise in the code base, day by day. In addition to reducing the contribution of experienced workers (because of the need to train), new workers may even make negative contributions, for example, if they introduce bugs that move the project further from completion.
Communication overhead increases as the number of people increases. Due to combinatorial explosion, the number of different communication channels increases rapidly with the number of people. Everyone working on the same task needs to keep in sync, so as more people are added they spend more time trying to find out what everyone else is doing.
Adding more people to a highly divisible task, such as cleaning rooms in a hotel, decreases the overall task duration (up to the point where additional workers get in each other's way). However, other tasks including many specialties in software projects are less divisible; Brooks points out this limited divisibility with another example: while it takes one woman nine months to make one baby, "nine women can't make a baby in one month".
Exceptions and possible solutions
There are some key points in Brooks's law that allow exceptions and open the door for possible solutions.
The first point is to note that Brooks's law only applies to projects that are already late. Projects can be brought back into (or kept in) control if people are added earlier in the process. It is also important to determine if the project is really late, or if the schedule was originally overly optimistic. Scheduling mistakes account for a large number of late projects. Correcting the schedule is the best way to have a meaningful and reliable time frame for the project's completion.
The quantity, quality and role of the people added to the project also must be taken into consideration. One simple way to circumvent the law on an overrun project is to add more people than needed, in such a way that the extra capacity compensates the training and communication overhead. Good programmers or specialists can be added with less overhead for training. People can be added to do other tasks related with the project, for example, quality assurance or documentation; given that the task is clear, ramp up time is minimized.
Good segmentation helps by minimizing the communication overhead between team members. Smaller sub-problems are solved by a smaller team, and a top-level team is responsible for systems integration. For this method to work, the segmentation of the problem must be done correctly in the first place; if done incorrectly, this can make the problem worse, not better, by impeding communication between programmers working on parts of the problem which are actually closely coupled, even when the project plan has decreed that they are not.
An example of segmentation are design patterns that simplify the distribution of work, because the entire team can do its part within the framework provided by that pattern. The design pattern defines the rules that the programmers follow, simplifies communication through the use of a standard language, and provides consistency and scalability.
The Bermuda plan, where most developers on a project are removed ("sent to Bermuda") and the remaining are left to complete the software, has been suggested as a way of circumventing Brooks’s law.
See also
Death march
Anti-pattern
Linus's law
List of eponymous laws
List of software development philosophies
Notes
References
Steve McConnell. "Brooks' Law Repealed," IEEE Software, vol. 16, no. 6, pp. 6–8, Nov/Dec, 1999. Also available at the authors website (Brooks's law repealed?).
Pei Hsia, Chih-tung Hsu, David C. Kung. "Brooks's law Revisited: A System Dynamics Approach," compsac, p. 370, Twenty-Third Annual International Computer Software and Applications Conference, 1999.
R. L. Gordon and J. C. Lamb. "A Close Look at Brooks' Law," Datamation, June 977, pp. 81–86.
Brooks law Is Applicable To Many Collaborative People Activities
Adages
Computer architecture statements
Computing culture
Software project management
1975 neologisms
Collaboration
Waste of resources | [
0.1280277520418167,
0.33087000250816345,
-0.3119295537471771,
-0.009211362339556217,
0.6394011378288269,
0.2890389859676361,
0.4522750973701477,
-0.24372628331184387,
-0.052636753767728806,
0.1755591332912445,
-0.4470406770706177,
0.6724468469619751,
-0.09524449706077576,
0.7064560055732727,
-0.3047558665275574,
0.3596688210964203,
0.546231746673584,
0.01570109836757183,
-0.08469987660646439,
-0.3855248987674713,
0.03379780426621437,
0.3081860840320587,
0.7483844757080078,
-0.3052327036857605,
-0.14451871812343597,
-0.3057197034358978,
-0.2280423492193222,
0.08919093757867813,
-0.027861854061484337,
0.38729870319366455,
-0.08890227228403091,
0.10753381252288818,
0.12896257638931274,
-0.12264347821474075,
0.22287213802337646,
0.11566026508808136,
0.23554551601409912,
-0.0445830337703228,
-0.19524605572223663,
-0.3762257695198059,
0.01586863398551941,
0.016902536153793335,
-0.06041310727596283,
-0.1726449429988861,
-0.18266598880290985,
-0.0006178477196954191,
-2.3982603549957275,
-0.5729632377624512,
-0.3223028779029846,
-0.48623013496398926,
-0.32584816217422485,
0.37232908606529236,
0.02956007421016693,
0.1165618747472763,
-0.2060970813035965,
0.7136145830154419,
-0.4674849808216095,
-0.38662877678871155,
0.30042925477027893,
-0.29808905720710754,
0.9677553176879883,
-0.34109970927238464,
0.10106906294822693,
0.50834721326828,
0.048945676535367966,
0.42292365431785583,
-0.22492049634456635,
0.3410564661026001,
-0.33271706104278564,
0.01125999167561531,
-0.5821212530136108,
-0.39779382944107056,
-0.14269065856933594,
0.011719735339283943,
-0.6025256514549255,
0.3204282224178314,
0.28499501943588257,
-0.05902674049139023,
0.5441520810127258,
-0.14987802505493164,
0.10654599219560623,
0.5771711468696594,
0.2620092034339905,
-0.02791963890194893,
0.4738120436668396,
0.1250804215669632,
-0.7084847092628479,
0.25622236728668213,
-0.0018176442245021462,
0.6282698512077332,
-0.2470380812883377,
-0.09521713107824326,
0.41254734992980957,
0.5030287504196167,
-0.3035165071487427,
0.10700288414955139,
0.08941065520048141,
-0.07938501238822937,
0.010650379583239555,
0.6071879863739014,
-0.20276840031147003,
0.10433214157819748,
0.24317926168441772,
0.16741740703582764,
0.6704590916633606,
-0.38508838415145874,
0.07590721547603607,
-0.39193490147590637,
-0.4571346342563629,
-1.2115871906280518,
-0.7359188199043274,
0.1003386452794075,
0.21119989454746246,
0.21498748660087585,
-0.33436065912246704,
0.30571460723876953,
0.22961005568504333,
0.13698029518127441,
0.04121875762939453,
0.3039512634277344,
0.04901920631527901,
0.24505385756492615,
-0.026977116242051125,
0.056318528950214386,
-0.2615821659564972,
-0.08040127903223038,
0.33145007491111755,
0.8823933005332947,
-0.5895605087280273,
-0.021590037271380424,
-0.04317565634846687,
0.4548121690750122,
0.27068892121315,
-0.021739063784480095,
-0.09943996369838715,
-0.12787745893001556,
0.16300475597381592,
0.14688840508460999,
-0.22692595422267914,
0.07237052917480469,
-0.1320040374994278,
-0.49972662329673767,
-1.0875226259231567,
-0.05705922469496727,
0.36506980657577515,
-0.09447822719812393,
0.3099350929260254,
-0.0940985232591629,
0.14545492827892303,
0.152401864528656,
-0.12268215417861938,
0.43080198764801025,
-0.7306175827980042,
0.4062545895576477,
0.04989583045244217,
0.22087052464485168,
0.3826671540737152,
-0.5770213603973389,
-0.28428101539611816,
0.40415605902671814,
-0.09813649952411652,
0.03423585370182991,
-0.17692403495311737,
-0.2604200541973114,
-0.0666339322924614,
-0.578982949256897,
0.43584510684013367,
-0.34826499223709106,
0.32631242275238037,
0.6370163559913635,
-0.4420681297779083,
0.06681837141513824,
0.12980732321739197,
-0.38435524702072144,
0.30776268243789673,
0.30128592252731323,
0.5647823810577393,
0.168275386095047,
0.6409032940864563,
-0.018494751304388046,
-0.46189355850219727,
0.04755716025829315,
0.2560334801673889,
0.09611792117357254,
0.2145528942346573,
-0.36134541034698486,
0.22347047924995422,
-0.43380698561668396,
0.022100837901234627,
-0.5980589389801025,
-0.3537389039993286,
-0.4488949477672577,
0.6825485825538635,
-0.5150592923164368,
0.7169544100761414,
0.19389788806438446,
-0.008009341545403004,
0.4725940525531769,
0.08328539878129959,
0.40787285566329956,
0.12617413699626923,
-0.2293454110622406,
-0.6159808039665222,
0.059247493743896484,
-0.6865903735160828,
1.3996844291687012,
0.24096150696277618,
-0.038792189210653305,
-0.32829394936561584,
0.7321619987487793,
0.40676888823509216,
-0.3189445436000824,
0.35153335332870483,
-0.554104745388031,
0.004110244568437338,
0.28297412395477295,
-0.22659362852573395,
0.13214734196662903,
0.32420849800109863,
-0.1005127802491188,
0.5165124535560608,
0.15605278313159943,
0.21245354413986206,
0.7875545024871826,
0.4298577606678009,
0.10340846329927444,
0.5429657697677612,
0.16931916773319244,
0.5099722743034363,
-1.0918244123458862,
0.023927316069602966,
0.33936575055122375,
0.10303687304258347,
-0.15892893075942993,
0.10000216215848923,
-0.14707162976264954,
-0.45180195569992065,
-0.11360552161931992,
-0.3965001702308655,
-0.37613794207572937,
0.14584168791770935,
0.38212308287620544,
-0.37007638812065125,
0.3466133773326874,
-0.27602094411849976,
-0.062336161732673645,
-0.4383922815322876,
-0.014449657872319221,
-0.29376694560050964,
0.021201295778155327,
0.281891405582428,
0.5961707830429077,
0.366188108921051,
-0.543976902961731,
-0.5123273730278015,
0.04921364411711693,
-0.40325918793678284,
0.3032020926475525,
-0.07036420702934265,
-0.3987690508365631,
-0.1851092278957367,
0.11703061312437057,
0.0018851780332624912,
-0.09823482483625412,
-0.029517073184251785,
-0.3289282023906708,
-0.5337761640548706,
-0.24749675393104553,
0.05167283117771149,
0.18467335402965546,
0.22753912210464478,
-0.08922678977251053,
-0.565244197845459,
-1.1657594442367554,
-0.8107959032058716,
-0.48306211829185486,
0.37842753529548645,
0.4986603558063507,
-0.7431885004043579,
-0.3044095039367676,
0.17207136750221252,
0.9140594005584717,
0.1536615490913391,
-0.6206531524658203,
-0.261933833360672,
-0.3716135621070862,
0.03349097818136215,
-0.09177831560373306,
0.2521221339702606,
-0.06683177500963211,
-0.5072930455207825,
-0.06333743780851364,
-0.27677658200263977,
-0.3777031898498535,
0.39776700735092163,
0.5660025477409363,
-0.5353469848632812,
-0.17643676698207855,
0.05182896926999092,
-0.6259979605674744,
-0.3468625545501709,
0.36749985814094543,
-0.002815958810970187,
-0.18207715451717377,
0.08776482194662094,
0.24334774911403656,
-0.17614471912384033,
0.4417895972728729,
-5.53779935836792,
0.22659674286842346,
-0.19242209196090698,
-0.28070542216300964,
0.49569061398506165,
0.16193082928657532,
0.5086942911148071,
0.06813222169876099,
-0.06265103071928024,
-0.16012144088745117,
-0.358933687210083,
-0.4464524984359741,
-0.11152580380439758,
0.5670126676559448,
0.32540181279182434,
-0.22628970444202423,
0.6037095189094543,
-0.3865511417388916,
0.5417038798332214,
0.26399004459381104,
-0.23059219121932983,
-0.17360135912895203,
-0.24495604634284973,
0.31129446625709534,
-0.28801172971725464,
0.3846382796764374,
-0.6553975343704224,
0.4537509083747864,
-0.807769238948822,
0.3123628795146942,
-0.05753377079963684,
-0.057939670979976654,
-0.8497132062911987,
-0.015828508883714676,
-0.17585647106170654,
0.395860880613327,
0.5982580184936523,
-0.3964676558971405,
-0.013120717369019985,
0.16092249751091003,
-0.24964529275894165,
0.6051787734031677,
-0.27051371335983276,
0.22144141793251038,
0.250193327665329,
-0.18522429466247559,
-0.49232763051986694,
-0.007727686781436205,
-0.49556565284729004,
0.1705274134874344,
-0.5032245516777039,
0.3589698076248169,
0.4462513029575348,
0.22268632054328918,
0.0687435120344162,
-0.491739422082901,
0.4240633547306061,
-0.5849584937095642,
0.11037695407867432,
0.3761502206325531,
0.5863949656486511,
-0.6924986243247986,
0.7119078040122986,
-0.39907893538475037,
-0.20449404418468475,
-0.7041195631027222,
0.12216616421937943,
-0.2773759067058563,
0.24705758690834045,
0.15031611919403076,
-0.10080446302890778,
0.7454195022583008,
0.01883545145392418,
-1.442791223526001,
-0.14150255918502808,
0.18081636726856232,
-0.21334737539291382,
0.47868117690086365,
0.3064800500869751,
0.01620687171816826,
0.656161367893219,
-0.19057777523994446,
-0.49087008833885193,
0.26940491795539856,
0.076268769800663,
-0.07122289389371872,
-0.01634937897324562,
0.8032351732254028,
-0.2565789222717285,
0.30784568190574646,
0.08469855785369873,
0.24424444139003754,
0.6208263635635376,
0.004603566601872444,
0.11528652906417847,
0.43838655948638916,
-0.03469568490982056,
-0.07154899835586548,
0.13579726219177246,
0.006632721982896328,
0.09303804486989975,
-0.5357146263122559,
-0.34520888328552246,
-0.6249831318855286,
-0.13999418914318085,
-0.4796658754348755,
-0.4680781066417694,
0.5653871297836304,
0.08868476748466492,
0.10620074719190598,
0.13341756165027618,
0.5446275472640991,
-0.7337205410003662,
-0.10397140681743622,
0.6168049573898315,
0.14654794335365295,
-0.6459295749664307,
0.05732305347919464,
0.4558693468570709,
0.17936038970947266,
-0.07659393548965454,
0.09279578179121017,
-0.13634729385375977,
-0.47649770975112915,
-0.076687753200531,
-0.6217873692512512,
0.26654642820358276,
0.0098110968247056,
0.17385391891002655,
0.28523966670036316,
-0.3428204357624054,
0.6480247378349304,
-0.0340326763689518,
-0.31116369366645813,
-0.2381201535463333,
-0.7000111937522888,
0.10831569880247116,
0.357452929019928,
-0.4374690055847168,
-0.39290130138397217,
0.3517266511917114,
0.20194819569587708,
0.27443575859069824,
-0.10300758481025696,
0.9604407548904419,
0.07355263084173203,
0.06867507845163345,
0.04287321865558624,
-0.4430187940597534,
0.6137968301773071,
-0.20020624995231628,
-0.6480574607849121,
0.7339428663253784,
-0.5417745113372803,
0.10000596940517426,
-0.17870335280895233,
0.23454713821411133,
0.18707729876041412,
-0.041959840804338455,
-0.062454987317323685,
0.1431611329317093,
-0.2834251821041107,
-1.2824257612228394,
-0.5136622786521912,
-0.04375051334500313,
0.21327881515026093,
-0.6364734768867493,
-0.32179614901542664,
-0.4409705698490143,
0.902597963809967,
-0.2207890897989273,
-0.2816115617752075,
-0.27382805943489075,
-0.2883480489253998,
0.5920585989952087,
-0.3552413880825043,
0.023862352594733238,
0.05949961394071579,
-0.05101839452981949,
-0.4076991081237793,
0.1992272585630417,
-0.4258972108364105,
-0.6612727642059326,
0.6322287917137146,
0.326945960521698,
-0.6805219650268555,
-0.01645049639046192,
-0.18511226773262024,
-0.878494918346405,
-0.43573883175849915,
-0.18872223794460297,
-0.03074304759502411,
0.38502416014671326,
0.3518062233924866,
0.10163295269012451,
-0.2941804826259613,
0.16861063241958618,
0.396854430437088,
-0.4411551356315613,
-0.7146518230438232,
0.29534614086151123,
0.5513890981674194,
-0.36805641651153564,
0.6078038811683655,
0.7158193588256836,
-0.7795017957687378,
-0.1864420771598816,
-0.1360597461462021,
-0.5086327791213989,
0.5639616250991821,
-0.05871610715985298,
-0.3587258756160736,
-0.4646925926208496,
0.0875517949461937,
-0.34266117215156555,
-0.5564786195755005,
0.3145410418510437,
-0.0357881598174572,
-0.42309674620628357,
-0.10264287889003754,
0.4409749507904053,
-0.5424627065658569,
-0.4617290496826172,
-0.3356877565383911,
-0.4699828028678894,
0.08447366207838058,
0.19003182649612427,
-0.1755339503288269,
0.9693198800086975,
-0.18431754410266876,
-0.3799982964992523,
-0.4467509388923645,
0.1259206086397171,
0.11394733190536499,
-0.20285889506340027,
-0.29768455028533936,
-0.273489773273468,
1.0756852626800537,
-0.4339625835418701,
-0.4177536368370056,
-0.09911968559026718,
1.1155002117156982,
0.4940323829650879,
-0.35671737790107727,
-0.2424587458372116,
-0.19725401699543,
0.5043495297431946,
-0.3334902226924896,
-0.30734798312187195,
0.4915296733379364,
0.2199098914861679,
0.014485836029052734,
-0.4169574975967407,
0.21791894733905792,
0.20924367010593414,
-0.22066248953342438,
-0.012261562049388885,
-0.5174925327301025,
0.3098940849304199,
0.6986233592033386,
-0.18446868658065796,
-0.337700754404068,
-0.5011533498764038,
-0.12613481283187866,
-0.04266858100891113,
0.5303417444229126,
0.06143071874976158,
-0.004124478902667761,
0.39837220311164856,
-0.8712501525878906,
-0.03685430809855461,
-0.7796210646629333,
-0.29610952734947205,
0.37314748764038086,
0.39949679374694824,
0.1142197698354721,
0.10763676464557648,
0.25942280888557434,
0.038333479315042496,
0.10671587288379669,
0.31876635551452637,
0.17851299047470093,
0.18377439677715302,
-0.5493438243865967,
0.44336050748825073,
-0.2985587418079376,
0.6044842004776001,
-0.05588413029909134,
-0.3784119188785553,
0.16206245124340057,
-0.7030256986618042,
0.366276353597641,
0.04076987877488136,
0.35592883825302124,
-0.40435945987701416,
-0.10953269153833389,
0.3745052218437195,
0.06746046245098114,
0.12157943099737167,
0.06775648891925812,
-0.11641164869070053,
0.41386157274246216,
0.020501555874943733,
-0.1760275959968567,
-0.034717775881290436,
-0.17934583127498627,
-0.1850138157606125,
-0.44808754324913025,
-0.1438286006450653,
-0.248302161693573,
-0.06685205549001694,
0.5895529389381409,
0.1541713923215866,
0.7336127161979675,
-0.03301774337887764,
-0.3476564884185791,
0.3782826364040375,
-0.37727707624435425,
-0.13786643743515015,
0.35468265414237976,
-0.36170393228530884,
-0.3054894208908081,
0.7422962784767151,
-0.7479588985443115,
0.002954971045255661,
0.7727645039558411,
-0.18578191101551056,
0.3695426285266876,
0.009325587190687656,
0.29671710729599,
0.4901016652584076,
0.15096530318260193,
-0.01749706082046032,
0.7879857420921326,
-0.15221314132213593,
0.11350194364786148,
0.5649311542510986,
-1.0616623163223267,
0.19306722283363342,
0.19391505420207977,
0.629203736782074,
0.7746497392654419,
0.3684152066707611,
0.1489780843257904,
0.05755101516842842,
-0.0983991026878357,
0.5065006017684937,
-0.016228605061769485,
-0.1815221607685089,
0.33023062348365784,
-0.12409480661153793,
-0.011706162244081497,
0.403653621673584,
-0.2879317104816437,
0.5031482577323914,
-0.6623474359512329,
0.05883606895804405,
0.08518203347921371,
0.042174600064754486,
-1.100870966911316,
0.07226036489009857,
-0.07445523142814636,
-0.15283353626728058,
-0.04261249676346779,
0.09065014868974686,
-0.09352952986955643,
0.6401321887969971,
-0.2721826136112213,
0.12555892765522003,
0.16950687766075134,
0.2589207589626312,
0.1654459536075592,
0.3837207853794098,
0.34130293130874634,
0.44569218158721924,
-0.06167956814169884,
0.7839022874832153,
0.1521470546722412,
0.1410851627588272,
-0.004119278863072395,
0.40340226888656616,
0.24898061156272888,
-0.31309688091278076,
0.1131097674369812,
-0.19938679039478302,
0.013857240788638592,
0.08900603652000427,
1.1273216009140015,
-0.15831243991851807,
0.04008075222373009,
-0.12817493081092834,
0.03864546865224838,
-0.329635351896286,
0.28996971249580383,
-0.32362571358680725,
0.5445363521575928,
-0.7358410954475403,
0.7316792011260986,
0.35939738154411316,
0.41075700521469116,
-0.2795731723308563,
-0.25316542387008667,
-0.1422538310289383,
0.2933834493160248,
0.03924236446619034,
0.007800276391208172,
-0.03706994280219078,
0.6392134428024292,
-0.28433990478515625,
0.627155065536499,
0.4195840060710907,
0.0834667831659317,
-0.06539556384086609,
0.6450984477996826,
0.09083329886198044,
-0.055079080164432526,
0.6097038388252258,
-0.6156886219978333,
0.12064816057682037,
-0.34184813499450684,
0.05636700987815857,
-0.05320703238248825,
0.21726582944393158,
0.21849477291107178,
-0.5541460514068604,
-0.2459254115819931,
0.2283441424369812,
-0.20302057266235352,
0.340657114982605,
0.2368127405643463,
-0.3152443766593933,
0.08100485056638718,
-0.2822924256324768,
0.3232535719871521,
-0.13605456054210663,
-0.6302350163459778,
0.21403011679649353,
0.5941453576087952,
0.5792213678359985,
-0.04225701466202736,
0.2040351778268814,
-0.19621622562408447,
-0.3319244384765625,
0.257720023393631,
-2.7963130474090576,
0.44918426871299744,
-0.3677076995372772,
-0.3959674537181854,
0.35162362456321716,
0.09639593958854675,
-0.021939188241958618,
0.006605764850974083,
-0.22746777534484863,
-0.574664294719696,
-0.2148735076189041,
-0.1106233149766922,
0.03179885074496269,
-0.7116268873214722,
-0.013087473809719086,
0.3521168828010559
] |
229071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Look-alike | Look-alike | A look-alike, double, or doppelgänger is a person who bears a strong physical resemblance to another person, excluding cases like twins and other instances of family resemblance.
Some look-alikes have been notable individuals in their own right, such as Britain's King George V and Russia's Tsar Nicholas II, who bore a striking resemblance to each other (they were first cousins). Other notable look-alikes have been notable solely for resembling well-known individuals, such as Clifton James, who acted as a double for British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery during World War II.
Some look-alikes who have resembled celebrities have worked as entertainers, impersonating them on stage and screen, or at venues like parties and corporate functions. Professional look-alikes have often been represented by talent agencies specializing in celebrity impersonators.
Close physical resemblance between two or more individuals is also a common plot point in works of fiction.
Notable look-alikes
Cousins, Britain's King George V (1865–1936) and Russia's Tsar Nicholas II (1868–1918), shared an uncanny resemblance. Their facial features were only different up close (especially the eyes). At George's wedding in 1893, according to The Times of London, the crowd may have confused Nicholas with George, because their beards and dress made them look alike.
Mikheil Gelovani, a Georgian actor and Joseph Stalin look-alike, played the Soviet leader in propaganda films of the 1930s and 1940s.
In 1944, shortly before D-Day, M. E. Clifton James, who bore a close resemblance to Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery, was sent to Gibraltar and North Africa, in order to deceive the Germans about the location of the upcoming invasion. This story was the subject of a book and film, I Was Monty's Double.
A notable conspiracy theory holds that Paul McCartney died in 1966 and was replaced by a Canadian policeman named William Shears Campbell.
In the 1970s, actor-comedian Richard M. Dixon (born James LaRoe), look-alike to then-President Richard Nixon, gained some celebrity, portraying the president in the films, Richard (1972) and The Faking of the President (1976). He also appeared in director Woody Allen's initially unreleased short film Men of Crisis: The Harvey Wallinger Story (1971).
Jeannette Charles has, since the early 1970s, worked as a look-alike to Britain's Queen Elizabeth II.
British stuntman Vic Armstrong acted as Harrison Ford's body double in all the films of the original Indiana Jones trilogy. Reportedly, Armstrong looked so much like Harrison Ford that the crewmembers on set were constantly mistaking him for Ford.
Saddam Hussein allegedly employed several look-alikes for political purposes during his Iraq reign. According to a CBS 60 Minutes segment in late January 2008, Saddam Hussein denied to an American interrogator that he had employed doubles.
The BBC comedy programme Doubletake made extensive use of look-alikes playing their doubles in apparently embarrassing situations, seen through CCTV cameras and amateur video, using distance shots and shaky camera-work to disguise the true identity of those being filmed. Due to the nature of this programme and conditions of filming, many of the world's most authentic lookalikes boycotted the project leaving the producer to rely on the careful use of soft focus, lighting and carefully positioned camera angles to make the mainly amateur lookalikes resemble the characters they portrayed.
Armando Iannucci's Friday Night Armistice (1996–98) featured "the bus of Dianas", a bus full of Princess Diana look-alikes which was dispatched to "care" at the sites of various minor tragedies.
Steve Sires, a look-alike of Microsoft's Bill Gates, came to attention when he attempted to trademark "Microsortof", and subsequently acted in Microsoft commercials. He appeared as Gates in the films Nothing So Strange (2002) and The Social Network (2010).
UK Celebrity Big Brother contestant Chantelle Houghton worked briefly and unsuccessfully for a look-alike agency as a Paris Hilton look-alike, earning the nickname "Paris Travelodge". By the time Chantelle Houghton won series 4 of Celebrity Big Brother, the same agency had already signed up a professional model who made a more convincing Paris Hilton look-alike... and who was briefly also offered as a fake "Chantelle".
UK Richard and Judy ran a competition for Little Britain Lookalikes in 2005. After the live final broadcast on Friday, 28 January 2005, on Channel Four, two winning contestants, Gavin Pomfret and Stuart Morrison, formed a Little Britain tribute act called "Littler Britain."
Dolly Parton has stated that she lost a 'Dolly Parton Look-Alike Contest'.
In 2008 a friend pointed out to Bronx native Louis Ortiz his striking resemblance to then-presidential-candidate Barack Obama. Ortiz, initially as a money-making venture, sought gigs as an Obama impersonator. Ryan Murdock is making a documentary film about his experiences, The Audacity of Louis Ortiz.
Two of the Parti Québécois's candidates: Bertrand St-Arnaud and Bernard Drainville
Larissa Tudor looked strikingly similar to former Grand Duchess Tatiana of Russia. Larissa's background was sketchy and included a lot of irregularities. After her death in 1926 it was rumored that she was the former grand duchess. When author Occleshaw wrote a book about Larissa 60 years after her death, those who had known her identified a picture of the former Grand Duchess Tatiana as being Larissa.
Howard X is a professional impersonator who looks like the North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un.
Former basketball player Andrew Bynum has famously been compared to actor Tracy Morgan
Fictional look-alikes
Literature
In Edgar Allan Poe's short story "William Wilson" (1839), a man is followed by his double.
In Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novella The Double (1846), an insecure, gauche government clerk in St. Petersburg, Russia, Yakov Pyotrovich Golyadkin, psychotically encounters a double of himself who looks identical to him but has all the charm, unctuousness, and social skills that he himself lacks.
Alexandre Dumas, père's, The Man in the Iron Mask (1850—the third part of Dumas' novel, The Vicomte de Bragelonne) involves King Louis XIV of France and the King's identical twin.
In Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities (1859), two characters, Charles Darnay and Sydney Carton, bear an uncanny resemblance to one another.
In The Woman in White (1859), by Wilkie Collins, the protagonist meets two women, Anne Catherick and Laura Fairlie, who strongly resemble one another. (See also Wilkie Collins' The Woman in White in "Illegitimacy in fiction: Victorian".)
In Mark Twain's first historical fiction (1882), the novel The Prince and the Pauper, Prince Edward, son of Henry VIII of England, and his pauper look-alike, Tom Canty, trade places.
In Anthony Hope's novel The Prisoner of Zenda (1894), a man impersonates a king he closely resembles, after the king is abducted on the eve of his coronation.
Bolesław Prus' historical novel Pharaoh (1895) features several cases of look-alikes. The characters include the Haranian Phut (aka the Chaldean priest Berossus) and his look-alike (chapter 20), and the protagonist Ramses and his look-alike and nemesis, Lykon. Also, chapter 33 makes reference to look-alikes of an earlier pharaoh, Ramses the Great.
Georg Kaiser's 1917 play The Coral depicts a powerful industrialist whose male secretary is his exact double. The secretary's duties include impersonating his employer at public functions. Other employees can tell the two men apart only by the fact that the secretary always wears a coral watch-fob.
The Living and the Dead, 1954 novel by collaborators Boileau-Narcejac, on which Alfred Hitchcock based his 1958 film Vertigo.
In Robert Heinlein's novel Double Star (1956), actor Lawrence Smith is approached to impersonate prominent politician John Joseph Bonforte, who has been kidnapped, despite his antipathy toward Bonforte's policies. In studying the man to perfect his imposture, Smith eventually comes to admire Bonforte. He continues this performance through an election and, when Bonforte dies, the subsequent tenure in office as "Supreme Minister." This story parallels that of the film Dave, but in this case when the actual politician dies, and Bonforte's staff begins to suggest shifts in policy contrary to Bonforte's beliefs, Smith refuses to submit to their desires, removes them from their positions, and continues in the role for the rest of his life, in honor of Bonforte's legacy.
In Daphne du Maurier's novel The Scapegoat (1957), an Englishman meets his double, a French aristocrat, while visiting France, and is forced into changing places with him, finding himself caught up in all the intrigues and passions of his double's complex family.
In Richard Powell's novel Don Quixote, U.S.A. (1966), Arthur Peabody Goodpasture, an inept Peace Corps volunteer and the spitting image of El Gavilan, a revolutionary leader in the fictional Republic of San Marco in South America, is forced to assume the identity of El Gavilan after the original is kidnapped and taken to the Soviet Union when El Gavilan's plot to have Goodpasture abducted by the Russians goes wrong.
In Jack Higgins's 1975 novel The Eagle Has Landed, Nazi German paratroopers attempt to abduct British Prime Minister Winston Churchill from an English village he is visiting. It subsequently transpires that the actual Churchill had been elsewhere while a political decoy visited the village.
"The Leader and the Damned" (1983) by Colin Forbes is a secret history thriller whose plot is based on the assumption that Adolf Hitler was assassinated in 1943, a bomb completely destroying his body. The Nazi hierarchy kept this as a top secret and got a double to impersonate Hitler, and it was this double who led Nazi Germany until its final demise in 1945.
In Clive Cussler's 1984 novel Deep Six, a double is used after the U.S. president is kidnapped by Korean and Soviet agents.
In David Lodge's 1984 novel Small World, the protagonist keeps running into two women, Angelica and Lily, who are identical twin sisters with confusingly different personalities.
Christopher Priest's novel The Prestige (1995) features two rival magicians, one of whom uses his twin brother as a double in a disappearing-and-reappearing act.
In Neil Gaiman's novel Coraline (2002) the heroine meets up with improved look-alikes of her parents and all her neighbors when she enters the Other Mother's world.
José Saramago's 2002 novel The Double traces the intertwining lives of a history teacher and his bit-actor identical double, one of whom ends up dead while the other ends up living with the other's widow.
In Christopher Golden's novel Dead Ringers (2015) the main characters find themselves invaded by people exactly like them, but "better" or with malicious intent.
In Britain's Private Eye magazine, a long-running satirical feature of the letters section intentionally reversed the captions on look-alike photographs.
In A.M. Kherbash's novel Lesath (2019) the protagonist is mistaken for an escaped inmate and is incarcerated in a remote facility.
Film
The Woman in White (1912), adapted from the Wilkie Collins novel The Woman in White, was followed by 1917, 1929, and 1948 film versions.
In the 1918 lost film To Hell with the Kaiser!, Lawrence Grant plays both Kaiser Wilhelm and his double Robert Graubel.
Charles Dickens' novel A Tale of Two Cities (see "Literature", above) has been produced as three film versions between 1911 and 1958, as well as television and stage adaptations.
Anthony Hope's novel The Prisoner of Zenda (see "Literature", above) has been the basis for many film and stage adaptations, the first film version being in 1913; the best-known film version is John Cromwell's 1937 film.
Mark Twain's novel The Prince and the Pauper (see "Literature", above) has been the basis for many film and stage adaptations, the earliest film version being in 1920.
Alexandre Dumas, père's, The Man in the Iron Mask (see "Literature", above) has been adapted into eight film versions between 1929 and 1998.
The Student of Prague (1926): Balduin is followed by his double after making a deal with the devil.
The 1932 musical film The Phantom President depicts a man who is eminently qualified to be President of the United States but who is unlikely to be elected because he is dull and lacks charisma. Fortunately, he has an exact double: a patent-medicine salesman and vaudeville hoofer who is a charismatic campaigner but has no actual political qualifications. The film cynically suggests that most American voters would prefer the latter to the former. Both roles are played by legendary song-and-dance man George M. Cohan.
The 1940 comedy film The Great Dictator was Charlie Chaplin's first talkie and his most commercially successful film. Chaplin plays both "Adenoid Hynkel" (a satirized Adolf Hitler) and a Jewish barber who is Hynkel's spitting image. The barber eventually replaces Hynkel, who has been arrested after having been mistaken for the barber. On nationwide radio the barber, impersonating the dictator, declares in a great rousing speech an end to anti-semitism and a return to democracy.
In The Strange Death of Adolf Hitler (1943), directed by James P. Hogan and starring Ludwig Donath, a man plans to murder Adolf Hitler and steal his identity.
Angel on My Shoulder (1946): The Devil persuades a deceased gangster, played by Paul Muni, to let his soul possess the body of an honest judge who looks exactly like the gangster and who is causing the Devil distress with his honesty.
The Magic Face (1951): Adolf Hitler is killed by his valet and double, Rudi Janus, who takes his place.
Vertigo (1958), a classic American film noir psychological thriller directed and produced by Alfred Hitchcock. The story was based on the 1954 novel D'entre les morts (From Among the Dead) by Boileau-Narcejac.
The Square Peg (1959): Norman Wisdom plays road repairer Norman Pitkin, who is called up for the army and sent to Nazi-occupied France, and also Pitkin's exact double, General Schreiber.
The Scapegoat (1959): Alec Guinness plays both a French aristocrat and the English schoolteacher who is maneuvered into taking his place so the Frenchman can have an alibi for a murder.
In the James Bond film Thunderball (1965), French NATO pilot François Derval is murdered by Angelo, a SPECTRE henchman who has been surgically altered to match Derval's appearance. Angelo then takes Derval's place aboard, and seizes, a NATO plane loaded with two atom bombs.
Pharaoh (1966), directed by Jerzy Kawalerowicz, is adapted from Bolesław Prus' historical novel Pharaoh (see "Literature", above).
In The Double Man (1967) an American CIA agent (Yul Brynner) is lured to Austria, so that an East German lookalike can take his place.
In the Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer film Where Eagles Dare (1968), set in the winter of 1943–44, a U.S. Army Brigadier General George Carnaby (Robert Beatty), who is a chief planner for the Western Front, is captured by the Germans. He is taken for interrogation to a mountaintop fortress and needs to be rescued by a team of Allied commandos before the Germans realize that he is in fact an impostor, a lookalike U.S. corporal named Cartwright Jones.
Love and Death: 1975 Woody Allen satire on 19th-century Russian novels, set during the 1812 French invasion of Russia. A coward, Boris Grushenko (Allen), and his wife Sonja (Diane Keaton) decide to assassinate Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte. A double of the Emperor is killed, and Allen's character is executed.
In The Eagle Has Landed (1976), based on Jack Higgins's novel, German paratroopers attempt in 1943 to abduct Prime Minister Winston Churchill from an English village. It is revealed that it is actually a political decoy who visits the village and is assassinated.
In Foul Play (1978), starring Goldie Hawn and Chevy Chase, the twin of an American archbishop kills the archbishop, impersonates him, and plots to assassinate a fictitious Pope Pius XIII.
Akira Kurosawa's Kagemusha (1980): the warlord Takeda Shingen (1521–73) is sometimes impersonated by his brother Nobukado. Nobukado saves a thief who is to be executed, because the man bears an astonishing resemblance to Shingen. The thief becomes a kagemusha (shadow warrior) and learns the role of daimyō Shingen, who is subsequently killed by an enemy sniper. The false identity of the kagemusha is revealed when he is unable to ride Lord Shingen's favorite horse; but in the final battle at Nagashino the kagemusha accepts his role and fights as the last man holding the banner of the Takeda clan.
In a feature-length episode of the British sitcom Only Fools and Horses entitled "Miami Twice", Derek is mistaken for a Mafia don who is his spitting image, and he is used by the Mafia in an attempt to fake the don's assassination (though several tries fail). The likeness is so uncanny that even Derek's brother Rodney is tricked. Both Derek and the don are played by David Jason.
Moon over Parador (1988): Paul Mazursky's film in which a man who is filming in a fictional country in Latin America called Parador, is forced to play the role of the country's late president, whom he closely resembles.
Dead Ringers, a 1988 psychological horror film, features Jeremy Irons in the dual role of two identical-twin gynecologists.
In Roberto Benigni's Johnny Stecchino (1991), the main character is passed off for a snitch hiding from the mob.
In Gary Ross' 1993 film Dave, an impersonator is hired by the U.S. President's chief of staff as a temporary decoy.
In Ringo Lam's 1996 Maximum Risk, Jean-Claude Van Damme is a French policeman who discovers that a man who has been killed by the Russian Mafia was his look-alike twin brother that he never knew he had. Tracing the dead brother's footsteps, the protagonist inadvertently "inherits" the brother's predicaments and girlfriend.
The 1999 film Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace features Queen Amidala of Naboo, whose planet is in crisis due to its illegal occupation by the Trade Federation. Near the conclusion of the film it is revealed that the "queen" (Keira Knightley) is in fact merely a handmaiden being used as a decoy, and Padmé (Natalie Portman) is the real queen, and has been posing as one of her own handmaidens. Knightley was cast in the role due to her close resemblance to Portman; even the two actresses' mothers had trouble distinguishing them in full make-up.
In the 1999 film Bowfinger the plot centers on a down-and-out filmmaker in Hollywood attempting to make a film on a small budget with a star who does not know that he is in the film, while also utilizing a lookalike of the star to shoot several scenes.
In the Hindi movie, Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai, Roshan plays two different men
The 2002 film Bubba Ho-Tep starred Bruce Campbell in the role of an elderly Elvis Presley who had traded places with an Elvis impersonator named Sebastian Haff (also played by Campbell) and now lives in a nursing home.
Sherlock Holmes and the Case of the Silk Stocking, a 2004 BBC TV film directed by Simon Cellan Jones from an original story by Allan Cubitt, features the sleuth, played by Rupert Everett, tracking down a killer of aristocratic young women. Holmes' suspect seems to have airtight alibis—until the detective deduces that the culprit has a confederate: an identical twin.
In The Prestige (2006), directed by Christopher Nolan, and adapted from the novel by Christopher Priest, two rival magicians employ doubles in their astonishing disappearing-reappearing acts.
Goal III: Taking on the World (also known as Goal III) is set during the 2006 soccer World Cup and features convincing look-alikes including Derek Williams for Sven-Goran Eriksson, Frank Lampard and others who blend the transition from archive footage of the tournament with the fictional action depicted.
Vantage Point (2008): a decoy helps protect the president from a possible assassination threat—and is shot. The film claims that "doubles have been used since Reagan."
The Devil's Double (2011) dramatised Latif Yahia's claim to have been Uday Hussein's double.
The Dictator (2012): A political satire black comedy film starring Sacha Baron Cohen both as a tyrannical yet childish despot and as a dimwitted political decoy.
Masquerade (2012): South Korean historical film starring Lee Byung-hun in dual roles as the bizarre King Gwanghae and the humble acrobat Ha-sun, who stands in for the King when he faces the threat of being poisoned.
The Scapegoat (2012) is a remake of the 1959 Alec Guinness film, starring Matthew Rhys.
Enemy (2013): a college professor discovers look-alike actor
The Lookalike (2014) follows two criminals as they attempt to find a lookalike love interest for a drug lord after the unexpected death of the girl he's actually interested in.
Television
The year after James Garner left the television series Maverick in 1959, in which he had portrayed a gambler named Bret Maverick, Warner Bros. studio hired Garner lookalike Robert Colbert to play Bret Maverick's brother Brent Maverick, who had never previously been mentioned, and dressed him in exactly the same costume.
In the ABC television series The Double Life of Henry Phyfe (1966), Red Buttons is the title character, a look-alike of a recently deceased foreign agent. A US intelligence agency recruits him to impersonate the agent on multiple occasions, on their behalf, despite his lack of intelligence-gathering skills.
In the Inspector Morse two-part episode, "The Settling of the Sun" (1988), a Japanese summer student at Oxford University, Yukio Ley, and his double become victims of murders connected with revenge for Japanese World War II atrocities.
The Lookalike (a made-for-TV thriller, 1990): A mentally disturbed woman is further tormented after discovering a girl who closely resembles her recently deceased daughter.
The CBS television series of reality specials, I Get That a Lot (2009–13), poked fun at the concept of "celebrity lookalikes", featuring celebrities appearing in everyday situations, such as working as clerks at stores. When pegged as celebrities, they would simply state some variation of the titular phrase, "I get that a lot," pretending that they were ordinary individuals who had been mistaken for celebrities.
In The CW's series The Vampire Diaries, doppelgängers were an important arc in the story. The female lead character, Elena Gilbert (Nina Dobrev), is a doppelgänger of a thousand-year old immortal named Amara, a descendant named Tatia, and an antagonistic vampire named Katherine Pierce/Katerina Petrova. Their bloodline is called the Petrova Family. The male lead character, Stefan Salvatore (Paul Wesley), is also a doppelgänger of Amara's love, Silas, the first immortal. This led to the prophecy that Elena and Stefan, as doppelgängers of the first immortals, are soulmates and are fated to be with each other.
The Woman in White: 2018 five-part BBC television adaptation of the sensation novel of the same name by Wilkie Collins. This TV production was preceded by 1966, 1982, and 1997 TV productions.
Musicals
The Woman in White, a musical by Andrew Lloyd Webber and David Zippel, with book by Charlotte Jones, was first produced in 2004, based on the novel The Woman in White, by Wilkie Collins, and on elements of The Signal-Man by Charles Dickens.
Video games
In Final Fantasy VIII, SeeD mercenaries and Forest Owls resistance fighters devise a complicated plan to kidnap the president of Galbadia Vinzer Deling, which includes switching the presidential train wagon from its tracks and replacing it with a mockup. Deling foresees the plan and sends a shapeshifter monster to take his place, who attacks the game protagonists. The monster is ultimately killed, but the plan's failure forces the Forest Owls into hiding.
In Metal Gear Solid, former drill instructor and adviser to the game's protagonist Solid Snake McDonnell Benedict Miller, better known by his nickname Master Miller is murdered before the game main events and replaced by main antagonist Liquid Snake in disguise. Liquid, as Master Miller, tricks Solid Snake into unknowingly do his bidding. The plot is discovered by Colonel Roy Campbell and his staff, who track Miller's communications and find out they are coming from Shadow Moses Island after the real Master Miller's corpse is found dead in his house.
In Call of Duty: Black Ops the first mission consists in assassinating Fidel Castro. The player succeeds, but at the end, it is revealed that the Fidel Castro he killed was actually a body double.
In Ace Attorney Investigations 2, it is revealed that the president of Zheng Fa (a fictional country) had its president killed 12 years prior. The president encountered by the protagonists in the first episode, as is not revealed until the 5th one, was ultimately a body double.
See also
Assassinations in fiction
Cosplay
List of actors who have played multiple roles in the same film
Mimicry
Simulacrum
Stand-in
Notes | [
0.3297557532787323,
0.21669329702854156,
-0.23032088577747345,
0.05060085654258728,
-0.0369424894452095,
-0.08616141229867935,
0.4615410268306732,
0.5072863698005676,
-0.19621683657169342,
-0.4311322271823883,
-0.6872443556785583,
0.18879441916942596,
-0.2233423888683319,
0.31890028715133667,
-0.38415592908859253,
0.14762558043003082,
0.16418837010860443,
1.007096290588379,
-0.4069671928882599,
-0.2679285705089569,
-0.24551965296268463,
-0.260286808013916,
-0.2523934543132782,
-0.5148668885231018,
-0.14822670817375183,
0.19477258622646332,
0.6586167812347412,
-0.1641891896724701,
0.3262248933315277,
0.024165788665413857,
0.3887864053249359,
0.4682074785232544,
-0.14227083325386047,
-0.009844236075878143,
-0.47716644406318665,
0.13880473375320435,
0.028167296200990677,
-0.20696291327476501,
0.08979388326406479,
-0.6338191032409668,
0.5721343159675598,
-0.13141566514968872,
-0.08026497066020966,
0.5671578049659729,
-0.8738524317741394,
-0.8606535792350769,
-2.216165065765381,
1.0311487913131714,
-0.4777664244174957,
-0.09576518088579178,
-0.0291383508592844,
0.15340754389762878,
0.5506665706634521,
0.8615444898605347,
0.04972418397665024,
0.8363960385322571,
-0.2936483323574066,
-0.2765868306159973,
0.2620452344417572,
-0.5146662592887878,
0.2270643264055252,
-0.20513947308063507,
0.5283622145652771,
-0.1974482387304306,
0.047090012580156326,
0.4627903699874878,
0.3297755718231201,
-0.009963396936655045,
-0.3401212990283966,
-0.7270041108131409,
-0.11034449934959412,
-0.32659846544265747,
0.2608468532562256,
0.5413013696670532,
-0.1611650139093399,
0.379268616437912,
0.07827498018741608,
-0.4594758152961731,
0.23054510354995728,
-0.2524789869785309,
-0.6413914561271667,
0.3136383593082428,
-0.07968255877494812,
0.1999703049659729,
0.45346927642822266,
-0.3206339180469513,
-0.5148808360099792,
0.6409057378768921,
-0.6853581070899963,
1.1929378509521484,
0.21901001036167145,
0.0069041927345097065,
0.24412845075130463,
0.3041396737098694,
0.3547312319278717,
0.27560219168663025,
0.5004776120185852,
-0.348811537027359,
0.17837835848331451,
0.0493299663066864,
0.09541934728622437,
-0.36146053671836853,
0.02103840745985508,
-0.9213935732841492,
-0.10273826867341995,
-0.41812893748283386,
-0.05054096132516861,
-0.22881746292114258,
-0.0010301553411409259,
-0.31126147508621216,
-0.5689418911933899,
0.5003804564476013,
-0.156471848487854,
0.4026505947113037,
-0.8102517127990723,
-0.06758198887109756,
0.17000828683376312,
0.02746858075261116,
-0.2938571274280548,
0.04437972232699394,
0.01779748685657978,
0.2079228311777115,
0.1245097666978836,
-0.811908483505249,
0.3601987957954407,
0.3358418643474579,
0.16309206187725067,
0.7893240451812744,
-0.9864151477813721,
0.03138929232954979,
0.030996402725577354,
0.6185711026191711,
-0.08424119651317596,
-0.1166720911860466,
0.2844460606575012,
-0.9614015817642212,
0.23022742569446564,
0.07525335252285004,
-0.11812449991703033,
-0.021601293236017227,
-0.4254353642463684,
-0.22778011858463287,
-0.8283329010009766,
0.17766451835632324,
0.7202774286270142,
0.013155345804989338,
0.44610485434532166,
-0.17121227085590363,
-0.16840901970863342,
-0.13536971807479858,
-0.20553326606750488,
-0.03689331188797951,
-0.3135647177696228,
-0.4208902418613434,
0.07600940018892288,
-0.06824515014886856,
0.49630501866340637,
-0.5938763618469238,
0.08078224211931229,
-0.08996468037366867,
0.34908026456832886,
0.16057486832141876,
-0.849563717842102,
-0.3073487877845764,
0.02582588791847229,
-0.15066802501678467,
-0.46735668182373047,
0.6141574382781982,
-0.1837540566921234,
0.5991538166999817,
0.22575382888317108,
0.16540546715259552,
-0.30708420276641846,
0.13271112740039825,
0.004474163055419922,
0.4671219289302826,
0.1296890377998352,
-0.3235924243927002,
0.5647952556610107,
0.08306682854890823,
-0.6629864573478699,
0.2500031292438507,
0.42764344811439514,
-0.018527299165725708,
0.08150002360343933,
0.337098628282547,
-0.05599489063024521,
0.30823689699172974,
-0.31587010622024536,
-0.17679724097251892,
-0.5335729122161865,
-0.5293922424316406,
-0.12943854928016663,
-0.8455972671508789,
0.7422244548797607,
-0.11330389976501465,
-0.6105619072914124,
1.0444830656051636,
0.025435784831643105,
0.2976769506931305,
-0.5316550135612488,
-0.019399868324398994,
0.42165279388427734,
0.3808629810810089,
-0.2843620479106903,
0.3668765723705292,
0.774206817150116,
0.12811794877052307,
-0.28103750944137573,
0.09238556027412415,
0.5979270935058594,
-0.3808870017528534,
0.3388678729534149,
0.20328091084957123,
-0.4139113128185272,
0.5735054612159729,
-0.5737665891647339,
0.267559289932251,
-0.42681819200515747,
0.2960742115974426,
0.9347051978111267,
-0.10871800035238266,
-0.5085422396659851,
-0.30674389004707336,
-0.0219974797219038,
0.8448060750961304,
0.01742360182106495,
-0.15081194043159485,
0.6155155301094055,
-0.5462071299552917,
0.11505795270204544,
0.6233065724372864,
0.5895086526870728,
0.034109778702259064,
-0.7223385572433472,
-0.09006048738956451,
0.7500892281532288,
-0.5146342515945435,
0.5248377919197083,
-0.09198920428752899,
-0.6102970838546753,
0.395306259393692,
-0.2915951609611511,
0.28087499737739563,
-0.04495241865515709,
-0.06711427122354507,
-0.035818155854940414,
0.08283925801515579,
-0.3151228725910187,
0.38324081897735596,
0.3422800600528717,
-0.08376318961381912,
0.11163834482431412,
-0.11476770788431168,
0.797480046749115,
-0.4791942238807678,
-0.08572888374328613,
0.19632579386234283,
-0.24233441054821014,
0.0820065289735794,
-0.06194810941815376,
0.024580372497439384,
0.09726791083812714,
0.056306082755327225,
-0.8642891645431519,
-0.31560832262039185,
-0.1384793221950531,
-0.013620832934975624,
0.01594194397330284,
1.120038390159607,
0.28863635659217834,
0.35505199432373047,
-0.7062304019927979,
-0.19759662449359894,
-0.19067642092704773,
-0.058247342705726624,
-0.04252045601606369,
0.22911477088928223,
0.0300460085272789,
-0.5277363657951355,
-0.18483686447143555,
0.8341110348701477,
-0.01316788699477911,
-0.6023589968681335,
-0.0749393031001091,
-0.7699493169784546,
0.24684445559978485,
-0.18451513350009918,
-0.4049575626850128,
-0.17910094559192657,
-0.22976218163967133,
0.6823540329933167,
0.3427596986293793,
-0.1254620999097824,
0.2108258157968521,
0.5949098467826843,
0.21670641005039215,
0.29847028851509094,
0.3251105844974518,
-0.34739771485328674,
-0.22548525035381317,
0.44191402196884155,
-0.39687269926071167,
-0.5913476943969727,
0.3994937837123871,
0.48520100116729736,
-0.01357071939855814,
-0.4293849468231201,
-5.698451995849609,
0.39766138792037964,
-0.2703716456890106,
-0.31998443603515625,
0.1774357110261917,
0.015058151446282864,
0.7825993895530701,
-0.10456423461437225,
-0.5492760539054871,
0.6901147365570068,
-0.054146382957696915,
-0.25864508748054504,
-0.2372615486383438,
0.08490273356437683,
0.4712331295013428,
-0.1954890340566635,
-0.2677459716796875,
0.20742157101631165,
-0.2774932086467743,
0.4664839208126068,
-0.6010279655456543,
0.07410027831792831,
-0.2247321456670761,
0.7177384495735168,
0.2306261956691742,
-0.10755404829978943,
-0.23546208441257477,
-0.5142226219177246,
-0.1568913608789444,
-0.06396733224391937,
0.5911797881126404,
0.7420790791511536,
0.02668916992843151,
0.07069678604602814,
-0.08574838936328888,
0.4534858763217926,
0.4067566990852356,
-0.3706117570400238,
0.07028236985206604,
-0.054761022329330444,
-0.0036581975873559713,
0.8799082040786743,
0.4171906113624573,
-0.18591530621051788,
0.3676546812057495,
-0.6257913112640381,
-0.33792951703071594,
-0.6055808067321777,
-0.41305312514305115,
0.03857888653874397,
-0.16766241192817688,
0.43265435099601746,
0.016464173793792725,
0.23730780184268951,
0.10793475061655045,
-0.07028856873512268,
0.30224892497062683,
0.03021147847175598,
-0.8302996158599854,
-0.22758108377456665,
0.2539282739162445,
-0.2822282910346985,
0.23609426617622375,
-0.2244497388601303,
-0.23692741990089417,
-0.24885907769203186,
-0.7210832834243774,
-0.6367300748825073,
0.7102038264274597,
-0.00229352037422359,
-0.3127965033054352,
0.44248437881469727,
-0.12973342835903168,
-0.8014040589332581,
0.23871362209320068,
-0.024976413697004318,
-0.6096359491348267,
-0.06584738194942474,
0.12977449595928192,
-0.18156561255455017,
-0.16244085133075714,
0.09558761864900589,
-0.4118039906024933,
0.4154222905635834,
0.6551464796066284,
-0.220854714512825,
-0.10329009592533112,
-0.011896991170942783,
-0.08414781093597412,
-0.2633883059024811,
0.834559440612793,
-0.028286242857575417,
0.20708367228507996,
-0.07614551484584808,
-0.40811243653297424,
0.3735034465789795,
0.059783387929201126,
0.2980648875236511,
0.5428451895713806,
-0.2630198299884796,
0.5507793426513672,
-0.129891037940979,
0.019934026524424553,
-0.08237268775701523,
0.49466362595558167,
-0.32657289505004883,
-0.028825948014855385,
0.3207707405090332,
0.8206958770751953,
0.09246999770402908,
0.04315676912665367,
-0.3168086111545563,
-0.451191246509552,
0.06444203108549118,
0.5226917862892151,
-0.17885930836200714,
0.01591583527624607,
0.6228033304214478,
0.11355243623256683,
0.22534693777561188,
0.15661868453025818,
0.21921773254871368,
-0.6784523129463196,
-0.03313310071825981,
-0.3646013140678406,
-0.6340498924255371,
-0.9291462302207947,
-0.03128935769200325,
0.12227832525968552,
0.18221569061279297,
0.12032220512628555,
0.8786303997039795,
0.24242717027664185,
-0.04720127582550049,
0.28276899456977844,
-0.2797882854938507,
-0.35065534710884094,
-0.00989087950438261,
-0.3346646726131439,
-0.9570580124855042,
0.9754810929298401,
-0.4756867587566376,
-0.47137755155563354,
0.43134453892707825,
0.40553921461105347,
-0.04482842609286308,
-0.22561851143836975,
0.08617272973060608,
-0.22014085948467255,
0.28343427181243896,
-0.5127663612365723,
-0.17561881244182587,
-0.2280602753162384,
-0.10335464030504227,
-0.11113294214010239,
0.08840829133987427,
0.586817741394043,
0.2818971574306488,
-0.22689515352249146,
-0.3424379229545593,
-0.18098947405815125,
-0.2865440845489502,
-0.32909974455833435,
0.1073729395866394,
0.3201060891151428,
0.17105485498905182,
-0.760226845741272,
-0.14299532771110535,
-0.375964879989624,
0.6628172993659973,
-0.14692409336566925,
0.0074427491053938866,
-0.35472002625465393,
-0.4774037003517151,
-0.005278439726680517,
0.4176171123981476,
-0.04956399276852608,
0.14065076410770416,
0.044918011873960495,
-0.11973942816257477,
-0.16303624212741852,
-0.10125556588172913,
-0.21040160953998566,
0.016969023272395134,
0.44180166721343994,
-0.003572076791897416,
0.06953728944063187,
0.28075549006462097,
-0.28328219056129456,
-0.5721345543861389,
0.14000500738620758,
-0.28119149804115295,
-0.07949923723936081,
0.0358506515622139,
-0.2838604152202606,
-0.3521459102630615,
-0.12842191755771637,
-0.400601863861084,
0.21013566851615906,
-0.3204245865345001,
-0.1924750655889511,
0.7578430771827698,
-0.9288468360900879,
0.02933957427740097,
0.6983616352081299,
-0.63470858335495,
0.08714111149311066,
0.052152760326862335,
-0.1231403723359108,
0.2080572247505188,
-0.5710093975067139,
-0.6131634712219238,
-0.009997718036174774,
0.07455184310674667,
0.07743942737579346,
0.5585677027702332,
0.2100820094347,
-0.40486621856689453,
0.21000069379806519,
-0.1532021164894104,
0.4930737018585205,
0.041399996727705,
-0.210530623793602,
-0.27511391043663025,
0.011976675130426884,
-0.008630388416349888,
0.486361563205719,
-0.11805673688650131,
0.432451069355011,
-0.10588884353637695,
0.07327453047037125,
0.10995558649301529,
0.2135533094406128,
-0.15712232887744904,
-0.5142715573310852,
-0.5044607520103455,
0.04975404217839241,
-0.11614332348108292,
0.8651842474937439,
-0.5432494282722473,
0.3329617381095886,
0.5817484855651855,
0.10268888622522354,
0.20010261237621307,
-0.2946399748325348,
0.3163593113422394,
0.2782590985298157,
-0.720005989074707,
-0.6025391221046448,
-0.09479393064975739,
-0.23463557660579681,
-0.6715580224990845,
-0.057537831366062164,
0.07324381172657013,
-0.3648194372653961,
0.6072238683700562,
-0.4407191872596741,
-0.20513013005256653,
-0.16262608766555786,
0.5198013186454773,
-0.14289046823978424,
-0.14135973155498505,
0.11079535633325577,
-0.4094528555870056,
-0.11120828241109848,
0.1702740639448166,
-0.014471752569079399,
0.6299472451210022,
0.30709660053253174,
0.12728926539421082,
0.6298846006393433,
0.6559642553329468,
0.9282222390174866,
0.3232099413871765,
-0.3501484990119934,
0.30259576439857483,
-0.41024813055992126,
-0.12574262917041779,
-0.5423222184181213,
-0.3243124783039093,
-0.11571101099252701,
-0.18397127091884613,
0.026020320132374763,
-0.42630934715270996,
-0.15762849152088165,
-0.06000043824315071,
0.6238270998001099,
-0.28432369232177734,
-0.556803286075592,
-0.36717092990875244,
-0.89226233959198,
0.5057196617126465,
0.21272575855255127,
0.617253839969635,
0.2928593158721924,
-0.16718459129333496,
0.027749907225370407,
0.6926159262657166,
-0.3362741768360138,
-0.011196841485798359,
-0.7323142886161804,
0.16526742279529572,
0.05296008661389351,
-1.0592856407165527,
0.5361485481262207,
0.27419644594192505,
-0.09207186847925186,
-0.9309800267219543,
0.6803284883499146,
-0.07374519109725952,
0.031823497265577316,
0.17096659541130066,
-0.007642041426151991,
0.7003359794616699,
-0.0990893766283989,
-0.12592251598834991,
0.29156410694122314,
-0.19803248345851898,
0.3166315257549286,
0.3021911382675171,
0.07086525112390518,
-0.3770880103111267,
0.9503180384635925,
-0.4574970304965973,
-0.1537276804447174,
0.3684476912021637,
0.4760435223579407,
0.36422598361968994,
0.15676872432231903,
0.8083393573760986,
0.43480217456817627,
-0.034242697060108185,
0.5115352272987366,
-0.09999581426382065,
0.3003848195075989,
-0.8421438932418823,
0.23524560034275055,
0.052150908857584,
-0.5650849342346191,
0.8523781299591064,
-0.30916929244995117,
0.4309377372264862,
-0.2695787250995636,
0.2296469360589981,
-0.399198442697525,
0.046806614845991135,
0.15778018534183502,
0.8747986555099487,
0.2650180160999298,
0.34699609875679016,
0.5920233726501465,
-0.09978528320789337,
-0.09136270731687546,
-0.06736133992671967,
0.06393290311098099,
-0.248335063457489,
0.44355982542037964,
-0.2927401661872864,
-0.4934285581111908,
-0.16548672318458557,
-0.14579802751541138,
0.3768819570541382,
0.324442595243454,
0.05963980779051781,
0.30613622069358826,
-0.7159256935119629,
0.019412867724895477,
0.33259087800979614,
-0.331554114818573,
-0.23196569085121155,
-0.09849522262811661,
0.25954172015190125,
-0.36753302812576294,
0.5994147062301636,
0.31261324882507324,
-0.19529850780963898,
0.8217907547950745,
-0.017966752871870995,
-0.5524840950965881,
-0.7587639093399048,
-0.14574027061462402,
-0.08349601924419403,
-0.2458057701587677,
-0.3860543668270111,
0.07797550410032272,
0.14380423724651337,
0.2885017991065979,
0.43515413999557495,
0.23100440204143524,
-0.03430113568902016,
0.7402759790420532,
-0.12254229933023453,
0.2723597288131714,
0.21074557304382324,
-0.4633665382862091,
-0.240457683801651,
-0.23033501207828522,
0.6894837617874146,
-0.21196062862873077,
-0.25417861342430115,
-0.1499427706003189,
0.22790870070457458,
0.18789874017238617,
0.2032177746295929,
-0.47910967469215393,
-0.029780330136418343,
-0.30258744955062866,
-0.06434667855501175,
-0.9569087028503418,
0.25252071022987366,
0.06885620951652527,
-0.7723237872123718,
-0.16751521825790405,
-0.042411044239997864,
0.09177157282829285,
0.045450609177351,
-0.23983916640281677,
0.017436817288398743,
-0.2817782759666443,
-0.09339728951454163,
0.8299012184143066,
0.1115075871348381,
0.5524653196334839,
-0.1366288810968399,
-0.2527015805244446,
-0.11173081398010254,
-0.29986661672592163,
0.32011500000953674,
-0.15395388007164001,
0.23607157170772552,
-0.40984901785850525,
0.8643859028816223,
0.16539621353149414,
0.24547916650772095,
-0.2527671456336975,
-0.7494687438011169,
0.0671701580286026,
0.4049094319343567,
0.3678063154220581,
-0.17377889156341553,
-0.23443777859210968,
-0.5014455318450928,
-0.2300158441066742,
0.017103755846619606,
-0.33936718106269836,
0.04894757643342018,
-0.26607179641723633,
0.2807341516017914,
-0.5552074909210205,
-0.5411518216133118,
0.22396941483020782,
-0.3041420876979828,
0.35610833764076233,
-0.20170336961746216,
-0.41014477610588074,
0.5080092549324036,
0.0757407620549202,
-0.9424269199371338,
0.15491800010204315,
0.34392881393432617
] |
229072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criticism | Criticism | Criticism is the construction of a judgement about the positive and negative qualities of someone or something. Criticism can range from impromptu comments to a written detailed response.<ref name="Cambridge"> | "the act of giving your opinion or judgment about the good or bad qualities of something or someone or the act of saying that something or someone is bad</ref> Criticism falls into several overlapping types including "theoretical, practical, impressionistic, affective, prescriptive, or descriptive".
Criticism may also refer to an expression of disapproval. When criticism of this nature is constructive it can make an individual aware of gaps in their understanding and it can provide distinct routes for improvement. Research supports the notion that using feedback and constructive criticism in the learning process is very influential.
Critique vs criticism In French, German, or Italian, no distinction is drawn between 'critique' and 'criticism'. The two words both translate as critique, Kritik, and critica, respectively. In the English language, philosopher Gianni Vattimo suggests that criticism is used more frequently to denote literary criticism or art criticism while critique refers to more general and profound writing as Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Another distinction that is sometimes made is that critique is never personalized nor ad hominem and is presented in a way that encourages rebuttal or expansion of the ideas expressed. Nonetheless, the distinctions are subtle and ambiguous at best.
The term "brickbat" is sometimes used to mean "an unfavourable criticism, unkind remark or sharp put-down". The term originated in the 17th century, derived from the practice of throwing bricks as projectiles at a person who was disapproved of.
Criticism in Academia
Critical Studies and Critical Theory programs teach the method of critique, also known as “criticism.” Both theory and studies programs often sample new works in addition to the classical texts. UC Berkeley, CUNY, and Northwestern University offer programs in Critical Theory, while a number of other colleges and universities offer programs or sole courses in Critical Studies, Critical Theory, and sub-disciplines. Sub-disciplines include Critical Race Studies, Critical Asian Studies, Critical Black Studies, and Critical Disability Studies. The term “critical” can be found in course titles concerning a variety of topics, as the term refers to a method or approach to course materials.
Some claim “critical” studies have a particular focus in their perspective or opinion, confusing the method of critique with individual critiques. The recent appearance of “critical” studies and theory further compounds the conflation of particular authors with the new method and discipline. Additionally, the method and disciplines are distinguished from analysis or traditional objectivist or hard sciences by their allowances for subjectivity in the perspective of the author.
See also
Critique
Literary criticism
Art criticism
Film criticism
Theatre criticism
Criticism of religion
Criticism of science
Self-criticism
Social criticism
References
Philosophical methodology
Literary concepts | [
0.3645777702331543,
0.7832455635070801,
-0.9614301919937134,
0.1353064477443695,
-0.800132691860199,
0.06944786757230759,
0.5913994312286377,
0.5807148814201355,
0.13480591773986816,
-0.3887329399585724,
-0.3347852826118469,
0.6748449802398682,
-0.1450682431459427,
0.41470757126808167,
-0.3435172438621521,
0.5609040856361389,
0.10990483313798904,
0.5751265287399292,
0.20748069882392883,
-0.10337819159030914,
-0.35711851716041565,
0.1417662799358368,
-0.33987635374069214,
-0.6132806539535522,
0.631069540977478,
0.2892773747444153,
0.7666194438934326,
0.09083631634712219,
-0.2750304043292999,
0.11670158058404922,
0.15572212636470795,
0.6276826858520508,
-0.35630548000335693,
-0.028808606788516045,
-0.43690910935401917,
0.2798127830028534,
0.15500152111053467,
0.11151573807001114,
-0.11546771228313446,
-0.27919134497642517,
0.26522859930992126,
-0.08402173221111298,
-0.03820255771279335,
0.27566269040107727,
-0.445033997297287,
-0.23926371335983276,
-1.6529120206832886,
0.1879795640707016,
-0.6193471550941467,
0.08478572964668274,
-0.49440088868141174,
0.4230958819389343,
0.10921493172645569,
0.5401579141616821,
-0.5456894040107727,
0.4463914632797241,
-0.39840149879455566,
-0.04007086157798767,
0.13766147196292877,
-0.3877042233943939,
0.36661818623542786,
0.3596187233924866,
0.057446517050266266,
-0.11632613837718964,
0.46530938148498535,
0.20357859134674072,
-0.12795127928256989,
0.153382807970047,
-0.46815359592437744,
-0.5918915867805481,
-0.5610505938529968,
-0.5464393496513367,
-0.011440807022154331,
0.08099092543125153,
-0.4566459655761719,
0.11366929113864899,
-0.10593174397945404,
-0.0281723290681839,
-0.15688228607177734,
-0.34606635570526123,
-0.124893918633461,
0.6218556761741638,
0.3443191945552826,
-0.3550814092159271,
0.3112775981426239,
-0.27827927470207214,
0.22525335848331451,
0.7164495587348938,
-0.04155576229095459,
0.3511474132537842,
0.4692733883857727,
-0.020201420411467552,
0.46792173385620117,
-0.08124445378780365,
0.33073505759239197,
0.04291338846087456,
0.6654673218727112,
0.07340656220912933,
-0.3118039667606354,
0.1844208985567093,
0.11541067808866501,
-0.2311697006225586,
0.8980755805969238,
-0.12485348433256149,
-0.2333686500787735,
-0.4933954179286957,
0.390171617269516,
-0.43645599484443665,
0.022460663691163063,
-0.6245138049125671,
-0.14535567164421082,
0.7848292589187622,
-0.4883112907409668,
0.06296221166849136,
-1.0486434698104858,
0.014984232373535633,
0.0093816127628088,
0.2606589198112488,
-0.1328933835029602,
0.18832017481327057,
0.233572855591774,
0.11824958026409149,
0.05152842029929161,
-0.4945034980773926,
-0.1535300314426422,
-0.059038806706666946,
0.3632079064846039,
0.5337684154510498,
-0.5572001338005066,
-0.00015640958736184984,
0.06049104034900665,
0.5435308218002319,
-0.28956806659698486,
-0.11904673278331757,
-0.21572494506835938,
-0.021282527595758438,
0.9448596835136414,
-0.24190424382686615,
-0.10743548721075058,
0.02217927575111389,
-0.2815835773944855,
-0.8554106950759888,
-1.5650638341903687,
-0.003850886831060052,
0.43268853425979614,
-0.30091363191604614,
0.20723223686218262,
-0.1314045786857605,
-0.1022319346666336,
-0.3562154769897461,
0.06185096129775047,
0.02160460874438286,
-0.20287421345710754,
0.08751983195543289,
0.1708923578262329,
-0.23740582168102264,
0.6762074828147888,
-0.46747341752052307,
-0.2475084662437439,
0.39947032928466797,
-0.029029695317149162,
-0.08715977519750595,
-0.09394756704568863,
-0.155999094247818,
0.17868423461914062,
-0.5043869018554688,
-0.2055334597826004,
0.2007272094488144,
0.27720344066619873,
0.13642320036888123,
-0.13246572017669678,
0.06411424279212952,
0.31632524728775024,
-0.19156983494758606,
0.5343644618988037,
0.293106347322464,
0.11395373195409775,
-0.15605391561985016,
0.3737078011035919,
0.3576694428920746,
-0.5430739521980286,
0.343092679977417,
0.05577915534377098,
-0.025843683630228043,
0.5150934457778931,
-0.36669236421585083,
0.5025780200958252,
-0.2521623969078064,
-0.06819945573806763,
-0.017504625022411346,
-0.9024220705032349,
-0.5271660685539246,
0.09057300537824631,
-0.4390665888786316,
1.2126275300979614,
-0.22508692741394043,
-0.4992990791797638,
0.6962834596633911,
0.2004534900188446,
0.43698635697364807,
-0.0480307973921299,
-0.2155655324459076,
0.0845411866903305,
0.16256436705589294,
-0.38452455401420593,
1.303598165512085,
0.32395097613334656,
0.19328613579273224,
-0.3261091709136963,
0.5686461329460144,
-0.042420461773872375,
-0.056590013206005096,
-0.08184528350830078,
-0.17854835093021393,
0.08069978654384613,
0.30114755034446716,
-0.44380268454551697,
0.2733113169670105,
-0.3730388581752777,
-0.15865395963191986,
0.3953295350074768,
-0.008028952404856682,
-0.09667942672967911,
0.35451239347457886,
-0.3428620398044586,
0.2834850549697876,
-0.0820917934179306,
0.17662784457206726,
0.49127182364463806,
-1.3377959728240967,
0.042738549411296844,
0.8231759667396545,
0.4914045035839081,
-0.11524925380945206,
-0.6024905443191528,
0.16728158295154572,
0.31896549463272095,
0.08701586723327637,
0.38093671202659607,
-0.22517935931682587,
-0.2738066613674164,
-0.00719905411824584,
-0.2498149424791336,
0.45193779468536377,
-0.0038155135698616505,
0.13471843302249908,
-0.40053313970565796,
0.8417465090751648,
-0.7035936117172241,
0.6539854407310486,
0.4124563932418823,
0.2571500241756439,
0.28493911027908325,
-0.3306889533996582,
-0.08392947167158127,
-0.10420830547809601,
-0.46719303727149963,
-0.06670120358467102,
-0.06846500188112259,
-0.08954505622386932,
-0.36041754484176636,
0.12159501016139984,
-0.03617072477936745,
-0.16195614635944366,
0.01006721518933773,
0.07792358100414276,
-0.026107078418135643,
0.24038241803646088,
0.014493717812001705,
0.3905481696128845,
0.30570971965789795,
0.03024122305214405,
-0.6386857032775879,
-0.7827040553092957,
-0.30827710032463074,
-0.16376174986362457,
0.210871621966362,
0.08575965464115143,
-0.2661625146865845,
-0.20081138610839844,
-0.20674893260002136,
0.37688106298446655,
0.275098979473114,
-0.3827863931655884,
-0.05831218883395195,
-0.6546511650085449,
0.1974664032459259,
-0.209453284740448,
0.014337840490043163,
0.1858915090560913,
-0.3280390202999115,
0.32872217893600464,
0.27688246965408325,
-0.09315387159585953,
0.5827662348747253,
0.20622429251670837,
0.035059209913015366,
0.08265013992786407,
0.13530218601226807,
-0.39453813433647156,
0.09299784153699875,
0.0384942963719368,
-0.18413126468658447,
0.21302013099193573,
-0.22010426223278046,
0.021287059411406517,
-0.33771929144859314,
0.19414305686950684,
-5.687702655792236,
0.054913055151700974,
0.17300087213516235,
-0.03920843452215195,
-0.1393297016620636,
0.16246415674686432,
0.8574473261833191,
-0.24350246787071228,
-0.6623181700706482,
0.0679221898317337,
-0.792927622795105,
0.27699756622314453,
0.3296249806880951,
0.7738750576972961,
0.963550865650177,
-0.05088602378964424,
0.1441829800605774,
-0.21079331636428833,
-0.16206784546375275,
0.8583561182022095,
0.05844369903206825,
0.7906822562217712,
-0.14146625995635986,
0.29369157552719116,
-0.08293399214744568,
-0.05987041816115379,
-0.04761682450771332,
0.67970871925354,
-0.01767374388873577,
-0.013844253495335579,
0.5758262276649475,
0.0755888968706131,
-0.17461824417114258,
-0.2687363922595978,
0.08336049318313599,
0.2841852009296417,
0.39922600984573364,
0.20446628332138062,
-0.4797627925872803,
0.2247922718524933,
-0.19175592064857483,
0.4513978660106659,
0.3865763247013092,
0.07441386580467224,
0.27769237756729126,
0.6190676093101501,
-0.2975260615348816,
-0.3174852430820465,
-0.35454127192497253,
0.20052237808704376,
-0.19277088344097137,
0.13085512816905975,
0.4987953305244446,
0.10238317400217056,
0.16031686961650848,
-0.11513767391443253,
0.673133909702301,
-0.4639138877391815,
-0.6216989755630493,
-0.3958631157875061,
0.25686904788017273,
-0.40585240721702576,
-0.008606825023889542,
-0.2511976361274719,
-0.03809510916471481,
-0.30031633377075195,
-0.4494624137878418,
-0.6775473952293396,
0.5359400510787964,
-0.12939663231372833,
-0.30925989151000977,
0.29583221673965454,
0.20027291774749756,
-0.6336463093757629,
0.002218091394752264,
-0.47113049030303955,
-0.3385646641254425,
0.23344916105270386,
0.37774038314819336,
0.3362254798412323,
-0.4563072621822357,
-0.26116058230400085,
-0.4692023694515228,
-0.1357780247926712,
-0.12212400883436203,
-0.2547653317451477,
0.05282788351178169,
0.655255913734436,
-0.638748824596405,
-0.22347229719161987,
0.7473985552787781,
0.2876717746257782,
-0.1325778365135193,
0.3367939293384552,
-0.13080745935440063,
0.6459035873413086,
0.522347092628479,
-0.4164789021015167,
0.3523310422897339,
-0.07880283892154694,
0.20439809560775757,
-0.41673266887664795,
0.0555146299302578,
-0.057664863765239716,
-0.2017405927181244,
-0.17159226536750793,
-0.5694455504417419,
0.7943307161331177,
0.9868642687797546,
-0.6588217616081238,
0.5047916173934937,
0.28190332651138306,
-0.3132314085960388,
0.25134146213531494,
0.18961076438426971,
0.3424336016178131,
-0.5180582404136658,
0.3812931180000305,
0.3195764124393463,
0.07628533989191055,
0.3121899366378784,
-0.29635313153266907,
-0.6433711647987366,
-0.25629696249961853,
-0.907813549041748,
-0.3006581664085388,
-0.20928050577640533,
-0.25732553005218506,
-0.36998364329338074,
0.2970733344554901,
0.6370768547058105,
0.24313612282276154,
0.3402564227581024,
0.04723299667239189,
0.22042414546012878,
-0.3743382692337036,
-0.0447077751159668,
0.4701673686504364,
-0.21041588485240936,
-0.8842371702194214,
0.3278108835220337,
-0.41045844554901123,
0.16998079419136047,
0.05507447570562363,
0.8744001984596252,
0.0541398748755455,
-0.5748159885406494,
-0.11540157347917557,
-0.03781167417764664,
0.556965172290802,
-0.2635113298892975,
-0.11788010597229004,
-0.5520450472831726,
-0.43189606070518494,
0.488820880651474,
0.23537012934684753,
-0.19126391410827637,
0.012473766691982746,
-0.0502261221408844,
-0.5025030970573425,
-0.28899726271629333,
-0.2267870157957077,
-0.9920252561569214,
-0.5566695928573608,
0.052141692489385605,
-0.26784205436706543,
-0.6840914487838745,
-0.14295387268066406,
0.18924865126609802,
0.27045705914497375,
0.09679620712995529,
-0.041728150099515915,
-0.06629937887191772,
-0.38542887568473816,
0.3920968770980835,
0.2144220620393753,
-0.23869220912456512,
0.22215840220451355,
-0.07818232476711273,
0.027598142623901367,
-0.06236790493130684,
-0.3927795886993408,
-0.1323511153459549,
0.08062564581632614,
0.3787342309951782,
-0.027427222579717636,
0.035888783633708954,
0.2972659468650818,
-0.3369361460208893,
-0.0892866998910904,
-0.19467532634735107,
-0.22836756706237793,
0.4470788538455963,
0.24279935657978058,
-0.3371797502040863,
-0.3794061541557312,
0.051598403602838516,
-0.08665355294942856,
-0.18946784734725952,
-0.5665646195411682,
0.3890845775604248,
0.632310152053833,
-0.5810965895652771,
-0.04889942705631256,
0.021660899743437767,
-0.6130814552307129,
0.2380889654159546,
0.017690327018499374,
-0.6789442300796509,
0.6575205326080322,
-0.4479650855064392,
-0.07216621190309525,
-0.6736059188842773,
0.16301095485687256,
-0.16095876693725586,
-0.46504005789756775,
0.1604030877351761,
-0.384733110666275,
-0.199171781539917,
-0.25730058550834656,
0.685223400592804,
-0.10891570150852203,
-0.4071318507194519,
0.17402249574661255,
-0.4023117125034332,
-0.13396841287612915,
0.04213843494653702,
-0.4561448097229004,
0.43549054861068726,
0.2745820879936218,
0.0025129972491413355,
0.41969922184944153,
0.2940250337123871,
0.0831461176276207,
-0.24693334102630615,
-0.3429527282714844,
-0.27287963032722473,
0.5995225310325623,
-0.31805598735809326,
-0.34130236506462097,
0.12460365146398544,
0.5619906783103943,
0.2589761018753052,
-0.30682751536369324,
0.17634543776512146,
0.41030457615852356,
-0.008574224077165127,
-0.42183011770248413,
-0.7232900857925415,
0.03577001765370369,
0.321544885635376,
-0.09888803958892822,
-0.7943472266197205,
-0.013999788090586662,
0.21784648299217224,
-0.321030855178833,
-0.08745091408491135,
-0.4514425992965698,
0.2777777314186096,
0.5356191396713257,
0.3439100682735443,
-0.348805695772171,
0.11056462675333023,
-0.11282280832529068,
0.5061555504798889,
-0.2082013487815857,
0.3811914920806885,
0.5271803140640259,
0.16097791492938995,
-0.399172306060791,
0.1761760264635086,
0.0958634614944458,
0.30251872539520264,
0.5230832695960999,
0.5063613653182983,
-0.20002520084381104,
-0.8716647028923035,
-0.4082213044166565,
-0.32301053404808044,
-0.21396265923976898,
0.9722458720207214,
-0.5354824066162109,
0.060326166450977325,
-0.4746609032154083,
0.12550951540470123,
-0.45337924361228943,
0.7705326080322266,
0.2403862327337265,
-0.4478606879711151,
-0.5430387854576111,
-0.44853633642196655,
-0.21657031774520874,
0.10357954353094101,
0.3943183720111847,
-0.0021014476660639048,
0.14733922481536865,
-0.260280966758728,
0.14096270501613617,
-0.14304892718791962,
-0.13468290865421295,
-0.7101112604141235,
0.045290507376194,
0.03633692488074303,
-0.6433441042900085,
0.7040388584136963,
0.22901561856269836,
-0.2050388902425766,
-0.7694466710090637,
0.3673311471939087,
-0.19369399547576904,
0.07228459417819977,
0.31735992431640625,
0.29592132568359375,
-0.03585008159279823,
-0.0351150743663311,
0.05231223255395889,
0.33046767115592957,
-0.25471436977386475,
0.6443887948989868,
0.41803160309791565,
0.11563724279403687,
-0.6931349635124207,
0.9954243898391724,
-0.326007217168808,
-0.29876041412353516,
0.10729049891233444,
-0.192679300904274,
0.1550680696964264,
0.42901620268821716,
-0.12075474113225937,
0.4191308319568634,
0.4114026725292206,
-0.006360266357660294,
0.003008709754794836,
-0.1618635356426239,
-0.5317679047584534,
0.4276992380619049,
-0.3702276945114136,
-0.502508819103241,
0.337171733379364,
0.4133315682411194,
-0.030352551490068436,
0.34335315227508545,
0.6051777601242065,
-0.21355396509170532,
0.3648858666419983,
0.16133703291416168,
0.3515647053718567,
-0.5492762327194214,
0.3700750172138214,
0.059121694415807724,
0.20489837229251862,
0.5317358374595642,
-0.21524038910865784,
0.08277308195829391,
-0.32713475823402405,
0.994072675704956,
0.08714272826910019,
-0.7536473870277405,
-0.7241239547729492,
0.08594512939453125,
0.37579217553138733,
-0.3364645540714264,
-0.153089240193367,
0.3862231373786926,
0.12321517616510391,
0.36269184947013855,
-0.20888639986515045,
-0.058395273983478546,
0.4315829873085022,
0.04069608822464943,
0.18574213981628418,
-0.051831502467393875,
0.5160406827926636,
0.31418102979660034,
-0.28424108028411865,
0.8228775858879089,
-0.02151125855743885,
-0.006618583109229803,
-0.308096319437027,
0.36619678139686584,
0.3988220989704132,
-0.2770068049430847,
-0.14988242089748383,
0.022987915202975273,
0.018584497272968292,
-0.16860578954219818,
0.2375715672969818,
0.011292809620499611,
-0.29517820477485657,
-0.2415066957473755,
-0.030038515105843544,
0.043659187853336334,
0.18881650269031525,
-0.4480842649936676,
0.24624362587928772,
0.00850312877446413,
0.7947381734848022,
-0.044623006135225296,
-0.574385941028595,
-0.23356753587722778,
0.20121707022190094,
-0.02213994413614273,
0.15927699208259583,
-0.5482820868492126,
0.2880367338657379,
-0.3492931127548218,
-0.12103781849145889,
-0.7811698317527771,
0.23681096732616425,
0.30093154311180115,
-0.5411558747291565,
-0.23557741940021515,
0.3026875853538513,
0.0012259900104254484,
-0.15403242409229279,
0.25151339173316956,
-0.25399306416511536,
0.2558179497718811,
0.009551657363772392,
0.2900761663913727,
0.020970365032553673,
0.27376022934913635,
0.04748371243476868,
-0.37645667791366577,
-0.28030017018318176,
-0.08599334210157394,
0.024467255920171738,
0.1743803322315216,
-0.08494232594966888,
-0.48884066939353943,
-0.025712257251143456,
-0.20454593002796173,
0.5893267393112183,
0.058610595762729645,
-0.0978236049413681,
0.5459766387939453,
0.0143871596083045,
0.29437315464019775,
-0.1857445389032364,
-0.25170189142227173,
-0.646428644657135,
0.1308971643447876,
-0.18917542695999146,
-2.839564085006714,
0.45594078302383423,
-0.24407662451267242,
0.05202421173453331,
-0.027112221345305443,
0.5774163603782654,
0.40424248576164246,
-0.17929308116436005,
-0.00734945572912693,
-0.06144947186112404,
-0.04822155460715294,
-0.11701894551515579,
-0.10150089114904404,
-0.31972068548202515,
-0.26710274815559387,
0.7354409098625183
] |
229073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestion%20pricing | Congestion pricing | Congestion pricing or congestion charges is a system of surcharging users of public goods that are subject to congestion through excess demand, such as through higher peak charges for use of bus services, electricity, metros, railways, telephones, and road pricing to reduce traffic congestion; airlines and shipping companies may be charged higher fees for slots at airports and through canals at busy times. Advocates claim this pricing strategy regulates demand, making it possible to manage congestion without increasing supply.
According to the economic theory behind congestion pricing, the objective of this policy is the use of the price mechanism to make users conscious of the costs that they impose upon one another when consuming during the peak demand, and that they should pay for the additional congestion they create, thus encouraging the redistribution of the demand in space or in time, and forcing them to pay for the negative externalities they create, making users more aware of their impact on the environment.
The application on urban roads is currently limited to a few cities, including London, Stockholm, Singapore, Milan, and Gothenburg, as well as a few smaller towns, such as Durham, England; Znojmo, Czech Republic; Riga (ended in 2008), Latvia; and Valletta, Malta. Four general types of systems are in use: a cordon area around a city center, with charges for passing the cordon line; area wide congestion pricing, which charges for being inside an area; a city center toll ring, with toll collection surrounding the city; and corridor or single facility congestion pricing, where access to a lane or a facility is priced.
Implementation of congestion pricing has reduced congestion in urban areas and increased house values, but has also sparked criticism and public discontent. Critics maintain that congestion pricing is not equitable, places an economic burden on neighboring communities, has a negative effect on retail businesses and on economic activity in general, and represents another tax levy.
A survey of economic literature on the subject, however, finds that most economists agree that some form of road pricing to reduce congestion is economically viable, although there is disagreement on what form road pricing should take. Economists disagree over how to set tolls, how to cover common costs, what to do with any excess revenues, whether and how "losers" from tolling previously free roads should be compensated, and whether to privatize highways. Also, concerns regarding fossil fuel supply and urban transport high emissions of greenhouse gases in the context of climate change have renewed interest in congestion pricing, as it is considered one of the demand-side mechanisms that may reduce oil consumption.
Description
Congestion pricing is a concept from market economics regarding the use of pricing mechanisms to charge the users of public goods for the negative externalities generated by the peak demand in excess of available supply. Its economic rationale is that, at a price of zero, demand exceeds supply, causing a shortage, and that the shortage should be corrected by charging the equilibrium price rather than shifting it down by increasing the supply. Usually this means increasing prices during certain periods of time or at the places where congestion occurs; or introducing a new usage tax or charge when peak demand exceeds available supply in the case of a tax-funded public good provided free at the point of usage.
According to the economic theory behind congestion pricing, the objective of this policy is the use of the price mechanism to make users more aware of the costs that they impose upon one another when consuming during the peak demand, and that they should pay for the additional congestion they create, thus encouraging the redistribution of the demand in space or in time, or shifting it to the consumption of a substitute public good; for example, switching from private transport to public transport.
This pricing mechanism has been used in several public utilities and public services for setting higher prices during congested periods, as a means to better manage the demand for the service, and whether to avoid expensive new investments just to satisfy peak demand, or because it is not economically or financially feasible to provide additional capacity to the service. Congestion pricing has been widely used by telephone and electric utilities, metros, railways and autobus services, and has been proposed for charging internet access. It also has been extensively studied and advocated by mainstream transport economists for ports, waterways, airports and road pricing, though actual implementation is rather limited due to the controversial issues subject to debate regarding this policy, particularly for urban roads, such as undesirable distribution effects, the disposition of the revenues raised, and the social and political acceptability of the congestion charge.
Congestion pricing is one of a number of alternative demand side (as opposed to supply side) strategies offered by economists to address traffic congestion. Congestion is considered a negative externality by economists. An externality occurs when a transaction causes costs or benefits to a third party, often, although not necessarily, from the use of a public good: for example, if manufacturing or transportation cause air pollution imposing costs on others when making use of public air. Congestion pricing is an efficiency pricing strategy that requires the users to pay more for that public good, thus increasing the welfare gain or net benefit for society.
Nobel-laureate William Vickrey is considered by some to be the father of congestion pricing, as he first proposed adding a distance- or time-based fare system for the New York City Subway in 1952. In the road transportation arena these theories were extended by Maurice Allais, Gabriel Roth who was instrumental in the first designs and upon whose World Bank recommendation the first system was put in place in Singapore. Also, it was considered by the Smeed Report, published by the British Ministry of Transport in 1964, but its recommendations were rejected by successive British governments.
The transport economics rationale for implementing congestion pricing on roads, described as "one policy response to the problem of congestion", was summarized in testimony to the United States Congress Joint Economic Committee in 2003: "congestion is considered to arise from the mispricing of a good; namely, highway capacity at a specific place and time. The quantity supplied (measured in lane-miles) is less than the quantity demanded at what is essentially a price of zero. If a good or service is provided free of charge, people tend to demand more of it—and use it more wastefully—than they would if they had to pay a price that reflected its cost. Hence, congestion pricing is premised on a basic economic concept: charge a price in order to allocate a scarce resource to its most valuable use, as evidenced by users' willingness to pay for the resource".
Roads
Practical implementations of road congestion pricing are found almost exclusively in urban areas, because traffic congestion is common in and around city centers. Congestion pricing can be fixed (the same at all times of day and days of the week), variable (set in advance to be higher at typically high-traffic times), or dynamic (varying according to actual conditions).
As congestion pricing has been increasing worldwide, the schemes implemented have been classified into four different types: cordon area around a city center; area wide congestion pricing; city center toll ring; and corridor or single facility congestion pricing.
Cordon area and area wide
Cordon area congestion pricing is a fee or tax paid by users to enter a restricted area, usually within a city center, as part of a demand management strategy to relieve traffic congestion within that area. The economic rationale for this pricing scheme is based on the externalities or social costs of road transport, such as air pollution, noise, traffic accidents, environmental and urban deterioration, and the extra costs and delays imposed by traffic congestion upon other drivers when additional users enter a congested road.
The first implementation of such a scheme was Singapore Area Licensing Scheme in 1975, together with a comprehensive package of road pricing measures, stringent car ownership rules and improvements in mass transit. Thanks to technological advances in electronic toll collection, electronic detection, and video surveillance technology, collecting congestion fees has become easier. Singapore upgraded its system in 1998, and similar pricing schemes were implemented in Rome in 2001, London in 2003 with extensions in 2007; Stockholm in 2006, as a seven-month trial, and then on a permanent basis. In January 2008 Milan began a one-year trial program called Ecopass, charging low emission standard vehicles and exempting cleaner and alternative fuel vehicles. The Ecopass program was extended until December 31, 2011, and on January 16, 2012 was replaced by Area C, a trial program that converted the scheme from a pollution-charge to a congestion charge. The Gothenburg congestion tax was implemented in January 2013 and it was modeled after the Stockholm scheme.
Although there has not yet been a comprehensive study, initial reports from the cities that have implemented congestion pricing schemes show traffic volume reductions from 10% to 30%, as well as reduced air pollution. Also, all cities report public controversy before and after implementation, making political feasibility a critical issue.
Singapore and Stockholm charge a congestion fee every time a user crosses the cordon area, while London charges a daily fee for any vehicle driving in a public road within the congestion charge zone, regardless of how many times the user crosses the cordon. Stockholm has put a cap on the maximum daily tax, while in Singapore the charge is based on a pay-as-you-use principle, and rates are set based on traffic conditions at the pricing points, and reviewed on a quarterly basis. Through this policy, the Land Transport Authority (LTA) reports that the electronic road pricing "has been effective in maintaining an optimal speed range of 45 to 65 km/h for expressways and 20 to 30 km/h for arterial roads".
Singapore
In an effort to improve the pricing mechanism, and, to introduce real-time variable pricing,
Singapore's LTA together with IBM, ran a pilot from December 2006 to April 2007, with a traffic estimation and prediction tool (TrEPS), which uses historical traffic data and real-time feeds with flow conditions from several sources, in order to predict the levels of congestion up to an hour in advance. By accurately estimating prevailing and emerging traffic conditions, this technology is expected to allow variable pricing, together with improved overall traffic management, including the provision of information in advance to alert drivers about conditions ahead, and the prices being charged at that moment.
In 2010 the Land Transport Authority began exploring the potential of Global Navigation Satellite System as a technological option for a second generation ERP. LTA objective is to evaluate if the latest technologies available in the market today are accurate and effective enough for use as a congestion charging tool, especially taking into consideration the dense urban environment in Singapore. Implementation of such system is not expected in the short term.
London
A proposal by former Mayor of London Ken Livingstone would have resulted in a new pricing structure based on potential CO2 emission rates by October 2008. The goal was that vehicles with the very lowest CO2 emission rates would be exempted, and those with higher emission rates would pay a new higher charge of £25, with the rest paying the same charge they pay today. However, Livingstone's successor as Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, announced at the beginning of his administration that he would reform the congestion charge.
Johnson announced in July 2008 that the new CO2 charging structure will no longer be implemented. Among other reasons, he said the environmental charge would encourage travel by thousands of smaller vehicles free of charge, resulting in increased congestion and pollution. He also discarded plans for extending the charge zone to the suburbs, and announced he will review the western extension implemented in 2007, based on a public consultation planned for September 2008. Having held a five-week public consultation with residents in the autumn of 2008, Johnson decided to remove the 2007 Western Extension from the congestion charging zone beginning on January 4, 2011, to increase the basic charge to , and also to introduce an automated payment system called Congestion Charging Auto Pay (CC Auto Pay), which will charge vehicles based on the number of charging days a vehicle travels within the charging zone each month, and the drivers of these vehicles will pay a reduced daily charge.
In November 2012 Transport for London (TfL) presented a proposal to abolish the Greener Vehicle Discount that benefited, among others, vehicles with small diesel engines that avoid the charge because their engines produce emissions of less than 100g per km of CO2. Approved by Mayor Boris Johnson in April 2013, the Ultra Low Emission Discount (ULED) went into effect on 1 July 2013. The ULED introduced more stringent emission standards that limit the free access to the congestion charge zone to all-electric cars, some plug-in hybrids, and any car or van that emits 75g/km or less of CO2 and meets the Euro 5 emission standards for air quality. The measure was designed to curb the growing number of diesel vehicles on London's roads. About 20,000 owners of vehicles registered for the Greener Vehicle Discount by June 2013 were granted a three-year sunset period before they have to pay the full congestion charge. The sunset period ended on 24 June 2016.
Since the congestion charge introduction in 2003, over £1.2 billion has been invested in transport through December 2013, including £960 million on improvements to the bus network; £102 million on roads and bridges; £70 million on road safety; £51 million on local transport/borough plans; and £36 million on sustainable transport and the environment. There has been criticism because during the first ten years since the scheme was implemented, gross revenue reached about £2.6 billion, but only £1.2 billion has been invested, meaning that 54% of gross revenues have been spent in operating the system and administrative expenses.
In June 2014 the standard charge was raised 15% from £10 per day to £11.50. According to TfL the objective of the increase is to recoup inflation over the previous three years and ensure the charge remains an effective deterrent to making unnecessary journeys in central London.
A new toxicity charge, known as T-charge was introduced from 23 October 2017. Older and more polluting cars and vans that do not meet Euro 4 standards will have to pay an extra £10 charge on top of the £11.50 congestion charge to drive in central London, within the Congestion Charge Zone (CCZ). The charge typically applies to diesel and petrol vehicles registered before 2006, and the levy is expected to affect up to 10,000 vehicles. London Mayor Sadiq Khan announced the introduction of the scheme in February 2017 after London achieved record air pollution levels the previous month, and the city was put on very high pollution alert for the first time ever, as cold and stationary weather failed to clear toxic pollutants emitted mainly by diesel vehicles.
On 8 April 2019, the T-charge was expanded into the Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ). The zone, which currently covers the City and the City of Westminster, will be extended on 25 October 2021 to cover the entire area between the North and South Circular boundary roads.
Milan
The Ecopass pollution charge ended on December 31, 2011, and was replaced by the Area C scheme, which went into effect on January 16, 2012, initially as an 18-month pilot program. The Area C scheme is a conventional congestion pricing scheme and is based on the same Ecopass geographic area. Vehicles entering the charging zone incur a charge of regardless of their pollution level. However, residents inside the area have 40 free entries per year and then a discounted charge of . Electric vehicles, public utility vehicles, police and emergency vehicles, buses and taxis are exempted from the charge. Hybrid electric and bi-fuel natural gas vehicles (CNG and LPG) were exempted until January 1, 2013. Exemption has been postponed until December 31, 2016.
The scheme was made permanent in March 2013. All net earnings from Area C are invested to promote sustainable mobility and policies to reduce air pollution, including the redevelopment, protection and development of public transport, "soft mobility" (pedestrians, cycling, Zone 30) and systems to rationalize the distribution of goods.
Stockholm
On 1 January 2016, congestion taxes were increased in the inner-city parts of Stockholm, and also the congestion tax was introduced on Essingeleden motorway. This was the first increase of the tax since it was introduced permanently in 2007.
The congestion tax is being introduced at the access and exit ramps of two interchanges on Essingeleden in order to reduce traffic jams in peak periods, and with shorter traffic jams on Essingeleden, the surrounding roads are expected to have shorter tailbacks. The transport agencies involved expected to reduce traffic on Essingeleden by some 10% in peak hours. One week after the tax began to be charged, traffic on the motorway had decreased by 22% compared to a normal day in mid-December.
The tax increase was implemented not only to improve accessibility and the environment, but also to help develop the infrastructure. The additional funds will contribute to finance the extension of the Stockholm metro. As the Stockholm congestion tax varies by time of the day, the highest increase took place at the two busiest rush hour periods, 7:30 to 8:29, and 16:00 to 17:29, from SEK 20 to SEK 30. The objective was to steer the traffic towards other times of the day and public transport, and in this way reduce congestion in the Inner City area. Also the maximum amount levied was raised to SEK 105 per day and vehicle.
Norway
Several cities in Norway have tolled entrances to the more central urban areas, the first being Bergen in 1986.
Starting with Trondheim in 2010, later in Kristiansand, Bergen and Oslo, time differing fees were introduced, so that rush hours (in Oslo 06.30 – 09.00 and 15.00 – 17.00) cost more. The price is (in 2020) typically NOK 28 (€2.80) per passage, but to enter Oslo to the inner city and leave means passing five stations which costs NOK 126 (€12,70).
Old town centres
Around Europe several relatively small cities, such as Durham, England; Znojmo, Czech Republic; Riga, Latvia; and Valletta, Malta, have implemented congestion pricing to reduce traffic crowding, parking problems and pollution, particularly during the peak tourism season.
Durham introduced charges in October 2002, reducing vehicle traffic by 85% after a year; prior to this 3,000 daily vehicles had shared the streets with 17,000 pedestrians.
Valletta has reduced daily vehicles entering the city from 10,000 to 7,900; making 400 readily available parking places in the center. There has been a 60% drop in car stays by non-residents of more than eight hours, but there has been a marked increase of 34% in non-residential cars visiting the city for an hour or less.
Rejected proposals
Hong Kong conducted a pilot test on an electronic congestion pricing system between 1983 and 1985 with positive results. However, public opposition against this policy stalled its permanent implementation.
In 2002 Edinburgh, United Kingdom, initiated an implementation process; a referendum was conducted in 2005, with a majority of 74.4% rejecting the proposal.
Councils from across the West Midlands in the United Kingdom, including Birmingham and Coventry, rejected the idea of imposing congestion pricing schemes on the area in 2008, despite promises from central government of transport project funding in exchange for the implementation of a road pricing pilot scheme.
In 2007, New York City shelved a proposal for a three-year pilot program for implementation in Manhattan, and a new proposition was denied in 2008, with potential federal grants of being reallocated to other American cities.
Greater Manchester, United Kingdom, was considering a scheme with two cordons, one covering the main urban core of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and another covering the Manchester city centre. The measure was supported by the government, but three local authorities rejected it (Bury, Trafford and Stockport); the support of two-thirds of Manchester's 10 local councils was needed for it to be implemented. A comprehensive transport investment package for Manchester, which included the congestion pricing element, was released for further public consultation and was to be subject of a referendum in December 2008. On 12 December 2008 the scheme was overwhelmingly rejected by 10 out of 10 councils by a public referendum.
Current proposals
United States
In August 2007, the United States Department of Transportation selected five metropolitan areas to initiate congestion pricing demonstration projects under the Urban Partnerships Congestion Initiative, for US$1 billion of federal funding. The five projects under this initiative are Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco, State Route 520 serving downtown Seattle and communities to its east, Interstate 95 between Miami and Ft. Lauderdale, Interstate 35W serving downtown Minneapolis, and a variable rate parking meter system in Chicago, which replaced New York City after it left the program in 2008.
San Francisco transport authorities began a feasibility study in 2006 to evaluate the introduction of congestion pricing. The charge would be combined with other traffic reduction implementations, allowing money to be raised for public transit improvements and bike and pedestrian enhancements. The initial pricing scenarios were presented in public meetings conducted in December 2008, and the final study results were announced in November 2010, proposing modified alternatives based on the public's feedbacks, and the updated proposal calls for implementing a six-month to one-year trial in 2015.
Governor Andrew Cuomo reintroduced a congestion pricing proposal for New York City in 2017 in response to the New York City Subway's state of emergency, a proposal that Mayor Bill de Blasio opposed. A commission to investigate the feasibility of congestion pricing, organized in late 2017, found that a congestion pricing scheme could benefit New York City. Cuomo's congestion pricing plan was approved in March 2019, though congestion pricing in New York City would not go into effect until 2022 at the earliest. New York City's congestion pricing zone will be the first in North America.
China
In September 2011, local officials announced plans to introduce congestion pricing in Beijing. No details were provided regarding the magnitude of the congestion charges or the charge zone. The measure was initially proposed in 2010 and was recommended by the World Bank. A similar scheme was proposed for the city Guangzhou, Guangdong province, in early 2010. The city opened a public discussion on whether to introduce congestion charges. An online survey conducted by two local news outlets found that 84.4% of respondents opposed the charges.
In December 2015, the Beijing Municipal Commission of Transport announced plans to introduce congestion charges in 2016. According to city's motor vehicle emission control plan 2013–2017, the congestion charge will be a real-time variable pricing scheme based on actual traffic flows and emissions data, and allow the fee to be charged for different vehicles and varying by time of the day and for different districts. The Dongcheng and Xicheng are among the districts that are most likely to firstly implement congestion charge. Vehicle emissions account for 31% of the city's smog sources, according to Beijing Environmental Protection Bureau. The local government has implemented already several policies to address air quality and congestion, such as a driving restriction scheme based upon the last digits on their license plates. Also a vehicle quota system was introduced in 2011, awarding new car licenses through a lottery, with a ceiling of 6 million units set by the city authority for 2017. In May 2016, the Beijing city legislature announced it will consider to start levying traffic congestion charges by 2020 as part of a package of measures to reform the vehicle quota system. , the city's environmental and transport departments are working together on a congestion pricing proposal.
Brazil
In January 2012, the federal government of Brazil enacted the Urban Mobility Law that authorizes municipalities to implement congestion pricing to reduce traffic flows. The law also seeks to encourage the use of public transportation and reduce air pollution. According to the law, revenues from congestion charges should be destined exclusively to urban infrastructure for public transportation and non-motorized modes of locomotion (such as walking and cycling), and to finance public subsidies to transit fares. The law went into effect in April 2013.
In April 2012, one of the committees of the São Paulo city council approved a bill to introduce congestion pricing within the same area as the existing road space rationing () by the last digit of the license plate, which has been in force 1996. The proposed charge is R$4 (~ ) per day and it is expected to reduce traffic by 30% and raise about R$2.5 billion (~ billion) per year, most of which will be destined to the expansion of the São Paulo Metro system and bus corridors. The bill still needs approval by two other committees before going for a final vote at the city council. Since 1995, 11 bills have been presented in the city council to introduce congestion pricing.
Opinion surveys have shown that the initiative is highly impopular. A survey by Veja magazine found that 80% of drivers are against congestion pricing, and another survey by Exame magazine found that only 1% of São Paulo's residents support the initiative, while 30% find that extending the metro system is a better solution to reduce traffic congestion. São Paulo's strategic urban development plan "SP 2040", approved in November 2012, proposes the implementation of congestion pricing by 2025, when the density of metro and bus corridors is expected to reach 1.25 km/km2. The Plan also requires ample consultation and even a referendum before beginning implementation.
Urban corridors and toll rings
Congestion pricing has also been implemented in urban freeways. Between 2004 and 2005, Santiago de Chile implemented the first 100% non-stop urban toll for a freeway passing through a downtown area, charging by the distance traveled. Congestion pricing has been used since 2007 during rush hours in order to maintain reasonable speeds within the city core.
Norway pioneered the implementation of electronic urban tolling in the main corridors of Norway's three major cities: Bergen (1986), Oslo (1990), and Trondheim (1991). In Bergen cars can only enter the central area using a toll road, so that the effect is similar to a congestion charge. Though initially intended only to raise revenues to finance road infrastructure, the urban toll ring at Oslo created an unintended congestion pricing effect, as traffic decreased by around 5%. The Trondheim Toll Scheme also has congestion pricing effects, as charges vary by time of day. The Norwegian authorities pursued authorization to implement congestion charges in cities, and legislation was approved by Parliament in 2001. In October 2011 the Norwegian government announced the introduction of rules allowing congestion charging in cities. The measure is intended to cut greenhouse gas and air pollutant emissions, and relief traffic congestion. , Norwegian authorities have implemented urban charging schemes that operates both on the motorways and for access into downtown areas in five additional cities or municipalities: Haugesund, Kristiansand, Namsos, Stavanger, and Tønsberg.
The Norwegian electronic toll collection system is called AutoPASS and is part of the joint venture EasyGo.
Single facilities
Urban
Congestion pricing has also been applied to specific roadways. The first of this kind of specific schemes allowed users of low or single-occupancy vehicles to use a high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) if they pay a toll. This scheme is known as high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT) lanes, and it has been introduced mainly in the United States and Canada. The first practical implementations was California's private toll 91 Express Lanes, in Orange County in 1995, followed in 1996 by Interstate 15 in San Diego. There has been controversy over this concept, and HOT schemes have been called "Lexus" lanes, as critics see this new pricing scheme as a perk to the rich. According to the Texas A&M Transportation Institute, by 2012 there were in the United States 722 corridor-miles of HOV lanes, 294 corridor-miles of HOT/Express lanes and 163 corridor-miles of HOT/Express lanes under construction.
Congestion pricing in the form of variable tolls by time-of-the-day have also been implemented in bridges and tunnels providing access to the central business districts of several major cities. In most cases there was a toll already in existence. Dynamic pricing is relatively rare compared to variable pricing. One example of dynamic tolling is the Custis Memorial Parkway in the Washington, D.C. metro area, where at times of severe congestion tolls can reach almost .
In March 2001, the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey implemented a discount on regular toll fees during off-peak hours for those vehicles paying electronically with an EZ Pass issued in New York State. These discount toll was implemented at several tunnels and bridges connecting New York City and New Jersey, including the George Washington Bridge, Lincoln Tunnel, and Holland Tunnel, and at some other bridges administrated by PANYNJ. Since March 2008, qualified low-emission automobiles with a fuel economy of at least 45 miles per gallon are eligible to receive a Port Authority Green Pass, which allows for a 50% discount during off-peak hours as compared to the regular full toll.
In January 2009, variable tolls were implemented at Sydney Harbour Bridge, two weeks after upgrading to 100% free-flow electronic toll collection. The highest fees are charged during the morning and afternoon peak periods; a toll 25% lower applies for the shoulder periods; and a toll lower than the previously existing is charged at nights, weekends, and public holidays. This is Australia's first road congestion pricing scheme, and has had only a very minor effect on traffic levels, reducing them by 0.19%.
In July 2010 congestion tolls were implemented at the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge. The Bay Bridge congestion pricing scheme charges a toll from 5 a.m. to 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. to 7 p.m., Monday through Friday. During weekends cars pay . The toll remained at the previous toll of at all other times on weekdays. According to the Bay Area Toll Authority fewer users are driving during the peak hours and more vehicles are crossing the Bay Bridge before and after the 5–10 a.m. period in which the congestion toll goes into effect. The agency also reported that commute delays in the first six months have dropped by an average of 15 percent compared with 2009. When the congestion tolls were proposed, the agency expected the scheme to produce a 20 to 30 percent drop in commute traffic.
Non-urban
Autoroute A1 in Northern France is one of the few cases of congestion pricing implemented outside of urban areas. This is an expressway connecting Paris to Lille, and since 1992 congestion prices have been applied during weekends with the objective of spreading demand on the trip back to Paris on Sunday afternoons and evenings.
Concerns and criticisms
Both in the academic literature and in practice, the implementation of congestion pricing for urban road travel has raised several concerns, and has been subject of debate and controversy.
Measurement of effects
In a road network, congestion can be considered a specific measure of the time delay in a journey or time lost through traffic jams. Delays can be caused by some combination of traffic density, road capacity, and the delaying effects of other road users and traffic management schemes such as traffic lights, junctions, and street works. This can be measured as the extra journey time needed to traverse a congested route when compared to the same route with no such interference. However, this technical definition of congestion as a measurement of delay can get confused and used interchangeably with traffic density in the public mind.
To measure the true effects of any traffic management scheme it is normally necessary to establish a baseline, or "do nothing" case, which estimates the effects on the network without any changes other than normal trends and expected local changes. Notably this was not done for the London Congestion Charging Scheme, which has led to claims that it is not possible to determine the extent of the actual influence of the scheme. Regardless of the scheme's impact, in a retrospective analysis Transport for London (TfL) estimated there would have already been a significant reduction in traffic as a consequence of parking policies and increased congestion due to traffic management and other interventions that had the effect of reducing highway capacity. In 2006, the last year before the zone was expanded, TfL observed that traffic flows were lower than in any recent year, while network traffic speeds were also lower than in any recent year.
In 2013, ten years since its implementation, TfL reported that the congestion charging scheme resulted in a 10% reduction in traffic volumes from baseline conditions, and an overall reduction of 11% in vehicle kilometres in London between 2000 and 2012. Despite these gains, traffic speeds have also been getting progressively slower over the past decade, particularly in central London. TfL explains that the historic decline in traffic speeds is most likely due to interventions that have reduced the effective capacity of the road network in order to improve the urban environment, increase road safety and prioritise public transport, pedestrian and cycle traffic, as well as an increase in road works by utilities and general development activity since 2006. TfL concludes that while levels of congestion in central London are close to pre-charging levels, the effectiveness of the congestion charge in reducing traffic volumes means that conditions would be worse without the Congestion Charging scheme.
Academic debate and concerns
Even the transport economists who advocate congestion pricing have anticipated several practical limitations, concerns and controversial issues regarding the actual implementation of this policy. As summarized by Cervero:
"True social-cost pricing of metropolitan travel has proven to be a theoretical ideal that so far has eluded real-world implementation. The primary obstacle is that except for professors of transportation economics and a cadre of vocal environmentalists, few people are in favor of considerably higher charges for peak-period travel. Middle-class motorists often complain they already pay too much in gasoline taxes and registration fees to drive their cars, and that to pay more during congested periods would add insult to injury. In the United States, few politicians are willing to champion the cause of congestion pricing for fear of reprisal from their constituents. Critics also argue that charging more to drive is elitist policy, pricing the poor off of roads so that the wealthy can move about unencumbered. It is for all these reasons that peak-period pricing remains a pipe dream in the minds of many."
Both Button and Small et al., have identified the following issues:
The real-world demand functions for urban road travel are more complex than the theoretical functions used in transport economics analysis. Congestion pricing was developed as a first-best solution, based on the assumption that the optimal price of road space equals the marginal cost price if all other goods in the economy are also marginal cost priced. In the real world this is not true, thus, actual implementation of congestion pricing is just a proxy or second-best solution. Based on the economic principles behind congestion pricing, the optimal congestion charge should make up for the difference between the average cost paid by the driver and the marginal cost imposed on other drivers (such as extra delay) and on society as a whole (such as air pollution). The practical challenge of setting optimal link-based tolls is daunting given that neither the demand functions nor the link-specific speed-flow curves can be known precisely. Therefore, transport economists recognize that in practice setting the right price for the congestion charge becomes a trial and error experience.
Inequality issue: A main concern is the possibility of undesirable distribution repercussions because of the diversity of road users. The use of the tolled road depends on the user's level of income. Where some cannot afford to pay the congestion charge, then this policy is likely to privilege the middle-class and rich. The users who shift to some less-preferred alternative are also worse off. The less wealthy are the more likely to switch to public transit. Road space rationing is another strategy generally viewed as more equitable than congestion pricing. However, high-income users can always avoid the travel restrictions by owning a second car and users with relatively inelastic demand (such as a worker who needs to transport tools to a job site) are relatively more impacted.
There are difficulties in deciding how to allocate the revenues raised. This is a controversial issue among scholars. The revenues can be used to improve public transport (as is the case in London), or to invest in new road infrastructure (as in Oslo). Some academics make the case that revenues should be disposed as a direct transfer payments to former road users. Congestion pricing is not intended to increase public revenues or to become just another tax, however this is precisely one of the main concerns of road users and taxpayers.
One alternative, aimed at avoiding inequality and revenue allocation issues, is to implement a rationing of peak period travel through mobility rights or revenue-neutral credit-based congestion pricing. This system would be similar to the existing emissions trading of carbon credit. Metropolitan area or city residents, or the taxpayers, would be issued mobility rights or congestion credits, and would have the option of using these for themselves, or trading or selling them to anyone willing to continue traveling by automobile beyond their personal quota. This trading system would allow direct benefits to be accrued by those users shifting to public transportation or by those reducing their peak-hour travel rather than the government.
Public controversy
Experience from the few cities where congestion pricing has been implemented shows that social and political acceptability is key. Public discontent with congestion pricing, or rejection of congestion pricing proposals, is due mainly to the inequality issues, the economic burden on neighboring communities, the effect on retail businesses and the economic activity in general, and the fears that the revenues will become just another tax.
Congestion pricing remains highly controversial with the public both before and after implementation. This has in part been resolved through referendums, such as after the seven-month trial period in Stockholm; however this creates a debate as to where the border line for the referendum should go, since it is often the people living outside the urban area who have to pay the tax, while the external benefit is granted to those who live within the area. In Stockholm there was a majority in the referendum within the city border (where the votes counted), but not outside.
Some concerns have also been expressed regarding the effects of cordon area congestion pricing on economic activity and land use, as the benefits are usually evaluated from the urban transportation perspective only. However, congestion pricing schemes have been used with the main objective of improving urban quality and to preserve historical heritage in the small cities.
The effects of a charge on business have been disputed; reports have shops and businesses being heavily impacted by the cost of the charge, both in terms of lost sales and increased delivery costs in London, while others show that businesses were then supporting the charge six months after implementation. Reports show business activity within the charge zone had been higher in both productivity and profitability and that the charge had a "broadly neutral impact" on the London wide economy, while others claim an average drop in business of 25% following the 2007 extension.
Other criticism has been raised concerning the environmental effects on neighborhoods bordering the congestion zone, with critics claiming that congestion pricing would create "parking lots" and add more traffic and pollution to those neighborhoods, and the imposition of a regressive tax on some commuters. Stockholm's trial of congestion pricing, however, showed a reduction in traffic in areas outside the congestion zone. Other opponents argue that the pricing could become a tax on middle- and lower-class residents, since those citizens would be affected the most financially. The installation of cameras for tracking purposes may also raise civil liberties concerns.
Effects
A 2019 study of congestion pricing in Stockholm between 2006–2010 found that in the absence of congestion pricing that Stockholm's air would have been five to 15 percent more polluted between 2006 and 2010", and that young children would have suffered substantially more asthma attacks. A 2020 study that analyzed driving restrictions in Beijing estimated that the implementation of congestion pricing would reduce total traffic, increase traffic speed, reduce pollution, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, reduce traffic accidents, and increase tax revenues. A 2020 study of London found that congestion pricing (introduced in 2003) led to reductions in pollution and reductions in driving, but it increased pollution from diesel vehicles (which were exempt from the congestion pricing). A 2021 study found that congestion pricing reduced CO2 emissions through downsizing commuting distances and housing sizes.
A 2013 study found that after congestion pricing was implemented in Seattle, drivers reported greater satisfaction with the routes covered by congestion pricing and reported lower stress.
A 2016 study found that more people used public transportation due to increases in congestion pricing in Singapore. A 2016 study found that real estate prices dropped by 19% within the cordoned-off areas of Singapore where congestion pricing was in place relative to the areas outside of the area.
Waterways
Panama Canal booking system and auction
The Panama Canal had a limited capacity determined by operational times and cycles of the existing locks and further constrained by the current trend towards larger (close to Panamax-sized) vessels transiting the canal which take more transit time within the locks and navigational channels, and the need for permanent periodical maintenance works due to the aging canal, which forces periodical shutdowns of this waterway. On the other hand, demand has been growing due to the rapid growth of international trade. Also, many users require a guarantee of certain level of service. Despite the gains which have been made in efficiency, the Panama Canal Authority (ACP) estimates that the canal will reach its maximum sustainable capacity between 2009 and 2012. The long-term solution for the congestion problems was the expansion of the canal through a new third set of locks. Work started in 2007 and the expanded canal enter commercial operation in June 2016. The new locks allow transit of larger, Post-Panamax ships, which have a greater cargo capacity than the current locks are capable of handling.
Considering the high operational costs of the vessels (container ships have daily operational costs of approximately ), the long queues that occur during the high season (sometimes up to a week's delay), and the high value of some of the cargo transported through the canal, the ACP implemented a congestion pricing scheme to allow a better management of the scarce capacity available and to increase the level of service offered to the shipping companies. The scheme gave users two choices: (1) transit by order of arrival on a first-come first-served basis, as the canal historically has operated or (2) booked service for a fee—a congestion charge.
The booked service allowed two options of fees. The Transit Booking System, available online, allowing customers who do not want to wait in queue to pay an additional 15% over the regular tolls, guaranteeing a specific day for transit and crossing the canal in 18 hours or less. ACP sells 24 of these daily slots up to 365 days in advance. The second choice was high priority transit. Since 2006, ACP has available a 25th slot, sold through the Transit Slot Auction to the highest bidder. The main customers of the Transit Booking System are cruise ships, container ships, vehicle carriers, and non-containerized cargo vessels.
The highest toll for high priority passage paid through the Transit Slot Auction was charged on a tanker in August 2006, bypassing a 90-ship queue awaiting the end of maintenance works on the Gatun locks, thus avoiding a seven-day delay. The normal fee would have been just . The average regular toll is around .
Airports
Many airports are facing extreme congestion, runway capacity being the scarcest resource. Congestion pricing schemes have been proposed to mitigate this problem, including slot auctions, such as with the Panama Canal, but implementation has been piecemeal. The first scheme was started in 1968 when higher landing fees for peak-hour use by aircraft with 25 seats or less at Newark, Kennedy, and LaGuardia airports in New York City. As a result of the higher charges, general aviation activity during peak periods decreased by 30%. These fees were applied until deregulation of the industry, but higher fees for general aviation were kept to discourage this type of operations at New York's busiest airports. In 1988 a higher landing fee for smaller aircraft at Boston's Logan Airport was adopted; with this measure much of the general aviation abandoned Logan for secondary airports. In both US cases the pricing scheme was challenged in court. In the case of Boston, the judge ruled in favor of general aviation users due to lack of alternative airports. In the case of New York, the judge dismissed the case because "the fee was a justified means of relieving congestion".
Congestion pricing has also been implemented for scheduled airline services. The British Airports Authority (BAA) has been a pioneer in implementing congestion pricing for all types of commercial aviation. In 1972 implemented the first peak pricing policy, with surcharges varying depending on the season and time of the day, and by 1976 raised these peak charges. London-Heathrow had seven pricing structures between 1976 and 1984. In this case it was the US carriers that went to international arbitration in 1988 and won their case.
In 1991, the Athens Airport charged a 25% higher landing fee for those aircraft arriving between 11:00 and 17:00 during the high tourism season during summer. Hong Kong charges an additional flat fee to the basic weight charge. In 1991–92 peak pricing at London's main airports Heathrow, Gatwick and Stansted was implemented; airlines were charged different landing fees for peak and off-peak operations depending on the weight of aircraft. For example, in the case of a Boeing 757, the peak landing fee was about 2.5 times higher than the off-peak fee in all three airports. For a Boeing 747 the differential was even higher, as the old 747 carries a higher noise charge. Though related to runway congestion, the main objective of these peak charges at the major British airports was to raise revenue for investment.
See also
Automobile costs
Electricity pricing
Low-emission zone
Energy demand management (congestion pricing applied to electric utilities)
GNSS road pricing
Pareto efficiency
Road pricing
Road space rationing
Tragedy of the commons
Transport economics
Transportation demand management
Variable pricing
Vehicle miles traveled tax
Water pricing
References
Bibliography
(See Chapter 9: Optimizing Traffic Congestion)
(See Chapter 6: The Master-Planned Transit Metropolis: Singapore)
(See Chapter 4: Pricing and 4-3: Congestion Pricing in Practice)
External links
Electronic toll collection
Intelligent transportation systems
Pricing
Road traffic management
Transport economics
Transportation planning
+
fr:Péage urbain
it:Pedaggio urbano | [
0.1765831708908081,
-0.33634811639785767,
0.3808214068412781,
0.4367932677268982,
-0.10666988044977188,
0.45781973004341125,
-0.12093816697597504,
0.33961743116378784,
-0.01667073369026184,
-0.5588964819908142,
-0.3633873462677002,
0.6525070667266846,
-0.4348137676715851,
0.45161956548690796,
0.47682759165763855,
0.22352173924446106,
0.31709566712379456,
-0.16521672904491425,
-0.13822057843208313,
0.04066267982125282,
-0.33361944556236267,
-0.006978107150644064,
0.42551323771476746,
-0.4497474431991577,
0.5294597148895264,
-0.31680527329444885,
0.19092270731925964,
0.34731605648994446,
-0.7621147632598877,
0.03601020947098732,
0.40512728691101074,
0.7949333190917969,
-0.3653259575366974,
0.29700660705566406,
0.2731476128101349,
-0.22063590586185455,
-0.1602877378463745,
-1.0443962812423706,
-0.3314789831638336,
-0.28344136476516724,
-0.054782550781965256,
0.2014325112104416,
-0.08500144630670547,
0.37457385659217834,
0.07003504037857056,
-0.3076852560043335,
-1.5218044519424438,
-0.2773619592189789,
-0.8424260020256042,
-0.5656425952911377,
-0.3328373432159424,
0.6605058312416077,
-0.1979123055934906,
0.8263846039772034,
-0.003722572000697255,
0.5553717017173767,
-0.6129961013793945,
-0.3591989576816559,
0.1188412457704544,
-0.5602244138717651,
0.7436100244522095,
0.3428589701652527,
-0.1597883105278015,
0.4233649969100952,
-0.21342292428016663,
-0.18735536932945251,
0.057571958750486374,
0.7278275489807129,
-0.5816327929496765,
-0.5225488543510437,
-0.6857696175575256,
-0.4128105342388153,
0.2711484134197235,
0.30562105774879456,
-0.6342737078666687,
0.29564014077186584,
0.4085247814655304,
0.1177452802658081,
-0.14908719062805176,
-0.07865986227989197,
-0.05815119296312332,
0.564357578754425,
0.5161681175231934,
-0.06648966670036316,
0.48043113946914673,
-0.5479627847671509,
-0.21442736685276031,
0.6971209049224854,
-0.10957527905702591,
0.6327247619628906,
0.24931009113788605,
-0.19266368448734283,
0.6820286512374878,
-0.16656175255775452,
0.016401518136262894,
-0.07773900777101517,
0.611398458480835,
0.05733480304479599,
0.4583679139614105,
0.5066900849342346,
-0.0804370790719986,
-0.41728654503822327,
0.15272678434848785,
0.14477834105491638,
-0.01727079600095749,
-0.49457135796546936,
-0.37826502323150635,
-0.08703207969665527,
0.40960124135017395,
0.18255138397216797,
-0.4122324287891388,
-0.04822468385100365,
-0.0066515374928712845,
0.06884888559579849,
-0.1230243593454361,
-0.10405353456735611,
-0.23506274819374084,
0.3455464839935303,
-0.6400080323219299,
0.11872954666614532,
0.008156757801771164,
-0.09373782575130463,
0.025035306811332703,
-0.4127940833568573,
-0.021728726103901863,
0.10369633883237839,
0.5064287781715393,
0.2869970202445984,
-0.6654133200645447,
0.2361539751291275,
0.44709423184394836,
0.5761815309524536,
-0.189508318901062,
-0.10145115852355957,
-0.3273581862449646,
-0.40759119391441345,
0.10650670528411865,
0.2063983678817749,
0.9351193308830261,
-0.6163150072097778,
-0.6995190978050232,
-0.5822241902351379,
-0.6330515742301941,
-0.003267028834670782,
0.415722131729126,
0.04876602068543434,
0.1803179383277893,
-0.2215651273727417,
-0.22012166678905487,
-0.2771244943141937,
-0.033368583768606186,
0.5312899947166443,
-0.5059881210327148,
0.22672460973262787,
-0.04370376840233803,
0.19235163927078247,
0.4318535029888153,
-0.5399156808853149,
-0.36494123935699463,
0.1964339166879654,
0.06287611275911331,
-0.2662931978702545,
-0.37860822677612305,
-0.0743081122636795,
-0.43023473024368286,
-0.3772076964378357,
-0.16984210908412933,
-0.02026824839413166,
0.42864990234375,
0.16001886129379272,
-0.4444212019443512,
0.11796142160892487,
0.4076598882675171,
-0.9720218777656555,
0.2900053560733795,
0.3929494321346283,
0.1812034547328949,
0.3071972727775574,
0.6870921850204468,
0.3262869119644165,
-0.7746371030807495,
0.13738925755023956,
0.7942045331001282,
0.16893446445465088,
-0.1658308506011963,
-0.6088888645172119,
0.7705945372581482,
-0.0327698215842247,
0.2637004554271698,
-0.4651115834712982,
-0.5242067575454712,
-0.05687233433127403,
-0.13526441156864166,
-0.23776647448539734,
0.898483157157898,
0.41908854246139526,
-0.040043801069259644,
0.5543060898780823,
0.1685425490140915,
0.21513259410858154,
-0.17017093300819397,
0.19229203462600708,
0.34678998589515686,
-0.1376773715019226,
-0.8246340155601501,
0.13793836534023285,
-0.02833855338394642,
-0.5262847542762756,
-0.3061920404434204,
0.28587204217910767,
0.6582573056221008,
-0.9304927587509155,
0.2802913784980774,
-0.9150590896606445,
0.2645074427127838,
0.10360424965620041,
-0.27121803164482117,
0.36904582381248474,
-0.5645599365234375,
0.1767985075712204,
0.4396774172782898,
-0.01650114357471466,
-0.0921180322766304,
0.8510910272598267,
-0.4475090801715851,
0.1590770184993744,
0.14254248142242432,
0.10163000226020813,
0.6299980878829956,
-0.42340198159217834,
0.1297946721315384,
0.2071090191602707,
-0.1372169703245163,
-0.2530726492404938,
0.20232953131198883,
0.2509935796260834,
0.4074097275733948,
-0.25492992997169495,
-0.45812129974365234,
-0.07327435165643692,
-0.705848753452301,
-0.10997859388589859,
-0.716323971748352,
0.20199328660964966,
-0.015134835615754128,
-0.09539029002189636,
-0.42796412110328674,
0.3427847921848297,
-0.2342522144317627,
-0.005237371660768986,
0.5973488688468933,
0.37411728501319885,
0.046210333704948425,
-0.25152647495269775,
0.4161455035209656,
-0.5046255588531494,
0.42558884620666504,
0.2492779642343521,
0.15474958717823029,
-0.4928286075592041,
-0.2015371322631836,
0.29169198870658875,
-0.39027711749076843,
-0.021366413682699203,
-0.17322967946529388,
-0.5349722504615784,
-0.39208275079727173,
0.4187230169773102,
-0.20773857831954956,
0.2676510810852051,
0.6404657959938049,
0.05901482701301575,
-0.651978075504303,
0.19424192607402802,
-0.5513631105422974,
-0.06871023774147034,
0.7528669238090515,
0.4301922917366028,
-0.14542797207832336,
-0.3346477448940277,
-0.12427234649658203,
0.23073235154151917,
0.021242870017886162,
-0.7847278118133545,
-0.05582273378968239,
-0.1691511571407318,
0.09250161796808243,
-0.07400435954332352,
0.16030827164649963,
-0.2518479526042938,
-0.6201910972595215,
0.4191227853298187,
-0.3963722884654999,
0.7073638439178467,
0.21627721190452576,
0.36816757917404175,
-0.5244953632354736,
0.25762102007865906,
0.6608816981315613,
-0.4135245680809021,
0.2726629376411438,
-0.11463617533445358,
-0.10862106829881668,
-0.009072434157133102,
-0.3122158348560333,
-0.4160715639591217,
-0.6293989419937134,
0.051447413861751556,
-5.706194877624512,
0.3206596076488495,
-0.2546460032463074,
0.4787347912788391,
0.1099463626742363,
0.08326254785060883,
0.7512454986572266,
0.06321436911821365,
-0.12358589470386505,
-0.19284285604953766,
-0.40195438265800476,
0.08706749975681305,
-0.0613601878285408,
0.22782957553863525,
0.020226113498210907,
0.43392491340637207,
0.7684628367424011,
0.09538563340902328,
0.3721790909767151,
0.4172669053077698,
-0.1767493188381195,
-0.6692884564399719,
0.10997748374938965,
0.5720596313476562,
-0.2588018774986267,
-0.445499062538147,
-0.12507249414920807,
0.3040313124656677,
-0.8883872628211975,
-0.24418488144874573,
0.40111568570137024,
-0.4979363977909088,
0.4209330677986145,
-0.2324734479188919,
0.13087935745716095,
0.07586929202079773,
0.1480182260274887,
0.12993191182613373,
0.0793759748339653,
-0.3914226293563843,
-0.5329910516738892,
0.21084743738174438,
0.25435057282447815,
0.12835873663425446,
0.5987869501113892,
-0.0993967205286026,
0.13183465600013733,
0.1385517418384552,
-0.3385983407497406,
0.34902119636535645,
0.2007826268672943,
0.06422271579504013,
0.4955412447452545,
0.17130665481090546,
-0.17938300967216492,
0.09666316211223602,
0.2319263517856598,
-0.5193171501159668,
-0.22547845542430878,
0.4070737361907959,
0.4281545579433441,
-0.35956233739852905,
-0.570525586605072,
0.30176857113838196,
-0.34942033886909485,
-0.05404709279537201,
-0.3205864131450653,
-0.7230104207992554,
0.23253051936626434,
0.14096714556217194,
-0.5432081818580627,
0.4093274772167206,
0.48981013894081116,
-0.46868768334388733,
0.03755783289670944,
-0.5223954916000366,
-0.10396185517311096,
0.3054209351539612,
0.6377198696136475,
-0.03563688322901726,
-0.5634806156158447,
-0.2251320779323578,
-0.06897751241922379,
-0.2832714021205902,
-0.025060713291168213,
-0.5784538984298706,
-0.15983633697032928,
0.5863843560218811,
-0.0920499935746193,
-0.17201058566570282,
0.6159092783927917,
-0.20139193534851074,
0.17109937965869904,
0.09464550763368607,
0.03943231329321861,
-0.17263302206993103,
-0.22854195535182953,
0.500888466835022,
-0.0267056655138731,
-0.44607895612716675,
0.514400839805603,
-0.14810751378536224,
-0.13344962894916534,
-0.14845506846904755,
0.16907472908496857,
-0.043722476810216904,
-0.32826516032218933,
0.6348972916603088,
0.30659574270248413,
-0.27926719188690186,
0.17014172673225403,
0.4685443043708801,
-0.6126997470855713,
-0.38415631651878357,
-0.4071715474128723,
0.3650299310684204,
-0.4388301372528076,
0.6358430981636047,
0.5136970281600952,
-0.15866626799106598,
0.13099953532218933,
0.11380427330732346,
-0.01602032221853733,
-0.4421629309654236,
0.26396939158439636,
0.30279088020324707,
-0.3029477000236511,
-0.03138010576367378,
0.6528475880622864,
0.00018626262317411602,
0.7273455262184143,
0.639448344707489,
-0.1103644147515297,
-0.5102635025978088,
-0.040960680693387985,
-0.8177077174186707,
0.19804227352142334,
0.06187321990728378,
0.06305063515901566,
-0.09614363312721252,
0.40329471230506897,
-0.3223045766353607,
0.30720454454421997,
-0.08317334949970245,
0.6579172611236572,
0.14497771859169006,
-0.5685095191001892,
-0.6675807237625122,
0.17301709949970245,
-0.29122185707092285,
-0.4398922026157379,
-0.8302110433578491,
-0.201364204287529,
-0.42354637384414673,
0.47401103377342224,
-0.5841769576072693,
0.1474638283252716,
-0.0007358453003689647,
0.31755560636520386,
-0.6192970275878906,
0.7213510870933533,
-0.46761244535446167,
-0.5100736021995544,
-0.05572214722633362,
-0.40833383798599243,
0.9348787665367126,
0.13858243823051453,
-1.0161052942276,
-0.1130378395318985,
0.8055528998374939,
-0.09033503383398056,
-0.38046976923942566,
-0.9112457036972046,
-0.1721118837594986,
0.19750207662582397,
-0.3256339728832245,
-0.2555824816226959,
0.042815446853637695,
0.2667228877544403,
-0.4255707859992981,
-0.44786810874938965,
-0.25608572363853455,
-0.2978329360485077,
0.273921936750412,
0.6263060569763184,
-0.549709677696228,
-0.22337308526039124,
0.7587506771087646,
-0.008612261153757572,
-0.6189821362495422,
-0.30971047282218933,
0.1827152818441391,
0.2145075798034668,
0.3670329451560974,
0.3909110724925995,
-0.6566653251647949,
-0.110848568379879,
0.23464663326740265,
-0.6203308701515198,
-0.2803536653518677,
0.1574951410293579,
0.2755034565925598,
-0.26300957798957825,
0.29035672545433044,
0.13487683236598969,
-0.1262327879667282,
-0.10256822407245636,
0.10173499584197998,
0.0401386022567749,
0.3577752113342285,
-0.8000769019126892,
-0.5341336131095886,
-0.8071808218955994,
0.22374847531318665,
-0.5584222674369812,
-0.18903259932994843,
-0.2096472680568695,
-0.6029215455055237,
-0.18856708705425262,
0.026562726125121117,
0.1875939518213272,
0.12326037138700485,
-0.8658199906349182,
-0.46910178661346436,
-0.1270453780889511,
0.507173478603363,
0.10051435977220535,
-1.2728490829467773,
0.18749256432056427,
0.24202871322631836,
-0.5412507653236389,
-0.7030833959579468,
0.22804726660251617,
0.9963870644569397,
0.10394618660211563,
0.22802935540676117,
0.10671112686395645,
0.1264670044183731,
-0.36642423272132874,
0.026734475046396255,
-0.4221815764904022,
0.2892400324344635,
0.2875051200389862,
-0.6857366561889648,
-0.2465476244688034,
0.9208182692527771,
0.34203311800956726,
-0.21782977879047394,
-0.6942597031593323,
0.18151935935020447,
-0.16075310111045837,
-0.18673750758171082,
-0.4758415222167969,
0.24327623844146729,
0.33905085921287537,
-0.42703157663345337,
-0.023738140240311623,
-0.574062705039978,
0.4896274209022522,
0.6998836994171143,
0.033699095249176025,
-0.030224107205867767,
0.6482597589492798,
-0.08928756415843964,
0.5492435097694397,
-0.12356076389551163,
-0.05402876064181328,
-0.1407972127199173,
0.4540390968322754,
-0.5183799862861633,
0.4556788206100464,
-0.09560573101043701,
0.7618628144264221,
0.17432458698749542,
0.9550238251686096,
-0.15776105225086212,
0.32146117091178894,
-0.6793184876441956,
0.33289167284965515,
-0.3137359619140625,
-0.15124206244945526,
0.09922455996274948,
-0.3919840157032013,
-0.40222620964050293,
0.5428596138954163,
-0.12986145913600922,
0.2126542627811432,
0.40527427196502686,
-0.2684284746646881,
-0.0725700631737709,
-0.017633548006415367,
0.26681068539619446,
-0.12373317033052444,
0.404972106218338,
-0.24743419885635376,
0.18605053424835205,
0.6608568429946899,
-0.0380522757768631,
-0.08391100913286209,
-0.29088979959487915,
-0.194906085729599,
0.3624894320964813,
0.11298507452011108,
-1.0410926342010498,
0.49548184871673584,
0.3683290183544159,
0.18725983798503876,
-0.39751705527305603,
0.48870858550071716,
-0.3713621497154236,
0.4672749936580658,
-0.05624034255743027,
0.07095122337341309,
1.6094738245010376,
-0.05563034862279892,
0.0779929831624031,
0.07413727790117264,
-0.31459981203079224,
0.29211872816085815,
1.006736397743225,
-0.10987172275781631,
0.24723069369792938,
0.4171864986419678,
-0.13316060602664948,
0.0039924271404743195,
0.10862140357494354,
-0.08047452569007874,
-0.3050442039966583,
0.27023690938949585,
0.7706604599952698,
0.4705955386161804,
0.09759192913770676,
-0.4681042432785034,
0.3578692376613617,
0.2913644015789032,
-0.39979085326194763,
0.2821330428123474,
-1.2003377676010132,
-0.3699171245098114,
-0.16720280051231384,
0.6894089579582214,
-0.09569564461708069,
-0.22279734909534454,
0.601447582244873,
-0.014243530109524727,
0.8573319911956787,
0.49480533599853516,
-0.031345877796411514,
-0.43010246753692627,
0.5426039695739746,
0.17753013968467712,
0.5588014721870422,
-0.2022843360900879,
0.07514650374650955,
-0.11022764444351196,
-0.22971706092357635,
0.32247331738471985,
-0.014828839339315891,
-0.04298486188054085,
-0.36109212040901184,
0.38371866941452026,
0.7228301167488098,
-0.15301769971847534,
-0.3721246123313904,
0.2177300900220871,
-0.40214958786964417,
0.4743196368217468,
-0.38596105575561523,
0.22815163433551788,
0.3516877293586731,
-0.22288067638874054,
0.5027258396148682,
-0.4393470287322998,
-0.0908767580986023,
0.9405121803283691,
-0.01480943989008665,
0.09557349979877472,
0.6165478229522705,
-0.10080919414758682,
0.211866095662117,
0.054364629089832306,
-0.024305099621415138,
-0.023879891261458397,
-0.299909770488739,
-0.27333343029022217,
-0.3580343723297119,
-0.5538755059242249,
0.2804343104362488,
-0.15694870054721832,
-0.021204162389039993,
-0.3778719902038574,
-0.04816095903515816,
-0.43132227659225464,
0.0031957668252289295,
0.14136457443237305,
-0.4341318905353546,
-0.08260050415992737,
0.7893065214157104,
-0.4763879179954529,
-0.15748122334480286,
0.26080039143562317,
0.3327188789844513,
0.0045402999967336655,
0.3136652410030365,
-0.36383217573165894,
0.5683492422103882,
-0.33390429615974426,
-0.16188111901283264,
-0.35537150502204895,
0.062036193907260895,
0.6557109355926514,
0.16483847796916962,
0.016659166663885117,
0.18679457902908325,
0.2755066454410553,
0.3076018989086151,
0.534096360206604,
-0.2078220248222351,
-0.18357260525226593,
-0.7057978510856628,
0.19885019958019257,
0.24939599633216858,
-0.0016164903063327074,
-0.3438168168067932,
0.12538154423236847,
0.04392847791314125,
0.3965890109539032,
0.4923156499862671,
0.1716904640197754,
0.7436485886573792,
-0.5093960762023926,
-0.228180393576622,
-0.8268343210220337,
-0.08539886027574539,
-0.42852166295051575,
0.036485783755779266,
0.30406904220581055,
-0.10295505821704865,
-0.13323093950748444,
-0.07349398732185364,
0.4802221357822418,
-0.3353988826274872,
0.22197231650352478,
-0.2388833910226822,
-0.11114645004272461,
-0.17402265965938568,
-0.03103034757077694,
0.10904035717248917,
-0.5114298462867737,
0.8952727317810059,
0.2652571201324463,
-0.5731775760650635,
-0.13499125838279724,
0.22442087531089783,
0.0775684043765068,
-0.10877010226249695,
-0.13937030732631683,
-0.3464852571487427,
-0.5769767165184021,
-0.05775607377290726
] |
229082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Snagge | John Snagge | John Derrick Mordaunt Snagge OBE (8 May 1904 – 25 March 1996) was a British newsreader and commentator on BBC Radio.
Life
Born in Chelsea, London, he was educated at Winchester College and Pembroke College, Oxford, where he obtained a degree in law. He then joined the BBC, taking up the position of assistant director at Stoke-on-Trent's new relay station 6ST. He broadcast his first sports commentary (of a Hull City versus Stoke City football match) in January 1927, after the BBC obtained the rights to cover major sporting events.
In 1928, Snagge was transferred to London to work as one of the BBC's main announcers alongside Stuart Hibberd. From 1931 until 1980, he commentated on the annual Oxford-Cambridge Boat Race. He provided commentary for the coronation of King George VI in 1937 and again in 1953 for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II.
At the start of the Second World War, Snagge was made the BBC's presentation director and delivered important radio announcements as the war unfolded. By the time of the D-Day landings in 1944, he was presenting the magazine programme War Report which featured regular news from the beaches of Normandy. He announced that Allied Armies have started landing "on the northern coast of France" at 9.32 am on 6 June, but without giving the actual location (Normandy).
In the early 1950s, Snagge played a role in negotiations that led to the radio comedy series The Goon Show being commissioned by the BBC. He was also the subject of many running gags during the show, and provided many self-parodying announcements, usually recorded. He also featured as himself in the episode The Greenslade Story, alongside regular announcer Wallace Greenslade. He was a defender of the show against many efforts to cancel it, even to staking his career on it. Later, in the 1970s, he echoed his wartime role by appearing as the newsreader in the radio version of Dad's Army, setting the scene at the beginning of each episode.
He appeared as himself in the 1960 TV Hancock's Half Hour episode, 'The East Cheam Centenary', where he commentates on the street 'procession', from Hancock's bedroom at 23 Railway Cuttings.
Snagge retired in 1965, but continued to provide commentaries for the Boat Race until 1980. The same year his wife Eileen died. Around this time he also appeared on Noel Edmonds's Radio 1 show on Sunday mornings, a role subsequently taken up by Brian Perkins.
When BBC Radio Stoke-on-Trent (now BBC Radio Stoke) was launched in 1968 Snagge introduced the new station by apologising for the break in transmission that had occurred on 30 October 1928, i.e. the close of 6ST, and that it was " due to circumstances beyond our control. Normal transmission has now been resumed".
He voiced the commentary on the Sex Pistols track, Pistols Propaganda, which appeared on the B-side of their single (I'm Not Your) Stepping Stone. The track is the soundtrack to the trailer for their film, The Great Rock 'n' Roll Swindle.
During the 1949 University Boat Race Snagge's voice filled with excitement and he reported: "I can't see who's in the lead but it's either Oxford or Cambridge".
He was the guardian of Wally Hope, founder of the Stonehenge Free Festival, until his premature death in 1975.
John Snagge died in Slough from throat cancer in 1996, aged 91.
Family
Snagge was the son of Sir Thomas Mordaunt Snagge (1868–1955), also known as Judge Mordaunt Snagge, knighted in 1931, and Gwendaline Rose Emily Colomb (1876–1966).
His paternal grandfather was Sir Thomas William Snagge, KCMG (1837–1914). His mother's father was the British naval strategist, Sir John Colomb, KCMG (1838–1909).
He was married twice: firstly, in 1936, to Eileen Mary Joscelyne (the daughter of Harry Percy Joscelyne). She died in 1980. He married, secondly, Joan Wilson in 1982. She predeceased him in 1992.
References
Sources
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography
External links
at the Radio Academy's Hall of Fame.
John Snagge announcing the D Day landings, 6 June 1944
1904 births
1996 deaths
British radio personalities
British reporters and correspondents
BBC newsreaders and journalists
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Alumni of Pembroke College, Oxford
Deaths from cancer in England
Deaths from esophageal cancer
People educated at Winchester College
Articles containing video clips | [
0.026728197932243347,
0.4746536910533905,
-0.5925098657608032,
-0.5841633081436157,
-0.3542015552520752,
0.30677518248558044,
0.6741926074028015,
0.13739122450351715,
-0.4341745972633362,
0.047231290489435196,
-0.4910225570201874,
0.45540493726730347,
-0.4275732934474945,
0.19764645397663116,
0.2727612555027008,
-0.2769382894039154,
-0.5944321155548096,
-0.28429847955703735,
-0.2865903675556183,
-0.24654461443424225,
-0.09204760193824768,
-0.4722042679786682,
0.15502795577049255,
-0.006986376829445362,
-0.10234100371599197,
0.27845096588134766,
-0.022653577849268913,
-0.25197267532348633,
0.10981487482786179,
-0.2564280331134796,
0.021636858582496643,
0.6510406732559204,
0.3347766399383545,
0.03995886817574501,
-0.536896824836731,
0.4548983573913574,
-0.2847738265991211,
-0.04983026161789894,
-0.16597768664360046,
0.4748131334781647,
-0.5026563405990601,
0.26075479388237,
0.1093248650431633,
0.3922470510005951,
0.15368783473968506,
-0.5334373116493225,
-1.9194198846817017,
-0.08900447934865952,
-0.6121184229850769,
-0.13761024177074432,
-0.024480385705828667,
0.6139701008796692,
1.0059592723846436,
-0.0034683733247220516,
0.005661868955940008,
0.30080845952033997,
-0.14314986765384674,
0.2809528112411499,
0.0218980610370636,
-0.07031307369470596,
0.24910135567188263,
-0.5156457424163818,
0.25928136706352234,
-0.1870739609003067,
0.4793136715888977,
0.2913624346256256,
-0.5234229564666748,
0.514237642288208,
-0.1568290889263153,
0.38811516761779785,
-0.15688808262348175,
0.44100287556648254,
0.40752512216567993,
0.2783620357513428,
0.40880298614501953,
-0.2678559422492981,
0.3747740685939789,
-0.12271518260240555,
0.0029033254832029343,
-0.3325475752353668,
0.20443390309810638,
-0.08156567066907883,
0.6299104690551758,
0.5225600600242615,
0.1854037344455719,
-0.2982327342033386,
-0.8203563690185547,
0.3003261089324951,
-0.3895721435546875,
0.6030380725860596,
-0.16805316507816315,
-0.41878384351730347,
0.0014297541929408908,
-0.17891083657741547,
-0.20196090638637543,
0.3703860938549042,
0.12724196910858154,
0.6650615930557251,
0.34543001651763916,
-0.3179648816585541,
-0.1885339319705963,
-0.02659720741212368,
0.4923116862773895,
-0.0962374284863472,
-0.3671700358390808,
0.09845263510942459,
-0.07739531248807907,
-0.4044783413410187,
0.6351220011711121,
-1.340454339981079,
-0.5721291303634644,
0.03001561388373375,
-0.40987756848335266,
0.06708569079637527,
0.24168013036251068,
-0.1279369592666626,
-0.10050211101770401,
-0.5160439610481262,
-0.578514575958252,
-0.24545711278915405,
-0.3268224000930786,
0.477647602558136,
-0.30937618017196655,
-0.1917470544576645,
-0.8296554684638977,
0.11676166951656342,
0.042792536318302155,
0.0658102035522461,
0.12484743446111679,
0.7114560008049011,
0.2641052305698395,
1.1997191905975342,
-0.5791749358177185,
-0.36835038661956787,
-0.4826216697692871,
-0.09154795110225677,
0.26380500197410583,
0.4141124188899994,
-0.21863669157028198,
0.29913094639778137,
0.024521932005882263,
0.39164435863494873,
-2.0980873107910156,
0.17136961221694946,
0.18688242137432098,
0.19631612300872803,
-0.4243505597114563,
-0.309248149394989,
0.42183294892311096,
-0.2605381906032562,
0.27634429931640625,
-0.19799281656742096,
0.4463904798030853,
0.004227771889418364,
-0.177140012383461,
0.4385046362876892,
0.11094347387552261,
0.06444190442562103,
0.3825903832912445,
0.4215629994869232,
0.5742043852806091,
-0.26402395963668823,
-0.1465107947587967,
0.14731882512569427,
0.06763441115617752,
0.06309717148542404,
0.2193050980567932,
-0.3423980474472046,
0.4254004955291748,
-0.0005647237412631512,
-0.12406610697507858,
-0.35296356678009033,
0.44926145672798157,
-0.02996945194900036,
-0.21733148396015167,
0.2984106242656708,
0.27269884943962097,
0.49782025814056396,
-0.1292463093996048,
-0.5433838963508606,
-0.6359622478485107,
-0.488157719373703,
0.09930087625980377,
-0.19442960619926453,
0.5249457359313965,
0.11731576919555664,
0.8068680167198181,
-0.2210843712091446,
0.6233991384506226,
0.20185865461826324,
-0.5146214962005615,
-0.6488565802574158,
0.4067051410675049,
-0.03546005114912987,
0.610389232635498,
0.30836355686187744,
0.06172191724181175,
0.22263984382152557,
0.49349334836006165,
0.29154449701309204,
0.041384510695934296,
-0.036318205296993256,
-0.20687642693519592,
-0.6498210430145264,
0.2551056444644928,
2.143347978591919,
0.4831795394420624,
-0.035373181104660034,
0.17630688846111298,
0.7996376752853394,
0.2556358873844147,
-0.7475088238716125,
0.06013118848204613,
0.47249501943588257,
-0.13190795481204987,
-0.7960608601570129,
0.06051255762577057,
-0.1182393953204155,
0.33771058917045593,
-0.6604023575782776,
0.6208667755126953,
0.5073171854019165,
-0.06329825520515442,
0.6379536986351013,
0.36709582805633545,
0.5340125560760498,
0.19062410295009613,
0.2263534963130951,
-0.16259774565696716,
-1.0656449794769287,
0.13557149469852448,
0.3492751121520996,
0.5394821166992188,
-0.22821371257305145,
0.47094014286994934,
-0.20217278599739075,
0.28423845767974854,
-0.3135857880115509,
0.030425867065787315,
-0.40140071511268616,
0.07300274819135666,
0.04389125108718872,
-0.3707936406135559,
0.39116671681404114,
0.011583305895328522,
0.5249689817428589,
0.04519830271601677,
0.014633688144385815,
-0.00040930192335508764,
0.12499967217445374,
0.48396801948547363,
0.8969106674194336,
0.6267597675323486,
0.11575113236904144,
-0.1751285046339035,
0.13859926164150238,
0.2147948294878006,
0.0008527130703441799,
0.8234480023384094,
0.40147069096565247,
0.11716679483652115,
-0.16186828911304474,
0.12927214801311493,
0.44348111748695374,
-0.5475194454193115,
-0.46715670824050903,
-0.06635959446430206,
-0.78037428855896,
0.14411622285842896,
-0.20596599578857422,
0.2059423178434372,
-0.2124212235212326,
-0.04886742681264877,
-2.026162624359131,
0.1592138558626175,
-0.16442158818244934,
0.04083189740777016,
-0.21260511875152588,
-0.22558507323265076,
-0.13947813212871552,
0.31694090366363525,
0.7934727072715759,
0.11816093325614929,
0.6156769394874573,
0.3156769275665283,
-0.0441478006541729,
-0.1473909169435501,
-0.11242471635341644,
0.2266780287027359,
-0.21294470131397247,
-0.5551933646202087,
0.7720622420310974,
-0.1576310694217682,
0.15084359049797058,
-0.24022921919822693,
-0.10817848145961761,
-0.3155187666416168,
-0.7787877917289734,
-0.019515760242938995,
-0.3825360834598541,
-0.3994324803352356,
0.6566065549850464,
-0.0297726858407259,
0.025792177766561508,
0.12907899916172028,
0.14508268237113953,
-0.19052080810070038,
-0.17969638109207153,
-5.139072418212891,
0.10278186947107315,
0.49438467621803284,
-0.6803849935531616,
0.04235653951764107,
0.12886178493499756,
0.13121874630451202,
-0.06943277269601822,
-0.252926766872406,
-0.47384318709373474,
0.07710357010364532,
0.04494874179363251,
-0.16315725445747375,
0.1530606597661972,
0.8670335412025452,
0.20303839445114136,
0.29261502623558044,
0.4657689332962036,
0.6681622862815857,
0.43766969442367554,
0.10028638690710068,
0.19145193696022034,
0.22305524349212646,
0.28458642959594727,
-0.36001095175743103,
0.5324257016181946,
-0.18203821778297424,
0.34829047322273254,
-0.43855008482933044,
-0.5521048307418823,
0.5807350277900696,
-0.25781112909317017,
-0.4634324908256531,
-0.1447061002254486,
-0.22277501225471497,
-0.5285527110099792,
0.2695145308971405,
0.8697662949562073,
-0.12036258727312088,
-0.4214741289615631,
0.12209245562553406,
0.4599674642086029,
-0.5500144958496094,
0.1359061300754547,
0.7321111559867859,
0.08608713001012802,
-0.505013644695282,
-0.12492042779922485,
-0.0317089669406414,
0.4571215808391571,
-0.09529076516628265,
-0.06926389038562775,
0.1932837963104248,
0.18261206150054932,
-0.3844887912273407,
-0.2911018133163452,
-0.06012194603681564,
-0.4298362135887146,
-0.5467569828033447,
0.16859008371829987,
0.55935138463974,
-0.2272685319185257,
0.06195584684610367,
-0.22380170226097107,
-0.48266538977622986,
0.007950399070978165,
0.2222813069820404,
-0.03846696391701698,
0.45976778864860535,
-0.7112166881561279,
-0.21510687470436096,
0.809540867805481,
0.5498427748680115,
-0.9432530999183655,
-0.6119620203971863,
-0.26829689741134644,
-0.06276971101760864,
0.07656901329755783,
-0.2493431121110916,
0.011652419343590736,
0.11184878647327423,
-0.4420226216316223,
-0.35458144545555115,
0.7932868599891663,
0.6228901147842407,
-0.32540369033813477,
-0.3985607624053955,
0.5368729829788208,
-0.3004741370677948,
-0.34210604429244995,
0.1755724996328354,
-0.007287581916898489,
-0.17883726954460144,
0.6935137510299683,
0.13741552829742432,
0.2602868378162384,
-0.0892285406589508,
-0.10088114440441132,
0.4827444851398468,
-0.11113768815994263,
-0.8578566908836365,
-0.10145674645900726,
0.009097284637391567,
-0.5169655680656433,
0.06879440695047379,
-0.088272325694561,
-0.3157450556755066,
0.258550763130188,
0.36353927850723267,
-0.1927073746919632,
-0.07148642092943192,
0.17198599874973297,
-0.713104248046875,
0.4284239113330841,
0.4591686427593231,
-0.1780354380607605,
-0.09704329818487167,
0.4066851735115051,
0.3328390121459961,
0.1915169060230255,
0.11153650283813477,
0.2786838710308075,
0.032783109694719315,
-0.313855916261673,
-0.40295326709747314,
-0.18718624114990234,
0.12787294387817383,
-0.4131002724170685,
-0.4397183060646057,
0.045884646475315094,
-0.43274974822998047,
0.5156163573265076,
0.3129974901676178,
-0.14558522403240204,
-0.14788518846035004,
-0.2203408032655716,
-0.8173244595527649,
0.27659571170806885,
0.28258320689201355,
0.20446468889713287,
0.02536705508828163,
-0.11717873066663742,
0.15772448480129242,
0.48052456974983215,
-0.004030102398246527,
0.3624346852302551,
0.17778819799423218,
-0.02791322022676468,
-0.42529183626174927,
0.46774575114250183,
-0.3006151616573334,
-0.10322750359773636,
0.15565946698188782,
-0.6435819864273071,
-0.24985739588737488,
0.24999092519283295,
-0.1292911022901535,
0.07213208079338074,
-0.31988394260406494,
-0.42571401596069336,
-0.2516549825668335,
-0.28712329268455505,
-1.1333842277526855,
0.31735581159591675,
0.3585512042045593,
-0.14005954563617706,
-0.35405927896499634,
-0.04261351376771927,
-0.011645322665572166,
0.37771308422088623,
-0.6854029297828674,
-0.18462882936000824,
-0.5000625252723694,
-0.1722753643989563,
0.3229775130748749,
-0.10438916087150574,
0.10872908681631088,
0.09663990139961243,
-0.10188688337802887,
-0.05962149426341057,
-0.30665263533592224,
0.4600781202316284,
-0.6502454280853271,
0.3084983825683594,
0.32326582074165344,
-0.08365163952112198,
-0.7164294719696045,
-0.2556939721107483,
0.1045684888958931,
-0.18752464652061462,
0.2676663398742676,
-0.37307289242744446,
0.5542452931404114,
0.8430077433586121,
-0.16016463935375214,
-0.04194612056016922,
0.1538747400045395,
-0.4877758324146271,
-0.1037859320640564,
-0.505764901638031,
0.27543964982032776,
-0.0761851817369461,
-0.2731251120567322,
0.05208871141076088,
-0.1652020812034607,
-0.9839966297149658,
-0.25729045271873474,
0.38976040482521057,
-0.37393155694007874,
0.5036953091621399,
-0.38403430581092834,
-0.18928848206996918,
-0.3524773418903351,
0.544852077960968,
-0.22207072377204895,
-0.2317572832107544,
0.17319828271865845,
0.32107409834861755,
-0.16548366844654083,
-0.46107301115989685,
-0.25322380661964417,
-0.2458009421825409,
-0.30215126276016235,
-0.0648190900683403,
-0.10280749201774597,
0.0890771821141243,
-0.008603722788393497,
-0.24124246835708618,
1.0708025693893433,
0.04395431652665138,
-0.2778659462928772,
-0.10994049161672592,
0.5074104070663452,
0.2688367962837219,
-0.09975615888834,
0.19772383570671082,
0.08724941313266754,
0.29460105299949646,
0.11644277721643448,
0.15566648542881012,
0.5560880303382874,
0.9794498085975647,
0.33224454522132874,
-0.09987305849790573,
-0.22026517987251282,
0.19454658031463623,
0.808978259563446,
0.18093833327293396,
0.16749651730060577,
0.06619995087385178,
0.44644901156425476,
0.0909678041934967,
-0.8372836112976074,
0.1403578519821167,
0.9357064962387085,
-0.559552013874054,
-0.2055455446243286,
0.2191855013370514,
0.29866907000541687,
-0.17883513867855072,
0.4957631230354309,
0.15093156695365906,
0.4990108609199524,
0.5145439505577087,
0.2353592813014984,
0.5934213995933533,
-0.06390098482370377,
-0.025617405772209167,
0.13982905447483063,
-0.1977575719356537,
-0.6342805027961731,
-0.47252514958381653,
-0.32461097836494446,
0.68479323387146,
-0.03532636538147926,
-0.18575309216976166,
0.45345646142959595,
-0.4870794713497162,
0.23841752111911774,
-0.07305987924337387,
0.9880955815315247,
-0.2651691436767578,
0.5905288457870483,
-0.5311111211776733,
-0.3292151689529419,
-0.5018436312675476,
-0.2680406868457794,
0.03295552358031273,
-0.17422302067279816,
0.07709566503763199,
-0.6196697354316711,
-0.1464110016822815,
-0.5246642231941223,
0.40701383352279663,
0.016886889934539795,
-0.2757459580898285,
-0.48434388637542725,
0.36303478479385376,
-0.3238145411014557,
-0.5199945569038391,
-0.5127999186515808,
-0.05204644426703453,
0.2743247151374817,
-0.0975455567240715,
0.40029528737068176,
0.30710846185684204,
-0.43764322996139526,
-0.26663297414779663,
-0.350167453289032,
0.16449415683746338,
-0.01403777301311493,
-0.1912228763103485,
0.15591858327388763,
0.39447712898254395,
-0.4628150165081024,
-0.3068050444126129,
0.1356380730867386,
-0.6718603372573853,
-0.14002493023872375,
-0.15322503447532654,
-0.10776818543672562,
0.3153179883956909,
0.3804886043071747,
-0.1787804812192917,
-0.18261244893074036,
0.5069386959075928,
0.2611629366874695,
-0.1536901742219925,
0.07629098743200302,
0.005754908546805382,
-0.4421553313732147,
-0.11140905320644379,
-0.5181944966316223,
0.40060487389564514,
-0.14857050776481628,
-0.33613085746765137,
0.3861602544784546,
-0.12836854159832,
0.16690601408481598,
0.042561691254377365,
-0.5549980401992798,
0.6328480243682861,
0.25444430112838745,
0.0704185888171196,
-0.3483099043369293,
-0.09746145457029343,
-0.10163486003875732,
0.312504380941391,
-0.26084792613983154,
-0.5023735761642456,
0.14849820733070374,
0.4278155267238617,
-0.018350837752223015,
-0.4059191048145294,
0.22002612054347992,
0.19252802431583405,
0.23309588432312012,
-0.6058629155158997,
-0.42843353748321533,
-1.3782944679260254,
-0.21092447638511658,
0.2643011212348938,
0.6802756190299988,
0.22263295948505402,
-0.11807544529438019,
-0.27024516463279724,
-0.004066326655447483,
-0.3228921592235565,
0.3179236948490143,
1.11224365234375,
0.31556838750839233,
-0.3673366904258728,
-0.03903523460030556,
0.4621468484401703,
0.044151123613119125,
-0.1321369707584381,
0.38449856638908386,
-0.014610661193728447,
0.034056466072797775,
-0.019096875563263893,
-0.23410703241825104,
0.7119430303573608,
0.0029666980262845755,
-0.04158131405711174,
0.22944989800453186,
-0.42950764298439026,
-0.7060099840164185,
-0.2199316769838333,
0.12696893513202667,
-0.14256925880908966,
0.27793753147125244,
-0.7902036309242249,
-0.7902093529701233,
0.21151401102542877,
-0.6565955877304077,
0.29600203037261963,
-0.07273077964782715,
1.1284929513931274,
0.39403632283210754,
-0.18066953122615814,
-0.4365484416484833,
0.11836396902799606,
-0.4017017185688019,
0.08181841671466827,
0.12285435944795609,
0.5386266112327576,
-0.013277017511427402,
0.23264846205711365,
-0.7594267129898071,
0.4726842939853668,
0.30942559242248535,
0.5142182111740112,
-0.3352384865283966,
0.5003535747528076,
-0.1822643280029297,
-0.1293926239013672,
0.18372119963169098,
-0.3038606643676758,
0.1743767410516739,
0.026661265641450882,
0.3717379570007324,
0.09862571954727173,
0.04521891474723816,
-0.43464428186416626,
-0.060520969331264496,
0.09660527855157852,
-0.10600253939628601,
0.23995298147201538,
-0.19321325421333313,
0.15946173667907715,
-0.2995430529117584,
-0.002264095703139901,
-0.3707635700702667,
-0.6626600623130798,
-0.39539581537246704,
0.21863768994808197,
0.4193960726261139,
0.7585166692733765,
0.40114113688468933,
-0.3788999319076538,
0.7699615955352783,
0.14778171479701996,
0.2141045778989792,
-0.007193896919488907,
-3.802826166152954,
-0.026603249832987785,
-0.008118344470858574,
-0.5540909171104431,
0.1545875519514084,
0.2954883575439453,
0.0996733084321022,
-0.11622381955385208,
0.10216745734214783,
-0.6639552116394043,
0.4181577265262604,
0.10798600316047668,
-0.2905212938785553,
0.20366023480892181,
0.8294147253036499,
-0.03467577323317528
] |
229087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rules%20of%20Acquisition | Rules of Acquisition | In the fictional Star Trek universe, the Rules of Acquisition are a collection of sacred business proverbs of the ultra-capitalist race known as the Ferengi.
The first mention of rules in the Star Trek universe was in "The Nagus", an episode of the TV series Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (Season 1, Episode 10). In a later Deep Space Nine episode, "The Maquis: Part 1", Sakonna (a Vulcan) asks Quark (a Ferengi) to explain what a Rule of Acquisition is. He states, "Every Ferengi business transaction is governed by 285 Rules of Acquisition to ensure a fair and honest deal for all parties concerned... well most of them anyway."
Background
The first Rule was made by Gint, the first Grand Nagus of the Ferengi Alliance, a role with political, economic, and even quasi-religious duties. The Rules were said to be divinely inspired and sacred (thus furthering the original marketing ploy.)
Although it has been stated within Star Trek that there are 285 Rules, not all of them have been stated in canon. Most of the Rules were written by Ira Steven Behr, a writer for Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, in a book The Ferengi Rules of Acquisition (). The book's cover credits authorship as being "By Quark as told to Ira Steven Behr." Additional rules were published in Legends of the Ferengi () by Behr and Robert Hewitt Wolfe, another writer for Star Trek: Deep Space Nine when Behr was the executive producer of the series.
The Star Trek: Voyager episode "False Profits" mentions a book containing all of the Rules:
References
External links
- rules as outlined in the series canon.
- rules including those found in related novels and other non-canon sources.
Ferengi
Star Trek terminology
Fictional books
Fictional laws
Codes of conduct | [
0.24221234023571014,
0.3769512474536896,
-0.18708719313144684,
0.04846082627773285,
0.5174240469932556,
0.13736829161643982,
0.012173016555607319,
-0.04057009518146515,
-0.03659370541572571,
-0.36892908811569214,
-0.4805028736591339,
0.917654275894165,
0.21043522655963898,
0.19461070001125336,
-0.2894856333732605,
0.05345921590924263,
0.35262811183929443,
0.28436794877052307,
-0.12755918502807617,
-0.05806972086429596,
-0.39582329988479614,
0.15424801409244537,
-0.049609579145908356,
-0.09907720237970352,
0.3467012047767639,
-0.05174633115530014,
-0.1634376496076584,
-0.0916382446885109,
-0.5864512324333191,
0.024446561932563782,
0.22181011736392975,
-0.25617972016334534,
-0.3414267301559448,
-0.0442059263586998,
-0.39507392048835754,
-0.1398712694644928,
-0.31886836886405945,
0.3308788239955902,
-0.26090842485427856,
-0.5706275701522827,
0.0972222313284874,
0.3518351912498474,
0.21539311110973358,
0.49976086616516113,
-0.39266470074653625,
-0.13185738027095795,
-1.5276004076004028,
-0.32638102769851685,
-1.0446208715438843,
0.07388723641633987,
-0.4090191125869751,
0.2917410135269165,
-0.24823768436908722,
0.12318858504295349,
0.08132100105285645,
0.5844893455505371,
-0.5427832007408142,
-0.16256530582904816,
0.1359741985797882,
-0.3116397559642792,
0.48359277844429016,
0.500968337059021,
0.5764908790588379,
0.2428269237279892,
0.2944742739200592,
-0.11718161404132843,
-0.09594602137804031,
0.07800609618425369,
-0.2183769792318344,
-0.3667495548725128,
-0.2836955189704895,
0.060776568949222565,
-0.46292632818222046,
0.20355769991874695,
-0.32929158210754395,
-0.395361065864563,
0.008299440145492554,
0.05583920329809189,
-0.35105282068252563,
-0.0367913655936718,
-0.41332995891571045,
0.6377355456352234,
0.4151933789253235,
-0.48594930768013,
0.5578550100326538,
0.027858486399054527,
-0.5095570683479309,
0.23576509952545166,
-0.4959528148174286,
0.40569138526916504,
0.3992542624473572,
0.01864059641957283,
0.2908698618412018,
-0.26176631450653076,
-0.24330087006092072,
-0.6780095100402832,
-0.07740669697523117,
-0.36944901943206787,
0.15620985627174377,
0.4574644863605499,
-0.636467456817627,
0.22560937702655792,
0.3426785469055176,
-0.1526869535446167,
-0.15862591564655304,
0.15224815905094147,
0.08011854439973831,
-0.3689004182815552,
-0.09970318526029587,
-0.06287410855293274,
-0.17152708768844604,
0.028208108618855476,
0.22854749858379364,
0.1806505173444748,
-0.2470753788948059,
0.14647534489631653,
-0.16496755182743073,
0.24159768223762512,
-0.4456735849380493,
-0.05395055189728737,
0.4318971633911133,
0.019707275554537773,
0.041132617741823196,
-0.3393794596195221,
0.3132995069026947,
-0.2867884635925293,
0.4420431852340698,
0.6141736507415771,
-0.5171701908111572,
-0.2253861427307129,
0.08883446455001831,
0.19679458439350128,
-0.16500279307365417,
0.4022533595561981,
-0.8036841750144958,
0.4581887125968933,
0.5551233887672424,
0.17463713884353638,
0.19376128911972046,
-0.05852873623371124,
-0.8972955942153931,
-0.32683295011520386,
-0.5735815763473511,
-0.16128475964069366,
0.48351672291755676,
-0.7388469576835632,
0.2198355793952942,
-0.33536943793296814,
-0.1477995216846466,
0.1795748919248581,
-0.12135721743106842,
0.005531240254640579,
0.31512293219566345,
0.08506982773542404,
0.19978968799114227,
0.18568769097328186,
0.25192028284072876,
0.12526555359363556,
-0.3596598207950592,
0.1075470894575119,
-0.22249440848827362,
-0.13415615260601044,
-0.4680350124835968,
-0.10781653225421906,
-0.11893284320831299,
0.06078047305345535,
0.23021243512630463,
0.8507108688354492,
0.06102854758501053,
-0.13250122964382172,
-0.2061924785375595,
0.11235715448856354,
-0.1327400803565979,
-0.44292399287223816,
-0.350027471780777,
0.6378995180130005,
-0.3919881582260132,
0.32335415482521057,
0.753752589225769,
0.08347910642623901,
-0.7246387004852295,
0.20393386483192444,
0.39220646023750305,
-0.045614033937454224,
-0.11718165129423141,
-0.4963584244251251,
-0.01781581901013851,
-0.21348074078559875,
-0.3275350034236908,
-0.0021257628686726093,
-0.6566014885902405,
0.5295926928520203,
0.6012879610061646,
-0.44864407181739807,
0.557057797908783,
0.5704217553138733,
-0.28782981634140015,
1.121487021446228,
-0.2593715786933899,
0.2892796993255615,
0.1562122404575348,
0.08380972594022751,
-0.15049704909324646,
-0.11861502379179001,
-0.04756724461913109,
0.43099141120910645,
-0.2362019270658493,
0.2213517278432846,
0.2077765315771103,
0.2683705687522888,
0.02586979977786541,
-0.08627133071422577,
0.36380454897880554,
-0.25282374024391174,
0.318492591381073,
-0.06496232748031616,
-0.6230707764625549,
0.49984437227249146,
0.38030412793159485,
-0.5143852829933167,
0.5108703374862671,
-0.008288856595754623,
0.028273744508624077,
0.04422631487250328,
-0.5961929559707642,
0.27151235938072205,
-0.04060562700033188,
0.12480989843606949,
0.49624180793762207,
-0.779344379901886,
0.07460257411003113,
-0.5193039774894714,
0.3901715874671936,
-0.4297027587890625,
0.1718362271785736,
-0.4824247658252716,
-0.1302780658006668,
-0.40487435460090637,
-0.08371101319789886,
0.04456537589430809,
-0.03696870803833008,
-0.03880924731492996,
-0.5091522932052612,
0.09695994108915329,
0.18088215589523315,
0.10230092704296112,
-0.02645418420433998,
0.46160009503364563,
-0.20361296832561493,
0.314172625541687,
0.018008047714829445,
0.2670219838619232,
0.3560100495815277,
-0.052402473986148834,
-0.24476248025894165,
-0.3080691695213318,
-0.6297387480735779,
0.42416277527809143,
0.29488301277160645,
-0.22261826694011688,
0.027946418151259422,
0.3006979525089264,
-0.4579470157623291,
0.23767507076263428,
0.13601072132587433,
-0.46511420607566833,
0.04657921940088272,
-0.28833743929862976,
0.15025694668293,
0.2649563252925873,
0.62432461977005,
-0.24792978167533875,
-0.5950046181678772,
-0.223634272813797,
-0.5340901017189026,
-0.6797886490821838,
0.9019766449928284,
-0.10869075357913971,
-0.022340349853038788,
-0.25142380595207214,
-0.26692771911621094,
0.2525661289691925,
0.32212337851524353,
-0.555225133895874,
0.033171869814395905,
-0.7382307648658752,
-0.26403218507766724,
-0.7195701599121094,
0.5079619288444519,
0.15678313374519348,
0.09888402372598648,
0.6473994255065918,
-0.40258222818374634,
-0.09377729147672653,
0.3731394112110138,
0.3157760202884674,
-0.05643811076879501,
0.24072080850601196,
0.2593512237071991,
-0.25432753562927246,
-0.06975328177213669,
0.16097289323806763,
-0.11719422787427902,
0.18074896931648254,
0.2029886394739151,
-0.0802462175488472,
-0.14569173753261566,
0.056699030101299286,
-6.128776550292969,
-0.17168143391609192,
-0.016240403056144714,
-0.050655264407396317,
0.25322216749191284,
0.49436479806900024,
0.7730676531791687,
0.16041570901870728,
0.09617866575717926,
-0.1289060115814209,
-0.15802021324634552,
-0.26202505826950073,
0.09120739996433258,
0.281516432762146,
0.10937660187482834,
0.46717166900634766,
0.09339766949415207,
-0.02892269939184189,
-0.39888420701026917,
0.42922624945640564,
-0.39677152037620544,
-0.19629572331905365,
0.0000905953929759562,
0.6441459655761719,
-0.3428637385368347,
0.04986201971769333,
-0.5487315654754639,
-0.04944941774010658,
-0.4195830821990967,
0.4925061762332916,
-0.12967465817928314,
-0.22414915263652802,
-0.2640778720378876,
-0.4320068359375,
-0.40335148572921753,
-0.05920097976922989,
1.0251166820526123,
-0.10790658742189407,
0.11496435105800629,
-0.4595937430858612,
-0.28698012232780457,
0.3450292646884918,
0.48436054587364197,
0.3542645573616028,
0.13240185379981995,
-0.18257954716682434,
-0.42347946763038635,
-0.02420523762702942,
0.19120149314403534,
0.26500850915908813,
-0.5313025116920471,
0.09678508341312408,
0.15403391420841217,
-0.2703874111175537,
0.002864271868020296,
-0.05272954702377319,
0.5260332822799683,
0.0715603455901146,
-0.1092832013964653,
0.4223591983318329,
0.5340238213539124,
-0.6584888100624084,
-0.01941225863993168,
-0.1959792822599411,
-0.06260427832603455,
-0.3726751208305359,
-0.3146771490573883,
-0.3199394941329956,
-0.08069267868995667,
0.42777782678604126,
-0.32469063997268677,
0.25514352321624756,
0.21138064563274384,
-1.1166627407073975,
0.1271693855524063,
-0.461715966463089,
-0.2207092046737671,
-0.0004361733153928071,
0.6672218441963196,
0.2843417823314667,
0.3712778389453888,
-0.4000365436077118,
-0.17051342129707336,
-0.3530818223953247,
-0.09886300563812256,
-0.5296964645385742,
0.09605758637189865,
0.4441804587841034,
-0.37598806619644165,
-0.05784912407398224,
0.5720342993736267,
0.565565824508667,
-0.19211609661579132,
0.225368931889534,
0.4269168972969055,
0.30180126428604126,
-0.34157153964042664,
0.1264193058013916,
0.39376240968704224,
0.4963294565677643,
0.5527176856994629,
-0.3296167850494385,
0.23572896420955658,
-0.34378352761268616,
-0.3621417284011841,
-0.11952155828475952,
-0.44047731161117554,
0.45570099353790283,
0.7678394913673401,
-0.3322834372520447,
-0.39185887575149536,
0.6740177273750305,
-0.20290003716945648,
0.157130628824234,
0.11266402155160904,
0.09586581587791443,
-0.2390439808368683,
0.609706461429596,
0.2916719615459442,
-0.19757607579231262,
0.29995113611221313,
0.06164450943470001,
-0.7118897438049316,
-0.1104097068309784,
-0.17526577413082123,
-0.40734028816223145,
0.4450004994869232,
0.45202386379241943,
0.4451007544994354,
-0.3130972385406494,
-0.05092041194438934,
0.19934464991092682,
-0.21264433860778809,
-0.08479074388742447,
-0.11303967982530594,
0.025443851947784424,
0.12072119861841202,
-0.06542854011058807,
-0.4234846830368042,
-0.36957526206970215,
-0.032106321305036545,
-0.8534442782402039,
0.7026627659797668,
-0.07546719908714294,
0.7366101741790771,
-0.12729385495185852,
0.22985374927520752,
-0.031277257949113846,
-0.19696173071861267,
0.4714951515197754,
0.46363839507102966,
-0.08890334516763687,
0.4694836437702179,
-0.377961128950119,
-0.5770876407623291,
-0.4291848838329315,
0.2489401400089264,
0.0912313163280487,
0.5127764344215393,
-0.5507575273513794,
0.2506837248802185,
-0.2767622470855713,
-1.0032002925872803,
-0.26291412115097046,
-0.02272215113043785,
-0.06421270966529846,
-0.3809870481491089,
-0.3828704357147217,
-0.5657315850257874,
0.20104996860027313,
-0.0019400151213631034,
-0.28415384888648987,
-0.44370725750923157,
-0.16541311144828796,
-0.010094127617776394,
-0.1402052491903305,
0.07467102259397507,
-0.12458363175392151,
-0.15766842663288116,
0.09127426147460938,
0.06125602498650551,
-0.22874385118484497,
-0.23713620007038116,
0.08715435117483139,
-0.2255251705646515,
-1.0401463508605957,
0.5893955826759338,
0.5969753265380859,
-0.6236743927001953,
-0.2121436446905136,
0.05595710501074791,
0.0036772796884179115,
0.5375061631202698,
0.04865289852023125,
-0.18383754789829254,
0.16173003613948822,
0.20497383177280426,
0.689638614654541,
-0.11088898777961731,
-0.17110790312290192,
0.5195726156234741,
0.1764266937971115,
-0.4882410764694214,
0.06011608988046646,
0.5924872159957886,
-0.03213067725300789,
0.3386605381965637,
0.10115271061658859,
-0.32092806696891785,
0.26332390308380127,
-0.3030875623226166,
-0.5549165606498718,
-0.4814106822013855,
0.09796519577503204,
-0.2685406804084778,
-0.6833197474479675,
-0.28547805547714233,
-0.3532099425792694,
-0.5203578472137451,
0.1627582460641861,
0.4306556284427643,
0.06832147389650345,
0.060049280524253845,
0.07247679680585861,
-0.10369794070720673,
0.5874057412147522,
-0.016259778290987015,
-0.10180263221263885,
0.1061696708202362,
-0.1681346595287323,
0.036491964012384415,
-0.24985180795192719,
0.008614338003098965,
0.15502750873565674,
-0.06080714613199234,
0.1486704796552658,
-0.30832740664482117,
0.6424551606178284,
0.07580209523439407,
0.08133500814437866,
0.016838395968079567,
0.5080623626708984,
-0.4338073432445526,
-0.22329294681549072,
0.3488138020038605,
0.5560808777809143,
0.13347996771335602,
-0.4453100860118866,
-0.17859047651290894,
0.25941839814186096,
0.14650879800319672,
0.12011836469173431,
-0.30249691009521484,
0.35326287150382996,
0.45763838291168213,
-0.6483379602432251,
0.5312512516975403,
0.15342119336128235,
-0.1187916249036789,
0.051236480474472046,
0.11394132673740387,
-0.003289632499217987,
-0.6005439758300781,
-0.2196805626153946,
-0.10426493734121323,
-0.056461695581674576,
-1.0100101232528687,
0.14342349767684937,
0.2349284142255783,
-0.2264358401298523,
0.29355373978614807,
-0.7881774306297302,
0.44971123337745667,
0.3306233882904053,
0.23122231662273407,
-0.3214833736419678,
0.06276585906744003,
-0.19839102029800415,
-0.20920142531394958,
0.2959364950656891,
-0.40396830439567566,
0.20060619711875916,
-0.0745561495423317,
-0.3627501428127289,
0.054435133934020996,
-0.4872015714645386,
0.20136511325836182,
-0.01348321232944727,
-0.5920145511627197,
0.18511950969696045,
-0.6391221284866333,
0.34870272874832153,
0.1841145157814026,
0.3909948766231537,
-0.33337268233299255,
-0.10582766681909561,
0.251779168844223,
-0.3444181978702545,
0.3453071713447571,
0.4567429721355438,
-0.07120756804943085,
-0.009824163280427456,
0.6585836410522461,
-0.28722092509269714,
0.5043932199478149,
0.28481099009513855,
-0.04023263603448868,
-0.10251171886920929,
-0.21492834389209747,
-0.24484141170978546,
-0.11073035001754761,
-0.15014506876468658,
0.31414270401000977,
0.4509110152721405,
-0.13452006876468658,
-0.21123605966567993,
0.38988739252090454,
-0.5783596634864807,
0.058806587010622025,
0.4693635404109955,
0.24364829063415527,
-0.34277915954589844,
0.4022042453289032,
0.004432594869285822,
0.2237946093082428,
0.23048073053359985,
0.24717584252357483,
-0.3805772662162781,
-0.07024108618497849,
0.17563684284687042,
0.5695178508758545,
0.5163543224334717,
0.029494309797883034,
0.48212388157844543,
-0.03013615868985653,
-0.43580764532089233,
0.3167734146118164,
-0.65850430727005,
0.2235897183418274,
0.7333695888519287,
0.5316621661186218,
0.26662468910217285,
-0.14926180243492126,
-0.31025180220603943,
-0.5781669020652771,
-0.007106971461325884,
0.33626464009284973,
0.2518939971923828,
-0.0063071418553590775,
0.35164257884025574,
-0.2409602552652359,
-0.23228082060813904,
0.41494128108024597,
-0.32758447527885437,
0.6521465182304382,
-0.15871214866638184,
0.03979327157139778,
0.3670957386493683,
-0.4925525486469269,
-0.36983636021614075,
-0.06573140621185303,
0.7062583565711975,
0.6634225249290466,
-0.01393221691250801,
0.15945447981357574,
0.5371526479721069,
-0.17671559751033783,
-0.04992625117301941,
-0.2397802323102951,
0.35902270674705505,
0.19273845851421356,
0.2999052107334137,
-0.10273309051990509,
0.015221523120999336,
0.6217724084854126,
0.3293159604072571,
0.5503398180007935,
0.33970510959625244,
0.6213469505310059,
0.28330492973327637,
0.19271482527256012,
-0.2669372856616974,
0.16591818630695343,
-0.2769656479358673,
0.16944219172000885,
-0.03852171078324318,
-0.04823896288871765,
0.10520634800195694,
-0.25154924392700195,
0.36074352264404297,
-0.6111344695091248,
-0.19486211240291595,
0.09417348355054855,
0.5045518279075623,
-0.09716612845659256,
0.2952039837837219,
-0.3158627450466156,
0.6174309253692627,
0.0814608559012413,
-0.1977149397134781,
-0.27717480063438416,
-0.035523153841495514,
0.1532421112060547,
-0.3960469365119934,
-0.42860639095306396,
0.22911718487739563,
-0.5727562308311462,
0.32835862040519714,
-0.13059000670909882,
0.00997123122215271,
0.47838643193244934,
-0.4340048134326935,
0.07398249208927155,
-0.0537797175347805,
-0.18920640647411346,
0.04404279217123985,
0.5115206837654114,
0.07917891442775726,
0.41269612312316895,
-0.16917681694030762,
-0.36533796787261963,
0.22373899817466736,
-0.41747477650642395,
0.39247041940689087,
-0.22649891674518585,
0.38197067379951477,
0.2908146381378174,
0.23455412685871124,
-0.9660985469818115,
0.5946192741394043,
0.17120292782783508,
-0.47802552580833435,
-0.5038239359855652,
0.29388922452926636,
0.4129970371723175,
-0.1549561768770218,
0.13750678300857544,
0.3042934536933899,
0.1842835545539856,
-0.595788836479187,
0.55693119764328,
0.09424277395009995,
-0.11876916140317917,
-0.23169925808906555,
-0.6595544815063477,
0.13566094636917114,
-0.2381499856710434,
0.009374726563692093,
-0.017087047919631004,
0.5441105365753174,
-0.03453304246068001,
-0.5703355669975281,
0.37865781784057617,
-0.5747776031494141,
-0.42095428705215454,
0.19407662749290466,
0.2884511947631836,
-0.005173342768102884,
-0.0399562232196331,
0.32927876710891724
] |
229089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois%20S%C3%A9verin%20Marceau | François Séverin Marceau | François Séverin Marceau-Desgraviers (; 1 March 1769 – 21 September 1796) was a French general of the Revolutionary Wars.
Early life
Desgraviers was born on 1 March 1769 in Chartres, in the province of Orléanais, the son of a prosecutor. On December 1785, at the age of 16, he enlisted in the Angoulême Infantry Regiment, which later became the 34th Infantry Regiment of the French Army. Whilst on furlough in Paris, Marceau participated in the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789. After that event he took his discharge from the regular army and returned to Chartres, but the opposition of his family soon compelled him to seek new military employment.
Revolutionary Wars
In July 1792, Marceau was appointed captain of the Revolutionary Army's 2nd Battalion of Volunteers of Eure-et-Loir. He took part in the defence of Verdun later in the year, and it was his troop that was ordered to bear the proposals of capitulation to the Prussian camp. The defenders' lack of morale provoked the anger of the revolutionary authorities, and Marceau was fortunate to find re-employment as a captain in the regular service. However, early in 1793, he along with other officers under suspicion was arrested and imprisoned for a period.
Vendée
On his release, Marceau hurried to take part in the defence of Saumur against the Vendéean Royalists, distinguishing himself at the Battle of Saumur on 10 June 1793 by rescuing the representative Pierre Bourbotte from the hands of the insurgents. The National Convention voted him the thanks of the country and he received rapid promotion. His conduct at the Battle of Chantonnay on 5 September 1793 won him the provisional rank of general of brigade. On 17 October, he bore a great part in the victory at the Battle of Cholet, and on began his friendship with Jean Baptiste Kléber while on the field of battle.
Kléber was made a general of division, and Marceau confirmed as general of brigade. Marceau in turn became a général de division on 10 November; then succeeded to the commander-in-chief ad interim. With Kléber, he crushed the Vendean rebels at the Battle of Le Mans on 12–13 December and at the Battle of Savenay on 23 December 1793.
In the wake of Le Mans, Marceau had rescued and protected a young Royalist lady, Angélique des Mesliers, with whom it has been supposed Marceau fell in love – however, even his help could not save her from the guillotine.
He and Kléber themselves were saved from arrest and execution only by the intervention of Bourbotte. Around this time Marceau became engaged to Agathe Leprêtre de Châteaugiron, but the marriage was prevented by his constant military employment, his broken health and the opposition of both Auguste-Félicité Le Prestre de Châteaugiron and Marceau's devoted half-sister Emira, wife of the Republican politician Antoine Joseph Sergent.
Battles of 1795–96
After spending the winter of 1793–94 in Paris, Marceau accepted a command in the army under Jean-Baptiste Jourdan alongside Kléber and took part in the various battles near Charleroi. During the battle of Fleurus on 26 June 1794 he had a horse shot from under him. He distinguished himself at Jülich, at Aldenhoven and at Koblenz, where he stormed the enemy lines on 23 October.
He took part in the 1795-1796 campaign with the armies of the Sambre and Meuse, fighting on the Rhine and the Lahn and distinguishing himself alongside Kléber near Neuwied and Sulzbach.
Death
After Jourdan and Jean Victor Marie Moreau's Rhine Campaign of 1796 ended in defeat, Marceau's men covered Jourdan's retreat over the Rhine. Marceau fought in the desperate Battle of Limburg on the Lahn River (16–19 September 1796). While conducting a successful rear guard action near Altenkirchen on 19 September, he received a mortal wound. He died two days later in the early morning, aged only twenty-seven.
The Austrians competed with Marceau's own countrymen to honour the dead general. His body was burned and the ashes placed under a pyramid in Koblenz designed by Kléber. They were transferred to the Panthéon in 1889.
Marceau was immortalized in Lord Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage:
LVI
By Coblentz, on a rise of gentle ground,
There is a small and simple pyramid,
Crowning the summit of the verdant mound;
Beneath its base are heroes' ashes hid,
Our enemy's – but let not that forbid
Honour to Marceau! o'er whose early tomb
Tears, big tears, gush'd from the rough soldier's lid,
Lamenting and yet envying such a doom,
Falling for France, whose rights he battled to resume.
LVII
Brief, brave, and glorious was his young career, —
His mourners were two hosts, his friends and foes;
And fitly may the stranger lingering here
Pray for his gallant spirit's bright repose;
For he was Freedom's champion, one of those,
The few in number, who had not o'erstept
The charter to chastise which she bestows
On such as wield her weapons; he had kept
The whiteness of his soul, and thus men o'er him wept.
References
The 1911 Britannica, in turn, gives the following references:
Maze, Le Général Marceau (1889)
Parfait, Le Général Marceau (1892)
T. C. Johnson, Marceau (London, 1896)
1769 births
1796 deaths
People from Chartres
French Republican military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
French Republican military leaders killed in the French Revolutionary Wars
Republican military leaders of the War in the Vendée
French generals
Burials at the Panthéon, Paris
Military leaders of the French Revolutionary Wars
French military personnel of the French Revolutionary Wars
Names inscribed under the Arc de Triomphe
French revolutionaries | [
-0.488262414932251,
0.0738590881228447,
-0.9660906195640564,
0.33429139852523804,
-0.015963710844516754,
1.0391285419464111,
0.4206743836402893,
-0.10653688758611679,
-0.3020583987236023,
-0.8822965025901794,
-0.03873574361205101,
0.7564383149147034,
-0.2371927797794342,
0.11108618229627609,
0.012594562023878098,
0.3698803782463074,
0.0015969994710758328,
-0.2923693358898163,
-0.454554945230484,
-0.12484688311815262,
-0.5526421666145325,
-0.0018841649871319532,
0.059178974479436874,
0.23231187462806702,
-0.22210539877414703,
0.5310912132263184,
-0.14690539240837097,
0.6946902275085449,
0.44249820709228516,
-0.3064078986644745,
0.21563617885112762,
0.6073428988456726,
0.5805922746658325,
-0.4461498558521271,
-1.4909141063690186,
0.12381835281848907,
-0.4197005033493042,
-0.6324567198753357,
0.4636498987674713,
0.19535431265830994,
-0.28846949338912964,
0.4021773338317871,
-0.15280036628246307,
-0.015436714515089989,
0.0064099752344191074,
-0.2578924298286438,
-1.5918313264846802,
-0.03494388237595558,
-0.5234196186065674,
-0.6163497567176819,
0.30571088194847107,
-0.30779170989990234,
0.40633976459503174,
0.14035449922084808,
-0.19082635641098022,
0.3087036907672882,
-0.6041788458824158,
-0.15221528708934784,
0.09613896906375885,
-0.5918002724647522,
0.14740967750549316,
0.21183031797409058,
0.5216936469078064,
-0.030300326645374298,
-0.042457129806280136,
-0.04579100012779236,
-0.13381895422935486,
0.25124311447143555,
0.26764312386512756,
0.2132890224456787,
0.2520666718482971,
0.46085095405578613,
0.3523090183734894,
0.1369217038154602,
0.46608972549438477,
-0.47594955563545227,
-0.22340244054794312,
0.24206392467021942,
-0.027881480753421783,
0.18777896463871002,
-0.29721564054489136,
-0.48019441962242126,
0.870502769947052,
-0.013892512768507004,
-0.42436134815216064,
0.5901367664337158,
0.30627259612083435,
0.5958120822906494,
-0.5859598517417908,
-0.3451097905635834,
-0.8818885684013367,
-0.7919251918792725,
0.23156417906284332,
0.04922610521316528,
-0.24639928340911865,
0.5589843392372131,
0.21336443722248077,
0.12778067588806152,
-0.14139263331890106,
-0.13287048041820526,
-0.06643853336572647,
0.04947764426469803,
0.3840588629245758,
0.24238139390945435,
-0.4225757420063019,
0.12167830765247345,
-0.11963874101638794,
-0.031883202493190765,
-0.5853619575500488,
-0.21618963778018951,
-0.7177802920341492,
0.27756768465042114,
-0.7892436385154724,
-0.20096857845783234,
0.2802635431289673,
-0.06477142125368118,
0.5017927885055542,
-0.4642249345779419,
-0.26074284315109253,
-0.1610492616891861,
-0.19186000525951385,
0.312411904335022,
0.25862234830856323,
-0.12101732939481735,
-0.1934107095003128,
-0.13297836482524872,
0.021252958104014397,
-0.34864628314971924,
-0.10433104634284973,
0.27605825662612915,
0.6415528059005737,
1.3007198572158813,
-0.8571182489395142,
-0.20572741329669952,
-0.576678991317749,
-0.00626189773902297,
-0.28227725625038147,
0.3314092755317688,
-0.7703560590744019,
0.3271360695362091,
-0.9244225025177002,
0.09821510314941406,
0.056702811270952225,
0.11022841930389404,
-0.2299167364835739,
-0.12157511711120605,
0.2104514241218567,
0.09658365696668625,
0.30439069867134094,
0.05191408097743988,
-0.592792272567749,
0.04772203788161278,
0.2025814801454544,
-0.3558436334133148,
-0.5781632661819458,
0.5967550277709961,
0.5904616713523865,
0.37364721298217773,
0.03979863226413727,
-0.07483872026205063,
0.19759920239448547,
0.21567678451538086,
-0.17199097573757172,
0.28309863805770874,
1.0667328834533691,
0.03218325600028038,
-0.24820710718631744,
-0.27969661355018616,
-0.0651969239115715,
-0.12112941592931747,
-0.02788681723177433,
-0.2653985917568207,
-0.05718334764242172,
-0.3619387447834015,
-0.1087467223405838,
0.851935088634491,
-0.19698885083198547,
0.30491361021995544,
0.25668323040008545,
-0.21327494084835052,
-0.4854627251625061,
-0.00898865144699812,
0.08355478197336197,
0.0015297872014343739,
0.4624355435371399,
0.6857079267501831,
0.5767418146133423,
-0.5722944736480713,
0.6641933917999268,
-0.14200599491596222,
-0.9589073657989502,
-0.5443612933158875,
-0.08841776847839355,
-0.538408100605011,
1.0833015441894531,
-0.1313575953245163,
-0.8133544921875,
0.7402923703193665,
0.22702588140964508,
0.09928197413682938,
-0.6556375026702881,
-0.4254685640335083,
0.4866742193698883,
0.6471003890037537,
-0.07535704970359802,
0.6228698492050171,
0.07848439365625381,
0.10017140209674835,
0.23776552081108093,
1.208583116531372,
0.9271710515022278,
-0.35412925481796265,
0.006809770129621029,
0.9029701352119446,
-0.0953078493475914,
-0.15646547079086304,
-1.000830054283142,
-0.3589533865451813,
0.513005256652832,
0.5883064866065979,
0.17225764691829681,
-0.32028377056121826,
-0.2768944799900055,
1.1551460027694702,
-0.18846306204795837,
0.25420239567756653,
0.12701566517353058,
0.03792157396674156,
-0.22018547356128693,
-0.9653802514076233,
-0.014376575127243996,
0.13431549072265625,
-0.02789931371808052,
-0.2951226830482483,
0.1358639895915985,
0.508592426776886,
-0.08058498054742813,
-0.4742356240749359,
0.06188347563147545,
-0.8597543239593506,
0.2866467833518982,
0.6279956698417664,
0.11449111998081207,
0.4972616732120514,
0.3557744324207306,
0.6224778294563293,
-0.5778672695159912,
0.4404146671295166,
0.30026349425315857,
-0.5587284564971924,
-0.43494877219200134,
1.0242477655410767,
0.1871640831232071,
-0.11567972600460052,
-0.08261064440011978,
-0.8382086753845215,
0.5916934013366699,
0.5855708122253418,
0.26900312304496765,
0.4166651666164398,
0.7524529099464417,
-0.3997969627380371,
-0.2915527820587158,
0.5552130937576294,
0.5480854511260986,
-0.15736709535121918,
-0.6323122978210449,
-0.19549590349197388,
0.45180055499076843,
0.05477168783545494,
-0.07646504789590836,
-0.44427934288978577,
0.4679143726825714,
-0.17231647670269012,
0.2320709377527237,
-0.13876932859420776,
-0.8169144988059998,
0.9341776371002197,
-0.15070898830890656,
-0.5342692732810974,
-0.35956627130508423,
0.8080150485038757,
-0.3341275453567505,
0.1344999074935913,
0.11992625892162323,
-0.04872725531458855,
0.31505945324897766,
-0.20058347284793854,
0.4838108718395233,
0.03239252790808678,
0.0043020485900342464,
0.466911256313324,
-0.5234596729278564,
0.4509536325931549,
0.17832058668136597,
-0.3414906859397888,
-0.7048699855804443,
-0.7308196425437927,
0.3052569031715393,
-0.23878519237041473,
-0.8512618541717529,
0.19837112724781036,
0.41587013006210327,
0.4043380618095398,
0.276126891374588,
-0.4220389723777771,
0.4016537368297577,
0.24503032863140106,
-5.210855007171631,
-0.19243216514587402,
0.8067638278007507,
-0.08627527952194214,
0.00047223607543855906,
0.2113015502691269,
0.44533634185791016,
-0.3314465880393982,
0.028313789516687393,
-0.33415472507476807,
0.456683486700058,
0.38254621624946594,
-0.0613568052649498,
-0.03372424095869064,
0.45160111784935,
0.48012271523475647,
0.5325082540512085,
-0.16602806746959686,
0.04060935974121094,
0.5939380526542664,
0.04085452854633331,
0.4138818085193634,
0.1205105260014534,
0.09140892326831818,
-0.1347360908985138,
-0.4238356351852417,
0.04335286095738411,
-0.20520463585853577,
-1.0398106575012207,
-0.029246371239423752,
0.08509406447410583,
0.6428525447845459,
0.024319376796483994,
0.15464574098587036,
-0.1608288735151291,
-0.9117830991744995,
-0.07352909445762634,
0.7233836650848389,
-0.6767980456352234,
0.08024294674396515,
0.37164825201034546,
0.36036768555641174,
-0.6533635258674622,
0.04795054718852043,
-0.2292168289422989,
-0.6654217839241028,
-0.5982813835144043,
0.3841448426246643,
-0.06914322078227997,
0.6065758466720581,
0.11337228864431381,
-0.5858989357948303,
0.11958247423171997,
0.07346213608980179,
0.3709794282913208,
-0.3152255415916443,
0.1853407472372055,
0.05996696650981903,
-0.6278524994850159,
0.7282540202140808,
0.1851367950439453,
-0.4556228518486023,
0.10338005423545837,
-0.6426365375518799,
0.7625447511672974,
-0.1696205735206604,
-0.12656444311141968,
-0.4494204521179199,
0.16713573038578033,
-0.3858547806739807,
0.3627474308013916,
1.1871861219406128,
-0.47055527567863464,
-0.8064565658569336,
-0.14995713531970978,
-0.41065123677253723,
-0.39336684346199036,
0.4608977735042572,
-0.6493093371391296,
0.1220211461186409,
-0.20081505179405212,
-0.40606048703193665,
0.3971743583679199,
0.1865614354610443,
0.7341555953025818,
0.31078478693962097,
-0.26643311977386475,
0.2763221263885498,
0.035596564412117004,
-0.008532492443919182,
0.2760404646396637,
-0.4330330789089203,
0.32541096210479736,
-0.16358454525470734,
0.16632501780986786,
0.018501507118344307,
0.21947762370109558,
0.044237036257982254,
0.2876393496990204,
-0.1733095794916153,
-0.08999261260032654,
-0.18993553519248962,
-0.02243313565850258,
-0.7471874952316284,
0.274936318397522,
0.0033923443406820297,
0.482624888420105,
-0.22926168143749237,
1.1345694065093994,
0.6850101351737976,
0.1076347753405571,
0.1894441545009613,
-0.2862984538078308,
-0.4456543028354645,
0.1299453228712082,
-0.756688117980957,
0.11309044063091278,
-0.12133768200874329,
0.8168182373046875,
-0.06616654992103577,
-0.25609081983566284,
0.29550406336784363,
-0.4215104877948761,
-0.3464674949645996,
1.0268969535827637,
-0.16789349913597107,
-0.20524995028972626,
-0.3408128619194031,
-0.27965259552001953,
-0.10183358937501907,
0.2742624580860138,
0.3909653425216675,
-0.906900942325592,
0.1461867243051529,
0.5651574730873108,
-0.41769760847091675,
-0.06264065206050873,
-0.15151503682136536,
-0.058037322014570236,
-0.12307501584291458,
-0.1512877643108368,
0.05136753246188164,
-0.48625144362449646,
0.2738896906375885,
0.30413371324539185,
0.09732029587030411,
0.38651031255722046,
-0.05882110819220543,
0.09471666812896729,
1.0069719552993774,
-0.30234092473983765,
0.04636725038290024,
0.8270655870437622,
0.11249320954084396,
-0.12447069585323334,
0.28377559781074524,
-0.17458277940750122,
0.06368235498666763,
-0.012476705946028233,
-0.16116344928741455,
0.06003069132566452,
0.12756524980068207,
-0.873528778553009,
-0.1629360169172287,
0.4500460922718048,
0.2710361182689667,
-0.044506534934043884,
-0.5924583673477173,
-0.33216699957847595,
0.6158561706542969,
0.09591779112815857,
-0.9925091862678528,
-0.12754812836647034,
-0.15340594947338104,
-0.22051122784614563,
-0.3675643503665924,
0.17058101296424866,
0.1384730190038681,
0.11197862029075623,
-0.5600177645683289,
0.20364411175251007,
0.2491910308599472,
-0.05720407888293266,
0.037730708718299866,
0.5702966451644897,
-0.08119833469390869,
-0.4608933627605438,
-0.41947683691978455,
-0.028231017291545868,
-0.01004807185381651,
0.0695415660738945,
-0.34384045004844666,
-0.5008551478385925,
0.6385166645050049,
0.2005537748336792,
0.11215990036725998,
-0.563109815120697,
-0.0713120847940445,
0.25568726658821106,
-0.6288343667984009,
-0.15722393989562988,
0.12091901898384094,
0.19847355782985687,
0.09768309444189072,
-0.17865660786628723,
-0.6114186644554138,
0.12787885963916779,
-0.07054822891950607,
-0.38592344522476196,
0.2385612577199936,
-0.6940279603004456,
-0.5600054264068604,
0.25285986065864563,
0.42095401883125305,
-0.0764760822057724,
0.2486644983291626,
0.07616695761680603,
0.985319972038269,
-0.7864303588867188,
-0.4367138743400574,
-0.6582995653152466,
-0.6409938335418701,
-0.3141433894634247,
-0.0012707066489383578,
-0.7605687975883484,
0.20351338386535645,
0.4819088280200958,
0.25894618034362793,
1.0659013986587524,
0.1974794566631317,
-0.0001332498504780233,
-0.13386127352714539,
-0.06961315125226974,
-0.31066229939460754,
-0.035552769899368286,
-0.04495968669652939,
0.8976251482963562,
-0.10520254075527191,
-0.14202305674552917,
-0.37800121307373047,
0.3384941816329956,
1.0074102878570557,
0.33313313126564026,
-0.17045074701309204,
-0.1041649580001831,
0.2031523585319519,
0.3110470771789551,
-0.7649359107017517,
0.1667952686548233,
0.3324819803237915,
-0.40358397364616394,
-0.25734519958496094,
-0.7400995492935181,
-0.17725679278373718,
0.9970413446426392,
0.14593367278575897,
-0.5453885793685913,
0.545268177986145,
0.2825912833213806,
0.6474886536598206,
-0.5232532024383545,
0.19359564781188965,
0.24620003998279572,
-0.48213472962379456,
0.017231447622179985,
-0.21498021483421326,
-0.37581393122673035,
-0.2566804885864258,
-0.4295411705970764,
-0.21283294260501862,
-0.42792075872421265,
-0.6657578945159912,
-0.7110803723335266,
0.9164862632751465,
0.07562057673931122,
-0.04156869649887085,
0.12827682495117188,
-0.19689324498176575,
0.6394219398498535,
-0.37873631715774536,
-1.2791401147842407,
-0.263802707195282,
0.22381217777729034,
0.11674398183822632,
0.28762537240982056,
-0.6478354930877686,
0.014168244786560535,
0.3952717185020447,
-0.2780114710330963,
0.454725056886673,
-0.5436455607414246,
0.24233973026275635,
0.07252180576324463,
-0.07933741062879562,
-0.006367146037518978,
0.2528354823589325,
-0.6458649635314941,
1.061156153678894,
-0.15762746334075928,
0.26599931716918945,
-0.3281302750110626,
0.41141924262046814,
0.848468542098999,
-0.6827085018157959,
0.11459304392337799,
0.5819588899612427,
-0.024525059387087822,
-0.578927218914032,
0.14091041684150696,
-0.02633378840982914,
0.32344719767570496,
-0.3551798164844513,
-0.027682116255164146,
-0.23061613738536835,
-0.3040955066680908,
-0.004943819250911474,
0.20740161836147308,
-1.0868585109710693,
-0.7143811583518982,
-0.18882523477077484,
0.16916048526763916,
-0.11907236278057098,
0.5432283282279968,
-0.7128023505210876,
0.09468985348939896,
0.9556128978729248,
-0.34966206550598145,
-0.2822284996509552,
-0.2864260673522949,
-0.1807219386100769,
-0.08819524943828583,
0.04600628837943077,
-0.8485759496688843,
0.3689578175544739,
-0.22450070083141327,
0.0477895550429821,
-0.23675501346588135,
-0.14386622607707977,
0.49426308274269104,
-0.06855525821447372,
0.3227233588695526,
1.2551629543304443,
-0.5293184518814087,
0.20158080756664276,
-0.0934087261557579,
0.5236971974372864,
0.29992958903312683,
0.07576575130224228,
0.24758115410804749,
-0.26317742466926575,
0.4588129222393036,
-0.5942609310150146,
0.40792539715766907,
-0.48201361298561096,
0.1502906233072281,
0.5547224879264832,
0.5766693949699402,
-0.5418750643730164,
-0.13235977292060852,
0.17988961935043335,
-0.08810213208198547,
-0.7712935209274292,
1.0872313976287842,
-0.22717508673667908,
-0.21344633400440216,
0.19233468174934387,
0.07694891095161438,
-0.287431925535202,
-0.09012452512979507,
0.031792037189006805,
-0.3967471420764923,
-0.7774814367294312,
-0.13665439188480377,
0.23113137483596802,
0.5030167102813721,
0.03191005438566208,
0.21044042706489563,
0.39377152919769287,
-0.5175143480300903,
0.06716456264257431,
-0.3645491898059845,
0.2816774845123291,
-0.1730368733406067,
-0.13702723383903503,
0.4151977002620697,
0.19176700711250305,
-0.33198079466819763,
0.017787668853998184,
-0.06995033472776413,
-0.7199971079826355,
0.40241146087646484,
-0.8931640982627869,
-0.5054342746734619,
-0.16070955991744995,
-0.09418722987174988,
0.19738127291202545,
-0.059535425156354904,
0.9647369980812073,
0.49667176604270935,
-0.46373656392097473,
-0.24055804312229156,
-0.0763554498553276,
-0.11355554312467575,
-0.3278573155403137,
0.49858158826828003,
0.3199978768825531,
-0.10445211082696915,
0.35735613107681274,
-0.6667359471321106,
0.4636208117008209,
-0.07550257444381714,
0.553266167640686,
-0.6236714124679565,
0.24079041182994843,
-0.4968717694282532,
-0.3663668930530548,
0.7622867822647095,
-0.3492797315120697,
-0.33656957745552063,
-0.744208574295044,
0.3288877010345459,
-0.3818093538284302,
0.12419017404317856,
-0.07918024808168411,
-0.18006092309951782,
-0.5298802852630615,
-0.2721506357192993,
-0.02045886591076851,
0.6768257021903992,
0.8567114472389221,
0.28581106662750244,
-0.2208939492702484,
-0.5015005469322205,
0.16796913743019104,
-0.6860358715057373,
-1.1845005750656128,
1.0280842781066895,
0.20008401572704315,
0.43033185601234436,
-0.10592512786388397,
0.5179741382598877,
-0.0061630005948245525,
0.171467125415802,
-0.3622063100337982,
-0.3313424587249756,
-0.04576429724693298,
-0.13274751603603363,
-0.16647206246852875,
0.08343864977359772,
0.23523415625095367,
0.053960349410772324,
-0.33441540598869324,
0.9539564847946167,
-0.9090108871459961,
0.7641740441322327,
0.3608172833919525,
-0.11796252429485321,
-0.35953691601753235,
0.2602722644805908,
0.18976423144340515
] |
229091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot-dip%20galvanization | Hot-dip galvanization | Hot-dip galvanization is a form of galvanization. It is the process of coating iron and steel with zinc, which alloys with the surface of the base metal when immersing the metal in a bath of molten zinc at a temperature of around 450 °C (842 °F). When exposed to the atmosphere, the pure zinc (Zn) reacts with oxygen (O2) to form zinc oxide (ZnO), which further reacts with carbon dioxide (CO2) to form zinc carbonate (ZnCO3), a usually dull grey, fairly strong material that protects the steel underneath from further corrosion in many circumstances. Galvanized steel is widely used in applications where corrosion resistance is needed without the cost of stainless steel, and is considered superior in terms of cost and life-cycle. It can be identified by the crystallization patterning on the surface (often called a "spangle").
Galvanized steel can be welded; however, one must exercise caution around the resulting toxic zinc fumes. Galvanized fumes are released when the galvanized metal reaches a certain temperature. This temperature varies by the galvanization process used. In long-term, continuous exposure, the recommended maximum temperature for hot-dip galvanized steel is , according to the American Galvanizers Association. The use of galvanized steel at temperatures above this will result in peeling of the zinc at the inter metallic layer
. Electrogalvanized sheet steel is often used in automotive manufacturing to enhance the corrosion performance of exterior body panels; this is, however, a completely different process which tends to achieve lower coating thicknesses of zinc.
Like other corrosion protection systems, galvanizing protects steel by acting as a barrier between steel and the atmosphere. However, zinc is a more electropositive (active) metal in comparison to steel. This is a unique characteristic for galvanizing, which means that when a galvanized coating is damaged and steel is exposed to the atmosphere, zinc can continue to protect steel through galvanic corrosion (often within an annulus of 5 mm, above which electron transfer rate decreases).
Process
The process of hot-dip galvanizing results in a metallurgical bond between zinc and steel, with a series of distinct iron-zinc alloys. The resulting coated steel can be used in much the same way as uncoated.
A typical hot-dip galvanizing line operates as follows:
Steel is cleaned using a caustic solution. This removes oil/grease, dirt, and paint.
The caustic cleaning solution is rinsed off.
The steel is pickled in an acidic solution to remove mill scale.
The pickling solution is rinsed off.
A flux, often zinc ammonium chloride is applied to the steel to inhibit oxidation of the cleaned surface upon exposure to air. The flux is allowed to dry on the steel and aids in the process of the liquid zinc wetting and adhering to the steel.
The steel is dipped into the molten zinc bath and held there until the temperature of the steel equilibrates with that of the bath.
The steel is cooled in a quench tank to reduce its temperature and inhibit undesirable reactions of the newly formed coating with the atmosphere.
Lead is often added to the molten zinc bath to improve the fluidity of the bath (thus limiting excess zinc on the dipped product by improved drainage properties), help prevent floating dross, make dross recycling easier and protect the kettle from uneven heat distribution from the burners. Environmental regulations in the United States disapprove of lead in the kettle bath. Lead is either added to primary Z1 grade zinc or already contained in used secondary zinc. A third, declining method is to use low Z5 grade zinc.
Steel strip can be hot-dip galvanized in a continuous line. Hot-dip galvanized steel strip (also sometimes loosely referred to as galvanized iron) is extensively used for applications requiring the strength of steel combined with the resistance to corrosion of zinc, such as roofing and walling, safety barriers, handrails, consumer appliances and automotive body parts. One common use is in metal pails. Galvanised steel is also used in most heating and cooling duct systems in buildings
Individual metal articles, such as steel girders or wrought iron gates, can be hot-dip galvanized by a process called batch galvanizing. Other modern techniques have largely replaced hot-dip for these sorts of roles. This includes electrogalvanizing, which deposits the layer of zinc from an aqueous electrolyte by electroplating, forming a thinner and much stronger bond.
History
In 1742, French chemist Paul Jacques Malouin described a method of coating iron by dipping it in molten zinc in a presentation to the French Royal Academy.
In 1772, Luigi Galvani (Italy), for whom galvanizing was named, discovered the electrochemical process that takes place between metals during an experiment with frog legs.
In 1801, Alessandro Volta furthered the research on galvanizing when he discovered the electro-potential between two metals, creating a corrosion cell.
In 1836, French chemist Stanislas Sorel obtained a patent for a method of coating iron with zinc, after first cleaning it with 9% sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and fluxing it with ammonium chloride (NH4Cl).
Specification
A hot-dip galvanized coating is relatively easier and cheaper to specify than an organic paint coating of equivalent corrosion protection performance. The British, European and International standard for hot-dip galvanizing is BS EN ISO 1461, which specifies a minimum coating thickness to be applied to steel in relation to the steels section thickness e.g. a steel fabrication with a section size thicker than 6 mm shall have a minimum galvanized coating thickness of 85 µm.
Further performance and design information for galvanizing can be found in BS EN ISO 14713-1 and BS EN ISO 14713-2.
The durability performance of a galvanized coating depends solely on the corrosion rate of the environment in which it is placed. Corrosion rates for different environments can be found in BS EN ISO 14713-1, where typical corrosion rates are given, along with a description of the environment in which the steel would be used.
See also
Electrogalvanization
Plating
Bolt manufacturing process
Corrugated galvanised iron
Galvannealed – galvanization and annealing
Liquid metal embrittlement
Metal fume fever
Prepainted metal
Sendzimir process
Surface finishing
Thermal spraying
References
Corrosion prevention
Coatings
Zinc
fr:Galvanisation#Galvanisation à Chaud | [
-0.04607931151986122,
-0.29142943024635315,
-0.23716355860233307,
0.08102193474769592,
-0.5596233010292053,
-0.01158419344574213,
0.004600075073540211,
-0.1533326506614685,
-0.40481123328208923,
-0.25342875719070435,
-0.6995171308517456,
0.4670388698577881,
-0.3529764413833618,
0.1886288821697235,
-0.31062453985214233,
0.25237005949020386,
0.20385055243968964,
0.11398378759622574,
-0.38443049788475037,
-0.020483652129769325,
0.15951263904571533,
-0.2886944115161896,
0.6376070976257324,
-0.005803517997264862,
-0.5220494866371155,
0.02992306277155876,
0.061584047973155975,
0.010577372275292873,
0.14156201481819153,
-0.136802077293396,
-0.02506939135491848,
0.8653110861778259,
0.013238408602774143,
-0.22126558423042297,
0.7079838514328003,
0.296440452337265,
0.02522493526339531,
-0.22367943823337555,
0.08943623304367065,
-0.24995796382427216,
-0.5134703516960144,
-0.056070778518915176,
0.6995776295661926,
0.12176794558763504,
0.3896169066429138,
-0.19013628363609314,
-0.9582051634788513,
0.1484195739030838,
-1.0279874801635742,
-0.4368707835674286,
-0.48093003034591675,
0.23722968995571136,
0.6890460252761841,
0.8461154103279114,
0.16637662053108215,
0.8148810267448425,
-1.1606525182724,
0.15739591419696808,
0.44910308718681335,
-0.09570822864770889,
0.08963014930486679,
-0.032317787408828735,
-0.557439923286438,
0.3860270380973816,
0.17769645154476166,
0.34869876503944397,
-0.6059489250183105,
0.24617122113704681,
0.21813760697841644,
-0.1247744932770729,
-0.09688849002122879,
-0.33484894037246704,
0.01170293241739273,
0.35478317737579346,
0.01888204552233219,
-0.08965304493904114,
0.011358272284269333,
-0.517741322517395,
-0.14426876604557037,
0.33109065890312195,
-0.2804529368877411,
0.12297461926937103,
0.40589895844459534,
0.552848219871521,
0.7622115015983582,
0.08754123747348785,
-0.3258117735385895,
0.705138623714447,
-0.10110265016555786,
0.9739872813224792,
-0.2697460353374481,
0.10541051626205444,
0.595740020275116,
0.14180496335029602,
-0.08153949677944183,
-0.019620396196842194,
0.029543092474341393,
-0.005423445720225573,
0.7544676661491394,
0.06985697895288467,
-0.029157111421227455,
0.06961201131343842,
0.18907633423805237,
0.3062025010585785,
0.0774163231253624,
-0.7626810669898987,
-0.3671949803829193,
-0.3857879638671875,
0.3192715346813202,
-0.15129074454307556,
-0.5832202434539795,
0.08661031723022461,
0.09773986041545868,
-0.4542495310306549,
-0.5444965362548828,
-0.006199527997523546,
-0.4075913727283478,
-0.13579972088336945,
-0.05520855262875557,
0.21366149187088013,
0.044919028878211975,
0.8711761832237244,
-0.3873567581176758,
0.35055011510849,
-0.4807770252227783,
0.7694369554519653,
0.7612624764442444,
1.1105540990829468,
0.07119948416948318,
0.4406684935092926,
0.23812627792358398,
1.2679505348205566,
0.16456517577171326,
-0.060971397906541824,
-0.31166526675224304,
-0.2986011505126953,
0.5696582794189453,
0.2829497754573822,
0.12735706567764282,
0.4192230701446533,
-0.628606379032135,
0.02411709539592266,
-0.20377139747142792,
0.10149511694908142,
0.35950997471809387,
-0.13036935031414032,
-0.2782560884952545,
-0.37882721424102783,
-0.050643790513277054,
-0.11762112379074097,
0.046527281403541565,
0.4892483949661255,
-0.29586800932884216,
0.48775067925453186,
-0.911335289478302,
0.0953848659992218,
0.6453038454055786,
-0.5084301829338074,
0.1009451299905777,
-0.018067391589283943,
-0.13778962194919586,
-0.3471307158470154,
-0.331697016954422,
0.23474375903606415,
0.4488498568534851,
-0.3671402931213379,
0.5722813010215759,
-0.10871478915214539,
0.29430437088012695,
0.6861448884010315,
-0.374578058719635,
-0.13189253211021423,
-0.06759782880544662,
-0.1440267562866211,
0.43293601274490356,
-0.15990521013736725,
0.776513397693634,
0.5288463830947876,
0.725034773349762,
-0.1329447627067566,
-0.7772427201271057,
0.3283677399158478,
0.3716455399990082,
-0.017518935725092888,
0.5321480631828308,
-0.12758462131023407,
0.5408728122711182,
-0.5392602682113647,
-0.04677135497331619,
0.024896124377846718,
-0.2211408168077469,
-0.00758122093975544,
0.4495566785335541,
-0.6167137622833252,
1.7643738985061646,
-0.20328688621520996,
-0.37789830565452576,
0.599329948425293,
-0.0028307088650763035,
0.388349324464798,
-0.1520318239927292,
0.3572514057159424,
-0.08866751939058304,
0.4258924126625061,
-0.6907145977020264,
0.7213148474693298,
0.2351836860179901,
0.37669241428375244,
0.2882961630821228,
-0.31099367141723633,
0.7856460809707642,
-0.5350244641304016,
0.19414576888084412,
-0.39670148491859436,
-0.16544950008392334,
-0.31592950224876404,
-0.4061419367790222,
0.33041027188301086,
0.563373863697052,
0.25269249081611633,
0.9311107397079468,
-0.2414502054452896,
-0.3765876889228821,
0.4441443979740143,
0.12970958650112152,
0.4630112946033478,
0.7144730091094971,
0.5293416380882263,
0.5558156967163086,
0.05068204924464226,
0.38616669178009033,
-0.09823789447546005,
0.03472825512290001,
-0.3334427773952484,
-0.13289526104927063,
-0.26299938559532166,
0.3338238298892975,
-0.7023774981498718,
0.07457367330789566,
-0.15566185116767883,
-0.18609632551670074,
0.9393934011459351,
-0.1273757815361023,
0.06472548097372055,
0.2776806354522705,
-0.3867173492908478,
0.039818715304136276,
0.08580008149147034,
-0.13029153645038605,
-0.6274086833000183,
0.17288994789123535,
0.5636687278747559,
0.42520973086357117,
-0.7724727988243103,
-0.2590978443622589,
0.167375385761261,
-0.44379857182502747,
-0.21961365640163422,
0.2574506103992462,
-0.18276768922805786,
0.071945920586586,
-0.15197022259235382,
0.0847286507487297,
-0.3830002248287201,
-0.2960597574710846,
-0.7298941016197205,
-0.5890194177627563,
0.18933099508285522,
0.10074920207262039,
0.05112379416823387,
0.7680349349975586,
-0.505638837814331,
-0.1356133371591568,
-0.49900224804878235,
-0.1664438396692276,
-0.6538960337638855,
-0.20009514689445496,
0.6510820388793945,
-0.7063568830490112,
-0.20127901434898376,
0.15380913019180298,
0.9148737192153931,
0.47904929518699646,
0.10167695581912994,
-0.8024237155914307,
0.12450188398361206,
-0.011548052541911602,
0.07251513004302979,
-0.2306453287601471,
-0.45953962206840515,
0.06924720108509064,
0.2036002278327942,
-0.3166539669036865,
0.13229456543922424,
0.10826416313648224,
0.7063785791397095,
-0.41654476523399353,
0.23937658965587616,
0.10584689676761627,
-0.265921950340271,
-0.2363015115261078,
-0.38540828227996826,
-0.09262467175722122,
-0.27119818329811096,
-0.5233475565910339,
-0.4448747932910919,
-0.5522945523262024,
-0.1991780400276184,
-5.581637382507324,
0.1505003273487091,
-0.2337602972984314,
-0.05521252751350403,
0.46181410551071167,
-0.04684089124202728,
0.7191206812858582,
0.328894704580307,
-0.6267313957214355,
0.7362580895423889,
-0.4777010679244995,
0.40261518955230713,
-0.02622741088271141,
0.15082550048828125,
0.20494148135185242,
0.4542787969112396,
0.660104513168335,
-0.24625617265701294,
0.8194036483764648,
-0.2691204249858856,
-0.0426207073032856,
0.222169429063797,
-0.41162022948265076,
0.7814268469810486,
0.1962488442659378,
0.1549762636423111,
0.06544498354196548,
0.4435061812400818,
-0.7203986048698425,
-0.23342223465442657,
-0.023347122594714165,
-0.682671308517456,
0.0714946761727333,
-0.09295399487018585,
0.0003536549338605255,
-0.34455594420433044,
0.24660998582839966,
0.33825546503067017,
0.1437496691942215,
-0.14204639196395874,
-0.3651924133300781,
0.39542046189308167,
-0.2958375811576843,
0.17029628157615662,
0.14241303503513336,
-0.19206924736499786,
0.18054616451263428,
-0.00448588328436017,
0.04591229930520058,
0.6617639660835266,
0.30302169919013977,
-0.14141955971717834,
0.5590780377388,
-0.053426578640937805,
-0.17748726904392242,
0.027958586812019348,
0.19185055792331696,
0.4337020218372345,
-0.12091362476348877,
-0.09863019734621048,
-0.1644800454378128,
-0.3598809242248535,
-0.506007730960846,
-0.5524634718894958,
0.2607196569442749,
-0.44977155327796936,
-0.51907879114151,
-0.7912828922271729,
0.465548038482666,
-0.13964588940143585,
-0.5939128398895264,
0.1933993250131607,
0.288663774728775,
-0.7133252024650574,
0.48909685015678406,
-0.6047187447547913,
-0.016824552789330482,
-0.22641924023628235,
0.3372327983379364,
0.051536109298467636,
-0.26792198419570923,
-0.3124447762966156,
-0.33014610409736633,
0.2870737910270691,
0.6721245050430298,
-0.17065447568893433,
-0.5872836112976074,
-0.4242316484451294,
-0.04519880563020706,
-0.17445693910121918,
1.3868356943130493,
-0.08165580779314041,
0.16044895350933075,
-0.19004586338996887,
-0.002209021244198084,
0.6196148991584778,
0.03939712792634964,
0.21398665010929108,
-0.00895018968731165,
-0.8058391213417053,
-0.28274571895599365,
-0.5226513147354126,
-0.1541013866662979,
-0.5287840366363525,
0.2740534245967865,
0.08606717735528946,
-0.19964072108268738,
0.44800862669944763,
0.4446142613887787,
0.23674456775188446,
0.0015099847223609686,
0.35413873195648193,
-0.8345351219177246,
-0.32346364855766296,
0.33090445399284363,
0.6014867424964905,
-0.6479568481445312,
-0.02545004151761532,
0.032546866685152054,
0.5105051398277283,
0.37159425020217896,
0.030160004273056984,
-0.023875126615166664,
-0.5629602074623108,
0.44275689125061035,
-0.1823953092098236,
0.10900111496448517,
0.2687256932258606,
0.0861937627196312,
0.05795161798596382,
0.22701449692249298,
0.6338380575180054,
-0.022308314219117165,
-0.03222358599305153,
-0.16826437413692474,
-0.6104284524917603,
-0.41672414541244507,
0.5909490585327148,
0.20996463298797607,
0.02165038511157036,
0.103467658162117,
-0.2840469479560852,
-0.35510197281837463,
-0.1658313125371933,
0.39443543553352356,
0.9111579656600952,
-0.10761607438325882,
-0.22444075345993042,
-0.23232771456241608,
0.5591539144515991,
0.10140461474657059,
-0.8692469000816345,
-0.1795119345188141,
-0.3252963125705719,
-0.18558697402477264,
0.27914342284202576,
0.2318291813135147,
0.5483591556549072,
0.2522248923778534,
-0.5667427182197571,
0.07431253045797348,
-0.026428651064634323,
-1.216827630996704,
-0.1684972047805786,
-0.08228930830955505,
-0.11835542321205139,
-0.7372063398361206,
-0.6634341478347778,
-0.17906714975833893,
0.43838515877723694,
-0.2817860543727875,
-0.3591400980949402,
-0.749204695224762,
-0.41449692845344543,
0.6071449518203735,
-0.05075400695204735,
0.22413213551044464,
-0.06321726739406586,
0.137349933385849,
-0.958045244216919,
0.043432608246803284,
-0.15993961691856384,
-0.4193803071975708,
0.6335509419441223,
0.21761181950569153,
-0.8528326749801636,
-0.60787433385849,
0.20470498502254486,
-0.3546512722969055,
-0.19051656126976013,
0.6180531978607178,
0.3196418881416321,
0.7599399089813232,
0.19496554136276245,
0.06878701597452164,
-0.4375586211681366,
0.15947623550891876,
0.9566402435302734,
-0.2731630504131317,
-1.0014827251434326,
0.09538847953081131,
0.550675094127655,
-0.4604414701461792,
0.6940633058547974,
0.41343194246292114,
-0.379982590675354,
-0.14339230954647064,
0.337086021900177,
-0.36165374517440796,
-0.31414997577667236,
-0.09514985233545303,
-0.7794811725616455,
-0.06982123106718063,
0.42552217841148376,
-0.8667585849761963,
0.2943951189517975,
0.36936721205711365,
-0.3070394992828369,
-0.07165027409791946,
-0.17540785670280457,
-0.07923604547977448,
-0.32350799441337585,
-0.22054541110992432,
-0.307540625333786,
-0.5432801246643066,
0.030483754351735115,
0.2614378333091736,
-0.6351388692855835,
0.3194555938243866,
-0.3080398142337799,
-0.3101038336753845,
-0.19828683137893677,
-0.18036043643951416,
-0.050636421889066696,
0.01053532212972641,
0.6183841824531555,
-0.5541118383407593,
0.42808064818382263,
-0.08699628710746765,
-0.4676685631275177,
0.1241447702050209,
0.5279374718666077,
0.3287259042263031,
0.15289385616779327,
-0.26156187057495117,
-0.24072957038879395,
0.4683693051338196,
-0.6848701238632202,
-0.6223561763763428,
-0.002064985688775778,
0.6069258451461792,
-0.8461493253707886,
-0.7930212020874023,
-0.6633800268173218,
0.5985201001167297,
-0.11995552480220795,
-0.21661493182182312,
-0.38000231981277466,
0.3000543415546417,
0.4569358825683594,
-0.3155525028705597,
0.26304420828819275,
-0.2183104306459427,
-0.021895550191402435,
-0.04468685761094093,
0.48875904083251953,
0.024323273450136185,
-0.8288662433624268,
0.17002072930335999,
-0.33484867215156555,
0.20304685831069946,
-0.38009709119796753,
0.4224820137023926,
0.21007226407527924,
0.7135987281799316,
0.072616808116436,
-0.0840739831328392,
-0.8795638680458069,
0.10073107481002808,
-0.13672100007534027,
-0.2898657023906708,
-0.029335269704461098,
0.20025955140590668,
-0.21645116806030273,
0.36369553208351135,
-0.12046077102422714,
0.06851641833782196,
-0.5575729012489319,
-0.6427240371704102,
0.0365104153752327,
-0.4664786756038666,
0.05080503597855568,
-0.06930935382843018,
-0.2170058786869049,
-0.296362966299057,
0.2652868926525116,
0.010142745450139046,
0.058600425720214844,
-0.7333358526229858,
-0.46591538190841675,
-0.37508752942085266,
1.383116364479065,
-0.49252480268478394,
-0.38997021317481995,
0.5470757484436035,
-0.02019229531288147,
-0.07878147065639496,
-0.2194005399942398,
-0.08888822793960571,
0.27034977078437805,
0.06791852414608002,
-0.10557013750076294,
-0.30485236644744873,
0.9320021271705627,
-0.3444720506668091,
0.04749726504087448,
0.6266342997550964,
-0.24641968309879303,
0.10666440427303314,
0.4570338726043701,
0.003156079910695553,
0.05095554143190384,
0.6962132453918457,
-0.5209447145462036,
-0.24769020080566406,
0.2356569468975067,
-0.2276683896780014,
-0.2806057929992676,
0.22750705480575562,
0.23869222402572632,
0.7215688824653625,
0.43189913034439087,
-0.2113591432571411,
0.23076094686985016,
0.35896390676498413,
0.06650203466415405,
0.1341671645641327,
-0.3711921274662018,
-0.5031397938728333,
0.6014264822006226,
-0.051758524030447006,
0.6643864512443542,
0.05682889372110367,
0.0021503427997231483,
0.19805766642093658,
0.3529233932495117,
-0.15231679379940033,
0.3995862603187561,
-0.08112149685621262,
0.0494874082505703,
0.0829552561044693,
-0.36711597442626953,
-0.05924047529697418,
-0.3555254638195038,
-0.4612155556678772,
-0.3509097993373871,
0.572253942489624,
-0.07675749063491821,
0.6679441332817078,
-0.039605822414159775,
0.6749964356422424,
-0.01772094890475273,
-0.045414794236421585,
-0.18291528522968292,
0.4573189914226532,
-0.20733509957790375,
0.4955366253852844,
-1.1615972518920898,
0.12556308507919312,
0.44189733266830444,
0.04520553722977638,
0.46787169575691223,
0.07649749517440796,
0.6193273663520813,
0.19092817604541779,
-0.12519370019435883,
-0.006298403721302748,
0.7082901000976562,
0.06562215834856033,
0.3287745714187622,
0.031697195023298264,
0.7802044153213501,
-0.8696962594985962,
-0.5743758082389832,
0.019540391862392426,
-0.11518274247646332,
-0.12235334515571594,
0.3261125385761261,
-0.07503233850002289,
0.017942504957318306,
-0.380136102437973,
-0.4988905191421509,
-0.1559956818819046,
-0.35821619629859924,
-0.05033188313245773,
-0.15973518788814545,
-0.2874881625175476,
0.19087442755699158,
0.4474465548992157,
0.16373847424983978,
-0.02753289043903351,
0.5343124866485596,
0.33421701192855835,
0.4996505379676819,
-0.3794007897377014,
0.2925814688205719,
-0.2648891508579254,
0.246279776096344,
-0.48694729804992676,
0.17585346102714539,
0.25711897015571594,
0.27187100052833557,
0.2912866771221161,
0.292473703622818,
0.02698656916618347,
0.057053342461586,
0.17053639888763428,
-1.018649935722351,
-0.17759676277637482,
-0.45038965344429016,
-0.6376552581787109,
-0.7203965187072754,
0.1457093507051468,
0.040295038372278214,
-0.15558390319347382,
-0.337734192609787,
0.6542297005653381,
-0.3737977147102356,
0.20839041471481323,
0.2305605262517929,
-0.5197319388389587,
0.5653471946716309,
-0.7781919240951538,
0.12044175714254379,
-0.24651965498924255,
0.06355845183134079,
-0.4870615601539612,
0.5192477107048035,
0.4719955325126648,
-0.31435197591781616,
0.45379340648651123,
-0.21812830865383148,
-0.5182279944419861,
0.04952799156308174,
-0.5706603527069092,
0.07739712297916412,
-0.6039539575576782,
0.055606648325920105,
-0.40864136815071106,
0.7733004093170166,
0.10995178669691086,
-0.5716726779937744,
-0.5638054609298706,
-0.3112199604511261,
0.3871760964393616,
0.3345677852630615,
-0.2282060831785202,
-0.6525323390960693,
-0.344034343957901,
0.49665558338165283
] |
229092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry%20Gray | Barry Gray | Barry Gray (born John Livesey Eccles; 18 July 1908 – 26 April 1984) was a British musician and composer best known for his collaborations with television and film producer Gerry Anderson.
Life and career
Born into a musical family in Blackburn, Lancashire, Gray was encouraged to pursue a musical career from an early age. Starting at the age of five – with piano lessons – he studied diligently and became a student at the Manchester Royal College of Music and at Blackburn Cathedral. He studied composition under the Hungarian born émigré composer Matyas Seiber. Gray's first professional job was for B. Feldman & Co. in London, where he gained experience in scoring for theatre and variety orchestras. From there, he joined Radio Normandy as a composer-arranger. After serving for six years with the Royal Air Force during World War II he returned to the music industry to work with such names as Vera Lynn and Hoagy Carmichael.
In 1956 Gray joined Gerry Anderson's AP Films and scored its first marionette puppet television series, The Adventures of Twizzle. This was followed by Torchy The Battery Boy and Four Feather Falls, a puppet Western based on a concept suggested by Gray. His association with Anderson lasted throughout the 1960s. Although best known for his score to Thunderbirds (in particular the "March of the Thunderbirds" title music), Gray's work also included the themes to all the other "Supermarionation" productions, including Fireball XL5, Stingray, Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Joe 90. Recording sessions were held at Olympic Studios, Pye Studios and CTS Studios in London, Anvil Studios in Denham, Buckinghamshire and Gray's own studios at his residence in Esher, Surrey.
Additionally, Gray is known as the composer for the Anderson live-action series of the 1970s, such as UFO and Space: 1999 (though he was not involved in scoring The Protectors). His work in cinema included the scores to the Thunderbirds feature films Thunderbirds Are Go (1966) and Thunderbird 6 (1968), and the live-action science-fiction drama Doppelgänger (1969). Gray's professional association with Anderson and his career in TV and film scoring ended when he decided to leave the production of Space: 1999 after the completion of the first series. His replacement for the second series was Derek Wadsworth, who composed new title music.
In 1970, Gray moved from Esher to St Peter Port, Guernsey. Later, after his retirement, he served as resident pianist at the Old Government House Hotel. Gray died in hospital on Guernsey on 26 April 1984. He had a son, Simon.
Composing style
Gray's music is characterised by the use of brass and percussion sections. It made extensive use of leitmotifs, with each machine in Thunderbirds having its own theme and the eponymous title character of Joe 90 being accompanied on-screen by a wordless representation of his name. The ensembles required for Gray's scoring in series such as Thunderbirds and Stingray dwarfed those used in the production of most contemporary television programmes; even the orchestra employed for the first Anderson-produced series to carry the "Supermarionation" label, Supercar, comprised some forty instrumentalists. A standout example is Stingray: March of the Oysters (1964), which was later recorded by the City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra, conducted by Nic Raine.
Besides composing and conducting orchestral scores for television and film, Gray developed an interest in the Ondes Martenot, which he used to produce unconventional musical notes as well as electronic sound effects in several of his scores, including those for Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Doppelgänger (1969). Gray's knowledge and recognition in the field resulted in commissions to provide electronic music and sound effects for such films as Dr. Who and the Daleks (1965), Island of Terror (1966), and Daleks' Invasion Earth 2150 A.D. (1966), and uncredited work on Fahrenheit 451 (1966).
Gray believed that the score for the live action Doppelgänger was his best. It was recorded in three studio sessions between 27 and 29 March 1969. The first of these sessions used a 55-member orchestra, the second 44 and the third 28. The scenes of Ross and Kane's journey to the Counter-Earth are accompanied by a piece titled "Sleeping Astronauts" featuring the Ondes Martenot, played by French ondiste Sylvette Allart. Archer and Hearn describe this piece as "one of the most enchanting" ever written by Gray, adding that the soundtrack as a whole evokes a "traditional Hollywood feel" in contrast with the film's future setting.
Fanderson, the official appreciation society dedicated to the productions of Gerry Anderson, has gained access to all Gray's original studio tapes and undertaken a major re-issue project, compiling the theme and incidental music from Gray's various collaborations with Anderson onto a series of re-mastered CDs. Silva Screen Records has released several single-disc versions of the tv series soundtracks (Supercar, Fireball XL5, Thunderbirds) and feature film Thunderbirds are Go Unlike the Fanderson releases (members-only) the Silva Screen discs are available to the general public.
Centenary concert
On the evening of 8 November 2008, to mark the centenary year of Gray's birth, a concert was held in the Royal Festival Hall at London's South Bank Centre. Ralph Titterton, restorer of the Gray archive and co-producer of the original soundtrack CDs, and Cathy Ford, a librarian, researcher and biographer, joined film composer, conductor and arranger François Evans to produce the event in aid of the Cinema and Television Benevolent Fund.
Discography
Space Age Nursery Rhymes (Mini-EP, Century 21. Comical updates of nursery rhymes sung by Ken Barrie and Eula Parker; "Three Refined Mice" sung by Gray.)
Great Themes from Thunderbirds (Mini-EP, Century 21. Record with incidental music.)
Themes from Captain Scarlet (Mini-EP, Century 21. Record with songs and instrumentals from the series and some cover versions of other series.)
No Strings Attached (Maxi-single. A release of all the commercial recordings of theme music, near-originals. The CD release also includes "March of the Oysters" from the Stingray episode "Secret of the Giant Oyster".)
Thunderbirds Are Go! (LP, United Artists. Film soundtrack incorporating pieces from the TV series; not the original film recording. The EMI CD release also includes the tracks sung by The Shadows.)
Thunderbirds (CD, Silva Screen. TV soundtrack, released posthumously.)
Captain Scarlet (CD, Silva Screen. TV soundtrack, released posthumously.)
Space: 1999 (CD, Silva Screen. TV soundtrack, released posthumously.)
Joe 90 (CD, Silva Screen. TV soundtrack, released posthumously.)
Stand By For Adverts (CD, Trunk Records. A compilation of Gray's TV advertising jingles and incidental music recorded in the late 1950s and 1960s. Released in 2011.)
The Cult Files Re-Opened. Silva Screen 2 CDs (1997). Cult TV and film themes.
Supercar/Fireball XL5 (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 1998)
Space: 1999 year 1 (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 1998)
UFO (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2003)
Thunderbird 6 (CD, MGM. Film soundtrack, released posthumously in 2005)
The Secret Service (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2007)
Stingray (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2009)
UFO (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2010)
Four Feather Falls (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2011)
Fireball XL5 (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2012)
Supercar (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2013)
Space: 1999 year 1 (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2014)
Thunderbirds Are Go/Thunderbird 6 (CD, La-La Land records. Films soundtrack, released posthumously in 2014)
Thunderbirds (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2015)
Captain Scarlet (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2015)
Joe 90 (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, released posthumously in 2017)
Doppelgänger (CD, Fanderson, Film soundtrack, released posthumously in 2018)
Stingray (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2019)
UFO (CD, Fanderson. Original incidental music from the series, re-released posthumously in 2020)
See also
List of film director and composer collaborations
References
External links
'The screen music of Barry Gray'. Sound of Cinema, BBC Radio 3, 27 June 2020
Stingray: March of the Oysters
Sleeping Astronauts
1908 births
1984 deaths
20th-century British composers
20th-century British conductors (music)
20th-century British pianists
Alumni of the Royal Northern College of Music
British male conductors (music)
British electronic musicians
British expatriates in Guernsey
British film score composers
British male film score composers
British music arrangers
British male organists
British male pianists
British radio people
British television composers
British military musicians
Ondists
People from Blackburn
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
20th-century organists
20th-century British male musicians | [
-0.03924575075507164,
0.48784708976745605,
-0.6205247640609741,
-0.5983444452285767,
0.151685431599617,
0.5334604382514954,
-0.3657356798648834,
-0.24366140365600586,
-0.11766443401575089,
-0.3324858546257019,
-0.49047553539276123,
0.591306209564209,
-0.1739773005247116,
-0.04650851711630821,
-0.12954352796077728,
0.2821853458881378,
0.2239665389060974,
-0.8559429049491882,
-0.46627917885780334,
-0.5374739170074463,
-0.0636267438530922,
-0.13131676614284515,
-0.41802456974983215,
0.6722573041915894,
-0.6313140392303467,
0.43931716680526733,
-0.4080660045146942,
0.18319818377494812,
0.6020939946174622,
-0.27575069665908813,
0.48155513405799866,
0.34421664476394653,
0.7828924655914307,
-0.2179984450340271,
-0.2065996676683426,
0.6028595566749573,
-0.13971582055091858,
-0.4035249948501587,
-0.21966268122196198,
0.01243850588798523,
-0.16934283077716827,
-0.2004351168870926,
0.7035403847694397,
0.1681319773197174,
-0.41203004121780396,
-0.19857417047023773,
-1.1107282638549805,
0.4901137053966522,
-0.6704334020614624,
-0.18669702112674713,
-0.8288744688034058,
0.5185292959213257,
-0.015262017957866192,
0.023590940982103348,
0.21058869361877441,
-0.4414829611778259,
0.17315274477005005,
0.42622503638267517,
-0.13944846391677856,
-0.7177695035934448,
0.2011668086051941,
-0.7313457131385803,
0.018296806141734123,
-0.573979377746582,
-0.17490267753601074,
0.26303738355636597,
0.1606920212507248,
-0.32234513759613037,
-0.027162723243236542,
-0.4374017119407654,
0.2895384430885315,
0.8425219058990479,
-0.40663954615592957,
-0.41757506132125854,
0.1480431854724884,
-0.06825962662696838,
0.7401422262191772,
-0.8663827776908875,
-0.040997207164764404,
0.46743759512901306,
0.2106863260269165,
-0.23872078955173492,
0.6168829798698425,
0.2303728312253952,
0.20431171357631683,
-0.08646000176668167,
-0.6411867737770081,
0.721691370010376,
-0.9513737559318542,
-0.0491788424551487,
-0.7107329964637756,
-0.6874880194664001,
0.457533061504364,
0.4198884963989258,
-0.418322890996933,
0.07592277973890305,
0.3541945517063141,
-0.3152041733264923,
0.47293198108673096,
-0.32355797290802,
-0.1373138278722763,
-0.9139617085456848,
-0.5717175006866455,
-0.49549368023872375,
-0.6506567597389221,
0.3910781443119049,
-0.3116007447242737,
-0.5818982124328613,
-0.35110223293304443,
0.19694329798221588,
-0.766771674156189,
-0.31390810012817383,
0.4841638207435608,
0.23190313577651978,
0.21024757623672485,
-0.24025793373584747,
-0.47672417759895325,
-0.23629020154476166,
-0.9005358815193176,
0.7174956202507019,
0.42997536063194275,
0.043908342719078064,
0.03948884457349777,
0.2503450810909271,
-0.9300931692123413,
-0.4268064498901367,
-0.0896143689751625,
0.09705877304077148,
-0.6270211935043335,
0.1403721123933792,
0.22255748510360718,
0.8879268169403076,
-0.29508349299430847,
-0.02530447207391262,
0.11013375967741013,
-0.3270183205604553,
-0.43111297488212585,
0.2196030467748642,
-0.22470901906490326,
0.025295473635196686,
-0.2836427092552185,
0.19419679045677185,
-0.7243882417678833,
-0.7139840722084045,
0.45097076892852783,
-0.569782018661499,
-0.4897173047065735,
0.03680691868066788,
0.5367586612701416,
-0.4631640315055847,
0.21241359412670135,
-0.06185721606016159,
0.3180520534515381,
-0.11561854928731918,
-0.45285096764564514,
0.238328218460083,
0.2961575984954834,
0.3352438509464264,
0.2499288022518158,
-0.434345006942749,
0.36263272166252136,
-0.2702197730541229,
-0.13801069557666779,
0.09862317144870758,
0.13158906996250153,
0.3275560438632965,
-0.08889056742191315,
0.3441506624221802,
-0.09562289714813232,
0.21291819214820862,
0.21349088847637177,
0.08783912658691406,
0.643315315246582,
-0.24169638752937317,
-0.4499478042125702,
0.2987349331378937,
0.49653753638267517,
0.8086246848106384,
0.5268521904945374,
0.0020138979889452457,
-0.48210710287094116,
-0.37428611516952515,
-0.20694071054458618,
0.287276953458786,
-0.2694503366947174,
0.38988083600997925,
0.18103891611099243,
-0.3372516930103302,
0.8581620454788208,
-0.19014300405979156,
-0.65986567735672,
-0.7338364124298096,
-0.1683761477470398,
-0.5815555453300476,
0.365278035402298,
0.18551553785800934,
-0.19109703600406647,
-0.26129063963890076,
0.4201163649559021,
0.08750277757644653,
0.023893829435110092,
0.007743816822767258,
0.4969082176685333,
-0.43402889370918274,
0.43408557772636414,
0.3212958872318268,
0.8659359812736511,
0.27766814827919006,
-0.15147390961647034,
0.18386401236057281,
0.3502693772315979,
-0.5339221954345703,
0.20121073722839355,
0.38137710094451904,
0.014219311997294426,
-0.9333253502845764,
-1.3709025382995605,
-0.5903933644294739,
0.3065480589866638,
-0.5277525782585144,
0.37264540791511536,
0.9931119084358215,
-0.3738850951194763,
0.6469959020614624,
-0.039544399827718735,
1.160874843597412,
-0.056304335594177246,
-0.2206139713525772,
0.5167579650878906,
0.0054571921937167645,
0.22944879531860352,
0.47141149640083313,
0.20015868544578552,
-0.1594681441783905,
0.18400125205516815,
0.19966545701026917,
0.3922003507614136,
-0.0454617440700531,
0.28232693672180176,
-0.39919736981391907,
-0.054424259811639786,
-0.12911446392536163,
-0.6519250273704529,
0.0208047516644001,
0.0246322862803936,
0.225534126162529,
0.11341949552297592,
-0.3482670485973358,
0.3442803621292114,
0.41139060258865356,
0.476334810256958,
0.6565667986869812,
0.5788080096244812,
0.6955456733703613,
0.33671069145202637,
0.30809205770492554,
0.1932111233472824,
-0.3851723372936249,
0.49194562435150146,
0.02437007986009121,
-0.3405728042125702,
-0.014866093173623085,
0.7173143029212952,
-0.45514577627182007,
-0.07500305771827698,
-0.6944445967674255,
0.2367362082004547,
-0.11719740182161331,
0.5046184659004211,
-0.6284688115119934,
0.05726000294089317,
0.3023603856563568,
-0.22930903732776642,
0.5548713207244873,
0.2766214907169342,
0.4024864435195923,
-0.5188708901405334,
-0.615286648273468,
-0.023653611540794373,
-0.7512471675872803,
0.8935881853103638,
0.029460247606039047,
-0.6562593579292297,
-0.03851202875375748,
-0.3800762891769409,
0.6409239172935486,
-0.32946527004241943,
-0.19998480379581451,
0.20981962978839874,
-0.22475038468837738,
-0.46228641271591187,
1.2517216205596924,
-0.31861141324043274,
0.11881435662508011,
0.2794429659843445,
0.9572451114654541,
0.09765570610761642,
-0.7046105265617371,
-0.2689327299594879,
-0.5099031329154968,
0.32266438007354736,
0.46622270345687866,
-0.0090281767770648,
0.34715530276298523,
0.2753109931945801,
0.24746976792812347,
-0.5535035133361816,
-0.7370561361312866,
-5.250986099243164,
0.04812939092516899,
0.16988860070705414,
-0.0753898173570633,
0.2860845625400543,
0.20417846739292145,
0.08407904207706451,
-0.7579621076583862,
0.5329873561859131,
-1.2472491264343262,
-0.408493310213089,
-0.25597986578941345,
-0.2697432041168213,
0.6170068383216858,
0.5294694900512695,
-0.02462087944149971,
0.11749590933322906,
-0.7506982684135437,
0.2999763786792755,
0.35632792115211487,
-0.3553580045700073,
-0.3392203748226166,
0.3894447386264801,
0.19147956371307373,
-0.1851944476366043,
-0.07962913811206818,
-0.5491353273391724,
-0.005898494739085436,
-0.9719918966293335,
0.05399759113788605,
-0.2834201753139496,
-0.5584937930107117,
-0.41284120082855225,
-0.6111495494842529,
-0.02401946671307087,
0.6051051020622253,
0.485889732837677,
-0.3412710726261139,
0.4924183487892151,
-0.28629976511001587,
0.01955207623541355,
-0.09314888715744019,
-0.24845437705516815,
-0.0691365972161293,
-0.4899287521839142,
0.03229793533682823,
-0.1287294328212738,
-0.520643949508667,
0.12532207369804382,
1.0063598155975342,
0.26229575276374817,
0.641812264919281,
0.5816659927368164,
-0.7678013443946838,
-0.44357728958129883,
0.4134090840816498,
0.09117180854082108,
0.09443993866443634,
-0.5349745750427246,
0.3526380658149719,
0.678801953792572,
-0.3743055760860443,
-0.19400997459888458,
-0.2039634734392166,
-0.2930566370487213,
0.2618540823459625,
-0.1645740270614624,
0.2721410393714905,
0.8186835050582886,
-0.6467771530151367,
0.6643086075782776,
0.0574914924800396,
0.3432615399360657,
-1.2061090469360352,
-0.5719507336616516,
-0.253260999917984,
0.4949384927749634,
0.0030868377070873976,
-0.09881002455949783,
0.08315412700176239,
0.11186612397432327,
-0.5629699230194092,
-0.2412031888961792,
0.06900552660226822,
-0.31961286067962646,
-0.4259859323501587,
-0.38698187470436096,
1.0164304971694946,
-0.276604562997818,
-0.2782042622566223,
0.5531071424484253,
0.07657641917467117,
-0.17434678971767426,
0.1778722107410431,
0.5584267973899841,
0.6595224142074585,
0.32647955417633057,
0.7403237223625183,
0.558366596698761,
0.4618980288505554,
-0.7679468989372253,
-0.5935500860214233,
0.17328572273254395,
-0.9714547991752625,
-0.02071269415318966,
-0.6259885430335999,
-0.18070656061172485,
-0.44228944182395935,
0.30092278122901917,
0.13336597383022308,
0.045937053859233856,
0.27744928002357483,
-0.42639482021331787,
-0.3233821392059326,
0.22531810402870178,
-0.9041506052017212,
0.2715305984020233,
0.32545948028564453,
0.06916708499193192,
-0.25621330738067627,
0.22029779851436615,
0.5055806636810303,
0.5151714086532593,
0.2399156242609024,
-0.48094502091407776,
0.592567503452301,
-0.32526734471321106,
-0.17060332000255585,
0.30661463737487793,
-0.022329535335302353,
-0.45051896572113037,
0.5126718878746033,
-0.3576156198978424,
0.42961570620536804,
-0.09878397732973099,
-0.23184871673583984,
-0.7537459135055542,
0.29342982172966003,
-0.17933930456638336,
-0.045344043523073196,
0.5099515914916992,
-0.5777095556259155,
0.542198657989502,
0.05579858645796776,
0.14588600397109985,
0.10300058126449585,
-0.40584442019462585,
-0.20733335614204407,
0.4829898178577423,
0.11450694501399994,
0.42051976919174194,
0.2310401201248169,
0.31973886489868164,
-0.8758764266967773,
-0.7463306188583374,
-0.0446600504219532,
-0.543406069278717,
-0.5939690470695496,
0.03555038571357727,
-0.07926665991544724,
0.3160748779773712,
-0.26763227581977844,
-0.9774054288864136,
0.04219900444149971,
0.019731765612959862,
0.6257460117340088,
0.529527485370636,
-0.29871025681495667,
-0.43685680627822876,
0.4703846871852875,
-0.3078262209892273,
0.16330966353416443,
0.1936483234167099,
0.038512323051691055,
0.43338507413864136,
0.39847591519355774,
-0.5828750133514404,
-0.46290358901023865,
0.18691423535346985,
0.13862214982509613,
-0.24387480318546295,
0.0731084942817688,
-1.321315050125122,
0.010909177362918854,
-0.1090669184923172,
-0.48626405000686646,
-0.983512818813324,
-0.7996583580970764,
-0.08970293402671814,
-0.21535423398017883,
-0.06470764428377151,
-0.508619487285614,
0.6916028261184692,
0.29683852195739746,
-0.08569126576185226,
-0.0035675133112818003,
-0.11902546137571335,
-0.2728894352912903,
-0.22254416346549988,
-0.3416281044483185,
0.07924722880125046,
-0.26446235179901123,
-0.24892795085906982,
-0.21631312370300293,
0.2655620276927948,
-1.113115668296814,
-0.14868657290935516,
-0.5864473581314087,
-0.5817964673042297,
0.978026807308197,
0.18648125231266022,
-0.024699948728084564,
0.022694291546940804,
0.16538172960281372,
-0.4551428258419037,
0.36625272035598755,
-0.07774461805820465,
0.39678895473480225,
-0.2838307321071625,
-0.11280778050422668,
-0.41694048047065735,
0.5118091106414795,
0.3903835415840149,
0.6235424280166626,
-0.5496873259544373,
-0.6054562926292419,
0.3039953112602234,
-0.37052392959594727,
0.17306560277938843,
0.17075219750404358,
0.14355716109275818,
-0.18819768726825714,
-0.09553982317447662,
0.12264584004878998,
-0.39402341842651367,
0.10905679315328598,
0.41889598965644836,
0.18181586265563965,
-0.0658598244190216,
0.1673465073108673,
0.6628198623657227,
0.6393133997917175,
0.31878435611724854,
-0.14860127866268158,
-0.057493906468153,
0.24503444135189056,
0.3789842426776886,
-0.5418367981910706,
0.1831328272819519,
0.11825872212648392,
0.3320368528366089,
0.2055482566356659,
-0.006752630230039358,
0.09996126592159271,
0.6264367699623108,
-0.5877254605293274,
0.16302940249443054,
-0.3679366707801819,
0.3220442831516266,
-0.07687723636627197,
0.5870290994644165,
0.23682589828968048,
0.5630890130996704,
-0.22190603613853455,
-0.19762475788593292,
0.018205909058451653,
0.2274894416332245,
0.2808288633823395,
0.2720867991447449,
-0.2662597894668579,
0.17998544871807098,
0.25056925415992737,
-0.10486660897731781,
0.505517840385437,
0.2976204752922058,
0.21904927492141724,
0.4168517291545868,
-0.6597849726676941,
0.5349793434143066,
-0.10855405032634735,
-0.6247438192367554,
0.23431381583213806,
0.25772228837013245,
-0.43771427869796753,
0.038974229246377945,
-0.20632007718086243,
0.016668038442730904,
0.032948821783065796,
0.2445543110370636,
-0.5526840686798096,
-0.1191457062959671,
0.301168292760849,
0.14044438302516937,
0.19691576063632965,
-0.31612521409988403,
-0.0332668200135231,
-0.3169560134410858,
0.9424623847007751,
-0.4271596372127533,
-0.584473192691803,
0.03519714996218681,
-0.20947185158729553,
0.4057858884334564,
-0.11469950526952744,
0.2486182302236557,
0.04545575752854347,
-0.07348106801509857,
-0.8267644643783569,
-0.7256406545639038,
-0.02947595715522766,
0.6052054762840271,
-0.6546974182128906,
-0.3011839985847473,
0.6405244469642639,
-0.175705224275589,
0.3666551113128662,
0.8936701416969299,
-0.25013959407806396,
0.1305261254310608,
0.33865001797676086,
0.19348901510238647,
0.08218605071306229,
0.404784232378006,
0.10020601004362106,
0.28191572427749634,
0.6975355744361877,
0.49208465218544006,
-0.17172865569591522,
0.24523212015628815,
0.17885184288024902,
0.0006251234444789588,
-0.3819790184497833,
0.05558619648218155,
0.416587233543396,
-0.34586605429649353,
-0.591303288936615,
0.2984206974506378,
-0.172052800655365,
0.2989784777164459,
0.3472980558872223,
-0.04234917089343071,
0.6828155517578125,
0.08207333832979202,
-0.1769145429134369,
0.22110924124717712,
-0.06494317203760147,
-0.21145908534526825,
0.4688878059387207,
-0.5168197751045227,
-0.5673383474349976,
0.4449380934238434,
0.25339043140411377,
0.16795167326927185,
-0.282243013381958,
0.7594541311264038,
-0.02997717633843422,
1.0263391733169556,
-0.056213002651929855,
0.655015766620636,
0.20404201745986938,
-0.05398168787360191,
-0.14058277010917664,
0.9834960103034973,
0.16760174930095673,
-0.2289000153541565,
0.07304675877094269,
0.07735706865787506,
-0.37590599060058594,
0.44911640882492065,
0.38269326090812683,
-0.2363031804561615,
-0.12499941140413284,
-0.4317431151866913,
0.6536893844604492,
-0.04786406829953194,
-0.3727000653743744,
0.18129074573516846,
0.0009570568217895925,
-0.21857678890228271,
0.011003820225596428,
-0.31279894709587097,
0.3129458427429199,
-0.46305638551712036,
-0.2635425329208374,
0.13330984115600586,
-0.6901246309280396,
-0.03446754813194275,
-0.64496910572052,
-0.253227174282074,
0.1377752125263214,
0.39054977893829346,
-1.1834429502487183,
-0.81760174036026,
0.19801737368106842,
-0.4593544602394104,
-0.26842713356018066,
0.005228756461292505,
0.8782930970191956,
0.6203442811965942,
0.1965460181236267,
0.4807024896144867,
0.08885549008846283,
0.6472029089927673,
-0.09480247646570206,
-0.10717957466840744,
-0.05084475129842758,
-0.28860530257225037,
-0.006011530756950378,
-0.7485563158988953,
0.7586535811424255,
-0.10707123577594757,
0.16639569401741028,
-0.35828471183776855,
0.2369256317615509,
-0.5041478872299194,
0.1427588313817978,
0.6596212983131409,
0.534972071647644,
0.012617984786629677,
0.06241580843925476,
0.572810709476471,
0.6093245148658752,
0.010931295342743397,
-0.6529190540313721,
0.14740972220897675,
0.8871509432792664,
-0.2019636482000351,
-0.10586526244878769,
0.08381321281194687,
0.7493510842323303,
-0.11656604707241058,
0.4600076377391815,
-0.2777656316757202,
-0.14891552925109863,
-0.2619815170764923,
-0.3337719142436981,
0.3374916911125183,
0.22905248403549194,
-0.05462248623371124,
-0.6698426604270935,
1.1119471788406372,
0.5215083956718445,
-0.1966855227947235,
-0.08505189418792725,
-0.2096705585718155,
-0.7343601584434509,
0.5787243843078613,
-0.4390537142753601,
-0.4356021583080292,
0.7899940013885498,
-0.06869123131036758,
-0.7227688431739807,
0.7460790276527405,
-0.8393974304199219,
0.14706987142562866,
-0.13302189111709595,
0.2506088316440582,
0.5879345536231995,
0.06667662411928177,
0.030906537547707558
] |
229093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor | Minor | Minor may refer to:
Minor (law), a person under the age of certain legal activities.
A person who has not reached the age of majority
Academic minor, a secondary field of study in undergraduate education
Music theory
Minor chord
Barbershop seventh chord or minor seventh chord
Minor interval
Minor key
Minor scale
Mathematics
Minor (graph theory), the relation of one graph to another given certain conditions
Minor (linear algebra), the determinant of a certain submatrix
People
Charles Minor (1835–1903), American college administrator
Charles A. Minor (21st-century), Liberian diplomat
Dan Minor (1909–1982), American jazz trombonist
Dave Minor (1922–1998), American basketball player
James T. Minor, US academic administrator and sociologist
Kyle Minor (born 1976), American writer
Mike Minor (actor) (born 1940), American actor
Mike Minor (baseball) (born 1987), American baseball pitcher
William Chester Minor (1834–1920), American contributor to the Oxford English Dictionary
Places
Minor, Alabama, United States
Asia Minor, the westernmost region of Asia
Minor Creek (California)
Minor Creek (Missouri)
Sports
Minor league, a sports league not regarded as a premier league
Minor League Baseball or "the minors", the North American professional baseball leagues affiliated to but below Major League Baseball
Minor penalty in ice hockey
Vehicles
Morris Minor, a British automobile brand
Jawa Minor, a Czech automobile introduced 1937
Aero Minor, a Czech automobile from Jawa Motors, 1946–1952
Other uses
Minor, a chocolate brand owned by Maestrani
Minor suit or minors in contract bridge, namely clubs and diamonds
Minor Theater in Arcata, California, United States
Minor v. Happersett, a case appealed to the US Supreme Court concerning the right to vote
Plays
The Minor (Foote play), 1760
The Minor (Fonvizin play), 1782
See also
Major (disambiguation)
Menorca, Spain (historically called "Minorca")
Minority (disambiguation)
Distinguish from
Miner | [
0.09086736291646957,
0.008287221193313599,
-0.22748562693595886,
-0.13425494730472565,
0.2735506594181061,
0.040730223059654236,
0.43845486640930176,
0.22889749705791473,
-0.3644361197948456,
-0.16954460740089417,
-0.6069470643997192,
0.6619346737861633,
0.22905157506465912,
0.1341288983821869,
-0.37086111307144165,
0.7482625842094421,
0.35016441345214844,
0.5933842658996582,
-0.12375810742378235,
-0.25961294770240784,
-0.29240384697914124,
0.06241448223590851,
-0.059770435094833374,
-0.7286534905433655,
0.27868330478668213,
-0.15669603645801544,
0.15772050619125366,
0.4833209216594696,
-0.7924088835716248,
-0.10006261616945267,
-0.2368413507938385,
0.12146459519863129,
0.25929996371269226,
0.05863725021481514,
0.052877526730298996,
0.28139033913612366,
0.11610917747020721,
-0.42882224917411804,
0.20251545310020447,
-0.7420054078102112,
0.43414559960365295,
-0.055774614214897156,
-0.005595644935965538,
-0.012996704317629337,
-0.34278368949890137,
-0.27715006470680237,
-1.5961761474609375,
-0.27607262134552,
-0.047044891864061356,
0.11849337816238403,
0.06120331957936287,
0.14688049256801605,
0.0519227460026741,
-0.023905765265226364,
0.13270974159240723,
0.10778316855430603,
-0.5748874545097351,
-0.26817411184310913,
0.43850794434547424,
0.007683980278670788,
0.8086087703704834,
0.2871604561805725,
0.028464676812291145,
0.2085360735654831,
0.39812883734703064,
-0.049671098589897156,
-0.05648035183548927,
0.22931373119354248,
-0.5638651251792908,
-0.4658602178096771,
-0.17143364250659943,
-0.2862622141838074,
-0.1729515790939331,
-0.18202532827854156,
-0.5656748414039612,
-0.05453433841466904,
0.35667359828948975,
-0.2768436670303345,
0.0022673204075545073,
0.06001657247543335,
0.14109398424625397,
0.7224372029304504,
0.6446651220321655,
-0.11768019944429398,
0.13419266045093536,
0.2764424681663513,
-0.3325374722480774,
0.2540770173072815,
-0.013736506924033165,
0.41988512873649597,
0.5391483306884766,
0.35071906447410583,
0.4812050759792328,
-0.0007291511865332723,
-0.12137828022241592,
0.07302645593881607,
0.37547066807746887,
0.0502798929810524,
0.030658379197120667,
0.02811656892299652,
0.04918442666530609,
-0.13142040371894836,
0.3267457187175751,
-0.31611138582229614,
0.08036360889673233,
-0.2944266200065613,
0.15195545554161072,
-0.01261035818606615,
-0.1717299371957779,
-0.33526521921157837,
-0.1788976639509201,
0.29642385244369507,
0.020492885261774063,
0.1104348748922348,
-0.2499682605266571,
0.4616750478744507,
0.27626052498817444,
0.15174545347690582,
-0.0053025661036372185,
-0.04031405970454216,
-0.03409421443939209,
-0.4626505672931671,
-0.12572014331817627,
-0.2896977961063385,
0.29248231649398804,
-0.011173485778272152,
0.3093424439430237,
0.4083850085735321,
-0.31823915243148804,
-0.13116846978664398,
0.31906387209892273,
0.48787960410118103,
-0.2546287178993225,
0.020313438028097153,
-0.1007668524980545,
0.20000356435775757,
0.2086953967809677,
0.03213801607489586,
0.1316978484392166,
-0.13642819225788116,
-0.7591245174407959,
-0.30513477325439453,
-0.7978053092956543,
-0.31865301728248596,
0.16742104291915894,
-0.13602595031261444,
0.3203839659690857,
-0.001319780945777893,
-0.6321048140525818,
0.3008395731449127,
0.0367705263197422,
0.27136021852493286,
-0.24586674571037292,
0.23426461219787598,
0.08574239164590836,
-0.3052315413951874,
0.7697334885597229,
-0.4949010908603668,
-0.638444185256958,
0.3235260844230652,
-0.6312097907066345,
0.15173280239105225,
-0.5077438950538635,
-0.23586398363113403,
0.2673548460006714,
0.10198146849870682,
-0.05835232511162758,
0.05983921140432358,
-0.019484002143144608,
0.5925137996673584,
-0.07651552557945251,
0.3623720705509186,
-0.06428445130586624,
-0.445966511964798,
-0.197844460606575,
0.38765475153923035,
0.38877567648887634,
0.09029553830623627,
0.8634024262428284,
-0.18220151960849762,
-0.28640833497047424,
0.16110986471176147,
0.6329273581504822,
0.09839583933353424,
-0.11881222575902939,
-0.562211811542511,
0.15504023432731628,
0.0020074481144547462,
0.030308352783322334,
-0.6802412867546082,
-0.014282566495239735,
-0.5184515118598938,
0.3247807025909424,
-0.2027953863143921,
0.43821483850479126,
-0.0512719489634037,
-0.34442853927612305,
1.086803674697876,
0.2685679793357849,
0.44699305295944214,
-0.12181951850652695,
0.40156272053718567,
0.056293852627277374,
0.12488570809364319,
-0.2809236943721771,
0.9290255904197693,
0.36133456230163574,
0.37209218740463257,
0.051765501499176025,
0.1492023468017578,
0.3380613923072815,
-0.35286837816238403,
0.3393814265727997,
-0.5870461463928223,
0.3169881999492645,
0.22545775771141052,
-0.6334893107414246,
0.0904654860496521,
-0.1723918914794922,
-0.04563385620713234,
0.06613505631685257,
-0.41181454062461853,
-0.07753021270036697,
0.37029707431793213,
-0.4463089406490326,
0.054818399250507355,
-0.2706090211868286,
0.08684521913528442,
0.13990315794944763,
-0.8472037315368652,
0.16679023206233978,
-0.15698666870594025,
0.3013018071651459,
-0.047923699021339417,
-0.4232983887195587,
0.542317807674408,
-0.3902943730354309,
0.014383260160684586,
0.07984864711761475,
-0.2997437119483948,
-0.15065714716911316,
0.1018814966082573,
-0.1505153924226761,
0.12881240248680115,
-0.006413884460926056,
0.005431103520095348,
-0.14373943209648132,
0.18387281894683838,
-0.12293903529644012,
0.3046034574508667,
0.06399257481098175,
0.13040731847286224,
0.11685998737812042,
-0.3872588574886322,
0.15308357775211334,
-0.4755594730377197,
-0.6625277400016785,
0.339140385389328,
0.12849287688732147,
-0.7598846554756165,
-0.525000810623169,
0.3367968201637268,
0.24308271706104279,
-0.2393089085817337,
-0.4083741307258606,
0.4204469621181488,
-0.06756231188774109,
-0.1814807653427124,
-0.13362272083759308,
0.4389450252056122,
-0.0837273970246315,
0.5071338415145874,
-0.4922136664390564,
-0.5847877860069275,
-0.3264886438846588,
-0.1592002511024475,
0.6188625693321228,
0.1546533703804016,
-0.12400943785905838,
-0.40454256534576416,
0.13203592598438263,
0.10381723195314407,
0.6818202137947083,
-0.6968671083450317,
-0.19467009603977203,
-0.501863956451416,
0.47921693325042725,
0.2834332287311554,
0.3743702471256256,
-0.3973653316497803,
-0.40990784764289856,
-0.1462751179933548,
-0.10666099190711975,
0.2504099905490875,
0.6647031307220459,
0.2803454101085663,
-0.11400099843740463,
0.23608309030532837,
0.23382781445980072,
-0.4941297173500061,
-0.12775738537311554,
0.7852511405944824,
-0.3954917788505554,
-0.38369545340538025,
-0.00524916360154748,
0.20144228637218475,
-0.3269354999065399,
-0.17651964724063873,
-6.061153411865234,
0.1821427047252655,
-0.5626546144485474,
-0.3877372145652771,
0.1121465265750885,
0.19506241381168365,
0.7439829111099243,
-0.08975949883460999,
-0.5750572085380554,
0.20216022431850433,
-0.007143599912524223,
0.01617424748837948,
0.3761846423149109,
0.3407074511051178,
0.6806781888008118,
-0.14814496040344238,
0.5130103826522827,
-0.01866455003619194,
-0.46583807468414307,
0.4892396032810211,
0.0898875743150711,
0.4768291413784027,
-0.031358059495687485,
-0.04766860231757164,
-0.01152604166418314,
-0.09212278574705124,
-0.2907615602016449,
0.13240614533424377,
-0.7191951274871826,
-0.48411911725997925,
-0.15813080966472626,
0.786095380783081,
-0.34547504782676697,
-0.06793531775474548,
0.12836366891860962,
0.309675931930542,
0.28789234161376953,
-0.14156723022460938,
0.14749494194984436,
-0.027696648612618446,
-0.4984802305698395,
0.15615014731884003,
0.3233024477958679,
0.20503954589366913,
-0.014786896295845509,
-0.19255320727825165,
0.046786289662122726,
-0.15843962132930756,
-0.2671644687652588,
0.34777820110321045,
-0.6237865686416626,
-0.09216158092021942,
0.11645869165658951,
0.004688871558755636,
0.12626568973064423,
-0.15331514179706573,
0.5037133693695068,
-0.10249216109514236,
-0.3928264379501343,
0.04387526586651802,
0.0652773380279541,
-0.521032452583313,
0.2911625802516937,
-0.3325377404689789,
-0.1878339648246765,
-0.07915077358484268,
-0.2898913621902466,
-0.43104875087738037,
0.6031700968742371,
0.5297141671180725,
-0.2146293967962265,
0.0022286202292889357,
0.270635187625885,
-0.972305417060852,
0.11595464497804642,
-0.5042890310287476,
-0.4503282308578491,
0.18621253967285156,
0.07501596212387085,
-0.30409061908721924,
0.32356739044189453,
0.1214504987001419,
-0.15334534645080566,
0.16380412876605988,
-0.17560330033302307,
-0.3257199227809906,
0.25103524327278137,
0.39372727274894714,
-0.4113257825374603,
-0.20671279728412628,
0.5198971033096313,
0.1627470701932907,
0.017438065260648727,
0.09562542289495468,
-0.4069914221763611,
0.23048970103263855,
0.127158060669899,
-0.3464425504207611,
-0.021276529878377914,
-0.1243133619427681,
0.49801620841026306,
-0.5639026761054993,
-0.08422636985778809,
-0.24477383494377136,
-0.20982886850833893,
-0.2775036096572876,
-0.48739928007125854,
0.5764491558074951,
0.9969696998596191,
-0.2272426038980484,
0.34637147188186646,
0.2025316208600998,
0.029591375961899757,
-0.007523988839238882,
0.1819578856229782,
-0.2777751088142395,
-0.5177887678146362,
0.4609675109386444,
-0.09793688356876373,
-0.051649488508701324,
-0.1895868182182312,
-0.17465391755104065,
0.11673355847597122,
-0.28985485434532166,
-0.9498847723007202,
-0.21721255779266357,
-0.08235339820384979,
0.11954114586114883,
0.10418614000082016,
0.5917008519172668,
0.47927403450012207,
0.7613322734832764,
-0.019038554280996323,
-0.1972060650587082,
-0.35056644678115845,
-0.30520251393318176,
-0.10828331112861633,
0.4192713797092438,
-0.14736822247505188,
-0.8859847784042358,
0.00816372036933899,
-0.5336299538612366,
-0.14150528609752655,
-0.1568169742822647,
0.5351647138595581,
-0.2501864433288574,
0.3878450095653534,
0.34113579988479614,
-0.17837174236774445,
0.7608304023742676,
-0.0029276374261826277,
-0.35179272294044495,
0.458221435546875,
-0.32983604073524475,
-0.1959071159362793,
-0.3898043930530548,
-0.1306753158569336,
-0.047844599932432175,
-0.011236149817705154,
-0.4282493591308594,
-0.2792433202266693,
-0.3870653808116913,
-0.8205884695053101,
-0.388108491897583,
0.4097859561443329,
-0.08911693096160889,
-0.40997689962387085,
-0.3748128414154053,
-0.08573389053344727,
0.952101469039917,
0.14006581902503967,
-0.43091920018196106,
-0.3404494524002075,
-0.719224214553833,
0.48072347044944763,
0.17856691777706146,
0.03967110440135002,
0.02555517666041851,
-0.40954840183258057,
0.08189345896244049,
0.44025570154190063,
-0.4381316006183624,
-0.18765871226787567,
-0.030161703005433083,
0.24367375671863556,
-0.14558567106723785,
0.047709740698337555,
-0.3928898572921753,
-0.22745907306671143,
-0.06002869829535484,
-0.009321650490164757,
-0.47714853286743164,
0.4165757894515991,
-0.14924226701259613,
0.21374045312404633,
-0.14362719655036926,
0.09468730539083481,
0.7755332589149475,
-0.533241868019104,
-0.13201385736465454,
0.4607236683368683,
0.30896931886672974,
-0.33779430389404297,
0.18334649503231049,
0.5602142810821533,
-0.5495246052742004,
0.6030299067497253,
-0.44905176758766174,
-0.4661408066749573,
0.5337284803390503,
-0.28106269240379333,
-0.36554571986198425,
-0.17536936700344086,
0.09157226979732513,
-0.19086678326129913,
-0.002938769059255719,
0.25127822160720825,
-0.2985176146030426,
-0.6094666719436646,
-0.8265150189399719,
0.5269408822059631,
0.04808728024363518,
-0.030130406841635704,
-0.11570755392313004,
0.07243329286575317,
0.10622904449701309,
0.13975423574447632,
-0.32923755049705505,
0.903288722038269,
0.3145420551300049,
0.21568593382835388,
0.04175197705626488,
0.1666305810213089,
-0.5140905976295471,
-0.07037803530693054,
-0.23235207796096802,
-0.15133057534694672,
-0.3329277038574219,
-0.293633371591568,
0.135110005736351,
0.23190727829933167,
1.1864019632339478,
0.1999385505914688,
-0.7434706091880798,
-0.04672573506832123,
-0.39116171002388,
0.42505383491516113,
-0.7654901742935181,
-0.4699764549732208,
0.7460053563117981,
0.32090064883232117,
-0.05134912580251694,
-0.21682427823543549,
-0.014156928285956383,
0.5144932866096497,
-0.07102132588624954,
-0.10237307846546173,
-0.006019826512783766,
0.6626207828521729,
0.9959763288497925,
0.2342822402715683,
-0.5418404340744019,
-0.27600520849227905,
-0.11280705034732819,
0.22013811767101288,
-0.16900840401649475,
-0.398447722196579,
0.053546931594610214,
0.23451755940914154,
-0.7090262174606323,
0.0313812792301178,
-0.026104550808668137,
0.5462315678596497,
0.1732902228832245,
0.6684619188308716,
-0.37230774760246277,
0.00791666004806757,
-0.4590129256248474,
-0.12944376468658447,
0.13141316175460815,
-0.2852064371109009,
0.18572662770748138,
0.4899660050868988,
-0.46609216928482056,
0.359365850687027,
-0.4572957754135132,
0.367557168006897,
0.3080650568008423,
-1.1579328775405884,
-0.29388609528541565,
-0.050601840019226074,
0.25200334191322327,
-0.5110756754875183,
0.682292640209198,
-0.08662401884794235,
0.05980132147669792,
0.0984433963894844,
0.15186260640621185,
0.583925724029541,
0.09273269772529602,
-0.48369652032852173,
0.31054776906967163,
-0.02630755491554737,
-0.6485053896903992,
0.30931955575942993,
-0.1985478699207306,
0.05023195594549179,
-0.17145995795726776,
-0.002699080388993025,
-0.2589108645915985,
-0.0647517666220665,
-0.02132410742342472,
0.4958880841732025,
0.6183828711509705,
0.04195369407534599,
-0.17126308381557465,
-0.019908515736460686,
0.066988505423069,
-0.1030476987361908,
-0.1604793518781662,
0.500151515007019,
-0.13175147771835327,
0.5818130970001221,
-0.10396680980920792,
-0.06208408996462822,
0.6527215838432312,
-0.4072045087814331,
0.08628292381763458,
0.42797067761421204,
0.3406864404678345,
0.668881356716156,
0.1651512235403061,
0.4972771108150482,
0.22907112538814545,
-0.1473103165626526,
-0.25988906621932983,
0.4750173091888428,
-0.46970826387405396,
-0.24063025414943695,
0.6015763878822327,
0.4248051345348358,
0.12797781825065613,
0.3008047640323639,
0.2692621052265167,
-0.07346856594085693,
0.4735380709171295,
0.3392515182495117,
-0.277996301651001,
-0.18137463927268982,
-0.0034628428984433413,
0.48405101895332336,
-0.4103705883026123,
0.46412357687950134,
0.21740983426570892,
0.036769069731235504,
-0.27525344491004944,
0.637818455696106,
-0.45424163341522217,
-0.7137651443481445,
-0.7727023959159851,
0.30916866660118103,
0.27135422825813293,
0.5559495091438293,
0.31075918674468994,
0.10131994634866714,
-0.6140178442001343,
0.766312301158905,
-0.15918709337711334,
-0.29918932914733887,
-0.19072562456130981,
0.31387877464294434,
0.4567206799983978,
-0.21669241786003113,
0.7008630037307739,
0.5474076867103577,
-0.24576857686042786,
0.6823262572288513,
0.3908635377883911,
0.3473702073097229,
-0.79453045129776,
0.13842391967773438,
-0.268965482711792,
-0.22635123133659363,
-0.7290711998939514,
-0.09222052991390228,
0.029731757938861847,
0.38525769114494324,
0.3285369873046875,
-0.06506304442882538,
0.12208198010921478,
0.05442272499203682,
-0.28679725527763367,
-0.19365327060222626,
-0.05042171850800514,
-0.8298589587211609,
0.15056636929512024,
-0.2661902904510498,
0.7963582277297974,
0.02733401209115982,
0.09624507278203964,
-0.287291020154953,
-0.023446645587682724,
-0.39823517203330994,
-0.21328198909759521,
-0.3946624994277954,
-0.009301891550421715,
-0.2674899101257324,
0.23687268793582916,
-0.27996185421943665,
0.6376696825027466,
0.5106382369995117,
-0.1102580651640892,
-0.062394123524427414,
0.5358712077140808,
0.4701969623565674,
-0.041739534586668015,
0.49322205781936646,
-0.2710180878639221,
0.39718690514564514,
-0.49836230278015137,
0.412943571805954,
0.20150278508663177,
0.6005527973175049,
0.07410653680562973,
-0.48442399501800537,
-0.22393585741519928,
-0.2834365665912628,
0.5259260535240173,
-0.25247472524642944,
0.3809524476528168,
-0.43170276284217834,
0.23593971133232117,
-0.3981444537639618,
0.5679821372032166,
0.1857510805130005,
-0.07057087123394012,
0.1498645544052124,
-0.07554597407579422,
0.27975884079933167,
0.025398816913366318,
-0.2992842197418213,
-0.374706506729126,
-0.04637584462761879,
-0.09610176831483841,
-0.8757258057594299,
-0.023306461051106453,
-0.19259923696517944,
-0.008934305980801582,
0.06407700479030609,
-0.24784383177757263,
-0.2667144536972046,
-0.46217745542526245,
0.5153749585151672,
0.07679754495620728,
-0.11888857185840607,
-0.3574220836162567,
-0.02210593782365322,
-0.4952072501182556,
-0.3226720690727234,
0.5751363635063171
] |
229095 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groom%20%28disambiguation%29 | Groom (disambiguation) | A groom (short for bridegroom) is a male participant in a wedding ceremony.
Groom or Grooming may also refer to:
Occupations
Groom (profession), a person responsible for the feeding and care of horses
One of the competitors in combined driving is called a groom
In the English/British Royal Household
Groom of the Bedchamber, later named Groom in Waiting, a junior nobleman in attendance in the King's Bedchamber
Groom of the Chamber, a rank of courtier in the Tudor royal court
Groom of the Great Chamber, a junior nobleman in attendance (who would customarily also serve as King's Messenger)
Groom of the Privy Chamber, a junior nobleman in attendance in the Chamber
Groom of the Robes
Groom of the Stool, later named Groom of the Stole, the senior nobleman in attendance in the King's Bedchamber
Places
Groom, Texas, a town in Carson County, Texas, United States, location of the second largest cross in the western hemisphere
Division of Groom, a Commonwealth Electoral Division in Queensland, Australia
Groom Lake (salt flat), a geographic feature of the United States Military Area 51
Groom Range, a mountain range in Nevada, United States
People
Groom (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name)
Film
The Groom, a 2016 Russian comedy film
Groomed (film), a 2021 American documentary film
Grooming
Child grooming, befriending a child, in the negative context of preparing them to accept abusive behavior
Dog grooming, the care provided for a dog's physical appearance (especially its coat and nails), or specific work done to enhance its appearance for a show
Horse grooming, the daily hygienic care provided for horses, or specific work done on the horse to enhance its physical appearance for a show
Personal grooming, or preening, in humans and animals, a hygienic activity (caring for physical appearance)
Social grooming, behaviour between animals and people who live in proximity, helping bond and reinforce social structures
Snow grooming, the process of preparing snow for recreational uses, such as skiing
Traffic grooming, a technical activity in telecommunications
Male grooming, specific work done by men to enhance their physical appearance, or daily hygiene care done by men
See also
Bridegroom (disambiguation)
Grom (disambiguation)
Operant conditioning | [
-0.15983755886554718,
0.2378285974264145,
0.051982030272483826,
0.14530475437641144,
-0.3143719434738159,
-0.36539170145988464,
0.6038568019866943,
-0.34990257024765015,
-0.19693860411643982,
-0.16250284016132355,
-0.6985931992530823,
0.36520326137542725,
0.018849937245249748,
0.48307257890701294,
-0.08661621063947678,
0.4435524642467499,
0.13283281028270721,
0.06959286332130432,
-0.09974327683448792,
-0.6896775364875793,
-0.25791066884994507,
-0.006521377246826887,
-0.3289547860622406,
-0.45119497179985046,
0.30558082461357117,
-0.11224553734064102,
0.16019730269908905,
-0.0008534787339158356,
-0.319001168012619,
-0.1009165495634079,
-0.07073354721069336,
-0.02297907881438732,
-0.09760508686304092,
-0.28910714387893677,
0.0723266750574112,
-0.213117316365242,
0.21128474175930023,
-0.8118449449539185,
-0.16887442767620087,
-0.6481004357337952,
-0.1711457520723343,
-0.4545496106147766,
0.11077747493982315,
0.06423502415418625,
-0.6896717548370361,
-0.25860607624053955,
-1.056710124015808,
0.15767115354537964,
-0.48816314339637756,
-0.0349760465323925,
-0.392820805311203,
-0.20914748311042786,
0.22086511552333832,
0.4905499219894409,
0.12897683680057526,
0.2834513485431671,
-0.5361739993095398,
0.20536984503269196,
0.14832662045955658,
-0.5812481045722961,
0.6259931325912476,
0.15500709414482117,
0.05958645045757294,
0.05555832386016846,
0.6600276827812195,
0.19052724540233612,
-0.042185187339782715,
-0.04754079505801201,
-0.6787792444229126,
-0.4317271113395691,
-0.18994732201099396,
-0.6493056416511536,
0.09000322967767715,
0.22598567605018616,
-0.17147929966449738,
0.07513308525085449,
0.02194957248866558,
-0.08865262567996979,
0.215598002076149,
-0.3471887409687042,
-0.5948493480682373,
0.34695351123809814,
0.15531930327415466,
0.16506628692150116,
0.06325917690992355,
-0.057530421763658524,
-0.010759131982922554,
0.3334355354309082,
-0.1899884045124054,
0.5100752711296082,
0.44095271825790405,
0.28139927983283997,
0.36993950605392456,
0.1846298724412918,
-0.24554769694805145,
-0.06670437753200531,
0.4310709238052368,
-0.14915239810943604,
0.3510529696941376,
-0.05457218736410141,
0.014159557409584522,
-0.4212716221809387,
0.6207802891731262,
-0.47623154520988464,
-0.18616557121276855,
-0.8798333406448364,
-0.13107557594776154,
0.15687938034534454,
0.015329244546592236,
-0.21922853589057922,
-0.20407073199748993,
0.31039440631866455,
0.0951024740934372,
0.4269044101238251,
-0.4001429080963135,
0.3069697320461273,
-0.32237210869789124,
0.0928472951054573,
-0.2576054632663727,
-0.2160162627696991,
0.06394536048173904,
-0.07897761464118958,
0.34867310523986816,
-0.22726941108703613,
-0.013006681576371193,
0.14394503831863403,
0.7426884770393372,
1.1156837940216064,
-0.9566898941993713,
0.2961731553077698,
0.0920332744717598,
0.4860840141773224,
-0.23222343623638153,
0.34790992736816406,
-0.2157917469739914,
-0.35869070887565613,
0.24114973843097687,
-0.26977211236953735,
0.5942080616950989,
0.38251641392707825,
-0.8875826001167297,
0.024462006986141205,
-0.6772512793540955,
-0.027374107390642166,
0.19722789525985718,
-0.042772326618433,
0.16151052713394165,
-0.14504118263721466,
-0.07476459443569183,
0.1114639863371849,
-0.2606911063194275,
0.6864011287689209,
-0.1213943138718605,
-0.1494801938533783,
-0.08716602623462677,
0.12794290482997894,
0.5914435982704163,
-0.24364829063415527,
-0.33532238006591797,
0.47033923864364624,
-0.09909477084875107,
0.2396007478237152,
-0.1646728217601776,
0.2550003230571747,
0.2184199094772339,
-0.10376543551683426,
0.21237534284591675,
0.7060964107513428,
-0.2997506260871887,
0.05131230875849724,
-0.35262826085090637,
0.09008447080850601,
0.04883091151714325,
-0.15404970943927765,
0.1826462298631668,
0.5915996432304382,
0.2716931998729706,
-0.3904585838317871,
0.5473386645317078,
0.29388228058815,
-0.6326134204864502,
0.4654219150543213,
0.3436398506164551,
0.12186410278081894,
0.23667940497398376,
0.0470135360956192,
-0.3970566689968109,
0.3583950996398926,
-0.21922604739665985,
-0.2916141748428345,
-0.6846182942390442,
-0.3435303866863251,
-0.10691947489976883,
-0.6598085761070251,
0.42111220955848694,
-0.2379402071237564,
-0.05403636023402214,
0.6623674035072327,
0.29324981570243835,
0.2960282564163208,
-0.05155707523226738,
0.22981931269168854,
-0.5019875764846802,
0.21039257943630219,
-0.5472675561904907,
0.9961940050125122,
0.2571977376937866,
0.5711559653282166,
0.056031014770269394,
-0.12508970499038696,
0.19834813475608826,
-0.14357639849185944,
0.5720930099487305,
-0.4189678728580475,
-0.12859782576560974,
0.08093806356191635,
-0.6396465301513672,
0.1511208564043045,
-0.1464751660823822,
-0.575886070728302,
0.6560594439506531,
0.1484941840171814,
0.02937922067940235,
-0.019992638379335403,
-0.27106279134750366,
0.6820825338363647,
-0.37103331089019775,
0.12550708651542664,
0.11502563208341599,
-0.6244907379150391,
0.13734149932861328,
0.401009202003479,
0.5915024876594543,
-0.18445201218128204,
-0.340297669172287,
-0.03936681151390076,
0.03855719417333603,
-0.27093055844306946,
0.23140469193458557,
0.0008878096705302596,
-0.2818298935890198,
0.20376402139663696,
0.32473433017730713,
-0.14092493057250977,
0.3325916528701782,
0.06238517165184021,
0.18237994611263275,
0.22806879878044128,
-0.38410645723342896,
0.3359909653663635,
0.1090853288769722,
-0.18403618037700653,
-0.2074008285999298,
-0.1764899492263794,
0.2210524082183838,
-0.026383832097053528,
-0.16504772007465363,
0.7975450158119202,
-0.22660700976848602,
-0.017329862341284752,
0.26758235692977905,
0.4142073094844818,
-0.1698920577764511,
-0.41370686888694763,
-0.0942603275179863,
0.3370148837566376,
-0.43595626950263977,
0.227633535861969,
0.4808094799518585,
0.6875558495521545,
-0.1517145186662674,
-0.1674625724554062,
-1.018789291381836,
-0.11658874899148941,
-0.5083450078964233,
-0.664241373538971,
0.7270953059196472,
0.15452724695205688,
0.09790724515914917,
-0.22776170074939728,
-0.3654630184173584,
-0.135959193110466,
0.07445552945137024,
-0.5139447450637817,
-0.44946226477622986,
-0.35049089789390564,
0.17830057442188263,
-0.16849586367607117,
0.32085099816322327,
-0.01927320845425129,
-0.009075303561985493,
0.8356644511222839,
0.5042301416397095,
-0.20987433195114136,
0.42974910140037537,
0.2965231239795685,
-0.010564186610281467,
-0.18777306377887726,
0.01158739160746336,
-0.38132092356681824,
-0.8472435474395752,
-0.10697836428880692,
0.06833870708942413,
-0.5724835991859436,
0.37434571981430054,
0.10976947844028473,
0.04437264800071716,
-0.12694959342479706,
-5.997004508972168,
-0.2003421187400818,
-0.5664757490158081,
-0.26077723503112793,
0.23236183822155,
0.08126302808523178,
0.9310124516487122,
0.08432073146104813,
-0.3258036971092224,
0.09064068645238876,
0.07244227081537247,
-0.48585808277130127,
0.5223724246025085,
-0.20416057109832764,
0.6198069453239441,
-0.15646174550056458,
0.7901120781898499,
-0.02190486527979374,
0.02736220695078373,
-0.004923923406749964,
-0.3073326647281647,
0.5914068818092346,
0.16332927346229553,
0.18581520020961761,
-0.3572070002555847,
-0.060306597501039505,
-0.1551564633846283,
0.03504233807325363,
-0.5375169515609741,
-0.36773839592933655,
0.1861640214920044,
0.45967745780944824,
0.3227047324180603,
-0.07068480551242828,
-0.11177994310855865,
0.06533939391374588,
0.7046449780464172,
0.1335340291261673,
0.014354119077324867,
0.2656015157699585,
0.12144201993942261,
0.3568079173564911,
0.20107203722000122,
-0.043542634695768356,
0.36886167526245117,
-0.4070706069469452,
-0.5751351714134216,
-0.29907333850860596,
-0.141843780875206,
0.5189347267150879,
-0.2595618665218353,
0.18707236647605896,
0.6411941051483154,
-0.04949372634291649,
0.0877547636628151,
0.1062624454498291,
0.5902565717697144,
0.05845416337251663,
-0.6354447603225708,
-0.13318660855293274,
0.04061489552259445,
-0.34343019127845764,
0.4202055037021637,
-0.38795366883277893,
-0.037497468292713165,
-0.2650999426841736,
-0.7059462070465088,
-0.14690232276916504,
0.5908806920051575,
0.4398331046104431,
-0.8133549094200134,
-0.07306472212076187,
0.6456259489059448,
-0.6402143836021423,
0.18437689542770386,
-0.5022984743118286,
0.2319793999195099,
-0.07097132503986359,
-0.16341648995876312,
-0.22624355554580688,
0.1421041041612625,
-0.2243959754705429,
-0.23230041563510895,
-0.053297095000743866,
0.3445439040660858,
-0.1998472958803177,
-0.38196802139282227,
-0.10568290948867798,
-0.22043809294700623,
-0.2397918999195099,
0.7821271419525146,
0.32954180240631104,
-0.14116080105304718,
-0.1855722963809967,
-0.14798536896705627,
0.7761459946632385,
-0.37658289074897766,
-0.10410641878843307,
0.8516775369644165,
-0.0025883519556373358,
0.011052615009248257,
-0.5875744223594666,
0.2486935257911682,
0.08568528294563293,
-0.10520431399345398,
-0.13122454285621643,
-0.32172244787216187,
0.6953363418579102,
0.5821426510810852,
-0.23221176862716675,
0.3409682810306549,
0.368770033121109,
-0.19277998805046082,
-0.26340940594673157,
0.16326302289962769,
0.16498520970344543,
-0.39195147156715393,
0.5070657134056091,
0.24016353487968445,
0.7238786816596985,
0.1929459422826767,
0.05967959761619568,
-0.40398913621902466,
-0.12379743158817291,
-0.6318680644035339,
0.04793896898627281,
0.0758732333779335,
-0.15223369002342224,
0.31059348583221436,
-0.0749046579003334,
0.6397221088409424,
0.417373925447464,
-0.05742018297314644,
-0.39334577322006226,
0.6713476181030273,
-0.1893768608570099,
0.07145132124423981,
0.3670620918273926,
-0.2294362336397171,
-0.7930826544761658,
0.4945424795150757,
-0.7789716124534607,
-0.48496636748313904,
0.18896491825580597,
0.6100720763206482,
0.09421396255493164,
-0.3633979260921478,
-0.13380025327205658,
0.13338923454284668,
0.8857258558273315,
-0.44517284631729126,
-0.2999792695045471,
0.6553821563720703,
-0.8584500551223755,
-0.27810195088386536,
-0.07983265817165375,
0.1465291976928711,
0.377839058637619,
-0.6607345938682556,
-0.21169090270996094,
-0.6957054138183594,
-0.5074521899223328,
-0.8176420331001282,
-0.07366075366735458,
0.11068163067102432,
0.2608572542667389,
-0.8309902548789978,
-0.18696662783622742,
-0.33321380615234375,
0.5955814719200134,
-0.07214515656232834,
-0.03489310294389725,
-0.5218489170074463,
-0.24833305180072784,
0.5448428392410278,
0.30126065015792847,
0.6292938590049744,
0.6513761281967163,
0.100431889295578,
0.16251173615455627,
0.3259426951408386,
-0.02095717005431652,
-0.15750062465667725,
0.23854558169841766,
0.40016189217567444,
-0.0422385074198246,
0.09568316489458084,
0.012490618973970413,
-0.35308563709259033,
0.2448500096797943,
-0.0938194990158081,
-0.05357056111097336,
0.4292731285095215,
-0.3925749957561493,
-0.058229587972164154,
-0.20940051972866058,
0.1520746648311615,
0.14285312592983246,
-0.11361940950155258,
-0.10777447372674942,
0.6724675297737122,
0.16174215078353882,
-0.41345804929733276,
0.05309901386499405,
0.12287776172161102,
-0.9576730728149414,
0.6870152354240417,
-0.15192297101020813,
-0.3712628185749054,
0.3942946195602417,
0.07965131849050522,
-0.814750075340271,
-0.22383485734462738,
0.28952929377555847,
-0.1561165452003479,
-0.2535572052001953,
0.19534198939800262,
-0.3296850621700287,
-0.23470044136047363,
-0.347419410943985,
0.9465384483337402,
0.1416768878698349,
0.21697616577148438,
0.4229820668697357,
-0.08619360625743866,
-0.17180268466472626,
-0.06477662920951843,
-0.3903990387916565,
0.12636950612068176,
0.06033846363425255,
-0.12053361535072327,
-0.21724282205104828,
-0.33719438314437866,
-0.15254099667072296,
-0.16736671328544617,
-0.4218844473361969,
0.06543489545583725,
0.0061790840700268745,
-0.07493906468153,
-0.017570940777659416,
0.7804147601127625,
1.0313835144042969,
0.33510076999664307,
-0.47965845465660095,
-0.3871341645717621,
0.08513736724853516,
-0.03108178824186325,
-0.7139424681663513,
-0.11862318962812424,
1.035143494606018,
0.3114105463027954,
-0.06875695288181305,
-0.6882767677307129,
0.08134984225034714,
0.19950097799301147,
0.4100697338581085,
-0.0176948681473732,
-0.03250068798661232,
0.08927995711565018,
0.7008062601089478,
0.1028771921992302,
-0.1936967819929123,
-0.020431047305464745,
-0.6772872805595398,
0.4025484323501587,
0.12229738384485245,
-0.2548793852329254,
0.3525378108024597,
0.2740630805492401,
-0.17330801486968994,
-0.007620041258633137,
-0.02201838418841362,
0.07253570109605789,
0.03545128554105759,
0.03161197155714035,
0.36789822578430176,
-0.25440311431884766,
-0.18199749290943146,
0.030802052468061447,
0.052115678787231445,
-0.33768343925476074,
-0.6493811011314392,
0.010141451843082905,
0.20337137579917908,
-0.1098422184586525,
-0.11728527396917343,
0.4652002155780792,
-0.11875833570957184,
-0.6161669492721558,
-0.3512902557849884,
-0.6095311045646667,
-0.05463458597660065,
-0.037775199860334396,
1.0434280633926392,
0.14710907638072968,
-0.30480054020881653,
0.2644634246826172,
0.5489349365234375,
0.07471194863319397,
0.1520703136920929,
-0.17330172657966614,
0.2580193281173706,
0.2875196635723114,
-0.4051400125026703,
0.3349952697753906,
-0.24337564408779144,
0.03874139487743378,
-0.8800501823425293,
0.4768633544445038,
-0.21674378216266632,
0.32678234577178955,
0.1445581465959549,
0.4306231439113617,
0.317274808883667,
0.32994550466537476,
-0.051313091069459915,
0.2420305609703064,
0.2621830701828003,
-0.15861104428768158,
0.026414405554533005,
0.43494006991386414,
-0.3225621283054352,
0.49130791425704956,
-0.17405028641223907,
0.18575766682624817,
0.2728206515312195,
-0.02929578721523285,
0.1035347431898117,
0.24565543234348297,
-0.024723496288061142,
0.7509616017341614,
0.2644030749797821,
0.07317596673965454,
0.38510435819625854,
-0.2711445093154907,
-0.628889262676239,
0.14680418372154236,
-0.3289085030555725,
-0.4928217828273773,
0.8238784074783325,
0.48254474997520447,
-0.034242838621139526,
-0.48240771889686584,
0.3605635166168213,
0.08707413822412491,
0.00630993815138936,
0.270591139793396,
0.33497652411460876,
0.07409224659204483,
0.3788833022117615,
0.06492000073194504,
-0.45911461114883423,
0.408012717962265,
-0.515730082988739,
0.32792824506759644,
-0.15495088696479797,
0.5794125199317932,
-0.22259710729122162,
0.09286577254533768,
-0.6280567646026611,
-0.20818062126636505,
0.1282615065574646,
-0.0741446241736412,
0.2800394594669342,
0.4559566080570221,
-0.47528985142707825,
-0.2539893686771393,
-0.03836110979318619,
0.09879633039236069,
0.030145101249217987,
0.2744055986404419,
0.1524367332458496,
-0.4014606773853302,
0.11298880726099014,
0.2638384699821472,
-0.0959867388010025,
0.6285579204559326,
0.003147391602396965,
-0.1825314313173294,
-0.44677019119262695,
-0.5196887254714966,
-0.10145054012537003,
-0.07815096527338028,
-0.3226856291294098,
-0.4354768693447113,
-0.25317370891571045,
0.480114609003067,
-0.06529241055250168,
-0.4536023437976837,
0.08602089434862137,
0.18198643624782562,
-0.19886788725852966,
-0.09360197186470032,
0.021442143246531487,
-0.6731197834014893,
-0.1787460446357727,
-0.07825247943401337,
0.10709543526172638,
0.36324813961982727,
0.21930751204490662,
-0.3877529799938202,
0.5060237646102905,
0.26704534888267517,
-0.7722615599632263,
-0.2785895764827728,
-0.29705384373664856,
-0.022633956745266914,
0.13609977066516876,
-0.6668583154678345,
-0.09297243505716324,
0.7544606924057007,
-0.8223622441291809,
0.015721354633569717,
0.16229680180549622,
0.22561360895633698,
-0.09569431096315384,
0.08639645576477051,
-0.3617895245552063,
0.6107013821601868,
-0.08212386071681976,
-0.07976233214139938,
-0.26540127396583557,
0.21395140886306763,
0.05202804133296013,
-0.3065383732318878,
-0.22846457362174988,
0.6001065969467163,
0.22995226085186005,
-0.47829246520996094,
0.6695087552070618,
-0.41379961371421814,
0.12230103462934494,
-0.12903445959091187,
0.3290312588214874,
0.2262667715549469,
0.03469178453087807,
0.0534488745033741,
0.6007561683654785,
0.1756371706724167,
-0.5737013220787048,
0.3821621239185333,
0.2604529559612274,
-0.5036747455596924,
0.22541525959968567,
-1.315736174583435,
0.10516538470983505,
-0.29526105523109436,
-0.10414641350507736,
-0.6055706739425659,
-0.2224019169807434,
0.4161178767681122,
-0.4014682173728943,
0.4975282847881317,
-0.6069201231002808,
0.0162712000310421,
-0.23610246181488037,
-0.07198016345500946,
-0.635683000087738,
-0.09659907221794128,
0.5671245455741882
] |
229096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino | Sino | Sino as a prefix generally refers to:
China
Chinese people
Two Chinas
Culture of China
History of China
Sino may also refer to:
Sino Group, a property company in Hong Kong
Sino (Café Tacuba album), the 7th studio album by Mexican rock band Café Tacuba
Sino (Tamara Todevska album), debut album by the Macedonian singer Tamara Todevska
Sino (name), a given name and surname
Prefixes
Sinoe≈ (as in Sinodic period as well as and Sinu≈ as in sinus) | [
0.09218421578407288,
0.528419554233551,
-0.4781661033630371,
-0.23690898716449738,
-0.17421835660934448,
0.5169164538383484,
-0.3368741571903229,
0.6363965272903442,
-0.45362868905067444,
-0.048213183879852295,
-0.0032883649691939354,
0.005862615071237087,
0.27850693464279175,
0.19070400297641754,
-0.4451982378959656,
0.011937517672777176,
0.026659343391656876,
0.6810085773468018,
-0.9225223660469055,
-0.23969237506389618,
-0.32287368178367615,
-0.16533218324184418,
0.23243485391139984,
0.25905856490135193,
-0.29563480615615845,
0.08659585565328598,
0.07879120111465454,
0.004116786178201437,
0.09429759532213211,
-0.14916843175888062,
0.10451938956975937,
0.5211744904518127,
0.13147711753845215,
0.4295401871204376,
-0.4485796093940735,
0.13309255242347717,
-0.5761926174163818,
-0.13489384949207306,
-0.2652009129524231,
-0.9618859887123108,
0.26069214940071106,
-0.3755885660648346,
0.3979671597480774,
0.7687728404998779,
0.003972101956605911,
-0.404847651720047,
-1.0804508924484253,
0.9518032073974609,
-0.42191120982170105,
0.20498891174793243,
0.03565884754061699,
0.38528886437416077,
-0.02815398946404457,
-0.03235451877117157,
-0.3265845775604248,
0.3898831009864807,
-0.5290449261665344,
-0.5339012742042542,
-0.18978869915008545,
-0.48295775055885315,
0.5261774063110352,
0.4181906580924988,
0.20671600103378296,
-0.500730574131012,
0.32396185398101807,
-0.21978960931301117,
0.031576842069625854,
0.48768219351768494,
0.08021807670593262,
-0.5201913118362427,
-0.4188171923160553,
0.34280383586883545,
0.0659325122833252,
0.005835418123751879,
-0.3938300609588623,
-0.19310380518436432,
-0.22553971409797668,
-0.29295802116394043,
-0.056809645146131516,
0.6010186076164246,
-0.10271600633859634,
-0.24417708814144135,
0.6342923641204834,
-0.4750432074069977,
0.09590964764356613,
-0.5251232981681824,
0.10071319341659546,
0.32530906796455383,
-0.23167791962623596,
-0.2209780514240265,
-0.05179966241121292,
-0.20531931519508362,
0.8376619219779968,
0.45369672775268555,
-0.3464815616607666,
0.4902535378932953,
-0.07584147900342941,
0.4288537800312042,
0.47585946321487427,
-0.21362437307834625,
-0.3088114261627197,
0.3772149384021759,
-0.13365082442760468,
-0.11334800720214844,
-0.7654494643211365,
-0.26184847950935364,
-0.21886630356311798,
0.16696012020111084,
-0.17963281273841858,
0.04597679525613785,
-0.3357926309108734,
-0.11969336122274399,
-0.08080197125673294,
0.32980188727378845,
0.23381182551383972,
-0.20484741032123566,
-0.07471389323472977,
-0.3151187300682068,
-0.02049020305275917,
-0.4329001009464264,
-0.06955193728208542,
0.5877144932746887,
-0.5605844259262085,
-0.030390702188014984,
0.4302946627140045,
-0.17075476050376892,
-0.04391035810112953,
0.1944579929113388,
-0.6548182368278503,
0.06908074766397476,
0.011154279112815857,
0.5441734194755554,
-0.22022117674350739,
0.538821816444397,
0.018881237134337425,
-0.2967905104160309,
0.3168182671070099,
0.2902429699897766,
-0.08511131256818771,
0.11693055182695389,
-0.97697913646698,
0.12089959532022476,
-0.347148597240448,
0.33748719096183777,
0.13493824005126953,
-0.17242059111595154,
-0.09139570593833923,
-0.3120929002761841,
-0.3173731565475464,
-0.16720335185527802,
-0.0463770292699337,
-0.4575968384742737,
0.34010231494903564,
-0.29107773303985596,
-0.46994784474372864,
0.398389995098114,
0.023936057463288307,
0.05001143366098404,
0.5865823030471802,
-0.23293986916542053,
0.15658004581928253,
-0.30691930651664734,
-0.2620341181755066,
-0.015585150569677353,
0.14758561551570892,
0.030076410621404648,
0.22865939140319824,
0.7885814905166626,
-0.35705503821372986,
0.02150878682732582,
-0.21010465919971466,
-0.2948223948478699,
-0.0274293702095747,
0.5535380244255066,
-0.5007590651512146,
-0.04985050857067108,
0.25906163454055786,
0.3508698344230652,
0.1579585075378418,
0.34657856822013855,
-0.6123425960540771,
0.8239670991897583,
-0.5207279324531555,
-0.414284348487854,
0.5969708561897278,
0.24875232577323914,
-0.3272654414176941,
-0.10590111464262009,
0.37287279963493347,
-0.059190258383750916,
-0.013805359601974487,
-0.6535282731056213,
-0.3807916045188904,
-0.3764771819114685,
0.9373164772987366,
-0.33500173687934875,
-0.08725756406784058,
0.5386464595794678,
0.17233699560165405,
0.22397884726524353,
-0.4347102642059326,
-0.04480902478098869,
0.20237456262111664,
0.22560061514377594,
-0.18163587152957916,
0.40765637159347534,
0.6022319197654724,
0.020779751241207123,
0.49297386407852173,
0.31951022148132324,
0.025861363857984543,
0.22374318540096283,
0.29329705238342285,
-0.29235103726387024,
0.010612022131681442,
-0.007770085707306862,
-0.3606783449649811,
-0.05114535987377167,
-0.33079734444618225,
-0.052610281854867935,
0.8657930493354797,
-0.28842008113861084,
0.33894506096839905,
0.5922085642814636,
0.1635262668132782,
0.7539752721786499,
0.32472407817840576,
0.17796897888183594,
0.18128836154937744,
-0.07669498771429062,
-0.17991983890533447,
0.047339048236608505,
0.7743409872055054,
-0.1399998664855957,
-0.0080127427354455,
0.16741493344306946,
0.6076153516769409,
-0.1787624955177307,
0.2615319788455963,
-0.02205885946750641,
-0.15088357031345367,
0.2977239191532135,
-0.31284642219543457,
0.009102537296712399,
0.23746077716350555,
-0.08444108814001083,
-0.5903522372245789,
-0.14030878245830536,
-0.21246030926704407,
-0.1459331512451172,
0.45378929376602173,
0.5886050462722778,
0.2620483636856079,
0.227606400847435,
-0.13782355189323425,
-0.47742533683776855,
0.12108471244573593,
-0.26783809065818787,
0.33620479702949524,
-0.06451627612113953,
-0.03577899560332298,
-0.010058678686618805,
0.1960781067609787,
0.03535197675228119,
0.28597477078437805,
0.22590424120426178,
-0.21024872362613678,
-0.3951656222343445,
0.5801920294761658,
-0.27818211913108826,
-0.14172928035259247,
0.42438676953315735,
-0.48740729689598083,
0.14567379653453827,
-0.20188476145267487,
0.162705197930336,
-0.9308803081512451,
-0.22551941871643066,
-0.3786427676677704,
-0.9419394731521606,
-0.4383963942527771,
0.10857836157083511,
0.10523346066474915,
-0.7533122897148132,
0.1754448264837265,
-0.4738484025001526,
-0.7514772415161133,
-0.5242316722869873,
0.15829908847808838,
-0.7300894260406494,
0.14160703122615814,
0.3161959648132324,
0.21064864099025726,
-0.01774490624666214,
0.40551531314849854,
-0.0797954723238945,
0.2589268386363983,
0.3835926055908203,
0.933985710144043,
-0.25938844680786133,
-0.42163601517677307,
-0.14640739560127258,
0.02974705956876278,
-0.09145040065050125,
0.5632132291793823,
-0.2057175487279892,
0.09726458787918091,
-0.051418598741292953,
-5.993952751159668,
0.04133704677224159,
-0.7499239444732666,
-0.15494151413440704,
-0.032432425767183304,
-0.1878804862499237,
0.4846642315387726,
-0.4232577383518219,
-0.029479512944817543,
0.02223549596965313,
-0.43866923451423645,
0.6473990082740784,
-0.28433772921562195,
-0.024595288559794426,
0.08860137313604355,
0.8566491603851318,
-0.14902342855930328,
0.18071894347667694,
-0.10017216205596924,
0.1816890686750412,
0.09366552531719208,
0.7013905048370361,
0.03112613968551159,
0.8733012080192566,
0.5719608664512634,
0.31195876002311707,
0.059089019894599915,
-0.31959283351898193,
-0.37797799706459045,
0.1901526153087616,
-0.2392062097787857,
-0.2999841570854187,
0.21289874613285065,
0.1460578441619873,
-0.24497652053833008,
0.09911958128213882,
0.06380198895931244,
-0.13978874683380127,
0.21404273808002472,
-0.11616288125514984,
-0.18007634580135345,
0.3803653419017792,
0.5102422833442688,
-0.24706663191318512,
-0.06517200917005539,
-0.46526509523391724,
0.01262692455202341,
-0.34977543354034424,
-0.5555220246315002,
1.0453218221664429,
0.09072696417570114,
-0.3680994212627411,
0.33081018924713135,
-0.4612554907798767,
0.39259102940559387,
0.30071139335632324,
1.1367430686950684,
-0.19746536016464233,
-0.9274596571922302,
0.3881813883781433,
0.3561936914920807,
0.08380509167909622,
-0.3650350272655487,
-0.8382595777511597,
-0.009432720020413399,
-0.029358377680182457,
-0.7490180730819702,
-0.46998143196105957,
0.08356199413537979,
0.24556535482406616,
-0.26049694418907166,
0.2425430715084076,
-0.11040813475847244,
-0.8549145460128784,
-0.12408041954040527,
-0.4496060013771057,
-0.9320294857025146,
0.5220010280609131,
-0.4548626244068146,
0.6692672371864319,
-0.04013729467988014,
0.3958055377006531,
-0.2586118280887604,
0.5146787762641907,
-0.3260078728199005,
-0.10243124514818192,
0.18072499334812164,
0.10427791625261307,
-0.5200840830802917,
0.4728158116340637,
0.5631428360939026,
-0.8205502033233643,
0.41436079144477844,
0.20947742462158203,
0.6636850833892822,
0.4507799446582794,
0.08145135641098022,
0.17267826199531555,
0.48241665959358215,
-0.7384974360466003,
0.826068103313446,
0.010337335988879204,
-0.4192374050617218,
-0.47556155920028687,
-0.3051987588405609,
-0.5788285732269287,
0.13407383859157562,
-0.08568891882896423,
1.2609585523605347,
-0.0325586199760437,
0.44310784339904785,
0.24657003581523895,
-0.33339303731918335,
-0.6208745241165161,
0.5240247249603271,
-0.019967341795563698,
0.4021529257297516,
0.17309707403182983,
0.6911246180534363,
-0.37347954511642456,
0.5156834721565247,
0.3264387845993042,
-0.468509703874588,
0.19126740097999573,
-0.6336564421653748,
0.2038116157054901,
-0.1264108419418335,
0.25133851170539856,
-0.476164311170578,
0.2151564657688141,
-0.4605722725391388,
-0.23552337288856506,
0.28444844484329224,
0.09059793502092361,
0.1724831461906433,
0.3083181381225586,
-0.44596946239471436,
-0.48158901929855347,
-0.2626587152481079,
-0.5119367837905884,
-0.20155470073223114,
-0.5036978125572205,
-0.030371153727173805,
0.12414248287677765,
-0.06887724250555038,
0.2867787182331085,
-1.149391770362854,
-0.05663122609257698,
-0.17086520791053772,
0.2106999307870865,
0.2840098440647125,
-0.3593026399612427,
0.5850015878677368,
0.37548738718032837,
-0.05940024554729462,
-0.19004055857658386,
0.016390837728977203,
0.5441616773605347,
0.15930218994617462,
-0.12200961261987686,
0.6494573950767517,
-0.6685507893562317,
-0.10361406952142715,
0.31975987553596497,
0.33574187755584717,
-0.5127642750740051,
0.30918043851852417,
-0.1308346688747406,
-0.1558535248041153,
1.0208649635314941,
0.7756255865097046,
-0.19677162170410156,
-0.34327173233032227,
-0.2413935363292694,
0.37905406951904297,
-0.027820345014333725,
0.17883054912090302,
0.2132582813501358,
0.09428799152374268,
0.20467719435691833,
0.00740497000515461,
-0.21390500664710999,
0.3055422008037567,
0.44356948137283325,
0.3272659480571747,
0.19382768869400024,
-0.1959342062473297,
-0.18610118329524994,
-0.4823683202266693,
0.21694491803646088,
-0.1495153158903122,
0.08079843968153,
0.03130100667476654,
-0.1178722009062767,
0.045594871044158936,
-0.026179563254117966,
-0.2761799097061157,
0.12473370879888535,
-0.47241678833961487,
0.05551763251423836,
-0.06997404247522354,
0.0014832690358161926,
0.13449163734912872,
-0.5032270550727844,
0.5466856956481934,
-0.18653316795825958,
0.7982847690582275,
-0.1603250950574875,
-0.8803232312202454,
-0.2396123707294464,
-0.24171759188175201,
-0.7782050371170044,
-0.06915640085935593,
-0.12461066991090775,
0.048866089433431625,
0.47231432795524597,
0.18584445118904114,
-0.13953030109405518,
-0.421002596616745,
-0.27775514125823975,
-0.05984677001833916,
0.2449243664741516,
-0.41242676973342896,
-0.305135577917099,
0.2633700370788574,
0.42799025774002075,
-0.3140230178833008,
-0.36245808005332947,
0.05887429043650627,
-0.4367780089378357,
-0.4611474871635437,
-0.48879191279411316,
0.20102377235889435,
-0.08531872928142548,
-0.43648919463157654,
0.07404410094022751,
0.30225104093551636,
0.24468117952346802,
0.2971063554286957,
0.32045456767082214,
0.5730454921722412,
0.21627824008464813,
-0.13434989750385284,
-0.3482223451137543,
-0.3257502615451813,
0.6633344888687134,
-0.025388045236468315,
0.018753457814455032,
-0.5427903532981873,
-0.10665825754404068,
0.207071453332901,
-0.5179234743118286,
-0.823621392250061,
-0.5077648162841797,
0.3046371340751648,
-0.34927743673324585,
0.012789164669811726,
0.08869174867868423,
-0.2940138280391693,
-0.02989925816655159,
-0.15088875591754913,
-0.10158350318670273,
-0.10101079940795898,
-0.3463698923587799,
0.01693902164697647,
0.10217922180891037,
0.0036995206028223038,
0.3505224585533142,
-0.3893495798110962,
0.36322471499443054,
-0.34287774562835693,
-0.12427661567926407,
0.590323269367218,
0.49729639291763306,
-0.2622731626033783,
-0.15713068842887878,
-0.6688860654830933,
0.2389974594116211,
-0.186273455619812,
0.25175076723098755,
-0.44916972517967224,
-0.44548505544662476,
-0.1870916485786438,
0.06305880844593048,
0.35688379406929016,
-0.17581380903720856,
-0.05861653387546539,
-0.22236576676368713,
0.3593818247318268,
-0.13549412786960602,
0.06578144431114197,
-0.21916304528713226,
0.014149744994938374,
-0.051618751138448715,
-0.06635002046823502,
0.07547938078641891,
0.32399243116378784,
0.17514696717262268,
-0.21990486979484558,
0.0991172343492508,
-0.4349983334541321,
0.7536551356315613,
0.32829171419143677,
-0.042732663452625275,
0.12457550317049026,
0.36124855279922485,
0.4756830930709839,
-0.3677063286304474,
-0.12818795442581177,
0.3032953143119812,
0.5871996283531189,
0.03041248209774494,
0.07970673590898514,
0.2022644728422165,
0.04795535281300545,
0.018283352255821228,
0.5352903604507446,
-0.4006693363189697,
0.08199172466993332,
0.26868122816085815,
0.4160010516643524,
-0.12777036428451538,
0.09875636547803879,
0.22316323220729828,
0.16897644102573395,
-0.21177874505519867,
-0.9959285855293274,
-0.5140971541404724,
0.11456622183322906,
0.060666147619485855,
0.5970199704170227,
0.4290566146373749,
0.28819918632507324,
-0.43838560581207275,
-0.10550296306610107,
-0.23795199394226074,
-0.0844072476029396,
-0.4953595697879791,
-0.03484274074435234,
0.7668761610984802,
-0.09403757005929947,
0.25014030933380127,
-0.4061433970928192,
0.1336575448513031,
0.1652439832687378,
0.3308155834674835,
-0.26997244358062744,
-0.10129732638597488,
0.0704193189740181,
-0.0921340063214302,
0.4170931279659271,
0.10225745290517807,
-0.2516794204711914,
-0.4131481349468231,
-0.39228367805480957,
0.16054370999336243,
-0.47863051295280457,
0.11004089564085007,
-0.0885772556066513,
0.296562522649765,
0.455371618270874,
0.7006788849830627,
0.5006580352783203,
-0.16804133355617523,
0.16574829816818237,
0.003757357131689787,
-0.09819362312555313,
-0.26482686400413513,
-0.32524341344833374,
0.19569702446460724,
-0.021079083904623985,
0.0018215066520497203,
-0.6733183860778809,
0.05408904328942299,
0.04828271269798279,
-0.02846352942287922,
0.05045182257890701,
0.7273554801940918,
-0.3887796103954315,
0.13613158464431763,
-0.34405776858329773,
0.14356258511543274,
-0.01913994550704956,
-0.48731333017349243,
0.23206861317157745,
-0.13582143187522888,
0.4901618957519531,
0.37914416193962097,
-0.7179806232452393,
0.0879259705543518,
0.42962446808815,
-0.6990354061126709,
0.12116897851228714,
-0.15749911963939667,
0.08629573881626129,
-0.609775960445404,
-0.3751581609249115,
0.6077525019645691,
0.48738065361976624,
0.006322622299194336,
0.4120207130908966,
-0.3830602467060089,
0.18793858587741852,
0.29600802063941956,
-0.11645998060703278,
0.1730901449918747,
-0.6943923830986023,
0.5488457679748535,
-0.6439152359962463,
0.32568955421447754,
0.18159045279026031,
-0.14230188727378845,
-0.08055929094552994,
0.298444926738739,
0.04777537286281586,
0.37613940238952637,
0.7200807929039001,
-0.026883365586400032,
0.029510794207453728,
-0.7152062654495239,
-0.4447115659713745,
-0.41426193714141846,
0.3391721546649933,
0.37964800000190735,
0.24572421610355377,
0.09477665275335312,
0.054331522434949875,
0.3996640145778656,
-0.26474371552467346,
0.486165851354599,
-0.1071106493473053,
0.19740526378154755,
-0.37138569355010986,
0.25039610266685486,
-0.26125702261924744,
-0.12967072427272797,
0.3890703320503235,
0.16080613434314728,
-0.12880727648735046,
-0.2572282552719116,
0.25340211391448975,
-0.12504886090755463,
0.10191380232572556,
0.0424153096973896,
-0.5519803166389465,
0.012587628327310085,
-0.0651843249797821,
0.1717158555984497,
-1.0617156028747559,
0.24716117978096008,
0.283851683139801,
-0.17467960715293884,
0.709180474281311,
-0.17776274681091309,
0.10286471992731094,
-0.33510449528694153,
0.02886907197535038,
-0.183665931224823,
0.5207316875457764,
-0.347239226102829
] |
229100 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearsay%20in%20United%20States%20law | Hearsay in United States law | Hearsay is testimony from a witness under oath who is reciting an out-of-court statement that is being offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted.
The Federal Rules of Evidence prohibit introducing hearsay statements during applicable federal court proceedings, unless one of nearly thirty exemptions or exceptions applies. The Federal Rules of Evidence define hearsay as:A statement that: (1) the declarant does not make while testifying at the current trial or hearing; and (2) a party offers in evidence to prove the truth of the matter asserted in the statement. (F.R.E. 801(c)).The "declarant" is the person who makes the out-of-court statement. (F.R.E. 801(b)).
The Federal Rules define a "statement" as "a person’s oral assertion, written assertion, or nonverbal conduct, if the person intended it as an assertion." (F.R.E. 801(a)). The Supreme Court has further clarified that a "statement" refers to "a single declaration or remark, rather than a report or narrative." Thus, a trial court must separately analyze each individual statement, "sentence-by-sentence," rather than analyzing the narrative as whole for hearsay content or exceptions.
"The truth of the matter asserted" means the statement itself is being used as evidence to prove the substance of that statement. For example, if a witness says, "Margot told me she loved Matt" to prove that Margot did in fact love Matt, the witness's statement is hearsay. Thus, the reason a party offers a statement is central to determining whether it qualifies as excludable hearsay.
If a statement is being used to prove something other than the truth of what the statement asserts, it is not inadmissible because of the hearsay rule. A quintessential example is the U.S. Supreme Court case of Tennessee v. Street (1985), in which a co-defendant's confession was properly admitted against the defendant—not for the hearsay purpose of directly proving that both men jointly committed a robbery and murder—but for the nonhearsay purpose of rebutting the defendant's claim that his own confession was elicited through the sheriff's coercive tactic of reading his co-defendant's confession to him.
In cases where a statement is being offered for a purpose other than the truth of what it asserts, trial judges have discretion to give the jury a limiting instruction, mandating the jury consider the evidence only for its intended, non-hearsay purpose.
Although the Federal Rules of Evidence govern federal proceedings only, 38 states have adopted the Uniform Rules of Evidence, which closely track the Federal Rules.
Rationale for excluding hearsay
The rule excluding hearsay arises from a concern regarding the statement's reliability. Courts have four principal concerns with the reliability of witness statements: the witness may be lying (sincerity risk), the witness may have misunderstood the situation (narration risk), the witness's memory may be wrong (memory risk), and the witness's perception was inaccurate (perception risk). Despite these risks, courts allow testimonial evidence because of in-court safeguards "calculated to discover and expose in detail its possible weaknesses, and thus to enable the tribunal (judge or jury) to estimate it at no more than its actual value".
These three safeguards reveal possible weaknesses in a statement:
Witnesses must testify under oath
Witnesses must be subject to cross-examination
Witnesses must be present in court for the fact-finder to assess their demeanor and credibility
Thus, courts prohibit hearsay because of the three missing safeguards intended to assuage reliability concerns of testimonial statements.
In the above example, the witness's statement "Margot told me she loves Matt" is unreliable because Margot is not under oath, she is not subject to cross-examination, and she is not present in court for the fact-finder to assess her credibility. The statement is just too unreliable to be permitted as evidence in court.
Non-hearsay statements
Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, a statement that meets one of the two following conditions is considered not hearsay, and thus admissible. (F.R.E. 801(d)(1))
1. Prior statement of a witness
A prior statement by a witness is not hearsay if:
(a) the previous statement is inconsistent with the witness's current testimony and the previous statement was made in a proceeding under oath, subject to penalty of perjury. (801(d)(1)(a)); OR
(b) the previous statement is consistent with the witness's current testimony and the previous statement is being used to rehabilitate the witness's credibility. (801(d)(1)(b)); OR
(c) it is the witness's own prior identification of a person. (801(d)(1)(c))
For these circumstances to apply, a witness (the "declarant") must be presently testifying in the proceeding and available for cross-examination.
If the prior statement is inconsistent with the current statement, the prior statement may be used both for impeachment (to prove the witness is lying) and substantively (for the truth of what the first statement asserts). Similarly, prior consistent statements being used to rebut an attack on the declarant's credibility, e.g. that the declarant is lying or biased, can be used for rehabilitation and substantively. The drafters of this section of the rules "felt that the jury should not be required to do mental gymnastics here—the jurors should not be asked to separate credibility use from substantive use."
The identification exemption applies, for example, where a witness previously identified someone but cannot remember that identification while testifying during trial. In United States Supreme Court Case United States v. Owens, 484 U.S. 554 (1988), the Court held a victim's previous identification of the defendant as his assailant was admissible under Federal Rule of Evidence 801(d)(1)(c), despite memory problems like being unable to remember seeing his attacker. The rationale of this rule is that prior identifications are more reliable because they happened closer in time to the event than to the court proceeding, and thus are more likely to be accurate than an identification (or lack thereof) in court.
2. Opposing party's statement
Any statement made by one party is admissible as non-hearsay if offered by their opposing party. In civil cases, the plaintiff can introduce all statements made by the defense, and the defense can enter all statements made by the plaintiff into evidence.
The Rules list five circumstances in which an opposing party's statement is admissible as non-hearsay:
The statement is offered against an opposing party and:
(A) was made by the party in an individual or representative capacity;
(B) is one the party manifested that it adopted or believed to be true;
(C) was made by a person whom the party authorized to make a statement on the subject;
(D) was made by the party’s agent or employee on a matter within the scope of that relationship and while it existed; or
(E) was made by the party’s coconspirator during and in furtherance of the conspiracy.
Bootstrapping. The Rules further explain that the offered statement "does not by itself establish the declarant’s authority under (C); the existence or scope of the relationship under (D); or the existence of the conspiracy or participation in it under (E)." This requires the offering party to introduce some independent, corroborative evidence proving the circumstances of C, D, or E are met (as opposed to permitting "bootstrapping," where the statement itself can prove the existence of the conditions). The trial judge then decides, by a preponderance of the evidence, whether these conditions have been proven by evaluating the statement itself and the independent evidence.
Rationale. Unlike other hearsay rules which are concerned principally with reliability, this rule extends common law ideals of adversarial fairness.
Exceptions to the hearsay rule
Under the Federal Rules of Evidence, certain statements that qualify as hearsay are nevertheless admissible as exceptions to the hearsay exclusion rule. Some of these exceptions apply regardless of the declarant's availability to testify in court. See F.R.E. 803(1)-(23). Others apply only when the declarant is unavailable to testify at the trial or hearing. See F.R.E. 804.
Many of the exceptions listed below are treated more extensively in individual articles.
Exceptions where the declarant's availability is irrelevant
Excited utterances: Statements relating to startling events or condition made while the declarant was under the stress of excitement caused by the event or condition. This is the exception that may apply to the 'police officer' scenario listed above. The victim's cries of help were made under the stress of a startling event, and the victim is still under the stress of the event, as is evidenced by the victim's crying and visible shaking. An excited utterance does not have to be made at the same time of the startling event. A statement made minutes, hours or even days after the startling event can be excited utterances, so long as the declarant is still under the stress of the startling event. However, the more time that elapses between a startling event and the declarant's statement, the more the statements will be looked upon with disfavor.
Present sense impression: A statement expressing the declarant's impression of a condition existing at the time the statement was made, such as "it's hot in here" or "we're going really fast." Unlike an excited utterance, it need not be made in response to a startling event. Instead, it is admissible because it is a condition that the witness would likely have been experiencing at the same time as the declarant, and would instantly be able to corroborate.
Declarations of present state of mind (then-existing mental, emotional, or physical condition): Much like a present-sense impression describes the outside world, declarant's statement to the effect of "I am angry!" or "I am Napoleon!" will be admissible to prove that the declarant was indeed angry, or did indeed believe himself to be Napoleon at that time. Used in cases where the declarant's mental state is at issue. Present-state-of-mind statements also includes statements about plans or intent (e.g., "I'm gonna go buy some groceries and get the oil changed in my car on my way home from work"), which can be used as circumstantial evidence of subsequent acts committed by the declarant. However, this exception does not apply to statements about memory or belief that are used to prove the fact remembered, unless the memory/belief is about the validity of terms in the declarant's will.
Statement Made for Medical Diagnosis or Treatment.: Another exception is statements made in the course of medical treatment, i.e., statements made by a patient to a medical professional to help in diagnosis and treatment. However, the statement must be reasonably related to the treatment, such as medical history, past or present symptoms or sensations, their inception, or their general cause.
Business records exception: business records created during the ordinary course of business are considered reliable and can usually be brought in under this exception if the proper foundation is laid when the records are introduced into evidence. Depending on which jurisdiction the case is in, either the records custodian or someone with knowledge of the records must lay a foundation for the records, however. The use of police records, especially as substantive evidence against the accused in a criminal trial, is severely restricted under the Business Records exception. Typically, only generalized evidence about police procedure is admissible under this exception, and not facts about a specific case. For example, John is stopped for speeding 70 miles per hour in a 50-mile-per-hour zone. The officer, who determined John's speed with radar, records the speed in an incident report. He also calibrates and runs a diagnostic on his radar every day prior to beginning his shift. He records this in a log. At trial, the report itself would not be admissible as it pertained to the facts of the case. However, the officer's daily log in which he records his calibration and the daily diagnostics of his radar unit would be admissible under the business records exception.
Prior inconsistent statements: Many states have departed from the approach of the federal rules with respect to inconsistent statements. Under current law in these jurisdictions, a prior inconsistent statement made by a witness (even when not made under oath at a judicial proceeding or deposition) is admissible as substantive evidence provided the declarant signed the statement.
Other exceptions, declarant's availability immaterial: In the United States Federal Rules of Evidence, separate exceptions are made for public records, family records, and records in ancient documents of established authenticity. When regular or public records are kept, the absence of such records may also be used as admissible hearsay evidence.
Exceptions where the declarant is unavailable
Dying declarations and other statements under belief of impending death: often depicted in movies; the police officer asks the person on his deathbed, "Who attacked you?" and the victim replies, "The butler did it." In reality, case law has ruled out this exception in criminal law, because the witness should always be cross examined in court; however, there is an exception to this exception for criminal cases: even though generally inadmissible to matters relating to criminal law, the exception has been carved out for actions relating to homicide cases [Fed. R. Evid. 804(b)(2)].
Declaration against interest: A statement that would incriminate or expose the declarant to liability to such an extent that it can be assumed he would only make such a statement if it were true. It would be assumed that one would lie to further one's interests, so a statement against his interests (such as exposing oneself to criminal or civil liability) likely would not be made unless it were true.
Admission of guilt: if a declarant makes a statement, verbal or otherwise, as an admission of guilt of the matter at hand, that statement is admissible. Unlike other cases of declarations against interest, the declarant in this situation need not be unavailable.
Prior testimony: if the testimony was given under oath and the party against whom the testimony is being proffered was present and had the opportunity to cross examine the witness at that time. Often used to enter depositions into the court record at trial.
Forfeiture by wrongdoing: the party against whom the statement is now offered (1) intentionally made the declarant unavailable; (2) with intent to prevent declarant's testimony; (3) by wrongdoing.
Theories supporting exceptions
In some jurisdictions, such as Canada, the limited exceptions format to the rule have been replaced by a more general theory of exceptions to the hearsay rule that allows courts to decide when documents, testimony or other evidentiary proof can be used that might not otherwise be considered.
The underlying rationale for many of the hearsay exceptions is that the circumstances of a particular statement make them reliable enough to be heard by a trier of fact. Statements made during the course of medical treatment, for example, are considered reliable because patients typically have little reason to lie to a doctor while they are being treated, and will generally be accurate in describing their ailments.
This, of course, is not always true. Patients do sometimes lie to their doctors (to get painkillers to which they are not entitled, for example). Hearsay exceptions do not mandate that a trier of fact (the jury or, in non-jury trials, the judge) accept the hearsay statement as being true. Hearsay exceptions mean only that the trier of fact will be informed of the hearsay statement and will be allowed to consider it when deciding on a verdict in the case. The jury is free to disregard a hearsay statement if the jury does not believe it. The hearsay rule controls only what out-of-court statements a trier of fact gets to consider in deciding a case, not how they consider the out-of-court statements.
Hearsay-within-hearsay
Hearsay-within-hearsay, or "double hearsay," occurs when multiple out-of-court assertions appear in one statement. For example, if a witness testifies, "Officer Lincoln told me that he interviewed the defendant Claire, who admitted that she committed the robbery." There are two layers of hearsay here; two out-of-court declarants. The first layer is what Officer Lincoln told the witness about conducting an interview. Officer Lincoln is the first declarant: "I interviewed the defendant." The second layer is what the defendant Claire told Officer Lincoln during that interview. Defendant Claire is the second declarant: "I committed the robbery."
The Federal Rules clarify that each layer of hearsay must have an exemption or exception for the entire statement to be admissible. (F.R.E. 805). The second layer of hearsay, what Defendant Claire said about the robbery, can be admitted as an opposing party's statement. But the first layer, Officer Lincoln's statement to the witness, still needs an exception or exemption for the entire statement to be admissible under the hearsay rules.
Rationale. As legal evidence scholar Paul F. Rothstein describes the double-hearsay problem:"One child whispers to the next a message, who whispers it to the next, who whispers it to the next, etc., on down a long line of children. When the last child and the first child compare the message, it is usually found that the two are not very alike."
Application
Generally in common law courts the "hearsay rule" applies, which says that a trier of fact (judge or jury) cannot be informed of a hearsay statement unless it meets certain strict requirements. However, the rules for admissibility are more relaxed in court systems based on the civil law system. In the civil law system, the courts, whether consisting only of judges or featuring a jury, have wide latitude to appreciate the evidence brought before them.
[Note: Louisiana, a civil-law jurisdiction, does not share the above referenced feature generally found in civil-law jurisdictions. With few exceptions, Louisiana follows rules predicated upon the Federal Rules of Evidence.]
Furthermore, even in common-law systems, the hearsay rule only applies to actual trials. Hearsay is admissible as evidence in many other judicial proceedings, such as grand jury deliberations, probation hearings, parole revocation hearings, and proceedings before administrative bodies.
In criminal law, Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36 (2004), reformulated the standard for determining when the admission of hearsay statements in criminal cases is permitted under the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Crawford gives enhanced protection to defendants when the hearsay offered against them is testimonial in nature. When a statement is deliberately accusatory, or when the declarant knows that the statement is likely to be used in the prosecution of the defendant for a crime, the need for face-to-face confrontation is at its highest. When statements are directly accusatory, the defense needs an opportunity to explore the accuser's motives. Where statements are the product of police interrogation, there is a need to ensure that the testimony is not the product of improper coercion or intimidation.
Ohio v. Roberts, 448 U.S. 56 (1980), set forth a two-pronged test in order for hearsay to be admissible against a criminal defendant: (1) the declarant generally must be shown to be unavailable; and (2) the statement must have been made under circumstances providing sufficient "indicia of reliability". With respect to the second prong, a reliability determination may assume that hearsay is sufficiently reliable for constitutional purposes if it satisfies a "firmly rooted" hearsay exception. In practice this means that lower courts need to make reliability determinations only for hearsay that is offered under a "catchall" exception, such as Federal Rule of Evidence Rule 807, or under new or non-traditional hearsay exceptions that are not "firmly rooted". However, Crawford v. Washington overruled Ohio v. Roberts.
Common misconceptions
One major misconception about the hearsay rule is that hearsay is never admissible in court. While the general rule is that such evidence is inadmissible, there are many exceptions.
There are two other common misconceptions concerning the hearsay rule. The first is that hearsay applies only to oral statements. The hearsay rule applies to all out-of-court statements whether oral, written or otherwise. The Federal Rules of Evidence defines a statement as an oral or written assertion or nonverbal conduct of a person, if the conduct is intended by the person as an assertion. Even written documents made under oath, such as affidavits or notarized statements, are subject to the 'hearsay rule'.
The second common misconception is that all out-of-court statements are hearsay. This is not the case. An out of court statement may or may not be hearsay depending on the purpose for which it is offered. If the statement is being offered to prove the truth of what it asserts, then it becomes hearsay. When offered for any other purpose the statement is not hearsay. For example: Witness testifies that yesterday he spoke to Jim (who was in Vermont) on the phone and that Jim made the following statement, "It's raining in Vermont!" If the attorney is seeking to use this statement to prove that it was in fact raining in Vermont, then it is hearsay. But, if the attorney is seeking to use the statement to prove that the phone lines were working that day, or that Jim had not lost the power of speech, or for any other purpose, then the statement is not being offered to prove the truth of the matter asserted, and therefore it is not hearsay.
Consider an additional example:
A police officer, hears cries of "Help, John is trying to kill me!" from inside a house. Believing that there is a crime in progress, the officer kicks the front door down and enters the home to discover the homeowner, John, assaulting a victim, Monica, who is crying and visibly shaking. John is charged with attempted murder. Two separate trials might result from these circumstances.
First, a criminal trial against John, who proclaims his innocence and demands a trial for the criminal charges alleged.
Second, a civil trial in which John sues the police officer for invading his home, wherein the officer will assert that there was just cause to enter the home because he had a genuine belief that a crime was occurring.
In the first trial, the issue is whether John attempted to kill Monica. The officer is being asked to testify to what Monica said to prove that John attempted to murder Monica, to which he replies that he heard Monica scream from inside the house: "Help, John is trying to kill me!". This statement would be hearsay. Unless the attorney can show that this statement falls within an exception to the hearsay rule, the factfinder (the judge or jury) may not consider Monica's statement (this particular statement, however, would likely be admissible because of "Excited Utterance" and "Present sense impression" exceptions).
In the second trial, however, the issue is not whether John tried to kill Monica but rather whether the officer's entry into the home was lawful. Here, the statement is not being offered to prove that John tried to kill Monica, but it instead is being offered to prove that the officer had probable cause to enter the home. Whether John was actually trying to kill Monica is irrelevant to the issue at hand; what matters is whether the officer believed that Monica was in danger and whether it had been necessary to kick down the door to investigate further. Monica's statement is evidence to that effect because a reasonable person, having heard Monica's cries for help, would fear for Monica's safety. A person's own prior statements can be hearsay. For example, suppose a person is testifying on the stand. In relation to an automobile accident where a blue truck struck a yellow car, the witness testifies, "I told the police officer the truck was blue" to establish the color of the car (as opposed to whether he had lied to police, or the officer had falsified the witness reports). This statement is an out-of-court statement offered for the purpose of proving the truth of the matter asserted, and is therefore hearsay. The witness is testifying about what someone said in the past. The fact that it is his own statement does not change the hearsay nature of the statement.
If the witness testifies, "The truck that struck the yellow car was blue," the statement is not hearsay. The witness is not testifying about a past statement. He is not relating in court what someone outside of court said, but is merely relating an observation.
The rule that a person's own statements can be considered hearsay may be confusing. By "forgetting" who is testifying on the stand and merely looking for statements like "I said", "I wrote", "I testified before that", "The document says", and the like, most confusion can be eliminated.
In this example, simple logic tells that there is a difference: while the first statement may be true, it does not assert anything about the truth of the matter stated. The witness may have told the officer that the truck was blue, but that may not have been the truth; he might have been mistaken or lying.
See also
List of objections (law)
References
External links
Federal Rules of Evidence, section VIII
Hearsay
United States evidence law | [
0.2070518434047699,
0.4640018045902252,
-0.7632542252540588,
-0.13818737864494324,
0.2632702887058258,
-0.11621945351362228,
0.4127558171749115,
-0.19171369075775146,
-0.14223931729793549,
0.025714010000228882,
-0.20379310846328735,
0.6894879937171936,
0.007714798673987389,
0.1458461731672287,
-0.6345464587211609,
0.45764800906181335,
0.6045810580253601,
0.3887915313243866,
0.49295079708099365,
-0.7392140626907349,
-0.15761546790599823,
-0.11650978773832321,
0.06908456236124039,
-0.6458825469017029,
0.4373638331890106,
0.26801908016204834,
-0.16547057032585144,
0.014949913136661053,
-0.6685594916343689,
0.15380728244781494,
-0.13472981750965118,
0.2702067792415619,
-0.07993707805871964,
0.3103671371936798,
-0.11890971660614014,
0.3105757236480713,
0.17237627506256104,
-0.14520381391048431,
0.14859169721603394,
-0.3158606290817261,
0.24701665341854095,
0.1462135910987854,
-0.057926956564188004,
-0.03568585589528084,
-0.368526816368103,
-0.41815149784088135,
-1.2501001358032227,
0.3922569155693054,
-0.4996751546859741,
-0.030111808329820633,
-0.31446582078933716,
0.011128983460366726,
-0.3392271399497986,
0.7523763179779053,
-0.21007654070854187,
0.3261338770389557,
-0.5170252919197083,
-0.5882886052131653,
0.47306278347969055,
-0.22068646550178528,
0.6881527900695801,
0.2285323590040207,
0.4721944332122803,
-0.3955886662006378,
0.5860747694969177,
-0.1648845672607422,
-0.034999120980501175,
0.18171636760234833,
-0.4834868013858795,
-0.3944946825504303,
-0.3877510726451874,
-0.056942734867334366,
-0.1742720901966095,
0.31211861968040466,
-0.21596099436283112,
0.4489368200302124,
0.41004347801208496,
-0.09319870173931122,
-0.2304152548313141,
-0.08107215166091919,
0.36730122566223145,
0.6443164944648743,
0.1630765050649643,
0.258891761302948,
0.11799051612615585,
-0.4268478453159332,
-0.5857793092727661,
0.3352625072002411,
-0.2523048520088196,
0.1817512959241867,
0.36372119188308716,
0.514076828956604,
-0.3442283570766449,
0.17484499514102936,
-0.4011286199092865,
0.5420835018157959,
0.1670604646205902,
-0.10727286338806152,
0.42989233136177063,
0.28172537684440613,
-0.018436847254633904,
-0.4343365430831909,
0.953545093536377,
0.0906796082854271,
0.09588627517223358,
0.5828200578689575,
-0.44472751021385193,
0.10109207034111023,
-0.10094798356294632,
-0.03260493651032448,
0.37766173481941223,
0.2436792105436325,
-0.30405285954475403,
0.2807758152484894,
-1.380717396736145,
0.23362408578395844,
0.5463166832923889,
-0.06707150489091873,
-0.0659533441066742,
-0.5006078481674194,
-0.0015877499245107174,
-0.0030867469031363726,
-0.1288880854845047,
0.14896757900714874,
0.08647699654102325,
-0.34976786375045776,
0.37028419971466064,
1.0783098936080933,
-0.5867154002189636,
-0.1653953194618225,
0.08835087716579437,
0.6582706570625305,
0.5682258605957031,
0.1663791686296463,
-0.22819076478481293,
0.10851312428712845,
0.28293874859809875,
-0.1672719269990921,
0.881801962852478,
-0.3128357529640198,
-0.1870637983083725,
-0.7905173897743225,
-0.6273757219314575,
-0.45598727464675903,
0.37206465005874634,
-0.8274147510528564,
0.0029139984399080276,
0.0806315466761589,
-0.5514072775840759,
0.6460070610046387,
0.12643130123615265,
0.00910387933254242,
-0.044633649289608,
0.04842119663953781,
0.07935471087694168,
-0.04305926710367203,
0.35824236273765564,
-0.519473135471344,
-0.011917841620743275,
0.6685950756072998,
-0.4041588604450226,
-0.1888047605752945,
-0.2683267295360565,
0.09205751121044159,
0.09633025527000427,
-0.1937466263771057,
-0.008109339512884617,
0.06612614542245865,
-0.642341673374176,
0.12521503865718842,
-0.46086227893829346,
0.2929050028324127,
-0.08231674879789352,
-0.29229870438575745,
-0.044103484600782394,
0.49273207783699036,
-0.16867543756961823,
0.10967843979597092,
0.8785548806190491,
-0.18034270405769348,
-0.2233308106660843,
0.4862932860851288,
0.4622345268726349,
-0.1661074161529541,
-0.0061528063379228115,
0.05536586046218872,
0.48319682478904724,
-0.4537171721458435,
-0.4400983154773712,
-0.7386915683746338,
-0.25950562953948975,
-0.24214302003383636,
0.3839341402053833,
-0.3293980658054352,
1.0172725915908813,
0.22062088549137115,
0.16270579397678375,
1.1348463296890259,
0.03616836667060852,
0.39829909801483154,
0.4751614034175873,
0.30449971556663513,
0.34898385405540466,
-0.3290480673313141,
-0.5435062050819397,
0.7761244177818298,
0.7802527546882629,
0.05446724593639374,
0.019323226064443588,
0.1198311597108841,
0.2734754681587219,
-0.0029025180265307426,
-0.3909810781478882,
-0.09933364391326904,
-0.4286760985851288,
-0.015886088833212852,
-0.28015637397766113,
0.11261261254549026,
0.8282229900360107,
-0.5262978672981262,
0.726611316204071,
-0.07554574310779572,
0.023457074537873268,
0.11885429173707962,
-0.5075082778930664,
0.12432850897312164,
-0.42377790808677673,
0.673363983631134,
-0.22512173652648926,
-0.9572033882141113,
0.16552677750587463,
0.3101174533367157,
0.21766142547130585,
-0.7910522818565369,
-0.17297951877117157,
-0.665053129196167,
-0.2107507288455963,
-0.07507932186126709,
0.2509940266609192,
0.012132418341934681,
0.310080349445343,
-0.05151917785406113,
-0.2417512834072113,
0.24521088600158691,
0.11298217624425888,
-0.10205491632223129,
0.15286925435066223,
0.2738734185695648,
0.07913857698440552,
0.05363992974162102,
0.7014180421829224,
0.1469486951828003,
0.008790136314928532,
-0.568248987197876,
0.4803936779499054,
-0.4706478714942932,
-0.07262371480464935,
0.057855069637298584,
-0.23847676813602448,
-0.2892475426197052,
-0.3148340880870819,
-0.04308754578232765,
0.2890551686286926,
-0.04554343596100807,
-0.5884826183319092,
-0.1991978883743286,
-0.6229301691055298,
-0.12223775684833527,
-0.04196154326200485,
0.23256658017635345,
1.2003923654556274,
-0.07485954463481903,
-0.5913509130477905,
0.31815728545188904,
-0.6176135540008545,
0.025873586535453796,
0.2878774106502533,
0.27828890085220337,
-0.2906204164028168,
-0.3144977390766144,
0.3714110255241394,
0.28593170642852783,
0.338893324136734,
-0.29743415117263794,
-0.20696477591991425,
-0.5348700284957886,
0.3195255696773529,
-0.6233188509941101,
-0.5755549073219299,
0.21506533026695251,
-0.15392911434173584,
0.31389081478118896,
0.11473222076892853,
-0.06853911280632019,
0.5829713344573975,
0.4599859416484833,
0.18553093075752258,
0.48724672198295593,
0.05418546497821808,
-0.6171305179595947,
-0.11793550103902817,
-0.25507065653800964,
-0.36727994680404663,
-0.0871482789516449,
0.3588109016418457,
0.0055479807779192924,
-0.12362321466207504,
0.10584624111652374,
-5.686126232147217,
-0.020720114931464195,
-0.5019163489341736,
-0.34513720870018005,
0.25831669569015503,
0.16901233792304993,
0.43734613060951233,
-0.44885143637657166,
-0.4031491279602051,
0.19446039199829102,
0.06269288808107376,
0.2039405256509781,
0.5091294050216675,
0.30245909094810486,
0.7839328646659851,
-0.28034356236457825,
0.32456207275390625,
-0.43468666076660156,
0.14257121086120605,
0.6142908930778503,
0.3387579023838043,
-0.010038536973297596,
0.22177723050117493,
0.12953580915927887,
0.020001498982310295,
-0.04610002413392067,
0.075447678565979,
0.40353766083717346,
-0.08562527596950531,
-0.11141654849052429,
0.28049975633621216,
-0.11258764564990997,
0.010823802091181278,
-0.21385224163532257,
-0.23736664652824402,
0.23599649965763092,
0.3081471920013428,
-0.5636106729507446,
-0.9847334623336792,
-0.21353113651275635,
-0.44392088055610657,
-0.08584679663181305,
-0.05394606664776802,
0.3057630956172943,
0.2438882291316986,
0.1264522522687912,
-0.2732572853565216,
-0.8298275470733643,
0.32859304547309875,
0.5376092791557312,
-0.5363744497299194,
0.5407884120941162,
0.4919500946998596,
-0.04654955863952637,
-0.28684958815574646,
-0.31225210428237915,
0.6547306180000305,
-0.15241700410842896,
0.028457919135689735,
-0.14175021648406982,
0.3731805086135864,
-1.0892208814620972,
-0.3254152834415436,
-0.36968615651130676,
0.021358219906687737,
-0.8025982975959778,
-0.39709413051605225,
-0.5115947127342224,
0.7020838260650635,
0.5471111536026001,
-0.17105181515216827,
0.8999841809272766,
0.023897258564829826,
-0.8611700534820557,
0.20331396162509918,
-0.4545462131500244,
-0.036143265664577484,
-0.2319805920124054,
0.20818786323070526,
0.3395480215549469,
-0.04067106172442436,
0.5120453834533691,
-0.8146724104881287,
0.09137575328350067,
0.2103210836648941,
-0.10359510034322739,
0.38865113258361816,
0.6736836433410645,
-0.252502977848053,
-0.15765199065208435,
0.4481338560581207,
0.36713695526123047,
-0.20502062141895294,
0.5782281756401062,
-0.0021988842636346817,
0.8813475370407104,
-0.014923088252544403,
-0.011583738960325718,
0.6428593993186951,
-0.05298614129424095,
0.5098217725753784,
-0.15115521848201752,
0.5861638784408569,
-0.8083409667015076,
0.01723434589803219,
-0.4038633406162262,
-0.4782589077949524,
0.5459607839584351,
0.46391236782073975,
-0.07954322546720505,
-0.19373896718025208,
0.19467662274837494,
0.2609594166278839,
-0.042729444801807404,
0.06987657397985458,
-0.4215441644191742,
-0.16333341598510742,
0.454530268907547,
0.19241401553153992,
-0.15961386263370514,
0.20750656723976135,
0.18888911604881287,
-0.6396423578262329,
-0.11149933189153671,
-0.7784593105316162,
-0.7085452675819397,
-0.015334420837461948,
0.45760396122932434,
-0.6589495539665222,
-0.10148172080516815,
-0.2549678683280945,
0.4582051932811737,
0.28234216570854187,
0.48868438601493835,
0.20481689274311066,
-0.4963996708393097,
0.24686838686466217,
0.1815178245306015,
-0.08236318826675415,
-0.479931116104126,
0.5237210988998413,
-0.611644446849823,
0.15391981601715088,
0.0260801799595356,
0.9521902799606323,
-0.07210671156644821,
0.051456425338983536,
0.18859124183654785,
-0.2156354784965515,
0.6503149271011353,
-0.13261495530605316,
-0.2755233645439148,
0.011260012164711952,
-0.06627112627029419,
0.33598074316978455,
0.03970963880419731,
0.5277231931686401,
0.26031333208084106,
0.013367989100515842,
-0.5495346784591675,
-0.24306288361549377,
0.3276893198490143,
-0.761271595954895,
-0.7373561263084412,
0.3134416341781616,
-0.594783365726471,
-1.2127755880355835,
-0.06252491474151611,
-0.048603858798742294,
0.3203291594982147,
-0.5508700609207153,
-0.6792016625404358,
-0.15326759219169617,
0.06217899173498154,
0.5308433175086975,
0.3130461871623993,
0.3591952919960022,
0.4093250036239624,
-0.7119393944740295,
-0.2163706123828888,
0.154032364487648,
-0.3843206763267517,
-0.8377571702003479,
0.4143202602863312,
0.17321936786174774,
-0.22228339314460754,
0.28050410747528076,
0.06248820945620537,
-0.8451809883117676,
-0.37692365050315857,
0.07382240891456604,
-0.6490162014961243,
0.5090164542198181,
-0.1890861839056015,
-0.1507013738155365,
0.11124993860721588,
0.30006980895996094,
-0.48538199067115784,
-0.30677616596221924,
-0.3899051249027252,
0.6124083399772644,
0.5435081720352173,
-0.48923537135124207,
-0.08736719191074371,
-0.10738369822502136,
-0.5332809090614319,
0.20334362983703613,
0.24878746271133423,
-0.8485553860664368,
0.636143684387207,
-0.17491966485977173,
-0.4138249456882477,
-0.06820570677518845,
0.6318721771240234,
-0.2200031280517578,
-0.7198827862739563,
0.21309709548950195,
0.0023230682127177715,
-0.003362843533977866,
-0.1744222193956375,
0.6578467488288879,
-0.6420989036560059,
0.0927111953496933,
0.09365196526050568,
-0.650515615940094,
0.5362035036087036,
-0.4888684153556824,
-0.5144438147544861,
1.1421643495559692,
-0.18819743394851685,
-0.8641573786735535,
-0.33745574951171875,
0.37772229313850403,
0.26103585958480835,
-0.3283582329750061,
-0.21367698907852173,
-0.3347773849964142,
0.5389385223388672,
-0.20925945043563843,
0.2601577639579773,
0.547736406326294,
1.0770798921585083,
0.011192785575985909,
0.11535035073757172,
-0.2418418973684311,
0.3291575610637665,
0.4846465289592743,
-0.33265864849090576,
-0.6070677638053894,
0.5075008869171143,
0.35477155447006226,
0.15418095886707306,
-0.28478381037712097,
0.08054206520318985,
0.3718961179256439,
0.11657401919364929,
0.01240715105086565,
-0.14672943949699402,
-0.3697252571582794,
0.46378493309020996,
0.37187397480010986,
-0.8472545742988586,
-0.7002877593040466,
-0.5447972416877747,
-0.009739281609654427,
-0.3091694414615631,
-0.11373879760503769,
0.3292575776576996,
0.06799778342247009,
0.055487144738435745,
-0.28764256834983826,
-0.6302890181541443,
0.1852928251028061,
0.35827046632766724,
0.2566748857498169,
0.47317519783973694,
-0.41405999660491943,
-0.09142366796731949,
0.09911445528268814,
0.5681260228157043,
-0.15826989710330963,
-0.4411095678806305,
-0.2083878368139267,
-0.6755794286727905,
-0.26061132550239563,
-0.0357353650033474,
0.5161088705062866,
0.4620513617992401,
-0.7730326056480408,
-0.5995541214942932,
-0.7879157662391663,
0.0008394552860409021,
-0.005288373213261366,
0.5498519539833069,
-0.4707074463367462,
-0.10635953396558762,
0.0906582623720169,
0.7373499274253845,
-0.07921478152275085,
-0.02834131196141243,
-0.5914564728736877,
0.06792862713336945,
-0.050559207797050476,
-1.1088013648986816,
0.3591924011707306,
0.008423722349107265,
-0.346515953540802,
-0.5653830766677856,
0.37427768111228943,
-0.2891099452972412,
-0.09654550999403,
0.12447122484445572,
0.5373727083206177,
0.3080020546913147,
0.14894679188728333,
-0.3754139542579651,
0.5604380369186401,
-0.26849907636642456,
-0.12096954137086868,
0.44044339656829834,
-0.12966787815093994,
-0.5997211933135986,
0.7645926475524902,
-0.6514235734939575,
-0.041972871869802475,
0.4111512005329132,
0.26128408312797546,
-0.2642122507095337,
0.007147842552512884,
0.062416430562734604,
0.9643707871437073,
0.23039165139198303,
0.07559771090745926,
0.0014556245878338814,
-0.35959070920944214,
-0.46352842450141907,
-0.17629468441009521,
-0.8364746570587158,
-0.17348548769950867,
0.29223254323005676,
0.42686089873313904,
-0.2241838276386261,
0.12240151315927505,
0.2735517621040344,
-0.4471971392631531,
0.13843026757240295,
0.30412739515304565,
0.24653419852256775,
-0.0807763859629631,
0.08141246438026428,
0.17873503267765045,
0.1482977271080017,
0.9585952758789062,
-0.35957688093185425,
0.6542083024978638,
-0.4456098973751068,
0.4703564941883087,
-0.10153593868017197,
-0.614463210105896,
-0.23163272440433502,
-0.1491994708776474,
0.33640533685684204,
0.8705970048904419,
-0.06721179932355881,
-0.0832190290093422,
0.017566850408911705,
0.45575273036956787,
-0.2850086987018585,
-0.41910067200660706,
-0.08836954087018967,
-0.1212143823504448,
-0.08304180204868317,
-0.7853375673294067,
0.18740633130073547,
0.39881381392478943,
-0.46195122599601746,
0.5862336158752441,
-0.1975541114807129,
0.008402124978601933,
-0.006084625609219074,
0.17293737828731537,
-0.41716498136520386,
-0.5260616540908813,
-0.8194767236709595,
0.045446448028087616,
0.3645757734775543,
-0.06844066083431244,
0.42070505023002625,
-0.025159623473882675,
0.24718765914440155,
-0.5303357243537903,
-0.18361303210258484,
-0.08295080810785294,
0.4567856192588806,
-0.38889405131340027,
-0.05695213004946709,
0.1702551394701004,
0.6631152629852295,
-0.12297140806913376,
-0.46501773595809937,
0.08039628714323044,
0.25359246134757996,
0.11659421026706696,
-0.33017638325691223,
-0.21520736813545227,
0.5402957797050476,
-0.42894959449768066,
0.2871851623058319,
-0.7876366972923279,
0.3380345106124878,
0.32779401540756226,
-0.40824398398399353,
-0.24326404929161072,
0.26742854714393616,
-0.022361034527420998,
0.2114228755235672,
0.6508216261863708,
-0.09409137815237045,
0.41329553723335266,
-0.2707207202911377,
0.000951095949858427,
0.7349310517311096,
0.11955669522285461,
0.33965155482292175,
-0.4069875180721283,
0.3241552710533142,
0.7011842131614685,
0.4008498787879944,
-0.6198751330375671,
0.018066085875034332,
-0.15755774080753326,
-0.15876705944538116,
0.011168532073497772,
0.39450570940971375,
0.2812190353870392,
-0.4457687437534332,
0.1274404376745224,
0.6413873434066772,
0.22224712371826172,
-0.5501375198364258,
0.19956640899181366,
-0.20318405330181122,
0.09454040229320526,
-0.06375989317893982,
-0.14453880488872528,
-0.3070913553237915,
-0.7216690182685852,
-0.6002222895622253,
0.1678839474916458,
0.17002539336681366,
0.12752099335193634,
-0.41378405690193176,
0.3016088008880615,
-0.1704282909631729,
-0.56401127576828,
-0.029418308287858963,
0.3621652126312256,
0.28279587626457214,
0.03832053020596504,
0.12794893980026245
] |
229103 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spot%20welding | Spot welding | Spot welding (or resistance spot welding) is a type of electric resistance welding used to weld various sheet metal products, through a process in which contacting metal surface points are joined by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current.
The process uses two shaped copper alloy electrodes to concentrate welding current into a small "spot" and to simultaneously clamp the sheets together. Work-pieces are held together under pressure exerted by electrodes. Typically the sheets are in the thickness range. Forcing a large current through the spot will melt the metal and form the weld. The attractive feature of spot welding is that a large amount of energy can be delivered to the spot in a very short time (approximately 10–100 milliseconds). This permits the welding to occur without excessive heating of the remainder of the sheet.
The amount of heat (energy) delivered to the spot is determined by the resistance between the electrodes and the magnitude and duration of the current. The amount of energy is chosen to match the sheet's material properties, its thickness, and type of electrodes. Applying too little energy will not melt the metal or will make a poor weld. Applying too much energy will melt too much metal, eject molten material, and make a hole rather than a weld. Another feature of spot welding is that the energy delivered to the spot can be controlled to produce reliable welds.
Process and equipment
Spot welding involves three stages; the first of which involves the electrodes being brought to the surface of the metal and applying a slight amount of pressure. The current from the electrodes is then applied briefly after which the current is removed but the electrodes remain in place for the material to cool. Weld times range from 0.01 sec to 0.63 sec depending on the thickness of the metal, the electrode force and the diameter of the electrodes themselves.
The equipment used in the spot welding process consists of tool holders and electrodes. The tool holders function as a mechanism to hold the electrodes firmly in place and also support optional water hoses that cool the electrodes during welding. Tool holding methods include a paddle-type, light duty, universal, and regular offset. The electrodes generally are made of a low resistance alloy, usually copper, and are designed in many different shapes and sizes depending on the application needed.
The two materials being welded together are known as the workpieces and must conduct electricity. The width of the workpieces is limited by the throat length of the welding apparatus and ranges typically from . Workpiece thickness can range from .
After the current is removed from the workpiece, it is cooled via the coolant holes in the center of the electrodes. Both water and a brine solution may be used as coolants in spot welding mechanisms.
In the case of resistance spot welding, there are two main parts of the tooling system, the features of which fundamentally influence the whole process: the gun and its type, and the size and shape of the electrode. In such application, where the gun layout should be as rigid as possible due to the high applying forces (e.g. welding of thick materials), the C-type gun is widely used. As well as the high resulting rigidity, this arrangement leads to a high tooling flexibility, as the motion of the electrodes is collinear. Unlike the C-type, the so-called X-type arrangement provides less rigidity, although the reachable workspace is far larger than with the C-type, thus this layout is very common, where thin and flat objects are being processed (e.g. manufacturing of floor pan or roof panel). However, it offers less flexibility in terms of tooling, because the paths of the moving electrodes are not collinear (like the tips of a scissor), so a dome-shaped electrode tip should be used.
Electrodes used in spot welding can vary greatly with different applications. Each tool style has a different purpose. Radius style electrodes are used for high heat applications, electrodes with a truncated tip for high pressure, eccentric electrodes for welding corners, offset eccentric tips for reaching into corners and small spaces, and finally offset truncated for reaching into the workpiece itself.
Characteristics
The spot welding process tends to harden the material, causing it to warp. This reduces the material's fatigue strength, and may stretch the material as well as anneal it. The physical effects of spot welding include internal cracking, surface cracks and a bad appearance. The chemical properties affected include the metal's internal resistance and its corrosive properties.
Welding times are often very short, which can cause problems with the electrodes—they cannot move fast enough to keep the material clamped. Welding controllers will use a double pulse to get around this problem. During the first pulse, the electrode contact may not be able to make a good weld. The first pulse will soften the metal. During the pause between the two pulses, the electrodes will come closer and make better contact.
During spot welding, the large electric current induces a large magnetic field, and the electric current and magnetic field interact with each other to produce a large magnetic force field too, which drives the melted metal to move very fast at a velocity up to 0.5 m/s. As such, the heat energy distribution in spot welding could be dramatically changed by the fast motion of the melted metal. The fast motion in spot welding can be observed with high-speed photography.
Power supply
The basic spot welder consists of a power supply, an energy storage unit (e.g., a capacitor bank), a switch, a welding transformer, and the welding electrodes. The energy storage element allows the welder to deliver high instantaneous power levels. If the power demands are not high, then the energy storage element isn't needed. The switch causes the stored energy to be dumped into the welding transformer. The welding transformer steps down the voltage and steps up the current. An important feature of the transformer is it reduces the current level that the switch must handle. The welding electrodes are part of the transformer's secondary circuit. There is also a control box that manages the switch and may monitor the welding electrode voltage or current.
The resistance presented to the welder is complicated. There is the resistance of secondary winding, the cables, and the welding electrodes. There is also the contact resistance between the welding electrodes and the workpiece. There is the resistance of the workpieces, and the contact resistance between the workpieces.
At the beginning of the weld, the contact resistances are usually high, so most of the initial energy will be dissipated there. That heat and the clamping force will soften and smooth out the material at the electrode-material interface and make better contact (that is, lower the contact resistance). Consequently, more electrical energy will go into the workpiece and the junction resistance of the two workpieces. As electrical energy is delivered to the weld and causes the temperature to rise, the electrodes and the workpiece are conducting that heat away. The goal is to apply enough energy so that a portion of material within the spot melts without having the entire spot melt. The perimeter of the spot will conduct away much heat and keep the perimeter at a lower temperature. The interior of the spot has less heat conducted away, so it melts first. If the welding current is applied too long, the entire spot melts, the material runs out or otherwise fails, and the "weld" becomes a hole.
The voltage needed for welding depends on the resistance of the material to be welded, the sheet thickness and desired size of the nugget. When welding a common combination like 1.0 + 1.0 mm sheet steel, the voltage between the electrodes is only about 1.5 V at the start of the weld but can fall as low as 1 V at the end of the weld. This decrease in voltage results from the reduction in resistance caused by the workpiece melting. The open circuit voltage from the transformer is higher than this, typically in the 5 to 22 volt range.
The resistance of the weld spot changes as it flows and liquefies. Modern welding equipment can monitor and adjust the weld in real time to ensure a consistent weld. The equipment may seek to control different variables during the weld, such as current, voltage, power, or energy.
Welder sizes range from 5 to 500 kVA. Micro spot welders, used in a variety of industries, can go down to 1.5 kVA or less for precision welding needs.
It is common for a spray of molten metal droplets (sparks) to be ejected from the area of the weld during the process.
Resistance spot welding generates no bright arc, so UV protection is not required. OSHA requires transparent face shields or goggles for splatter protection, but does not require any filter lens.
Applications
Spot welding is typically used when welding particular types of sheet metal, welded wire mesh or wire mesh. Thicker stock is more difficult to spot weld because the heat flows into the surrounding metal more easily. Spot welding can be easily identified on many sheet metal goods, such as metal buckets. Aluminium alloys can be spot welded, but their much higher thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity requires higher welding currents. This requires larger, more powerful, and more expensive welding transformers.
Perhaps the most common application of spot welding is in the automobile manufacturing industry, where it is used almost universally to weld the sheet metal to form a car. Spot welders can also be completely automated, and many of the industrial robots found on assembly lines are spot welders (the other major use for robots being painting).
Spot welding is also used in the orthodontist's clinic, where small-scale spot welding equipment is used when resizing metal "molar bands" used in orthodontics.
Another application is spot welding straps to nickel–cadmium, nickel–metal hydride or Lithium-ion battery cells to make batteries. The cells are joined by spot welding thin nickel straps to the battery terminals. Spot welding can keep the battery from getting too hot, as might happen if conventional soldering were done.
Good design practice must always allow for adequate accessibility. Connecting surfaces should be free of contaminants such as scale, oil, and dirt, to ensure quality welds. Metal thickness is generally not a factor in determining good welds.
Modifications
Projection welding is a modification of spot welding in which the weld is localized by means of raised sections, or projections, on one or both of the workpieces to be joined. Heat is concentrated at the projections, which permits the welding of heavier sections or the closer spacing of welds. The projections can also serve as a means of positioning the workpieces. Projection welding is often used to weld studs, nuts, and other threaded machine parts to metal plate. It is also frequently used to join crossed wires and bars. This is another high-production process, and multiple projection welds can be arranged by suitable designing and jigging.
See also
Clinching (metalworking)
List of welding processes
Weld quality assurance
References
External links
(at 8-9mins) by American Welding Society
Welding
de:Widerstandsschweißen#Widerstandspunkt- und Buckelschweißen
it:Saldatura#Saldatura a punti | [
0.6339537501335144,
0.053737569600343704,
0.03917589783668518,
0.21190068125724792,
-0.05436950549483299,
0.3189701437950134,
-0.2142167091369629,
-0.2122846394777298,
-0.21718361973762512,
-0.721432089805603,
-0.16105708479881287,
0.5329898595809937,
-0.0561036542057991,
0.1367795169353485,
-0.35826170444488525,
0.5408843755722046,
0.2828834056854248,
0.048094067722558975,
-0.5053367614746094,
-0.03468308970332146,
-0.24365180730819702,
-0.3198571801185608,
0.26807868480682373,
-0.04919514060020447,
-0.02389432303607464,
0.10489381104707718,
0.19820165634155273,
-0.1125512644648552,
0.054277852177619934,
0.3540348708629608,
0.3536180853843689,
0.7249148488044739,
-0.23498085141181946,
-0.4601408541202545,
0.37995678186416626,
0.06742682307958603,
-0.06959408521652222,
-0.4691046476364136,
0.09255225211381912,
-0.2463071048259735,
-0.08470814675092697,
0.22312994301319122,
0.4433353841304779,
0.5538768172264099,
0.5289250016212463,
-0.027763258665800095,
-1.4353151321411133,
0.36941957473754883,
-0.4365120530128479,
0.0964454710483551,
-0.2853114902973175,
0.0430198572576046,
0.2695196866989136,
0.9773987531661987,
0.20513805747032166,
0.404926598072052,
-0.348879337310791,
0.44868868589401245,
0.05881704390048981,
-0.7712156176567078,
-0.10298949480056763,
-0.03917817026376724,
-0.43938693404197693,
0.2976636290550232,
0.24553820490837097,
0.49821460247039795,
-0.10796132683753967,
0.20165087282657623,
-0.16184082627296448,
-0.2349214255809784,
0.07237967103719711,
-0.4088786840438843,
-0.015081808902323246,
0.20443333685398102,
0.28994327783584595,
0.406451940536499,
-0.09664354473352432,
-0.6176349520683289,
-0.42733272910118103,
0.3809738755226135,
0.13311807811260223,
0.25795406103134155,
0.6051074862480164,
0.4586925506591797,
0.8508703708648682,
-0.1755688637495041,
-0.7759037613868713,
0.7169527411460876,
-0.09876754134893417,
0.5732952952384949,
-0.07120782881975174,
-0.3135497570037842,
0.4866403043270111,
0.6034435629844666,
0.26014235615730286,
0.17386187613010406,
0.3778436779975891,
0.2810194790363312,
0.6741267442703247,
-0.21138718724250793,
-0.03563501685857773,
-0.010404570959508419,
0.33468693494796753,
0.1663334220647812,
-0.1590898185968399,
-0.04931015521287918,
-0.7052077054977417,
-0.31287556886672974,
0.21906396746635437,
0.05037277564406395,
-0.4502056837081909,
-0.3003558814525604,
0.1666533648967743,
-0.0009499801089987159,
-0.44744810461997986,
0.02573644556105137,
-0.3955915868282318,
0.3685753643512726,
-0.10596245527267456,
0.07382141053676605,
-0.33824092149734497,
0.9036163687705994,
-0.3362651467323303,
0.48762139678001404,
-0.3897559344768524,
0.8711270689964294,
0.7382521629333496,
1.2242164611816406,
-0.563289999961853,
0.05305604636669159,
0.027740417048335075,
0.7568520903587341,
0.21073339879512787,
-0.03015691414475441,
0.22501932084560394,
-0.5912986993789673,
-0.03393636643886566,
0.006931405980139971,
0.38823774456977844,
0.2661258280277252,
-0.5135133266448975,
-0.2985600531101227,
0.1143198236823082,
-0.1526147723197937,
0.15929760038852692,
-0.5285714268684387,
0.15757246315479279,
-0.41494056582450867,
-0.07249981164932251,
0.23027296364307404,
0.14443542063236237,
0.044606491923332214,
-0.4732397496700287,
0.11393273621797562,
-1.0985628366470337,
0.06733352690935135,
0.7341697216033936,
-0.4064556360244751,
-0.31022119522094727,
-0.06640971451997757,
0.282909095287323,
-0.1714448779821396,
-0.3421795964241028,
0.5130116939544678,
0.3862716555595398,
-0.213168203830719,
0.033956415951251984,
-0.19939260184764862,
0.31143805384635925,
0.4722750782966614,
0.16183896362781525,
0.11384056508541107,
-0.16212405264377594,
-0.4273746609687805,
0.46032896637916565,
0.09096570312976837,
0.07137471437454224,
0.3145652115345001,
0.5096003413200378,
0.046854667365550995,
-0.6528671383857727,
-0.3241563141345978,
0.33474650979042053,
0.2762429118156433,
-0.09370632469654083,
-0.33331358432769775,
0.2626231908798218,
0.11185960471630096,
-0.06471709907054901,
0.13341882824897766,
-0.7522382736206055,
-0.4522375762462616,
0.3283837139606476,
-0.8087113499641418,
1.7633341550827026,
0.019501671195030212,
-0.24521504342556,
0.42820534110069275,
-0.10465440154075623,
0.1888783872127533,
-0.06485415995121002,
0.20540019869804382,
0.23816584050655365,
-0.055925700813531876,
-0.4650603234767914,
0.10605503618717194,
0.4309435784816742,
0.03643323853611946,
-0.15394866466522217,
-0.4707256853580475,
0.7299842238426208,
-0.6414305567741394,
0.20503439009189606,
-0.24088643491268158,
-0.14424630999565125,
-0.18357212841510773,
-0.45591315627098083,
0.3867073655128479,
0.23909133672714233,
0.24838846921920776,
1.0534141063690186,
-0.35248807072639465,
-0.02035847306251526,
0.26367875933647156,
0.4355676472187042,
0.8017280697822571,
-0.023790033534169197,
-0.1306849718093872,
0.5289509892463684,
0.2456522434949875,
0.659038782119751,
0.25945231318473816,
0.08322906494140625,
-0.5564385652542114,
0.10490502417087555,
-0.23618730902671814,
0.4426136016845703,
-0.1991662085056305,
0.2936634123325348,
-0.18519680202007294,
-0.019891217350959778,
0.5425884127616882,
-0.6272275447845459,
0.04653110355138779,
0.08266784995794296,
-0.0811275839805603,
0.17811720073223114,
-0.20123150944709778,
0.32201215624809265,
0.12408153712749481,
-0.05691206082701683,
0.33884963393211365,
-0.35716763138771057,
-0.6608849763870239,
0.05861581861972809,
-0.06011774763464928,
-0.3300652503967285,
-0.34765827655792236,
-0.036901891231536865,
-0.5100795030593872,
0.1401659995317459,
-0.6905267238616943,
-0.07601159811019897,
-0.09217706322669983,
-0.29581305384635925,
-0.5832359790802002,
-0.546080470085144,
0.31974735856056213,
0.4751392900943756,
0.4229673147201538,
0.10945526510477066,
0.7914929389953613,
-0.2214445322751999,
-0.3177056908607483,
-0.6293703317642212,
-0.41474685072898865,
-0.05519481375813484,
0.4183955490589142,
-0.5222397446632385,
-0.2792417109012604,
0.12127988040447235,
0.25796714425086975,
0.13936685025691986,
-0.3188447952270508,
-0.431188702583313,
-0.08962497860193253,
-0.05263110250234604,
-0.25848257541656494,
-0.7561416625976562,
-0.314964234828949,
-0.4074421525001526,
0.7817472815513611,
-0.1769772171974182,
0.28354498744010925,
0.26604169607162476,
0.5849959254264832,
-0.6173837780952454,
0.25905555486679077,
0.4139983057975769,
-0.8179588317871094,
0.18136094510555267,
-0.3016703426837921,
-0.3828393816947937,
-0.33915865421295166,
-0.2426690012216568,
-0.4353039860725403,
-0.43315431475639343,
-0.3981047570705414,
-5.704113006591797,
0.18934305012226105,
-0.303728312253952,
-0.054204002022743225,
0.12204814702272415,
0.20770545303821564,
0.5719163417816162,
0.2507728040218353,
0.26021820306777954,
0.009003419429063797,
-0.4688343405723572,
0.4965706169605255,
-0.09920152276754379,
0.5142197012901306,
0.13135571777820587,
0.8039771914482117,
0.6262109279632568,
-0.17910051345825195,
0.5808079242706299,
-0.06855419278144836,
-0.1710299551486969,
-0.11913056671619415,
-0.3357904255390167,
0.7453145384788513,
-0.21232503652572632,
0.026417655870318413,
-0.9172414541244507,
0.5745679140090942,
-0.21481217443943024,
-0.2064022421836853,
0.452127069234848,
-0.36123016476631165,
0.16358160972595215,
0.027289262041449547,
0.1361692100763321,
0.0885200947523117,
0.4288886785507202,
-0.20799942314624786,
-0.8469311594963074,
0.06074532866477966,
0.08697482943534851,
0.7761208415031433,
-0.6260204911231995,
0.19597160816192627,
0.6040947437286377,
-0.5504789352416992,
0.1007155105471611,
-0.250031054019928,
0.09048590064048767,
0.7917873859405518,
0.09800358861684799,
-0.10916929692029953,
0.4324531853199005,
-0.1256377398967743,
-0.08958622813224792,
-0.045648518949747086,
-0.013362912461161613,
0.32388293743133545,
-0.35227566957473755,
-0.08985644578933716,
-0.7209924459457397,
-0.36220231652259827,
-0.3211757242679596,
-0.6581423282623291,
-0.10260529071092606,
-0.1348307728767395,
-0.7610824108123779,
-0.40785470604896545,
0.38565593957901,
-0.17129142582416534,
-0.4001656472682953,
0.9465380311012268,
-0.027808694168925285,
-0.6419228315353394,
0.43526238203048706,
-0.3261408507823944,
0.4190250635147095,
-0.6517329216003418,
0.18553094565868378,
-0.02660760097205639,
-0.4679841995239258,
-0.2603830397129059,
0.02178257144987583,
0.11812594532966614,
0.12534849345684052,
-0.022024231031537056,
-0.2927303910255432,
-0.3252728581428528,
0.10111259669065475,
0.027154086157679558,
1.6641474962234497,
-0.03407096490263939,
-0.06105535849928856,
-0.08472591638565063,
0.32445454597473145,
0.5277908444404602,
0.0713234692811966,
0.3335527181625366,
0.11516501009464264,
-0.34536606073379517,
0.0861155092716217,
-0.3736374080181122,
-0.5393881797790527,
-0.37296292185783386,
0.1367378681898117,
0.06044847145676613,
0.04760930687189102,
-0.04845305159687996,
0.37979140877723694,
0.054733239114284515,
0.035799816250801086,
0.2177066057920456,
-0.7144206762313843,
0.482559472322464,
0.4645140767097473,
-0.14675183594226837,
-0.5646766424179077,
-0.02542383410036564,
0.10096970200538635,
-0.08180029690265656,
0.1523410975933075,
-0.017709914594888687,
0.09454624354839325,
-0.1407816857099533,
0.19906334578990936,
-0.45025521516799927,
-0.050222136080265045,
0.35042256116867065,
0.1130204051733017,
0.19309259951114655,
0.2757435441017151,
0.62224280834198,
-0.48492732644081116,
0.025180652737617493,
-0.15356877446174622,
-0.6035131216049194,
-0.38083964586257935,
0.08822709321975708,
0.16951435804367065,
0.22815951704978943,
0.288128525018692,
-0.24173332750797272,
-0.13946475088596344,
-0.1411418914794922,
0.8624486923217773,
0.5003029704093933,
-0.5758147239685059,
0.11578432470560074,
-0.4177999794483185,
0.7841500043869019,
0.07059956341981888,
-0.41507428884506226,
-0.3183348476886749,
-0.3842889368534088,
-0.03549719229340553,
0.13326987624168396,
0.3073943257331848,
0.45983919501304626,
0.15605370700359344,
-0.44170472025871277,
0.2594766914844513,
0.47886228561401367,
-0.6927869319915771,
0.07600882649421692,
-0.5188286900520325,
-0.5847618579864502,
-1.1302355527877808,
-0.035844042897224426,
-0.44641193747520447,
0.3111078143119812,
-0.07037387788295746,
-0.4740951955318451,
-0.22713008522987366,
-0.6125784516334534,
0.21233607828617096,
-0.21448169648647308,
-0.1985802799463272,
0.15662074089050293,
-0.2602587938308716,
-1.0847783088684082,
-0.12531067430973053,
-0.025074249133467674,
-0.4392091929912567,
0.21597705781459808,
0.3031408190727234,
-0.8265492916107178,
-0.5891320109367371,
0.11470597982406616,
0.02671094238758087,
-0.29143571853637695,
0.6045387387275696,
-0.1350223571062088,
0.08687838166952133,
0.16707175970077515,
-0.1614711880683899,
-0.7587706446647644,
-0.03179667517542839,
0.231806218624115,
-0.09114721417427063,
-1.1289184093475342,
-0.4968612790107727,
0.46307823061943054,
-1.2046791315078735,
0.6671389937400818,
-0.2721640169620514,
-0.005150631535798311,
0.41991156339645386,
0.44799065589904785,
-0.29341238737106323,
-0.6197498440742493,
-0.2570521831512451,
-0.672950267791748,
0.10059043020009995,
0.5927720069885254,
-0.39048129320144653,
0.16297103464603424,
0.20394933223724365,
-0.3773289918899536,
0.04675475135445595,
0.0104205422103405,
0.2526949644088745,
-0.27591022849082947,
0.11641018837690353,
0.27285733819007874,
-0.10205677151679993,
0.3838302195072174,
0.2630677819252014,
-0.3160904347896576,
-0.08786248415708542,
-0.15960906445980072,
-0.04183051735162735,
-0.01592007279396057,
-0.21890927851200104,
-0.1339922547340393,
0.42007920145988464,
0.46809494495391846,
-1.0016778707504272,
0.1511678546667099,
0.7206668257713318,
0.02664760872721672,
0.48400482535362244,
0.4774227738380432,
-0.18727204203605652,
-0.22722207009792328,
-0.21108905971050262,
-0.1711103320121765,
0.567361056804657,
-0.6871029138565063,
-0.9996257424354553,
-0.05187647044658661,
0.19657355546951294,
-0.5527183413505554,
-0.49472424387931824,
-0.6980234384536743,
0.3652172088623047,
-0.0993555411696434,
-0.31144440174102783,
-0.20911164581775665,
-0.1154012382030487,
0.7410920858383179,
-0.3774811029434204,
-0.17997507750988007,
-0.3822574019432068,
-0.2323344498872757,
0.26793819665908813,
0.2957066297531128,
-0.12441513687372208,
-0.7369252443313599,
-0.39180484414100647,
-0.38873040676116943,
0.31496870517730713,
0.19804948568344116,
0.6838260293006897,
-0.04166066646575928,
0.11310617625713348,
0.2932097911834717,
-0.0766550749540329,
0.21367120742797852,
-0.14877131581306458,
0.10872889310121536,
-0.5416274666786194,
-0.4720745384693146,
0.3791802227497101,
-0.04273981973528862,
0.07553653419017792,
0.2573537230491638,
0.4736419916152954,
-0.5275145769119263,
-0.6297785639762878,
-0.534933865070343,
0.029843904078006744,
0.12408274412155151,
-0.05867958441376686,
0.08753187954425812,
0.058708030730485916,
0.3346237540245056,
0.7140623331069946,
-0.04002142697572708,
-0.21748869121074677,
0.29671987891197205,
-0.10575804859399796,
0.9060623049736023,
-0.13528048992156982,
-1.085260033607483,
0.6769647002220154,
-0.1891399472951889,
0.49316954612731934,
-0.01317014079540968,
0.1571948528289795,
0.46365660429000854,
0.48544543981552124,
-0.3459363877773285,
-0.5341640710830688,
0.8536566495895386,
-0.43613097071647644,
0.19103442132472992,
0.5290871858596802,
-0.5047871470451355,
0.44605356454849243,
0.02621268667280674,
0.04693904519081116,
0.04606001451611519,
0.8243048787117004,
-0.1671055555343628,
0.11619254946708679,
0.2497258186340332,
-0.2247859090566635,
0.134030282497406,
-0.026056889444589615,
0.19280238449573517,
0.5819324254989624,
-0.21470928192138672,
0.2618025243282318,
0.23037485778331757,
0.05869072675704956,
-0.059673674404621124,
-0.15727175772190094,
-0.3060857057571411,
-0.575475811958313,
0.7127499580383301,
-0.15576566755771637,
0.42665234208106995,
-0.06026254966855049,
-0.0701574981212616,
0.2081286460161209,
0.31762316823005676,
-0.163558691740036,
0.4661586880683899,
-0.12808847427368164,
0.10449828952550888,
0.07953297346830368,
-0.3852100670337677,
-0.11312127113342285,
-0.31869855523109436,
-0.20437918603420258,
-0.39875465631484985,
0.8611612319946289,
0.16185103356838226,
0.1318058967590332,
0.39844560623168945,
0.6862636208534241,
0.23733209073543549,
0.3443279564380646,
-0.21662873029708862,
-0.7555123567581177,
-0.3223649263381958,
-0.034766729921102524,
-0.45553943514823914,
-0.17427252233028412,
0.2818755805492401,
0.6051674485206604,
0.1669212281703949,
-0.10107680410146713,
0.6667742729187012,
-0.089446060359478,
-0.6551297903060913,
0.5924739241600037,
0.48660576343536377,
0.2453639954328537,
0.4787658154964447,
-0.3144519031047821,
0.6568329930305481,
-0.7474884390830994,
-0.40063852071762085,
0.11362452059984207,
-0.5222284197807312,
-0.24810662865638733,
0.6554529070854187,
0.026949957013130188,
-0.3058985769748688,
-0.17381896078586578,
-0.37124359607696533,
-0.31712138652801514,
-0.11805371940135956,
-0.22578385472297668,
-0.4632270038127899,
0.5380056500434875,
0.4880432188510895,
-0.014149842783808708,
0.42321792244911194,
-0.18060055375099182,
0.5922405123710632,
0.5700265169143677,
0.31195276975631714,
-0.5632520914077759,
0.5040057897567749,
-0.3523039221763611,
0.708112895488739,
-0.4522800147533417,
0.3563154935836792,
0.5106997489929199,
-0.04912160336971283,
0.38617807626724243,
-0.15078914165496826,
0.09171424806118011,
-0.30292704701423645,
0.3380032777786255,
-0.543569028377533,
0.16825371980667114,
-0.44355833530426025,
-0.05176318436861038,
-0.7723709344863892,
0.13617055118083954,
-0.1305752545595169,
0.12905018031597137,
-0.25570496916770935,
0.3462204933166504,
0.13192787766456604,
0.2650527060031891,
0.7727534770965576,
-0.09690311551094055,
0.2860754430294037,
-0.6859034299850464,
0.1368016004562378,
-0.38128674030303955,
-0.4015662670135498,
-0.5424670577049255,
0.3967027962207794,
0.1008148193359375,
-0.43988868594169617,
0.5890468955039978,
-0.2992919385433197,
-0.7138468623161316,
-0.3806128203868866,
0.01348207239061594,
-0.02170158363878727,
-0.40814465284347534,
0.19207264482975006,
-0.7468581795692444,
0.4425072968006134,
0.11584968119859695,
-0.580027163028717,
-0.21404337882995605,
0.08254460245370865,
0.00436063576489687,
-0.2616318464279175,
-0.1316714584827423,
-0.3043266534805298,
-0.21713943779468536,
0.14615382254123688
] |
229104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matter%20wave | Matter wave | Matter waves are a central part of the theory of quantum mechanics, being an example of wave–particle duality. All matter exhibits wave-like behavior. For example, a beam of electrons can be diffracted just like a beam of light or a water wave. In most cases, however, the wavelength is too small to have a practical impact on day-to-day activities.
The concept that matter behaves like a wave was proposed by French physicist Louis de Broglie () in 1924. It is also referred to as the de Broglie hypothesis. Matter waves are referred to as de Broglie waves.
The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, , associated with a massive particle (i.e., a particle with mass, as opposed to a massless particle) and is related to its momentum, , through the Planck constant, :
Wave-like behavior of matter was first experimentally demonstrated by George Paget Thomson's thin metal diffraction experiment, and independently in the Davisson–Germer experiment, both using electrons; and it has also been confirmed for other elementary particles, neutral atoms and even molecules. For its value is the same as the Compton wavelength.
Historical context
At the end of the 19th century, light was thought to consist of waves of electromagnetic fields which propagated according to Maxwell's equations, while matter was thought to consist of localized particles (see history of wave and particle duality). In 1900, this division was exposed to doubt, when, investigating the theory of black-body radiation, Max Planck proposed that light is emitted in discrete quanta of energy. It was thoroughly challenged in 1905. Extending Planck's investigation in several ways, including its connection with the photoelectric effect, Albert Einstein proposed that light is also propagated and absorbed in quanta; now called photons. These quanta would have an energy given by the Planck–Einstein relation:
and a momentum
where (lowercase Greek letter nu) and (lowercase Greek letter lambda) denote the frequency and wavelength of the light, the speed of light, and the Planck constant. In the modern convention, frequency is symbolized by f as is done in the rest of this article. Einstein's postulate was confirmed experimentally by Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton over the next two decades.
De Broglie hypothesis
De Broglie, in his 1924 PhD thesis, proposed that just as light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, electrons also have wave-like properties. De Broglie did not simplify his equation into the one that bears his name. He did conclude that . He also referred to Einstein’s famous relativity equation. Thus, it was a simple step to get to the equation that bears his name. Also, by rearranging the momentum equation stated in the above section, we find a relationship between the wavelength, , associated with an electron and its momentum, , through the Planck constant, :
The relationship has since been shown to hold for all types of matter: all matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves.
In 1926, Erwin Schrödinger published an equation describing how a matter wave should evolve – the matter wave analogue of Maxwell's equations — and used it to derive the energy spectrum of hydrogen. Frequencies of solutions of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation differ from de Broglie waves by the Compton frequency since the energy corresponding to the rest mass of a particle is not part of the non-relativistic Schrödinger equation.
Experimental confirmation
Matter waves were first experimentally confirmed to occur in George Paget Thomson's cathode ray diffraction experiment and the Davisson-Germer experiment for electrons, and the de Broglie hypothesis has been confirmed for other elementary particles. Furthermore, neutral atoms and even molecules have been shown to be wave-like.
Electrons
In 1927 at Bell Labs, Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer fired slow-moving electrons at a crystalline nickel target. The angular dependence of the diffracted electron intensity was measured, and was determined to have the same diffraction pattern as those predicted by Bragg for x-rays. At the same time George Paget Thomson at the University of Aberdeen was independently firing electrons at very thin metal foils to demonstrate the same effect. Before the acceptance of the de Broglie hypothesis, diffraction was a property that was thought to be exhibited only by waves. Therefore, the presence of any diffraction effects by matter demonstrated the wave-like nature of matter. When the de Broglie wavelength was inserted into the Bragg condition, the predicted diffraction pattern was observed, thereby experimentally confirming the de Broglie hypothesis for electrons.
This was a pivotal result in the development of quantum mechanics. Just as the photoelectric effect demonstrated the particle nature of light, the Davisson–Germer experiment showed the wave-nature of matter, and completed the theory of wave–particle duality. For physicists this idea was important because it meant that not only could any particle exhibit wave characteristics, but that one could use wave equations to describe phenomena in matter if one used the de Broglie wavelength.
Neutral atoms
Experiments with Fresnel diffraction and an atomic mirror for specular reflection of neutral atoms confirm the application of the de Broglie hypothesis to atoms, i.e. the existence of atomic waves which undergo diffraction, interference and allow quantum reflection by the tails of the attractive potential. Advances in laser cooling have allowed cooling of neutral atoms down to nanokelvin temperatures. At these temperatures, the thermal de Broglie wavelengths come into the micrometre range. Using Bragg diffraction of atoms and a Ramsey interferometry technique, the de Broglie wavelength of cold sodium atoms was explicitly measured and found to be consistent with the temperature measured by a different method.
This effect has been used to demonstrate atomic holography, and it may allow the construction of an atom probe imaging system with nanometer resolution. The description of these phenomena is based on the wave properties of neutral atoms, confirming the de Broglie hypothesis.
The effect has also been used to explain the spatial version of the quantum Zeno effect, in which an otherwise unstable object may be stabilised by rapidly repeated observations.
Molecules
Recent experiments even confirm the relations for molecules and even macromolecules that otherwise might be supposed too large to undergo quantum mechanical effects. In 1999, a research team in Vienna demonstrated diffraction for molecules as large as fullerenes. The researchers calculated a De Broglie wavelength of the most probable C60 velocity as 2.5 pm.
More recent experiments prove the quantum nature of molecules made of 810 atoms and with a mass of 10,123 u. As of 2019, this has been pushed to molecules of 25,000 u.
Still one step further than Louis de Broglie go theories which in quantum mechanics eliminate the concept of a pointlike classical particle and explain the observed facts by means of wavepackets of matter waves alone.
De Broglie relations
The de Broglie equations relate the wavelength to the momentum , and frequency to the total energy of a free particle:
where h is the Planck constant. The equations can also be written as
or
where is the reduced Planck constant, is the wave vector, is the phase constant, and is the angular frequency.
In each pair, the second equation is also referred to as the Planck–Einstein relation, since it was also proposed by Planck and Einstein.
Special relativity
Using two formulas from special relativity, one for the relativistic mass energy and one for the relativistic momentum
allows the equations to be written as
where denotes the particle's rest mass, its velocity, the Lorentz factor, and the speed of light in a vacuum. See below for details of the derivation of the de Broglie relations. Group velocity (equal to the particle's speed) should not be confused with phase velocity (equal to the product of the particle's frequency and its wavelength). In the case of a non-dispersive medium, they happen to be equal, but otherwise they are not.
Group velocity
Albert Einstein first explained the wave–particle duality of light in 1905. Louis de Broglie hypothesized that any particle should also exhibit such a duality. The velocity of a particle, he concluded, should always equal the group velocity of the corresponding wave. The magnitude of the group velocity is equal to the particle's speed.
Both in relativistic and non-relativistic quantum physics, we can identify the group velocity of a particle's wave function with the particle velocity. Quantum mechanics has very accurately demonstrated this hypothesis, and the relation has been shown explicitly for particles as large as molecules.
De Broglie deduced that if the duality equations already known for light were the same for any particle, then his hypothesis would hold. This means that
where is the total energy of the particle, is its momentum, is the reduced Planck constant. For a free non-relativistic particle it follows that
where is the mass of the particle and its velocity.
Also in special relativity we find that
where is the rest mass of the particle and is the speed of light in a vacuum. But (see below), using that the phase velocity is , therefore
where is the velocity of the particle regardless of wave behavior.
Phase velocity
In quantum mechanics, particles also behave as waves with complex phases. The phase velocity is equal to the product of the frequency multiplied by the wavelength.
By the de Broglie hypothesis, we see that
Using relativistic relations for energy and momentum, we have
where E is the total energy of the particle (i.e. rest energy plus kinetic energy in the kinematic sense), p the momentum, the Lorentz factor, c the speed of light, and β the speed as a fraction of c. The variable v can either be taken to be the speed of the particle or the group velocity of the corresponding matter wave. Since the particle speed for any particle that has mass (according to special relativity), the phase velocity of matter waves always exceeds c, i.e.
and as we can see, it approaches c when the particle speed is in the relativistic range. The superluminal phase velocity does not violate special relativity, because phase propagation carries no energy. See the article on Dispersion (optics) for details.
Four-vectors
Using four-vectors, the De Broglie relations form a single equation:
which is frame-independent.
Likewise, the relation between group/particle velocity and phase velocity is given in frame-independent form by:
where
Four-momentum
Four-wavevector
Four-velocity
Interpretations
The purpose of de Broglie’s 81 page thesis was to create an improved version of the Bohr atom through pilot wave theory. De Broglie presented his thesis on pilot wave theory at the 1927 Solvay Conference.
The thesis of de Broglie involved the hypothesis that a standing wave guided the electrons in the Bohr model of the atom. The thesis had an unusual analysis that higher energy photons obey the Wien Law and are particle-like while lower energy photons obey the Rayleigh–Jeans law and are wave-like. Particle physics tends to treat all forces by particle-particle interaction causing Richard Feynman to say that there are no waves just particles. And recently, there have been some theories that try to explain the Interpretations of quantum mechanics which try to resolve whether either the particle or the wave aspect is fundamental in nature, seeking to explain the other as an emergent property. Some interpretations, such as hidden variable theory, treat the wave and the particle as distinct entities. Yet others propose some intermediate entity that is neither quite wave nor quite particle but only appears as such when we measure one or the other property. The Copenhagen interpretation states that the nature of the underlying reality is unknowable and beyond the bounds of scientific inquiry.
Schrödinger's acknowledges that his quantum mechanical equation is based in part on the thesis of de Broglie. Schrödinger emphasized that his equation was different in that it was in multi-dimensional space. In his lecture as both wave mechanics and matrix mechanics were both new concepts, he tries to imply his formula is superior as does Heisenberg in his speech.
At the Fifth Solvay Conference in 1927, Erwin Schrödinger reported:
In 1955, Heisenberg showed that the waves of the quantum mechanical equations were reinterpretated as probabilities rather than classical waves stating:
It is mentioned above that the "displaced quantity" of the Schrödinger wave has values that are dimensionless complex numbers. According to Heisenberg, rather than being of some ordinary physical quantity such as, for example, Maxwell's electric field intensity, or mass density, the Schrödinger-wave packet's "displaced quantity" is a probability amplitude. He wrote that instead of using the term 'wave packet', it is preferable to speak of a probability packet. The Schrödinger equation probability amplitude is interpreted as the calculation of the probability of the location or momentum of discrete particles. Heisenberg recites Duane's account of particle diffraction by probabilistic quantal translation momentum transfer, which allows, for example in Young's two-slit experiment, each diffracted particle probabilistically to pass discretely through a particular slit. Schrödinger originally proposed that his matter wave was 'composed of smeared matter,’ but the Born rule changed the psi function to be understood as a description of probability rather than a description of the actual electron charge density.
These ideas may be expressed in ordinary language as follows. In the account of ordinary physical waves, a 'point' refers to a position in ordinary physical space at an instant of time, at which there is specified a 'displacement' of some physical quantity. But in the account of quantum mechanics, a 'point' refers to a configuration of the system at an instant of time, every particle of the system being in a sense present in every 'point' of configuration space, each particle at such a 'point' being located possibly at a different position in ordinary physical space. There is no explicit definite indication that, at an instant, this particle is 'here' and that particle is 'there' in some separate 'location' in configuration space. This conceptual difference entails that, in contrast to de Broglie's pre-quantum mechanical wave description, the quantum mechanical probability packet description does not directly and explicitly express the Aristotelian idea, referred to by Newton, that causal efficacy propagates through ordinary space by contact, nor the Einsteinian idea that such propagation is no faster than light. In contrast, these ideas are so expressed in the classical wave account, through the Green's function, though it is inadequate for the observed quantal phenomena. The physical reasoning for this was first recognized by Einstein.
De Broglie's phase wave and periodic phenomenon
De Broglie's thesis started from the hypothesis, “that to each portion of energy with a proper mass one may associate a periodic phenomenon of the frequency , such that one finds: . The frequency is to be measured, of course, in the rest frame of the energy packet. This hypothesis is the basis of our theory.” (This frequency is also known as Compton frequency.)
De Broglie followed his initial hypothesis of a periodic phenomenon, with frequency , associated with the energy packet. He used the special theory of relativity to find, in the frame of the observer of the electron energy packet that is moving with velocity , that its frequency was apparently reduced to
De Broglie reasoned that to a stationary observer this hypothetical intrinsic particle periodic phenomenon appears to be in phase with a wave of wavelength and frequency that is propagating with phase velocity . De Broglie called this wave the “phase wave” («onde de phase» in French).
This was his basic matter wave conception. He noted, as above, that , and the phase wave does not transfer energy.
While the concept of waves being associated with matter is correct, de Broglie did not leap directly to the final understanding of quantum mechanics with no missteps. There are conceptual problems with the approach that de Broglie took in his thesis that he was not able to resolve, despite trying a number of different fundamental hypotheses in different papers published while working on, and shortly after publishing, his thesis.
These difficulties were resolved by Erwin Schrödinger, who developed the wave mechanics approach, starting from a somewhat different basic hypothesis.
See also
Bohr model
Compton wavelength
Faraday wave
Kapitsa–Dirac effect
Matter wave clock
Schrödinger equation
Theoretical and experimental justification for the Schrödinger equation
Thermal de Broglie wavelength
De Broglie–Bohm theory
References
Further reading
L. de Broglie, Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Researches on the quantum theory), Thesis (Paris), 1924; L. de Broglie, Ann. Phys. (Paris) 3, 22 (1925). English translation by A.F. Kracklauer.
Broglie, Louis de, The wave nature of the electron Nobel Lecture, 12, 1929
Tipler, Paul A. and Ralph A. Llewellyn (2003). Modern Physics. 4th ed. New York; W. H. Freeman and Co. . pp. 203–4, 222–3, 236.
An extensive review article "Optics and interferometry with atoms and molecules" appeared in July 2009: https://web.archive.org/web/20110719220930/http://www.atomwave.org/rmparticle/RMPLAO.pdf.
"Scientific Papers Presented to Max Born on his retirement from the Tait Chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh", 1953 (Oliver and Boyd)
External links
Waves
Matter
Foundational quantum physics | [
-0.002220886992290616,
-0.29475629329681396,
0.3337310552597046,
-0.060953784734010696,
-0.49758270382881165,
-0.3034205138683319,
-0.10193443298339844,
-0.2667287290096283,
-0.3319307565689087,
-0.3524467349052429,
-0.38767582178115845,
0.3702718913555145,
-0.42002761363983154,
0.7517192363739014,
-0.05243665724992752,
0.017706360667943954,
0.3601595461368561,
0.15895405411720276,
-0.5391507148742676,
-0.32558760046958923,
-0.254008412361145,
0.09786587953567505,
0.5096140503883362,
-0.22812692821025848,
-0.00023076731304172426,
-0.413496196269989,
-0.017180031165480614,
0.3333386480808258,
0.5132066011428833,
0.21942633390426636,
0.008360697887837887,
0.7404085397720337,
-0.24512220919132233,
0.3625282049179077,
-0.23787948489189148,
-0.046103063970804214,
-0.0940527617931366,
0.23727922141551971,
-0.5991244912147522,
-0.39117082953453064,
0.08204039931297302,
0.28388774394989014,
-0.001808931934647262,
0.3597055971622467,
-0.13088247179985046,
-0.3798969089984894,
-0.7884636521339417,
-0.18156078457832336,
-0.6529009938240051,
0.20761333405971527,
-0.13039369881153107,
0.1238638237118721,
0.06057951599359512,
0.6862154006958008,
-0.4009520709514618,
-0.10339660942554474,
-0.669583261013031,
-0.0638786107301712,
0.32864144444465637,
-0.5134457349777222,
0.1897503286600113,
-0.11451654136180878,
-0.26908355951309204,
0.21162882447242737,
0.6750054359436035,
0.3093697726726532,
0.18045194447040558,
0.02305719628930092,
-0.261027991771698,
-0.3611559271812439,
0.32940542697906494,
-0.3023722171783447,
-0.31575602293014526,
0.15771253407001495,
-0.2833860516548157,
0.2317102998495102,
0.38806769251823425,
-0.29605016112327576,
-0.06555299460887909,
0.0249815471470356,
-0.3232174515724182,
0.3366166353225708,
0.22959373891353607,
-0.32740074396133423,
-0.19874617457389832,
0.11439047008752823,
-0.5353732109069824,
0.600841224193573,
-0.5802150964736938,
1.0046108961105347,
0.4085240960121155,
0.04504607990384102,
0.5079445838928223,
0.41805610060691833,
0.38042110204696655,
0.2165163904428482,
0.47596296668052673,
-0.5309808850288391,
0.26885709166526794,
0.03300165757536888,
-0.3697845935821533,
0.31731829047203064,
0.23303943872451782,
-0.15794812142848969,
-0.05507773533463478,
-0.13428764045238495,
0.09081023186445236,
-0.6833320260047913,
-0.2192298173904419,
0.31671327352523804,
-0.8641064763069153,
0.09732301533222198,
-0.5765135884284973,
-0.0926956757903099,
-0.7133833169937134,
-0.11814671009778976,
0.16658394038677216,
0.02139875292778015,
0.4831376373767853,
0.2788460850715637,
0.16328324377536774,
1.0962165594100952,
0.1741563081741333,
-0.03122769296169281,
0.21939243376255035,
0.05933326482772827,
0.7887316942214966,
0.40987682342529297,
-0.5924495458602905,
0.007131032180041075,
0.018577441573143005,
1.008546233177185,
0.35897135734558105,
0.2646641135215759,
0.4148347079753876,
-0.15237568318843842,
0.28305378556251526,
0.04311683401465416,
-0.2680613696575165,
0.4356452226638794,
-0.8020697832107544,
-0.24434469640254974,
-0.5915473699569702,
0.12226054072380066,
0.363473117351532,
-0.24418701231479645,
-0.4154551327228546,
-0.8960571885108948,
-0.35175153613090515,
0.04925503954291344,
-0.916850209236145,
0.6727553606033325,
0.1817990392446518,
-0.06438203155994415,
-0.3433794379234314,
-0.10576444864273071,
0.07905106991529465,
0.5734497308731079,
-0.22763118147850037,
0.2340475618839264,
0.02273465320467949,
-0.24932628870010376,
0.08120521903038025,
-0.3203844130039215,
0.4087037742137909,
-0.43769389390945435,
0.2494196593761444,
0.40768271684646606,
-0.3161310851573944,
-0.2862248122692108,
-0.3662446141242981,
-0.5333640575408936,
0.04154639318585396,
0.16521552205085754,
-0.10015211999416351,
-0.5260636806488037,
0.06347128003835678,
-0.12494492530822754,
0.31893017888069153,
-0.011451231315732002,
-0.5586987733840942,
0.11807138472795486,
0.3677307367324829,
-0.5196226239204407,
0.10013933479785919,
-0.0040824925526976585,
-0.1741618514060974,
0.2911278009414673,
0.23906251788139343,
-0.05825692415237427,
-0.1304636299610138,
-0.19552262127399445,
0.14274249970912933,
-0.6195490956306458,
0.9999897480010986,
0.27803152799606323,
-0.43427565693855286,
0.8121923804283142,
-0.10858020931482315,
0.0017285615904256701,
-0.16107773780822754,
-0.22386063635349274,
0.1184515580534935,
0.09190835803747177,
-0.4591551721096039,
-0.06866895407438278,
0.43695929646492004,
0.05868687853217125,
0.09639103710651398,
0.32705479860305786,
0.4105497896671295,
0.1374797374010086,
0.046474602073431015,
-0.5739078521728516,
-0.17235608398914337,
0.0874815359711647,
-0.7863819003105164,
0.27427423000335693,
-0.26637595891952515,
-0.13838323950767517,
1.2106376886367798,
-0.2017989605665207,
0.05679500848054886,
0.4658384323120117,
0.2212347835302353,
0.5581649541854858,
0.5829168558120728,
0.5964812636375427,
0.40812698006629944,
-0.5156107544898987,
0.43824851512908936,
-0.5028092861175537,
0.005165433511137962,
-0.07240603864192963,
-0.25998273491859436,
0.26391303539276123,
0.09894119948148727,
-0.05643894895911217,
0.2270147204399109,
-0.4077482521533966,
0.06467404961585999,
0.3463663160800934,
-0.9370565414428711,
0.6375616192817688,
-0.26072147488594055,
-0.06917456537485123,
-0.030909784138202667,
-0.3124454915523529,
-0.6407434940338135,
-0.03161647915840149,
-0.2209676206111908,
0.25806573033332825,
0.1590385138988495,
-0.4928388297557831,
0.4329368770122528,
-0.3959977328777313,
-0.3423885107040405,
-0.3744654953479767,
1.0420019626617432,
0.6819925308227539,
-0.06969480216503143,
0.24053558707237244,
0.1992262899875641,
0.256033718585968,
-0.5989364385604858,
-0.7304369807243347,
-0.0005405421834439039,
-0.23200909793376923,
0.09403414279222488,
0.7243096232414246,
0.32483023405075073,
-0.02780618704855442,
0.013833875767886639,
-0.45057666301727295,
-0.13045738637447357,
-0.8514891862869263,
0.3557220995426178,
-0.168922558426857,
-0.17554369568824768,
-0.2995525598526001,
0.03966895863413811,
1.13651442527771,
0.5621597766876221,
-0.3544493317604065,
0.15901237726211548,
-0.3576851785182953,
0.09757225960493088,
0.5027022957801819,
0.11512000858783722,
0.012323718518018723,
-0.7350911498069763,
-0.031225409358739853,
-0.4052734076976776,
0.027712538838386536,
-0.1383020430803299,
0.7023791074752808,
0.5469897389411926,
0.06400475651025772,
0.14238756895065308,
-0.17813047766685486,
-0.7255851626396179,
0.17170654237270355,
-0.5887011885643005,
0.2489038109779358,
-0.40393173694610596,
-0.2995729446411133,
-0.04679378494620323,
0.7765389084815979,
-5.736609935760498,
-0.04129630699753761,
-0.005538684781640768,
-0.2906213104724884,
-0.2726292610168457,
0.4889739453792572,
0.6773102879524231,
-0.268505722284317,
-0.08188987523317337,
0.35952720046043396,
-0.6257947087287903,
0.187785804271698,
-0.4937562942504883,
0.6587705016136169,
0.49914243817329407,
-0.2807353436946869,
-0.30101847648620605,
0.3043479323387146,
0.025696735829114914,
0.5809012651443481,
-0.24298126995563507,
0.30508095026016235,
0.13310222327709198,
0.33931758999824524,
-0.2098684161901474,
-0.039621107280254364,
-0.167951762676239,
-0.07251806557178497,
-0.10644978284835815,
-0.25250980257987976,
0.045665983110666275,
-0.3212704658508301,
0.0706871747970581,
-0.6273017525672913,
0.299202024936676,
0.06997930258512497,
0.22542230784893036,
0.18098917603492737,
0.08496110141277313,
-0.6049848198890686,
-0.21474260091781616,
0.6567591428756714,
-0.34896358847618103,
-0.4187512993812561,
0.31699270009994507,
-0.24365250766277313,
0.19642634689807892,
0.3686673045158386,
-0.015094509348273277,
0.95649254322052,
-0.5404123067855835,
-0.3237316310405731,
0.6878374218940735,
-0.6442821621894836,
0.08854398876428604,
0.32352370023727417,
0.2606574594974518,
0.1021091639995575,
-0.1576833873987198,
-0.09882450848817825,
0.47514107823371887,
-0.45783910155296326,
-0.11286415904760361,
-0.38855865597724915,
-0.16059909760951996,
0.4762864112854004,
-0.8407368659973145,
-0.1978026181459427,
0.9243085384368896,
-0.5481223464012146,
0.10325107723474503,
0.15872932970523834,
0.29362595081329346,
-0.6595683693885803,
0.32930874824523926,
-0.2332746982574463,
-0.28780388832092285,
-0.006933681666851044,
0.4348517656326294,
0.39739999175071716,
-0.6699536442756653,
-0.48344913125038147,
-0.128665491938591,
-0.24290138483047485,
0.3244420886039734,
-0.7482811212539673,
-0.4135766923427582,
-0.8944894671440125,
-0.2071138620376587,
0.00039063216536305845,
0.8665012717247009,
-0.6370039582252502,
0.43929123878479004,
0.3595447540283203,
0.6587640047073364,
0.5829223990440369,
0.23027580976486206,
0.8347838521003723,
0.6147534251213074,
-0.23154351115226746,
0.47385260462760925,
-0.26961442828178406,
-0.05251283198595047,
-0.651762843132019,
0.27466100454330444,
0.431892067193985,
-0.499325692653656,
0.31130164861679077,
0.44921666383743286,
-0.3158060908317566,
0.46313273906707764,
0.24170395731925964,
-0.4481066167354584,
0.03189918026328087,
0.24205854535102844,
0.13799133896827698,
-0.7649717926979065,
0.6920791864395142,
0.6958655118942261,
-0.21481376886367798,
0.49168887734413147,
0.11258207261562347,
-0.4701187014579773,
0.20342667400836945,
0.09104782342910767,
0.0748959332704544,
0.04321625083684921,
0.26613467931747437,
-0.5693169832229614,
-0.2554512321949005,
0.3314468562602997,
0.33008694648742676,
0.2802908718585968,
-0.06620436906814575,
0.49116992950439453,
-0.1962214857339859,
-0.01798385940492153,
0.1458585411310196,
0.2662145495414734,
-0.41433417797088623,
0.5573561191558838,
-0.05877209082245827,
0.1992766559123993,
0.1223837286233902,
0.2843368947505951,
0.03365259990096092,
-0.015342606231570244,
0.3294120132923126,
-0.3831378221511841,
0.053401485085487366,
0.10845538973808289,
-0.19081486761569977,
0.26574674248695374,
-0.3427223563194275,
-0.5183312296867371,
-0.1611754447221756,
-0.09357412904500961,
-0.34052368998527527,
0.3159715533256531,
0.03916673734784126,
-0.03260057419538498,
0.3726885914802551,
-0.8839702606201172,
-0.49115338921546936,
-0.2304544895887375,
0.6624094247817993,
-0.6724458932876587,
0.5827347040176392,
0.6604851484298706,
0.09932883083820343,
-0.17102648317813873,
-0.3835654556751251,
-0.5665566325187683,
-0.5435784459114075,
0.02416020818054676,
0.17324155569076538,
0.023404855281114578,
0.4428914189338684,
0.07791339606046677,
-0.14677108824253082,
0.5048696994781494,
0.17127083241939545,
-0.012262814678251743,
0.5487098693847656,
0.5549668669700623,
-0.449706107378006,
0.15671038627624512,
0.23208846151828766,
-0.5755583643913269,
-0.20569926500320435,
0.47515878081321716,
0.9158548712730408,
0.3027462959289551,
-0.0364021398127079,
-0.0856197401881218,
-0.21322359144687653,
-0.11661414057016373,
0.24020560085773468,
-0.022974221035838127,
-0.7380920052528381,
0.19190512597560883,
0.11401516199111938,
-0.13570886850357056,
0.27073386311531067,
0.3831193149089813,
-0.45227324962615967,
-0.1345105767250061,
-0.25068965554237366,
0.21263925731182098,
-0.23595339059829712,
-0.565674364566803,
-0.2404874712228775,
0.0509847030043602,
-0.09504124522209167,
-0.2391224205493927,
0.0016753802774474025,
0.28493058681488037,
-0.6032784581184387,
0.33231326937675476,
0.07530361413955688,
0.056668393313884735,
0.06771349161863327,
-0.4897889792919159,
-0.213465616106987,
-0.24729043245315552,
0.18985837697982788,
0.02671763487160206,
-0.4096730947494507,
0.5877389311790466,
-0.5053892135620117,
-0.22049151360988617,
-0.07421229034662247,
-0.2329525500535965,
0.0680098608136177,
-0.2941848635673523,
-0.6184396147727966,
-0.05840836092829704,
-0.030956409871578217,
0.2216227650642395,
-0.0010408239904791117,
0.5813109278678894,
0.5937598347663879,
-0.5805113315582275,
0.0890405997633934,
0.10612750053405762,
0.6206318736076355,
0.8014681339263916,
-0.35424360632896423,
-0.5690178275108337,
-0.0936000645160675,
0.22055883705615997,
-0.1725180745124817,
-0.4628559947013855,
-0.2114163041114807,
0.7527651786804199,
-0.13320907950401306,
-0.16842550039291382,
-0.8046777248382568,
0.31357938051223755,
0.08171354234218597,
-0.21626532077789307,
-0.30411824584007263,
-1.1154131889343262,
-0.39956459403038025,
0.1703430861234665,
-0.12275230884552002,
-0.5933359265327454,
-0.2431444227695465,
0.47979411482810974,
-0.029867593199014664,
0.2562159299850464,
-0.41252750158309937,
0.20350335538387299,
0.18563340604305267,
0.31919875741004944,
0.8426579833030701,
-0.7122693657875061,
-0.24789546430110931,
-0.13655948638916016,
0.026446616277098656,
-0.5657230019569397,
0.21526995301246643,
-0.1987421214580536,
-0.305646687746048,
0.4103977084159851,
-0.12083093822002411,
0.5220853090286255,
-0.41445428133010864,
0.14192889630794525,
-0.11143802106380463,
-0.299803227186203,
-0.023981161415576935,
0.15277361869812012,
-0.07996395230293274,
0.2277098149061203,
0.038167040795087814,
-0.16588537395000458,
0.020444372668862343,
-0.5262879729270935,
-0.19695860147476196,
-0.8106904625892639,
0.09613049030303955,
-0.03685520216822624,
-0.8243429064750671,
0.624980092048645,
-0.4428435266017914,
0.26885828375816345,
-0.1128859743475914,
0.04061247780919075,
-0.24438902735710144,
-0.028502237051725388,
0.3058377802371979,
-0.5203532576560974,
0.4437253177165985,
-0.6067157983779907,
-0.14979517459869385,
0.7381408214569092,
-0.688583254814148,
0.8635280132293701,
0.3722046911716461,
0.13188503682613373,
-0.10280154645442963,
0.14525628089904785,
-0.11295880377292633,
-1.0516738891601562,
0.1784420907497406,
-0.34953415393829346,
0.020422523841261864,
-0.4524339735507965,
0.1783275157213211,
0.8949984312057495,
0.31629377603530884,
-0.5625436902046204,
0.11687342822551727,
-0.49123549461364746,
-0.18096911907196045,
0.3452950716018677,
0.44562357664108276,
-1.0166085958480835,
0.708477795124054,
0.18768267333507538,
1.0431671142578125,
-0.15106774866580963,
0.486407071352005,
-0.07172394543886185,
0.4146210551261902,
0.28959983587265015,
1.072823405265808,
-0.00010350589582230896,
-0.5258698463439941,
0.36479896306991577,
-0.2825440764427185,
0.8641631603240967,
-0.3651823401451111,
-0.3233303129673004,
-0.3570121228694916,
0.3010905981063843,
-0.5027303695678711,
-0.3737354576587677,
0.2489437311887741,
-0.3389934003353119,
0.3793557286262512,
0.27535030245780945,
0.19484058022499084,
0.5531383752822876,
-0.18388669192790985,
-0.0988524854183197,
-0.15701918303966522,
-0.13839438557624817,
-0.25648123025894165,
-0.032743874937295914,
0.2898842990398407,
-0.5872223377227783,
0.651573121547699,
-0.49877703189849854,
-0.047858212143182755,
-0.1289975494146347,
0.28178226947784424,
-0.2970522344112396,
-0.21919023990631104,
0.01603482849895954,
0.23665449023246765,
0.07900451868772507,
-0.7629641890525818,
0.3241388499736786,
-0.20264700055122375,
0.05565391480922699,
0.6744197607040405,
-0.008737906813621521,
0.0026747842784971,
0.3225667178630829,
-0.5293281078338623,
0.13497468829154968,
0.09821581095457077,
-0.24313989281654358,
-0.16455283761024475,
0.12977463006973267,
0.5386176705360413,
0.03378836065530777,
-0.07781726121902466,
0.032056041061878204,
0.14771296083927155,
0.03203415870666504,
0.7973122000694275,
-1.1484490633010864,
0.30890876054763794,
-0.6167421340942383,
0.06613722443580627,
-1.20904541015625,
1.0083661079406738,
0.4076049327850342,
-0.07193988561630249,
0.2127087414264679,
0.1789589673280716,
0.08464491367340088,
-0.13169169425964355,
0.3875480890274048,
-0.42089754343032837,
0.07532130181789398,
-0.07837942242622375,
-0.6380939483642578,
-0.4957064390182495,
0.26110389828681946,
0.5107620358467102,
0.0970250740647316,
-0.25040245056152344,
0.41621342301368713,
0.22986918687820435,
-0.3996155560016632,
-0.31165945529937744,
-0.019906504079699516,
0.6379963755607605,
-0.813919186592102,
0.32502317428588867,
-0.09743384271860123,
-0.06388453394174576,
-0.14687706530094147,
0.02319260872900486,
0.3921941816806793,
-0.21556931734085083,
0.03568205609917641,
0.15476500988006592,
0.05904870107769966,
-0.020955681800842285,
-0.4863336980342865,
0.06056605651974678,
0.660198450088501,
0.14931711554527283,
-0.5751951932907104,
0.4607742726802826,
0.2444646954536438,
-0.845815896987915,
0.1892063170671463,
-0.30456042289733887,
-0.5603628158569336,
0.299202561378479,
0.2326689064502716,
0.30107858777046204,
-0.30229902267456055,
0.17345362901687622
] |
229105 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Vaughn | Robert Vaughn | Robert Francis Vaughn (November 22, 1932 – November 11, 2016) was an American actor noted for his stage, film and television work. His television roles include the spy Napoleon Solo in the 1960s series The Man from U.N.C.L.E.; the detective Harry Rule in the 1970s series The Protectors; Morgan Wendell in the 1978–1979 miniseries Centennial; formidable General Hunt Stockwell in the fifth season of the 1980s series The A-Team; and grifter and card sharp Albert Stroller in the British television drama series Hustle (2004–2012), for all but one of its 48 episodes. He also appeared in the British soap opera Coronation Street as Milton Fanshaw from January until February 2012.
In film, he portrayed the gunman Lee in The Magnificent Seven, Major Paul Krueger in The Bridge at Remagen, the voice of Proteus IV, the computer villain of Demon Seed, Walter Chalmers in Bullitt, Ross Webster in Superman III, General Woodbridge in The Delta Force, and war veteran Chester A. Gwynn in The Young Philadelphians, which earned him a 1959 Academy Award nomination for Best Supporting Actor.
Early life
Robert Vaughn was born on November 22, 1932, in New York City, to Gerald Walter Vaughn, a radio actor, and his wife, Marcella Frances (Gaudel), a stage actress. His parents divorced, and Vaughn lived with his grandparents in Minneapolis while his mother traveled and performed.
After high school, he enrolled in the University of Minnesota as a journalism major. However, he dropped out after a year and moved to Los Angeles with his mother. He studied at Los Angeles City College, then transferred to Los Angeles State College of Applied Arts and Sciences, earning a master's degree in theater. After graduating from college, Vaughn was drafted into the Army, serving as a drill sergeant. He later received a Ph.D. in communications from the University of Southern California in 1970. In 1972, he published his dissertation as the book Only Victims: A Study of Show Business Blacklisting.
Career
Vaughn made his television debut on the November 21, 1955, "Black Friday" episode of the American television series Medic, the first of more than two hundred episodic roles through mid-2000. His first film appearance was as an uncredited extra in The Ten Commandments (1956), playing a golden calf idolater also visible in a scene in a chariot behind that of Yul Brynner. In 1956, Vaughn made his first guest appearance on Gunsmoke in the episode entitled “Cooter.” The following year, he made his second guest appearance on Gunsmoke opposite Barbara Eden in a Romeo-Juliet role, in the episode "Romeo", which turned out okay for the bride and groom.
Vaughn's first credited movie role came the following year in the Western Hell's Crossroads (1957), in which he played Bob Ford, the murderer of outlaw Jesse James. Seen by Burt Lancaster in Calder Willingham's play End as a Man, Vaughn was signed with Lancaster's film company and was to have played the Steve Dallas role in Sweet Smell of Success. Vaughn appeared as Stan Gray in the episode "The Twisted Road" of the western syndicated series Frontier Doctor.
Vaughn's first notable appearance was in The Young Philadelphians (1959), receiving a nomination for both the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture. He next appeared as gunman Lee in The Magnificent Seven (1960), a role he essentially reprised 20 years later in Battle Beyond the Stars (1980), both films adapted from filmmaker Akira Kurosawa's 1954 Japanese samurai epic, Seven Samurai. Vaughn was the last surviving member of those who portrayed The Magnificent Seven. He played a different role, Judge Oren Travis, on the 1998-2000 syndicated television series The Magnificent Seven.
In the 1963–64 season, Vaughn appeared in The Lieutenant as Captain Raymond Rambridge alongside Gary Lockwood, a Marine second lieutenant at Camp Pendleton. His dissatisfaction with the somewhat diminished aspect of the character led him to request an expanded role. During the conference, his name came up in a telephone call and he ended up being offered a series of his own — as Napoleon Solo, title character in a series originally to be called Solo, but which became The Man from U.N.C.L.E. after the pilot was reshot with Leo G. Carroll in the role of Solo's boss. This was the role which would make Vaughn a household name even behind the Iron Curtain. Vaughn had guest-starred on Lockwood's series Follow the Sun. In 1963 he also appeared in an episode of The Dick Van Dyke Show as Jim Darling, a successful businessman and an old flame of Laura Petrie in the episode "It's A Shame She Married Me".
From 1964 to 1968, Vaughn played Solo with Scottish co-star David McCallum playing his fellow agent, Illya Kuryakin. This production spawned a spinoff show, large amounts of merchandising, overseas theatrical movies of re-edited episodes, and a sequel, The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E.: The Fifteen-Years-Later Affair. After
the series ended, Vaughn landed a major film role playing Walter Chalmers, a U.S. Senator in the film Bullitt starring Steve McQueen; he was nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Supporting Actor for this role.
In 1966, Vaughn appeared as a bachelor on the nighttime premiere of The Dating Game. He was picked for the date, which was a trip to London. After The Man from U.N.C.L.E was cancelled in 1968, Vaughn continued to appear on television and in mostly B movies. He starred in two seasons of the British detective series The Protectors in the early 1970s. He also appeared in two episodes of Columbo during the mid-1970s, "Troubled Waters" (1975) and "Last Salute to the Commodore" (1976). The latter episode is one of the few in the series where the identity of the murderer is not known until the end. Vaughn won an Emmy for his portrayal of Frank Flaherty in Washington: Behind Closed Doors (ABC, 1977) and during the 1980s starred with friend George Peppard in the final season of The A-Team. Vaughn played Morgan Wendell, opponent to Paul Garrett played by David Janssen in the 1978–79 miniseries Centennial.
Vaughn portrayed Presidents Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry S. Truman, in addition to Woodrow Wilson (in the 1979 television mini-series Backstairs at the White House). He additionally played Roosevelt in the 1982 HBO telefilm FDR: That Man in the White House. In 1983, he starred as villainous multi millionaire Ross Webster in Superman III. In 1983–1984, he appeared as industrialist Harlan Adams in the short-lived series Emerald Point N.A.S., replacing Patrick O'Neal. In the mid-1990s, he made several cameo appearances on Late Night with Conan O'Brien as an audience member who berates the host and his guests beginning with "you people make me sick."
After a string of guest roles on series such as Law & Order (in which he had a recurring role during season eight as Carl Anderton, a wealthy businessman who vows revenge on the NYC DA's office and longtime friend Adam Schiff for sending his grandson to juvenile correction for murdering his stepsister), Vaughn experienced a resurgence in 2004. He began co-starring in the British TV drama series Hustle, made for BBC One. The series was also broadcast in the United States on the cable network AMC. In the series, Vaughn played elder-statesman American con artist Albert Stroller, a father figure to a group of younger grifters. In September 2006, he guest-starred on an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
Vaughn also appeared as himself narrating and being a character in a radio play broadcast by BBC Radio 4 in 2007 about making the film The Bridge at Remagen in Prague, during the Russian invasion of 1968. In November 2011, it was announced that Vaughn would appear for three weeks in the British soap opera Coronation Street. His role as Milton in the long-running program lasted from January to February 2012.
In later years, Vaughn appeared in syndicated advertisements marketed by Commercial Pro, Inc. for various personal injury and workers compensation law firms, using the catchphrase, "Tell them you mean business".
Personal life
Vaughn married actress Linda Staab in 1974. They appeared together in a 1973 episode of The Protectors, called "It Could Be Practically Anywhere on the Island". They adopted two children, Cassidy (born 1976) and Caitlin (born 1981). They resided in Ridgefield, Connecticut.
For many years, it was believed Vaughn was the biological father of English film director and producer Matthew Vaughn, born when the actor was in a relationship with early 1970s socialite Kathy Ceaton. However, a paternity investigation identified the father as George de Vere Drummond, an English aristocrat and godson of King George VI. Early in Matthew's life, Vaughn asked for the child's surname to be Vaughn, which Matthew continues to use professionally.
Political views
Vaughn was a longtime member of the Democratic Party. His family was also Democratic and was involved in politics in Minneapolis. Early in his career, he was described as a "liberal Democrat". He was opposed to the Hollywood Blacklist of suspected Communists on freedom of speech principles, but Vaughn also was opposed to Communism as a totalitarian system. Vaughn campaigned for John F. Kennedy in the Presidential election of 1960 for U.S. President. He was the chair of the California Democratic State Central Committee speakers bureau and actively campaigned for candidates in the 1960s.
Vaughn was the first popular American actor to take a public stand against the Vietnam War and was active in the peace group Another Mother for Peace. Vaughn debated William F. Buckley Jr. on his program Firing Line on the Vietnam War. With Dick Van Dyke and Carl Reiner, he was a founder of Dissenting Democrats. Early in the 1968 presidential election, they supported the candidacy of Minnesota Senator Eugene McCarthy, who was running for president as an alternative to Vice President Hubert Humphrey, who had supported President Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam.
Vaughn was reported to have political ambitions of his own, but in a 1973 interview, he denied having had any political aspirations. In a conversation with historian Jack Sanders, he stated that after the assassination of Robert F. Kennedy in 1968, "I lost heart for the battle."
Books
Vaughn published Only Victims: A Study of Show Business Blacklisting in 1972. His second book, A Fortunate Life, was published in 2008.
Death
Vaughn died in a hospice in Danbury, Connecticut,
on November 11, 2016, eleven days before his 84th birthday, after a year-long treatment for leukemia.
Theatre
Filmography
Film
Television
References
Sources
External links
Obituary: Robert Vaughn—BBC News; first published 11 November 2016
Robert Vaughn (Aveleyman)
1932 births
2016 deaths
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American anti–Vietnam War activists
American male film actors
American male radio actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American memoirists
Connecticut Democrats
Deaths from cancer in Connecticut
Deaths from leukemia
Los Angeles State College alumni
Los Angeles City College alumni
Male actors from Connecticut
Male actors from Minneapolis
Male actors from New York City
Minnesota Democrats
New York (state) Democrats
Outstanding Performance by a Supporting Actor in a Drama Series Primetime Emmy Award winners
People from Ridgefield, Connecticut
University of Minnesota School of Journalism and Mass Communication alumni
University of Southern California alumni
Western (genre) television actors
United States Army soldiers | [
-0.37861326336860657,
0.2057284414768219,
-1.1056560277938843,
-0.161970853805542,
0.7155134677886963,
0.908004879951477,
0.9730852842330933,
0.2659793198108673,
-0.3218664824962616,
0.00972849689424038,
-0.07015813887119293,
0.6428031921386719,
-0.22921162843704224,
0.4902488589286804,
0.023286990821361542,
0.7517227530479431,
-0.19215191900730133,
-0.17911940813064575,
0.1584014892578125,
-0.788420557975769,
-0.6578431725502014,
-0.1935833990573883,
0.698985755443573,
0.3274024724960327,
-0.4433114528656006,
0.8505519032478333,
-0.5340498089790344,
0.3236384391784668,
-0.2839624583721161,
0.27138960361480713,
-0.4684174358844757,
-0.3614249527454376,
0.4808886647224426,
-0.061297524720430374,
-0.6203754544258118,
0.1681327372789383,
-0.3293316066265106,
-0.34847402572631836,
-0.3361702263355255,
0.09374910593032837,
-0.3386881351470947,
-0.2487882673740387,
0.14349660277366638,
-0.41489362716674805,
-0.26360633969306946,
-0.277936190366745,
-1.5352516174316406,
0.03265371173620224,
-0.5529859066009521,
-0.8224585652351379,
-0.12463308125734329,
0.6533652544021606,
0.6189692616462708,
-0.21815000474452972,
0.5540972948074341,
-0.22762848436832428,
0.03303852677345276,
-0.13428235054016113,
0.0014714939752593637,
-0.23560772836208344,
-0.09629783779382706,
-0.5039241313934326,
0.3448137044906616,
-0.7498400211334229,
0.31449243426322937,
0.604377806186676,
0.05080796033143997,
-0.2735286355018616,
-0.059795886278152466,
-0.4693644940853119,
0.15305420756340027,
0.7418690323829651,
0.8416001200675964,
0.06007333844900131,
0.8121715188026428,
-0.24479685723781586,
0.33595484495162964,
0.026033151894807816,
-0.4133912920951843,
0.0637168288230896,
0.035036779940128326,
-0.31717559695243835,
0.039576150476932526,
1.018825650215149,
-0.2831583321094513,
-0.078756183385849,
-0.2557505965232849,
0.28132063150405884,
-0.3519405424594879,
-0.11520303040742874,
-0.8097782731056213,
-0.052380695939064026,
-0.3545069098472595,
0.3364901542663574,
-0.204255148768425,
-0.4429965615272522,
-0.21393698453903198,
0.17979808151721954,
-0.028568871319293976,
-0.0785784125328064,
-0.3449016809463501,
-0.40599721670150757,
0.6144137382507324,
-0.7529606223106384,
-0.3372628390789032,
0.5659506916999817,
0.3432396948337555,
0.41896089911460876,
-0.6200091242790222,
-0.10155914723873138,
-0.30004408955574036,
0.2753828763961792,
-0.012942507863044739,
-0.006134371738880873,
0.11351742595434189,
0.3884766399860382,
0.00022791465744376183,
-0.466796875,
-0.9318533539772034,
0.14208488166332245,
-0.07075659930706024,
0.020798198878765106,
-0.3680802285671234,
0.30370187759399414,
-0.5334667563438416,
-0.16519224643707275,
-0.29579368233680725,
-0.23422841727733612,
-0.3032534420490265,
0.1650092750787735,
0.3419134020805359,
0.9126125574111938,
-0.2934395372867584,
-0.10543119162321091,
-0.6060386300086975,
-0.1476297825574875,
-0.04230881854891777,
-0.22198297083377838,
-0.2529596984386444,
-0.17962175607681274,
-0.385781466960907,
-0.03605372831225395,
-0.1544433981180191,
-0.18754443526268005,
0.7466884851455688,
-0.36237436532974243,
0.5043626427650452,
0.10390996187925339,
-0.011608269065618515,
-0.05679865926504135,
-0.25354450941085815,
0.27838027477264404,
0.1646568328142166,
-0.9911929965019226,
-0.35520169138908386,
0.4241619408130646,
0.6890770792961121,
0.1175006702542305,
0.18692447245121002,
-0.3332633972167969,
0.3487321436405182,
0.23016414046287537,
-0.17654001712799072,
-0.14919070899486542,
0.6808252930641174,
-0.24535714089870453,
0.08459878712892532,
-0.9619600772857666,
-0.5495575666427612,
0.1458350419998169,
-0.09297434985637665,
0.5313628315925598,
0.32101383805274963,
0.11467184871435165,
-0.8374471068382263,
-0.03520159050822258,
0.4282761812210083,
0.2998930811882019,
0.0430377833545208,
-0.41128265857696533,
-0.2781921923160553,
-0.019892102107405663,
0.16903755068778992,
0.11281631141901016,
0.36789536476135254,
0.34978610277175903,
0.21377618610858917,
-0.25365447998046875,
0.042991917580366135,
-0.24760131537914276,
-0.33742719888687134,
-0.33352962136268616,
0.07215660065412521,
-0.1329866200685501,
0.30933257937431335,
-0.1385447382926941,
-0.6382501125335693,
0.2866239547729492,
0.08694543689489365,
0.3112141788005829,
-0.15028463304042816,
-0.31125056743621826,
0.18721340596675873,
-0.0684020072221756,
-0.1650766134262085,
-0.037401460111141205,
0.3148241639137268,
0.680010199546814,
0.7370793223381042,
0.589042603969574,
0.10956638306379318,
-0.6310421228408813,
0.13087259232997894,
0.7333908081054688,
0.018925290554761887,
-1.0795549154281616,
-1.1477750539779663,
-0.29757043719291687,
0.4574306011199951,
-0.3595702052116394,
-0.0037125865928828716,
0.2928292453289032,
-0.20467200875282288,
0.0890422910451889,
-0.3318078815937042,
0.5945616960525513,
-0.3482300937175751,
-0.15730299055576324,
0.3597356081008911,
-0.19720880687236786,
0.21538780629634857,
0.503814160823822,
-0.5424973368644714,
-1.1469392776489258,
-0.3789599537849426,
0.2582252025604248,
0.4459821581840515,
-0.44097161293029785,
-0.5581762194633484,
-0.2690241038799286,
0.39666444063186646,
0.10828915238380432,
-0.7703205347061157,
0.42705002427101135,
0.13034893572330475,
-0.5012027621269226,
0.32163769006729126,
-0.3871701657772064,
-0.22873011231422424,
0.0771106407046318,
0.039253756403923035,
0.13835901021957397,
0.18664132058620453,
0.15679456293582916,
0.48378151655197144,
0.2880852520465851,
-0.05846860632300377,
-0.21118296682834625,
0.12837381660938263,
0.10824047029018402,
0.3468446731567383,
-0.1411377340555191,
-0.36585068702697754,
-0.1560816615819931,
-0.6723079085350037,
0.11445774883031845,
-0.21449843049049377,
-0.44283318519592285,
-0.34897106885910034,
0.20552775263786316,
-0.43392056226730347,
-0.23958848416805267,
-0.13590185344219208,
0.26578840613365173,
0.6198264360427856,
0.6001500487327576,
-0.09316647797822952,
0.03601071983575821,
-0.3925635814666748,
-0.42212793231010437,
0.5423861742019653,
0.4427178204059601,
-0.02385450340807438,
-0.07471674680709839,
-0.147592231631279,
-0.5715475082397461,
-0.47716405987739563,
-0.0731915757060051,
0.2815835773944855,
0.13681820034980774,
-0.3341837227344513,
0.5419491529464722,
-0.49092039465904236,
0.7344444394111633,
-0.3977929651737213,
0.034724265336990356,
0.15321902930736542,
-0.15213054418563843,
-0.1399659812450409,
-0.06724762171506882,
-0.3552192151546478,
0.5563942193984985,
-0.1131591945886612,
-0.00056357157882303,
0.9452692866325378,
0.7428473830223083,
-0.22752507030963898,
-0.5198476910591125,
-5.4706196784973145,
0.2729363739490509,
0.33257418870925903,
-0.5070382356643677,
0.7709845900535583,
0.2740072011947632,
0.1395319700241089,
-0.20014770328998566,
0.22662663459777832,
0.18156744539737701,
0.16688556969165802,
-0.2810790538787842,
-0.06038164719939232,
0.22727710008621216,
0.37765225768089294,
-0.18393929302692413,
0.6373346447944641,
-0.20210888981819153,
-0.11453811824321747,
0.7872346043586731,
-0.0595293864607811,
-0.3922358751296997,
0.0022554174065589905,
-0.26962780952453613,
0.09392844885587692,
0.26698240637779236,
-0.5936878323554993,
0.4626331627368927,
-0.2666983902454376,
-0.3377939462661743,
-0.5013257265090942,
0.2915549576282501,
-0.018986979499459267,
-0.3422205150127411,
-0.17465940117835999,
-0.03933693841099739,
0.6053780913352966,
-0.13087007403373718,
0.4512229561805725,
-0.16290439665317535,
0.06252006441354752,
-0.21592020988464355,
-1.1511176824569702,
-0.013686004094779491,
0.26378753781318665,
-0.3571663200855255,
-0.25619328022003174,
-0.3872624337673187,
0.18802668154239655,
0.38546469807624817,
0.43711915612220764,
0.24907198548316956,
0.11788032203912735,
-0.23773856461048126,
0.6784695386886597,
-0.3499305248260498,
-0.020008476451039314,
0.2690269649028778,
-1.0320237874984741,
0.4544765055179596,
0.08534447848796844,
-0.09582515060901642,
-0.2424921989440918,
0.14818203449249268,
-0.27577027678489685,
-0.17543914914131165,
0.37761572003364563,
0.5652120113372803,
0.3212384879589081,
-0.4474486708641052,
-0.014725163578987122,
0.46181395649909973,
-0.10485692322254181,
-1.0743483304977417,
0.11535929143428802,
-0.3673444390296936,
0.3708760738372803,
-0.10717714577913284,
-0.9435644745826721,
-0.5387546420097351,
-0.18576376140117645,
-0.1426338255405426,
0.348518043756485,
0.5077912211418152,
0.5184779167175293,
0.48155540227890015,
-0.5611839294433594,
0.6641297340393066,
-0.4413391351699829,
-0.6749204993247986,
-0.3398090898990631,
-0.143940269947052,
-0.06849519908428192,
0.08411860466003418,
0.24519428610801697,
-0.15696878731250763,
0.2890765368938446,
0.09701190888881683,
0.1846838891506195,
0.11350783705711365,
-0.25809139013290405,
-0.5922027826309204,
0.4471522271633148,
-0.7840506434440613,
-0.03184526786208153,
-0.01398296095430851,
0.42741212248802185,
0.30446764826774597,
0.4827199876308441,
0.20321211218833923,
0.3258323669433594,
0.36181020736694336,
-0.37874099612236023,
0.01853889971971512,
0.17616896331310272,
-0.13124968111515045,
0.14062714576721191,
0.17956596612930298,
0.2729453146457672,
0.3070744276046753,
-0.008004708215594292,
0.6290743947029114,
0.07374206185340881,
0.2543555200099945,
0.1664055436849594,
-0.4218890964984894,
0.209403857588768,
0.19402168691158295,
-0.17177173495292664,
-0.31400230526924133,
-0.5526419281959534,
0.8052595257759094,
0.4505670368671417,
0.33979180455207825,
0.33542096614837646,
-0.3135734498500824,
-0.46861904859542847,
-0.23990271985530853,
0.13303938508033752,
-0.02535257488489151,
0.28549474477767944,
-0.44270092248916626,
0.23245824873447418,
0.365145206451416,
-0.13117223978042603,
-0.495867520570755,
0.4460480809211731,
0.37183672189712524,
0.18217459321022034,
0.15009616315364838,
0.06768351793289185,
0.2104189544916153,
0.5216407179832458,
-0.5341430306434631,
-0.5099923610687256,
-0.23282931745052338,
-0.12821777164936066,
-0.24718162417411804,
0.2013433575630188,
-0.3574005961418152,
0.30118876695632935,
-0.1907372623682022,
-0.6590271592140198,
0.31794825196266174,
-0.32786521315574646,
0.242221400141716,
-0.4730970859527588,
-0.25588691234588623,
-0.5069538354873657,
0.7397512793540955,
-0.30450811982154846,
-0.6237326860427856,
-0.0744791179895401,
0.19185961782932281,
0.1268528699874878,
0.27391788363456726,
-0.6245412230491638,
-0.9023667573928833,
-0.013230583630502224,
-0.05835678055882454,
0.19231143593788147,
0.01522811222821474,
-1.0397716760635376,
-0.2604599595069885,
0.30857354402542114,
-0.34875422716140747,
-0.6380857825279236,
-0.4079098403453827,
-0.35112184286117554,
0.1382446140050888,
0.06914505362510681,
-0.6082981824874878,
0.1498025357723236,
0.21324847638607025,
-0.36272022128105164,
0.25632527470588684,
0.0497094988822937,
-0.1533924788236618,
0.3879104554653168,
0.15328294038772583,
-0.2957212030887604,
0.23538413643836975,
-0.5572420954704285,
-0.34230542182922363,
0.4222351014614105,
-0.7887265682220459,
-0.0013356091221794486,
-0.03447868674993515,
-0.39106395840644836,
0.844463050365448,
-0.4725983142852783,
-0.5878482460975647,
0.1726037561893463,
0.2623950242996216,
-0.08467404544353485,
0.3085879981517792,
0.8502897620201111,
0.08421268314123154,
-0.10779310762882233,
-0.6718273162841797,
-0.23927424848079681,
-0.5798209309577942,
-0.013029581867158413,
0.24316257238388062,
-0.9177306890487671,
0.07207372784614563,
0.23299288749694824,
-0.14456890523433685,
0.44191327691078186,
0.18470612168312073,
0.01911642961204052,
-0.22011564671993256,
0.11375732719898224,
0.16809578239917755,
-0.10905615240335464,
-0.13511788845062256,
0.2571655511856079,
0.28099560737609863,
-0.00636236323043704,
0.015068428590893745,
0.878309428691864,
1.5760061740875244,
0.17950738966464996,
0.18421536684036255,
0.514599084854126,
0.26639556884765625,
0.08677034825086594,
-0.46697404980659485,
0.1955660730600357,
-0.0009525375789962709,
0.16500543057918549,
0.08609113842248917,
-0.1837565004825592,
0.4455179274082184,
0.4549857974052429,
-0.40229159593582153,
0.06121078133583069,
0.2521463632583618,
-0.2140955775976181,
-0.11370543390512466,
0.07900522649288177,
0.27922677993774414,
-0.11577081680297852,
-0.15425153076648712,
-0.19634342193603516,
-0.17754511535167694,
-0.11480530351400375,
0.5628281831741333,
0.5058911442756653,
-0.49244675040245056,
-0.17943507432937622,
0.3365837335586548,
0.03971976041793823,
0.616783082485199,
-0.794003427028656,
0.5098742246627808,
0.7042349576950073,
-0.45579859614372253,
0.029730094596743584,
-0.20612527430057526,
-1.0761429071426392,
0.5875688791275024,
-0.03028876706957817,
-0.9229347705841064,
-0.19021375477313995,
-0.5806660652160645,
0.23061944544315338,
-0.30383384227752686,
-0.08105281740427017,
-0.1554660201072693,
0.10411747545003891,
0.5320899486541748,
-0.11278712749481201,
0.15187779068946838,
-0.24884498119354248,
-0.5440971255302429,
-0.17015238106250763,
1.4003807306289673,
-0.131053626537323,
0.15142156183719635,
-0.3586696982383728,
0.3516796827316284,
0.32094189524650574,
-0.48395103216171265,
0.10982553660869598,
-0.681733250617981,
-0.17834191024303436,
-0.6247993111610413,
-0.39548978209495544,
0.6442113518714905,
0.3428371846675873,
-0.015798520296812057,
0.383207768201828,
0.6912922263145447,
-0.32497063279151917,
-0.1960407793521881,
0.8256024718284607,
0.08538276702165604,
-0.6260521411895752,
-0.48830097913742065,
-0.3025833070278168,
0.03135983273386955,
0.37369614839553833,
-0.7110016345977783,
0.7045845985412598,
1.1222316026687622,
0.5730994939804077,
0.0717281624674797,
-0.11730325222015381,
0.6188510656356812,
-0.13688823580741882,
-0.9313826560974121,
0.376531720161438,
0.6058670282363892,
-0.3383680284023285,
-0.4814031422138214,
0.5171346068382263,
0.21517564356327057,
0.15536312758922577,
0.3351791501045227,
-0.655759334564209,
0.05292243883013725,
-0.06837429851293564,
0.05827608332037926,
0.2506403625011444,
-0.280836284160614,
0.10393426567316055,
0.2758622169494629,
-0.05135122314095497,
-0.3798980712890625,
0.3312830626964569,
0.018335513770580292,
0.3588102161884308,
-0.07071559876203537,
0.8429169654846191,
-0.694114089012146,
-0.03070881776511669,
-0.09627900272607803,
-0.6407894492149353,
-0.20369526743888855,
-0.2749824523925781,
-0.5853612422943115,
1.5097349882125854,
0.5440586805343628,
0.2603358030319214,
-0.0018639520276337862,
0.11293412744998932,
-0.507801353931427,
0.026044078171253204,
0.39132562279701233,
0.10408837348222733,
0.3451962471008301,
-0.48106732964515686,
0.5437834858894348,
0.4063430428504944,
-0.1818379908800125,
0.65533447265625,
-0.3633488118648529,
-0.21527601778507233,
-0.2781293988227844,
-0.42879989743232727,
0.3798700273036957,
-0.01857909746468067,
-0.5293893814086914,
-0.09551817178726196,
-0.09893642365932465,
0.0017208193894475698,
0.08542895317077637,
0.4319400191307068,
-0.5293656587600708,
0.9525949358940125,
-0.6234497427940369,
-0.31107035279273987,
0.6973674297332764,
-0.5547097325325012,
-0.3009181618690491,
-0.5347447395324707,
0.8101204037666321,
0.48601871728897095,
0.2879519760608673,
0.5462259650230408,
0.5088861584663391,
0.2960575819015503,
0.22211939096450806,
-0.16942176222801208,
-0.11132092028856277,
-0.28990593552589417,
0.23895035684108734,
-1.0927897691726685,
0.1511801779270172,
0.17031241953372955,
0.03934936225414276,
-0.39357540011405945,
0.2872343957424164,
-0.2863898277282715,
-0.13746485114097595,
0.5435687899589539,
-0.04112698510289192,
-0.24727308750152588,
-0.08513236790895462,
0.05803760141134262,
0.37945693731307983,
0.3256106674671173,
0.10098511725664139,
0.23547205328941345,
0.5974971055984497,
-0.0945575088262558,
-0.13009469211101532,
-0.33533117175102234,
0.5067347884178162,
-0.030192770063877106,
0.3844366669654846,
-0.018290851265192032,
0.1442718803882599,
-0.15109297633171082,
-0.6406083106994629,
0.5655324459075928,
0.634438693523407,
0.940308690071106,
-0.7135066986083984,
0.668660581111908,
0.3825119733810425,
0.43555763363838196,
0.058417901396751404,
0.22775961458683014,
-0.20150195062160492,
0.6069406867027283,
-0.2779802978038788,
0.2920841574668884,
0.49535486102104187,
-0.48615312576293945,
-0.3208204507827759,
0.39579644799232483,
-0.4265472888946533,
-0.20438620448112488,
0.1951892375946045,
0.20414860546588898,
0.04152104631066322,
0.39629942178726196,
-0.5366544127464294
] |
229106 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velvet%20Acid%20Christ | Velvet Acid Christ | Velvet Acid Christ (VAC) is an electro-industrial band based in Denver, Colorado. The band was formed in 1990 by lead vocalist, musician, and producer Bryan Erickson (aka Disease Factory), and later featured various ex-members of Toxic Coma. The project gained limited popularity in Europe's underground nightclub scene during the mid-1990s with the compilation Church of Acid (1996) before expanding into other markets in the goth and industrial subcultures. The band's discography includes 14 albums, the latest being Ora Oblivionis (2019).
History
Early projects, early changes, and first albums (1990–1995)
In the early 1990s, Erickson and Gregory, both residents of Colorado, brought together their shared interest in creating music to record a series of demos in Erickson's mom's basement. With the addition of Gary Slaughter and Chris Workman, the group attempted several bands, including Disease Disco Factory, a parody of then-popular Dance group C+C Music Factory. Following a turbulent period for Erickson and Slaughter, Workman left the group. Slaughter and Erickson experimented with two new side-projects, Cyber Christ and Vortex. Cyber Christ explored a harsh and melancholy sound that was a sharp contrast to the group's other projects. When Erickson discovered that the term "Cyber Christ" had been used in the 1992 film The Lawnmower Man, he renamed the band Velvet Acid Christ "in honor of a bad acid trip". The Vortex project was merged into Velvet Acid Christ to form one body of work.
In 1994, Workman returned to assist with the band's self-produced Gothic-styled demo tape, Fate. Given encouraging response from friends, the band followed up with other self-produced albums, 1994's Pestilence, a dance-oriented album, and 1995's Neuralblastoma, a harder-sounding album.
Erickson, along with friends and minor contributors Steve Bird and Dan Olson, started the brief-lived record label Electro Death Trip (EDT) Records to better promote these recordings. In 1995, the three began distributing hand-made CD copies of Fate, Pestilence, and Neuralblastoma for resale in local music shops.
Label interest, touring, and a troubled rise (1996–2000)
Slaughter and Workman temporarily left the band during the first half of 1996 as Erickson continued the project alone, handing out copies of Velvet Acid Christ's recordings to industry representatives, including musician Bill Leeb of industrial pioneers Front Line Assembly. Leeb passed the CD on to Thorsten Stroht, a media promoter with European label Off-Beat Records. Off-Beat A&R negotiated a deal with the band.
For their first Off-Beat release, the group submitted 1996's Church of Acid, a compilation of selected tracks from Velvet Acid Christ's first three albums with an additional two new tracks, "Disflux" and "Futile". Church of Acid was well received in Europe, and "Futile" became a regularly played track in many nightclubs across the continent. In 1997, United States label Pendragon Records released Church of Acid in America, though the two new tracks were removed due to a lack of trademark clearance for television samples used in the songs. The album hit #15 on the CMJ RPM chart in the U.S.
The band's next album, Calling Ov the Dead, was rejected by Off-Beat for not sounding edgy enough, prompting Slaughter's permanent departure. The band addressed the label's concerns and released Calling Ov the Dead in late 1997, with American distribution following through Pendragon in 1998. In the process, Erickson had accumulated a substantial financial debt.
With a line-up consisting of Erickson, Stroht and German musician Ingo Beitz, the band toured Europe in 1998 with Off-Beat label-mate Suicide Commando, which attracted the attention of Metropolis Records, the largest industrial label in United States. The parent label of Pendragon, Metropolis distributed the album Neuralblastoma, as a partnership that would endure.
Velvet Acid Christ spent the majority of 1999 in the studio, first collaborating with Germany's Funker Vogt on a remix EP entitled Velvet Acid Christ Vs Funker Vogt: The Remix Assault, then shifting to Velvet Acid Christ's next full-length recording, Fun With Knives. With Workman an occasional contributor, Erickson sought production assistance on Fun With Knives from the bands Luxt and New 4th Army (Josh and Lisa Wilson.) Fun with Knives, released by Metropolis and new Off-Beat sub-label Dependent, became the band's best-selling album peaking at #6 on the CMJ RPM Charts and ranked #18 Album on the German Alternative Charts (DAC) for 1999. Sales were propelled by the singles "Decypher" and "Fun with Drugs", and by the track "Slut", which featured vocals from Luxt's Anna Christine. "Fun with Drugs" was the #7 single on the DAC top 50 singles chart for 1999.
In spite of the success of the band, stress had led Erickson into depression and increased drug abuse, which channeled into the creation of the band's next album, Twisted Thought Generator, which peaked at #9 on the CMJ RPM Charts. Simultaneously, the band toured Europe with industrial acts Project X and Stromkern and toured the United States and Canada with bands Din_Fiv and Haujobb. The line-up of the band during this period was unstable. Workman, citing a conversion to Christianity, resigned from the band with a request that his name be retracted from all previous albums. The first leg of the European tour consisted of Erickson, Bird and Stroht; the second leg, Erickson and Olson. The North American tour was performed by Erickson, Stroht and drummer Paul Lipman. With various contributors, Erickson completed Twisted Thought Generator. Due to lingering disputes, he withdrew the band from Dependent Records and submitted the album to Metropolis.
Change of pace, new early material, and beyond (2001–)
Erickson placed Velvet Acid Christ on a short hiatus in 2001, as he abandoned his dependence on drugs in favour of exercise and a vegan raw foodist diet. Newly clean, Erickson created the 2003 album Hex Angel: Utopia/Dystopia. Though critical response was mixed, Hex Angel: Utopia/Dystopia ranked #1 on Germany's Deutsche Alternative Charts (DAC) for four weeks after its release, and the album's single "Pretty Toy" peaked at #4 on the DAC during the same year. The album also marked the band's short-lived return to Dependent Records.
Erickson spent 2004 releasing and reissuing some of Velvet Acid Christ's earliest material. With the four-volume compilation series Between the Eyes, the band published a collection of its singles and B-sides, then followed with subsequent re-releases of Fate (Vol. 2), Pestilence (Vol. 3), and Neuralblastoma (Vol. 4). The band also offered free MP3 downloads of Dimension 8 and Oblivion Interface on its website until early 2005. Dimension 8, which had been available as a hidden bonus on Twisted Thought Generator, and Oblivion Interface (informally known as Between the Eyes, Vol. 5) provided fans with previously unheard work from the Cyber Christ-Vortex era of 1991–1994.
In 2005, Erickson collaborated with guitarist Todd Loomis on a new album, Lust for Blood, which was released on September 26, 2006. With Lust for Blood, the crew labored intensively to create a new overall sound while maintaining the band's original characteristics. Following its release, Lust for Blood peaked at #1 on Germany's DAC and ranked #5 on the DAC Top 50 Albums of 2006; the album's single release, "Wound", ranked on the DAC's singles chart for eight weeks, peaking at #1 and ranking #5 on the year's singles chart.
In October 2009, Velvet Acid Christ, Erickson wrote most of the LP, Loomis did a little work on it and was busy working on his project "The Twilight Garden", released The Art of Breaking Apart. This LP was a tribute to bands like Current 93 and Death in June and brought VAC many new fans while distancing some of his previous fans. It was the first album to feature an acoustic guitar and untreated vocals redefining what Velvet Acid Christ could sound like. 2010 saw the release of the Caustic Disco EP featuring remixes of the original song.
In 2010–2011, Bryan Erickson teamed up with William Anderson of Louisiana. William did a ton of sampling, Bryan made a bunch of VAC B-sides and turned them into Toxic Coma tracks. The project is very old with a revolving door of members, again Bryan being the main constant. This LP fuses the techno sound of Fun With Knives and the brutal black humor of Toxic Coma. This VAC side project is known as Toxic Coma Satan Rising, on Metropolis Records. Erickson then began to write more music for future VAC LPs.
In October 2012, Velvet Acid Christ released their latest LP entitled Maldire. Moving back to Renoise for the album which was also used on Toxic Coma. Due to a lack of funding for the album it features the "most software vsts to date". The release marked a return to the darker electronic sound with aggressive vocals that VAC is renowned for. Erickson formed a live band and toured extensively (2012–2014) to support the album.
On October 28, 2014, the Subconscious Landscapes LP was released, containing all the B-sides from Maldire. It features "densely layered, complex, and atmospheric tracks calling on influences in the ranges of Juno Reactor, Massive Attack, and Delerium". As a natural progression from the hypnotic grooves of past songs, the first half of the album highlights guest vocals from Sabine Theroni and Margolzata Wacht, while the second half takes a darker turn. Dire Land released in June 2015 was a remix LP meant to serve as a singles companion for Maldire and Subconscious Landscapes, with remixes from God Module, Decoded Feedback, Assemblage 23, Dead Hand Project and others. A Greatest Hits album featuring newly remastered songs built to feature "more bass and tame the high [frequencies]" was released in 2016. A webstore was launched in 2017 on the site.
Musical style
The majority of the band's work is categorized among the genres of industrial, gothic rock, electro-industrial, and EBM. The band's tone ranges between angry, upbeat, sad, and psychedelic. The band's lyrical content offers a varied focus, including such topics as IRC, love, hate, depression, misanthropy, drugs, and religion. Erickson is the group's main songwriter.
Much of Velvet Acid Christ's musical composition has been produced with synthesizers and computer software. Other instruments used by the band include sequencers such as drum machines and electric guitars with effects pedals. Sampling is another technique commonly employed by the band.
Influences
The band cites many musical influences, including among many others Aphex Twin, Rush, Skinny Puppy, Cocteau Twins, The Cure, Siouxsie and the Banshees, and Astral Projection.
Personnel
Current members
Bryan Erickson (1990 – present) – lead vocals, guitar, mixing, production,
Discography
Albums
Fate – (CS album, limited edition [150 copies]) 1994 – no label (CD album, limited edition [50 copies]) 1994 – no label
Pestilence – (CS, limited edition [100 copies]) 1994 – no label (CD, limited edition [50 copies]) 1994 – no label
Neuralblastoma – (CDr album, limited edition) 1995 – Electric Death Trip Records
Calling ov the Dead – (CD album) 1998 – Pendragon Records (US), Off Beat (EU)
Fun with Knives – (CD album) 1999 – Metropolis (US), Dependent Records (EU)
Twisted Thought Generator – (CD album, enhanced) 2000 – Metropolis
Hex Angel: (Utopia – Dystopia) – (CD album) 2003 – Dependent Records (EU), Metropolis (US)
Lust for Blood – (CD album) 2006 – Metropolis
The Art of Breaking Apart – (CD album) 2009 – Metropolis
Maldire – (CD album) 2012 – Metropolis (US), Dependent Records (EU)
Subconscious Landscapes – (CD album) 2014 – Metropolis
Dire Land – (The Remix Album) 2015 – Metropolis
Ora Oblivionis – (CD album) 2019
Compilations
Church of Acid – (CD) 1996 – Off Beat (EU) (CD) 1997 – Pendragon Records (US) (compilation of tracks later released as 'Between The Eyes' volumes 2–4)
Neuralblastoma – (CD album, limited edition [2500 copies]) 1998 – Metropolis (US) / Off Beat (EU) (second compilation of tracks later released as 'Between The Eyes' volumes 2–4)
Between the Eyes Vol. 1 – (CD) 2004 – Metropolis (singles compilation)
Between the Eyes Vol. 2 – (CD) 2004 – Metropolis (re-release of early album "Fate" (orig. rel. 1994))
Between the Eyes Vol. 3 – (CD) 2004 – Metropolis (re-release of early album "Pestilence" (orig. rel. 1994))
Between the Eyes Vol. 4 – (CD) 2004 – Metropolis (re-release of early album "Neuralblastoma" (orig. rel. 1995))
Greatest Hits – (CD album) 2016 – Metropolis
EPs
– (CD Maxi) 1999 – Metropolis
Fun With Drugs – (CD Maxi) 1999 – Dependent Records (Strictly same content as on "Decypher")
Razordisc – (CD Maxi, limited edition) 1999 – Dependent Records, only available as part of the limited edition Fun With Knives (retitled Fun With Razors) boxset
The Remix Wars: Strike 4 – Velvet Acid Christ vs. Funker Vogt – (CD) 1999 – Metropolis (US), Off Beat (EU) • (CD) 2002 – Synthetic Symphony
Dial8 – (CD Maxi, Enhanced) 2001 – Metropolis (Includes 'Decipher' fanmade video by Cardinal91)
Pretty Toy – (CD Maxi) 2003 – Dependent Records (EU), Metropolis (US)
Wound – (CD Maxi) 2006 – Metropolis
Caustic Disco – (CD Maxi) 2009 – Dependent Records (EU), 2010 – Metropolis (US)
Wrack – (CD Maxi) 2017 – Metropolis (US)
Digital
Dimension 8 – (MP3 Files) 2000, no label (on "Twisted Thought Generator" CD as a data track, also released online for free, temporarily. made prior to 1993)
Oblivion Interface – (MP3 Files) 2004, no label (released online for free, temporarily. made between 1992 and 1994)
References
External links
Sample information
American electro-industrial music groups
Musical groups established in 1990
Electronic music groups from Colorado
Metropolis Records artists
Dependent Records artists
Off Beat label artists | [
0.7951927185058594,
0.8628779649734497,
-0.20970594882965088,
-0.07070056349039078,
-0.3077380359172821,
0.5277016162872314,
0.4781566560268402,
0.034567832946777344,
-0.20716612040996552,
-0.005933729931712151,
-0.15297237038612366,
0.1617305874824524,
-0.1481478065252304,
0.4954189360141754,
-0.10398157685995102,
0.3533669710159302,
0.06514269858598709,
0.4289354979991913,
-0.007469716481864452,
-0.2903619706630707,
0.16338692605495453,
-0.1173008382320404,
0.30142322182655334,
0.19749093055725098,
-0.3674863874912262,
0.3116282820701599,
-0.05821356177330017,
0.05706464871764183,
0.022826306521892548,
-0.1393418312072754,
0.1951889842748642,
0.8217125535011292,
0.49785059690475464,
-0.7994098663330078,
0.5071569085121155,
-0.14229600131511688,
0.13712243735790253,
0.0887344628572464,
-0.13790209591388702,
-0.6822982430458069,
0.19002966582775116,
-0.3408215045928955,
0.6964773535728455,
0.18552081286907196,
0.006065180525183678,
-0.2515275180339813,
-0.8484916090965271,
0.43484196066856384,
-1.0600857734680176,
0.09310807287693024,
-0.2087072879076004,
-0.06309682875871658,
0.09103628247976303,
0.35157203674316406,
0.19521133601665497,
0.2410128116607666,
-0.7818444967269897,
-0.015042140148580074,
0.1479044407606125,
-0.30256423354148865,
0.24962294101715088,
0.37805479764938354,
0.08301067352294922,
-0.642058253288269,
-0.2098224014043808,
0.38594260811805725,
0.12726446986198425,
0.427867591381073,
-0.019643301144242287,
-0.9415928721427917,
-0.185648575425148,
-0.02406879886984825,
-0.08344762772321701,
-0.08085130155086517,
-0.2703861892223358,
-0.7150313854217529,
0.25684618949890137,
-0.0029498941730707884,
0.4782722592353821,
1.0054179430007935,
0.3136657476425171,
0.8381279110908508,
1.2299375534057617,
0.8164882063865662,
0.232150599360466,
0.40114185214042664,
-0.00523934792727232,
-0.17224904894828796,
-0.05414145067334175,
0.14543749392032623,
-0.5310723781585693,
-0.597172737121582,
0.6229283809661865,
0.49237582087516785,
-0.36032164096832275,
-0.3758588135242462,
0.3483990728855133,
0.1533767133951187,
0.18697862327098846,
0.1172969862818718,
-0.6765108704566956,
0.343875527381897,
-0.5174136161804199,
-0.15363281965255737,
-0.2413080632686615,
0.332227885723114,
-0.5755517482757568,
-0.14143124222755432,
0.3313068449497223,
-0.08149426430463791,
-0.10368936508893967,
0.36791324615478516,
-0.04550665616989136,
-0.38260266184806824,
0.2231331467628479,
0.24594779312610626,
-0.09319344907999039,
-0.6064935326576233,
-0.11021177470684052,
0.0720406100153923,
0.3766523003578186,
0.7896254062652588,
0.06296432018280029,
0.7297953367233276,
-0.4297357499599457,
0.37269532680511475,
0.5300032496452332,
0.4371461868286133,
-0.23004189133644104,
0.5474538207054138,
0.09416674077510834,
0.9530657529830933,
0.3212776184082031,
0.31682559847831726,
0.11693618446588516,
0.09809805452823639,
0.5841197967529297,
-0.07924158126115799,
0.28833916783332825,
0.45662835240364075,
-0.7102392315864563,
-0.6755625605583191,
-0.2989436089992523,
-0.4006039798259735,
-0.03486732766032219,
-0.07171539962291718,
0.12599807977676392,
0.035284530371427536,
-0.33204302191734314,
-0.2123853713274002,
0.3347562849521637,
0.11213500052690506,
-0.45224183797836304,
-0.24341517686843872,
-0.15203014016151428,
-0.15770569443702698,
0.8066772222518921,
-0.5218912959098816,
0.3241165280342102,
0.17576773464679718,
-0.17360661923885345,
0.677899181842804,
-0.2661409378051758,
0.27050328254699707,
0.0094264792278409,
-0.2721095085144043,
-0.02682732231914997,
-0.10520333796739578,
-0.050820935517549515,
0.5394001603126526,
-0.8881416916847229,
0.4553113579750061,
-0.13422620296478271,
0.1957043558359146,
0.44497230648994446,
0.5011113286018372,
1.218416452407837,
0.4851870834827423,
0.0017856594640761614,
0.3590118885040283,
-0.34781214594841003,
0.6082382202148438,
-0.09765397012233734,
0.01108474750071764,
-0.20741499960422516,
0.015065272338688374,
0.3050293028354645,
-0.4449564516544342,
0.2736741900444031,
0.033750396221876144,
-0.8944470286369324,
0.1369493454694748,
0.4562068283557892,
0.16339214146137238,
1.4474380016326904,
-0.32788923382759094,
-0.899594783782959,
0.23648369312286377,
0.32279840111732483,
0.7128678560256958,
-0.36365365982055664,
0.01347423903644085,
0.6435621976852417,
-0.6042541265487671,
-0.5477620363235474,
0.12905995547771454,
0.28165334463119507,
-0.33894869685173035,
0.11558759212493896,
0.36002400517463684,
0.19721530377864838,
-0.1479225605726242,
0.28489068150520325,
0.14673474431037903,
-0.17094740271568298,
-0.019806331023573875,
-0.5641613602638245,
0.24049077928066254,
0.49594080448150635,
-0.2751258909702301,
0.7620949745178223,
-0.4990087151527405,
0.15842285752296448,
0.4439067542552948,
-0.16339363157749176,
0.4268750250339508,
-0.31571677327156067,
-0.001011202111840248,
0.5652276277542114,
-0.03115345537662506,
0.2667372226715088,
0.9625070095062256,
-0.6125861406326294,
-0.8528974056243896,
0.01158924587070942,
-0.0008637115824967623,
0.3262895345687866,
-0.5402147173881531,
0.3816428780555725,
-0.18442684412002563,
0.43512025475502014,
-0.06828894466161728,
-0.35236701369285583,
0.12651300430297852,
-0.18052132427692413,
-0.22878827154636383,
0.11284508556127548,
0.05678953602910042,
-0.16758322715759277,
0.3842924237251282,
-0.21243715286254883,
0.45951008796691895,
-0.28864359855651855,
0.2731390595436096,
-0.19236962497234344,
0.21015843749046326,
0.17624537646770477,
-0.416829377412796,
-0.052970193326473236,
-0.3090062141418457,
-0.033985525369644165,
0.011587724089622498,
0.40490370988845825,
0.07998736202716827,
0.7211028933525085,
-0.19715933501720428,
0.13786347210407257,
0.12124094367027283,
0.7126398682594299,
0.19008056819438934,
0.3469342589378357,
0.17607349157333374,
-0.3783586025238037,
0.5208414793014526,
-0.4413279592990875,
-0.4737834334373474,
-0.7868170142173767,
-0.10003013908863068,
-0.5944254398345947,
-1.139330506324768,
-0.0025305780582129955,
0.3897188603878021,
0.38943397998809814,
-0.25410196185112,
0.07395445555448532,
0.29184702038764954,
0.6908165812492371,
-0.41747280955314636,
-0.30972903966903687,
-0.49608907103538513,
-0.41369032859802246,
-0.1422528326511383,
-0.18789200484752655,
0.14222107827663422,
0.0505971759557724,
-0.061308376491069794,
0.43758684396743774,
0.0518902912735939,
0.2895602881908417,
0.1559535562992096,
-0.09926984459161758,
0.19987162947654724,
-0.20161917805671692,
0.008275747299194336,
0.29876071214675903,
-0.6252869367599487,
-0.16747641563415527,
-0.10273703932762146,
-5.646450996398926,
0.37110674381256104,
-0.1816944181919098,
-0.10875025391578674,
0.2829248309135437,
0.26105839014053345,
0.4154329299926758,
-0.7107625603675842,
-0.7620074152946472,
-0.38744109869003296,
-0.43773385882377625,
0.5591018199920654,
-0.21059204638004303,
0.48003047704696655,
0.15628932416439056,
0.34189286828041077,
0.04926875978708267,
-0.20535960793495178,
0.3963817358016968,
-0.1002449095249176,
-0.31294453144073486,
-0.15915001928806305,
-0.43165257573127747,
0.13312380015850067,
0.18946364521980286,
0.5685306787490845,
-0.5655454397201538,
0.7538154721260071,
-0.17825379967689514,
-0.06231703981757164,
-0.26158878207206726,
-0.2702603042125702,
-0.3642997145652771,
-0.537747323513031,
0.1277380734682083,
0.15476900339126587,
0.3094961643218994,
0.10209916532039642,
0.09208308905363083,
-0.1637440323829651,
0.06331618875265121,
-0.006128096487373114,
-0.01143705751746893,
-0.5143047571182251,
0.3432955741882324,
0.09667310863733292,
-0.872701108455658,
-0.04722023010253906,
-0.41243019700050354,
0.7998709678649902,
-0.035785697400569916,
-0.7329838275909424,
0.10598750412464142,
0.3764139711856842,
0.03895995393395424,
0.07434488087892532,
0.01930486410856247,
0.24397219717502594,
0.4401012361049652,
0.45923835039138794,
0.5959498882293701,
-0.8871169090270996,
-0.14973555505275726,
-0.25531211495399475,
-0.22536326944828033,
-0.14217552542686462,
0.1662839651107788,
0.08640186488628387,
0.46412548422813416,
0.011310672387480736,
0.31424224376678467,
0.03161997348070145,
-0.5319978594779968,
-1.2404848337173462,
-0.18583887815475464,
-0.9139383435249329,
0.09675083309412003,
-0.3887065351009369,
-0.4523763358592987,
0.8418639302253723,
-0.02169695682823658,
-0.06485824286937714,
-0.0004404569626785815,
-0.0009629264241084456,
-0.7518783211708069,
-0.04478316381573677,
-0.08503136783838272,
-0.06620731949806213,
-0.5763862729072571,
0.0730041041970253,
0.022389056161046028,
-0.7534022927284241,
-0.21537910401821136,
0.018849972635507584,
0.01958223432302475,
-0.03671273961663246,
0.7565025091171265,
0.0009234069148078561,
-0.09673949331045151,
0.028993282467126846,
0.1918269693851471,
-0.3677712082862854,
-0.20066548883914948,
-0.48242878913879395,
-0.4121290445327759,
-0.32787397503852844,
-0.039983853697776794,
0.03430495783686638,
0.7724426984786987,
-0.07949245721101761,
0.07422401756048203,
0.143356591463089,
-0.019434964284300804,
-0.8010938167572021,
0.4936292767524719,
0.3636816143989563,
-0.42092591524124146,
0.01794225163757801,
0.13249163329601288,
-0.1044577807188034,
0.36348289251327515,
0.15075965225696564,
0.23996488749980927,
-0.11685263365507126,
-0.16167517006397247,
0.1608695685863495,
0.2372869849205017,
0.2210438996553421,
-0.23408688604831696,
0.39063218235969543,
-0.27589619159698486,
-0.1536118984222412,
-0.4693358242511749,
0.29762840270996094,
-0.195094034075737,
-0.11622907221317291,
-0.29276707768440247,
-0.2595672011375427,
0.4035557806491852,
0.30386465787887573,
0.3278536796569824,
-0.16773219406604767,
-0.4901672899723053,
0.5259609222412109,
0.31349873542785645,
0.8948202133178711,
0.0023496635258197784,
-0.08411648124456406,
-0.19898104667663574,
0.527764081954956,
0.3155381679534912,
-0.14861325919628143,
0.6336499452590942,
-0.28295958042144775,
0.16153573989868164,
0.14796799421310425,
0.23152773082256317,
0.25715917348861694,
-0.22988201677799225,
-0.3475436866283417,
0.22970125079154968,
-0.11266541481018066,
-0.7990934252738953,
-0.5507599115371704,
0.09421831369400024,
-0.6307350993156433,
-0.09833718091249466,
-0.9968732595443726,
-0.5763013362884521,
-0.06874153763055801,
-0.06418141722679138,
-0.06720700114965439,
0.36307838559150696,
-0.07534918189048767,
0.21199294924736023,
0.43001264333724976,
-0.2314130812883377,
-0.30578890442848206,
-0.0006201090873219073,
-0.41786763072013855,
0.07718715071678162,
0.06169014051556587,
-0.07254736125469208,
-0.3709704279899597,
0.5252384543418884,
-0.39097362756729126,
-0.5628031492233276,
-0.4059315323829651,
0.06455574929714203,
0.1691848784685135,
-0.6089056730270386,
-0.026994364336133003,
0.47176191210746765,
-0.1425197720527649,
-0.16390211880207062,
-0.9202181696891785,
0.06186806038022041,
0.10162148624658585,
-0.16728435456752777,
-0.7506682276725769,
0.03963496536016464,
0.34254708886146545,
-0.20327523350715637,
0.2927875220775604,
0.3356046974658966,
-0.40762364864349365,
0.5064756870269775,
-0.3852454125881195,
-0.7457700967788696,
0.4554782211780548,
-0.21824318170547485,
-0.5503425002098083,
-0.00550881726667285,
0.3648320734500885,
-0.8351203203201294,
0.058103155344724655,
-0.02689000405371189,
-0.2752601206302643,
-1.0399887561798096,
-0.246657595038414,
-0.3681970536708832,
0.12978574633598328,
-0.2375582456588745,
0.24234692752361298,
-0.7705681920051575,
0.13107018172740936,
0.5383099317550659,
-0.4329761862754822,
0.33595409989356995,
-0.017094936221837997,
-0.22803229093551636,
0.5382820963859558,
0.18383461236953735,
-0.35954004526138306,
-0.2569901943206787,
0.39322754740715027,
-0.11920861154794693,
0.250896155834198,
-0.26254627108573914,
-0.27196216583251953,
0.04965263977646828,
0.44967854022979736,
0.025877222418785095,
-0.7651014924049377,
0.11504780501127243,
0.26650282740592957,
-0.16295777261257172,
-0.05476897582411766,
-0.8325212001800537,
-0.006552326027303934,
0.2304295152425766,
-0.3052111268043518,
0.06913372129201889,
-0.8038524389266968,
0.9040132761001587,
-0.5736333727836609,
0.05795462056994438,
-0.40898022055625916,
0.13754737377166748,
-0.29517629742622375,
-0.23699773848056793,
-0.8668990135192871,
-0.44669967889785767,
0.31385374069213867,
-0.6092693209648132,
0.0661073550581932,
0.19485655426979065,
-0.49915406107902527,
-0.4090832769870758,
-0.5622512102127075,
-0.025853803381323814,
0.16781602799892426,
0.719095766544342,
0.4544099271297455,
-0.03589707985520363,
-0.3837609887123108,
-0.3427780568599701,
-1.0643093585968018,
0.06320588290691376,
-0.13984474539756775,
-0.10784192383289337,
0.5292109847068787,
0.2732614576816559,
-0.187063068151474,
0.3435211479663849,
-0.8347980380058289,
0.1518716812133789,
-0.4468306303024292,
-0.4093261659145355,
-0.3080459237098694,
-0.00017418709467165172,
0.03303932771086693,
0.4726325273513794,
0.3787268400192261,
0.07816577702760696,
0.29126712679862976,
-0.022522805258631706,
0.0857890397310257,
0.5729501843452454,
-0.5069541931152344,
-0.37121137976646423,
1.075815200805664,
0.49560418725013733,
-0.26301518082618713,
0.17224174737930298,
-0.2855360209941864,
-0.3184106647968292,
-0.020941756665706635,
-0.10718918591737747,
0.48703688383102417,
0.24337439239025116,
-0.13816247880458832,
-0.38028568029403687,
0.588841438293457,
-0.21105366945266724,
0.4006372392177582,
0.8217940330505371,
-0.3317842483520508,
0.5046241879463196,
0.1584179848432541,
0.007461258210241795,
0.22129322588443756,
0.8349174857139587,
0.25320467352867126,
0.3815753757953644,
0.37659981846809387,
-0.8618035316467285,
0.31413570046424866,
0.4396626055240631,
0.15099792182445526,
0.23255571722984314,
-0.03253014758229256,
-0.23193193972110748,
-0.09221214801073074,
-0.19590511918067932,
-0.03641056269407272,
-0.3934018313884735,
0.10887052863836288,
-0.49857011437416077,
0.8204473257064819,
-0.2922596335411072,
0.48323556780815125,
-0.09233948588371277,
0.3008153736591339,
-0.13703404366970062,
0.23911228775978088,
-0.4040580689907074,
-0.038190651684999466,
-0.048845987766981125,
0.49002528190612793,
-0.10467146337032318,
-0.4243166148662567,
0.04106290638446808,
0.03944529965519905,
0.16767723858356476,
0.17845770716667175,
0.45473942160606384,
0.08165799081325531,
-0.10885774344205856,
0.11238668859004974,
-0.0940619707107544,
-0.6379052996635437,
0.11583688110113144,
0.3983128070831299,
-0.4259137213230133,
0.13371515274047852,
-0.06588374078273773,
-1.3313292264938354,
-0.078004851937294,
-0.40273427963256836,
0.4069720208644867,
0.47079557180404663,
-0.07724815607070923,
0.5545064806938171,
0.01688106171786785,
0.12487130612134933,
0.6320153474807739,
0.5012603402137756,
-0.47183138132095337,
0.4319499731063843,
-0.8035600185394287,
0.009306435473263264,
0.12322361767292023,
0.0745619609951973,
0.9402168393135071,
0.17831160128116608,
-0.05216088891029358,
0.3451039493083954,
-0.12365777045488358,
-0.5073717832565308,
-0.10341716557741165,
-0.6494816541671753,
0.20228132605552673,
-0.23447096347808838,
-0.2323307991027832,
0.1050402894616127,
0.32030028104782104,
0.47683238983154297,
0.10126059502363205,
0.5003631711006165,
-0.2569749057292938,
0.35061290860176086,
0.2738443613052368,
-0.03285614401102066,
-0.5822728276252747,
0.017800981178879738,
-1.3346883058547974,
-0.31485068798065186,
-0.826673686504364,
0.5032446384429932,
-0.04490639269351959,
-0.12484228610992432,
0.14676357805728912,
0.3999514579772949,
-0.012749734334647655,
0.022818556055426598,
0.5912692546844482,
-0.30146440863609314,
-0.03593358024954796,
0.08199368417263031,
-0.6164298057556152,
0.21228040754795074,
0.02278459258377552,
1.0861499309539795,
0.038385067135095596,
0.012727865017950535,
0.7006118297576904,
-0.10847759246826172,
-0.47810110449790955,
0.3351631462574005,
-0.31677690148353577,
-0.238192617893219,
-0.834637463092804,
0.3471963405609131,
-0.08747037500143051,
-0.4147907495498657,
-0.17444996535778046,
0.42758414149284363,
0.34431999921798706,
-0.400819331407547,
0.5528711676597595,
-0.37660616636276245,
-0.5103734135627747,
-0.33630338311195374,
-0.09131916612386703,
0.3247198462486267,
-0.538326621055603,
-0.6972000002861023,
-0.7561836838722229,
0.6498203873634338,
0.37950435280799866,
-0.6805230975151062,
0.25131210684776306,
-0.6842476725578308,
0.5785737037658691,
0.29966863989830017,
0.27186456322669983,
-0.12875142693519592,
0.22657360136508942,
-0.22621506452560425
] |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.