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237121	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim%20Pawlenty	Tim Pawlenty	Timothy James Pawlenty (; born November 27, 1960) is an American attorney, businessman, and politician who served as the 39th governor of Minnesota from 2003 to 2011. A member of the Republican Party, Pawlenty served in the Minnesota House of Representatives from 1993 to 2003, and as House Majority Leader from 1999 to 2003. In 2011, he ran for the Republican presidential nomination and was subsequently a leading contender to be Mitt Romney's running mate before serving as co-chair of Romney's campaign. Pawlenty was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and raised in nearby South St. Paul. He graduated from the University of Minnesota with a B.A. in political science and a J.D. His early career included stints as a labor law attorney and the vice president of a software as a service company. After settling in Eagan with his wife, Pawlenty was appointed to the city's Planning Commission and was elected to the Eagan City Council at the age of 28. In 1992 he was elected to represent District 38B, in suburban Dakota County. He was reelected four times and was voted majority leader by House Republicans in 1998. After narrowly winning the Republican gubernatorial primary in 2002, Pawlenty won the three-way general election. He was reelected in 2006 by a margin of less than one percent. His campaign platform focused on balancing the budget without raising taxes. During Pawlenty's governorship, he did not raise income taxes, but did increase some taxes and user fees. His administration advocated for numerous public works projects, including work on the Northstar Commuter Rail Line and the construction of Target Field (a Major League Baseball stadium in Minneapolis). He signed a bill mandating 20% ethanol in gasoline by 2013. He cut health care costs in an attempt to balance the budget and borrowed funds from the state's K-12 education and low income programs. He signed an executive order rejecting federal funds related to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. He also led worldwide trips for business leaders and trade delegations to explore trade opportunities. In the 2007–08 term, Pawlenty served as chairman of the National Governors Association. Pawlenty was rumored to be a contender for both the Republican presidential and vice presidential nominations in the 2008 election, and he ran for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination from May to August 2011. After withdrawing from that race, he became a finalist to join Mitt Romney on the 2012 ticket as a vice presidential candidate. Pawlenty was not selected, but he served as co-chair of Romney's campaign. In September 2012, he left the campaign to become a Washington lobbyist for financial institutions. Pawlenty sought a third term as governor of Minnesota in the 2018 election, but lost the Republican primary to Jeff Johnson. As of 2021, Pawlenty is the most recent Republican to win statewide office in Minnesota, in his 2006 reelection as governor. Early life, education, and early career Pawlenty was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, to Eugene Joseph Pawlenty, and his wife, Virginia Frances (née Oldenburg). His father, who drove a milk delivery truck, was of Polish descent, while his mother was of German ancestry. She died of cancer when he was 16. Pawlenty grew up in South St. Paul, where he played ice hockey on his high school's junior varsity squad. Intending to become a dentist, Pawlenty enrolled in the University of Minnesota, the only one in his family to go beyond high school. But he changed his plans and spent the summers of 1980 and 1982 working as an intern at the office of U.S. Senator David Durenberger. In 1983, he graduated with a B.A. in political science. He received a Juris Doctor from the University of Minnesota Law School in 1986. There, he met his wife, Mary Anderson, whom he married in 1987. Pawlenty first worked as a labor law attorney at the firm Rider Bennett (formerly Rider, Bennett, Egan & Arundel), where he had interned while a law student. He later became vice president of a software as a service company, Wizmo Inc. Having moved to Eagan, Minnesota, a suburb of Minneapolis–Saint Paul, Pawlenty was appointed to the city's Planning Commission by Mayor Vic Ellison. One year later, at age 28, he was elected to the City Council. Pawlenty entered state politics in 1990 as a campaign advisor for Jon Grunseth's campaign for governor. After Pawlenty himself became governor, he appointed Grunseth's ex-wife, Vicky Tigwell, to the board of the Minneapolis−Saint Paul International Airport, which became an ethics and accountability issue in 2003. Minnesota House of Representatives Pawlenty was elected to the Minnesota House of Representatives in 1992, winning 49.1% of the vote in District 38B (suburban Dakota County). In the House, he authored bills instituting term limits for committee chairmen, funding for infant parenting classes, minimum sentences for repeat domestic violence offenders, and community notification for sex offenders. In response to a state budget surplus, he advocated reducing taxes rather than increasing education funding. He was reelected four times and was chosen House Majority Leader when Republicans gained the majority in the State Legislature in 1998. Governorship 2002 election In 2002, Pawlenty wanted to run for governor, but party leaders made it clear they favored businessman Brian Sullivan. Pawlenty then decided on the U.S. Senate, but abandoned those plans when Vice President Dick Cheney asked him to step aside and allow former St. Paul mayor Norm Coleman to challenge Senator Paul Wellstone without Republican primary opposition. Pawlenty returned to his original ambition and won a hard-fought and narrow race against Sullivan in the Republican primary. In the general election, Pawlenty faced two strong opponents. His main rival was veteran Democratic–Farmer–Labor (DFL) state senator Roger Moe. Former Democratic Congressman Tim Penny ran on the Independence Party ticket (Governor Jesse Ventura, a member of the Independence Party, chose not to seek reelection). Until mid-October 2002, all three were essentially tied in the polls. Pawlenty's major campaign stances included a pledge not to raise taxes to balance the state's budget deficit (while allowing increases in license and user fees); that visa expiration dates be required to be printed on driver's licenses; that women seeking an abortion be required to wait 24 hours; enactment of a concealed carry gun law; and reform of the state's education requirements. He won the election with 43.8% of the vote. His largest gains after the tied polling were reportedly among voters in the suburbs of Minneapolis–St. Paul. 2006 reelection Pawlenty ran for reelection in 2006. Conservatives criticized him on funding issues, in particular two pieces of legislation for stadiums for the Gophers and Minnesota Twins, and bond issues for public transit, including the Northstar commuter rail line. The race included Minnesota Attorney General Mike Hatch, of the DFL; Peter Hutchinson of the Independence Party; and Ken Pentel of the Green Party. Pawlenty won, defeating Hatch by less than one percent, though both the state House and Senate gained DFL majorities. State budget Pawlenty was elected in 2002 on a platform of balancing the state's budget without raising taxes. He emphasized his campaign and first term with the Taxpayers League of Minnesota slogan "no new taxes." His governorship was characterized by a historically low rate of spending growth. According to the Minnesota Management and Budget Department, general-fund expenditures from 2004 to 2011 increased an average of 3.5% per two-year term, compared to an average of 21.1% from 1960 to 2003 (these numbers are not inflation-adjusted). University of Minnesota political science professor Larry Jacobs said that slowing state spending and opposing tax increases were Pawlenty's signature issues. In his first year as governor, Pawlenty inherited a projected two-year budget deficit of $4.3 billion, the largest in Minnesota's history. After a contentious budget session with a Democrat-controlled Senate, he signed a package of fee increases, spending reductions, and government reorganization that eliminated the deficit. It reduced the rate of funding increases for state services, including transportation, social services, and welfare, and enacted a perennial proposal to restructure city aid based on immediate need rather than historical factors. Pawlenty agreed to several compromises, abandoning a public employee wage freeze and property tax restrictions. During his second term, Pawlenty erased a $2.7-billion deficit by cutting spending, shifting payments, and using one-time federal stimulus money. His final budget (2010–11) was the state's first two-year period since 1960 in which net government expenditures decreased. Pawlenty has claimed this as "the first time in 150 years" that spending was cut, but fact-checkers disputed this claim as no public budget records before 1960 are known to exist. Some criticized Pawlenty for providing a short-term budget solution but coming up short in his long-term strategy as governor. The state department of Management and Budget reported that the two-year budget starting in July 2011 was projected to come up $4.4 billion short. Former Minnesota Governor Arne Carlson, a Republican, criticized Pawlenty's budget strategy: he borrowed more than $1 billion from the tobacco settlement (money set aside for health care), more than $1.4 billion from K-12 education funding, and more than $400 million from the Health Care Access Fund for low-income families, among other short-term shifts in accounting. The result was a $5-billion deficit, the seventh largest in the United States. Minnesota property taxes rose $2.5 billion, more than the previous 16 years combined, and Moody's lowered the state's bond rating. Carlson told Time, "I don't think any governor has left behind a worse financial mess than [Pawlenty] has." Pawlenty responded, "My friend governor Arne Carlson is, of course, now an Obama and John Kerry supporter." Minnesota Supreme Court case While Pawlenty said he was "confident" in his right to use unallotment, the Minnesota Supreme Court ruled against him, 4 to 3, in a May 2010 decision. His budget had been the subject of a lawsuit in Ramsey County District Court, which was decided against him. Judge Kathleen Gearin ruled that Pawlenty had exceeded his constitutional authority in making unilateral spending cuts to a $5.3-million special dietary program that he had unalloted. Attorney David Lillehaug said initially, "This is, I don't think it's understating this to say, this is one of the most important court cases in Minnesota legal history." Pawlenty announced the following day that he would appeal; he filed his brief in February, and arguments were heard on March 15. In May, the Supreme Court affirmed Gearin's ruling, writing, "Because the legislative and executive branches never enacted a balanced budget for the 2010–2011 biennium, use of the unallotment power to address the unresolved deficit exceeded the authority granted to the executive branch by the statute". Pawlenty responded: I will fight to reduce spending and taxes in Minnesota and that battle continues. My commitment to the people of Minnesota remains the same: we will balance the budget without raising taxes. After the ruling, as the 2010 legislative session drew to a close, Pawlenty vetoed a budget that would have fixed a $2.9-billion deficit by adding a new tax bracket for six-figure incomes. In response to the proposal, he criticized Democrats for attempting to raise taxes during an extremely difficult economic situation. Eventually, due in part to the efforts of House Speaker Margaret Kelliher, who was running for the 2010 Democratic nomination for governor of Minnesota, the legislature passed legislation approving nearly all the original unallotments. Funding projects Since the Minnesota Constitution prohibits state-run gambling outside of Native territory, Pawlenty proposed negotiating with Minnesota's 11 tribes over profit-sharing of their casinos. Legislators also pushed a proposal to turn Canterbury Park horse track into a racino. The plan was poorly received by Northern Tribes who would operate part of the racino, citing reluctance to compete with other tribes. Tribes with casinos opposed the expanded gambling and some legislators objected on moral grounds that the state shouldn't exploit problem gamblers. Politicians in heavy tribal areas feared losing campaign-finance sources if they supported the plan. Delays by the Legislature ended with the bill being pulled from committee. Tribes spent millions lobbying legislatures in 2004. Pawlenty worked throughout 2006 to fund a Minnesota Twins baseball stadium in Minneapolis. The resulting Minnesota Twins-Hennepin County ballpark bill called for an increased county sales tax, which passed the state legislature and was symbolically signed in at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome. The majority of Hennepin County commissioners did not feel a referendum was necessary to approve the sales tax because of the delay it would cause. Pawlenty and the legislature agreed, citing 10 years of debate, and exempted the county from state law requiring one in the bill. In June 2006, Pawlenty signed a $999.9-million public works bill that included funding for additional work on the Northstar Commuter rail line (a change in position from reservations about the idea he initially expressed), an expanded Faribault prison, a bioscience building at the University of Minnesota, and science facilities at Minnesota State University in Mankato. The bill also funded a $26-million expansion of the University of Minnesota's Carlson School of Management. In 2011, Pawlenty shut down an Islamic finance program that was part of a larger program to increase home ownership in Minnesota. His spokesperson said the program accommodated the Muslim ban on interest. Adam Sorensen from TIME questioned whether this was a case of double standards, pointing out New York's kosher food regulations, Blue Laws that prohibit alcohol sales on Sundays, and Pawlenty's own creation of "The Governor's Council On Faith-Based And Community Initiatives". Education In the budget process, Pawlenty made an effort to preserve education funding while cutting other government spending. In 2009, he bolstered education funding with federal stimulus grants. Despite this, education funding fell from $9,700 to $8,400 per student (adjusted for inflation) during his tenure. Pawlenty was an advocate of charter schools and was praised by the National Alliance for Public Charter Schools for his education policies. In 2010, the organization rated Minnesota #1 in the country for charter school promotion. Pawlenty oversaw the repeal of the Profile of Learning kindergarten through 12th grade graduation requirements and sought to reinstate them. Renamed the Minnesota Academic Standards, they were guided by Department of Education commissioner Cheri Pierson Yecke. The bill's first draft raised concern among the education review boards about the amount of content, its age-appropriateness, and a Eurocentric social sciences portion. Yecke revised and expanded material based on the response. Both legislative houses passed the Academic Standards bill, but her confirmation as commissioner was rejected by the DFL-majority Minnesota Senate. She was seen as an outsider coming from Virginia and became unpopular for having pushed the academic reforms during a tight budget session as well as her critical view of Minnesota schools. In her confirmation hearing, DFLers also expressed concern over her conservative viewpoints. In June 2006, Pawlenty proposed the ACHIEVE program for the top 25% of high school graduates. The program would pay for tuition for the first 2 years (4 years for selected fields such as science, technology, engineering and math) and would cost the state an estimated $112 million per 2-year cycle. The program was not included in the 2007 higher education bill. Pawlenty used an accounting change called a tax shift to balance the state deficit without raising taxes. School districts statewide unexpectedly lost $58 million in interest and reserve revenue. In 2010, Pawlenty vetoed a bill that the legislature had passed 110 to 20 (HF 3164), calling for Minnesota State Colleges & Universities (MnSCU) to revamp its credit-transferring system within five years to fix "minimal loss of credits for transferring students" who had been losing between 10 and 30 percent of their credits. Pawlenty found it "unnecessary" because MnSCU was fixing its system already "through internal actions and policy changes". Transportation During Pawlenty's first term, urban traffic congestion was a significant concern of voters. He appointed his lieutenant governor, Carol Molnau, as transportation commissioner, and the legislature approved the appointment in May 2004. Molnau attempted to reform the transportation department, Mn/DOT, using concepts such as "design-build". Legislators criticized her performance as transportation commissioner, citing ineffective leadership and management, and removed her from that role in February 2008, a decision Pawlenty said was motivated by partisanship. Pawlenty favored raising fees and imposing toll lanes on roads as the primary means of discouraging excessive traffic. During his term, the carpool lanes of Interstate 394 leading into downtown Minneapolis were converted into high-occupancy toll lanes. Pawlenty used or threatened vetoes in 2005, 2007 and 2008 on legislation funding proposed highway expansion, infrastructure repairs, road maintenance, and mass transit. The 2008 veto was in spite of Pawlenty's announcement that he would consider reversing his opposition to a state gas-tax increase for funding road and bridge repairs in the wake of the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge. Pawlenty had opposed the Northstar Commuter Rail as a legislator, but changed his position in 2004, announcing a funding plan to jump-start the project, when the Bush administration determined the rail line was deemed cost-effective and time-saving for commuters. In April 2008, during the budget bonding bill signing, Pawlenty used his line-item veto on $70 million for building the Central Corridor light-rail project intended to connect Minneapolis and Saint Paul. In vetoing the expenditure, he did not consult Metro Council head Peter Bell, the project leader. Pawlenty said he vetoed the bill in order to send a message to the legislature, which had exceeded his initial budget request, that they needed to "stay focused, be fiscally disciplined, set priorities and solve this budget crisis in a fiscally disciplined way." But he supported the project and had requested the money in the bonding bill he submitted to the legislature. The veto disappointed some of Minnesota's U.S. representatives, including Republican Senator Norm Coleman, who pledged to "raise my voice as strong as I can, as loud as I can. The federal commitment is there." Pawlenty's veto might have delayed the state's ability to receive federal matching funds for the project, but Bell said the project was not derailed. The Central Corridor funding issue was resolved on May 19, 2008, with the state pledging the original amount for the project after legislators compromised with Pawlenty's budget requests. There were Republican state legislators who supported other cuts of the bonding bill, including Doug Magnus, the ranking Republican on the House Transportation Finance Division, who praised Pawlenty's "fiscal responsibility." Critics, including Saint Paul Mayor Chris Coleman, called Pawlenty's veto "political gamesmanship," seeing it as retribution for the legislature's override of Pawlenty's veto of a transportation bonding bill. They noted that cuts overwhelmingly targeted Democratic districts, and Democratic stronghold Saint Paul most heavily. Crime Crime in Minnesota was a high-profile political issue during Pawlenty's governorship. When crime rates in Minneapolis spiked 16% from 2004 to 2005, city officials blamed Pawlenty for large cuts to state aid, which they said restricted public safety resources. He in turn criticized the city for poorly allocating its funding. Pawlenty made two large efforts to expand penalties for sexual offenders. In response to his first proposal in 2005, the state legislature passed a large package of sentencing reforms. One new instrument was the possibility of a life sentence without parole for serious offenders. Pawlenty expressed disapproval of the courts' reluctance to use this option: only seven people received such a sentence in its first two years of implementation. He pushed for even harsher sentences in 2010, increasing the presumptive sentence for first-degree sex offenses from 12 years to 25 and increasing it further for repeat offenders. At the same time he advocated a $90-million expansion of the state's civil commitment program for sexual offenders, maintaining that the increased criminal sentences would keep the commitment program's cost under control. According to the Star Tribune, "A report on Minnesota's sex-offender program delivered to legislators in the final days of the Pawlenty administration was heavily edited by a top political appointee to reflect the former governor's skepticism about the effectiveness of treatment and to delete arguments for expanded community resources for offenders." Early in 2006, after issuing a study that estimated the cost of illegal immigration to the state as approximately $188 million, Pawlenty announced a program for changing the way the state dealt with persons who were in the United States illegally. Pawlenty said that the economic benefits of illegal immigration did not justify the illegal behavior. Pawlenty's extensive proposal included the designation of 10 state law enforcement officials as the Minnesota Illegal Immigration Enforcement Team, "trained to question, detain and arrest suspected illegal immigrants" with a focus on "such crimes as human trafficking, identity theft, methamphetamine distribution and terrorism." He rounded out his proposal with tougher penalties for false identification, and instituting a fine of up to $5,000 for employers of illegal immigrants. His proposal was challenged by DFL senators who preferred increased legal immigration to punitive action. Energy policy and climate change Minnesota has mandated a 10% mixture of gasoline and ethanol (gasohol) since 1997. Pawlenty has also lobbied the Governors' Ethanol Coalition to mandate higher ethanol use nationwide. Conservative Republican governors were not supportive of Pawlenty's presentation on clean energy to the governor's association, which he gave in cooperation with Ed Rendell, who was the governor of Pennsylvania and the National Governors Association's Democratic vice-chairman. With Kathleen Sebelius of Kansas, Pawlenty was co-chair of the association's energy committee. The effort received "adamant opposition" from governors of oil producing states. In 2007, Governor Pawlenty signed the Next Generation Energy Act of 2007 into law and, along with six other Midwestern governors, the Midwestern Greenhouse Gas Accord. These directed state agencies to develop a plan to reduce greenhouse gases, and "develop a market-based and multi-sector cap-and-trade mechanism". However, by 2009 Pawlenty had reversed his position and called cap-and-trade "overly bureaucratic" and a potential "disaster". By 2011, Pawlenty's position had changed sufficiently to state "the weight of the evidence is that most of it, maybe all of it, is because of natural causes." Health In 2004, Minnesota's Star Tribune newspaper opined that the credibility of Pawlenty's commissioner of health, Dianne Mandernach, suffered when a website posting by the department suggested that abortion might have a role in breast cancer. She also angered many when it was learned she had delayed releasing government research on cancer in miners. In 2007, Mandernach resigned. In 2005, Pawlenty asked a U.S. Senate subcommittee to allow his MinnesotaCare health plan to expand and continue allowing state residents and employees to import cheaper Canadian prescription drugs. In 2007, Pawlenty signed into law the 2007 Omnibus Health and Human Services Appropriations Bill, which provided funding for the Health Care Transformation Task Force, a panel of health care experts charged with exploring ways to reduce health care spending, improve quality, and ensure that Minnesota develops a universal health care plan by 2011. Later in his tenure he used health care funding cuts as a mechanism to balance the state budget. After years of assuring doctors that the state "sick tax" would be used only to fund health welfare programs, in 2009 Pawlenty recommended a 3% cut in physician reimbursements from the state and asked that the sick tax be put instead into the state's general budget. Pawlenty used a line-item veto to remove $381 million from health and human services funding, a removal which could lead to 35,000 Minnesotans' losing their General Assistance Medical Care (GAMC) health insurance in 2011. Hennepin County Medical Center—the largest provider of health care to Minnesota's poor and uninsured—closed two clinics, reduced its staff and reduced access to non-emergency services. State Senator Linda Berglin wrote a bill that would extend GAMC funding. In 2010, he refused federal health care funds including more than $1 billion to expand the number of Minnesotans covered by Medicaid, $68 million for a high-risk insurance pool, $1 million to help set up an insurance exchange where consumers could shop for health coverage, and $850,000 for teenage pregnancy prevention. Pawlenty accepted a $500,000 abstinence-only sex-education grant that would require $350,000 in matching state money. Pawlenty said, "It doesn't say we have to apply for all of them." Foreign relations Pawlenty's first term coincided with the deployment of National Guardsmen from numerous states, connected with the War on Terror and the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. During his two terms Pawlenty made trips to Iraq, Afghanistan, Bosnia, Kosovo, and Kuwait visiting Minnesota troops. Pawlenty was visited in 2004 by Mexican President Vicente Fox in talks to strengthen trade. Fox announced that his country would open a consulate in Minnesota the next year, removing the need for Mexican residents in the state to travel out of state for identification papers and other materials. In mid-2006, in response to illegal immigration, Pawlenty sent Minnesota National Guardsmen to the U.S.–Mexico border at the request of the U.S. Department of Defense and the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. Pawlenty took a delegation of nearly 200 Minnesotan business, government, academic and civic leaders on a weeklong trip to China in mid-November 2005. The stated objectives were to provide a forum for companies to acquire market information, assess market potential, evaluate market entry strategies and identify potential business partners, as well as to promote Chinese investment in Minnesota. Pawlenty also led Minnesota trade delegations to Canada in 2003, Poland and the Czech Republic in 2004, India in 2007, and Israel in 2008. Other activities Throughout his eight-year tenure, Pawlenty hosted a weekly one-hour radio show on WCCO-AM, a tradition he inherited from his predecessor as governor, Jesse Ventura. Pawlenty was the chairman of the National Governors Association for the 2007–2008 term. He also served as Chair of the Midwestern Governors Association in 2006. Beginning in 2005, Pawlenty was rumored in the press as a potential candidate for president of the United States. When formally announcing his candidacy for a second term as Governor of Minnesota on May 31, 2006, Pawlenty said, "As to my future, if I run for governor and win, I will serve out my term for four years as governor." On January 15, 2007, after being reelected, Pawlenty said, "I am committed to serving out my term as governor. That's what I am going to do." In 2007, it was announced that Pawlenty would be serving in a lead role for McCain as a national co-chair of his presidential exploratory committee which led to Pawlenty's becoming co-chairman of McCain's campaign (along with Phil Gramm and Tom Loeffler). In January 2008, a reporter for the Minneapolis Star Tribune suggested Pawlenty's renewed focus on his proposed immigration reform plans might be politically motivated as counterbalance to McCain's less favorable guest worker program. For many weeks, Pawlenty was widely considered to be a leading candidate for the vice-presidential nomination on the Republican ticket with John McCain in the 2008 presidential election. In a surprise, McCain chose Alaska Governor Sarah Palin. In the aftermath of the running mate selection, Pawlenty was regarded as a potential contender for the position of Secretary of Transportation in a possible McCain presidency. In 2008, Pawlenty expressed support for the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP). But in 2010 Pawlenty claimed that he had made those statements solely as a surrogate for presidential nominee McCain and never actually supported the idea himself. On May 23, 2011, Pawlenty formally announced he'd run for the Republican presidential nomination, saying, "politicians are often afraid that if they're too honest, they might lose an election. I'm afraid that in 2012, if we're not honest enough, we may lose our country." 2018 reelection In February 2018, Pawlenty began considering running for election for a third term as Governor of Minnesota in 2018, and started meeting with Republican donors and advisors. Pawlenty announced his candidacy on April 5, 2018. He eventually lost the primary to Jeff Johnson, the Hennepin County Commissioner. Pawlenty's campaign was affected by disparaging statements he made about then presidential candidate Donald Trump. Although Pawlenty eventually declared his support for Trump before running for governor, he said after his defeat that the "Republican party has shifted" and that he was not a "Trump-like politician" in the "era of Trump." He said he was ending his career in politics. 2012 presidential campaign Early steps In February 2005, ABC News identified him as a potential candidate for president. Pawlenty decided not to seek a third consecutive term as governor, and so was not a candidate in the November 2010 gubernatorial election. In July 2009, Public Policy Polling conducted a poll that showed that President Obama was favored to win against Pawlenty in his home state of Minnesota by more than 10 points. In October 2009, a CNN article suggested that Pawlenty was contemplating a 2012 White House bid. Among those advising him in preparation for a potential presidential run was lobbyist and former Congressman Vin Weber. In late 2009, Pawlenty began taking steps that many saw as leading to a 2012 presidential bid. He visited Iowa in November 2009 and April 2010, making political speeches. In January 2011, the New York Times reported that "Few Americans, in fact, even know his name." In January 2011, Pawlenty told the College Republicans group at The George Washington University "If I decide to run it would be for president, not vice president." Book tour and political positions Pawlenty went on tour for his book Courage to Stand, and as of January 18, his book had reached #1,979 on Amazon.com's list of bestsellers. Pawlenty calls himself a social conservative. In his extended interview with Jon Stewart on The Daily Show, he said he thinks United States Social Security and Medicare need to be cut to balance the federal budget. Pawlenty believes that state governments should outlaw abortion, except for cases of rape, incest, and to save a woman's life. He thinks the United States Supreme Court decided Roe v. Wade wrongly, abortion being a state, not a federal, matter. He opposes same-sex marriage and civil unions, and said on talk radio "... I have been a public supporter of maintaining Don't ask, don't tell and I would support reinstating it as well". In December 2010, Pawlenty was one of three U.S. governors who publicly declared solidarity with the Christian-right group Family Research Council. Pawlenty's tour was in Minneapolis, San Francisco and Dallas, and it ended January in Iowa where the Iowa Caucuses were scheduled for February 6, 2012. "That will come up fast," he said, "if I do run." In Minneapolis, speaking to Pat Kessler of WCCO-TV who asked about his feelings regarding a potential run for president by Representative Michele Bachmann, "I have a lot of respect for Michele Bachmann … Whether she runs or not, it's gonna be a big field. There's gonna be five, six, seven, eight people running … Whoever wants to run can run. The more, the merrier." In a December 2010 column in The Wall Street Journal, Pawlenty argued in favor of the historical benefits of "private sector" labor unions and strongly against "public sector" labor unions, whose collective bargaining rights he would like to see curbed: "The rise of the labor movement in the early 20th century was a triumph for America's working class. In an era of deep economic anxiety, unions stood up for hard-working but vulnerable families, protecting them from physical and economic exploitation." He also criticized modern unions: "The moral case for unions—protecting working families from exploitation—does not apply to public employment... Unionized public employees are making more money, receiving more generous benefits, and enjoying greater job security than the working families forced to pay for it with ever-higher taxes, deficits and debt." Candidacy On March 21, 2011, Pawlenty announced, via Facebook, that he had formed an exploratory committee in preparation for a potential run for the 2012 Republican presidential nomination. On April 12, 2011, Pawlenty said clearly on CNN's Piers Morgan Tonight that he was "running for president" and not for vice president, adding that a formal announcement would be given in several weeks. On Twitter, his spokesman said CNN took his comments out of context. On May 23, 2011, Pawlenty launched his candidacy for president in a speech in Iowa stating: "I'm going to try something a little unusual in politics. I'm just going to tell the truth." A YouTube video appeared a day before. The Wall Street Journal wrote of his candidacy, and the luck he experienced in the GOP's field, that Pawlenty has a "golden chance to become the chief rival to... Mitt Romney". Pawlenty finished third in the Ames Straw Poll on August 13, 2011, behind the winner Michele Bachmann and the runner-up Ron Paul. Before the Ames debate, he took a more aggressive stance against Romney, including the coining the term "Obamneycare". When pressed by John King during CNN's June 13, 2011 debate to address why he used the word, he backed off. However, he denied that he backed off. The following day he announced his decision to withdraw from the presidential race. On September 12, 2011, Pawlenty announced his endorsement of former Governor Mitt Romney of Massachusetts, as well as his position as national co-chair for Romney's campaign. Romney retired over $400,000 of Pawlenty's campaign debt. Financial Services Roundtable On September 20, 2012, Pawlenty's advisor Brian McClung announced to Associated Press that Pawlenty would resign as the co-chairman of Mitt Romney's electoral campaign. He was to head the Financial Services Roundtable (FSR), a financial service industry lobby group in Washington, D.C. He would not be running in the 2014 gubernatorial election in Minnesota nor in the state's 2014 senatorial election. He assumed the positions of President & CEO. He replaced Steve Bartlett, a former U.S. Representative from Texas who had held the positions since 1999. In November 2012, Pawlenty said that "Republicans and Democrats will have to reconcile their differences on spending and taxes because the 'walls of reality are closing in on them'" relative to the federal government's looming "fiscal cliff". Presenting himself as not from Wall Street or from Washington and, having previously criticized "entrenched financial interests", he said he could "bring a fresh and new voice to those debates". He also "refuted assertions that implementation of the Dodd-Frank Act, legislation enacted roughly 27 months [earlier] in response to the financial crisis, ha[d] been delayed because of lobbying". Personal life Pawlenty and his wife Mary have two daughters, Anna and Mara. Mary was appointed as a judge of the Dakota County District Court in Hastings, Minnesota, in 1994. After he was elected governor in 2002, the family remained at their Eagan home instead of moving into the Governor's residence because his wife was required to live in her judicial district. In 2007, she left her judicial position to become General Counsel of the National Arbitration Forum, a dispute-resolution company based in Minneapolis. She stayed only briefly before departing for another dispute-resolution company, the Gilbert Mediation Center. Pawlenty was raised a Roman Catholic. His conversion to Evangelical Protestantism has been attributed to Mary, who is a member of Wooddale Church in Eden Prairie, Minnesota, a member congregation of the Minnesota Baptist Conference. In a January 2011 interview, Pawlenty said, "I love and respect and admire the Catholic Church. I still attend Mass once in a while there. The church I now attend is an interdenominational church which has got many former Catholics in it, and so we share the Christian faith and the Bible. I had to reconcile my faith life with my wife so we could have a consistent, integrated family faith life." Pawlenty frequently uses (and is called by) the mononym "TPaw" or "T-Paw". Public image Political views Pawlenty is generally considered a conservative on the American political spectrum. With regard to his economic record, he has drawn mixed reviews from fiscally conservative interest groups. The lobbying group Taxpayers League of Minnesota gave Pawlenty an average approval score of 80% during his years as a state legislator, while the Cato Institute think-tank gave him scores ranging from C to A across his eight years as governor. In February 2008, Washington Post columnist Robert Novak wrote that Pawlenty was the most conservative Minnesota governor since Governor Theodore Christianson in the 1920s. A 2011 white paper by the Club for Growth, analyzing Pawlenty as a presidential candidate, found his political stance difficult to identify. The group praised him for reduced growth in spending and taxation, but found that he "has some simply inexcusable tax hikes in his record" and questioned his support of proposals such as "mandatory vegetable oil in gasoline, cap and trade, and a statewide smoking ban." Chris Edwards, a director at Cato, speculated that Pawlenty's rightward tack in his second term was related to his impending presidential run. In Pawlenty's 2018 Minnesota gubernatorial campaign, he received an A rating from the National Rifle Association, supports permit-to-carry laws, and is open to an optional background check for private firearm sales. Pawlenty voted for President Donald Trump and "support[s] most of what's he's doing, nearly all of what he's doing on a policy level." In 2016 Pawlenty had expressed disapproval of Trump's "comments and language and behavior", calling the president "unsound, uninformed, unhinged and unfit" during his campaign. Pawlenty stated that since the election, "he's made a lot of great progress as leader of our country and president of the United States in terms of policy priorities and the outcomes." Approval ratings In April 2009, 46% of Minnesotans approved of Pawlenty, while 40% disapproved. Among registered Republicans nationwide in July 2009, 38% had a favorable view of him while 33% didn't according to a Rasmussen Reports survey. In March 2010 42% of Minnesotans approved of Pawlenty, while 52% disapproved. In October 2010 a Rasmussen report showed that Pawlenty had a 49% approval rating among Minnesotans, with 49% disapproving. A March 2011 survey by Gallup stated that Pawlenty began his presidential run with only 41% name recognition in the GOP. Also in March 2011, the Public Policy Polling (PPP) agency found that nationwide voters had a net negative view of Pawlenty, with 15% viewing him favorably verses 33% unfavorably. In a 2011 PPP poll of registered Minnesota voters conducted from May 27–30, 42% of Minnesotans had a favorable opinion of Pawlenty, while 52% had an unfavorable opinion of him. In the presidential race, President Obama lead Pawlenty by 51% to 43%, suggesting Pawlenty could lose his home state to President Obama were he the 2012 GOP nominee. Electoral history References External links Campaign contributions at Follow the Money (U.S. House) Campaign 2002 – Minnesota Governor Minnesota Public Radio Campaign 2006 – Tim Pawlenty Minnesota Public Radio \|- \|- \|- \|- 1960 births 21st-century American politicians American people of German descent American politicians of Polish descent Baptists from Minnesota Converts to Baptist denominations from Roman Catholicism Governors of Minnesota Living people Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives Minnesota lawyers Minnesota Republicans Politicians from Saint Paul, Minnesota People from Eagan, Minnesota People from South St. Paul, Minnesota Republican Party state governors of the United States Candidates in the 2012 United States presidential election University of Minnesota Law School alumni	[ -0.6883319616317749, -0.14383718371391296, 0.08187473565340042, 0.16892951726913452, 0.2960423231124878, 0.6710758805274963, 0.3422001898288727, 0.19117675721645355, 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237122	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade%20%28architecture%29	Arcade (architecture)	An arcade is a succession of contiguous arches, with each arch supported by a colonnade of columns or piers. Exterior arcades are designed to provide a sheltered walkway for pedestrians. The walkway may be lined with retail stores. An arcade may feature arches on both sides of the walkway. Alternatively, a blind arcade superimposes arcading against a solid wall. Blind arcades are a feature of Romanesque architecture that influenced Gothic architecture. In the Gothic architectural tradition, the arcade can be located in the interior, in the lowest part of the wall of the nave, supporting the triforium and the clerestory in a cathedral, or on the exterior, in which they are usually part of the walkways that surround the courtyard and cloisters. Many medieval arcades housed shops or stalls, either in the arcaded space itself, or set into the main wall behind. From this, "arcade" has become a general word for a group of shops in a single building, regardless of the architectural form. The word "arcade" comes from French arcade from Provençal arcada or Italian arcata, based on Latin arcus, ‘bow’ (see arc and arch). History Arcades go back to at least the Ancient Greek architecture of the Hellenistic period, and were much used by the Romans, for example at the base of the Colosseum. Church cloisters very often use arcading. Islamic architecture very often uses arcades in and outside mosques in particular. In Renaissance architecture elegant arcading was often used as a prominent feature of facades, for example in the Ospedale degli Innocenti (commissioned 1419) or the courtyard of the Palazzo Bardi, both by Filippo Brunelleschi in Florence. Shopping arcades The French architect, Bertrand Lemoine, described the period, 1786 to 1935, as l’Ère des passages couverts (the Arcade Era). He was referring to the grand shopping "arcades" that flourished across Europe during that period. A shopping arcade refers to a multiple-vendor space, operating under a covered roof. Typically, the roof was constructed of glass to allow for natural light and to reduce the need for candles or electric lighting. The 18th and 19th century arcades were designed to attract the genteel middle classes. In time, these arcades came to be the place to shop and to be seen. Arcades offered shoppers the promise of an enclosed space away from the chaos that characterised the noisy, dirty streets; a warm, dry space away from the harsh elements, and a safe haven where people could socialise and spend their leisure time. As thousands of glass covered arcades spread across Europe, they became grander and more ornately decorated. By the mid-nineteenth century, they had become prominent centres of fashion and social life. Promenading in these arcades became a popular nineteenth-century pastime for the emerging middle classes. The inspiration for the grand shopping arcades may have derived from the fashionable open loggias of Florence however medieval vernacular examples known as 'butterwalks' were traditional jettied colonnades in British and North European marketplaces; examples remain for example in Totnes and Dartmouth in Devon. During the 16th-century, a pattern of market trading using mobile stalls under covered arcades was established in Florence, from where it spread throughout Italy. Examples of the earliest open loggias include: Mercato Nuovo (1547) by Giovanni Battista del Tasso (and funded by the Medici family); Mercato Vecchio, Florence by Giorgio Vasari (1567) and Loggia del Grano (1619) by Giulio Parigi. Arcades soon spread across Europe, North America and the antipodes. Examples of these grand shopping arcades include: Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791); London's Piccadilly Arcade (1810) and Milan's Galleria Vittorio Emanuele (1878). Some examples of arcades in North America include New York's Paddock Arcade (1850), Ohio's Dayton Arcade (1904), and Rhode Island's Westminster Arcade (1828). Other notable nineteenth century grand arcades include the Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels which was inaugurated in 1847 and Istanbul's Çiçek Pasajı opened in 1870. Shopping arcades were the precursor to the modern shopping mall, and the word "arcade" is now often used for malls which do not use the architectural form at all. The Palais-Royal, which opened in 1784 and became one of the most important marketplaces in Paris, is generally regarded as the earliest example of the grand shopping arcades. Originally, a royal palace, the complex consisted of gardens, shops and entertainment venues situated under the original colonnades. The area boasted some 145 boutiques, cafés, salons, hair salons, bookshops, museums, and numerous refreshment kiosks as well as two theatres. The retail outlets specialised in luxury goods such as fine jewellery, furs, paintings and furniture designed to appeal to the wealthy elite. Retailers operating out of the Palais complex were among the first in Europe to abandon the system of bartering, and adopt fixed-prices thereby sparing their clientele the hassle of bartering. Stores were fitted with long glass exterior windows which allowed the emerging middle-classes to window shop and indulge in fantasies, even when they may not have been able to afford the high retail prices. Thus, the Palais-Royal became one of the first examples of a new style of shopping arcade, frequented by both the aristocracy and the middle classes. It developed a reputation as being a site of sophisticated conversation, revolving around the salons, cafés, and bookshops, but also became a place frequented by off-duty soldiers and was a favourite haunt of prostitutes, many of whom rented apartments in the building. One of the earliest British examples of a shopping arcade, the Covered Market, Oxford, England was officially opened on 1 November 1774 and is still active today. The Covered Market was started in response to a general wish to clear "untidy, messy and unsavoury stalls" from the main streets of central Oxford. John Gwynn, the architect of Magdalen Bridge, drew up the plans and designed the High Street front with its four entrances. In 1772, the newly formed Market committee, half of whose members came from the town and half from the university, accepted an estimate of nine hundred and sixteen pounds ten shillings, for the building of twenty butchers' shops. Twenty more soon followed, and after 1773 meat was allowed to be sold only inside the market. From this nucleus the market grew, with stalls for garden produce, pig meat, dairy products and fish. Gostiny Dvor in St Petersburg, Russia is another early shopping arcade. Sprawling at the intersection of Nevsky Prospekt and Sadovaya Street for over one kilometer and embracing the area of , the indoor complex of more than 100 shops took twenty-eight years to construct. Building commenced in 1757 to an elaborate design by Bartolomeo Rastrelli, but that subsequently was discarded in favour of a less expensive and more functional Neoclassical design submitted by Jean-Baptiste Vallin de la Mothe (1729–1800). Throughout the following century, Gostiny Dvor was augmented, resulting in ten indoor streets and as many as 178 shops by the 20th century. During the post-World War II reconstructions, its inner walls were demolished and a huge shopping mall came into being. This massive 18th-century structure got a face-lift recently and entered the 21st century as one of the most fashionable shopping centres in Eastern Europe. An early French arcade is the Passage du Caire created in 1798 as a tribute to the French campaign in Egypt and Syria. It was appreciated by the public for its protection from the weather, noise and filth of the streets. A year later American architect William Thayer created the Passage des Panoramas with a row of shops passing between two panorama paintings. Shopping arcades increasingly were built in the second Bourbon Restoration. Upper levels of arcades often contained apartments and sometimes brothels. Notable arcades Religious buildings Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain Mission San Fernando Rey de España - Architecture of the California missions, United States Mosque of Uqba, Kairouan, Tunisia Real Monasterio de Nuestra Senora de Rueda, Aragon Autonomous Community, Spain Sanctuary of the Madonna di San Luca, Bologna, Italy Shopping "arcades" Adelaide Arcade, Adelaide, Australia Arcade Building, Asheville, North Carolina, United States Barton Arcade, Manchester, England Block Arcade, Melbourne, Australia Brisbane Arcade, Brisbane, Australia Burlington Arcade, London, England Camayo Arcade, Winchester, Ashland, Kentucky, United States Cathedral Arcade, Melbourne, Australia City Market, Charleston, South Carolina, United States Çiçek Pasajı, Istanbul, Turkey Cleveland Arcade, Cleveland, Ohio, United States The Corridor, Bath, England Covered Market, Oxford, England Dayton Arcade, Dayton, Ohio, United States Eaton Centre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada Monticello Arcade, Norfolk, Virginia Galerías Pacífico, Buenos Aires, Argentina Galeries Royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels, Belgium Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II, Milan, Italy GPO Arcade, Dublin, Ireland Grand Arcade, Leeds, United Kingdom Grand Arcade, Wigan, United Kingdom Great Western Arcade, Birmingham, England GUM, Moscow, Russia Galleria Umberto I, Naples, Italy Monticello Arcade, Norfolk, Virginia, United States Nashville Arcade, Nashville, Tennessee, United States Odessa Passage, Odessa, Ukraine Old Bank Arcade, Wellington, New Zealand Paddock Arcade, Watertown, New York, United States Palais-Royal, Paris, France The Passage des Panoramas, Paris, France The Passage de l'Argue, Lyon, France Piccadilly Arcade London, England Queens Arcade, Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom The Royal Arcade, London Royal Arcade, Melbourne, Australia Rue de Rivoli, Paris, France Stanford University, Stanford, California, United States Silver Arcade Silver Arcade, Leicester, United Kingdom The Strand Arcade and Queen Victoria Building, Sydney New South Wales, Australia Great Gostiny Dvor St. Petersburg, Russia The Passage St. Petersburg, Russia Victoria Quarter, Leeds, England Westminster Arcade, Providence, Rhode Island, United States Gallery See also Alley Aqueduct Bazaar Cloister Lanes and arcades of Melbourne, Australia List of shopping arcades in Cardiff, Wales, United Kingdom List of shopping centres in the United Kingdom Loggia Marketplace Penny arcade Retail Roman aqueduct Shophouse Shopping arcade Souq Stoa Tong lau References Arches and vaults Ceilings Architectural elements	[ -0.044875793159008026, 0.46480080485343933, 0.2719408869743347, -0.05062150955200195, 0.3160969614982605, 0.8452215790748596, 0.3407943546772003, 0.5108190774917603, -0.4896167814731598, -1.0481575727462769, -0.6906799674034119, 0.27250248193740845, -0.38797006011009216, 0.15657208859920502, -0.2857692837715149, 0.3415354788303375, 0.48412054777145386, 0.046420272439718246, -0.21340709924697876, 0.2098599523305893, 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237123	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%20Quie	Al Quie	Albert Harold Quie ( ; born September 18, 1923) is an American politician and farmer who served as member of the United States House of Representatives and the 35th governor of Minnesota. Quie, during most of his 28 consecutive years in elected office, was extremely popular and well-liked. Quie ran for office countless times and never lost an election. He is a 4th generation farmer and a devout Lutheran. Quie is currently the oldest living governor of any U.S. state and the oldest living member of the United States House of Representatives. He is one of the last living politicians to have seen active combat in World War II. Early life Quie was born on his family's farm near Dennison, Minnesota, in Rice County. Three of his grandparents were Norwegian immigrants. The farm on which he was born and grew up on had been first purchased by his grandfather upon returning to Minnesota from fighting in the Civil War. He grew up on the farm learning to ride horses. He served in the United States Navy during World War II as a fighter pilot where he saw significant active combat. Following his military service in World War II, graduated from St. Olaf College in Northfield in 1950 with a degree in political science. State and national government service Like his great-grandfather, grandfather, and father before him, Quie became a dairy farmer. A Republican, Quie was a member of the Minnesota State Senate from 1955 to 1958, representing the old 18th District, which encompassed Rice County in the southeastern part of the state. Quie was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in a special election after the death of Representative August Andresen, and served from February 18, 1958, to January 3, 1979. He was a member of the 85th, 86th, 87th, 88th, 89th, 90th, 91st, 92nd, 93rd, 94th and 95th Congresses. Quie voted in favor of the Civil Rights Acts of 1960, 1964, and 1968, as well as the 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Quie was briefly considered for Vice President of the United States in 1974 after Gerald Ford became president upon the resignation of Richard Nixon. The position was eventually taken by Nelson Rockefeller. Quie was elected governor of Minnesota in 1978. During his single term, he dealt with an extreme budget crisis, and made some very tough and unpopular choices. He opted not to run again in 1982. Personal life Quie’s grandfather joined the newly founded Republican Party and helped elect Abraham Lincoln President in the 1860 United States presidential election. Quie married artist Gretchen Quie in 1948. She died of Parkinson's disease on December 13, 2015, at the age of 88. In popular culture In Garrison Keillor's Lake Wobegon Days, Quie is said to be the first governor ever to set foot in the mythical town of Lake Wobegon, "slipping quietly away from his duties to attend a ceremony dedicating a plaque attached to the Statue of the Unknown Norwegian" and making a few remarks. Electoral history References External links Al Quie Congressional Papers. as Albert Quie as Al Quie \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1923 births Living people American Lutherans United States Navy personnel of World War II American people of Norwegian descent Farmers from Minnesota Governors of Minnesota Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota Military personnel from Minnesota Minnesota Republicans Minnesota state senators People from Dennison, Minnesota Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives Republican Party state governors of the United States St. Olaf College alumni	[ -0.038891855627298355, 0.2176045924425125, -0.15868735313415527, -0.009638906456530094, -0.11731328070163727, 0.5889665484428406, 0.24067436158657074, 0.16187091171741486, -0.20909176766872406, 0.06936125457286835, 0.5544834136962891, 0.23602889478206635, -0.7128124833106995, 0.13729509711265564, -0.11308903992176056, 0.2761107385158539, 0.014872774481773376, 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237126	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford%20Model%20A	Ford Model A	The Model A is the designation of two cars made by Ford Motor Company, one in 1903 and one beginning in 1927: Ford Model A (1903–1904) Ford Model A (1927–1931) Model A Rear-wheel-drive vehicles	[ 0.0026647974736988544, 0.31794488430023193, 0.08367682248353958, -0.020056044682860374, -0.33364832401275635, 0.5942661166191101, 0.04961400851607323, 0.09695038199424744, -0.012842193245887756, 0.3527268171310425, 0.32949453592300415, 0.23665940761566162, -0.3785707652568817, 0.6828187704086304, 0.17018021643161774, -0.04307357221841812, 0.631439208984375, 0.42181137204170227, -0.06407205760478973, 0.1860724538564682, -0.0291238222271204, -0.5073366165161133, 0.7372115850448608, -0.04938473552465439, 0.04452997073531151, -0.1140376478433609, 0.7375538945198059, 0.06195523589849472, 0.1279735118150711, 0.26526275277137756, 0.14992594718933105, 0.5183008909225464, 0.2762766480445862, 0.09007494896650314, -0.8526952862739563, 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237129	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20white%20ibis	American white ibis	The American white ibis (Eudocimus albus) is a species of bird in the ibis family, Threskiornithidae. It is found from Virginia via the Gulf Coast of the United States south through most of the coastal New World tropics. This particular ibis is a medium-sized bird with an overall white plumage, bright red-orange down-curved bill and long legs, and black wing tips that are usually only visible in flight. Males are larger and have longer bills than females. The breeding range runs along the Gulf and Atlantic Coast, and the coasts of Mexico and Central America. Outside the breeding period, the range extends further inland in North America and also includes the Caribbean. It is also found along the northwestern South American coastline in Colombia and Venezuela. Populations in central Venezuela overlap and interbreed with the scarlet ibis. The two have been classified by some authorities as a single species. Their diet consists primarily of small aquatic prey, such as insects and small fishes. Crayfish are its preferred food in most regions, but it can adjust its diet according to the habitat and prey abundance. Its main foraging behavior is probing with its beak at the bottom of shallow water to feel for and capture its prey. It does not see the prey. During the breeding season, the American white ibis gathers in huge colonies near water. Pairs are predominantly monogamous and both parents care for the young, although males tend to engage in extra-pair copulation with other females to increase their reproductive success. Males have also been found to pirate food from unmated females and juveniles during the breeding season. Human pollution has affected the behavior of the American white ibis via an increase in the concentrations of methylmercury, which is released into the environment from untreated waste. Exposure to methylmercury alters the hormone levels of American white ibis, affecting their mating and nesting behavior and leading to lower reproduction rates. Taxonomy The American white ibis was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in the 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name of Scolopax albus. The species name is the Latin adjective "white". Alternative common names that have been used include Spanish curlew and white curlew. English naturalist Mark Catesby mistook immature birds for a separate species, which he called the brown curlew. Local creole names in Louisiana include bec croche and petit flaman. Johann Georg Wagler gave the species its current binomial name in 1832 when he erected the new genus Eudocimus, whose only other species is the scarlet ibis (E. ruber). There has long been debate on whether the two should be considered subspecies or closely related species, and the American Ornithologists' Union considers the two to be a superspecies as they are parapatric. The lack of observed hybrids was a large factor in the view that the species were separate. However, in a field study published in 1987, researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the Llanos region of Colombia and Venezuela. They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing, as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage, or white plumage with occasional orange feathers; their proposal that these birds be classified as a single species, has been followed by least one field guide. Hybrid ibises have also been recorded in Florida, where the scarlet ibis has been introduced into wild populations of American white ibis. Birds of intermediate to red plumage have persisted for generations. Ornithologists James Hancock and Jim Kushlan also consider the two to be a single species, with the differences in plumage, size, skin coloration and degree of bill darkening during breeding season forming the diagnostic characters. They have proposed the populations recontacted in northwestern South America after a period of separation, and that the color difference is likely due to the presence of an enzyme that allows uptake of pigment in the diet. They have questioned whether white-plumaged birds of South America are in fact part of the ruber rather than the albus taxon, and acknowledge that more investigation is needed to determine this. Description The white plumage and pink facial skin of adult American white ibises are distinctive. Adults have black wingtips that are usually only visible in flight. In non-breeding condition the long downcurved bill and long legs are bright red-orange. During the first ten days of the breeding season, the skin darkens to a deep pink on the bill and an almost purple-tinted red on the legs. It then fades to a paler pink, and the tip of the bill becomes blackish. It is difficult to determine the sex of an adult American white ibis from its external appearance, since the sexes have similar plumage. However, there is sexual dimorphism in size and proportion as males are significantly larger and heavier than females and have longer and stouter bills. This species is moderately large for an ibis but is relatively short legged, compact and bulky for a large wader. A study of the American white ibis in southern Florida yielded weight ranges of for males and for females, with average weights of for males and for females. The length of adult female and male birds ranges from with a wingspan. Among standard measurements, American white ibis measure along each wing, have a tail measurement of , a tarsus of and a culmen of . The newly hatched American white ibis is covered with violet down feathers, deepening to dark brown or black on the head and wings. The chest is often bare and there can be a white tuft on the head. The irises are brown. The exposed skin is pinkish initially, apart from the tip of the bill which is dark gray, but turns gray within a few days of hatching. The bill is short and straight at birth and has an egg tooth which falls off between days five and nine, and develops three black rings from around day six, before turning gray by around six weeks of age. The gray to sandy gray brown juvenile plumage appears between weeks two and six, and face and bill become pink a few weeks later, while the legs remain gray. The irises have turned slate-gray by this stage. Once fledged, the juvenile American white ibis has largely brown plumage and only the rump, underwing and underparts are white. The legs become light orange. As it matures, white feathers begin appearing on the back and it undergoes a gradual molt to obtain the white adult plumage. This is mostly complete by the end of the second year, although some brown feathers persist on the head and neck until the end of the third year. Juvenile birds take around two years to reach adult size and weight. Like other species of ibis, the American white ibis flies with neck and legs outstretched, often in long loose lines or V formations—a 1986 field study in North Carolina noted over 80% of adult ibis doing so, while juveniles rapidly took up the practice over the course of the summer. The resulting improvement in aerodynamics may lower energy expenditure. These lines fly in an undulating pattern as they alternately flap and glide. Soaring in a circular pattern is also seen. Heights of may be reached as birds glide over flights of or more. More commonly, birds fly between above the ground, gliding or flapping at a rate of around 3.3 wingbeats a second. The main call of the American white ibis is a honking sound, transcribed as urnk, urnk, or hunk, hunk. The call is used in flight, courtship or when disturbed. Birds also utter a muted huu-huu-huu call while foraging, and make a squealing call in courtship. Young in the nest give a high-pitched zziu as a begging call. Similar species Immature American white and scarlet ibises are very difficult to tell apart, although scarlet ibises tend to have darker legs and bare skin around the face. An immature American white ibis could be mistaken for an immature glossy ibis, but the latter is wholly dark brown and lacks the white belly and rump. The adult is distinguishable from the wood stork, which is much larger and its wings have more black on them. Distribution and habitat The American white ibis is most common in Florida, where over 30,000 have been counted in a single breeding colony. It also occurs throughout the Caribbean, on both coasts of Mexico (from Baja California southwards) and Central America, and as far south as Colombia and Venezuela. The non-breeding range extends further inland, reaching north to Virginia, and west to eastern Texas. The species is known to wander, and has been sighted, sometimes in small flocks, in states far out of its usual range. In North America, breeding takes place along the Atlantic coast, from the Carolinas south to Florida and thence west along the Gulf Coast. Laguna Cuyutlán is an isolated and regionally important wetland in the state of Colima on México's west coast where a breeding colony has been recorded. American white ibises are not faithful to the sites where they breed, and large breeding colonies composed of ten thousand birds or more can congregate and disband in one or two breeding seasons. Breeding populations across its range have fluctuated greatly with wholesale movement between states. Until the 1940s, the species bred only in large numbers in Florida, mostly within the Everglades. Drought conditions elsewhere in the United States led to more than 400,000 American white ibis breeding there in the 1930s. In the 1950s and 1960s, large colonies appeared in Alabama, Louisiana, and then North and South Carolina and the Gulf Coast of Florida, and finally Texas in the 1970s. Between the 1970s and early 1990s, breeding colonies declined and disappeared in South Carolina and Florida, and greatly increased in North Carolina and Louisiana. Colonies last between one and seventeen years, their longevity related to size and quality of nearby wetlands. The longest-lasting are associated with wetlands over in size. Degradation of wetland or breeding sites are reasons for abandonment. The population of American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island in Georgetown County, South Carolina, dropped from 10,000 to zero between 1989 and 1990 as Hurricane Hugo had inundated nearby freshwater foraging areas with salt water. The American white ibis is found in a variety of habitats, although shallow coastal marshes, wetlands and mangrove swamps are preferred. It is also commonly found in muddy pools, on mudflats and even wet lawns. Populations that are away from the coast and shoreline, particularly in southern Florida, often reside in other forms of wetlands such as marshes, ponds and flooded fields. In summer, these move to more coastal and estuarine habitats as inland waterways become flooded with summer rains and the ibis find the water levels too deep to forage effectively. Fossil record Remains similar to the American white ibis have been found in Middle Pliocene deposits of the Bone Valley formation in central Florida, and Lower Pliocene deposits of the Yorktown Formation at Lee Creek in North Carolina. Two species, one living and one extinct, have been recovered from the Talara Tar Seeps in northern coastal Peru. Eudocimus peruvianus was described from a tarsometatarsus that differed slightly from E. albus, whose remains were also found there. Remains of neither species are common in the beds. The tar seeps have been dated at 13,900 years old. The American white ibis is still found in Peru. Behavior A field study late in the Florida nesting season revealed that on an average day, adult American white ibis spent 10.25 hours looking for food, 0.75 hours flying, 13 hours resting, roosting, and attending to their nests. Much of the time roosting is spent preening, biting and working their feathers with their long bills, as well as rubbing the oil glands on the sides of their heads on back plumage. American white ibis generally only preen themselves, not engaging in allopreening unless part of courtship behavior. Bathing often takes place before preening; ibis squat in water deep and flick water over themselves with each wing in succession. Hundreds of birds may bathe together around the time of courtship. The American white ibis is territorial, defending the nesting and display sites against intruders. Agonistic or threat displays include lunging forward with the bill in a horizontal posture, and standing upright and snapping the bill opposite another bird engaging in the same display. Birds also lunge and bite, often holding onto an opponent's head or wings. Breeding and lifespan The American white ibis pairs up in spring and breeds in huge colonies, often with other waterbird species. Nesting begins as soon as suitable foraging and nesting habitat is available. The female selects the site, usually in the branches of a tree or shrub, which is often over water, and builds the nest, and males assist by bringing nest material. Anywhere from one to five eggs are typically laid, with two or three being the most common. The eggs are matte pale blue-green in color with brown splotches, measure , and weigh on average . Clutch sizes are usually lower in coastal colonies as compared to inland colonies, although there are no statistically significant differences in the fledging rate of both colonies. Throughout the mating and incubation period, the male undergoes a period of starvation to stay close to the nest and aggressively defend his nest and mate from both predators and other ibises in preference to foraging for food. In the 2006 breeding season, a non-breeding adult female was observed to be tending to multiple nests that belonged to other American white ibises—the first time the behavior has been documented for this species. Although the American white ibis is predominantly monogamous and both sexes provide parental care to their young, the male often flies off to engage in extra-pair copulation with other nesting females after mating with its primary female partner. These extra-pair copulations are usually done after the within-pair copulations, and make up about 45% of all total matings, although only about 15% of all extra-pair copulations are successful. By not restricting the number of females it copulates with, the male is able to increase its reproductive success considerably. Although females are receptive towards extra-pair copulations, male mate-guarding greatly reduces the rate of successful female involvement in attempted extra-pair copulations by other males. The breeding success of the American white ibis is sensitive to the hydrological conditions of the ecosystem such as rainfall and water levels. Low and decreasing water levels predict good prey accessibility. Water level reversals, where levels rise in the breeding season, disperse prey and impact on foraging success. Nest numbers and average clutch sizes are smaller in periods of reduced prey availability. The success rate of parents raising one or more young to 20 days of age ranges widely from 5 to 70% of nests, and varies greatly between nearby colonies. American white ibis parents have been known to supplement their chicks' diet with items such as cockroaches and rotting food from human garbage in poorer years, when fish and crayfish are more scarce. Studies have also shown that years with higher nesting numbers had significantly faster spring drying rates of water bodies than years with low nesting numbers. This is because faster drying rates means that there are fewer fish and increased available area where crayfish can be hunted. This highlights the fact that American white ibises do not use probability of nesting failure as a key factor in determining nesting sites but instead, rely on other criteria such as prey availability and nest-site predation rates. The draining of wetlands in south Florida has also impacted on species that forage in shallow water such as the American white ibis, and its increase in numbers is a key indicator of restoration of habitat within the Everglades. The main cause of nest failure among the species is due to nest abandonment, the leading cause of which is inundation from extremely high tides. Parents abandoned 61% of all nesting starts either during or immediately after extremely high tides. The eggs float out of the flooded nests, or get washed out into the sea by wave action. Incubating parents usually abandon the nest when the water or tidal levels reaches above the bottom of the nest cup. Nevertheless, there have been instances where the parents have been observed to transport their eggs to another nest in an attempt to salvage some eggs. However, despite the fact that some nesting sites face high chance of tidal damage every breeding season, American white ibises still continue to nest in these areas because of other favorable conditions such as abundant nearby food sources and low egg predation rates. The eggs hatch after about three weeks and the young are attended by both parents. Males are present around the nest for most of the day, and females most of the night. The parents exchange nest duties in the morning and in the evening. Most of the feeding of the chicks occurs during the period where they swap nesting duties. Little feeding is done in the period of the day that is between the two duty swaps and no feeding is done between midnight and 6 a.m. Chick mortality is highest in the first twenty days post hatching, with anywhere from 37 to 83% of hatchlings surviving to three weeks of age in the Everglades. During periods of food limitations and starvation events, the American white ibis tends to exhibit sex-dependent pre-fledgling mortality. For many bird species that have sexually dimorphic nestlings, mortality rates are higher for larger-sized male nestlings as a result of the parents' inability to meet its greater nutritional needs. However, in the case of the American white ibis, the male nestlings actually have a lower mortality rate as compared to the females despite being on average 15% greater in mass as compared to its female counterparts. Although current research has yet to discover the underlying factors to why the males tend to have better survival rates under such conditions, it is suspected that the parents tend to feed the larger male nestlings first because they are either perceived by the parents to have a higher chance of survival, or, being generally larger, the male nestlings simply out-compete the small females for food. Bird predators may seize anywhere from 7% to 75% of the progeny in a breeding colony. The fish crow (Corvus ossifragus) is common raider of American white ibis nests, accounting for up to 44% of egg loss in a field study at Battery Island, North Carolina. Other predators of eggs and young include the boat-tailed grackle (Quiscalus major), black-crowned night heron (Nycticorax nycticorax), gulls, and possibly vultures, as well as the common opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), raccoon (Procyon lotor), and rat snakes (Elaphe species). Egg predation rates of the American white ibis decline with nest age owing to increased nest attentiveness by the parents, especially during the last week of incubation. High nest densities and reduced synchrony increase egg predation rates because of the increased opportunities afforded by the longer incubation times, as well as the greater availability of nests available for predation. The American white ibis begins breeding in its third summer, although birds in captivity may breed as young as nine or ten months of age. The oldest member of the species recorded in captivity was over 20 years of age, and a wild bird has been picked up 16 years and 4 months after being banded. Diet The American white ibis prefers to eat crayfish and other crustaceans, but also takes aquatic insects and small fish. Outside the nesting season, the diet is highly variable, as abundance and types of prey depend on both the region and the habitat. In the Llanos, located in Colombia and Venezuela, the most frequent prey are insects, such as fly larvae and beetles. Generally in North America the main prey are crustaceans, mostly crayfish. In the Everglades and cypress swamps, the diet is primarily made up of crayfish, while those that feed in willow ponds eat predominantly fish. American white ibises that feed in mangrove swamps focus on crabs. The tactile nature of the ibis's probing for food in mud means that it catches prey that are too slow to evade the ibis once located by its bill. In the Everglades, this means that crayfish make up a large part of the diet, but a more diverse array of invertebrates are taken in coastal areas. Although crayfish are sought by foraging ibises, prey switching to fish does occur if fish are found in great abundance. It is unclear whether the fish are more easily caught if overcrowded, or whether sheer numbers of fish mean that ibises are catching them instead of crayfish—normally, fish are more agile than crayfish and hence elude the ibis's bill more easily. Fish are a more energy-rich source of food for the American white ibis. In the breeding season, American white ibises in a colony at Pumpkinseed Island travelled further to forage in freshwater wetlands and catch crayfish, than nearby saltwater areas where fiddler crabs predominated, indicating their benefit was worth the extra energy expended in fetching them for their young. This travel results in the wholesale transport of nutrients across the landscape by the colony; in a successful breeding year the colony at Pumpkinseed Island was estimated to have contributed a third as much phosphorus to the neighboring estuary as other environmental processes. The American white ibis is found in mixed-species foraging flocks with the glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) in flooded fields, and the two species select different food items with little overlap; the former foraging for crabs and aquatic insects and the latter feeding mainly on grain. The wood stork is also found in the same habitat in Florida, but hunts larger prey and a higher percentage of fish, so there is little overlap. In the Llanos, where American white ibis coexist with the scarlet ibis, their diets differ, the former consuming more bugs, fish and crustaceans, while the latter eat a much higher proportion of beetles. The willet (Tringa semipalmata) has been observed trailing American white ibis and catching prey disturbed by them, and even kleptoparasitizing (stealing) from them, in J. N. "Ding" Darling National Wildlife Refuge on Sanibel Island in Florida. An isolated event of intraspecific predation in juvenile American white ibis has been observed, where a juvenile attacked and consumed a chick from another nest. Foraging During the summer, the American white ibis roams along the coast of tidal flats and mangrove swamps as the inland marshes are usually flooded. However, as the water level recedes in the fall, populations at the coast shift their foraging area inland, to inland marshes and swamplands. It has become more common in urban landscapes in Florida since the late 1990s, and is one of a number of wetland-dependent bird species which forages in man-made ponds on golf courses in the southwest of the state. The American white ibis is a tactile, nonvisual forager, which limits its ability to choose from a wide variety of prey. For the most part, the American white ibis forages for food by tactile probing. It wades slowly through shallow water and sticks its long, downcurved bill into the substrate of the water body with its bill held at around agape at the tip, and sweeps its long bill back and forth across the bottom to pick out suitable food items. Birds may also probe when standing still. Groping with a wide open bill is a technique used by ibis in deeper water when alone, as is head swinging, in which the ibis swings its wide open bill widely in open water. Others copy this type of foraging if they see one ibis doing it. On land, the American white ibis locates prey by sight and pecks, and does not have to insert its bill into the substrate. The American white ibis seeks small prey when other birds are around, as it needs time to break up larger food items into smaller pieces to eat, and other predators such as herons and egrets often take the opportunity to rob the ibis of its catch. Along with the scarlet ibis, the species coexists with another five species of ibis in the Llanos in Venezuela. American white ibis males are aggressive to and take prey items from smaller ibises, but the smaller females are more often the victims of this behavior. Juveniles have lower foraging efficiency compared to adults and in most feeding flocks, the juveniles are usually outnumbered by the adults. They usually tend to stay close to one another and forage for food together at the peripheral region of the group. During the breeding season, adult male ibises have been recorded raiding other parent ibises who are feeding their young in the colony. The raiders force their bill down the throat of the victim—either the parent about to disgorge their food or recently fed young—and extract the ball of food. This behavior allows the otherwise starving adult males to obtain food without having to spend long periods of time away from the nest, and prevent its female mate copulating with another male ibis, which would reduce its own reproductive success. Females and juveniles almost never try to drive off the larger and more aggressive pirating males, but instead try to avoid or move away from them. This pirating behavior is less common between two male ibises as the males will actively fight off the pirate. The explanation of the species' sexual dimorphism of body size is unclear, because no differences between the sexes in feeding success rates or the foraging behavior have been observed and, as males are larger, they need more food than females. Parasites and mortality Causes of death of adult ibis are not well known. Alligators could feasibly prey on nesting ibises but there has been little research in the area. A flock of fifty adult American white ibis were killed in a fire in the Everglades. The corpses were found in a dense swathe of cattail (Typha angustifolia), which suggested they had taken shelter there. It is unclear why they had not been able to fly away from the fire, but one hypothesis was that they had been foraging for insects disturbed by the fire. A total of 51 species of parasitic worm have been recovered from the American white ibis, predominantly from the gastrointestinal system and particularly the small intestine. These include Cestoda (tapeworms), Acanthocephala (thorny headed worms), Nematoda (roundworms), Digenea and Spirurida. Several roundworm and spirurid species have been found in the lining of the gizzard. Nematodes are more prevalent in American white ibis from freshwater habitats, and cestodes more frequent in those from saltwater areas. One nematode found in adult birds, Skrjabinoclavia thapari, is borne in the fiddler crab as an intermediate host, while the thorny headed worm species Southwellina dimorpha is carried in crayfish and infests both adult and juvenile ibis. Parasitic protozoa of the genus Sarcocystis have been recovered from the smooth muscles of adult American white ibis, and another species, Haemoproteus plataleae, has been recovered from the blood of adults and nestlings, and can hence be transmitted before the young leave the nest. The larvae of two species of mite of the family Hypoderidae, Phalacrodectes whartoni and Neoattialges eudocimae, have been recovered from under the skin. Two species of the louse suborder Mallophaga, Plegadiphilus eudocimus and Ardeicola robusta, also parasitise the bird. Status The American white ibis is classed as being of least concern on the IUCN Red List. The population consists of 150,000 mature adults, and is stable, although some populations have unknown trends. A partial survey of under 50% of the North American population published in 2007 found an almost six-fold increase in the last four decades. The estimated breeding range is huge, at . Fluctuating breeding populations and high mobility of colonies make estimating the population difficult. Attempted censuses of breeding colonies across Texas, Louisiana, Florida, and the Carolinas yielded a count of 166,000 breeding birds in 2001, and 209,000 in 2004. The conservation status has been listed in two states—it is a Species of Special Concern in Florida, and a species of Moderate Conservation Concern in Alabama. The preservation of colony sites and freshwater foraging areas is important to maintaining populations; however, the highly mobile nature of breeding colonies makes this challenging. Human impact John James Audubon reported that the American white ibis was hunted and sold in Louisiana, and mainly eaten by American Indians. It had orange flesh and a strong fishy taste. Elsewhere, the flesh has been described as appealing on account of the crayfish diet, and both members of the genus Eudocimus have been hunted, which has been responsible for decline, across their range. Crawfish farmers in Louisiana have also shot them for foraging in crawfish ponds. Overall, the impact of hunting is not thought to be major. The pollutant methylmercury is a globally distributed neurotoxin and an endocrine system disruptor. In the Everglades ecosystem, human pollution has led to increased concentrations of methylmercury, which have impacted the behaviors of the American white ibis. Hormone levels in males are affected, leading to a decrease in the rates of key courtship behavior, and fewer approaches by females during the mating season. In addition, methylmercury also increased male-male pairing behaviors by 55%. Both the chemically induced "homosexual" behavior and the diminished ability to attract females by males have reduced reproduction rates in affected populations. Exposure of American white ibises to methylmercury causes reduced foraging efficiency and it also makes them more likely to abandon nests owing to the disruptive effect of the pollutant on the bird's hormone systems, which in turn affects parental care behavior. Tests on captive birds have not shown a decreased survival of American white ibis exposed to methylmercury. In culture Native American folklore held that the bird was the last to seek shelter before a hurricane, and the first to emerge afterwards. The bird was thus a symbol for danger and optimism. For this reason, the University of Miami adopted the American white ibis as its official athletics mascot in 1926, and the yearbook was known as The Ibis from that year. The mascot was initially known as Ibis before adopting the name Sebastian in 1957. It was named after San Sebastian Hall, a residence hall on campus, which sponsored an Ibis entry in the college's homecoming celebration. References External links American white ibises on Arkive. Shows videos made by the BBC natural history unit. 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237132	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribozyme	Ribozyme	Ribozymes (ribonucleic acid enzymes) are RNA molecules that have the ability to catalyze specific biochemical reactions, including RNA splicing in gene expression, similar to the action of protein enzymes. The 1982 discovery of ribozymes demonstrated that RNA can be both genetic material (like DNA) and a biological catalyst (like protein enzymes), and contributed to the RNA world hypothesis, which suggests that RNA may have been important in the evolution of prebiotic self-replicating systems. The most common activities of natural or in vitro-evolved ribozymes are the cleavage or ligation of RNA and DNA and peptide bond formation. For example, the smallest ribozyme known (GUGGC-3') can aminoacylate a GCCU-3' sequence in the presence of PheAMP. Within the ribosome, ribozymes function as part of the large subunit ribosomal RNA to link amino acids during protein synthesis. They also participate in a variety of RNA processing reactions, including RNA splicing, viral replication, and transfer RNA biosynthesis. Examples of ribozymes include the hammerhead ribozyme, the VS ribozyme, Leadzyme and the hairpin ribozyme. Researchers who are investigating the origins of life through the RNA world hypothesis have been working on discovering a ribozyme which has the capacity to self-replicate, which would require it to have the ability to catalytically synthesize polymers of RNA. This should be able to happen in prebiotically plausible conditions with high rates of copying accuracy to prevent degradation of information but also allowing for the occurrence of occasional errors during the copying process to allow for Darwinian evolution to proceed. Attempts have been made to develop ribozymes as therapeutic agents, as enzymes which target defined RNA sequences for cleavage, as biosensors, and for applications in functional genomics and gene discovery. Discovery Before the discovery of ribozymes, enzymes, which are defined as catalytic proteins, were the only known biological catalysts. In 1967, Carl Woese, Francis Crick, and Leslie Orgel were the first to suggest that RNA could act as a catalyst. This idea was based upon the discovery that RNA can form complex secondary structures. These ribozymes were found in the intron of an RNA transcript, which removed itself from the transcript, as well as in the RNA component of the RNase P complex, which is involved in the maturation of pre-tRNAs. In 1989, Thomas R. Cech and Sidney Altman shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their "discovery of catalytic properties of RNA." The term ribozyme was first introduced by Kelly Kruger et al. in 1982 in a paper published in Cell. It had been a firmly established belief in biology that catalysis was reserved for proteins. However, the idea of RNA catalysis is motivated in part by the old question regarding the origin of life: Which comes first, enzymes that do the work of the cell or nucleic acids that carry the information required to produce the enzymes? The concept of "ribonucleic acids as catalysts" circumvents this problem. RNA, in essence, can be both the chicken and the egg. In the 1980s Thomas Cech, at the University of Colorado at Boulder, was studying the excision of introns in a ribosomal RNA gene in Tetrahymena thermophila. While trying to purify the enzyme responsible for the splicing reaction, he found that the intron could be spliced out in the absence of any added cell extract. As much as they tried, Cech and his colleagues could not identify any protein associated with the splicing reaction. After much work, Cech proposed that the intron sequence portion of the RNA could break and reform phosphodiester bonds. At about the same time, Sidney Altman, a professor at Yale University, was studying the way tRNA molecules are processed in the cell when he and his colleagues isolated an enzyme called RNase-P, which is responsible for conversion of a precursor tRNA into the active tRNA. Much to their surprise, they found that RNase-P contained RNA in addition to protein and that RNA was an essential component of the active enzyme. This was such a foreign idea that they had difficulty publishing their findings. The following year, Altman demonstrated that RNA can act as a catalyst by showing that the RNase-P RNA subunit could catalyze the cleavage of precursor tRNA into active tRNA in the absence of any protein component. Since Cech's and Altman's discovery, other investigators have discovered other examples of self-cleaving RNA or catalytic RNA molecules. Many ribozymes have either a hairpin – or hammerhead – shaped active center and a unique secondary structure that allows them to cleave other RNA molecules at specific sequences. It is now possible to make ribozymes that will specifically cleave any RNA molecule. These RNA catalysts may have pharmaceutical applications. For example, a ribozyme has been designed to cleave the RNA of HIV. If such a ribozyme were made by a cell, all incoming virus particles would have their RNA genome cleaved by the ribozyme, which would prevent infection. Structure and mechanism Despite having only four choices for each monomer unit (nucleotides), compared to 20 amino acid side chains found in proteins, ribozymes have diverse structures and mechanisms. In many cases they are able to mimic the mechanism used by their protein counterparts. For example, in self cleaving ribozyme RNAs, an in-line SN2 reaction is carried out using the 2’ hydroxyl group as a nucleophile attacking the bridging phosphate and causing 5’ oxygen of the N+1 base to act as a leaving group . In comparison, RNase A, a protein that catalyzes the same reaction, uses a coordinating histidine and lysine to act as a base to attack the phosphate backbone. Like many protein enzymes metal binding is also critical to the function of many ribozymes. Often these interactions use both the phosphate backbone and the base of the nucleotide, causing drastic conformational changes. There are two mechanism classes for the cleavage of phosphodiester backbone in the presence of metal. In the first mechanism, the internal 2’- OH group attacks phosphorus center in a SN2 mechanism. Metal ions promote this reaction by first coordinating the phosphate oxygen and later stabling the oxyanion. The second mechanism also follows a SN2 displacement, but the nucleophile comes from water or exogenous hydroxyl groups rather than RNA itself. The smallest ribozyme is UUU, which can promote the cleavage between G and A of the GAAA tetranucleotide via the first mechanism in the presence of Mn2+. The reason why this trinucleotide rather than the complementary tetramer catalyze this reaction may be because the UUU-AAA pairing is the weakest and most flexible trinucleotide among the 64 conformations, which provides the binding site for Mn2+. Phosphoryl transfer can also be catalyzed without metal ions. For example, pancreatic ribonuclease A and hepatitis delta virus(HDV) ribozymes can catalyze the cleavage of RNA backbone through acid-base catalysis without metal ions. Hairpin ribozyme can also catalyze the self-cleavage of RNA without metal ions but the mechanism is still unclear. Ribozyme can also catalyze the formation of peptide bond between adjacent amino acid by lowering the activation entropy. Activities Although ribozymes are quite rare in most cells, their roles are sometimes essential to life. For example, the functional part of the ribosome, the biological machine that translates RNA into proteins, is fundamentally a ribozyme, composed of RNA tertiary structural motifs that are often coordinated to metal ions such as Mg2+ as cofactors. In a model system, there is no requirement for divalent cations in a five-nucleotide RNA catalyzing trans-phenylalanation of a four-nucleotide substrate with 3 base pairs complementary with the catalyst, where the catalyst/substrate were devised by truncation of the C3 ribozyme. The best-studied ribozymes are probably those that cut themselves or other RNAs, as in the original discovery by Cech and Altman. However, ribozymes can be designed to catalyze a range of reactions (see below), many of which may occur in life but have not been discovered in cells. RNA may catalyze folding of the pathological protein conformation of a prion in a manner similar to that of a chaperonin. Ribozymes and the origin of life RNA can also act as a hereditary molecule, which encouraged Walter Gilbert to propose that in the distant past, the cell used RNA as both the genetic material and the structural and catalytic molecule rather than dividing these functions between DNA and protein as they are today; this hypothesis is known as the "RNA world hypothesis" of the origin of life. Since nucleotides and RNA and thus ribozymes can arise by inorganic chemicals, they are candidates for the first enzymes, and in fact, the first "replicators", i.e. information-containing macro-molecules that replicate themselves. An example of a self-replicating ribozyme that ligates two substrates to generate an exact copy of itself was described in 2002. The discovery of catalytic activity of RNA solved the "chicken and egg" paradox of the origin of life, solving the problem of origin of peptide and nucleic acid central dogma. According to this scenario, at the origin of life all enzymatic activity and genetic information encoding was done by one molecule, the RNA. Ribozymes have been produced in the laboratory that are capable of catalyzing the synthesis of other RNA molecules from activated monomers under very specific conditions, these molecules being known as RNA polymerase ribozymes. The first RNA polymerase ribozyme was reported in 1996, and was capable of synthesizing RNA polymers up to 6 nucleotides in length. Mutagenesis and selection has been performed on an RNA ligase ribozyme from a large pool of random RNA sequences, resulting in isolation of the improved "Round-18" polymerase ribozyme in 2001 which could catalyze RNA polymers now up to 14 nucleotides in length. Upon application of further selection on the Round-18 ribozyme, the B6.61 ribozyme was generated and was able to add up to 20 nucleotides to a primer template in 24 hours, until it decomposes by cleavage of its phosphodiester bonds. The rate at which ribozymes can polymerize an RNA sequence multiples substantially when it takes place within a micelle. The next ribozyme discovered was the "tC19Z" ribozyme, which can add up to 95 nucleotides with a fidelity of 0.0083 mutations/nucleotide. Next, the "tC9Y" ribozyme was discovered by researchers and was further able to synthesize RNA strands up to 206 nucleotides long in the eutectic phase conditions at below-zero temperature, conditions previously shown to promote ribozyme polymerase activity. The RNA polymerase ribozyme (RPR) called tC9-4M was able to polymerize RNA chains longer than itself (i.e. longer than 177 nt) in magnesium ion concentrations close to physiological levels, whereas earlier RPRs required prebiotically implausible concentrations of up to 200mM. The only factor required for it to achieve this was the presence of a very simple amino acid polymer, lysine decapeptide. The most complex RPR synthesized by that point was called 24-3, which was newly capable of polymerizing the sequences of a substantial variety of nucleotide sequences and navigating through complex secondary structures of RNA substrates inaccessible to previous ribozymes. In fact, this experiment was the first to use a ribozyme to synthesize a tRNA molecule. Starting with the 24-3 ribozyme, Tjhung et al. applied another fourteen rounds of selection to obtain an RNA polymerase ribozyme by in vitro evolution termed '38-6' that has an unprecedented level of activity in copying complex RNA molecules. However, this ribozyme is unable to copy itself and its RNA products have a high mutation rate. In a subsequent study, the researchers began with the 38-6 ribozyme and applied another 14 rounds of selection to generate the '52-2' ribozyme, which compared to 38-6, was again many times more active and could begin generating detectable and functional levels of the class I ligase, although it was still limited in its fidelity and functionality in comparison to copying of the same template by proteins such as the T7 RNA polymerase. An RPR called t5(+1) adds triplet nucleotides at a time instead of just one nucleotide at a time. This heterodimeric RPR can navigate secondary structures inaccessible to 24-3, including hairpins. In the initial pool of RNA variants derived only from a previously synthesized RPR known as the Z RPR, two sequences separately emerged and evolved to be mutualistically dependent on each other. The Type 1 RNA evolved to be catalytically inactive, but complexing with the Type 5 RNA boosted its polymerization ability and enabled intermolecular interactions with the RNA template substrate obviating the need to tether the template directly to the RNA sequence of the RPR, which was a limitation of earlier studies. Not only did t5(+1) not need tethering to the template, but a primer was not needed either as t5(+1) had the ability to polymerize a template in both 3' → 5' and 5' 3 → 3' directions. A highly evolved RNA polymerase ribozyme was able of function as a reverse transcriptase, that is, it can synthesize a DNA copy using an RNA template. Such an activity is considered to have been crucial for the transition from RNA to DNA genomes during the early history of life on earth. Reverse transcription capability could have arisen as a secondary function of an early RNA dependent RNA polymerase ribozyme. An RNA sequence that folds into a ribozyme capable of invading duplexed RNA, rearranging into an open holopolymerase complex and then searching for a specific RNA promoter sequence, and upon recognition rearrange again into a processive form that polymerizes a complementary strand of the sequence. This ribozyme is capable of extending duplexed RNA by up to 107 nucleotides, and does so without needing to tether the sequence being polymerized. Artificial ribozymes Since the discovery of ribozymes that exist in living organisms, there has been interest in the study of new synthetic ribozymes made in the laboratory. For example, artificially-produced self-cleaving RNAs that have good enzymatic activity have been produced. Tang and Breaker isolated self-cleaving RNAs by in vitro selection of RNAs originating from random-sequence RNAs. Some of the synthetic ribozymes that were produced had novel structures, while some were similar to the naturally occurring hammerhead ribozyme. In 2015, researchers at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois at Chicago have engineered a tethered ribosome that works nearly as well as the authentic cellular component that produces all the proteins and enzymes within the cell. Called Ribosome-T, or Ribo-T, the artificial ribosome was created by Michael Jewett and Alexander Mankin. The techniques used to create artificial ribozymes involve directed evolution. This approach takes advantage of RNA's dual nature as both a catalyst and an informational polymer, making it easy for an investigator to produce vast populations of RNA catalysts using polymerase enzymes. The ribozymes are mutated by reverse transcribing them with reverse transcriptase into various cDNA and amplified with error-prone PCR. The selection parameters in these experiments often differ. One approach for selecting a ligase ribozyme involves using biotin tags, which are covalently linked to the substrate. If a molecule possesses the desired ligase activity, a streptavidin matrix can be used to recover the active molecules. Lincoln and Joyce used in vitro evolution to develop ribozyme ligases capable of self-replication in about an hour, via the joining of pre-synthesized highly complementary oligonucleotides. Although not true catalysts, the creation of artificial self-cleaving riboswitches, termed aptazymes, has also been an active area of research. Riboswitches are regulatory RNA motifs that change their structure in response to a small molecule ligand to regulate translation. While there are many known natural riboswitches that bind a wide array of metabolites and other small organic molecules, only one ribozyme based on a riboswitch has been described, glmS. Early work in characterizing self-cleaving riboswitches was focused on using theophylline as the ligand. In these studies an RNA hairpin is formed which blocks the ribosome binding site, thus inhibiting translation. In the presence of the ligand, in these cases theophylline, the regulatory RNA region is cleaved off, allowing the ribosome to bind and translate the target gene. Much of this RNA engineering work was based on rational design and previously determined RNA structures rather than directed evolution as in the above examples. More recent work has broadened the ligands used in ribozyme riboswitches to include thymine pyrophosphate (2). Fluorescence-activated cell sorting has also been used to engineering aptazymes. Applications Ribozymes have been proposed and developed for the treatment of disease through gene therapy (3). One major challenge of using RNA based enzymes as a therapeutic is the short half-life of the catalytic RNA molecules in the body. To combat this, the 2’ position on the ribose is modified to improve RNA stability. One area of ribozyme gene therapy has been the inhibition of RNA-based viruses. A type of synthetic ribozyme directed against HIV RNA called gene shears has been developed and has entered clinical testing for HIV infection. Similarly, ribozymes have been designed to target the hepatitis C virus RNA, SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), Adenovirus and influenza A and B virus RNA. The ribozyme is able to cleave the conserved regions of the virus's genome which has been shown to reduce the virus in mammalian cell culture. Despite these efforts by researchers, these projects have remained in the preclinical stage. Known ribozymes Well validated naturally occurring ribozyme classes: GIR1 branching ribozyme glmS ribozyme Group I self-splicing intron Group II self-splicing intron - Spliceosome is likely derived from Group II self-splicing ribozymes. Hairpin ribozyme Hammerhead ribozyme HDV ribozyme rRNA - Found in all living cells and links amino acids to form proteins. RNase P Twister ribozyme Twister sister ribozyme VS ribozyme Pistol ribozyme Hatchet ribozyme Viroids See also Deoxyribozyme Spiegelman Monster Catalysis Enzyme RNA world hypothesis Peptide nucleic acid Nucleic acid analogues PAH world hypothesis SELEX OLE RNA Notes and references Further reading External links Tom Cech's Short Talk: "Discovering Ribozymes" RNA Catalysts Biomolecules Metabolism Chemical kinetics RNA splicing	[ -0.06962613016366959, 0.9180203080177307, -0.357299268245697, -0.2934403419494629, -0.14117418229579926, -0.3653135597705841, 0.19007769227027893, 0.32081338763237, 0.11934047937393188, -0.650663435459137, -0.15695317089557648, 0.3271616995334625, -0.7676391005516052, 0.6821668744087219, 0.08237191289663315, 0.6494550108909607, -0.06572695076465607, 0.7234277129173279, 0.14780466258525848, -0.2410499006509781, -0.298727422952652, -0.10046381503343582, 0.5194534659385681, 0.07760202884674072, 0.5803132057189941, -0.4581005573272705, 0.3203478455543518, 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237134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%2C%20Texas%20%28film%29	Paris, Texas (film)	Paris, Texas is a 1984 road movie directed by Wim Wenders and starring Harry Dean Stanton, Dean Stockwell, Nastassja Kinski, Aurore Clément and Hunter Carson. The screenplay was written by L. M. Kit Carson and playwright Sam Shepard, while the musical score was composed by Ry Cooder. The film is a co-production between companies in France and West Germany, and was shot in the United States by Robby Müller. The plot focuses on a vagabond named Travis (Stanton) who, after mysteriously wandering out of the desert in a dissociative fugue, attempts to reunite with his brother (Stockwell) and seven-year-old son (Carson). After reconnecting with his son, Travis and the boy end up embarking on a voyage through the American Southwest to track down Travis' long-missing wife (Kinski). At the 1984 Cannes Film Festival, it won the Palme d'Or from the official jury, as well as the FIPRESCI Prize and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. It went on to other honors and critical acclaim. Plot Travis Henderson walks alone through the West Texas desert in a fugue state, before stumbling into a bar and losing consciousness. A German doctor examines him and determines he is mute, but discovers he possesses a telephone number and calls it. The call is answered by Walt Henderson, Travis' brother from Los Angeles. Walt has not seen or had contact with Travis for four years, and agrees to travel to Terlingua, Texas, to retrieve him. His French wife, Anne, is concerned about the matter, as they have informally adopted Travis' son Hunter, with Hunter's biological mother Jane also missing. Walt reaches Terlingua, and finds Travis wandering from the clinic where he was found. The two brothers begin driving back to Los Angeles. With Walt becoming increasingly frustrated with Travis' muteness, Travis finally utters the name "Paris", asking to go there. Walt mistakenly assumes he means Paris, France. Farther down the road, Travis shows Walt a photograph of empty property in Paris, Texas, which he had purchased, believing he was conceived in that town. The brothers reach Los Angeles where Travis is reunited with Anne and Hunter. Hunter, aged seven, has very little memory of his father, and is wary of Travis until the family watches home movies from days when they were all together. Hunter realizes that Travis still loves Jane. As Hunter and Travis become reacquainted, Anne reveals to Travis that Jane has had contact with her, and makes monthly deposits into a bank account for Hunter. Anne has traced the deposits to a bank in Houston. Travis realizes he can possibly see Jane if he is at the Houston bank on the day of the next deposit, only a few days away. He acquires a cheap vehicle and borrows money from Walt. When he tells Hunter he is leaving, Hunter wishes to go with him, though he does not have Walt or Anne's permission. Travis and Hunter drive to Houston, while Hunter recounts the Big Bang and the origins of Earth. A couple of hours after arriving at the Houston bank, Hunter identifies his mother in a car, making a drive-in deposit. He calls for Travis via walkie-talkie, and they follow her car to a peep-show club where she works. While Hunter waits outside, Travis goes in, finding the business has rooms with one-way mirrors, where clients converse with strippers via telephone. He eventually sees Jane, though she cannot see him, and leaves. The next day, Travis leaves Hunter at the Méridien Hotel in downtown Houston, with a message that he feels obliged to reunite mother and son, as he feels responsible for separating them in the first place. Travis returns to the peep show. Seeing Jane again, and with her seemingly unaware of who he is, he tells her a story, ostensibly about other people. He describes a man and younger girl who meet, marry and have a child. When the child is born, the wife suffers from postpartum blues and dreams of escaping from the family. The husband descends into alcoholism and becomes abusive, imprisoning her in the trailer they live in. After a failed attempt to escape, the man ties the woman to the trailer stove and goes to bed, dreaming of withdrawing to an unknown place "without language or streets" while his wife and child scream from the kitchen. He wakes up to find the trailer on fire and his family gone, and in despair runs for five days until leaving civilization entirely. Jane realizes she is speaking with Travis, and that he is recounting the story of their relationship. He tells her that Hunter is in Houston and needs his mother. Jane has longed to be reunited with her boy, and that night, enters the hotel room where Hunter is waiting, while Travis watches from the parking lot. As Jane embraces Hunter, Travis climbs into his vehicle and drives away. Cast In order of their appearance Production Development West German director Wim Wenders had travelled to the United States and stated he wished "to tell a story about America". The film is named for the Texas city of Paris, but not set there in any scene. Instead, Paris is referred to as the location of a vacant lot owned by Travis that is seen in a photograph, and is used as a metaphor. Wenders had taken photographs like it while location scouting in the western U.S. earlier in his career, photographing locations such as Las Vegas and Corpus Christi, Texas. Screenwriter Sam Shepard met Wenders to discuss writing and/or acting for Wenders' project Hammett. Shepard said he was uninterested in writing Hammett, but they considered loosely adapting Shepard's Motel Chronicles, and developed a story of brothers, one having lost his memory. Their script grew to 160 pages, as the brother-brother relationship lessened in importance, and numerous endings were considered. Little of the funding for the project originated from Germany. The film shares similar traits to Wenders' 1974 film Alice in the Cities (Alice in den Städten). Casting Harry Dean Stanton had appeared in 100 films before Paris, Texas, with small roles in Cool Hand Luke and a large part in Repo Man, which came out the same year as Paris, Texas. He embraced the leading part of Travis, saying "After all these years, I finally got the part I wanted to play". However, Wenders also said Stanton was unsure of his part, and the age disparity between himself and the younger Nastassja Kinski (he was 34 years older). Wenders stated he had discovered Dean Stockwell as he was prepared to quit acting, finding no desirable roles and considering beginning a career in real estate. Hunter Carson was the son of co-screenwriter L. M. Kit Carson, and agreed to act while accompanied by his mother, Karen Black, who helped him memorize the dialogue. Kinski wrote a diary for the character Jane to develop her backstory, imagining her emigrating from Europe, and getting more affection from Travis than she had from anyone. According to Stockwell, his character in early drafts was intended to travel with Hunter, Travis and Anne before Anne turned back to Los Angeles and Walt became lost in the desert, paralleling Travis in the first scene. Stockwell and Aurore Clément's parts were later reduced. Filming Wenders said the film, shot in only four to five weeks, with only a small group working the last weeks, was very short and fast. There was a break in shooting during which time the script was completed. Filmmaker Allison Anders worked as a production assistant on the film, while Claire Denis served as assistant director. Filming largely occurred in Fort Stockton and Marathon in the Trans-Pecos region of west Texas. The film marked Wenders' first time avoiding storyboarding completely, going straight to rehearsals on location before shooting. Shooting had already started in 1983 when the screenplay was still incomplete, with the objective of filming in the order of the story. Shepard planned to base the rest of the story on the actors' observations and their understanding of the characters. However, when Shepard moved on to another job, he sent Wenders notes on how the screenplay should end instead. Shepard credited Wenders and L. M. Kit Carson with the idea of a peep show and the story's final acts. The filmmakers opted not to portray a realistic peep show, as they needed a format that allowed for more communication between the characters. Kinski could not see anyone, only a mirror, in the peep show scenes, and said this created a genuine feeling of solitude. Challenges arose when the film ran short of finances, but Wenders was encouraged when they completed the scene with Kinski, remarking, "it dawned on me that we were going to touch people in a big way. I was a little scared by the idea". Themes and interpretation Robert Phillip Kolker and Peter Beickene wrote the film presents the U.S. as "a fantasyland, a place of striking images, a mise-en-scène of desert and city". Aside from the landscape, there are references to U.S. culture and film, and similarities to John Ford's 1956 film The Searchers. Academic Roger Cook argued there is a connection between the character of Travis and his surroundings observable on the ride to California. The character gradually moves from the "desolate" to civilization, and Travis continually tries to break away from this difficult transition. His vehicles of choice possibly also reflect his characterization, as his preferred rental car has a bump, and he switches to a clearly used 1958 Ford Ranchero for his return to Texas. Thomas Elsaesser discussed how Paris, Texas fit in with Wenders' depiction of women, saying many of the travels in his filmography are to find a particular woman. In the case of Paris, Texas, this is with the aim of "escaping her 'now' in order to find her as she was 'then'". Kolker and Beickene commented on the lack of touch, or even "emotional fulfillment" between Travis and Jane at the end, aside from their faces merging in the glass and their discussions of their emotions. Marc Silberman examined how personal identity is also a theme in the film, as the name "Paris" is deceptive, conjuring images of France but referring to Texas. This is evident in what Travis refers to as "Daddy's joke" about Travis' mother being from Paris, and his belief that he was conceived there causes him to believe going there will achieve self-realization. Elsaesser believed the ending signified Travis sending Hunter in his stead to reunite with Jane. Elsaesser found this to be an example of a complicated system in which various characters see each other through fantasy, and remake each other as they desire. Travis' father had seen his mother as a Parisian, and this became "a sickness". Cook opined that returning to the sanctuary of the road is Travis' response to having suffered the worst modern American experience, turning his son over to the boy's mother. Stan Jones suggested the story involves a European theory on perception, as Travis evolves as a character from the one who perceives, to a driving force, returning to perceiving, and then withdrawing. Jones quoted French critic Jean-Louis Comolli: "Never passive, a spectator works". The ending can also suggest hope for a fresh start for Jane and Hunter. Wenders himself said it marked a beginning for the next chapter in his own filmography, explaining Travis' exit: "This scene for me had a liberating effect ... I let him disappear in my own way, and all my previous male characters went with him. They have all taken up residence in a retirement home on the outskirts of Paris, Texas". Paris, Texas belongs in the road movie genre, but The Guardian critic Guy Lodge suggested it could also be considered a western film. Stan Jones noted Mark Luprecht had classified Paris, Texas as a tragedy and had detected Oedipal themes in its depiction of family. Style Paris, Texas is notable for its images of the Texas landscape and climate. Wenders had emphasized roads in his earlier works, particularly his Road Movie trilogy, to depict "characters' journeys", with the setting of Texas removing the cultural boundaries of Europe. The opening gives a aerial perspective of the dry desert. Critic Emanuel Levy noted the shots that follow of "billboards, placards, graffiti, rusty iron carcasses, old railway lines, neon signs, motels". The film's production design was by Kate Altman. Cinematographer Robby Müller had frequently worked with Wenders, and the photography in Paris, Texas is characteristic of Müller's style, which director Steve McQueen defined as "a visual language to capture what appear to be men falling to their deaths in slow motion". Senses of Cinema critic Lee Hill also compared it to the art of Edward Hopper and Edward Ruscha. The film is accompanied by a slide-guitar score by Ry Cooder, employing Blind Willie Johnson's "Dark Was the Night, Cold Was the Ground", which Cooder hailed as "the most transcendent piece in all American music". Screen International editor Nick Roddick wrote the music gives "a quality of yearning to the bleakness of the landscape". In 2018, Cooder revealed a specific source of inspiration during an interview on BBC Radio 4: "[Wenders] did a very good job at capturing the ambience out there in the desert, just letting the microphones ... get tones and sound from the desert itself, which I discovered was in the key of E♭ ... that's the wind, it was nice. So we tuned everything to E♭". Release Paris, Texas competed at the 1984 Cannes Film Festival, with Wenders claiming that Stanton was so anxious about Cannes that they hired Sean Penn to assist with Stanton's preparations for the screening. Roddick remarked on how the film's affectionate portrayal of the U.S. was well received by European filmmakers at Cannes at a time of high anti-Americanism, given the presidency of Ronald Reagan. Conflicts between Wenders' Road Movies company and distributor Filmverlag over how many copies of Paris, Texas should be released in West Germany following Cannes caused it to be initially denied a theatrical release there, so bus tours were launched to transport German viewers to Zürich for showings. Road Movies launched a lawsuit to sever ties with Filmverlag, and the film reached West German theatres eight months later. It was screened at the Sundance Film Festival in 1985 and again in 2006 as part of the Sundance Collection category. It returned to Cannes for the Cannes Classics section of the 2014 Festival, after being restored by Cinepost. The film has been released on DVD and Blu-ray in Region 1 by The Criterion Collection. Reception Critical reception Roger Ebert gave the film four stars, writing "Paris, Texas is a movie with the kind of passion and willingness to experiment that was more common fifteen years ago than it is now. It has more links with films like Five Easy Pieces and Easy Rider and Midnight Cowboy, than with the slick arcade games that are the box-office winners of the 1980s. It is true, deep, and brilliant". Varietys Holly Willis praised the cinematography, and credited Wenders for a worthy European portrait of the U.S. Vincent Canby of The New York Times gave the film a mixed review, writing, "The film is wonderful and funny and full of real emotion as it details the means by which Travis and the boy become reconciled. Then it goes flying out the car window when father and son decide to take off for Texas in search of Jane". David Denby criticized Paris, Texas in New York, calling it "lifeless" and a "fiasco". Texas Monthly boasted Paris, Texas was "The hottest Texas town in France", noting Le Monde placed a rave review of the film on its first page. It has had an enduring legacy among critics and film aficionados. In 2015, Guy Lodge of The Guardian named it a favorite Palme d'Or-winner, while Texas Monthly included it in its Best Texas Movies list for its depiction of Marathon, Texas. During the same year, Paris, Texas appeared on a posthumous list of Akira Kurosawa's 100 favorite movies. In 2016, Entertainment Weekly also included it in The 25 Best Texas Movies, while The Texas Observer critic Michael Agresta credited it with creating "a certain flavor of Texas cool". However, that year The Hollywood Reporter argued its prestige had lessened somewhat, naming it the 44th best Palme d'Or-winner to date. Paris, Texas has a 94% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, based on 49 reviews with an average rating of 8.2 out of 10. The website's critical consensus reads, "A quiet yet deeply moving kind of Western, Paris, Texas captures a place and people like never before (or after)". Accolades At Cannes, the film won three prizes: the Palme d'Or, the FIPRESCI Prize, and the Prize of the Ecumenical Jury. The decision from the main jury on the Palme d'Or was unanimous, with one of the members being French cinematographer Henri Alekan. Legacy The Irish rock group U2 cited Paris, Texas as an inspiration for their album The Joshua Tree. The Scottish bands Travis and Texas both took their names from this film. Musicians Kurt Cobain and Elliott Smith said this was their favorite film of all time. The film has also influenced later directors, with David Robert Mitchell, who made It Follows (2014), saying the aesthetics in its framing and composition were instructive. Wes Anderson was also inspired by Wenders' home movie scene with the photographs of the dead wife in The Royal Tenenbaums (2001). In 1986, the photography Wenders took on his location scout for Paris, Texas was exhibited at the Centre Georges Pompidou in Paris, France, under the title Written in the West. In 2000, these were published in a book also titled Written in the West, with additional material in Written in the West, Revisited in 2015. References Bibliography External links Paris, Texas: On the Road Again an essay by Nick Roddick at the Criterion Collection 1984 drama films 1980s drama road movies 1984 films American drama road movies American films English-language films English-language German films English-language French films Films about domestic violence Films about atonement Films scored by Ry Cooder Films directed by Wim Wenders Films produced by Anatole Dauman Films set in Houston Films set in Texas Films set in Los Angeles Films shot in Houston Films shot in Texas Films shot in Los Angeles Films whose director won the Best Direction BAFTA Award French drama road movies French independent films French films German drama road movies German independent films Palme d'Or winners Paris, Texas Films with screenplays by Sam Shepard West German films 1984 independent films	[ 0.025104504078626633, 0.4372304677963257, -0.07968731224536896, -0.0034705770667642355, 0.6399412155151367, 0.1794348508119583, 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237135	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarlet%20ibis	Scarlet ibis	The scarlet ibis (Eudocimus ruber) is a species of ibis in the bird family Threskiornithidae. It inhabits tropical South America and part of the Caribbean. In form, it resembles most of the other twenty-seven extant species of ibis, but its remarkably brilliant scarlet coloration makes it unmistakable. It is one of the two national birds of Trinidad and Tobago, and its Tupi–Guarani name, guará, is part of the name of several municipalities along the coast of Brazil. This medium-sized wader is a hardy, numerous, and prolific bird, and it has protected status around the world. Its IUCN status is Least Concern. The legitimacy of Eudocimus ruber as a biological classification, however, is in dispute. Traditional Linnaean taxonomy classifies it as a unique species, but some scientists have moved to reclassify it as a subspecies of a more general American ibis species, along with its close relative, the American white ibis (Eudocimus albus). Taxonomy The species was first classified by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Initially given the binomial nomenclature of Scolopax rubra (the name incorporates the Latin adjective ruber, "red"), the species was later designated Guara rubra and ultimately Eudocimus ruber. Biologically the scarlet ibis is very closely related to the American white ibis (Eudocimus albus) and is sometimes considered conspecific with it, leaving modern science divided over their taxonomy. The two birds each have exactly the same bones, claws, beaks, feather arrangements and other features – their one marked difference lies in their pigmentation. Traditional taxonomy has regarded the two as separate and distinct. Early ornithological field research revealed no natural crossbreeding among the red and white, lending support to the two-species viewpoint. More recent observation, however, has documented significant crossbreeding and hybridization in the wild. Researchers Cristina Ramo and Benjamin Busto found evidence of interbreeding in a population where the ranges of the scarlet and white ibises overlap along the coast and in the Llanos in Colombia and Venezuela. They observed individuals of the two species mating and pairing, as well as hybrid ibises with pale orange plumage, or white plumage with occasional orange feathers, and have proposed that these birds be classified as a single species. Hybridization has been known to occur frequently in captivity. However, the two color forms persist in the wild despite overlapping ranges and hybrid offspring having a distinctive color type, so according to the cohesion species concept they would be functionally different species. Some biologists now wish to pair them with Eudocimus albus as two subspecies of the same American ibis. Others simply define both of them as one and the same species, with ruber being a color variation of albus. Description Adult plumage is virtually all scarlet. The feathers may show various tints and shades, but only the tips of their wings deviate from their namesake color. A small but reliable marking, these wingtips are a rich inky black (or occasionally dark blue) and are found only on the longest primaries – otherwise the birds' coloration is "a vivid orange-red, almost luminous in quality." Scarlet ibises have red bills and feet however the bill is sometimes blackish, especially toward the end. They have a long, narrow, decurved bill. Their legs and neck are long and extended in flight. A juvenile scarlet ibis is a mix of grey, brown, and white. As it grows, a heavy diet of red crustaceans produces the scarlet coloration. The color change begins with the juvenile's second moult, around the time it begins to fly: the change starts on the back and spreads gradually across the body while increasing in intensity over a period of about two years. The scarlet ibis is the only shorebird with red coloration in the world. Adults are long, and the males, slightly larger than females, typically weigh about . Their bills are also on average around 22% longer than those of females. The life span of the scarlet ibis is approximately sixteen years in the wild and twenty years in captivity. An adult scarlet ibis has a wingspan of around . Though it spends most of its time on foot or wading through water, the bird is a very strong flyer: they are highly migratory and easily capable of long-distance flight. They move as flocks in a classic V formation. Distribution and habitat The range of the scarlet ibis is very large, and colonies are found throughout vast areas of South America and the Caribbean islands. Native flocks exist in Brazil; Colombia; French Guiana; Guyana; Suriname; and Venezuela, as well as the islands of the Netherlands Antilles, and Trinidad and Tobago. Flocks gather in wetlands and other marshy habitats, including mud flats, shoreline and rainforest. Outlying colonies have been identified in the coastal areas of the states of Espírito Santo, Rio de Janeiro, São Paulo (for example in the Santos-Cubatão mangroves of the Baixada Santista district), Paraná and Santa Catarina. In recent years, bird colonies can be seen as far south as in the coastal areas of Joinville and the island of São Francisco do Sul. The highest concentrations are found in the Llanos region of western Venezuela and eastern Colombia. The fertile and remote tropical grassland plain of the Llanos provides a safe haven far from human encroachment. Together with its relative the bare-faced ibis, the scarlet ibis is remarkably prolific and conspicuous in the region. Scarlet ibis vagrants have been identified in Belize, Ecuador, and Panama; Aruba, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada, and Jamaica; sightings have even been made in the United States. The species may well have been a natural vagrant to the Gulf Coast in the 19th century or earlier – in The Birds of America, John James Audubon made brief remarks regarding three rubra specimens he encountered in Louisiana. However, virtually all modern occurrences of the species in North America have been introduced or escaped birds. In one notable example from 1962, scarlet ibis eggs were placed in white ibis nests in Florida's Greynolds Park, and the resulting population hybridised easily, producing "pink ibises" that are still occasionally seen. Behavior Breeding Mating pairs build nests in a simple style, typically "loose platforms of sticks" of a quality sometimes described as "artless". They roost in leaf canopies, mostly preferring the convenient shelter of young waterside mangrove trees. Scarlet ibises like wet, muddy areas such as swamps, but for safety they build their nests in trees well above the water. If they can, they nest on islands, where their eggs and chicks are less likely to be in danger from predators. To attract a female, the male will perform a variety of mating rituals such as "preening, shaking, bill popping, head rubbing, and high flights. As with most birds, mating does not involve any coupling or insertion: instead, a transfer of seminal fluids occurs during external contact between the cloacal openings. After a gestation period of five to six days, the female lays a clutch of three to five smooth, matte eggs which typically incubate for 19–23 days. After a successful courtship, pairs remain faithful and cohabitant, sharing parental responsibilities for the young. In southeastern Brazil, the ibises gather in colonies in mid-September and build nests at the beginning of November. Egg laying within the colony was synchronous, with female birds laying eggs in three waves in early November, late December and late January. Feeding Their distinctive long, thin bills are used to probe for food in soft mud or under plants. Popularly imagined to be eating only shrimp, a recent study in the Llanos has found that much of their diet consists of insects, of which the majority were scarabs and ground beetles. One species in particular, a scarab beetle Dyscinetus dubius, formed a large part of the diet. Other insect prey include water beetles and water bugs. In contrast, the diet of the co-occurring American white ibis there differed, the latter consuming more bugs, fish and crustaceans. They do, however, eat much shrimp and other similar fare like small crabs, mollusks and other crustaceans, such as crayfish. The large quantity of shrimp and other red shellfish produces a surfeit of astaxanthin, a carotenoid which is the key component of the birds' red pigmentation. Frogs, small snakes, small fish, fruits and seeds are also occasional prey items for scarlet ibises. When kept in zoos, the birds' diet often contains beetroot and carrot supplement to maintain color vibrancy in their plumage. The Llanos are notable in that these wetland plains support seven species of ibis in the one region. Here, scarlet ibis are the most aggressive, and attack other species to steal their food. They have also been observed trailing white-faced whistling ducks (Dendrocygna viduata) and domestic livestock, and catching insects disturbed by them. Social behavior The scarlet ibis is a sociable and gregarious bird, and very communally-minded regarding the search for food and the protection of the young. They live in flocks of thirty or more. Members stay close, and mating pairs arrange their nests in close proximity to other pairs in the same tree. For protection, flocks often congregate in large colonies of several thousand individuals. They also regularly participate in mixed flocks, gaining additional safety through numbers: storks, spoonbills, egrets, herons and ducks are all common companions during feedings and flights. Status The species has protected status throughout the world, and the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified the scarlet ibis as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. Though several local populations appear to be in decline, global totals remain relatively large and the current rate of losses is not considered a threat to the species' survival. Nonetheless, recent losses by established populations in French Guiana have become a concern for conservationists, and in Brazil the bird has been included on a national list of endangered species. Relationship with humans The scarlet ibis and the cocrico are the national birds of Trinidad and Tobago. Both birds are featured on the coat of arms of Trinidad and Tobago. The cocrico is found on Tobago, Venezuela and Colombia. The scarlet ibis is associated with Trinidad; there are not documented records of the scarlet ibis on Tobago for the last fifteen years. An important local habitat for the scarlet ibis is the wildlife sanctuary of Caroni Swamp of Trinidad, a wetland reserve first designated in 1953 specifically to provide a habitat for the scarlet ibis. Using the bird as a literary symbol, American author James Hurst composed a popular short story, "The Scarlet Ibis" (1960). A more recent short story, "Scarlet Ibis" by Margaret Atwood, is included in Bluebeard's Egg (1983). The name also belongs to a book of verse by American poet Susan Hahn. References Further reading Journey to Red Birds by Jan Lindblad (New York: Hill and Wang; 1969). External links Scarlet ibis photo gallery scarlet ibis Birds of Brazil Birds of Venezuela Birds of the Netherlands Antilles Birds of Trinidad and Tobago Birds of the Guianas Birds of Colombia National symbols of Trinidad and Tobago scarlet ibis Birds of the Amazon Basin scarlet ibis Articles containing video clips	[ -0.3297477066516876, 0.013404040597379208, -1.5102852582931519, -0.4106645882129669, -0.1707756221294403, 0.48762908577919006, 0.3396054208278656, 0.6181919574737549, -0.22945484519004822, -0.5565325021743774, -0.22490230202674866, 0.23520365357398987, -0.8540484309196472, -0.04640032723546028, -0.1085461899638176, 0.7245921492576599, 0.40992471575737, 0.16046135127544403, 0.5142385959625244, -0.10021603852510452, -0.16319939494132996, -0.42264676094055176, -0.40709275007247925, -0.473046213388443, 0.528203010559082, 0.11859668046236038, 0.1638869345188141, 0.5404466986656189, 0.1488722562789917, 0.08685705065727234, -0.027286471799016, 0.7210031747817993, 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237136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RIT%20%28disambiguation%29	RIT (disambiguation)	RIT is a common abbreviated name for Rochester Institute of Technology in Rochester, New York, USA. RIT or rit may also refer to: Business Recherche et Industrie Thérapeutiques, the former name of what is now GlaxoSmithKline Biologicals in Belgium Rede Internacional de Televisão, a Brazilian religious television channel RiT Technologies, a company specializing in structured cabling management systems Rothschild Investment Trust, now RIT Capital Partners, a large British investment trust Education Rajalakshmi Institute of Technology, a college in Tamil Nadu, India Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Technology, Kottayam Rourkela Institute of Technology, Kalunga, Orissa, India Royal Institute of Thailand, the office of Royal Society of Thailand Rochester Institute of Technology, a private research university in the town of Henrietta in the Rochester, New York metropolitan area. Medicine Radioimmunotherapy, radioisotope therapy with monoclonal antibodies Radioisotope therapy, a form of radiation therapy Rit (protein), a member of the ras superfamily of proteins Music Recording Industry Foundation in Taiwan, the organization representing the music industry in Taiwan Rit's House, a 2002 album by Lee Ritenour rit., abbreviation for ritardando or ritenuto Transit Rede Integrada de Transporte, a bus rapid transit system in Curitiba, Brazil Riffelalp tram (RiT), a mountain tram line near Zermatt, Switzerland Roosevelt Island Tramway, a tram connecting Manhattan and Roosevelt Island in New York City Other uses Rapid intervention team, firefighter assist and search team See also Ritt	[ 0.6335926651954651, 0.22309668362140656, -0.12198510020971298, 0.3112398087978363, 0.32804369926452637, 0.48148074746131897, -0.03740973025560379, -0.07900922000408173, -0.22392702102661133, -0.19522757828235626, -0.10387153178453445, 0.02494438737630844, 0.12599167227745056, 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237137	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%20would%20Jesus%20do%3F	What would Jesus do?	The phrase "What would Jesus do?", often abbreviated to WWJD, became popular particularly in the United States in the late 1800s after the widely read book by Charles Sheldon entitled, In His Steps: What Would Jesus Do. The phrase had a resurgence in the US and elsewhere in the 1990s and as a personal motto for adherents of Christianity who used the phrase as a reminder of their belief in a moral imperative to act in a manner that would demonstrate the love of Jesus through the actions of the adherents. In popular consciousness, the acronym signifying the question—WWJD—is associated with a type of bracelet or wristband which became a popular accessory for members of Christian youth groups, both Catholic and Protestant, in the 1990s. History Theological background The Roman Catholic Church emphasizes the concept of Imitatio Christi (imitation of Christ), which is summarized well in the English phrase "What Would Jesus Do?" John Wesley, the founder of the Methodist Church, in 1766 postulated the concept of Christian perfection, a moment in the life of a Christian at which the regeneration effectuated by the Holy Spirit results in a "perfection in love" which means that at least at that moment one is being motivated wholly by love of God and neighbor, with no taint of sin or ulterior motives in effect. While such Christian perfection is expressed in outward action, it is also the effect of grace. Indeed, Wesley could speak of sanctification by faith as an analogous doctrine to the more widely held belief in justification by faith. Because Christian perfection is also visible in outward good works and a rigorously moral lifestyle, adherents of the Holiness movement assumed that a perfectly moral lifestyle is a consequence (not the cause) of the state of grace and ultimate salvation. Earlier appearances of the term, 1420s–1891 Charles Spurgeon, a well-known evangelical Baptist preacher in London, used the phrase "what would Jesus do" in quotation marks several times in a sermon he gave on June 28, 1891. In his sermon he cites the source of the phrase as a book written in Latin by Thomas à Kempis between 1418 and 1427, Imitatio Christi (The Imitation of Christ). The Rev. A.B. Simpson, founder of the Christian and Missionary Alliance Church, wrote both the lyrics and music of a Gospel Hymn "What Would Jesus Do" with a copyright date of 1891. It can be found at #669 in Hymns of the Christian Life. 1896 novel Charles Sheldon's 1896 book In His Steps was subtitled "What Would Jesus Do?" Sheldon's novel grew out of a series of sermons he delivered in his Congregationalist church in Topeka, Kansas. Unlike the previous nuances mentioned above, Sheldon's theology was shaped by a commitment to Christian Socialism. The ethos of Sheldon's approach to the Christian life was expressed in this phrase "What Would Jesus Do", with Jesus being a moral example as well as a Saviour figure. Sheldon's ideas coalesced with those that formed into the Social Gospel espoused by Walter Rauschenbusch. Indeed, Rauschenbusch acknowledged that his Social Gospel owed its inspiration directly to Sheldon's novel, and Sheldon himself identified his own theology with the Social Gospel. Due to a mistake by the original publisher, the copyright for Sheldon's novel was never established and multiple publishers were able to print and sell the novel. This caused the novel to be easily affordable and it sold 30 million copies worldwide, making it one of the top 50 bestselling novels ever. In this popular novel (it had been translated into 21 languages by 1935), Rev. Henry Maxwell encounters a homeless man who challenges him to take seriously the imitation of Christ. The homeless man has difficulty understanding why, in his view, so many Christians ignore the poor: I heard some people singing at a church prayer meeting the other night, "All for Jesus, all for Jesus, All my being's ransomed powers, All my thoughts, and all my doings, All my days, and all my hours." and I kept wondering as I sat on the steps outside just what they meant by it. It seems to me there's an awful lot of trouble in the world that somehow wouldn't exist if all the people who sing such songs went and lived them out. I suppose I don't understand. But what would Jesus do? Is that what you mean by following His steps? It seems to me sometimes as if the people in the big churches had good clothes and nice houses to live in, and money to spend for luxuries, and could go away on summer vacations and all that, while the people outside the churches, thousands of them, I mean, die in tenements, and walk the streets for jobs, and never have a piano or a picture in the house, and grow up in misery and drunkenness and sin." This leads to many of the novel's characters asking, "What would Jesus do?" when faced with decisions of some importance. This has the effect of making the characters embrace Christianity more seriously and to focus on what they see as its core — the life of Christ. In 1993, Garrett W. Sheldon (great-grandson of the original author) and Deborah Morris published What Would Jesus Do? : a contemporary retelling of Charles M. Sheldon's classic In His Steps. Garrett Sheldon states that his updated version "is based on many actual events in the lives of believers." It is possible that Sheldon was familiar with either Spurgeon or Thomas, or that he was independently inspired. 1990s A youth group leader at Calvary Reformed Church in Holland, Michigan, named Janie Tinklenberg, began a grassroots movement to help the teenagers in her group remember the phrase; it spread worldwide in the 1990s among Christian youth, who wore bracelets bearing the initials WWJD. Later, a sequel bracelet was generated with the initials "FROG," to provide an answer to "WWJD." FROG was an acronym for "Fully Rely On God." 2000s In 2005, Garry Wills wrote "What Jesus Meant", in which he examined "What Would Jesus Really Do" (also a book review in Esquire Magazine). 2010s In April 2010 a film, WWJD, starring Adam Gregory and based on In His Steps by Charles Sheldon, was released on DVD. On March 31, 2015, a sequel film was released WWJD What Would Jesus Do? The Journey Continues. The second film using the moniker WWJD II was The Woodcarver which was released in 2012. It has a similar theme but different characters. Parodies The expression has become a snowclone, sometimes for humorous effect. For example, What Would Jesus Buy?, "What Would Lincoln Do?", "What Would Brian Boitano Do?", "What Would Mary Marvel Do?", "What Would Johnny Cash Do?", and "What would Tintin do?". Management and leadership The term "What Would Jesus Do?" or "WWJD" is also perceived as a fundamental management and leadership principle given Jesus' methodology of going to the marketplace to preach and lead by example. In modern management principles, more academic and professional references are going to the gemba or Management by Walking Around. See also Christian ethics Choose the right Jesusism The Law of Christ Ministry of Jesus Sermon on the Mount References 1990s fads and trends Cultural depictions of Jesus English phrases Slogans Snowclones 1890s neologisms	[ 0.5694689750671387, 0.6351853609085083, -0.7128590941429138, -0.3344975709915161, -0.26353147625923157, 0.1355687528848648, 1.0318830013275146, 0.2949787378311157, -0.11295770853757858, -0.284049391746521, -0.03370649740099907, 0.1512402594089508, -0.26751360297203064, 0.6560326218605042, -0.10210316628217697, 0.30353546142578125, 0.535564661026001, 0.78513503074646, -0.009113659150898457, -0.3968292772769928, -0.33218106627464294, -0.1354873925447464, 0.02299663983285427, -0.25354480743408203, 0.07516214996576309, -0.24525611102581024, 0.4880830943584442, -0.7912083864212036, 0.07894286513328552, 0.11855510622262955, 0.5384504199028015, 0.20062823593616486, 0.3107074499130249, -0.3638412058353424, -0.19186931848526, 0.027189433574676514, 0.25980257987976074, 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237138	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossy%20ibis	Glossy ibis	The glossy ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) is a water bird in the order Pelecaniformes and the ibis and spoonbill family Threskiornithidae. The scientific name derives from Ancient Greek plegados and Latin, falcis, both meaning "sickle" and referring to the distinctive shape of the bill. Distribution This is the most widespread ibis species, breeding in scattered sites in warm regions of Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Atlantic and Caribbean regions of the Americas. It is thought to have originated in the Old World and spread naturally from Africa to northern South America in the 19th century, from where it spread to North America. The glossy ibis was first found in the New World in 1817 (New Jersey). Audubon saw the species just once in Florida in 1832. It expanded its range substantially northwards in the 1940s and to the west in the 1980s. This species is migratory; most European birds winter in Africa, and in North America birds from north of the Carolinas winter farther south. Though generally suspected to be a migratory species in India, the glossy ibis is resident in western India. Birds from other populations may disperse widely outside the breeding season. While generally declining in Europe, it has recently established a breeding colony in southern Spain, and there appears to be a growing trend for the Spanish birds to winter in Britain and Ireland, with at least 22 sightings in 2010. In 2014, a pair attempted to breed in Lincolnshire, the first such attempt in Britain A few birds now spend most summers in Ireland, but there is no present evidence of breeding. In New Zealand, a few birds arrive there annually, mostly in the month of July; recently a pair bred amongst a colony of Royal Spoonbill. Behaviour Glossy ibises undertake dispersal movements after breeding and are highly nomadic. The more northerly populations are fully migratory and travel on a broad front, for example across the Sahara Desert. Glossy ibis ringed in the Black Sea seem to prefer the Sahel and West Africa to winter, those ringed in the Caspian Sea have been found to move to East Africa, the Arabic peninsula and as far east as Pakistan and India. Numbers of glossy ibis in western India varied dramatically seasonally with the highest numbers being seen in the winter and summers, and drastically declining in the monsoon likely indicating local movements to a suitable area to breed. Populations in temperate regions breed during the local spring, while tropical populations nest to coincide with the rainy season. Nesting is often in mixed-species colonies. When not nesting, flocks of over 100 individuals may occur on migration, and during the winter or dry seasons the species is usually found foraging in small flocks. Glossy ibises often roost communally at night in large flocks, with other species, occasionally in trees which can be some distance from wetland feeding areas. Habitat Glossy ibises feed in very shallow water and nest in freshwater or brackish wetlands with tall dense stands of emergent vegetation such as reeds, papyrus or rushes) and low trees or bushes. They show a preference for marshes at the margins of lakes and rivers but can also be found at lagoons, flood-plains, wet meadows, swamps, reservoirs, sewage ponds, paddies and irrigated farmland. When using farmlands in western India, glossy ibis exhibited strong scale-dependent use of the landscape seasonally preferring using areas with >200 ha of wetlands during the summer, and using areas that had intermediate amounts of wetlands (50-100 ha) in the other seasons. It is less commonly found in coastal locations such as estuaries, deltas, salt marshes and coastal lagoons. Preferred roosting sites are normally in large trees which may be distant from the feeding areas. Breeding The nest is usually a platform of twigs and vegetation positioned at least above water, sometimes up to in tall, dense stands of emergent vegetation, low trees or bushes. 3 to 4 eggs (occasionally 5) are laid, and are incubated by both male and female birds for between 20 and 23 days. The young can leave the nest after about 7 days, but the parents continue to feed them for another 6 or 7 weeks. The young fledge in about 28 days. Diet The diet of the glossy ibis is variable according to the season and is very dependent on what is available. Prey includes adult and larval insects such as aquatic beetles, dragonflies, damselflies, grasshoppers, crickets, flies and caddisflies, Annelida including leeches, molluscs (e.g. snails and mussels), crustaceans (e.g. crabs and crayfish) and occasionally fish, amphibians, lizards, small snakes and nestling birds. Description This species is a mid-sized ibis. It is long, averaging around with an wingspan. The culmen measures in length, each wing measures , the tail is and the tarsus measures . The body mass of this ibis can range from . Breeding adults have reddish-brown bodies and shiny bottle-green wings. Non-breeders and juveniles have duller bodies. This species has a brownish bill, dark facial skin bordered above and below in blue-gray (non-breeding) to cobalt blue (breeding), and red-brown legs. Unlike herons, ibises fly with necks outstretched, their flight being graceful and often in V formation. It also has shiny feathers. Sounds made by this rather quiet ibis include a variety of croaks and grunts, including a hoarse grrrr made when breeding. Conservation The glossy ibis is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. Glossy ibises can be threatened by wetland habitat degradation and loss through drainage, increased salinity, groundwater extraction and invasion by exotic plants. The common name black curlew may be a reference to the glossy ibis and this name appears in Anglo-Saxon literature. Yalden and Albarella do not mention this species as occurring in medieval England. References Further reading External links Glossy Ibis - The Atlas of Southern African Birds Glossy Ibis Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus - eNature.com Field guide photo page on Flickr http://bo.adu.org.za/pdf/BO_2016_07-101.pdf glossy ibis Native birds of the Southeastern United States Birds of Africa Birds of the Caribbean Birds of the Dominican Republic Birds of Central Asia Birds of Oceania glossy ibis glossy ibis Cosmopolitan birds	[ -0.04932596534490585, 0.1141350045800209, -0.89705491065979, -0.39502131938934326, -0.25261521339416504, 0.49768105149269104, -0.013104502111673355, 0.5425158143043518, -0.7206215262413025, -0.0055321562103927135, -0.14593981206417084, 0.28270259499549866, -0.49726811051368713, -0.1378287672996521, 0.1280321478843689, 0.8508672714233398, 0.43690142035484314, 0.19219425320625305, 0.7031025886535645, -0.2452976405620575, -0.2120356261730194, -0.7957906723022461, 0.3872475028038025, -0.5957349538803101, 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237140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/More%20Joy%20in%20Heaven	More Joy in Heaven	More Joy in Heaven is a novel written by Canadian author Morley Callaghan and published in 1937. The central figure, Kip Caley, was inspired by Norman Ryan (1895-1936), a criminal who had committed a number of robberies in Quebec, Ontario and the United States. The title derives from the biblical quote "I say to you, that likewise joy shall be in heaven over one sinner that repents, more than over ninety and nine just persons, which need no repentance." Luke 15:7. Callaghan's friend Ernest Hemingway had also considered writing a novel based on Ryan's life. As a reporter for The Toronto Daily Star, Hemingway had covered the criminal in 1925. Dramatised as a radio play by Donald Jack for CBC Theatre 10:30. Plot introduction Powerful and moving Story of an Ex-Criminal's struggle for rehabilitation. Synopsis The story of Kip Caley, an ex-criminal, intent on becoming a useful and honourable human being. His struggle with himself and with a society which will not let him regain his human dignity. List of Main Characters Kip Caley-protagonist, Kip was in jail for 10 years for robbing banks all around the six. Kip was let out around Christmas( a time for new beginnings). He tries to have a normal and simple life after he is out but is glamorized by local reporters and journalists. Other important characters in the book are Julie, Father Butler, Senator Maclean, Kip's mother, Harvey Jenkins, Judge Ford, Foley and Kerrmann. References Brian Busby, Character Parts: Who's Really Who in Canlit, Toronto: Knopf Canada, 2003. 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237141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design%20choice	Design choice	In engineering, a design choice is a possible solution to a problem. Given a design task and a governing set of criteria (design specifications), several conceptual designs may be drafted. Each of these preliminary concepts is a potential design choice. Many never advance beyond the preliminary phase; those that are developed to the point at which they could be applied become the pool from which the final selection is made. This process stems from the principle that there is usually no uniquely right way of accomplishing any task. The final selection is often made on a financial basis; i.e., the least expensive design is chosen in a bid process. In civil engineering, design choices usually derive from basic principles of materials science and structural design. A suspension bridge, for example, uses the fact that steel is extremely efficient in tension, while a prestressed concrete bridge takes advantage of concrete's relatively low cost by weight and its ability to sustain high compressive loading (see compression). 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237143	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White-faced%20ibis	White-faced ibis	The white-faced ibis (Plegadis chihi) is a wading bird in the ibis family, Threskiornithidae. This species breeds colonially in marshes, usually nesting in bushes or low trees. Its breeding range extends from the western United States south through Mexico, as well as from southeastern Brazil and southeastern Bolivia south to central Argentina, and along the coast of central Chile. Its winter range extends from southern California and Louisiana south to include the rest of its breeding range. Description The white-faced ibis is very similar to the glossy ibis in its non-breeding plumages, but it tends to be slightly smaller and the plumage color is somewhat warmer. Breeding adults have a pink bare face bordered with white feathers (rather than a bluish bare face with no bordering feathers), a grey bill, and brighter colored, redder legs. Adults have red eyes year-round, whereas glossy ibises have dark eyes. Juveniles of the two species are nearly identical. Measurements: Length: 18.1-22.1 in (46-56 cm) Weight: 15.9-18.5 oz (450-525 g) Wingspan: 35.4-36.6 in (90-93 cm) Distribution The white-faced ibis occurs in Canada, the United States, Central America and the southern half of South America. In 2012, the total population size was estimated to be 1.2 million individuals, and increasing. The IUCN rates it as being of Least Concern. Migration between North and South America does not occur. Within North America, birds breeding in northern areas of the range move south to wintering areas. For example, breeders in northern California and southern Oregon move to wintering areas in southern California and Mexico. Origin The white-faced ibis bears a strong resemblance to the related glossy ibis, and in the past was sometimes considered to be a subspecies of the glossy ibis. Another theory was that upon coming to the New World, a small isolated glossy ibis population evolved to become its own separate species. However, recent molecular phylogenetic studies show that the white-faced ibis may actually be paraphyletic. In fact, members of the white-faced ibis populations in the United States appear to be more closely related to glossy ibises than to members of white-faced ibis populations in Southern Brazil. Feeding The white-faced ibis eats a variety of organisms, including many invertebrates such as insects, leeches, snails, crayfish and earthworms. It may also eat vertebrates such as fish, newts, and frogs. Its feeding style is to use its bill to probe for prey. Breeding and nesting This species breeds colonially in marshes, usually nesting in bushes or low trees. Its breeding range extends from the western United States south through Mexico, as well as from southeastern Brazil and southeastern Bolivia south to central Argentina, and along the coast of central Chile. Its winter range extends from southern California and Louisiana south to include the rest of its breeding range. The white-faced ibis chooses to nest in the parts of a marsh with dense vegetation such as bulrush, cattails, shrubs and short trees. It will then build a nest from reeds. The white-faced ibis usually lays three or four blue-green eggs at a time. Lifespan White-faced ibises in captivity live up to fourteen years on average. In the wild, white-faced ibises usually live for nine years; however the oldest recorded wild white-faced ibis lived for fourteen years and six months. Threats In the past, the white-faced ibis faced many threats from humans. Studies completed in Utah in the 1960s (before this species was added to the Migratory Bird Treaty Act) showed that 82.9% of recorded deaths in banded birds were a result of being shot. However, the main causes of decline of this species previously were pesticides and habitat destruction. The pesticide DDT caused eggshells to be so thin and fragile that parent white-faced ibises crushed the eggs when they were incubating them. Also, since this species is so dependent on wetlands and marshes for both feeding and nesting, changes to water systems such as pollution and man-made draining of water habitats had devastating impacts on members of this species in the past. In order to correct these damages, DDT was banned in 1970 and various programs were created to better maintain and protect wetland nesting habitats. Yet, there is still some debate as to whether or not populations of white-faced ibises in all geographic areas are recovered and growing. References External links White-faced Ibis - Cornell Lab of Ornithology White-faced ibis Plegadis chihi - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter white-faced ibis Wading birds Birds of the Americas Native birds of the Western United States Birds of the Rio Grande valleys Birds of Mexico Birds of Argentina Birds of Bolivia Birds of Brazil Birds of Chile Birds of Paraguay Birds of Uruguay white-faced ibis Taxa named by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot	[ -0.22708681225776672, 0.2621684968471527, -1.5300225019454956, -0.6807461977005005, -0.20121197402477264, 0.7449730038642883, 0.1998136192560196, 0.4467856287956238, -0.48334088921546936, -0.6193763017654419, -0.1933159977197647, -0.017396308481693268, -0.9265439510345459, -0.25406283140182495, -0.2215496450662613, 0.7553471326828003, 0.6411988139152527, -0.04298681020736694, 0.5812919735908508, -0.3057989180088043, -0.20156621932983398, -0.49601438641548157, 0.0030268188565969467, -0.44164714217185974, 0.06385825574398041, 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237145	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20bald%20ibis	Northern bald ibis	The northern bald ibis, hermit ibis, or waldrapp (Geronticus eremita) is a migratory bird found in barren, semi-desert or rocky habitats, often close to running water. This glossy black ibis, which, unlike many members of the ibis family, is non-wading, has an unfeathered red face and head, and a long, curved red bill. It breeds colonially on coastal or mountain cliff ledges, where it typically lays two to three eggs in a stick nest, and feeds on lizards, insects, and other small animals. The northern bald ibis was once widespread across the Middle East, northern Africa, southern and central Europe, with a fossil record dating back at least 1.8 million years. It disappeared from Europe over 300 years ago, although reintroduction programs in the region are underway. In 2019 there were about 700 wild birds remaining in southern Morocco, and fewer than 10 in Syria, where it was rediscovered in 2002 but where their number declined in the following years, maybe to zero. To combat these low numbers, reintroduction programs have been instituted internationally in recent times, with a semi-wild breeding colony in Turkey which counted almost 250 birds in 2018 as well as sites in Austria, Italy, Spain, and northern Morocco. These programs and the natural growth in Morocco from about 200 birds in the 1990s helped to downlist the northern bald ibis from Critically Endangered to Endangered on the IUCN Red List in 2018. There are about 2000 northern bald ibises living in captivity. The reasons for the species' long-term decline are unclear, but hunting, loss of foraging habitat, and pesticide poisoning have been implicated in the rapid loss of colonies in recent decades. Taxonomy The ibises are gregarious, long-legged wading birds with long down-curved bills. Along with the spoonbills they form one subfamily within the family Threskiornithidae. The northern bald ibis' closest relative, and the only other member of the genus, is the southern bald ibis, G. calvus, of southern Africa. The two Geronticus species differ from other ibises in that they have unfeathered faces and heads, breed on cliffs rather than in trees, and prefer arid habitats to the wetlands used by their relatives. The northern bald ibis was described and illustrated by Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner in his Historiae animalium in 1555, and given the binomial name Upupa eremita by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 Systema Naturae. It was moved to its current genus by the German herpetologist Johann Georg Wagler in 1832. This species has an interesting history of description, oblivion and rediscovery. The species probably split into two distinct populations at least 400 years ago and, since then, the two populations have been diverging morphologically, ecologically, and genetically; nevertheless, the Turkish and Moroccan populations of this ibis are not currently classed as separate subspecies. One consistent difference between the eastern and western birds is a single mutation in the cytochrome b gene of their mitochondrial DNA. Fossils of the northern bald ibis have been found at a Holocene (c. 10,000 years ago) site in southern France, in middle Pleistocene (c. 900,000 years ago) strata in Sicily, and in Pliocene-Pleistocene boundary (c. 1.8 million years ago) deposits on the Mediterranean coast of Spain. What appears to be an ancestral form, Geronticus balcanicus, was found in the late Pliocene of Bulgaria, further illustrating the early widespread presence of this genus in Europe, and suggesting that Geronticus eremita may have originated in southeastern Europe or the Middle East. The genus name, Geronticus, is derived from the Ancient Greek , meaning old man and refers to the bald head of the aged. Eremita is Late Latin for hermit, from the Greek , meaning desert, and refers to the arid habitats inhabited by this species. The alternative common name waldrapp is German for forest raven, the equivalent of the Latin Corvo sylvatico of Gesner, adapted as Corvus sylvaticus by Linnaeus. Description The northern bald ibis is a large, glossy black bird, long with a wingspan and an average weight of . The plumage is black, with bronze-green and violet iridescence, and there is a wispy ruff on the bird's hind neck. The face and head are dull red and unfeathered, and the long, curved bill and the legs are red. In flight, this bird has powerful, shallow, and flexible wing beats. It gives guttural hrump and high, hoarse hyoh calls at its breeding colonies, but is otherwise silent. The sexes are similar in plumage, although males are generally larger than females, and, as with other ibises that breed in colonies, have longer bills. The longer-billed males are more successful in attracting a mate. The downy chick has uniformly pale brown plumage, and the fledged juvenile resembles the adult except that it has a dark head, light grey legs, and a pale bill. The unfeathered areas of the young bird's head and neck gradually become red as it matures. Moroccan birds have a significantly longer bill than Turkish birds of the same sex. If the eastern and western populations are considered to be separable subspecies, it is unclear which should be considered to be the nominate (first-named) form, since the first description of this species was based on a now-extinct population from Switzerland which is of unknown race. The northern bald ibis is readily distinguished from its close relative, the southern bald ibis of Southern Africa, by the southern species' whitish face. The northern bald can also be confused with the similarly dark-plumaged glossy ibis, which overlaps its range, but it is larger and stockier than that species. In flight, when the bill and face colouration may not be visible, the bald ibis' less rounded wings and shorter neck give it a different profile from glossy ibis, and its relatively short legs mean that its feet do not project beyond the tail, unlike those of the glossy ibis. Habitat and range Unlike many other ibises, which nest in trees and feed in wetlands, the northern bald ibis breeds on undisturbed cliff ledges, and forages for food in irregularly cultivated, grazed dry areas such as semi-arid steppes, and fallow fields. The close proximity of adequate steppe feeding areas to breeding cliffs is an important habitat requirement. The northern bald ibis was once widespread across the Middle East, northern Africa, and southern and central Europe; fossil bones have been found at Solothurn dated to the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods. It bred along the Danube and Rhone Rivers, and in the mountains of Spain, Italy, Germany, Austria and Switzerland (Gesner's original description was of a Swiss bird), and most probably also in the Upper Adriatic region. It used castle battlements as well as cliff ledges for nesting before vanishing from Europe at least three centuries ago. It is also extinct over most of its former range, and now almost the entirety of the wild breeding population of just over 500 birds is in Morocco, at Souss-Massa National Park, where there are three documented colonies, and near the mouth of the Oued Tamri (north of Agadir), where there is a single colony containing almost half the Moroccan breeding population. There is some movement of birds between these two sites. Religious traditions helped this species to survive in one Turkish colony long after the species had disappeared from Europe, since it was believed that the ibis migrated each year to guide Hajj pilgrims to Mecca. The ibis was protected by its religious significance, and a festival was held annually to celebrate its return north. The Turkish ibis population was centred near the small town of Birecik in the southeast of the country, and during the first half of the 20th century, the Birecik colony maintained a relatively stable population of about 500 breeding pairs, reaching an estimated total population of about 3,000 around 1930. By the 1970s, numbers had drastically declined and a captive breeding program was initiated in 1977 with one adult pair and nine chicks taken from the wild. This program largely failed to revert the decline; there were 400 birds in 1982, five pairs in 1986, and seven pairs in 1987. Only three birds returned from their wintering grounds in 1989, and just one in 1990. The returning birds died before they could reproduce, thus rendering the species extinct in the wild in Turkey as of 1992. Once the wild Turkish population became non-viable, the colony was maintained as a flock which was free-flying for most of the year but caged in autumn to prevent migration. After the demise of the migratory Turkish colony, the northern bald ibis was known to survive in the wild only at the Moroccan sites, although occasional sightings of birds in Yemen, Eritrea, Saudi Arabia, and Israel during the 1980s and 1990s suggested that there was still a colony somewhere in the Middle East. Intensive field surveys in spring 2002, based on the knowledge of Bedouin nomads and local hunters, revealed that the species had never become completely extinct on the Syrian desert steppes. Following systematic searches, 15 old nesting sites were found, one, near Palmyra, was still hosting an active breeding colony of seven individuals. Although the ibis had been declared extinct in Syria more than 70 years earlier, the bird appears to have been relatively common in the desert areas until 20 years ago, when a combination of overexploitation of its range lands and increasing hunting pressures initiated a dramatic decline. The Moroccan breeding birds are resident, dispersing along the coast after the nesting season. It has been suggested that coastal fog provides extra moisture for this population, and enables the ibises to remain year-round. In the rest of its former range, away from the Moroccan coastal locations, the northern bald ibis migrated south for the winter, and formerly occurred as a vagrant to Spain, Iraq, Egypt, the Azores, and Cape Verde. Satellite tagging of 13 Syrian birds in 2006 showed that the three adults in the group, plus a fourth untagged adult, wintered together from February to July in the highlands of Ethiopia, where the species had not been recorded for nearly 30 years. They travelled south on the eastern side of the Red Sea via Saudi Arabia and Yemen, and returned north through Sudan and Eritrea. Behaviour Breeding The northern bald ibis breeds in loosely spaced colonies, nesting on cliff ledges or amongst boulders on steep slopes, usually on the coast or near a river. Volunteer climbers have created extra ledge spaces in the Souss-Massa colonies to ensure that breeding population is not limited by the availability of nest ledges, and artificial nest boxes are used in the managed colony at Birecik. In the past, the birds also nested in buildings. This ibis starts breeding at three to five years of age, and pairs for life. The male chooses a nest site, cleans it, and then advertises for a female by waving his crest and giving low rumbling calls. Once the birds have paired, the bond is reinforced through bowing displays and mutual preening. The nest is a loose construction of twigs lined with grass or straw. G. eremita normally lays two to four rough-surfaced eggs, which weigh an average of , and are initially blue-white with brown spots, becoming brown during incubation. An egg in the collection of the British Museum was marked more thickly at the broad end, with "spots and very small blotches of yellowish brown and pale rufous". It was 0.93 in long and 0.68 in wide (2.37 × 1.73 cm). The clutch is incubated for 24–25 days to hatching, the chicks fledge in another 40–50 days, and the first flight takes place at about two months. Both parents incubate and feed the chicks. The northern bald ibis lives for an average of 20 to 25 years in captivity (oldest recorded male 37 years, oldest recorded female 30 years). The average age in the wild has been estimated as 10 to 15 years. Feeding This gregarious species commutes in flocks from the cliff breeding sites or winter roosts to its feeding areas, flying in a V formation. The flocks may contain up to 100 birds in winter. During the breeding season, the ibises regularly forage up to from the colony, and, although steppe not in current cultivation is preferred for feeding, they will also use fallow ground, and occasionally even actively cultivated fields. The northern bald ibis consumes a very wide variety of mainly animal food; faecal analysis of the Moroccan breeding population has shown that lizards and tenebrionid beetles predominate in the diet, although small mammals, ground-nesting birds, and invertebrates such as snails, scorpions, spiders, and caterpillars are also taken. Males will sometimes "scrounge" food from females. As the flock moves across the ground, the ibis uses its long bill to feel for food items in the loose, sandy soil. Since this bird hunts mainly by probing, a soft surface seems to be vital, and it is important that any vegetation is sparse, and not more than high. Conservation status Although the northern bald ibis was long extinct in Europe, many colonies in Morocco and Algeria survived until the early 20th century, when they began to decline more rapidly, the last colony in Algeria disappearing in the late 1980s. In Morocco there were about 38 colonies in 1940 and 15 in 1975, but the last migratory populations in the Atlas Mountains had vanished by 1989. The species is endangered according to the IUCN scale, with an estimated population in 2018 of around 147 breeding pairs in the wild and over 1,000 in captivity. It was formerly considered critically endangered until heavy conservation action secured the breeding sites in Morocco and even allowed the birds to expand to other sites, as well as the semi-wild population conserved in Turkey as well as the reintroduction projects in Europe. The northern bald ibis is one of the key species to which the draft Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies, and it has a detailed, internationally agreed conservation action plan under the agreement. As a species that is threatened with extinction, it is listed on Appendix 1 of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), which means that commercial trade in the species (including parts and derivatives) is prohibited. The northern bald ibis has declined for several centuries, at least partly as a consequence of unidentified natural causes. The more rapid decline in the past hundred years, with a loss of 98% of the population between 1900 and 2002, is the result of a combination of factors. These include significant human persecution, especially hunting, and also the loss of steppe and non-intensive agricultural areas (particularly in Morocco), pesticide poisoning, disturbance, and dam construction. The discovery in Jordan of three dead adults from the Turkish colony seemed to confirm that the overuse of pesticides is still a cause of death on migration. These birds were tracked by satellite after leaving Birecik; they stopped off briefly at the Syrian colony, and were later found dead in the Jordanian desert. Although the cause of death was initially thought to have been from poison, probably laid by chicken farmers to kill rodents, the autopsy revealed that they had actually been electrocuted whilst standing on electricity pylons. Wild populations Morocco Monitoring of Moroccan wild population is guaranteed by BirdLife International partners, especially by RSPB, SEO/BirdLife and, recently GREPOM in cooperation with Souss-Massa National Park administration and the support of institutions like Prince Albert II of Monaco Foundation which is the Species Champion for Northern Bald Ibis. For the first time in the species' recorded history, there is now evidence of population growth in the wild, and the population in Morocco increased to 100 breeding pairs in the decade prior to 2008 and reached a record of 113 breeding pairs in 2013. Simple site and species protection has facilitated this growth. Quantitative assessments of the importance of sites for breeding, roosting, and foraging have guided actions to prevent disturbance and the loss of key areas to mass tourism development. Wardening by members of the local community has reduced human intrusion and increased the perceived value of the birds. The provision of drinking water and the removal and deterrence of predators and competitors enhances breeding prospects, and monitoring has confirmed that steppe and two-year fallows are key feeding habitats. In early 2019 the total population in the two colonies of Souss-Massa National Park and Tamri reached 708 birds after 147 breeding pairs that laid eggs have produced 170 chicks in the last breeding season. Maintaining such non-intensive land uses in the future may present major management challenges, and the recovery in the Souss-Massa region remains precarious because the population is concentrated in just a few places. However, it could provide opportunities for natural extension of the range to formerly occupied sites further north in Morocco. The main cause of breeding failure at the Souss-Massa National Park is the loss of eggs to predators, especially the common raven which nest monitoring has shown to have had a serious impact at one sub-colony. The effects of predators on adult birds have not been studied, but the very similar southern bald ibis, Geronticus calvus, is hunted by large raptors, particularly those that share its breeding cliffs. There is evidence of chick starvation in some years, but the main threats to breeding birds are human disturbance and the loss of feeding habitat. There was a dramatic mortality incident at the Moroccan colonies in May 1996, when 40 adults died or disappeared over a period of nine days. Although analyses have not identified the cause, an obscure virus, a toxin, or botulism are thought to be the most likely causes of the deaths. Syria Conservation efforts for the Northern bald ibis in Syria began with the discovery of an unreported relict colony of this species in early 2002 in the Palmyra desert. The bald ibises still breeding in Syria, discovered during an extensive biodiversity survey carried out as part of a FAO cooperation project, are the last living descendants of those depicted in Egyptian hieroglyphs from 4500 years ago. The discovery was made possible through the use of traditional ecological knowledge of the Bedouin nomads. Following the discovery in Syria, a successful community-based ibis breeding intensive protection program was established in Palmyra during years 2002–2004, in parallel with an extensive capacity building program in the benefit of the local community and staff from the Syrian Steppe Commission. Fourteen chicks successfully fledged during this period. Beside protection and training operations, data on threats and on feeding and breeding ecology were collected in the field. An Ibis Protected Area was recommended and established, and an awareness and education program was also launched and successfully implemented. Two breeding failures were recorded in 2005 and 2008 following a change of project management and of ibis protection strategy, that occurred between 2004 and 2005. Three birds were tagged with satellite tags and the migratory route and wintering site of the colony were discovered in 2006. Three surveys were undertaken at the wintering site on the Ethiopian highlands between 2006 and 2009, establishing that no immediate threats were present at the site. Thanks to an IUCN project the Ibis Protected Area in Palmyra desert was further developed in 2008–2009, addressing the threats of infrastructure proliferation and oil company heavy prospection schemes. Meanwhile, it became apparent that only adults were reaching the wintering site in Ethiopia and that it was the low survival rate of immature birds - and thus an insufficient recruitment at the breeding colony in Palmyra - that was causing the slow and steady decline of the colony from 3 breeding pairs in 2002 to just 1 in 2010. Satellite tracking and surveys conducted in western Saudi Arabia during 2009–2010, with key cooperation of the Saudi Wildlife Authority, suggested that a combination of hunting and electrocution were causing a high mortality of dispersing immature ibises. This mortality is currently regarded as the main cause of the low recruitment occurred at the Palmyra colony during the years following the high breeding performance of period 2002-2004 (only 3 recruitment events out of 14 chicks fledged). A supplementation trial could be eventually conducted in 2010 by introducing captive-born chicks into the wild colony in Palmyra. For this aim, a first captive breeding center was established in Palmyra. Three chicks introduced at the wild colony in Palmyra followed a migrating wild adult for more than 1000 km from Palmyra well into southwest Saudi Arabia. The success of the trial, unique of its kind, reinvigorated the hopes that the colony could be still saved. Conservation efforts were interrupted in March 2011 due to the worsening of the political situation in Syria. Palmyra trained rangers have reportedly continued to protect the breeding birds even during the subsequent years. The last year a lone bird was seen returning to Palmyra is 2014 (it returned alone also in 2013). In 2015 no birds came back. As of 2017, some birds are still seen at the wintering grounds. Turkey With the loss of the genuinely wild Turkish population, the Ministry of Environment and Forestry's Directorate of Natural Preservation and National Parks established a new semi-wild colony at Birecik. This was heavily managed, with birds taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent migration. The program was successful, with numbers at 205 as of March 2016. The intent is to allow the birds to migrate once the population reaches a stable 100 pairs, excluding young. The birds are released in late January or early February to breed outside the cages on ledges and, mainly, in the nest boxes in the breeding station compound. The ibises are free flying and forage around the Birecik area in forest nurseries, agricultural fields, and along the Euphrates, but supplementary food is also provided. Following the end of the breeding season, the birds are taken into cages in late July or early August to prevent migration. A trial migration using tagged birds confirmed the risks presented to travelling birds by pesticides. Later on the Syrian Civil War added one more reason to keep preventing migration. Reintroductions The guidelines for the conservation and reintroduction of the northern bald ibis were established in 2003 at an International Advisory Group for Northern Bald Ibis (IAGNBI) conference in Innsbruck at the Alpenzoo, which maintains the European studbook for the northern bald ibis. Decisions taken at the meeting included: There should be no augmenting of the wild populations at Souss-Massa or in Palmyra using zoo-bred ibises. There are two distinctive populations of northern bald ibis, and the separate ranges of the eastern and western forms should be respected. In order to prepare birds for release, groups of chicks should be hand-reared by human "parents". Migration routes and stop-over points will have to be taught to young birds, since it is unlikely that they will discover this information by themselves. A second conference in Spain in 2006 stressed the need to survey potential and former sites in north-west Africa and the Middle East for currently undetected colonies. The need to raise the standards of hygiene and husbandry in the Birecik aviaries was reiterated, and the prevalence of skin problems in a number of zoos reinforced the view that no zoo birds should be used for any free-flying trials. In future captive breeding and releasing programmes, only birds of known origin should be used. Zoo populations There are 850 northern bald ibises in European zoos and a further 250 in captivity in Japan and North America. The 49 European zoos keeping this species produce 80 to 100 young birds per year, and earlier attempts at releasing captive-bred birds included close to 150 birds between 1976 and 1986 from an aviary at Birecik, 75 from Tel Aviv Zoo in 1983, and an unspecified number from a project in Almería, Spain, from 1991 to 1994; all these attempts were unsuccessful. All northern bald ibises in zoos, other than those in Turkey, are of the western population, and were imported from Morocco. Three bloodlines exist; the earliest relates to importations to Zoo Basel, Switzerland in the 1950s and 1960s, the next is the descendants of birds taken in the 1970s to stock Rabat Zoo, and the last captured wild birds were those taken to the Naturzoo, Rheine, in 1976 and 1978. Captive birds have a high incidence of skin problems, and 40% of those birds that had to be put down suffered from chronic ulcerative dermatitis, characterised by feather loss, rawness, and ulceration on the back, neck, and the undersides of the wings. The cause of this disease is unknown. Other major disease problems reported in zoo collections have been avian tuberculosis, gastric foreign bodies, bone disease, and heart problems. An outbreak of West Nile virus in Bronx Park, New York, involved northern bald ibises amongst many other species of birds and mammals. Europe In 1504, a decree by Archbishop Leonhard of Salzburg made the northern bald ibis one of the world's earliest officially protected species. They nested in the cliffs and on castles and ruins in the Graz/Steiermark and Salzburg regions of Austria and vanished around 1630–1645. Young birds were hunted as a delicacy at feasts for the nobility. Despite the decree, it died out in Austria as elsewhere in Europe. There are now two ibis reintroduction projects in Austria, at Grünau and Kuchl. A research station at Grünau has a breeding colony managed, like the Turkish population, as a free-flying flock which is caged at migration time. The aim here is to investigate flock interactions and hormonal status, behavioural and ecological aspects of natural foraging, and the establishment of traditions via social learning. The Scharnstein Project is an attempt to establish a migratory waldrapp colony by using ultralight planes to teach a migration route. The scheme builds on the Grünau research by developing a method to control and guide the autumn migration of a founder population, which then can pass this migration tradition to subsequent generations. In May 2002, 11 birds from the Vienna Zoo and the Grünau colony were trained to follow two microlight planes, and in 2003, a first attempt was made to lead a group of birds from Scharnstein to southern Tuscany. Due to adverse weather and technical problems, the birds had to be transported by road over a considerable part of the distance. The subsequent releases were more successful, with birds wintering in Tuscany, and, from 2005, returning to northern Austria. In 2008, a female ibis named Aurelia flew back to Austria for her fourth return to the breeding site. The hazards of the journey are shown by the loss of her two offspring and her mate while on the southern journey in the autumn of 2007. In August 2013 the European Union agreed to provide support to reintroduction projects until 2019 under its LIFE+ Biodiversity programme. The Reason for Hope project under the leadership of the biologist Dr. Johannes Fritz has operated one breeding and observation site in Austria, in Kuchl, near Salzburg, and two similar sites in Burghausen, Bavaria, and in Überlingen on Lake Constance in Baden-Württemberg. The positions and flight patterns of migratory birds are monitored with light-weight solar transmitters. After learning to follow their human foster-mothers seated in ultralight aircraft, around 30 young birds are led over the Alps to spend the winter months in Tuscany. Numerous studies on migratory bird behaviour have been published and presentations given at symposiums. In November 2019 it was announced that the project team succeeded in uniting juvenile birds with experienced adult birds so that they could fly to their wintering site together. Proyecto Eremita is a Spanish reintroduction involving the release of nearly 30 birds in the Ministry of Defence training ground in La Janda district, Barbate, Cádiz Province. It had its first success in 2008, when a pair laid two eggs. This is probably the first attempt to breed in the wild in Spain for 500 years as the last definite reference to the northern bald ibis breeding in Spain is from a 15th-century falconry book. This effort has been undertaken by the Andalusian government's Environmental Ministry, the Spanish Ministry of Defence, and the Zoobotánico de Jeréz (Jerez Zoo and Botanical Gardens), with the assistance of the Doñana Biological Station, CSIC and volunteers from the Cádiz Natural History Society. Previously, two birds left the area in 2005 and 14 in 2006, but nothing is known of their whereabouts other than that a ringed bird from Spain was seen in the Middle Atlas, Morocco in 2005. Internet pictures of this species taken near Armação de Pêra, Algarve, Portugal in 2009 and later, may be related to those releases in Spain. In the interim, the Spanish colony has been growing very well, from 9 breeding pairs in 2011, 10 in 2012 and 15 in 2013 to 23 breeding pairs in 2014, which successfully raised 25 chicks in 2014 (Quercus 349(2015): 14-23). In 2014 the total population of this colony was 78 wild birds split into two colonies, originally along the cliffs of the Atlantic coast and in 2012 with a second colony of 5–6 breeding pairs that started at the cliffs 10 km inland next to a country road at La Barca de Vejer (Vejer de la Frontera). Northern Morocco There is a planned reintroduction of the ibis at Ain Tijja-Mezguitem in the north-east of Morocco. Since the wild populations further south remain vulnerable, and the porous sandstone of their breeding ledges is exposed to erosion, the intention is to establish a non-migratory population (stocked from German, Swiss, and Austrian zoos) in an area where this species was known to have bred up to about 1980. The station in the Rif mountains was built in 2000, and stocked with the first group of zoo-bred birds. A second importation of zoo-bred birds and the construction of an information centre took place in 2004. Six pairs bred in 2006 subsequent to a change in the birds' diet, and six offspring from five nests were successfully reared. In 2007 there were 19 birds (13 adults and six juveniles) in the aviary. The rock walls of the mountains have many potential breeding ledges, and an artificial lake provides water to the birds and to the local human population. Steppe pasture which is not exposed to herbicides or pesticides gives good foraging. Once the population reaches around 40 birds, a release will be initiated, subject to international agreement. The reintroduction site is from Agadir on the other side of the Atlas Mountains, so accidental contamination of the wild colonies is unlikely. In culture According to local legend in the Birecik area, the northern bald ibis was one of the first birds that Noah released from the Ark as a symbol of fertility, and a lingering religious sentiment in Turkey helped the colonies there to survive long after the demise of the species in Europe, as described above. This ibis was revered as a holy bird and a symbol of brilliance and splendour in Ancient Egypt, where, together with the sacred ibis, it was regarded as an embodiment of Thoth, scribe of the gods, who was usually depicted with a man's body and the head of an ibis. The Old Egyptian word akh, "to be resplendent, to shine", was denoted in hieroglyphs by a bald ibis, presumably as a reference to its glossy plumage. In a more abstract sense, akh stood for excellence, glory, honour, and virtue. It has also been used to signify the soul or spirit, one of five elements constituting personality. Herodotus wrote of the man-eating Stymphalian birds, which had wings of brass and sharp metallic feathers they could fire at their victims. Ridding Lake Stymphalia in Arcadia of these creatures was one of the twelve labours of Heracles. These mythical birds are sometimes considered to be based on the northern bald ibis, but since they were described as marsh birds, and usually depicted without crests, the legendary species is more likely to be derived from the sacred ibis. Some depictions, such as the 6th-century BC Athenian black-figure amphora in the British Museum, clearly show the black head and white body of the sacred ibis. After the bald ibis became extinct in Central Europe, some later writers thought that Gesner's description was one of several in his book depicting mythical creatures. The bird painted in 1490 in one of the Gothic frescoes in the Holy Trinity Church in Hrastovlje (now southwestern Slovenia) in the Karst by John of Kastav was most probably the northern bald ibis. A small illustration of the northern bald ibis is found in the illuminated St Galler Handschrift of 1562, a drawing by Joris Hoefnagel in Missale Romanum (1582-1590) and in paintings in the collection of Rudolf II at Vienna. It is believed that it had also been depicted at other places in Istria and Dalmatia, where it was presumably native during the Middle Ages, e.g. in the local church in Gradišče pri Divači and in the coat of arms of the noble family Elio from Koper. The portal of Lukovec Castle in Lukovica pri Brezovici (central Slovenia) also features this species. In Birecik, Turkey an ancient celebration 'Kelaynak yortusu' held in mid-February to mark the return of the birds from Africa was revived in the 1950s. Several countries have produced postage stamps which depict the northern bald ibis. They include Algeria, Morocco, Sudan, Syria, Turkey, and Yemen, which are breeding or migration locations; Austria, which is seeking to reintroduce the bird; and Jersey, which has a small captive population. References Further reading External links Images and movies of the northern bald ibis (Geronticus eremita) at Arkive Zoolex exhibit of the Alpenzoo aviary International Advisory Group of the Northern Bald Ibis Mysteries surrounding the legendary and vanishing oriental bald ibis (G. 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237147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphase%20quadrature%20filter	Polyphase quadrature filter	A polyphase quadrature filter, or PQF, is a filter bank which splits an input signal into a given number N (mostly a power of 2) of equidistant sub-bands. These sub-bands are subsampled by a factor of N, so they are critically sampled. An important application of the polyphase filters (of FIR type) concerns the filtering and decimation of large band (and so high sample rate) input signals, e.g. coming from a high rate ADC, which can not be directly processed by an FPGA or in some case by an ASIC either. If the ADC plus FPGA/ASIC interface implements a demultiplexer of the ADC samples in N internal FPGA/ASIC registers, the polyphase filter transforms the decimator FIR filter canonic structure in N parallel branches clocked at 1/N of the ADC clock, allowing digital processing when N=Clock(ADC)/Clock(FPGA). This critical sampling introduces aliasing. Similar to the MDCT time domain alias cancellation the aliasing of polyphase quadrature filters is canceled by neighbouring sub-bands, i.e. signals are typically stored in two sub-bands. Note that signal in odd subbands is stored frequency inverted. PQF filters are used in MPEG-1 Audio Layer I and II, Musepack (which was based on MPEG-1 layer II), in MPEG-1 Layer III with an additional MDCT, in MPEG-4 AAC-SSR for the 4 band PQF bank, in MPEG-4 V3 SBR for the analysis of the upper spectral replicated band, and in DTS. PQF has an advantage over the very similar stacked quadrature mirror filter (QMF). Delay and computational effort are much lower. A PQF filter bank is constructed using a base filter, which is a low-pass at fs/4N. This lowpass is modulated by N cosine functions and converted to N band-passes with a bandwidth of fs/2N. The base lowpass is typically a FIR filter with a length of 10N ... 24N taps. Note that it is also possible to build PQF filters using recursive IIR filters. Computation There are different formulas possible. Most of them are based on the MDCT but are slightly modified. References Digital signal processing Linear filters	[ 0.03470909595489502, -0.2535330057144165, -0.2637001574039459, -0.014934410341084003, -0.40825656056404114, 0.2170957624912262, 0.044505614787340164, -0.4709967076778412, -0.026818469166755676, -0.5597232580184937, -0.5891458988189697, 0.2826090157032013, -0.8884875774383545, -0.15138883888721466, -0.06938765197992325, 0.44759401679039, 0.7524877786636353, 0.29803165793418884, -0.4198252558708191, -0.5261127352714539, 0.5561664700508118, 0.3687366247177124, 0.1413339525461197, -0.08607615530490875, 0.34990113973617554, -0.3168703615665436, 0.5006107687950134, 0.16942614316940308, 0.5213786363601685, 0.6251572370529175, 0.6439990401268005, 1.036798119544983, 0.28819477558135986, -0.009628228843212128, 0.8396218419075012, -0.08791378140449524, 0.33415234088897705, -0.17952077090740204, 0.205305814743042, -0.29512232542037964, 0.6115800142288208, -0.21828994154930115, 0.010004159063100815, 0.5241631269454956, -0.23498937487602234, 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237148	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Potter%20in%20translation	Harry Potter in translation	The Harry Potter series of fantasy novels by J. K. Rowling is one of the most translated series of all time, with the first book, Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, having been translated into over 76 languages. This includes languages diverse as Azerbaijani, Malayalam and Welsh as well as the dead languages Latin and Ancient Greek. Additionally, regional adaptations of the books have been made to accommodate regional dialects such as the American English edition or the Valencian adaptation of Catalan. For reasons of secrecy, translations were only allowed to begin after each book had been published in English, creating a lag of several months for readers of other languages. Impatient fans in many places simply bought the book in English instead. In France in 2003 the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, became the first book in English to top the French best-seller list. Another response to this, and unavailability in certain languages, has been fans creating their own translations unofficially. Issues arising in the translation of Harry Potter include cultural references, riddles, anticipating future plot points, and Rowling's creative names for characters and other elements in the magical world which often involve wordplay and descriptive phonology. Translation process For an authorised translation, the publisher must first negotiate and sign a contract with the author's agents, The Blair Partnership. A list of authorised publishers can be read on J. K. Rowling's website. The publishers select translators locally. Translators were not granted access to the books before their official release date in English; hence, translation could start only after the English editions had been published, creating a lag of several months before the translations were made available. This necessary delay has boosted the sales of English language editions of the books to impatient fans, in countries where English is not the first language. Such was the clamour to read the fifth book that its English edition became the first English-language book ever to top the bookseller list in France. In Italy, impatient Potter fans organised "Operation Feather", deluging the publisher Salani with feathers (reminiscent of Hogwarts' messenger owls) to demand expedited publication for the Italian translation of the seventh and final book in the series. This has also caused unauthorised translations and fake versions of the books to appear in many countries. The high profile and demand for a high-quality local translation means that a great deal of care is often taken in the task. In some countries, such as Italy, the first book was revised by the publishers and issued in an updated edition in response to readers who complained about the quality of the first translation. In countries such as China and Portugal, the translation is conducted by a group of translators working together to save time. Some of the translators hired to work on the books were well known before their work on Harry Potter, such as Viktor Golyshev, who oversaw the Russian translation of the series' fifth book. Golyshev was previously best known for having translated William Faulkner and George Orwell, and was known to snub the Harry Potter books in interviews and refer to them as inferior literature. The Turkish translation of books two to five was undertaken by Sevin Okyay, a popular literary critic and cultural commentator. Number of official translations It has been difficult to accurately determine with any degree of certainty exactly how many languages Harry Potter has been translated into. As best as can be determined (as of March 2021), The Philosopher's Stone has been officially translated from the original English into other languages, the most recent being Maori in November 2020 preceded by Kazakh and Yiddish, in February 2020. Both Bloomsbury's and J.K. Rowling's sites stated in 2017 that the books have been translated into 79 languages—however, their count would now likely be with the subsequent release of: Maori (2020) a second Macedonian translation (2020) Yiddish (2020) Kazakh (2020) a second Korean translation (2019) Belarusian (2019) Hawaiian (2018) Scots (2017) and a second Mongolian translation (2017) However, it has been argued that number actually represents the number of authorised translations (of The Philosopher's Stone) plus the original English. The number of authorised translations is not equal to the number of languages because there have been multiple authorised translations into the same language. Specifically, there have been two separate translations into each of: Korean, Macedonian, Mandarin Chinese, Mongolian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian and Turkish ( languages). English is often included in the list of translations even though technically it should not be. Thus: − 1 English − double-translations = . It is also worthwhile to emphasise that not all seven books have been translated into these languages. The total does not include other linguistically interesting language editions: there have been many regional adaptations of the books to accommodate regional dialects, for example the American English edition or the Valencian adaptation of Catalan. There have been transliterations of translations into different scripts (English Braille, Serbian Cyrillic), there have been major revisions of the Spanish and Italian translations and there have been any number of unauthorised translations. Some translations, such as those to the dead Latin and Ancient Greek languages, were done as academic exercises, to stimulate interest in the languages and to provide students of those languages with modern reading texts. The Ancient Greek version, according to the translator, is the longest text written in Ancient Greek since the novels of Heliodorus of Emesa in the 3rd century AD, and took about a year to complete. Note that in some countries, such as Spain and India, the book has been translated into several local languages (see section on publishers); sometimes the book has been translated into two dialects of the same language in two countries (for example, separate Portuguese versions for Brazil and for Portugal). List of translations by language The original British English versions of the book were published in the United Kingdom by Bloomsbury. There is no complete official list of authorised translations currently available. Editions exist in the following languages (including the original): Unauthorised translations The impatience of the international Harry Potter fan community for translations of the books has led to the proliferation of unauthorised or pirate translations that are often hastily translated and posted on the internet chapter-by-chapter, or printed by small presses and sold illegally. The work may be done by multiple translators to speed the process. Such translations are often poorly written and riddled with errors. Cases have occurred in many areas of the world, but China is one of the most common areas of the world for unauthorised translations and pirated editions to be sold. One notable case involved a French 16-year-old who published serialised translations of Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows online. He was arrested and his site was later shut down; however, the wife of the official translator noted that these works do not necessarily hurt the official translation. Another example occurred in Venezuela in 2003, when an illegal translation of the fifth book, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, appeared soon after the release of the English version and five months before the scheduled release of the Spanish translation. The pirate translation was apparently so bad that the translator added messages, including "Here comes something that I'm unable to translate, sorry," and "I'm sorry, I didn't understand what that meant" in some sections. Two people were arrested in connection with the pirated version. Another case involved the Internet fan translation community, Harry auf Deutsch, formed to translate the Harry Potter books into German more rapidly. The German publisher of the Harry Potter books, Carlsen Verlag, filed a cease and desist against the fan translators; they complied, taking down the translations. In some countries, when there were no authorised translations into the local language, translations not sanctioned by J. K. Rowling were prepared and published. Such was the case, for example, in Sri Lanka, where the books have been unofficially translated into Sinhala and possibly into Tamil. However, there have been more recent translations into both Sinhala and Tamil published by Sarasavi Bookshop and Manjul Press respectively that are authorised by J. K. Rowling. In Iran, several unauthorised translations of the Harry Potter books exist side by side. According to one source, there may be as many as 16 Persian translations in existence concurrently. Iran is not a member of the Universal Copyright Convention, so publishers are not prosecuted for publishing foreign books without respecting copyright or paying royalties. A team consisting of seven Esperantist volunteers completed the translation of Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone into Esperanto (under the title Hari Poter kaj la ŝtono de la saĝuloj) in 2004. Rowling's representatives did not respond to offers from Esperanto-USA to make the translation available for publication. An on-line petition aimed at raising interest in the Esperanto translation has obtained support from approximately 800 individuals. Agents representing J. K. Rowling have stated in the past that they cannot and do not intend to prevent individuals from translating Rowling's books for their own personal enjoyment, as long as the results are not made available to the general public. Fake translations Whereas "pirate translations" are unauthorised translations of true Harry Potter books, "fake translations" have also appeared, which are published pastiches or fanfics that a foreign publisher has tried to pass off as the translation of the real book by Rowling. There have been several such books, the most famous of which is probably Harry Potter and Bao Zoulong which was written and published in China in 2002, before the release of the fifth book in Rowling's series, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix. Other fake Harry Potter books written in Chinese include Harry Potter and the Porcelain Doll (哈利・波特与瓷娃娃 or Hālì Bōtè yǔ Cíwáwa), Harry Potter and the Golden Turtle, and Harry Potter and the Crystal Vase. In August 2007, The New York Times noted that the publication of Rowling's Deathly Hallows had inspired "a surge of peculiarly Chinese imitations," and included plot synopses and excerpts from a number of derivative works, among them Harry Potter and the Chinese Overseas Students at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry and Harry Potter and the Big Funnel. In 2003, legal pressure from the licensors of Harry Potter led an Indian publisher to stop publication of Harry Potter in Calcutta, a work in which Harry meets figures from Bengali literature. Regional adaptations It is a common practice within the publishing industry to make minor changes in the text of books written in one region for publication in other regions. For example, there are a number of differences in British and American English spelling conventions; generally publishers change the spellings to conform to the expectations of their target market. Adaptation may also extend to vocabulary or grammatical choices that might impair legibility or impart some cognitive dissonance. Readers usually would not be aware of the adaptations, but the choice to change the title of the American edition of the first Harry Potter book from Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone to Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone highlighted the practice and drew considerable attention. The book's title was changed due to the American publisher's concern that children would be confused by a reference to philosophy. Other translations have also changed the first book's title, for instance, the French translation which changed Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone to Harry Potter at the School of Wizards for the same reason as the American translation, citing that the reference to the Philosopher's stone legend was "too obscure for a book aimed at the youth." Other translations also have regional adaptations that have largely gone without much notice. The Spanish translation has been adapted to three regions: Europe, Latin America and Southern Cone. Others translations have adaptations that were published seemingly to enhance the identity of minority communities of speakers: Montenegrin (an adaptation of Serbian) and Valencian (an adaptation of Catalan). It is worth noting that some translations were completed when adaptations possibly would have been sufficient; for example, any of the Serbian, Croatian or Bosnian translations could have been adapted for each region; however, the complexities of political and linguistic identity in the region probably precluded that choice. The American English adaptations have by far received the most attention. A comprehensive list of differences between the American and British editions of the books is collected at the Harry Potter Lexicon website. The changes are mostly simple lexical switches to reflect the different dialects and prevent American readers from stumbling over unfamiliar Briticisms. Although it is common to adapt any text from British to American editions, in the case of the Harry Potter books, this standard practice has drawn criticism from readers who feel that the British English adds flavour to the series. Rowling herself expressed regret over changing the first book's title, as the Philosopher's stone is a legendary alchemical substance. In an Associated Press interview, Rowling described how the alterations to the American editions came about: Publisher Arthur Levine of Scholastic explained the changes in an interview with The New Yorker: The same article, however, points out that some British dialect was retained in the books, and in some cases certain phrases were replaced with more stereotypical British phrases, such as "spanking good" for "cracking." Regional adaptations have sometimesincorrectlybeen referred to as "translations" (as in the quote above); however, the changes in the text of an adaptation do not nearly encompass the scope of a translation. A native speaker generally would not be able to tell the difference between two adaptations without careful reading. A translation requires a translator who will be credited for the worknotably, an adaptation will be performed by an editor probably with the assistance of software and the original translator will remain credited as such. Difficulties in translation The Harry Potter series presents many challenges to translators, such as rhymes, acronyms, dialects, culture, riddles, jokes, invented words, and plot points that revolve around spellings or initials. These have been dealt with by various translators with different degrees of modification to the meaning of the original text. Translation strategies The books carried a number of words that are considered loaded names by linguists and translators, meaning that they carry a semantic load, and that their morphology (structure) and phonology (sound) need to be adapted when translating them to a foreign language, for example the house names (Ravenclaw = raven + claw), or Voldemort's name ("flight of death" or "theft of death" in French). These words were translated in different countries using several translation strategies, such as copying the names with no attempt to transmit the original English meaning, transliterating even if the name lost its original meaning, replacing the name with another given name from the target language, or translating the name using native words that conveyed the same meaning. For example, in the Russian first book the transliterating strategy was used for some names because the "th" sound does not exist in Russian, so "Slytherin" was transliterated as "Slizerin". The translator of the second book chose the translating strategy instead, and she renamed the houses, "Hufflepuff" becoming "Puffendui" and "Ravenclaw" becoming "Kogtevran" (from the Russian word for claw, "kogot'"). In the Italian editions, the house names were changed to animal-colour pairings: Gryffindor is "Grifondoro" ("grifon d'oro" means "golden griffin"), Slytherin is "Serpeverde" ("serpe verde" means "green snake"), Ravenclaw was, in the first edition of the first book, "Pecoranera" ("pecora nera", "black sheep"), but was then changed to "Corvonero" ("corvo nero", "black raven") and Hufflepuff is "Tassorosso" ("tasso rosso", "red badger") in the first translation and the films and "Tassofrasso" in the revisited translation. In the French translation, the name "Hogwarts" is changed to "Poudlard", which means "bacon lice", roughly maintaining the original idea of warts of a hog. Marketers of Harry Potter-themed toys pressured translators not to change the names of people and things so that they could call the toys by the same name in different countries. Culture and language Many of the nuances of British culture and language will be unfamiliar to international readers. Such things require careful and creative translating. For the Hebrew translation, some of the Christian references were changed, because Israelis have less familiarity with cultural Christianity than readers elsewhere: a scene in which Sirius Black sings a parody of "God Rest Ye Merry Gentlemen" replaced the song with a parody of "Mi Y'malel," a Chanukah song; on the other hand, in the Yiddish translation, translator Arun Viswanath retained all the Christian references, feeling that his readership would be familiar enough with them. In the French translation, explanations of certain features of British schools unfamiliar to French students were inserted in the dialogues (e.g., "Prefect" and "Head Boy"), but they were not distinguished from explanations in the original text of differences between ordinary British schools and wizarding schools. This could mislead readers into thinking that these features of the house and boarding systems didn't exist in real-world British schools. Some cultural differences have been overstated: it is easy to find claims that in the Ukrainian translation, Hogwarts was an orphanage rather than a school because (according to the claims) Ukrainians did not have the cultural context to understand a board school. This has been disproven though, and it is clear the Ukrainian translation is indeed set in a school as expected. Nonstandard English present in the book also had to be given careful consideration. The character Rubeus Hagrid's West Country dialect, for example, needed to be rendered in other languages to reflect the fact that he speaks with an accent and uses particular types of slang. In the Japanese translation, he speaks in the Tōhoku dialect, which to a Japanese reader conveys a similar provincial feel. The same was done in Ukrainian translation where Hagrid speaks a mixture of Western Ukrainian dialects. In the Yiddish translation, translator Arun Viswanath attempted to mirror Rowling's use of regional British dialects using Yiddish dialects. "I tried to transpose the wizarding world onto a map of the Yiddish-speaking world" — pre World War II — "without making the characters Jewish. Filch speaks in a thick Lithuanian Yiddish accent and doesn’t pronounce the 'sh' sound, so he says sabes instead of shabes, and Hagrid, who despises him and speaks a very distinct rural English, speaks in a thick, almost exaggerated Polish Yiddish. I thought this was a good approach because it helps show the tension between them. As for Snape and McGonagall, well, they’re Litvaks. They just are." Some translations changed foods that appeared in the book into foods more common in the culture of their target audience in order to be more recognisable and relatable. The Hebrew translation of the scene where Dumbledore offers Professor McGonagall a lemon sherbet had him offer her a Krembo, a popular Israeli treat, instead. According to the Hebrew translator, "the point of the lemon sherbets is to tell us something about Dumbledore’s character in that this wise old wizard with a long white beard carries around a children’s treat in his pocket. The equivalent children’s dessert in Israel is the krembo. If I’d translated it as a lemon sucking candy, it wouldn’t have imparted the same image of Dumbledore." The Arabic translation, which was written with a predominantly Muslim audience in mind, omitted references to food and drink forbidden by Islam. All references to pork and bacon were replaced with eggs and all references to alcoholic beverages were replaced with water, except in the case of the Death Eaters, presumably because the translator was comfortable enough with villains consuming alcohol and the resultant negative connotation it would create to leave it in. However, the Hebrew translation left in place references to bacon despite reader complaints that such products violated the laws of Kashrut, with the translator justifying it on the basis that the characters were not Jewish. The Chinese translation keeps the word "cornflakes" and has a footnote explaining what cornflakes are. As the Arabic translators were seeking to cater to religiously conservative readers, they also removed every reference to characters kissing, even on the cheek, and had them wave instead. Several other terms were translated to create cultural references for the target audience. For example, the "golden snitch" from Quidditch is rendered as "goldene flaterl" (golden butterfly) in the Yiddish translation, butterflies being a common symbol in Yiddish folktales. Similarly, the Snatchers, a group of people who capture Muggle-born wizards and other enemies of the Death Eater regime and hand them over for money following Voldemort's takeover of the Ministry of Magic, were referred to as Szmalcownicy in the Polish translation, in reference to Poles who sold out Jews to the Nazis for money during the Holocaust. The title of the seventh book, Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, proved particularly difficult to translate into different languages. Rowling solved the problem by providing translators with an alternate title: Harry Potter and the Relics of Death. This became the basis for most translations of the title. Rhymes, anagrams, and acronyms The series involves many songs, poems, and rhymes, some of which proved difficult to translators. One rhyme, a riddle told by a sphinx in Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire, posed a particular problem. The riddle involves taking words from a poem and using them to form a longer word, "spider," in answer to the riddle. In the Taiwanese translation, the English words are simply put in parentheses. In other translations, the riddle is changed to provide different words that can be put together to make up the translated version of "spider". Some acronyms also proved difficult; the abbreviations "O.W.L.s" (Ordinary Wizarding Levels) and "N.E.W.T.s" (Nastily Exhausting Wizarding Tests) needed to be translated to reflect the fact that their abbreviations spelled out the names of animals associated with the wizarding world, which did not always work in other languages. "N.E.W.T.s" was translated into Swedish as "F.U.T.T." (Fruktansvärt Utmattande Trollkarls-Test, Terribly Exhausting Wizard's Test). "Futt" means "measly" in Swedish. Another issue was the translation of "The Mirror of Erised", since "Erised" is created by reading English "desire" backwards. In German the word desire is spelled "Begehren", so the mirror was called "Der Spiegel Nerhegeb". The Finnish translation also follows this formula of reversing a word; the mirror is called "Iseeviot-peili" "iseeviot" being "toiveesi" ("your wish") written backwards. In Polish the mirror is called "Zwierciadło Ain Eingarp" ("zwierciadło" = "mirror"; "pragnienia" = "desire" (in genitive case)). In Indonesian, The Mirror of Erised is called "Cermin Tarsah" (cermin" = "mirror"; "hasrat" = "desire"). In Spanish it is called "El Espejo de Oesed" ("Espejo" = "Mirror"; "Deseo" = "desire"). In the early Italian editions and in the movie, the mirror is called "Specchio delle Brame" ("Mirror of Desires"; Italian name for the Magic Mirror from Snow White), later, it was renamed "Specchio delle Emarb" ("Emarb" is "Brame" read backwards), a name based on the English one. Areas in which anagrams are present do not make the transition easily into other languages. The name "Tom Marvolo Riddle", first mentioned in Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets, is rearranged to spell "I am Lord Voldemort". This has required translators to alter Riddle's name to make the anagram work. Sometimes translators manage to alter only one part of the name. For example, Tom Riddle's middle name of Marvolo was changed to Marvolodemus in the Serbian second edition; the first edition had lacked the anagram and the original name Tom Marvolo Riddle had simply been copied. In the Bulgarian translation his middle name becomes "Mersvoluko" so the whole name forms an anagram for "And here I am, Lord Voldemort" (instead of "I am Lord Voldemort" as in the original English). Analogous alterations of the middle name Marvolo have been made in several other languages; for example; it became Servoleo in Brazilian Portuguese, Vandrolo in Hebrew, Marvoldo in Turkish, Vorlost in German, Narvolo in Russian, Sorvolo in Spanish, Rojvol in Czech, Marvoloso in Slovak, and Orvoloson in Italian (Note: the original Italian version kept the English name, having Riddle translate the anagram in his speech that immediately follows. The change to Orvoloson was made in later editions, although the revisited translation returned to "Marvolo" and kept the phrase in English, assuming the reader could understand it themselves.). In the Latin version his name is Tom Musvox Ruddle, which is an anagram of "Sum Dux Voldemort", or "I am the leader Voldemort". In other languages, translators replaced the entire name to preserve the anagram. In French, Riddle's full name becomes Tom Elvis Jedusor (i.e. phonetically "game of fate" for the French "Jeu du sort", wordplay with a phonetically identical "Jet du sort", which means "Casting spell") which forms an anagram for "Je suis Voldemort" ("I am Voldemort"). In Norwegian, his name is Tom Dredolo Venster, an anagram of "Voldemort den store", which means "Voldemort the Great". In Greek, his name is "Anton Morvol Hurt" (Άντον Μόρβολ Χερτ), anagram of "Άρχον Βόλντεμορτ" which means "Lord Voldemort". In Icelandic, his name is Trevor Delgome, which becomes "(Ég)Eg er Voldemort" ("I am Voldemort"), but his middle name is not used for the anagram and stays as Marvolo. In Finnish his name is "Tom Lomen Valedro"; the corresponding anagram is "Ma(ä) olen Voldemort", "I am Voldemort". In Dutch, his name is "Marten Asmodom Vilijn", an anagram of "Mijn naam is Voldemort", or "My name is Voldemort", "Vilijn" being a pseudohomophone of vilein, "evil". In Swedish, his name is "Tom Gus Mervolo Dolder", an anagram of "Ego sum Lord Voldemort", where "ego sum" is Latin, not Swedish, for "I am". In Chinese, the mainland translator translated the two phrases without regard for the anagram, and inserted a footnote explaining the wordplay. The Taiwanese Chinese and Japanese versions displayed the main text of the anagram in English and added in the meaning in brackets beside it while the Vietnamese version displayed the original anagram in English and added a footnote. In Slovenian, both names are completely changed. Tom Marvolo Riddle is Mark Neelstin and Lord Voldemort is translated as Lord Mrlakenstein. When the name Mark Neelstin is rearranged in the scene, it spells Mrlakenstein. Because the books in Slovenia were released with a three-year delay, the translation of Voldemort is consistent throughout the series. The film series corresponds with the book translation. The Danish translation uses abbreviation and suffix to make the name work. The translation is Romeo G. Detlev Jr an anagram of "Jeg er Voldemort" ("I am Voldemort"). In Hungarian, Voldemort's name becomes "Tom Rowle Denem", which is an anagram of "Nevem Voldemort" ("My name is Voldemort"), with the "w" in the name becoming two "v"s. This caused a name collision with the character Thorfinn Rowle, who first appears in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, but who is not related to Voldemort. Because of this collision, in the Hungarian translation his family name was altered to Rovel. The Arabic version avoids the issue entirely by having Riddle directly write out, "I am Lord Voldemort" (أنا لورد فولدمورت). These changes to the name created problems in later books however; in the English edition, a line of dialogue mentions that Tom Riddle shares his given name with the bartender of the Leaky Cauldron, and this becomes a plot point. However, this is not the case in all translations. Invented words, proper nouns, and names Rowling invented a great number of words and phrases for the books such as spells, incantations, magical words, items, and place names. Many of these words involve wordplay, rhyming, and historical references that are difficult to translate. A large number of spells are drawn from or inspired by Latin, and have a certain resonance with English speakers due to its relatively large proportion of Latinate-derived vocabulary. For example, priori incantatem (a spell which causes the last spells performed by a wand to be reproduced in reverse order) would be familiar to many English-speaking readers as the words prior (previous) and incantation (spell, charm). To create a similar effect in the Hindi version, the Sanskrit, typical in mantras, has been used for the spells. Some translators have created new words themselves; others have resorted to transliteration. Names that involve wordplay, such as Knockturn Alley and Pensieve are also difficult to translate. The former, an unsavoury area in London's magical market, is semi-homophonous with "nocturnally," suggesting darkness and evil. The latter is a magical bowl into which memories and thoughts can be placed and examined, and is a portmanteau of two words: pensive, meaning "musingly or dreamily thoughtful," and sieve, a type of bowl with perforations through which fine particles of a substance (such as flour) may be passed to separate them from coarser ones. Translators must creatively render such names. If the words are simply transliterated, the shades of meaning are lost; but, when new word-games are invented, they can end up sounding quite different from the original, and often reflect the translator's personal interpretation and preferences. For instance, the Turkish version of Pensieve is Düşünseli, which is a portmanteau of the words Düşünmek (to think, to imagine) and sel (a flood of water). The German version of Pensieve is Denkarium, from denken, meaning to think, and the suffix -arium. The Swedish version of Pensieve is Minnessåll which means memory's sieve. The Norwegian translation of Pensieve is tanketank which translates to Thought-tank. The Hebrew version achieves a similar effect to the English in its translation of Pensieve; Pensieve is הגיגית (Hagigit), which is a combination of the word הגיג (hagig) meaning thought, and the word גיגית (gigit) meaning tub. In the Czech translation, Pensieve is "Myslánka" (from "myslet" – think) and Knockturn Alley is Obrtlá ulice, a rather complex neologism with many meanings and associations, but based on the word "obrtlík" (swivel) and the phrase "otočit se na obrtlíku" (run away suddenly). The "Nocturnal" wordplay is not used in the Czech translation. The Vietnamese version of "Pensieve" is "Tưởng Ký", which is a combination word of "tư tưởng" ("thought" or "mind") and "ký" (literally means something to keep thoughts, like a diary). Similarly, in Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone, when Professor McGonagall is about to introduce Harry to Oliver Wood, she asks another professor if she can "borrow Wood for a moment", momentarily confusing Harry; in order to retain this wordplay, the Yiddish translation renames Wood as "Oliver Holtz", "holtz" being the Yiddish for wood, unlike the Italian one, which changed the surname to "Baston", from "bastone", "stick", but returned to the original "Wood" with the second translation. Often, names in Harry Potter have historical or linguistic significance in English, which may create problems if the translator does not recognise or misjudges it. Rowling commented on this phenomenon in Conversations with J.K. Rowling, in which she complained that the Italian translation of Professor Dumbledore's last name was "Silente"; rather than recognising that "Dumbledore" was an old Devon word for "bumblebee," the translator took the word "dumb" and translated it as "silent". In contrast, the Czech translator used the Old Czech word for bumblebee – Brumbál (in modern Czech čmelák). The French translation renamed Severus Snape as 'Rogue'; in Italian he was renamed "Piton" (from the Italian "pitone", "python"). Hungarian also calls him "Piton". Instead, the same Italian translation changed the name of Professor Sybill Trelawney into "Sibilla Cooman", which resembles the Italian "Sibilla Cumana", the Cumaean Sibyl, although, like many other names, it was brought back to the original in the revised translation. Plot points In some cases, English-speaking fans have sought clues to the story's mysteries by examining the way certain parts of the books have been translated in foreign editions. A case in point is the identity of a character mentioned by initials only in the book Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince. The English initials R.A.B. could have belonged to several minor characters from the books, but variations on the initials in other languages gave evidence to the true identity of the mystery character: in the Dutch edition of the book R.A.B. was translated into R.A.Z., 'zwart' being Dutch for 'black'; in the Norwegian edition, R.A.B. translates to 'R.A.S.', svart being Norwegian for 'black'; and in the Finnish edition the initials were R.A.M., 'musta' being Finnish for 'black'. Fans took this to mean that the character was Regulus Black, the brother of Sirius Black; when Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows was published, this was revealed to be the case. Similarly, the title for Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix did not make it obvious whether the word "Order" referred to a group of people or to a directive. The information that it was a group of people was then determined by viewing the title in other languages. The Vietnamese translation, which was originally published in instalments, originally interpreted "Order" as a directive and translated it as "Harry Potter và Mệnh lệnh Phượng hoàng"; when it became clear that "Order" referred to a group of people, the title was changed to "Harry Potter và Hội Phượng hoàng". Rowling released an alternative title for Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows for use by translators finding difficulty translating its meaning. The alternative title (in English) is Harry Potter and the Relics of Death. In Italy the title has been translated as Harry Potter e i doni della morte replacing "hallows" with "presents" because the word "relic" is often used in reference to the remains or personal effects of a saint. This variation was proposed and then approved by J.K. Rowling. Character gender A few characters in the series are identified with a title and last name, or with a gender-neutral name. In some languages—for example, those where adjectives are gendered—it was necessary for the translator to guess the character's gender. The Hebrew translation initially made Blaise Zabini a girl, though the character was revealed to be a boy in later books. To avoid this problem, Isabel Nunes, the Portuguese translator, asked Rowling about the gender of some of the characters—Zabini, Professor Sinistra, and "R.A.B."—while working on her translations. Notes References Further reading Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: External links Article from "Translorial", Part I, Part II The Intricacies of Onomastics in Harry Potter and its French Translation (La Clé des Langues) Article about American English "translation" Interview with the Swedish translator of the series Harry Potter's Polish Translation – Has Andrzej Polkowski Managed to Put it Into Polish Successfully? 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237150	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specified%20load	Specified load	In civil engineering, specified loads are the best estimate of the actual loads a structure is expected to carry. These loads come in many different forms, such as people, equipment, vehicles, wind, rain, snow, earthquakes, the building materials themselves, etc. Specified Loads also known as Characteristic loads in many cases. Buildings will be subject to loads from various sources. The principal ones can be classified as live loads (loads which are not always present in the structure), dead loads (loads which are permanent and immovable excepting redesign or renovation) and wind load, as described below. In some cases structures may be subject to other loads, such as those due to earthquakes or pressures from retained material. The expected maximum magnitude of each is referred to as the characteristic load. Dead loads are those representing the self weight of the building; their magnitude can be estimated on the basis of material densities and component sizes. Dead loads are those due to the self weight of the structure and any permanent fittings and finishes. It is generally possible to quantify the magnitude of dead loads with a reasonable degree of confidence. Imposed loads are those associated with occupation and use of the building; their magnitude is less clearly defined and is generally related to the use of the building. A good example of specified loads would be the following simplified floor to ceiling sandwich load table (based on the National Building Code of Canada standards): Floor Finish (Terrazzo) per 10 mm thickness = 0.24 kN/m^2 Reinforced Concrete per 10 mm thickness = 0.24 kN/m^2 Mechanical Services = 0.14 kN/m^2 Electrical Services = 0.10 kN/m^2 Floor Area (110 mm thickness) = 8 m^2 Total Dead Load = (0.24 + 110.24 + 0.14 + 0.10)8 = 24.96 kN In order to design to these loads, one would need to convert them to design loads by applying Load factors or, more generally, a form of safety factors to them. In the case of limit states design, the resulting factored load is then called a Design load. Note that in this case of Limit states design, we would refer to the factor as a load factor rather than a safety factor to try to eliminate possible confusion between Limit states design and the older Allowable stress design. 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237167	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loaded%20language	Loaded language	Loaded language (also known as loaded terms, emotive language, high-inference language and language-persuasive techniques) may be rhetoric used to influence an audience by using words and phrases with strong connotations, this type of language is called unclear, meaning vague, in order to invoke an emotional response and/or exploit stereotypes. Loaded words and phrases have significant emotional implications and involve strongly positive or negative reactions beyond their literal meaning. Definition Loaded terms, also called emotive or ethical words, were clearly described by Charles Stevenson. He noticed that there are words that do not merely describe a possible state of affairs. "Terrorist" is not used only to refer to a person who commits specific actions with a specific intent. Words such as "torture" or "freedom" carry with them something more than a simple description of a concept or an action. They have a "magnetic" effect, an imperative force, a tendency to influence the interlocutor's decisions. They are strictly bound to moral values leading to value judgments and potentially triggering specific emotions. For this reason, they have an emotive dimension. In the modern psychological terminology, we can say that these terms carry "emotional valence", as they presuppose and generate a value judgment that can lead to an emotion. The appeal to emotion is in contrast to an appeal to logic and reason. Authors R. Malcolm Murray and Nebojša Kujundžić distinguish "prima facie reasons" from "considered reasons" when discussing this. An emotion, elicited via emotive language, may form a prima facie reason for action, but further work is required before one can obtain a considered reason. Emotive arguments and loaded language are particularly persuasive because they exploit the human weakness for acting immediately based upon an emotional response, without such further considered judgment. Due to such potential for emotional complication, it is generally advised to avoid loaded language in argument or speech when fairness and impartiality is one of the goals. Anthony Weston, for example, admonishes students and writers: "In general, avoid language whose only function is to sway the emotions". Examples Politicians employ euphemisms, and study how to use them effectively: which words to use or avoid using to gain political advantage or disparage an opponent. Speechwriter and journalist Richard Heller gives the example that it is common for a politician to advocate "investment in public services," because it has a more favorable connotation than "public spending." One aspect of loaded language is that loaded words and phrases occur in pairs, sometimes as political framing techniques by individuals with opposing agendas. Heller calls these "a Boo! version and a Hooray! version" to differentiate those with negative and positive emotional connotations. Examples include bureaucrat versus public servant, anti-abortion versus pro-life, regime versus government, and elitist versus expert. In the 1946 essay "Politics and the English Language", George Orwell discussed the use of loaded language in political discourse. See also Notes References Further reading External links Communication theory Rhetorical techniques Propaganda techniques using words Connotation Ethically disputed practices ja:詭弁#充填された語（loaded language）	[ 0.31186944246292114, 0.09446080029010773, -0.4994027614593506, 0.45695236325263977, -0.7528359293937683, 0.017008164897561073, 0.34359803795814514, 0.4150390923023224, 0.09346360713243484, -0.09998049587011337, -0.6302824020385742, 0.583994448184967, -0.48777419328689575, -0.21869014203548431, 0.14396320283412933, 0.4108193516731262, 0.282766729593277, 0.269496351480484, 0.06056152656674385, -0.09843941777944565, -0.2482208013534546, -0.02301139570772648, 0.12810082733631134, -0.8258059024810791, 0.8901609778404236, 0.05963748320937157, 0.25565558671951294, -0.2981243431568146, -0.5962443351745605, -0.05962598696351051, -0.011549691669642925, 0.5592533946037292, -0.19521954655647278, -0.08590994775295258, -0.4689086675643921, -0.19457928836345673, -0.24543680250644684, 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237168	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric%20Ladyland	Electric Ladyland	Electric Ladyland is the third and final studio album by the Jimi Hendrix Experience and the final studio album released in Hendrix's lifetime before his death in 1970. Released by Reprise Records in North America on October 16, 1968, and by Track Records in the UK nine days later, the double album was the only record from the band produced by Hendrix. By mid-November, it had charted at number one in the US, where it spent two weeks at the top spot. Electric Ladyland was the Experience's most commercially successful release and their only number one album. It peaked at number six in the UK, where it spent 12 weeks on the chart. Electric Ladyland included a cover of Bob Dylan's "All Along the Watchtower", which became the Experience's best-selling single, peaking at number six in the UK and 20 in the US. Although the album confounded critics in 1968, it has since been viewed as Hendrix's best work and one of the greatest rock records of all time. Electric Ladyland has been featured on many greatest-album lists, including Q magazine's 2003 list of the 100 greatest albums and Rolling Stones 2020 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, on which it was ranked 53rd. Recording and production The Experience began recording Electric Ladyland at several studios in the US and UK between July 1967 and January 1968. Recording resumed on April 18, 1968, at the newly opened Record Plant Studios in New York City, with Chas Chandler as producer and engineers Eddie Kramer and Gary Kellgren. Hendrix was famous for his studio perfectionism; he and drummer Mitch Mitchell recorded over 50 takes of "Gypsy Eyes" over three sessions. Hendrix was insecure about his voice and often recorded his vocals hidden behind studio screens. He sang backing vocals himself on the title track and on "Long Hot Summer Night". As recording progressed, Chandler became frustrated with Hendrix's perfectionism and his demands for repeated takes. Hendrix allowed friends and guests to join them in the studio, which contributed to a chaotic and crowded environment in the control room and led Chandler to sever his professional relationship with Hendrix. Bassist Noel Redding recalled: "There were tons of people in the studio; you couldn't move. It was a party, not a session." Redding, who had formed his own band in mid-1968, Fat Mattress, found it increasingly difficult to fulfill his commitments with the Experience, so Hendrix played many of the bass parts. The album's cover states that it was "produced and directed by Jimi Hendrix". The double LP was the only Experience album mixed entirely in stereo. Hendrix experimented with other combinations of musicians, including Jefferson Airplane's Jack Casady and Traffic's Steve Winwood, who played bass and organ on the fifteen-minute slow-blues jam "Voodoo Chile". Hendrix appeared at an impromptu jam with B.B. King, Al Kooper, and Elvin Bishop. Music According to music journalist David Stubbs, Electric Ladyland is "undoubtedly a rock album, albeit rock on the point of evolving into something else." Uncut magazine's John Robinson said that its music reconciles the psychedelic pop of Hendrix's earlier recordings with the aggressive funk he would explore on his 1970 album Band of Gypsys. During its recording, Kramer experimented with innovative studio techniques such as backmasking, chorus effect, echo, and flanging, which AllMusic's Cub Koda said recontextualized Hendrix's psychedelic and funk sounds on the album. Electric Ladyland is a cross-section of Hendrix's wide range of musical talent. It includes examples of several genres and styles of music: the psychedelic "Burning of the Midnight Lamp", a UK single the previous summer (1967), the extended blues jam "Voodoo Chile", the New Orleans-style R&B of Earl King's "Come On", the epic studio production of "1983... (A Merman I Should Turn to Be)", the social commentary of "House Burning Down", and the Sixties-era Britpop of Noel Redding's "Little Miss Strange". The album also features an electric reworking of the Bob Dylan classic "All Along the Watchtower", which has been well-received by critics as well as by Dylan himself, and also "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)", a staple of both radio and guitar repertoire. Rolling Stone Holly George-Warren praised "Crosstown Traffic" for its hard rock guitar riff. "All Along the Watchtower" became the band's highest-selling single and their only US top 40 hit, peaking at number 20; it reached number five in the UK. The album also included one of Hendrix's most prominent uses of a wah-wah pedal, on "Burning of the Midnight Lamp", which reached number 18 in the UK charts. Cover Hendrix had written to Reprise describing what he wanted for the cover art, but was mostly ignored. He expressly asked for a color photo by Linda McCartney (then known as Linda Eastman) of the group sitting with children on the sculpture of Alice in Wonderland in Central Park, and drew a picture of it for reference. The company instead used a blurred red and yellow photo of his head while performing at Saville Theatre, taken by Karl Ferris. Track Records used its art department, which produced a cover image by photographer David Montgomery, who also shot the inside cover portrait of Hendrix, depicting nineteen nude women lounging in front of a black background. Hendrix expressed initial displeasure and surprise with this "naked lady" cover (but later told Rolling Stone magazine that he "dug it anyway"), much as he was displeased with the Axis: Bold as Love cover, which he found disrespectful. The cover was banned by several record dealers as "pornographic", while others sold it with the gatefold cover turned inside out, or in a brown wrapper. In France and the Benelux countries, Hendrix's recordings were released by Barclay Records, and Electric Ladyland featured a front cover photograph by Alain Dister, and inner sleeve photographs by Jean-Pierre Leloir and Donald Silverstein. Release and reception Electric Ladyland was released in the US on October 16, 1968. It was a "hit psychedelic album", Richie Unterberger later wrote, and by mid-November, it had reached number one in the US, spending two weeks atop the pop charts. The double LP was the Experience's most commercially successful release and Hendrix's only number-one album. In the UK, it peaked at number six and charted for 12 weeks. Electric Ladyland confounded contemporary critics; reviewers praised some of its songs but felt the album lacked structure and sounded too dense. Melody Maker called it "mixed-up and muddled", with the exception of "All Along the Watchtower", which the magazine called a masterpiece. Reviewing for Rolling Stone in 1968, Tony Glover said Hendrix's original songs sometimes sound unstructured and was somewhat disappointed by the "heavy handed guitar" on "1983... (A Merman I Should Turn to Be)" and the science-fiction conclusion to "House Burning Down". Ultimately, Glover appreciated the "energy flow" unifying the songs and described Hendrix as "amazing", adding that Electric Ladyland serves as "an extended look into Hendrix’s head, and mostly it seems to have some pretty good things in it (who among us is totally free of mental garbage?)". Robert Christgau was more enthusiastic in Stereo Review, regarding it as an explosive showcase of rock's "most important recent innovation"—the "heavy" guitar aesthetic—and "an integrated work-in-itself in more ways than one". He found the production exceptional—"the best job of stereo for its own sake I know"—and was surprisingly impressed by the quality of the lyrics. While most guitarists in rock believed improvisation to be a straightforward endeavor, Christgau said "Hendrix achieves unique effects, effects you'll never get from Kenny Burrell", citing "Voodoo Chile" as an example. He later named Electric Ladyland the fifth-best album of 1968 in his ballot for Jazz & Pop magazine's critics poll. Reappraisal Over time, Electric Ladylands critical standing improved significantly, with author and musicologist John Perry describing it as "one of the greatest double-albums in Rock." According to author Michael Heatley, "most critics agree" that the album was "the fullest realization of Jimi's far-reaching ambitions"; Guitar World editor Noe Goldwasser called it his greatest work. The record was also deemed an essential hard rock album in Tom Larson's 2004 book History of Rock and Roll, and Clash reviewer Robin Murray viewed it as a "true classic of the psychedelic rock era". In a retrospective review for Blender, Christgau wrote that it was the definitive work of psychedelic music, describing the record as "an aural utopia that accommodates both ingrained conflict and sweet, vague spiritual yearnings, held together by a master musician". In Charlotte Greig's opinion, much like Are You Experienced, Electric Ladyland was "groundbreaking, introducing audiences to a style of psychedelic rock rooted in the blues". The Washington Post critic Geoffrey Himes names it an exemplary release of the progressive soul development from 1968 to 1973. Author Amy Wallace called the album a "classic of acid rock." Electric Ladyland has been featured on many greatest album lists, including a number 10 ranking on Classic Rock magazine's list of the 100 Greatest Rock Albums Ever, and number 37 on The Times 100 Best Albums of All Time. Music journalist and author Peter Doggett argued that it is very likely the greatest rock album of all time because of its exceptional concept, artful melodies, experimentation, and skilled musicianship, which he felt remains unparalleled by any other rock artist. The album was included in "A Basic Record Library" of 1950s and 1960s recordings, published in Christgau's Record Guide: Rock Albums of the Seventies (1981). In 2000, it was voted number 32 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums. In 2003, Q magazine named Electric Ladyland as one of the 100 greatest albums, while Rolling Stone ranked it 54th in its "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" publication. (Rolling Stones 2020 revision to the list upped the rank to 53.) Track listing The original US Reprise and UK Track albums did not list running times for the songs. Track lengths are taken from the 1968 International Polydor Production album. All songs are written by Jimi Hendrix, except where noted. Notes As was common with multi-LP albums, sides one and four were pressed back to back on the same platter, likewise sides two and three. This was called auto-coupling or automatic sequence and was intended to make it easier to play through the entire album in sequence on automatic record-changers. In this case it has led to some CD releases of Electric Ladyland that have the sides in the incorrect one-four-two-three order. A new 50th anniversary edition was released on November 28, 2018. It features Hendrix's originally intended cover, and is available as a box-set with either a Blu-ray disc and 3-CDs or a Blu-ray disc and 6-LPs. The Blu-ray includes a 5.1 surround mix by Eddie Kramer and a high resolution version of the album remaster. The remastering was done by Bernie Grundman from the original master tapes. The box set also features early takes, demos and live concert from September 14, 1968, at the Hollywood Bowl plus a 1997 documentary "At Last...The Beginning: The Making of Electric Ladyland" featuring Chas Chandler, Mitch Mitchell, Noel Redding and Eddie Kramer. Personnel Credits taken from the 1993 MCA compact disc liner notes. The Jimi Hendrix Experience Jimi Hendrix – vocals, guitars, piano, percussion, electric harpsichord; bass guitar on "Have You Ever Been (To Electric Ladyland)," "Long Hot Summer Night," "Gypsy Eyes," "1983...," "House Burning Down," and "All Along the Watchtower"; comb and tissue paper on "Crosstown Traffic" Noel Redding – backing vocals, bass guitar on "Crosstown Traffic," "Little Miss Strange," "Come On," "Burning of the Midnight Lamp," and "Voodoo Child (Slight Return)"; acoustic guitar and lead vocals on "Little Miss Strange" Mitch Mitchell – backing vocals, drums, percussion all tracks except "Rainy Day, Dream Away" and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming"; lead vocals on "Little Miss Strange" Additional musicians Chris Wood – flute on "1983... (A Merman I Should Turn to Be)" Freddie Smith – tenor saxophone on "Rainy Day, Dream Away" and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming" Steve Winwood – Hammond organ on "Voodoo Chile" Mike Finnigan – organ on "Rainy Day, Dream Away" and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming" Al Kooper – piano on "Long Hot Summer Night" Dave Mason – twelve-string guitar, backing vocals on "Crosstown Traffic" and "All Along the Watchtower" Jack Casady – bass guitar on "Voodoo Chile" Buddy Miles – drums on "Rainy Day, Dream Away" and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming" Larry Faucette – congas on "Rainy Day, Dream Away" and "Still Raining, Still Dreaming" Brian Jones – percussion on "All Along the Watchtower" The Sweet Inspirations – backing vocals on "Burning of the Midnight Lamp" Production Jimi Hendrix – producer, mixing, arrangements, US LP issue liner notes Eddie Kramer, Gary Kellgren – engineers, mixing David King – UK album sleeve design David Montgomery – UK outer sleeve and inside photography Karl Ferris – US cover design Ed Thrasher – US art direction Linda Eastman, David Sygall – US cover photography Digital remastering Lee Herschberg – initial compact disc release Joe Gastwirt – 1989 compact disc release Eddie Kramer, George Marino – 1997 compact disc release Bernie Grundman, Scott Sedilo – 2018 anniversary compact disc release Charts and certifications Certifications Notes Citations Sources Further reading External links Electric Ladyland (Barclay) at vinyl-records.nl 1968 albums The Jimi Hendrix Experience albums Track Records albums Albums produced by Jimi Hendrix Albums recorded at Olympic Sound Studios Barclay (record label) albums Polydor Records albums Reprise Records albums Grammy Hall of Fame Award recipients Obscenity controversies in music	[ -0.7340416312217712, -0.012442264705896378, -0.25596383213996887, 0.1302357316017151, -0.05992063879966736, 0.24779553711414337, 0.5800243616104126, 0.014874117448925972, -0.05665985494852066, 0.13107681274414062, 0.3525816798210144, 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237170	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature%20mirror%20filter	Quadrature mirror filter	In digital signal processing, a quadrature mirror filter is a filter whose magnitude response is the mirror image around of that of another filter. Together these filters, first introduced by Croisier et al., are known as the Quadrature Mirror Filter pair. A filter will be the quadrature mirror filter of if The filter responses are symmetric about In audio/voice codecs, a quadrature mirror filter pair is often used to implement a filter bank that splits an input signal into two bands. The resulting high-pass and low-pass signals are often reduced by a factor of 2, giving a critically sampled two-channel representation of the original signal. The analysis filters are often related by the following formula in addition to quadrate mirror property: where is the frequency, and the sampling rate is normalized to . This is known as power complementary property. In other words, the power sum of the high-pass and low-pass filters is equal to 1. Orthogonal wavelets -- the Haar wavelets and related Daubechies wavelets, Coiflets, and some developed by Mallat, are generated by scaling functions which, with the wavelet, satisfy a quadrature mirror filter relationship. Relationship to other filter banks The earliest wavelets were based on expanding a function in terms of rectangular steps, the Haar wavelets. This is usually a poor approximation, whereas Daubechies wavelets are among the simplest but most important families of wavelets. A linear filter that is zero for “smooth” signals, given a record of points is defined as: It is desirable to have it vanish for a constant, so taking the order for example: And to have it vanish for a linear ramp so that: A linear filter will vanish for any , and this is all that can be done with a fourth order wavelet. Six terms will be needed to vanish a quadratic curve and so on given the other constraints to be included. Next an accompanying filter may be defined as: This filter responds in an exactly opposite manner, being large for smooth signals and small for non-smooth signals. A linear filter is just a convolution of the signal with the filter’s coefficients, so the series of the coefficients is the signal that the filter responds to maximally. Thus, the output of the second filter vanishes when the coefficients of the first one are input into it. The aim is to have: Where the associated time series flips the order of the coefficients because the linear filter is a convolution, and so both have the same index in this sum. A pair of filters with this property are defined as quadrature mirror filters. Even if the two resulting bands have been subsampled by a factor of 2, the relationship between the filters means that approximately perfect reconstruction is possible. That is, the two bands can then be upsampled, filtered again with the same filters and added together, to reproduce the original signal exactly (but with a small delay). (In practical implementations, numeric precision issues in floating-point arithmetic may affect the perfection of the reconstruction.) Further reading A.Croisier, D.Esteban, C.Galand: Perfect channel splitting by use of interpolation/decimation tree decomposition techniques. First International Conference on Sciences and Systems, Patras, August 1976, pp.443-446. Johnston, JD, A Filter Family Designed for use in Quadrature Mirror Filter Banks. , Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing,IEEE International Conference, 5, 291-294, April, 1980. Binomial QMF, also known as Daubechies wavelet filters. NJIT Symposia on Subbands and Wavelets 1990, 1992, 1994, 1997. Mohlenkamp, M. J, A Tutorial on Wavelets and Their Applications. , University of Colorado, Boulder, Dept. of Applied Mathematics, 2004. Polikar, R, Multiresolution Analysis: The Discrete Wavelet Transform. , Rowan University, NJ, Dept. of Electrical and Computer Engineering References Digital signal processing Filter theory Wavelets	[ -0.22236528992652893, -0.3385186791419983, -0.11132138967514038, 0.010224232450127602, -1.0170161724090576, -0.07984012365341187, 0.28475409746170044, -0.4760153889656067, -0.030136171728372574, -0.550296425819397, -0.42691555619239807, 0.5552710294723511, -0.6662622690200806, 0.4306948184967041, -0.1471148431301117, 0.5115779042243958, 0.6937071681022644, 0.508795976638794, -0.6900708079338074, -0.40498805046081543, 0.5991001725196838, 0.4412738084793091, 0.3172565996646881, -0.06604737043380737, -0.22525233030319214, 0.07741379737854004, 0.2879140079021454, 0.3450929820537567, 0.29450225830078125, 0.42104819416999817, 0.549978494644165, 1.1115283966064453, -0.2022264450788498, -0.06056070700287819, 0.5920852422714233, 0.15767650306224823, 0.603759229183197, -0.17902816832065582, 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237183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bild	Bild	Bild (or Bild-Zeitung, literally Picture; ) is a German tabloid newspaper published by Axel Springer SE. The paper is published from Monday to Saturday; on Sundays, its sister paper Bild am Sonntag ("Bild on Sunday") is published instead, which has a different style and its own editors. Bild is tabloid in style but broadsheet in size. It is the best-selling European newspaper and has the sixteenth-largest circulation worldwide. Bild has been described as "notorious for its mix of gossip, inflammatory language, and sensationalism" and as having a huge influence on German politicians. Its nearest English-language stylistic and journalistic equivalent is often considered to be the British national newspaper The Sun, the second-highest-selling European tabloid newspaper. History Bild was founded by Axel Springer in 1952. It mostly consisted of pictures (hence the name Bild, German for picture). Bild soon became the best-selling tabloid, by a wide margin, not only in Germany, but in all of Europe, though essentially to German readers. Through most of its history, Bild was based in Hamburg. The paper moved its headquarters to Berlin in March 2008, stating that it was an essential base of operations for a national newspaper. It is printed nationwide with 32 localized editions. Special editions are printed in some favoured German holiday destinations abroad such as Spain, Italy, Turkey and Greece. Bild sold more than five million copies every day in the 1980s. In 1993 the paper had a circulation of slightly more than four million copies, making it the most read newspaper in the country. In the period of 1995–96 its circulation was 4,300,000 copies. In 2001 Bild was the most read newspaper in Europe and also, in Germany with a circulation of 4,396,000 copies. Although it is still Germany's biggest paper, the circulation of Bild, along with many other papers, has been on the decline in recent years. By the end of 2005, the figure dropped to 3.8 million copies. Its 2010 circulation was 3,548,000, making the paper the fifth in the list of the world's biggest selling newspapers. Bild is published in tabloid format. In the paper's beginnings, Springer was influenced by the model of the British tabloid Daily Mirror, although Bild's paper size is larger, this is reflected in its mix of celebrity gossip, crime stories and political analysis. However, its articles are often considerably shorter compared to those in British tabloids, and the whole paper is thinner as well. In June 2012, Bild celebrated its 60th anniversary by giving away free newspapers to almost all of Germany's 41 million households. Bild said Guinness World Records in Germany has certified the print run as "the largest circulation for the free special edition of a newspaper". In 2018 on average 2.2 million copies of the paper were printed across Germany and 416,567 readers took advantage of the paid digital offer Bild plus. In terms of subscribers, it is the largest in Europe and the fifth largest worldwide. In 2019 Bild started a weekly politic newspaper, named Bild Politik, which ceased publications after a few months. Editorial leanings From the outset, the editorial drift was conservative and nationalist. The GDR was referred to as the Soviet Occupation Zone (German: Sowjetische Besatzungszone or SBZ). The usage continued well into the 1980s, when Bild began to use the GDR's official name cautiously, putting it in quotation marks. Bild (along with fellow Springer tabloid B.Z.) heavily influenced public opinion against the German student movement and left-wing terrorism in the years following 1966, and was blamed by some for the climate that contributed to the assassination attempt on activist Rudi Dutschke in 1968—a popular catchphrase in left-wing circles sympathetic to student radicalism was "Bild hat mitgeschossen!" ("Bild shot at him too!"). In 1977 investigative journalist Günter Wallraff worked for four months as an editor for the Bild tabloid in Hanover, giving himself the pseudonym of "Hans Esser". In his books Der Aufmacher ("Lead Story") and Zeugen der Anklage ("Witnesses for the Prosecution") he portrays his experiences on the editorial staff of the paper and the journalism which he encountered there. The staff commonly displayed contempt for humanity, a lack of respect for the privacy of ordinary people and widespread conduct of unethical research and editing techniques. Wallraff's investigations were also the basis for the 1990 film The Man Inside. After the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Cold War in Europe, Bild focused on celebrity stories and became less political. Despite its general support for Germany's conservative parties and especially former chancellor Helmut Kohl, its rhetoric, still populist in tone, is less fierce than it was thirty years ago. Its traditionally less conservative Sunday paper Bild am Sonntag even supported Gerhard Schröder, a Social Democrat, in his bid for chancellor in 1998. In 2004, Bild started to cooperate with fast-food giant McDonald's to sell the tabloid at its 1,000 fast-food restaurants in Germany. The cooperation still goes on, often enough by advertising the restaurant chain in "news" articles. Young women in skimpy clothes appeared on Bild's page one below the fold as Seite-eins-Mädchen or "Page One Girls". On 9 March 2012 Bild announced the elimination of the "Page One Girls", instead moving its fleshy photos to its inside pages. In 2004 Bild was publicly reprimanded twelve times by the (German Press Council). This amounts for a third of the reprimands this self-regulation council of the German press declared that year. Up until 2012, it had received more reprimands than any other newspaper from this watchdog body. After Julian Reichelt became editor in 2018, Bild took a generally anti-Angela Merkel line, and strengthened its anti-Putin, pro-NATO, pro-Israel position. Spiegel magazine often accuses Bild of pushing Germany further right and questions Bild's moral standards and journalistic quality. International relations During the COVID-19 pandemic, Bild editor Julian Reichelt accused Chinese leader Xi Jinping of surveillance and other human rights crimes in an editorial titled "What China owes us" on 20 April 2020. After the Chinese embassy to Germany said that the Bild editorial reproached "nationalism, prejudice, and hostility against China", Reichelt responded “Your embassy tells me that I am not living up to the ‘traditional friendship of our peoples.’ I suppose you consider it a great ‘friendship’ when you now generously send masks around the world. This isn't friendship, I would call it imperialism hidden behind a smile — a Trojan Horse. You plan to strengthen China through a plague that you exported. You will not succeed.” During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Paul Ronzheimer, the deputy editor-in-chief and correspondent of Bild, tweeted that Ilham Aliyev, the President of Azerbaijan, agreed to be interviewed by the newspaper, and that he suddenly changed his mind, specifying that the Azerbaijani side itself offered to conduct an interview with Aliyev. Then, aide to the Azerbaijani President, Hikmet Hajiyev, responded with a tweet, calling his statement unprofessional and stating that Aliyev preferred to give interviews to professionals rather than the yellow press. Motto Its motto, prominently displayed below the logo, is unabhängig, überparteilich ("independent, nonpartisan"). Another slogan used prominently in advertising is Bild dir deine Meinung!, which translates as "Form your own opinion!" (by reading Bild), a pun based on the fact that, in German, Bild is a homophone of the imperative form of the verb bilden () and the noun Bild (). Print locations Bild is printed in Ahrensburg, Hanover, Berlin, Leipzig, Essen, Neu-Isenburg, Esslingen, Munich, and Syke. Outside of Germany it is also printed in Madrid, Palma de Mallorca, Las Palmas, Milan, Athens, and in Antalya. The foreign locations cater mostly for German tourists and expatriates. Editors-in-chief 1952: Rolf von Bargen 1952–1958: Rudolf Michael 1958–1960: Oskar Bezold 1960–1962: Karl-Heinz Hagen 1961–1971: Peter Boenisch 1971–1980: Günter Prinz 1981–1988: Horst Fust 1988–1989: Werner Rudi 1989–1990: Peter Bartels 1990–1992: Hans-Hermann Tiedje 1992–1997: Claus Larass 1998–2000: Udo Röbel 2001–2015: Kai Diekmann 2016–2018: 2018–March 2021: Julian Reichelt March–October 2021: Julian Reichelt and Alexandra Würzbach October 2021–present: Johannes Boje and Alexandra Würzbach Reception Der Spiegel wrote in 2006 that Bild "flies just under the nonsense threshold of American and British tabloids ... For the German desperate, it is a daily dose of high-resolution soft porn". It is argued Bilds thirst for sensationalism results in the terrorizing of prominent celebrities and stories are frequently based on the most dubious evidence. The journalistic standards of Bild are the subject of frequent criticism. is a popular German blog that when founded was dedicated solely to documenting errors and fabrications in Bild articles. In 2005 BILDblog received the Grimme Online Award for its work. Since 2009 BILDblog has also reported on errors and fabrications in other newspapers from Germany and elsewhere. Heinrich Böll's 1974 novel The Lost Honor of Katharina Blum, and the 1975 movie based on it, used a fictional stand-in for Bild to make a point about its allegedly unethical journalistic practices. Böll's essay in the edition of 10 January 1972 of Der Spiegel (titled ") was sharply critical of Bild's sensationalist coverage of the Baader-Meinhof Gang. In the essay, Böll stated that what Bild does "isn’t cryptofascist anymore, not fascistoid, but naked fascism. Agitation, lies, dirt." Judith Holofernes, lead singer of German band Wir sind Helden, wrote a scathing open letter to Bild's advertising agency after they asked her to star in a campaign. "Bild is not a harmless guilty pleasure", she wrote, but a "dangerous political instrument—not only a high-magnification telescope into the abyss but an evil creature". Images of topless women For 28 years from 1984 to 2012, Bild had topless women featuring on its first page; in total, the paper published more than 5,000 topless pictures. In 2014 Sophia Becker and Kristina Lunz launched a campaign, Stop Bild Sexism, to end the use of sexualized images of women in Bild. The campaign was inspired by the No More Page 3 campaign to get The Sun in the UK to stop publishing images of half-naked women on page 3. Lunz argues that Bild'''s frequent use of images of unclothed women makes its reporting of sexual assault and harassment "sexist and voyeuristic." Becker says that Bild contributes to the normalisation of sexism in German society. The petition had over 35,000 signatures in January 2015, and Springer, the newspaper's publisher, responded by issuing a statement of values. These include the importance of mutual respect and maintaining respectful interactions. Bild stopped publishing "topless productions of our own with women" in March 2018, three years after The Sun, while continuing to publish photos of provocatively-posed models dressed in underwear alone. TV 2021 there was created the Bild television channel. In popular culture In their 2007 song Lasse redn (topped at no. 6 of the German charts), punk rock band Die Ärzte summarized Bilds content as "fear, hate, tits and the weather report" (Aus Angst, Hass, Titten und dem Wetterbericht). Bild Lilli was the inspiration for Ruth Handler's Barbie''. Building The Berlin offices have a 19-storey paternoster lift, whose continued operation was vigorously defended editorially by the newspaper. See also List of German newspapers Media of Germany References External links 1952 establishments in West Germany Axel Springer SE Centre-right newspapers Conservatism in Germany Conservative media Daily newspapers published in Germany German news websites German-language newspapers Newspapers published in Berlin Newspapers published in Hamburg Newspapers established in 1952 Right-wing newspapers Right-wing populism in Germany	[ 0.4445454776287079, 0.20592044293880463, 0.4599893391132355, 0.05080041661858559, -0.516095757484436, 0.050940874963998795, 0.397379994392395, 0.09707389026880264, -0.08689035475254059, -0.11796463280916214, -0.4392123222351074, -0.11804231256246567, -0.06165054440498352, 0.02388823963701725, -0.3760716915130615, -0.016004083678126335, 0.07948622852563858, 0.5405997037887573, -0.5837835669517517, -0.9765245318412781, -0.09197625517845154, -0.19777734577655792, 0.40457746386528015, -0.5327793955802917, 0.4840911328792572, 0.2436600923538208, 0.5313199758529663, 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237186	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Fourier	Charles Fourier	François Marie Charles Fourier (;; 7 April 1772 – 10 October 1837) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of Fourier's social and moral views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have become mainstream thinking in modern society. For instance, Fourier is credited with having originated the word feminism in 1837. Fourier's social views and proposals inspired a whole movement of intentional communities. Among them in the United States were the community of Utopia, Ohio; La Reunion near present-day Dallas, Texas; Lake Zurich, Illinois; the North American Phalanx in Red Bank, New Jersey; Brook Farm in West Roxbury, Massachusetts; the Community Place and Sodus Bay Phalanx in New York State; Silkville, Kansas, and several others. In Guise, France, he influenced the . Fourier later inspired a diverse array of revolutionary thinkers and writers. Life Fourier was born in Besançon, France on 7 April 1772. The son of a small businessman, Fourier was more interested in architecture than in his father's trade. He wanted to become an engineer, but the local military engineering school accepted only sons of noblemen. Fourier later said he was grateful that he did not pursue engineering, because it would have consumed too much of his time and taken away from his true desire to help humanity. When his father died in 1781, Fourier received two-fifths of his father's estate, valued at more than 200,000 francs. This inheritance enabled Fourier to travel throughout Europe at his leisure. In 1791 he moved from Besançon to Lyon, where he was employed by the merchant M. Bousquet. Fourier's travels also brought him to Paris, where he worked as the head of the Office of Statistics for a few months. From 1791 to 1816 Fourier was employed in Paris, Rouen, Lyon, Marseille, and Bordeaux. As a traveling salesman and correspondence clerk, his research and thought was time-limited: he complained of "serving the knavery of merchants" and the stupefaction of "deceitful and degrading duties." He began writing. His first book was published in 1808, but it only sold a few copies. Surprisingly, after six years, the book fell into the hands of Monsieur Just Muiron who eventually became Fourier's patron. Fourier produced most of his writings between 1816 and 1821. In 1822, he tried to sell his books again but with no success. Fourier died in Paris in 1837. Ideas Fourier declared that concern and cooperation were the secrets of social success. He believed that a society that cooperated would see an immense improvement in their productivity levels. Workers would be recompensed for their labors according to their contribution. Fourier saw such cooperation occurring in communities he called "phalanxes," based upon structures called Phalanstères or "grand hotels". These buildings were four-level apartment complexes where the richest had the uppermost apartments and the poorest had a ground-floor residence. Wealth was determined by one's job; jobs were assigned based on the interests and desires of the individual. There were incentives: jobs people might not enjoy doing would receive higher pay. Fourier considered trade, which he associated with Jews, to be the "source of all evil" and advocated that Jews be forced to perform farm work in the phalansteries. By the end of his life, Fourier advocated the return of Jews to Palestine with the assistance of the Rothschilds. John K. Roth and Richard L. Rubenstein have seen Fourier as motivated by economic and religious antisemitism, rather than the racial antisemitism that would emerge later in the century. Attack on civilization Fourier characterized poverty (not inequality) as the principal cause of disorder in society, and he proposed to eradicate it by sufficiently high wages and by a "decent minimum" for those who were not able to work. Fourier used the word civilization in a negative sense and as such "Fourier's contempt for the respectable thinkers and ideologies of his age was so intense that he always used the terms philosopher and civilization in a pejorative sense. In his lexicon civilization was a depraved order, a synonym for perfidy and constraint ... Fourier's attack on civilization had qualities not to be found in the writing of any other social critic of his time." Work and liberated passions For Herbert Marcuse "The idea of libidinal work relations in a developed industrial society finds little support in the tradition of thought, and where such support is forthcoming it seems of a dangerous nature. The transformation of labor into pleasure is the central idea in Fourier's giant socialist utopia." He believed that there were twelve common passions which resulted in 810 types of character, so the ideal phalanx would have exactly 1620 people. One day there would be six million of these, loosely ruled by a world "omniarch", or (later) a World Congress of Phalanxes. He had a concern for the sexually rejected; jilted suitors would be led away by a corps of fairies who would soon cure them of their lovesickness, and visitors could consult the card-index of personality types for suitable partners for casual sex. He also defended homosexuality as a personal preference for some people. Anarchist Hakim Bey describes Fourier's ideas as follows: In Fourier's system of Harmony all creative activity including industry, craft, agriculture, etc. will arise from liberated passion—this is the famous theory of "attractive labor." Fourier sexualizes work itself—the life of the Phalanstery is a continual orgy of intense feeling, intellection, & activity, a society of lovers & wild enthusiasts. Women's rights Fourier was also a supporter of women's rights in a time period when influences like Jean-Jacques Rousseau were prevalent. Fourier believed that all important jobs should be open to women on the basis of skill and aptitude rather than closed on account of gender. He spoke of women as individuals, not as half the human couple. Fourier saw that "traditional" marriage could potentially hurt woman's rights as human beings and thus never married. Writing before the advent of the term 'homosexuality', Fourier held that both men and women have a wide range of sexual needs and preferences which may change throughout their lives, including same-sex sexuality and androgénité. He argued that all sexual expressions should be enjoyed as long as people are not abused, and that "affirming one's difference" can actually enhance social integration. Fourier's concern was to liberate every human individual, man, woman, and child, in two senses: education and the liberation of human passion. Children and education On education, Fourier felt that "civilized" parents and teachers saw children as little idlers. Fourier felt that this way of thinking was wrong. He felt that children as early as age two and three were very industrious. He listed the dominant tastes in all children to include, but not limited to: Rummaging or inclination to handle everything, examine everything, look through everything, to constantly change occupations; Industrial commotion, taste for noisy occupations; Aping or imitative mania. Industrial miniature, a taste for miniature workshops. Progressive attraction of the weak toward the strong. Fourier was deeply disturbed by the disorder of his time and wanted to stabilize the course of events which surrounded him. Fourier saw his fellow human beings living in a world full of strife, chaos, and disorder. Fourier is best remembered for his writings on a new world order based on unity of action and harmonious collaboration. He is also known for certain Utopian pronouncements, such as that the seas would lose their salinity and turn to lemonade, and a coincidental view of climate change, that the North Pole would be milder than the Mediterranean in a future phase of Perfect Harmony. Influence The influence of Fourier's ideas in French politics was carried forward into the 1848 Revolution and the Paris Commune by followers such as Victor Considerant. Numerous references to Fourierism appear in Dostoevsky's political novel Demons first published in 1872. Fourier's ideas also took root in America, with his followers starting phalanxes throughout the country, including one of the most famous, Utopia, Ohio. Peter Kropotkin, in the preface to his book The Conquest of Bread, considered Fourier to be the founder of the libertarian branch of socialist thought, as opposed to the authoritarian socialist ideas of Babeuf and Buonarroti. In the mid-20th century, Fourier's influence began to rise again among writers reappraising socialist ideas outside the Marxist mainstream. After the Surrealists had broken with the French Communist Party, André Breton returned to Fourier, writing Ode à Charles Fourier in 1947. Walter Benjamin considered Fourier crucial enough to devote an entire "konvolut" of his massive, projected book on the Paris arcades, the Passagenwerk, to Fourier's thought and influence. He writes: "To have instituted play as the canon of a labor no longer rooted in exploitation is one of the great merits of Fourier", and notes that "Only in the summery middle of the nineteenth century, only under its sun, can one conceive of Fourier's fantasy materialized." Herbert Marcuse in his influential work Eros and Civilization praised Fourier saying that "Fourier comes closer than any other utopian socialist to elucidating the dependence of freedom on non-repressive sublimation." In 1969, Raoul Vaneigem quoted and adapted Fourier's Avis aux civilisés relativement à la prochaine métamorphose sociale in his text Avis aux civilisés relativement à l'autogestion généralisée. Fourier's work has significantly influenced the writings of Gustav Wyneken, Guy Davenport (in his work of fiction Apples and Pears), Peter Lamborn Wilson, and Paul Goodman. In Whit Stillman's film Metropolitan, the idealistic Tom Townsend describes himself as a Fourierist, and debates the success of social experiment Brook Farm with another of the characters. Bidding him goodnight, Sally Fowler says, "Good luck with your furrierism." David Harvey, in the appendix to his book Spaces of Hope, offers a personal utopian vision of the future in cities citing Fourier's ideas. Libertarian socialist and environmentalist thinker Murray Bookchin wrote that "The Greek ideal of the rounded citizen in a rounded environment — one that reappeared in Charles Fourier’s utopian works — was long cherished by the anarchists and socialists of the last century...The opportunity of the individual to devote his or her productive activity to many different tasks over an attenuated work week (or in Fourier’s ideal society, over a given day) was seen as a vital factor in overcoming the division between manual and intellectual activity, in transcending status differences that this major division of work created, and in enhancing the wealth of experiences that came with a free movement from industry through crafts to food cultivation." Nathaniel Hawthorne in Chapter 7 of his novel The Blithedale Romance gently mocks Fourier, saying Writers of the post-left anarchy tendency have praised the writings of Fourier. Bob Black in his work The Abolition of Work advocates Fourier's idea of attractive work as a solution to his criticisms of work conditions in contemporary society. Hakim Bey manifested that Fourier "lived at the same time as De Sade & (William) Blake, & deserves to be remembered as their equal or even superior. Those other two apostles of freedom & desire had no political disciples, but in the middle of the 19th century literally hundreds of communes (phalansteries) were founded on fourierist principles". In popular culture In the movie Metropolitan, one of the main characters, Tom Townsend, mentions "I favor the socialist model developed by the 19th-century French social critic Charles Fourier". Fourier's works Fourier, Charles. Théorie des quatre mouvements et des destinées générales .(Theory of the four movements and the general destinies), appeared anonymously in Lyon in 1808. Fourier, Charles. Le Nouveau Monde amoureux. Written 1816–18, not published widely until 1967. Fourier, Ch. Œuvres complètes de Ch. Fourier. 6 tomes. Paris: Librairie Sociétaire, 1841-1848. Fourier, Charles. La Fausse Industrie Morcelée, Répugnante, Mensongère, et L'Antidote, L'Industrie Naturelle, Combinée, Attrayante, Vérdique, donnant quadruple produit (False Industry, Fragmented, Repugnant, Lying and the Antidote, Natural Industry, Combined, Attractive, True, giving four times the product, Paris: Bossange. 1835. Fourier, Charles. Oeuvres complètes de Charles Fourier. 12 vols. Paris: Anthropos, 1966–1968. Jones, Gareth Stedman, and Ian Patterson, eds. Fourier: The Theory of the Four Movements. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1996. Fourier, Charles. Design for Utopia: Selected Writings. Studies in the Libertarian and Utopian Tradition. New York: Schocken, 1971. Poster, Mark, ed. Harmonian Man: Selected Writings of Charles Fourier. Garden City: Doubleday. 1971. Beecher, Jonathan and Richard Bienvenu, eds. The Utopian Vision of Charles Fourier: Selected Texts on Work, Love, and Passionate Attraction. Boston: Beacon Press, 1971. Wilson, Peter Lamborn, Escape from the Nineteenth Century and Other Essays. Brooklyn: Autonomedia, 1998. See also Alphadelphia Association Alphonse Toussenel, a disciple of Fourier American Union of Associationists Brook Farm Decent work List of Fourierist Associations in the United States Society of the Friends of Truth References Further reading On Fourier and his works pp. 213–255 p. 59 Lloyd-Jones, I D."Charles Fourier, The Realistic Visionary " History Today 12#1 (1962): pp198–205. « Portrait : Charles Fourier (1772-1837) ». La nouvelle lettre, n°1070 (12 mars 2011): 8. On Fourierism and his posthumous influence Barthes, Roland Sade Fourier Loyola. Paris: Seuil, 1971. Brock, William H. Phalanx on a Hill: Responses to Fourierism in the Transcendentalist Circle. Diss., Loyola U Chicago, 1996. Desroche, Henri. La Société festive. Du fouriérisme écrit au fouriérismes pratiqués. Paris: Seuil, 1975. Engels, Frederick. Anti-Dühring. 25:1-309. Marx, Karl, and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx, Frederick Engels: Collected Works [MECW]. 46 vols. to date. Moscow: Progress, 1975. Jameson, Fredric. "Fourier; or; Ontology and Utopia" at External links "Charles Fourier Prefigures Our Total Refusal" by Don LaCoss Selections from the Works of Fourier a 1901 collection Charles Fourier Archive at marxists.org 1772 births 1837 deaths 18th-century French writers 18th-century philosophers 19th-century French non-fiction writers 19th-century philosophers Burials at Montmartre Cemetery Cultural critics Feminist philosophers Free love advocates French ethicists French feminists French humanists French humanitarians French male non-fiction writers French male writers French philosophers French socialists Fourierists Libertarian socialists Male feminists Moral philosophers People from Besançon Philosophers of culture Philosophers of economics Philosophers of education Philosophers of ethics and morality Philosophers of history Philosophers of love Philosophers of sexuality Political philosophers Sex-positive feminists French social commentators Social critics Social philosophers Socialist 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237192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable%20living	Sustainable living	Sustainable living describes a lifestyle that attempts to reduce an individual's or society's use of the Earth's natural resources, and one's personal resources. It is often called "earth harmony living" or "net zero living". Its practitioners often attempt to reduce their ecological footprint (including their carbon footprint) by altering their home designs and methods of transportation, energy consumption and diet. Its proponents aim to conduct their lives in ways that are consistent with sustainability, naturally balanced, and respectful of humanity's symbiotic relationship with the Earth's natural ecology. The practice and general philosophy of ecological living closely follows the overall principles of sustainable development. One approach to sustainable living, exemplified by small-scale urban transition towns and rural ecovillages, seeks to create self-reliant communities based on principles of simple living, which maximize self-sufficiency particularly in food production. These principles, on a broader scale, underpin the concept of a bioregional economy. Additionally, practical ecovillage builders like Living Villages maintain that the shift to alternative technologies will only be successful if the resultant built environment is attractive to a local culture and can be maintained and adapted as necessary over multiple generations. Definition Sustainable living is fundamentally the application of sustainability to lifestyle choices and decisions. One conception of sustainable living expresses what it means in triple-bottom-line terms as meeting present ecological, societal, and economical needs without compromising these factors for future generations. Another broader conception describes sustainable living in terms of four interconnected social domains: economics, ecology, politics, and culture. In the first conception, sustainable living can be described as living within the innate carrying capacities defined by these factors. In the second or Circles of Sustainability conception, sustainable living can be described as negotiating the relationships of needs within limits across all the interconnected domains of social life, including consequences for future human generations and non-human species. Sustainable design and sustainable development are critical factors to sustainable living. Sustainable design encompasses the development of appropriate technology, which is a staple of sustainable living practices. Sustainable development in turn is the use of these technologies in infrastructure. Sustainable architecture and agriculture are the most common examples of this practice. Lester R. Brown, a prominent environmentalist and founder of the Worldwatch Institute and Earth Policy Institute, describes sustainable living in the twenty-first century as "shifting to a renewable energy-based, reuse/recycle economy with a diversified transport system." Derrick Jensen ("the poet-philosopher of the ecological movement"), a celebrated American author, radical environmentalist and prominent critic of mainstream environmentalism argues that "industrial civilization is not and can never be sustainable". From this statement, the natural conclusion is that sustainable living is at odds with industrialization. Thus, practitioners of the philosophy potentially face the challenge of living in an industrial society and adapting alternative norms, technologies, or practices. History 1954 The publication of Living the Good Life by Helen and Scott Nearing marked the beginning of the modern day sustainable living movement. The publication paved the way for the "back-to-the-land movement" in the late 1960s and early 1970s. 1962 The publication of Silent Spring by Rachel Carson marked another major milestone for the sustainability movement. 1972 Donella Meadows wrote the international bestseller The Limits to Growth, which reported on a study of long-term global trends in population, economics and the environment. It sold millions of copies and was translated into 28 languages. 1973 E. F. Schumacher published a collection of essays on shifting towards sustainable living through the appropriate use of technology in his book Small Is Beautiful. 1992–2002 The United Nations held a series of conferences, which focused on increasing sustainability within societies to conserve the Earth's natural resources. The Earth Summit conferences were held in 1992, 1972 and 2002. 2007 the United Nations published Sustainable Consumption and Production, Promoting Climate-Friendly Household Consumption Patterns, which promoted sustainable lifestyles in communities and homes. Shelter On a global scale, shelter is associated with about 25% of the greenhouse gas emissions embodied in household purchases and 26% of households' land use. Sustainable homes are built using sustainable methods, materials, and facilitate green practices, enabling a more sustainable lifestyle. Their construction and maintenance have neutral impacts on the Earth. Often, if necessary, they are close in proximity to essential services such as grocery stores, schools, daycares, work, or public transit making it possible to commit to sustainable transportation choices. Sometimes, they are off-the-grid homes that do not require any public energy, water, or sewer service. If not off-the-grid, sustainable homes may be linked to a grid supplied by a power plant that is using sustainable power sources, buying power as is normal convention. Additionally, sustainable homes may be connected to a grid, but generate their own electricity through renewable means and sell any excess to a utility. There are two common methods to approaching this option: net metering and double metering. Net metering uses the common meter that is installed in most homes, running forward when power is used from the grid, and running backward when power is put into the grid (which allows them to “net“ out their total energy use, putting excess energy into the grid when not needed, and using energy from the grid during peak hours, when you may not be able to produce enough immediately). Power companies can quickly purchase the power that is put back into the grid, as it is being produced. Double metering involves installing two meters: one measuring electricity consumed, the other measuring electricity created. Additionally, or in place of selling their renewable energy, sustainable home owners may choose to bank their excess energy by using it to charge batteries. This gives them the option to use the power later during less favorable power-generating times (i.e.: night-time, when there has been no wind, etc.), and to be completely independent of the electrical grid. Sustainably designed (see Sustainable Design) houses are generally sited so as to create as little of a negative impact on the surrounding ecosystem as possible, oriented to the sun so that it creates the best possible microclimate (typically, the long axis of the house or building should be oriented east-west), and provide natural shading or wind barriers where and when needed, among many other considerations. The design of a sustainable shelter affords the options it has later (i.e.: using passive solar lighting and heating, creating temperature buffer zones by adding porches, deep overhangs to help create favorable microclimates, etc.) Sustainably constructed houses involve environmentally friendly management of waste building materials such as recycling and composting, use non-toxic and renewable, recycled, reclaimed, or low-impact production materials that have been created and treated in a sustainable fashion (such as using organic or water-based finishes), use as much locally available materials and tools as possible so as to reduce the need for transportation, and use low-impact production methods (methods that minimize effects on the environment). In April 2019, New York City passed a bill to cut greenhouse gas emissions. The bill's goal was to minimize the climate pollution stemming from the hub that is New York City. It was approved in a 42 to 5 vote, showing a strong favor of the bill. The bill will restrict energy use in larger buildings. The bill imposes greenhouse gas caps on buildings that are over 25,000 square feet. The calculation of the exact cap is done by square feet per building. A similar emission cap had existed already for buildings of 50,000 square feet or more. This bill expands the legislation to cover more large buildings. The bill protects rent-regulated buildings of which there are around 990,000. Due to the implementation of the bill, around 23,000 new green jobs will be created. The bill received support from Mayor Bill de Blasio. New York is taking action based on the recognition that their climate pollution has effects far beyond the city limits of New York. In discussion of a possible new Amazon headquarters in NYC, De Blasio specified that the bill applies to everyone, regardless of prestige. Mayor de Blasio also announced a lawsuit by the city (of New York) to five major oil companies due to their harm on the environment and climate pollution. This also raises the question of the possible closing of the 24 oil and gas burning power plants in New York City, due to the aimed declining use of these sources of energy. With the emission cap, New York will likely see a turn to renewable energy sources. It is possible that these plants will be transitioned to hubs of renewable energy to power the city. This new bill will go into action in three years (2022) and is estimated to cut climate pollution by 40% in eight years (by 2030). Many materials can be considered a “green” material until its background is revealed. Any material that has used toxic or carcinogenic chemicals in its treatment or manufacturing (such as formaldehyde in glues used in woodworking), has traveled extensively from its source or manufacturer, or has been cultivated or harvested in an unsustainable manner might not be considered green. In order for any material to be considered green, it must be resource efficient, not compromise indoor air quality or water conservation, and be energy efficient (both in processing and when in use in the shelter). Resource efficiency can be achieved by using as much recycled content, reusable or recyclable content, materials that employ recycled or recyclable packaging, locally available material, salvaged or remanufactured material, material that employs resource efficient manufacturing, and long-lasting material as possible. Sustainable building materials Some building materials might be considered "sustainable" by some definitions and under some conditions. For example, wood might be thought of as sustainable if it is grown using sustainable forest management, processed using sustainable energy. delivered by sustainable transport, etc.: Under different conditions, however, it might not be considered as sustainable. The following materials might be considered as sustainable under certain conditions, based on a Life-cycle assessment. Adobe Bamboo Cellulose insulation Clay Cob Composite wood (when made from reclaimed hardwood sawdust and reclaimed or recycled plastic) Compressed earth block Cordwood Cork Hemp Insulating concrete forms Lime render Linoleum Lumber from Forest Stewardship Council approved sources Natural Rubber Natural fiber (coir, wool, jute, etc.) Organic cotton insulation Papercrete Rammed earth Reclaimed stone Reclaimed brick Recycled metal Recycled concrete Recycled paper Soy-based adhesive Soy insulation Straw Bale Structural insulated panel Wood Insulation of a sustainable home is important because of the energy it conserves throughout the life of the home. Well insulated walls and lofts using green materials are a must as it reduces or, in combination with a house that is well designed, eliminates the need for heating and cooling altogether. Installation of insulation varies according to the type of insulation being used. Typically, lofts are insulated by strips of insulating material laid between rafters. Walls with cavities are done in much the same manner. For walls that do not have cavities behind them, solid-wall insulation may be necessary which can decrease internal space and can be expensive to install. Energy-efficient windows are another important factor in insulation. Simply assuring that windows (and doors) are well sealed greatly reduces energy loss in a home. Double or Triple glazed windows are the typical method to insulating windows, trapping gas or creating a vacuum between two or three panes of glass allowing heat to be trapped inside or out. Low-emissivity or Low-E glass is another option for window insulation. It is a coating on windowpanes of a thin, transparent layer of metal oxide and works by reflecting heat back to its source, keeping the interior warm during the winter and cool during the summer. Simply hanging heavy-backed curtains in front of windows may also help their insulation. “Superwindows,” mentioned in Natural Capitalism: Creating the Next Industrial Revolution, became available in the 1980s and use a combination of many available technologies, including two to three transparent low-e coatings, multiple panes of glass, and a heavy gas filling. Although more expensive, they are said to be able to insulate four and a half times better than a typical double-glazed windows. Equipping roofs with highly reflective material (such as aluminum) increases a roof's albedo and will help reduce the amount of heat it absorbs, hence, the amount of energy needed to cool the building it is on. Green roofs or “living roofs” are a popular choice for thermally insulating a building. They are also popular for their ability to catch storm-water runoff and, when in the broader picture of a community, reduce the heat island effect (see urban heat island) thereby reducing energy costs of the entire area. It is arguable that they are able to replace the physical “footprint” that the building creates, helping reduce the adverse environmental impacts of the building's presence. Energy efficiency and water conservation are also major considerations in sustainable housing. If using appliances, computers, HVAC systems, electronics, or lighting the sustainable-minded often look for an Energy Star label, which is government-backed and holds stricter regulations in energy and water efficiency than is required by law. Ideally, a sustainable shelter should be able to completely run the appliances it uses using renewable energy and should strive to have a neutral impact on the Earth's water sources Greywater, including water from washing machines, sinks, showers, and baths may be reused in landscape irrigation and toilets as a method of water conservation. Likewise, rainwater harvesting from storm-water runoff is also a sustainable method to conserve water use in a sustainable shelter. Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems replicate the natural systems that clean water in wildlife and implement them in a city's drainage system so as to minimize contaminated water and unnatural rates of runoff into the environment. See related articles in: LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) and also it is one of the most important factor of sustainable lifestyle. Power As mentioned under Shelter, some sustainable households may choose to produce their own renewable energy, while others may choose to purchase it through the grid from a power company that harnesses sustainable sources (also mentioned previously are the methods of metering the production and consumption of electricity in a household). Purchasing sustainable energy, however, may simply not be possible in some locations due to its limited availability. 6 out of the 50 states in the US do not offer green energy, for example. For those that do, its consumers typically buy a fixed amount or a percentage of their monthly consumption from a company of their choice and the bought green energy is fed into the entire national grid. Technically, in this case, the green energy is not being fed directly to the household that buys it. In this case, it is possible that the amount of green electricity that the buying household receives is a small fraction of their total incoming electricity. This may or may not depend on the amount being purchased. The purpose of buying green electricity is to support their utility's effort in producing sustainable energy. Producing sustainable energy on an individual household or community basis is much more flexible, but can still be limited in the richness of the sources that the location may afford (some locations may not be rich in renewable energy sources while others may have an abundance of it). When generating renewable energy and feeding it back into the grid (in participating countries such as the US and Germany), producing households are typically paid at least the full standard electricity rate by their utility and are also given separate renewable energy credits that they can then sell to their utility, additionally (utilities are interested in buying these renewable energy credits because it allows them to claim that they produce renewable energy). In some special cases, producing households may be paid up to four times the standard electricity rate, but this is not common. Solar power harnesses the energy of the sun to make electricity. Two typical methods for converting solar energy into electricity are photo-voltaic cells that are organized into panels and concentrated solar power, which uses mirrors to concentrate sunlight to either heat a fluid that runs an electrical generator via a steam turbine or heat engine, or to simply cast onto photo-voltaic cells. The energy created by photo-voltaic cells is a direct current and has to be converted to alternating current before it can be used in a household. At this point, users can choose to either store this direct current in batteries for later use, or use an AC/DC inverter for immediate use. To get the best out of a solar panel, the angle of incidence of the sun should be between 20 and 50 degrees. Solar power via photo-voltaic cells are usually the most expensive method to harnessing renewable energy, but is falling in price as technology advances and public interest increases. It has the advantages of being portable, easy to use on an individual basis, readily available for government grants and incentives, and being flexible regarding location (though it is most efficient when used in hot, arid areas since they tend to be the most sunny). For those that are lucky, affordable rental schemes may be found. Concentrated solar power plants are typically used on more of a community scale rather than an individual household scale, because of the amount of energy they are able to harness but can be done on an individual scale with a parabolic reflector. Solar thermal energy is harnessed by collecting direct heat from the sun. One of the most common ways that this method is used by households is through solar water heating. In a broad perspective, these systems involve well insulated tanks for storage and collectors, are either passive or active systems (active systems have pumps that continuously circulate water through the collectors and storage tank) and, in active systems, involve either directly heating the water that will be used or heating a non-freezing heat-transfer fluid that then heats the water that will be used. Passive systems are cheaper than active systems since they do not require a pumping system (instead, they take advantage of the natural movement of hot water rising above cold water to cycle the water being used through the collector and storage tank). Other methods of harnessing solar power are solar space heating (for heating internal building spaces), solar drying (for drying wood chips, fruits, grains, etc.), solar cookers, solar distillers, and other passive solar technologies (simply, harnessing sunlight without any mechanical means). Wind power is harnessed through turbines, set on tall towers (typically 20’ or 6m with 10‘ or 3m diameter blades for an individual household's needs) that power a generator that creates electricity. They typically require an average of wind speed of 9 mi/hr (14 km/hr) to be worth their investment (as prescribed by the US Department of Energy), and are capable of paying for themselves within their lifetimes. Wind turbines in urban areas usually need to be mounted at least 30’ (10m) in the air to receive enough wind and to be void of nearby obstructions (such as neighboring buildings). Mounting a wind turbine may also require permission from authorities. Wind turbines have been criticized for the noise they produce, their appearance, and the argument that they can affect the migratory patterns of birds (their blades obstruct passage in the sky). Wind turbines are much more feasible for those living in rural areas and are one of the most cost-effective forms of renewable energy per kilowatt, approaching the cost of fossil fuels, and have quick paybacks. For those that have a body of water flowing at an adequate speed (or falling from an adequate height) on their property, hydroelectricity may be an option. On a large scale, hydroelectricity, in the form of dams, has adverse environmental and social impacts. When on a small scale, however, in the form of single turbines, hydroelectricity is very sustainable. Single water turbines or even a group of single turbines are not environmentally or socially disruptive. On an individual household basis, single turbines are the probably the only economically feasible route (but can have high paybacks and is one of the most efficient methods of renewable energy production). It is more common for an eco-village to use this method rather than a singular household. Geothermal energy production involves harnessing the hot water or steam below the earth's surface, in reservoirs, to produce energy. Because the hot water or steam that is used is reinjected back into the reservoir, this source is considered sustainable. However, those that plan on getting their electricity from this source should be aware that there is controversy over the lifespan of each geothermal reservoir as some believe that their lifespans are naturally limited (they cool down over time, making geothermal energy production there eventually impossible). This method is often large scale as the system required to harness geothermal energy can be complex and requires deep drilling equipment. There do exist small individual scale geothermal operations, however, which harness reservoirs very close to the Earth's surface, avoiding the need for extensive drilling and sometimes even taking advantage of lakes or ponds where there is already a depression. In this case, the heat is captured and sent to a geothermal heat pump system located inside the shelter or facility that needs it (often, this heat is used directly to warm a greenhouse during the colder months). Although geothermal energy is available everywhere on Earth, practicality and cost-effectiveness varies, directly related to the depth required to reach reservoirs. Places such as the Philippines, Hawaii, Alaska, Iceland, California, and Nevada have geothermal reservoirs closer to the Earth's surface, making its production cost-effective. Biomass power is created when any biological matter is burned as fuel. As with the case of using green materials in a household, it is best to use as much locally available material as possible so as to reduce the carbon footprint created by transportation. Although burning biomass for fuel releases carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, and nitrogen compounds into the atmosphere, a major concern in a sustainable lifestyle, the amount that is released is sustainable (it will not contribute to a rise in carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere). This is because the biological matter that is being burned releases the same amount of carbon dioxide that it consumed during its lifetime. However, burning biodiesel and bioethanol (see biofuel) when created from virgin material, is increasingly controversial and may or may not be considered sustainable because it inadvertently increases global poverty, the clearing of more land for new agriculture fields (the source of the biofuel is also the same source of food), and may use unsustainable growing methods (such as the use of environmentally harmful pesticides and fertilizers). List of organic matter than can be burned for fuel Bagasse Biogas Manure Stover Straw Used vegetable oil Wood Digestion of organic material to produce methane is becoming an increasingly popular method of biomass energy production. Materials such as waste sludge can be digested to release methane gas that can then be burnt to produce electricity. Methane gas is also a natural by-product of landfills, full of decomposing waste, and can be harnessed here to produce electricity as well. The advantage in burning methane gas is that is prevents the methane from being released into the atmosphere, exacerbating the greenhouse effect. Although this method of biomass energy production is typically large scale (done in landfills), it can be done on a smaller individual or community scale as well. Food Globally, food accounts for 48% and 90% of household environmental impacts on land and water resources respectively, with consumption of meat, dairy and processed food rising quickly with income. Environmental impacts of industrial agriculture Industrial agricultural production is highly resource and energy intensive. Industrial agriculture systems typically require heavy irrigation, extensive pesticide and fertilizer application, intensive tillage, concentrated monoculture production, and other continual inputs. As a result of these industrial farming conditions, today's mounting environmental stresses are further exacerbated. These stresses include: declining water tables, chemical leaching, chemical runoff, soil erosion, land degradation, loss in biodiversity, and other ecological concerns. Conventional food distribution and long distance transport Conventional food distribution and long distance transport are additionally resource and energy exhaustive. Substantial climate-disrupting carbon emissions, boosted by the transport of food over long distances, are of growing concern as the world faces such global crisis as natural resource depletion, peak oil and climate change. “The average American meal currently costs about 1500 miles, and takes about 10 calories of oil and other fossil fuels to produce a single calorie of food.” Local and seasonal foods A more sustainable means of acquiring food is to purchase locally and seasonally. Buying food from local farmers reduces carbon output, caused by long-distance food transport, and stimulates the local economy. Local, small-scale farming operations also typically utilize more sustainable methods of agriculture than conventional industrial farming systems such as decreased tillage, nutrient cycling, fostered biodiversity and reduced chemical pesticide and fertilizer applications. Adapting a more regional, seasonally based diet is more sustainable as it entails purchasing less energy and resource demanding produce that naturally grow within a local area and require no long-distance transport. These vegetables and fruits are also grown and harvested within their suitable growing season. Thus, seasonal food farming does not require energy intensive greenhouse production, extensive irrigation, plastic packaging and long-distance transport from importing non-regional foods, and other environmental stressors. Local, seasonal produce is typically fresher, unprocessed and argued to be more nutritious. Local produce also contains less to no chemical residues from applications required for long-distance shipping and handling. Farmers' markets, public events where local small-scale farmers gather and sell their produce, are a good source for obtaining local food and knowledge about local farming productions. As well as promoting localization of food, farmers markets are a central gathering place for community interaction. Another way to become involved in regional food distribution is by joining a local community-supported agriculture (CSA). A CSA consists of a community of growers and consumers who pledge to support a farming operation while equally sharing the risks and benefits of food production. CSA's usually involve a system of weekly pick-ups of locally farmed vegetables and fruits, sometimes including dairy products, meat and special food items such as baked goods. Considering the previously noted rising environmental crisis, the United States and much of the world is facing immense vulnerability to famine. Local food production ensures food security if potential transportation disruptions and climatic, economical, and sociopolitical disasters were to occur. Reducing meat consumption Industrial meat production also involves high environmental costs such as land degradation, soil erosion and depletion of natural resources, especially pertaining to water and food. Mass meat production increase the amount of methane in the atmosphere. For more information on the environmental impact of meat production and consumption, see the ethics of eating meat. Reducing meat consumption, perhaps to a few meals a week, or adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet, alleviates the demand for environmentally damaging industrial meat production. Buying and consuming organically raised, free range or grass fed meat is another alternative towards more sustainable meat consumption. Organic farming Purchasing and supporting organic products is another fundamental contribution to sustainable living. Organic farming is a rapidly emerging trend in the food industry and in the web of sustainability. According to the USDA National Organic Standards Board (NOSB), organic agriculture is defined as "an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles, and soil biological activity. It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain, or enhance ecological harmony. The primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people." Upon sustaining these goals, organic agriculture uses techniques such as crop rotation, permaculture, compost, green manure and biological pest control. In addition, organic farming prohibits or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers and pesticides, plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives and genetically modified organisms. Organically farmed products include vegetables, fruit, grains, herbs, meat, dairy, eggs, fibers, and flowers. See organic certification for more information. Urban gardening In addition to local, small-scale farms, there has been a recent emergence in urban agriculture expanding from community gardens to private home gardens. With this trend, both farmers and ordinary people are becoming involved in food production. A network of urban farming systems helps to further ensure regional food security and encourages self-sufficiency and cooperative interdependence within communities. With every bite of food raised from urban gardens, negative environmental impacts are reduced in numerous ways. For instance, vegetables and fruits raised within small-scale gardens and farms are not grown with tremendous applications of nitrogen fertilizer required for industrial agricultural operations. The nitrogen fertilizers cause toxic chemical leaching and runoff that enters our water tables. Nitrogen fertilizer also produces nitrous oxide, a more damaging greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide. Local, community-grown food also requires no imported, long-distance transport which further depletes our fossil fuel reserves. In developing more efficiency per land acre, urban gardens can be started in a wide variety of areas: in vacant lots, public parks, private yards, church and school yards, on roof tops (roof-top gardens), and many other places. Communities can work together in changing zoning limitations in order for public and private gardens to be permissible. Aesthetically pleasing edible landscaping plants can also be incorporated into city landscaping such as blueberry bushes, grapevines trained on an arbor, pecan trees, etc. With as small a scale as home or community farming, sustainable and organic farming methods can easily be utilized. Such sustainable, organic farming techniques include: composting, biological pest control, crop rotation, mulching, drip irrigation, nutrient cycling and permaculture. For more information on sustainable farming systems, see sustainable agriculture. Food preservation and storage Preserving and storing foods reduces reliance on long-distance transported food and the market industry. Home-grown foods can be preserved and stored outside of their growing season and continually consumed throughout the year, enhancing self-sufficiency and independence from the supermarket. Food can be preserved and saved by dehydration, freezing, vacuum packing, canning, bottling, pickling and jellying. For more information, see food preservation. Transportation With rising concerns over non-renewable energy source usage and climate change caused by carbon emissions, the phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles is becoming more and more important to the conversation of sustainability. Zero-emission urban transport systems that foster mobility, accessible public transportation and healthier urban environments are needed. Such urban transport systems should consist of rail transport, electric buses, bicycle pathways, provision for human-powered transport and pedestrian walkways. Public transport systems such as underground rail systems and bus transit systems shift huge numbers of people away from reliance on car dependency and dramatically reduce the rate of carbon emissions caused by automobile transport. In comparison to automobiles, bicycles are a paragon of energy efficient personal transportation with the bicycle roughly 50 times more energy efficient than driving. Bicycles increase mobility while alleviating congestion, lowering air and noise pollution, and increasing physical exercise. Most importantly, they do not emit climate-damaging carbon dioxide. Bike-sharing programs are beginning to boom throughout the world and are modeled in leading cities such as Paris, Amsterdam and London. Bike-sharing programs offer kiosks and docking stations that supply hundreds to thousands of bikes for rental throughout a city through small deposits or affordable memberships. A recent boom has occurred in electric bikes especially in China and other Asian countries. Electric bikes are similar to electric cars in that they are battery-powered and can be plugged into the provincial electric grid for recharging as needed. In contrast to electric cars, electric bikes do not directly use any fossil fuels. Adequate sustainable urban transportation is dependent upon proper city transport infrastructure and planning that incorporates efficient public transit along with bicycle and pedestrian-friendly pathways. Water A major factor of sustainable living involves that which no human can live without, water. Unsustainable water use has far reaching implications for humankind. Currently, humans use one-fourth of the Earth's total fresh water in natural circulation, and over half the accessible runoff. Additionally, population growth and water demand is ever increasing. Thus, it is necessary to use available water more efficiently. In sustainable living, one can use water more sustainably through a series of simple, everyday measures. These measures involve considering indoor home appliance efficiency, outdoor water use, and daily water use awareness. Indoor home appliances Housing and commercial buildings account for 12 percent of America's freshwater withdrawals. A typical American single family home uses about per person per day indoors. This use can be reduced by simple alterations in behavior and upgrades to appliance quality. Toilets Toilets accounted for almost 30% of residential indoor water use in the United States in 1999. One flush of a standard U.S. toilet requires more water than most individuals, and many families, in the world use for all their needs in an entire day. A home's toilet water sustainability can be improved in one of two ways: improving the current toilet or installing a more efficient toilet. To improve the current toilet, one possible method is to put weighted plastic bottles in the toilet tank. Also, there are inexpensive tank banks or float booster available for purchase. A tank bank is a plastic bag to be filled with water and hung in the toilet tank. A float booster attaches underneath the float ball of pre-1986 three and a half gallon capacity toilets. It allows these toilets to operate at the same valve and float setting but significantly reduces their water level, saving between one and one and a third gallons of water per flush. A major waste of water in existing toilets is leaks. A slow toilet leak is undetectable to the eye, but can waste hundreds of gallons each month. One way to check this is to put food dye in the tank, and to see if the water in the toilet bowl turns the same color. In the event of a leaky flapper, one can replace it with an adjustable toilet flapper, which allows self-adjustment of the amount of water per flush. In installing a new toilet there are a number of options to obtain the most water efficient model. A low flush toilet uses one to two gallons per flush. Traditionally, toilets use three to five gallons per flush. If an eighteen-liter per flush toilet is removed and a six-liter per flush toilet is put in its place, 70% of the water flushed will be saved while the overall indoor water use by will be reduced by 30%. It is possible to have a toilet that uses no water. A composting toilet treats human waste through composting and dehydration, producing a valuable soil additive. These toilets feature a two-compartment bowl to separate urine from feces. The urine can be collected or sold as fertilizer. The feces can be dried and bagged or composted. These toilets cost scarcely more than regularly installed toilets and do not require a sewer hookup. In addition to providing valuable fertilizer, these toilets are highly sustainable because they save sewage collection and treatment, as well as lessen agricultural costs and improve topsoil. Additionally, one can reduce toilet water sustainability by limiting total toilet flushing. For instance, instead of flushing small wastes, such as tissues, one can dispose of these items in the trash or compost. Showers On average, showers were 18% of U.S. indoor water use in 1999, at per minute traditionally in America. A simple method to reduce this use is to switch to low-flow, high-performance showerheads. These showerheads use only 1.0–1.5 gpm or less. An alternative to replacing the showerhead is to install a converter. This device arrests a running shower upon reaching the desired temperature. Solar water heaters can be used to obtain optimal water temperature, and are more sustainable because they reduce dependence on fossil fuels. To lessen excess water use, water pipes can be insulated with pre-slit foam pipe insulation. This insulation decreases hot water generation time. A simple, straightforward method to conserve water when showering is to take shorter showers. One method to accomplish this is to turn off the water when it is not necessary (such as while lathering) and resuming the shower when water is necessary. This can be facilitated when the plumbing or showerhead allow turning off the water without disrupting the desired temperature setting (common in the UK but not the United States). Dishwashers and sinks On average, sinks were 15% of U.S. indoor water use in 1999. There are, however, easy methods to rectify excessive water loss. Available for purchase is a screw-on aerator. This device works by combining water with air thus generating a frothy substance with greater perceived volume, reducing water use by half. Additionally, there is a flip-valve available that allows flow to be turned off and back on at the previously reached temperature. Finally, a laminar flow device creates a 1.5–2.4 gpm stream of water that reduces water use by half, but can be turned to normal water level when optimal. In addition to buying the above devices, one can live more sustainably by checking sinks for leaks, and fixing these links if they exist. According to the EPA, "A small drip from a worn faucet washer can waste 20 gallons of water per day, while larger leaks can waste hundreds of gallons". When washing dishes by hand, it is not necessary to leave the water running for rinsing, and it is more efficient to rinse dishes simultaneously. On average, dishwashing consumes 1% of indoor water use. When using a dishwasher, water can be conserved by only running the machine when it is full. Some have a "low flow" setting to use less water per wash cycle. Enzymatic detergents clean dishes more efficiently and more successfully with a smaller amount of water at a lower temperature. Washing machines On average, 23% of U.S. indoor water use in 1999 was due to clothes washing. In contrast to other machines, American washing machines have changed little to become more sustainable. A typical washing machine has a vertical-axis design, in which clothes are agitated in a tubful of water. Horizontal-axis machines, in contrast, put less water into the bottom of the rub and rotate clothes through it. These machines are more efficient in terms of soap use and clothing stability. Outdoor water use There are a number of ways one can incorporate a personal yard, roof, and garden in more sustainable living. While conserving water is a major element of sustainability, so is sequestering water. Conserving water In planning a yard and garden space, it is most sustainable to consider the plants, soil, and available water. Drought resistant shrubs, plants, and grasses require a smaller amount of water in comparison to more traditional species. Additionally, native plants (as opposed to herbaceous perennials) will use a smaller supply of water and have a heightened resistance to plant diseases of the area. Xeriscaping is a technique that selects drought-tolerant plants and accounts for endemic features such as slope, soil type, and native plant range. It can reduce landscape water use by 50 – 70%, while providing habitat space for wildlife. Plants on slopes help reduce runoff by slowing and absorbing accumulated rainfall. Grouping plants by watering needs further reduces water waste. After planting, placing a circumference of mulch surrounding plants functions to lessen evaporation. To do this, firmly press two to four inches of organic matter along the plant's dripline. This prevents water runoff. When watering, consider the range of sprinklers; watering paved areas is unnecessary. Additionally, to conserve the maximum amount of water, watering should be carried out during early mornings on non-windy days to reduce water loss to evaporation. Drip-irrigation systems and soaker hoses are a more sustainable alternative to the traditional sprinkler system. Drip-irrigation systems employ small gaps at standard distances in a hose, leading to the slow trickle of water droplets which percolate the soil over a protracted period. These systems use 30 – 50% less water than conventional methods. Soaker hoses help to reduce water use by up to 90%. They connect to a garden hose and lay along the row of plants under a layer of mulch. A layer of organic material added to the soil helps to increase its absorption and water retention; previously planted areas can be covered with compost. In caring for a lawn, there are a number of measures that can increase the sustainability of lawn maintenance techniques. A primary aspect of lawn care is watering. To conserve water, it is important to only water when necessary, and to deep soak when watering. Additionally, a lawn may be left to go dormant, renewing after a dry spell to its original vitality. Sequestering water A common method of water sequestrations is rainwater harvesting, which incorporates the collection and storage of rain. Primarily, the rain is obtained from a roof, and stored on the ground in catchment tanks. Water sequestration varies based on extent, cost, and complexity. A simple method involves a single barrel at the bottom of a downspout, while a more complex method involves multiple tanks. It is highly sustainable to use stored water in place of purified water for activities such as irrigation and flushing toilets. Additionally, using stored rainwater reduces the amount of runoff pollution, picked up from roofs and pavements that would normally enter streams through storm drains. The following equation can be used to estimate annual water supply: Collection area (square feet) × Rainfall (inch/year) / 12 (inch/foot) = Cubic Feet of Water/Year Cubic Feet/Year × 7.43 (Gallons/Cubic Foot) = Gallons/year Note, however, this calculation does not account for losses such as evaporation or leakage. Greywater systems function in sequestering used indoor water, such as laundry, bath and sink water, and filtering it for reuse. Greywater can be reused in irrigation and toilet flushing. There are two types of greywater systems: gravity fed manual systems and package systems. The manual systems do not require electricity but may require a larger yard space. The package systems require electricity but are self-contained and can be installed indoors. Waste As populations and resource demands climb, waste production contributes to emissions of carbon dioxide, leaching of hazardous materials into the soil and waterways, and methane emissions. In America alone, over the course of a decade, of American resources will have been transformed into nonproductive wastes and gases. Thus, a crucial component of sustainable living is being waste conscious. One can do this by reducing waste, reusing commodities, and recycling. There are a number of ways to reduce waste in sustainable living. Two methods to reduce paper waste are canceling junk mail like credit card and insurance offers and direct mail marketing and changing monthly paper statements to paperless emails. Junk mail alone accounted for 1.72 million tons of landfill waste in 2009. Another method to reduce waste is to buy in bulk, reducing packaging materials. Preventing food waste can limit the amount of organic waste sent to landfills producing the powerful greenhouse gas methane. Another example of waste reduction involves being cognizant of purchasing excessive amounts when buying materials with limited use like cans of paint. Non-hazardous or less hazardous alternatives can also limit the toxicity of waste. By reusing materials, one lives more sustainably by not contributing to the addition of waste to landfills. Reusing saves natural resources by decreasing the necessity of raw material extraction. For example, reusable bags can reduce the amount of waste created by grocery shopping eliminating the need to create and ship plastic bags and the need to manage their disposal and recycling or polluting effects. Recycling, a process that breaks down used items into raw materials to make new materials, is a particularly useful means of contributing to the renewal of goods. Recycling incorporates three primary processes; collection and processing, manufacturing, and purchasing recycled products. A natural example of recycling involves using food waste as compost to enrich the quality of soil, which can be carried out at home or locally with community composting. An offshoot of recycling, upcycling, strives to convert material into something of similar or greater value in its second life. By integrating measures of reusing, reducing, and recycling one can effectively reduce personal waste and use materials in a more sustainable manner. Reproductive choices Though it is not always included in discussions of sustainable living, some consider reproductive choices to be a key part of sustainable living. Reproductive choices refers, in this case, to the number of children that an individual has, whether they are conceived biologically or adopted. Some researchers have claimed that for people living in wealthy, high-consumption countries such as the United States, having fewer children is by far the most effective way to decrease one's carbon footprint, and one's ecological footprint more broadly. However, the scholarship that has led to this claim has been questioned, as has the misleading way that it's often been presented in popular newspaper and web articles. Some ethicists and environmental activists have made similar arguments about the need for a "small family ethic" and research has found that in some countries, these ecological concerns are leading some people to report having fewer children than they would otherwise, or no children at all. However, there have been multiple critiques of the idea that having fewer children is part of a sustainable lifestyle. Some argue that it is an example of the kind of Malthusian thinking that has led to coercion and violence in the past (including forced sterilizations and forced abortions), and that it might lead to similar policies that deny women reproductive freedom in the future. Additionally, research has found that some environmentalists consider having children, and even having more children than they might otherwise, to be a part of sustainable living. They assert that parenting can be an important way that individuals can exert a positive environmental influence, by educating the next generation and as a way to remain engaged in one's commitment to environmental action. Provision, supply and expenditure in general A study that reviewed 217 analyses of on-the-market products and services and analyzed existing alternatives to mainstream food, holidays, and furnishings, concluded that total greenhouse gas emissions by Swedes could be lowered by as of 2021 up to 36–38 % if consumers – without a decrease in total estimated expenditure or considerations of self-interest rationale – instead were to obtain those they – using available data – could assess to be more sustainable. Provision, supply/availability, product development/success/price, comparative benefits as well as incentives, purposes/demands and effects of expenditure-choices are part of or embedded in the human neuro-socioeconomic system and therefore overall largely beyond the control of an individual seeking to make rational and ethical choices within it even if all relevant life-cycle assessment/product and manufacturing information was available to this consumer . and it leads the consumer See also Buddhist economics Circles of Sustainability Citizen Science, cleanup projects that people can take part in. Cradle-to-cradle design Circular economy Climate-friendly gardening Downshifting Eco-communalism Ecodesign Ecological economics Ethical consumerism Foodscaping Frugality Simple living Sufficiency economy Sustainability Sustainable architecture Sustainable design Sustainable development Sustainable event management Sustainable landscaping Sustainable House Day (in Australia) Permaculture The Venus Project Transition Towns References External links INHERIT Project, a Horizon 2020 Project to identify ways of living, moving and consuming that protect the environment and promote health and health equity. 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237193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euronews	Euronews	Euronews is a French television news network, headquartered in Lyon, France. The network began broadcasting on 1 January 1993 and aimed to cover world news from the European perspective. It is partly owned by several European and North African public and state-owned broadcasting organizations, with the majority (88%) owned by Portuguese investment management firm Alpac Capital. It is a provider of livestreamed news, which can be viewed in most of the world (with the exception of the United States) via its website, on YouTube, and on various mobile devices and digital media players, including Fubo TV, Sling TV, Pluto TV and Haystack News. History and organisation In 1992, following the Persian Gulf War, during which CNN's position as the preeminent source of 24-hour news programming was cemented, the European Broadcasting Union decided to establish Euronews to present information from a European perspective. The channel's first broadcast was on 1 January 1993 from Écully, Lyon. An additional broadcast studio was set up in London in 1996. It was founded by a group of ten public broadcasters: CyBC, Cyprus France Télévisions, France RAI, Italy RTBF, Belgium RTP, Portugal RTVE, Spain (former shareholder) TMC, Monaco (former shareholder) Yle, Finland ERTU, Egypt The shareholders are represented by the SOCEMIE () consortium. Euronews SA is the operating company that produces the channel and holds the broadcasting licence. It is currently co-owned by seven of the ten founders and: VGTRK, Russia ČT, Czech Republic PBS, Malta SNRT, Morocco RTVSLO, Slovenia RTÉ, Ireland Suspilne, Ukraine SRG-SSR, Switzerland TVR, Romania TV4, Sweden ERTT, Tunisia ENTV, Algeria ERT, Greece In late 1997, the British news broadcaster ITN purchased a 49% share of Euronews for £5.1 million from Alcatel-Lucent. ITN supplied the content of the channel along with the remaining shareholders. The broadcast switched from solely analogue to mainly digital transmission in 1999. That same year, a Portuguese audio track was added. A Russian audio track was added in 2001, following VGTRK joining as one of the major shareholders. In April 2003, ITN sold its stake in Euronews as part of its drive to streamline operations and focus on news-gathering rather than channel management. On 6 February 2006, Ukrainian public broadcaster Natsionalna Telekompanya Ukraïny (NTU) purchased a one percent interest in SOCEMIE. In 2007, Euronews won the European Commission's tender for an Arabic-language news channel, with a service agreement being signed on 6 December. The Arabic service would eventually be launched in July 2008. On 27 May 2008, Spanish public broadcaster RTVE decided to leave Euronews, citing legal requirements to maintain low debt levels through careful spending as a factor influencing its decision to leave, as well as to promote its international channel TVE Internacional. In February 2009, the Turkish public broadcaster TRT became a shareholder in the channel and joined its supervisory board. TRT purchased 15.70% of the channel's shares and became the fourth main partner after France Télévisions (23.93%), RAI (21.54%), and VGTRK (16.94%). Subsequently, Turkish was added as the ninth language service in January 2010. Later that year in October, the channel started broadcasting in Persian, then began broadcasting in 16:9 widescreen format in early 2011, and launched a Ukrainian service in August. A Polish service was launched in mid-2011 amid Poland's accession to the Presidency of the Council of the European Union, although only some selected evening broadcasts were translated. It was shortly after discontinued in January 2012. In February 2015, the channel's executive board approved a bid by Media Globe Networks, owned by Egyptian telecom magnate Naguib Sawiris, to acquire a 53% controlling stake in the media outlet. The deal raised questions over Euronews's future editorial posture and independence. On 13 March 2015, it was announced that Inter Media Group, owned by pro-Russian Ukrainian oligarch Dmytro Firtash, had taken over the Ukrainian service. In response, the Ukrainian government decided to revoke its broadcasting license for its suspected bias and dropped its funding. Firtash later abandoned the project, resulting in the department shutting down and leaving 17 journalists redundant. The Russian service, which was financed by Moscow, refused to provide jobs to the journalists, in violation of French labour legislation. The management explained that not hiring any Ukrainian journalists was a specific instruction from VGTRK. In October 2015, Euronews moved to a new global headquarters complex in La Confluence, Lyon, designed by Paris architecture firm Jakob + MacFarlane and covering a floor area of 10,000 m². Radio service On 2 October 2012, Euronews launched Euronews Radio. The service was available for download on the App Store and Google Play, in addition to being available on TuneIn, and was designed for viewers for whom "watching news is not an option" by providing a direct simulcast to the TV channel, with the "No Comment" segment being replaced by music. The music of the bulletin openings was also transmitted on Euronews Radio. Weather reports were read by a female announcer. As of December 2020, the radio service appears to have been defunct, and the stream on its webpage or on TuneIn is not functional. Africanews In January 2014, Euronews announced a partnership with public broadcaster Télé Congo "under the auspices of the President of the Republic of the Congo, Mr. Denis Sassou Nguesso" to create Africanews. The website debuted on 4 January 2016, with the Africanews TV channel eventually launching on 20 April, broadcasting in English and French from Pointe-Noire in the Republic of the Congo. In 2020, Euronews originally planned to sell Africanews to a group known as Sipromad, but the deal eventually fell through and the two parties are now in litigation. As a result, Africanews would remain under the ownership of its sister channel, but its production would move from Pointe-Noire to the global headquarters in Lyon by the end of July 2020, with a reduction in costs of at least 30%. Partnership with NBC In November 2016, the channel's executive board was in talks with NBCUniversal, the parent company of NBC News, for a "strategic partnership". NBCU would acquire 15 to 30% ownership of the Euronews network, would contribute to Euronews content, and facilitate NBC News' expanded operations in Europe. After successful negotiations with the European Commission, who feared that the partnership would result in an "Americanization" of Euronews, the NBCUniversal News Group finally purchased a 25% stake in Euronews in February 2017 for $30 million. NBC News president Deborah Turness was appointed to head up international operations, and incumbent Euronews CEO Michael Peters, who had led it since 2004, became CEO of the new partnership. Both reported directly to NBC News chairman Andrew Lack. The resulting partnership became known as Euronews NBC. Although Naguib Sawiris and NBC News had the largest stakes in Euronews, editorial control by SOCEMIE members was assured, with the broadcasters having seven slots in the editorial board, as opposed to Sawiris' company (which has three slots) and NBC News, which only has one, thereby reducing rumors of an "Americanization" of Euronews' values. Editorial control is fully handled by Euronews' teams, with NBC only focusing on planning and coordinating tasks. After the formation of the partnership, video reports from NBC News' properties began to appear frequently on the TV channel and reports from NBCNews.com began to be distributed on its digital platforms. On 9 May 2017, Euronews split its service into 12 language-specific editions, of which nine have a linear TV channel with its own language voiceover, but now including contents, on-air graphics (except for some segments) and its lower-third news ticker in the language. The glocal strategy allows the language editorial teams to personalize the content and presentation of their channel, not only by sharing own-produced content with other languages but by producing content that is relevant to local audiences and allowing local reporters and presenters to appear on camera in all its language editions. The splitting process finished on 24 May 2017. Alongside the major language split, satellite distribution for the German, Spanish, Portuguese and Turkish channels was discontinued, now being only available via fiber-optic IP uplink. The discontinuation of the German-language channel on satellite in particular generated outcry from many German satellite TV owners, resulting in its restoration on the Astra 1L satellite on 25 July 2017, via an unencrypted SD feed sitting alongside the French-language channel. Additionally, the Arabic and Persian-language editions became available only on Euronews' website and apps as well as on social media, with TV broadcasting being discontinued. Furthermore, the Ukrainian edition was discontinued outright, due to lack of funding from the Ukrainian government, as well as due to the controversy surrounding the ownership of its broadcasting licence. The Turkish-language TV channel would eventually be axed entirely as well, following discontinued support from TRT, who wanted to prioritise its own international news channel, TRT World. Finally, the Euronews channel in English would become known as the World edition, and distribution to premises in the American continent via fiber-optic IP uplink was set to begin later in 2018. These changes caused the elimination of 43 staff positions, mainly from the Ukrainian edition, causing major layoffs and leading to production staff having more flexible roles. In 2018, Euronews' English-language channel began to gradually revamp its programming schedule, with the roll-out of a new slate of presenter-led programming to complement its already existing shows, a move that was reported earlier in the year, after the success of its presenter-led special reports and weekly programming introduced in recent years. Alongside conventional rolling news shows with newsreaders, debate programming, talk shows, and new presenter-led long-form shows began to be offered during the weekly schedule, and throughout programs, Euronews reporters from different nationalities will be offering context on stories close to their respective home nationalities. The roll-out began on 22 May, when Euronews debuted the first of these new shows, Good Morning Europe, a five-hour morning show which airs every weekday morning from 7 am. It was first anchored by former RT correspondent and TVB Pearl news presenter Tesa Arcilla, who anchored it on a temporary basis. Some weeks later, former France 24 presenter Belle Donati began presenting the show, alternating with Arcilla; after she moved to Brussels in September, she became the main anchor of the slot. Two months later, on 17 July, Euronews debuted a six-hour breaking news show, Euronews Now, anchored by Tokunbo Salako, covering the dayside and afternoon slots. On 3 September, the new evening program lineup was launched, starting with a politics-focused show, Raw Politics, hosted from Brussels by Tesa Arcilla, and featuring former Sky News reporter Darren McCaffrey. It also spawned a weekly spin-off, Raw Politics: Your Call, a phone-in show which featured European Parliament members answering viewers' questions by phone or social media. The show was dropped over a year later, in October 2019, due to low viewership, with its content being integrated into the rolling news programming. Two weeks after the launch of Raw Politics, on 17 September, the full roll-out was completed with the introduction of a 5-hour evening rolling news show, Euronews Tonight, initially presented by former Sky News and BBC News presenter Sam Naz, and later by Euronews veteran Isabelle Kumar, who has worked with the channel since 2003. The traditional pre-produced blocks of video content still remains on some late-nights and weekends. Most overnights now repeat the previous day's edition (either full or half-length) of Euronews Now. New weekly programming is also being produced, including the weekly interview series Uncut, which feature conversations from political leaders and newsmakers worldwide with minimum to no editing. The first episodes feature German-French politician Daniel Cohn-Bendit interviewing former UKIP leader Nigel Farage and former UK Prime Minister Tony Blair about Brexit. Additionally, a new social media unit was created, with journalists with a background on digital news verification leading it. The newly created team help to produce The Cube, a social media segment during rolling news shows, focusing on analysis on treatment and reactions about news headlines on social media, with special attention at the major stories of the day. No Comment, a long-standing element of Euronews' programming, remains on the channels' schedule, and it's being gradually integrated into the rolling news shows on the English-language channel. Additionally, a major investment in mobile reporting via iPhone devices helped Euronews gain a major scoop, becoming the only TV news outlet worldwide to broadcast live coverage from the MV Aquarius, with Paris correspondent Annelise Borges (formerly with France 24) on assignment. Borges broadcast live for 10 days as the Italian government denied the Aquarius access to Italian ports. The coverage made headlines on many news outlets worldwide and helped Euronews augment its credibility and its audience. The new Euronews also hired new correspondents in London, Berlin, Moscow, Rome, Madrid and Washington D.C., and gained access to NBC News' large network of correspondents worldwide. As of September 2018, the other language editions are unaffected, with the pre-produced blocks of video content remaining at all times. Programming dayparts were later named with proper translations of the existing daypart programming of the World edition (i.e. the evening daypart being named Euronews am Abend, Euronews Noite, Euronews Soir...). There were plans to introduce presenter-led programming during the morning slots on these other channels, eventually, the evening daypart in most of the language-specific channels became presenter-led by late 2018; all of these editions are pre-recorded and pre-produced before broadcast, and eventually looped through the night. Post-NBC On 20 April 2020, it was reported that NBCUniversal had sold its stake in Euronews to Media Globe Networks, eventually having an overall majority share of 88%. NBCUniversal's parent company Comcast had recently acquired pan-European satellite service Sky Group, and was prioritizing a collaboration between NBC News and Sky News on a new international news channel. The proposed service was scrapped in August during the COVID-19 pandemic in Europe, with the project no longer considered commercially viable. Launch of online verticals As part of Euronews' digital growth post-NBC, the broadcaster has launched a series of online verticals dedicated to specific areas. These include Euronews Green, Euronews Travel, Euronews Next, and Euronews Culture. Alpac Capital In December 2021, Lisbon-based Alpac Capital bought a 88% controlling stake in Euronews from Egyptian telecoms magnate Naguib Sawiris. Broadcast The channel is available in 430 million households in 166 countries worldwide. It reaches more than 170 million European households by cable, satellite and terrestrial. It also began to secure availability on multimedia platforms such as IPTV and digital media. Euronews launched an application for mobile devices (Android, iPhone, and iPad) which is called "Euronews Live". The application is free of charge and is available on Google Play and the App Store. This app was later shut down quietly. The channel's programmes are also available by podcast, and it has maintained YouTube channels since October 2007. The following broadcasters have simulcast, or are currently simulcasting Euronews through terrestrial channels for a limited amount of time: Face TV (Bosnia and Herzegovina) in English CyBC DTV Platform (Cyprus) in English and Greek (also simulcasted by RIK 2 when its programming is over) ERT (Greece) in English and Greek TL (Lebanon) in Arabic daily at 8:00 RTÉ One, RTÉ2, RTÉ News (Ireland) in English La 2, Canal Extremadura, Aragón TV, 7RM Murcia (Spain) in Spanish TVM (Malta) in English RTP2 and RTP África (Portugal) in Portuguese TVR News (Romania) in Romanian TV Koper-Capodistria (Slovenia) in Italian RSI La 1 & RSI La 2 (Switzerland) in Italian and German RTS 1 (Switzerland) in French and English TRT Haber (Turkey) in Turkish In the USA, the channel is available for free on the KlowdTV platform. In 2012, the largest Belarusian state network MTIS stopped broadcasting Euronews for unknown reasons. In 2013, the new commercial channel Planet TV started broadcasting Euronews dubbed in Slovenian after Antenna TV SL purchased a major stake in the company. Euronews airs after closedown (or sign-off) of Planet TV, but both call sign logos are displayed. In September 2016, Euronews disappeared from the Freesat channel list in the UK, in a move made by Sawiris. In September 2017, VGTRK ceased simulcasting Euronews to expand broadcasting hours of its Russia-K channel. In the UK, Euronews is available, together with a number of other international news channels, via online video subscription service NewsPlayer+ and alongside Africanews on Freeview channel 271 via the Channelbox free streaming service. Franchises Since 2018, Euronews has begun licensing its name to private and public broadcasters in north, central and eastern Europe, where, subsequently, localized Euronews channels broadcast regional, national, European and international news in local languages. The first of these channels was the launch of Euronews Albania. Euronews Albania In 2019, Euronews launched its first franchise through a joint venture with local RTV In in Albania. The new channel, known as Euronews Albania, is based in Tirana, Albania and covers the Western Balkans countries of Albania, Montenegro, Kosovo and North Macedonia. Euronews Bulgaria In 2021, Euronews signed a partnership with TV Europa to launch a channel in Bulgarian. The new channel is planned to start broadcasting in the first quarter of 2022. Euronews Georgia In 2019, Euronews signed a deal with local telecommunications company Silknet to launch a channel in Georgian. The new channel began broadcasting on 31 August. Euronews Romania In 2021, Euronews teamed up with the Politehnica University of Bucharest to launch a channel in Romanian. The new channel is planned to start broadcasting in spring 2022, and it will also cover the Republic of Moldova. Euronews Serbia In 2019, Euronews teamed up with the media group HD-WIN, owned by the state-owned Telekom Srbija, to launch a channel in Serbian. The new channel started broadcasting on 3 June 2021. HD High-definition (HD) broadcasting was started on 2 November 2016 via satellite using Hot Bird-capacities (English audio only). Regarding the audio codec, Euronews originally used the AC3 format, before changing to the AAC codec in March 2017, and changing again to the MPEG codec in April 2017. Language availability Logos The current Euronews logo is the fifth. From 1 January 1993 to February 1999 the logo was in the lower right corner of the screen, from February 1999 to June 2008 it was in the upper left corner of the screen, from June 2008 to May 2016 it was in the upper right corner of the screen, and from May 2016 to present it has been in the lower-left corner of the screen. January 1993September 1996: blue lower case word "euro" in a yellow parallelogram and yellow capital word "NEWS". September 1996February 1999: white lower case word "euro" above and blue lower case word "news" below. February 1999June 2008: blue rectangle enclosing white camel case word "EuroNews". June 2008May 2016: white lowercase word "euronews" on a neutral grey background featuring a white circle symbolizing both the world and star circle on the flag of Europe. May 2016: silver-white lower case word "euronews", with "news" in a bolder font, followed by a small circle at the foot of the last letter, all on a light navy background. In January 2016, Euronews was accused of plagiarism by the Congolese media group AfricaNews, because the Lyon-based channel used the logo "Africanews" for its African subsidiary in 2016. However, AfricaNews in the Democratic Republic of Congo has existed since 2005 and can be found on the Internet. Its employees sent letters to French authorities and managing director of Euronews, Michael Peters, to change the related logo and not to use it for the African subsidiary of Euronews. Programming Flagship Good Morning Europe (Jó Reggelt Európa in Hungarian) Euronews Now Euronews Tonight Euronews am Abend (German-speaking territories) Euronews Soir (French-speaking territories) Euronews Hoy (Spanish-speaking territories) Euronews Noite (Portuguese-speaking territories) Euronews Sera (Italian-speaking territories) Euronews Live (for breaking news stories) No Comment No Comment Live Prime Edition Late Edition Global Weekend Europe and global Brussels Bureau Smart Regions State of the Union Raw Politics (discontinued from October 2019) Raw Politics: Your Call (discontinued from October 2019) Aid Zone Global Japan Insider Insight Inspire Africa Inspire Middle East Learning World The Global Conversation View Horoscope Weather Meteo Europe Meteo World Meteo Airport Snow Report/Ski Meteo Air Quality Forecast Culture and technology Cult Cinema European Lens Futuris Music Climate Update Ocean Sci-Tech Space Style Travel Adventures Focus Notes from the USA Taste Postcards Wander Bureau locations Euronews primarily broadcasts from its headquarters in Lyon, but also maintains international bureaux for editorial or marketing purposes in Athens, Brussels, Budapest, Doha, Dubai, Istanbul, London, Paris, Tbilisi and Washington, D.C. Controversies Mário David, the father of Pedro Vargas David (CEO of Alpac Capital), is a long-time associate, advisor and friend to Viktor Orbán. According to Ágnes Urbán, director of the think tank Mertek Media Monitor, Euronews risks to be exploited as a “pseudo-independent” media outpost of the Hungarian government, where it maintains a semblance of independence, but takes a “far less critical” stance with regard to Hungary and other so-called illiberal democracies. See also BBC World News E!Sharp EUobserver The Brussels Times Euractiv Eurosport Politico Europe Europe Elects Voxeurop References External links Official website 1993 establishments in the European Union 24-hour television news channels in France Albanian-language television stations Arabic-language television stations Companies based in Lyon English-language television stations International broadcasters Foreign television channels broadcasting in the United Kingdom French-language television stations German-language television stations Greek-language television stations Italian-language television stations Mass media in the European Union Multilingual news services Pan-European media companies Persian-language television stations Portuguese-language television stations Publicly funded broadcasters Russian-language television stations Spanish-language television stations Television channels and stations established in 1993 Television channels in Albania Television channels in Belgium 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237199	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forklift	Forklift	A forklift (also called lift truck, jitney, fork truck, fork hoist, and forklift truck) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short distances. The forklift was developed in the early 20th century by various companies, including Clark, which made transmissions, and Yale & Towne Manufacturing, which made hoists. Since World War II, the use and development of the forklift truck have greatly expanded worldwide. Forklifts have become an indispensable piece of equipment in manufacturing and warehousing. In 2013, the top 20 manufacturers worldwide posted sales of $30.4 billion, with 944,405 machines sold. History The middle nineteenth century through the early 20th century saw the developments that led to today's modern forklifts. The forerunners of the modern forklift were manually-powered hoists that were used to lift loads. In 1906, the Pennsylvania Railroad introduced battery-powered platform trucks for moving luggage at their Altoona, Pennsylvania, train station. World War I saw the development of different types of material-handling equipment in the United Kingdom by Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies of Ipswich. This was in part due to the labor shortages caused by the war. In 1917, Clark in the United States began developing and using powered tractor and powered lift tractors in their factories. In 1919, the Towmotor Company, and Yale & Towne Manufacturing in 1920, entered the lift truck market in the United States. Continuing development and expanded use of the forklift continued through the 1920s and 1930s. The introduction of hydraulic power and the development of the first electric power forklifts, along with the use of standardized pallets in the late 1930s, helped to increase the popularity of forklift trucks. The start of World War II, like World War I before, spurred the use of forklift trucks in the war effort. Following the war, more efficient methods for storing products in warehouses were being implemented. Warehouses needed more maneuverable forklift trucks that could reach greater heights and new forklift models were made that filled this need. For example, in 1954, a British company named Lansing Bagnall, now part of KION Group, developed what was claimed to be the first narrow-aisle electric-reach truck. The development changed the design of warehouses leading to narrower aisles and higher load-stacking that increased storage capability. During the 1950s and 1960s, operator safety became a concern due to the increasing lifting heights and capacities. Safety features such as load backrests and operator cages, called overhead guards, began to be added to forklifts produced in this era. In the late 1980s, ergonomic design began to be incorporated in new forklift designs to improve operator comfort, reduce injuries and increase productivity. During the 1990s, exhaust emissions from forklift operations began to be addressed which led to emission standards being implemented for forklift manufacturers in various countries. The introduction of AC power forklifts, along with fuel cell technology, are also refinements in continuing forklift development. General operations Forklifts are rated for loads at a specified maximum weight and a specified forward center of gravity. This information is located on a nameplate provided by the manufacturer, and loads must not exceed these specifications. In many jurisdictions, it is illegal to alter or remove the nameplate without the permission of the forklift manufacturer. An important aspect of forklift operation is that it must have rear-wheel steering. While this increases maneuverability in tight cornering situations, it differs from a driver’s traditional experience with other wheeled vehicles. While steering, as there is no caster action, it is unnecessary to apply steering force to maintain a constant rate of turn. Another critical characteristic of the forklift is its instability. The forklift and load must be considered a unit with a continually varying center of gravity with every movement of the load. A forklift must never negotiate a turn at speed with a raised load, where centrifugal and gravitational forces may combine to cause a tip-over accident. The forklift is designed with a load limit for the forks which is decreased with fork elevation and undercutting of the load (i.e., when a load does not butt against the fork "L"). A loading plate for loading reference is usually located on the forklift. A forklift should not be used as a personnel lift without the fitting of specific safety equipment, such as a "cherry picker" or "cage". Forklifts are a critical element of warehouses and distribution centers. It is considered imperative that these structures be designed to accommodate their efficient and safe movement. In the case of Drive-In/Drive-Thru Racking, a forklift needs to travel inside a storage bay that is multiple pallet positions deep to place or retrieve a pallet. Often, forklift drivers are guided into the bay by guide rails on the floor and the pallet is placed on cantilevered arms or rails. These maneuvers require well-trained operators. Since every pallet requires the truck to enter the storage structure, damage is more common than with other types of storage. In designing a drive-in system, dimensions of the fork truck, including overall width and mast width, must be carefully considered. Forklift control and capabilities Forklift hydraulics are controlled either with levers directly manipulating the hydraulic valves or by electrically controlled actuators, using smaller "finger" levers for control. The latter allows forklift designers more freedom in ergonomic design. Forklift trucks are available in many variations and load capacities. In a typical warehouse setting, most forklifts have load capacities between one and five tons. Larger machines, up to 50 tons lift capacity, are used for lifting heavier loads, including loaded shipping containers. In addition to a control to raise and lower the forks (also known as blades or tines), the operator can tilt the mast to compensate for a load's tendency to angle the blades toward the ground and risk slipping off the forks. Tilt also provides a limited ability to operate on non-level ground. Skilled forklift operators annually compete in obstacle and timed challenges at regional forklift rodeos. Design types Low lift truck Powered pallet truck, usually electrically powered. Low lift trucks may be operated by a person seated on the machine, or by a person walking alongside, depending on the design. Stacker Usually electrically powered. A stacker may be operated by a person seated on the machine, or by a person walking alongside, depending on the design. Reach truck Variant on a Rider Stacker forklift, designed for small aisles. They are usually electrically powered. A reach truck's forks can extend to reach the load, hence the name. There are two variants: moving carriage, which is common in North America; and moving mast, which is common in the rest of the world, and generally regarded as safer. Counterbalanced forklift Standard forklifts use a counterweight at the rear of the truck to offset, or counterbalance, the weight of a load carried at the front of the truck. Electric-powered forklifts utilise the weight of the battery as a counterweight and are typically smaller in size as a result. Sideloader A sideloader is a piece of materials-handling equipment designed for long loads. The operator’s cab is positioned up front on the left-hand side. The area to the right of the cab is called the bed or platform. This contains a central section within it, called the well, where the forks are positioned. The mast and forks reach out to lift the load at its central point and lower it onto the bed. Driving forwards with a load carried lengthways allows long goods, typically timber, steel, concrete or plastics, to be moved through doorways and stored more easily than via conventional forklift trucks. Order-picking truck Similar to a reach truck, except the operator either rides in a cage welded to the fork carriage or walks alongside, dependent on design. If the operator is riding in the order picking truck, they wear a specially-designed safety harness to prevent falls. A special toothed grab holds the pallet to the forks. The operator transfers the load onto the pallet one article at a time by hand. This is an efficient way of picking less-than-pallet-load shipments and is popular for use in large distribution centers. Guided very-narrow-aisle truck A counterbalance-type sit-down rider electric forklift fitted with a specialized mast assembly. The mast is capable of rotating 90 degrees, and the forks can then advance like on a reach mechanism, to pick up full pallets. Because the forklift does not have to turn, the aisles can be exceptionally narrow, and if wire guidance is fitted in the floor of the building the machine can almost work on its own. Masts on this type of machine tend to be very high. The higher the racking that can be installed, the higher the density the storage can reach. This sort of storage system is popular in cities where land prices are very high, as by building the racking up to three times higher than normal and using these machines, it is possible to stock a much larger amount of material in a building with a relatively small surface area. Guided very-narrow-aisle order picking truck Counterbalance-type order-picking truck similar to the guided very-narrow-aisle truck, except that the operator and the controls which operate the machine are in a cage welded to the mast. The operator wears a restraint system to protect them against falls. Otherwise, the description is the same as guided very-narrow-aisle truck. Truck-mounted forklift Also referred to as a sod loader. Comes in sit-down center control. Usually has an internal combustion engine. Engines are almost always diesel, but sometimes operate on kerosene, and sometimes use propane injection as a power boost. Some old units are two-stroke compression ignition; most are four-stroke compression ignition. North American engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems. Specialized trucks At the other end of the spectrum from the counterbalanced forklift trucks are more 'high-end' specialty trucks Articulated counterbalance trucks Articulating counterbalance trucks are designed to be both able to offload trailers and place the load in narrow aisle racking. The central pivot of the truck allows loads to be stored in racking at a right angle to the truck, reducing space requirements (therefore increasing pallet storage density) and eliminating double handling from yard to warehouse. Frederick L Brown is credited with perfecting the principle of an articulated design in about 1982, receiving an award in 2002 from the UK's Fork Lift Truck Association for Services to the Forklift Industry and the Queen’s Award for Innovation in 2003. He took inspiration from the hand pallet truck and found that by reversing the triangle of stability and changing the weight distribution he could solve the issues that had long eluded earlier attempts of articulating a forklift truck. Freddy's patent application referenced specific drive methods, allowing competitors to enter the market by offering alternative methods, but using the same articulating principle. Guided very narrow aisle trucks These are rail- or wire-guided and available with lift heights up to 40 feet non-top-tied and 98 feet top-tied. Two forms are available: 'man-down' and 'man-riser', where the operator elevates with the load for increased visibility or for multilevel 'break bulk' order picking. This type of truck, unlike articulated narrow-aisle trucks, requires a high standard of floor flatness. Marina forklifts These lifts are found in places like marinas and boat storage facilities. Featuring tall masts, heavy counterweights, and special paint to resist seawater-induced corrosion, they are used to lift boats in and out of storage racks. Once out, the forklift can place the boat into the water, as well as remove it when the boating activity is finished. Marina forklifts are unique among most other forklifts in that they feature a "negative lift" cylinder. This type of cylinder allows the forks to actually descend lower than ground level. Such functionality is necessary, given that the ground upon which the forklift operates is higher than the water level below. Additionally, marina forklifts feature some of the longest forks available, with some up to 24 feet long. The forks are also typically coated in rubber to prevent damage to the hull of the boats that rest on them. Omnidirectional trucks Omnidirectional technology (such as Mecanum wheels) can allow a forklift truck to move forward, diagonally and laterally, or in any direction on a surface. An omnidirectional wheel system is able to rotate the truck 360 degrees in its own footprint or strafe sideways without turning the truck cabin. This type of forklift truck has also made an appearance on the television series MythBusters. UL 558 safety-rated trucks In North America, some internal combustion-powered industrial vehicles carry Underwriters Laboratories ratings that are part of UL 558. Industrial trucks that are considered "safety" carry the designations GS (Gasoline Safety) for gasoline-powered, DS (Diesel Safety) for diesel-powered, LPS (Liquid Propane Safety) for liquified propane or GS/LPS for a dual fuel gasoline/liquified propane-powered truck. UL 558 is a two-stage safety standard. The basic standards are referred to as G, D, LP, and G/LP. They are considered by Underwriters Laboratories to be the bare minimum required for a lift truck. This is a voluntary standard, and there is no requirement in North America at least by any Government Agency for manufacturers to meet this standard. The slightly more stringent safety standards GS, DS, LPS, and GP/LPS do provide some minimal protection; however, it is extremely minimal. In the past, Underwriter's Laboratory offered specialty EX and DX safety certifications. UL 583 safety-rated trucks UL 583 is the Electric equivalent of UL 558. As with UL 558 it is a two-stage standard. Explosion-proof trucks These are for operation in potentially explosive atmospheres found in chemical, petrochemical, pharmaceutical, food and drink, logistics or other fields handling flammable material. Commonly referred to as Pyroban trucks in Europe, they must meet the requirements of the ATEX 94/9/EC Directive if used in Zone 1, 2, 21 or 22 areas and be maintained accordingly. U.S. Military 10K-AT "Adverse Terrain" Automated forklift trucks In order to decrease work wages, reduce operational cost and improve productivity, automated forklifts have also been developed. Automated forklifts are also called forked automated guided vehicles and are already available for sale. Methods of propulsion Internal combustion Engines may be diesel, kerosene, gasoline, natural gas, butane, or propane-fueled, and may be either two-stroke spark ignition, four-stroke spark ignition (common), two-stroke compression ignition, and four-stroke compression ignition (common). North American Engines come with advanced emission control systems. Forklifts built in countries such as Iran or Russia will typically have no emission control systems. Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) These forklifts use an internal combustion engine modified to run on LPG. The fuel is often stored in a gas cylinder mounted to the rear of the truck. This allows for quick changing of the cylinder once the LPG runs out. LPG trucks are quieter than their diesel counterparts, while offering similar levels of performance. Battery-electric Powered by lead-acid batteries or, increasingly, lithium-ion batteries; battery-electric types include: cushion-tire forklifts, scissor lifts, order pickers, stackers, reach trucks and pallet jacks. Electric forklifts are primarily used indoors on flat, even surfaces. Batteries prevent the emission of harmful fumes and are recommended for indoor facilities, such as food-processing and healthcare sectors. Hydrogen fuel cell Hydrogen fuel cell forklifts are powered by a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen. The reaction is used to generate electricity which can then be stored in a battery and subsequently used to drive electric motors to power the forklift. This method of propulsion produces no local emissions, can be refueled in three minutes, and is often used in refrigerated warehouses as its performance is not degraded by lower temperatures. Counterbalanced forklift components A typical counterbalanced forklift contains the following components: Truck framethe base of the machine to which the mast, axles, wheels, counterweight, overhead guard and power source are attached. The frame may have fuel and hydraulic fluid tanks constructed as part of the frame assembly. Counterweighta mass attached to the rear of the forklift truck frame. The purpose of the counterweight is to counterbalance the load being lifted. In an electric forklift, the large battery may serve as part of the counterweight. Cabthe area that contains a seat for the operator along with the control pedals, steering wheel, levers, switches and a dashboard containing operator readouts. The cab area may be open-air or enclosed, but it is covered by the cage-like overhead guard assembly. When enclosed, the cab may also be equipped with a cab heater for cold climate countries along with a fan or air conditioning for hot weather. Overhead guarda metal roof supported by posts at each corner of the cab that helps protect the operator from any falling objects. On some forklifts, the overhead guard is an integrated part of the frame assembly. Power sourcemay consist of an internal combustion engine that can be powered by LP gas, CNG, gasoline or diesel fuel. Electric forklifts are powered by either a battery or fuel cell that provides power to the electric motors; some fuel cell forklifts may be powered by multiple fuel cells at once. For warehouses and other indoor applications, electric forklifts have the advantage of not producing carbon monoxide. Tilt cylindershydraulic cylinders that are mounted to the truck frame and the mast. The tilt cylinders pivot the mast backwards or forwards to assist in engaging a load. Mastthe vertical assembly that does the work of raising and lowering the load. It is made up of interlocking rails that also provide lateral stability. The interlocking rails may either have rollers or bushings as guides. The mast is driven hydraulically, and operated by one or more hydraulic cylinders directly or using chains from the cylinder or cylinders. It may be mounted to the front axle or the frame of the forklift. A 'container mast' variation allows the forks to raise a few meters without increasing the total height of the forklift. This is useful when double-loading pallets into a container or under a mezzanine floor. Carriagethe component to which the forks or other attachments mount. It is mounted into and moves up and down the mast rails by means of chains or by being directly attached to the hydraulic cylinder. Like the mast, the carriage may have either rollers or bushings to guide it in the interlocking mast rails. Load backresta rack-like extension that is either bolted or welded to the carriage in order to prevent the load from shifting backward when the carriage is lifted to full height. Attachmentsmay consist of a mechanism that is attached to the carriage, either permanently or temporarily, to help in the proper engagement of the load. A variety of material-handling attachments are available. Some attachments include sideshifters, slipsheet attachments, carton clamps, multipurpose clamps, rotators, fork positioners, carpet poles, pole handlers, container handlers and roll clamps. Tireseither solid for indoor use, or pneumatic for outside use. Attachments Below is a list of common forklift attachments: Dimensioning devicesfork truck-mounted dimensioning systems provide dimensions for the cargo to facilitate truck-trailer space utilization and to support warehouse automation systems. The systems normally communicate the dimensions via 802.11 radios. NTEP-certified dimensioning devices are available to support commercial activities that bill based on volume. Sideshiftera hydraulic attachment that allows the operator to move the tines (forks) and backrest laterally. This allows easier placement of a load without having to reposition the truck. Rotatorto aid the handling of skids that may have become excessively tilted, and for other specialty material-handling needs, some forklifts are fitted with an attachment that allows the tines to be rotated. This type of attachment may also be used for dumping containers for quick unloading. Fork positionera hydraulic attachment that moves the tines (forks) together or apart. This removes the need for the operator to manually adjust the tines for different-sized loads. Roll and barrel clamp attachmenta mechanical or hydraulic attachment used to squeeze the item to be moved. It is used for handling barrels, kegs, or paper rolls. This type of attachment may also have a rotate function. The rotate function would help an operator to insert a vertically-stored paper into the horizontal intake of a printing press for example. Pole attachmentsin some locations, such as carpet warehouses, a long metal pole is used instead of forks to lift carpet rolls. Similar devices, though much larger, are used to pick up metal coils. Carton and multipurpose clamp attachmentshydraulic attachments that allow the operator to open and close around a load, squeezing it to pick it up. Products like cartons, boxes and bales can be moved with this type of attachment. With these attachments in use, the forklift truck is sometimes referred to as a clamp truck. Slip sheet attachment (push-pull)a hydraulic attachment that reaches forward, clamps onto a slip sheet and draws the slip sheet onto wide and thin metal forks for transport. The attachment will push the slip sheet and load off the forks for placement. Drum handler attachmenta mechanical attachment that slides onto the tines (forks). It usually has a spring-loaded jaw that grips the top lip edge of a drum for transport. Another type grabs around the drum in a manner similar to the roll or barrel attachments. Man basketa lift platform that slides onto the tines (forks) and is meant for hoisting workers. The man basket has railings to keep the person from falling and brackets for attaching a safety harness. Also, a strap or chain is used to attach the man basket to the carriage of the forklift. Telescopic forkshydraulic attachments that allow the forklift to operate in warehouses designed for "double-deep stacking", which means that two pallet shelves are placed behind each other without any aisle between them. Scalesfork truck-mounted scales enable operators to efficiently weigh the pallets they handle without interrupting their workflow by travelling to a platform scale. Scales are available that provide legal-for-trade weights for operations that involve billing by weight. They are easily retrofitted to the truck by hanging on the carriage in the same manner as forks hang on the truck. Single-double forksforks that in the closed position allow movement of a single pallet or platform but when separated, turn into a set of double forks that allow carrying two pallets side by side. The fork control may have to replace the side-shifter on some lift trucks. Snow plougha mechanical attachment that allows the forklift operator to easily and quickly move snow. The snow plough can often also be utilised at other times of the year as an attachment to clean up workplaces. Skipsa mechanical attachment that is fitted to the forklift to allow safe and speedy removal of waste to the appropriate skip or waste compactor. There are two types of skips: the roll-forward type and the bottom-emptying type. Any attachment on a forklift will reduce its nominal load rating, which is computed with a stock fork carriage and forks. The actual load rating may be significantly lower. Replacing or adding attachments It is possible to replace an existing attachment or add one to a lift that does not already have one. Considerations include forklift type, capacity, carriage type, and number of hydraulic functions (that power the attachment features). As mentioned in the preceding section, replacing or adding an attachment may reduce (down-rate) the safe lifting capacity of the forklift truck (See also General operations, below). Forklift attachment manufacturers offer online calculators to estimate the safe lifting capacity when using a particular attachment. However, only the forklift truck manufacturer can give accurate lifting capacities. Forklifts can be re-rated by the manufacturer and have a new specification plate attached to indicate the changed load capacity with the attachment in use. In the context of attachment, a hydraulic function consists of a valve on the forklift with a lever near the operator that provides two passages of pressurized hydraulic oil to power the attachment features. Sometimes an attachment has more features than the forklift has hydraulic functions and one or more need to be added. There are many ways of adding hydraulic functions (also known as adding a valve). Forklift manufacturers make valves and hose routing accessories, but the parts and labor to install can be prohibitively expensive. Other ways include adding a solenoid valve in conjunction with a hose or cable reel that diverts oil flow from an existing function. However, hose and cable reels can block the operator's view and are easily damaged. Lift truck associations and organizations There are many national as well as continental associations related to the industrial truck sector. Some of the major organizations include: Industrial Truck Association (ITA) (North America) Material Handling Equipment Distributors Association (MHEDA) (North America) Fédération Européenne de la Manutention – European Federation of Materials Handling (FEM) Fork Lift Truck Association (FLTA) (UK) British Industrial Truck Association (BITA) Japan Industrial Vehicles Association (JIVA) Korean Construction Equipment Manufacturers Association (KOCEMA) There are many significant contacts among these organizations and they have established joint statistical and engineering programs. One program is the World Industrial Trucks Statistics (WITS) which is published every month to the association memberships. The statistics are separated by area (continent), country and class of machine. While the statistics are generic and do not count production from most of the smaller manufacturers, the information is significant for its depth. These contacts have brought to a common definition of a Class System to which all the major manufacturers adhere. Forklift safety Standards Forklift safety is subject to a variety of standards worldwide. The most important standard is the ANSI B56—of which stewardship has now been passed from the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) to the Industrial Truck Standards Development Foundation (ITSDF) after multi-year negotiations. ITSDF is a non-profit organization whose only purpose is the promulgation and modernization of the B56 standard. Other forklift safety standards have been implemented in the United States by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and in the United Kingdom by the Health and Safety Executive. Driver safety In many countries, forklift truck operators must be trained and certified to operate forklift trucks. Certification may be required for each individual class of lift that an operator would use. Forklift training has many names, such as forklift licensing or forklift certification. Whichever term is used, training must adhere to federal or national standards. Health care providers do not recommend that workers who drive or use heavy equipment such as forklifts treat chronic or acute pain with opioids. Drivers are recommended to use a spotter if placing a large load that obstructs their view while driving forwards. Forklift training in the United States In the United States, workplace forklift training is governed federally by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). In 1999, OSHA updated its 29 CFR 1910.178 regulations governing "Powered Industrial Trucks" (the term OSHA uses to include forklifts among other types of industrial vehicles). A major component of these regulations deals with forklift operator training. The standard requires employers to develop and implement a training program based on the general principles of safe truck operation, the types of vehicle(s) being used in the workplace, the hazards of the workplace created by the use of the vehicle(s), and the general safety requirements of the OSHA standard. OSHA believes that trained operators must know how to do the job properly and do it safely as demonstrated by workplace evaluation. Formal (lecture, video, etc.) and practical (demonstration and practical exercises) training must be provided. Employers must also certify that each operator has received the training and evaluate each operator at least once every three years. Prior to operating the truck in the workplace, the employer must evaluate the operator's performance and determine the operator to be competent to operate a powered industrial truck safely. Refresher training is needed whenever an operator demonstrates a deficiency in the safe operation of the truck. Forklift training in the United Kingdom In the UK, the Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations state that operators of forklift trucks must be adequately trained; the general standards of that training and good operating practice are found in the HSE Code of Practice 117 (Third edition) issued in 2013. Third-party organisations have developed de facto 'best practice' standards for forklift training, commonly referred to in the UK as a 'forklift licence'; these are no longer recognised as proof of training as defined in the COP 117 (third edition) and as such training is not a legal requirement as is commonly believed. Organised training however helps to demonstrate that an employer has taken steps to ensure its 'duty of care' in the event of an accident. In the UK, forklift training is carried out by a number of different voluntary standard training organisations, They can be directly recognised by the HSE who have formed a new organisation known as "Accrediting Body Association Work place transport 2012". In all cases qualified forklift instructors must be registered with at least one of the voluntary training organisations. Although RTITB operators are registered on a database which has to be a 3 yearly basis, the amount of time determined between refresher courses is subject to the H&S Executive, Insurance companies or company policies. The H&S Executive (HSG136 Workplace Transport Safety) does recommend re-training or testing every three to five years. Forklift instructors throughout the UK tend to operate either as small independent training companies or as a part of a larger training provider. Training is delivered in one of two ways: on-site (sometimes referred to as in-house training), where training is delivered to a clients' premises making use of their own equipment, or off-site (public courses) at a training centre. Training centres offer the opportunity for the unemployed with little or no forklift operating experience to achieve a certificate of competence and increase their employment opportunities. Training certification standards at schools tend to follow closely the standard required by their individual Training Standards Accrediting Body to which they are affiliated. It is not unusual for a Training school to be registered with one or more body at any one time. The British Industrial Truck Association (BITA) categorises the different forklift truck types into groups and assigned a unique identifier to each classification. Known as the "BITA List", it has become accepted as a standard in the UK. Forklift training certificates display the appropriate BITA classification to clearly identify the confines of the certification. Forklift training in Australia Prior to 2011, all states and territories of Australia independently regulated occupational health and safety in that state, including forklift licensing. Whilst the Occupational Health and Safety laws of the different states were based on similar underlying principles, there were differences between the various jurisdictions in the detail and application of those Occupational Health and Safety laws. In 2008 the Inter-Governmental Agreement for Regulatory and Operational Reform in Occupational Health and Safety was formed between the Commonwealth of Australia and the six states and two territories of Australia to formalize cooperation between these jurisdictions on the harmonization of Occupational Health and Safety legislation. As a result, the national Model Work Health and Safety Act (WHS) was enacted following a review of work health and safety laws across Australia; said review involved significant public consultations effort. This act was finalized in June 2011. This act formed a framework for the individual jurisdictions to enact supporting legislation, as the individual jurisdictions are tasked with managing State and Territory Occupational Health and Safety laws, including the issue of licences coming under the legislation. Each individual state and territory issue licences in their own jurisdiction, including what is known as "high-risk work licences" for high-risk work. Forklift licences are classed as "high-risk work licences". To obtain a forklift licence in any state or territory an applicant must undertake a training course with an approved training organisation and then, on completion of the course, apply to the appropriate state or territory for a forklift licence. The unit of competence is known as the National High Risk Licence Unit of Competence TLILIC2001Licence to Operate a Forklift Truck, or in the case of an LO licence Unit of Competence TLILIC2002Licence to Operate an Order Picking Forklift Truck. There is a fee attached which varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. Forklift licences issued in one jurisdiction are recognized in all. Licence cancellation in one jurisdiction is also recognized in all. Forklift training in New Zealand Forklift operator training is divided into two types: Operator's certificate (previously OSH certificate), to operate a forklift in a private yard or area. Forklift (F) driver licence endorsement, to drive a forklift on public roads. The operator's certificate is based on the Approved Code of Practice for Training Operators and Instructors of Powered Industrial Lift Trucks ('ACOP') published in 1995 by the then Department of Labour. It gives permission for operators to operate a forklift in an enclosed space (i.e. a space not considered to be a 'road'). To use a forklift on a public road, the operator must obtain a forklift (F) endorsement on their driver licence. Operators with a class 1 (car) licence and an F endorsement may only operate forklifts up to 18,000 kg gross laden weight, while those holding a class 2 (medium rigid) licence and an F endorsement can operate a forklift of any gross laden weight. The ACOP is a set of best practices, guidelines and recommendations for training a forklift operator. However, training can be tailored to the operator's specific needs and the attachments they use, as required under the Health and Safety at Work Act 2015. Training consists of a theory session delivered in-person or online followed by a brief practical assessment of 15–20 minutes. If the ACOP guidelines are followed this consists of stacking and destacking pallets at low, medium and high levels, as well as driving forwards and in reverse around a coned figure-of-eight while carrying a load. Unit standards Unit standards are available for forklift training but are not required. The primary unit standard is US10851. Attachments The ACOP deals specifically with a forklift operator using only the standard forks. Forklift attachments, such as barrel clamps, fork extensions, rotators and personnel cages are covered under a separate unit standard (US10852). It is not mandatory to achieve a unit standard; a company can simply induct the operator on the attachments used. Safety products A number of products can be found on the market today to reduce occupational hazards caused by forklifts. Pedestrian detection systems These are proximity sensors that detect objects and pedestrians from a few centimeters to several meters. The sensor makes the difference between a person and an object and alerts the driver without useless alarms. Based on stereovision, an algorithm analyses on real time if a person is in a blind zone of the forklift. Ultrasound radars Ultrasonic sensors are proximity sensors that detect objects at distances ranging from a few centimeters to several meters. The sensor beeps and measures the time it takes for the signal to return. It does not discriminate between people and objects. Any obstacle located behind the truck will be detected. Normally, this type of sensor is used only for detection in rear areas. RF systems These are devices that alert forklift drivers of the people in the forklift's vicinity. Pedestrians must carry a radio frequency device (electronic tags) which emit a signal when a truck detects them, alerting the forklift driver of their presence. It detects both in the front and at the back and it differentiates between people and the usual obstacles found in warehouses. For this reason, the driver is only alerted when there is a pedestrian near the truck. Manufacturers' worldwide ranking Every year Modern Materials publishes a Top 20 Global Ranking of Forklift Manufacturers by sales in dollars. A modified copy of the report is below in a sortable table. See also Electrocar Forklift Driver Klaus – The First Day on the Job Hydrogen vehicle Non-road engine Pallet Pallet jack Slip sheet References External links Preventing Injuries and Deaths of Workers Who Operate or Work Near Forklifts, an alert from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Safety and Health Topic: Powered Industrial Trucks, from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Lifting equipment Construction equipment Engineering vehicles Material-handling equipment	[ 0.2616637945175171, 0.08989674597978592, 0.15085124969482422, 0.16169202327728271, -0.0005270241526886821, 0.5769105553627014, -0.2682637572288513, 0.30226588249206543, -0.6266834139823914, 0.010519133880734444, -0.09392797946929932, 0.30843809247016907, 0.08254905790090561, 0.6577404737472534, -0.904644250869751, 0.612956702709198, 0.22554229199886322, -0.059063415974378586, -0.19733932614326477, 0.22384507954120636, -0.2690631151199341, -0.25933876633644104, 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237205	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuel%20Andrack	Manuel Andrack	Manuel Andrack (born 23 June 1965) is a German journalist, television presenter, and author. He is best known as the sidekick of the Harald Schmidt Show. Early years Andrack was born on 23 June 1965 in Cologne, where he has also lived most of his life. After receiving his Abitur in 1984 he enrolled at University of Cologne, majoring in theater studies, film, television and German studies with a minor in art history. He received a Magister Artium degree from the same university. Harald Schmidt Show Andrack first worked as an editor for the television production company CAT Entertainment RLT. In 1995, he got a job as the editor-in-chief of the popular Harald Schmidt Show. On 30 August 2000, he first appeared on-screen as Harald Schmidt's "sidekick" and went on to assume the role on a regular basis, which made him widely recognised. Prior to Andrack's on-screen introduction, Schmidt used an imaginary friend named Horst as his sidekick. The show gained new popularity as the combination Andrack/Schmidt added a family value to the broadcast. "Creative pause" After the show ended in December 2004, Andrack took a "creative break", and wrote a book about hiking (Du musst wandern. Ohne Stock und Hut im deutschen Mittelgebirge., 2005) (In English: You have to hike. Without hiking stick and hat in the German Central Uplands). In this book he describes his hiking experiences. Andrack quit smoking in 1997, and started jogging as a "replacement drug". However, he soon developed knee problems, and had to switch to hiking, falling in love with this outdoors activity. He says he enjoys wandering with friends or with family, but prefers hiking alone. When hiking alone, he usually hikes at least 40 kilometers a day. His favourite hiking route is the Lieserpfad from Daun to Wittlich in the Eifel mountains. During his creative pause, Andrack also wrote the book Meine Saison mit dem FC about his relationship with the football club 1. FC Köln. Further career His working life continued when Harald Schmidt made him his chief dramatic adviser, among others for his show Kabarettsprogramm in 2004–2005. When the show was reworked in 2007, Andrack disappeared from the studio, but continued as an editor-in-chief of the program, until his contract was cancelled in mutual agreement in 2008. In 2008, Andrack moved from Cologne to Saarbrücken. Today, Andrack writes columns and articles about hiking, which are published in Stern, Die Zeit and in Wandermagazin. Awards 2001 - Grimme Online Award TV 2002 - Botschafter des Bieres (ambassador of the beer) 2002 - Goldene Feder (golden quill), together with Harald Schmidt Works Manuel Andrack: Du musst wandern. Ohne Stock und Hut im deutschen Mittelgebirge. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2005, Manuel Andrack: Meine Saison mit dem FC. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2005, Manuel Andrack: Wandern. Das deutsche Mittelgebirge für Amateure und Profis. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2006, Guy Helminger, Manuel Andrack: Die Ruhe der Schlammkröte. Verlag Kiepenheuer & Witsch, Köln 2007, Manuel Andrack: Von wem habe ich das bloß. Auf den Spuren der Ahnen. Eine Gebrauchsanweisung. KiWi, Köln 2008, Manuel Andrack: 2 mit Grips und GPS. Cache! Wir finden ihn!. 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237207	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultimate%20tensile%20strength	Ultimate tensile strength	Ultimate tensile strength (UTS), often shortened to tensile strength (TS), ultimate strength, or within equations, is the maximum stress that a material can withstand while being stretched or pulled before breaking. In brittle materials the ultimate tensile strength is close to the yield point, whereas in ductile materials the ultimate tensile strength can be higher. The ultimate tensile strength is usually found by performing a tensile test and recording the engineering stress versus strain. The highest point of the stress–strain curve is the ultimate tensile strength and has units of stress. The equivalent point for the case of compression, instead of tension, is called the compressive strength. Tensile strengths are rarely of any consequence in the design of ductile members, but they are important with brittle members. They are tabulated for common materials such as alloys, composite materials, ceramics, plastics, and wood. Definition The ultimate tensile strength of a material is an intensive property; therefore its value does not depend on the size of the test specimen. However, depending on the material, it may be dependent on other factors, such as the preparation of the specimen, the presence or otherwise of surface defects, and the temperature of the test environment and material. Some materials break very sharply, without plastic deformation, in what is called a brittle failure. Others, which are more ductile, including most metals, experience some plastic deformation and possibly necking before fracture. Tensile strength is defined as a stress, which is measured as force per unit area. For some non-homogeneous materials (or for assembled components) it can be reported just as a force or as a force per unit width. In the International System of Units (SI), the unit is the pascal (Pa) (or a multiple thereof, often megapascals (MPa), using the SI prefix mega); or, equivalently to pascals, newtons per square metre (N/m2). A United States customary unit is pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi). Kilopounds per square inch (ksi, or sometimes kpsi) is equal to 1000 psi, and is commonly used in the United States, when measuring tensile strengths. Ductile materials Many materials can display linear elastic behavior, defined by a linear stress–strain relationship, as shown in figure 1 up to point 3. The elastic behavior of materials often extends into a non-linear region, represented in figure 1 by point 2 (the "yield point"), up to which deformations are completely recoverable upon removal of the load; that is, a specimen loaded elastically in tension will elongate, but will return to its original shape and size when unloaded. Beyond this elastic region, for ductile materials, such as steel, deformations are plastic. A plastically deformed specimen does not completely return to its original size and shape when unloaded. For many applications, plastic deformation is unacceptable, and is used as the design limitation. After the yield point, ductile metals undergo a period of strain hardening, in which the stress increases again with increasing strain, and they begin to neck, as the cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases due to plastic flow. In a sufficiently ductile material, when necking becomes substantial, it causes a reversal of the engineering stress–strain curve (curve A, figure 2); this is because the engineering stress is calculated assuming the original cross-sectional area before necking. The reversal point is the maximum stress on the engineering stress–strain curve, and the engineering stress coordinate of this point is the ultimate tensile strength, given by point 1. Ultimate tensile strength is not used in the design of ductile static members because design practices dictate the use of the yield stress. It is, however, used for quality control, because of the ease of testing. It is also used to roughly determine material types for unknown samples. The ultimate tensile strength is a common engineering parameter to design members made of brittle material because such materials have no yield point. Testing Typically, the testing involves taking a small sample with a fixed cross-sectional area, and then pulling it with a tensometer at a constant strain (change in gauge length divided by initial gauge length) rate until the sample breaks. When testing some metals, indentation hardness correlates linearly with tensile strength. This important relation permits economically important nondestructive testing of bulk metal deliveries with lightweight, even portable equipment, such as hand-held Rockwell hardness testers. This practical correlation helps quality assurance in metalworking industries to extend well beyond the laboratory and universal testing machines. Typical tensile strengths Many of the values depend on manufacturing process and purity or composition. Multiwalled carbon nanotubes have the highest tensile strength of any material yet measured, with one measurement of 63 GPa, still well below one theoretical value of 300 GPa. The first nanotube ropes (20 mm in length) whose tensile strength was published (in 2000) had a strength of 3.6 GPa. The density depends on the manufacturing method, and the lowest value is 0.037 or 0.55 (solid). The strength of spider silk is highly variable. It depends on many factors including kind of silk (Every spider can produce several for sundry purposes.), species, age of silk, temperature, humidity, swiftness at which stress is applied during testing, length stress is applied, and way the silk is gathered (forced silking or natural spinning). The value shown in the table, 1000 MPa, is roughly representative of the results from a few studies involving several different species of spider however specific results varied greatly. Human hair strength varies by ethnicity and chemical treatments. See also Flexural strength Strength of materials Tensile structure Toughness Failure Tension (physics) Young's modulus References Further reading Giancoli, Douglas, Physics for Scientists & Engineers Third Edition (2000). Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall. T Follett, Life without metals George E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy (1988). 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237209	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexahedron	Hexahedron	A hexahedron (plural: hexahedra) is any polyhedron with six faces. A cube, for example, is a regular hexahedron with all its faces square, and three squares around each vertex. There are seven topologically distinct convex hexahedra, one of which exists in two mirror image forms. (Two polyhedra are "topologically distinct" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.) Cuboid Others There are three further topologically distinct hexahedra that can only be realised as concave figures: A digonal antiprism can be considered a degenerate form of hexahedron, having two opposing digonal faces and four triangular faces. However, digons are usually disregarded in the definition of non-spherical polyhedra, and this case is often simply considered a tetrahedron and the four remaining triangular faces considered to compose the full solid. See also Prismatoid References External links Polyhedra with 4-7 Faces by Steven Dutch Polyhedra	[ -0.16965653002262115, 0.7686237692832947, -0.5318613648414612, 0.24805819988250732, -0.5801486372947693, 0.6705002188682556, 0.9047039151191711, 0.24158576130867004, -0.5786632299423218, -0.6768898963928223, -0.3067060112953186, -0.4197792708873749, -0.5761016607284546, 0.6462932825088501, 0.20473064482212067, 0.6895294785499573, 0.916901707649231, 0.49642837047576904, -0.4602162837982178, -0.4970514476299286, 0.17159821093082428, -0.20951949059963226, 0.4892410933971405, -0.6638169884681702, 0.3737609088420868, -0.07702655345201492, -0.363203763961792, 0.39681628346443176, 0.8204362392425537, 0.3481367230415344, 0.04198893904685974, 0.5692679286003113, 0.3879549205303192, -0.3376433253288269, 1.041414499282837, 0.07361781597137451, -0.3726496696472168, -0.12825267016887665, -0.17532074451446533, -0.1496245265007019, 0.7166857719421387, -0.3333466351032257, 0.3801405727863312, 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237213	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient%20space%20%28topology%29	Quotient space (topology)	In topology and related areas of mathematics, the quotient space of a topological space under a given equivalence relation is a new topological space constructed by endowing the quotient set of the original topological space with the quotient topology, that is, with the finest topology that makes continuous the canonical projection map (the function that maps points to their equivalence classes). In other words, a subset of a quotient space is open if and only if its preimage under the canonical projection map is open in the original topological space. Intuitively speaking, the points of each equivalence class are or "glued together" for forming a new topological space. For example, identifying the points of a sphere that belong to the same diameter produces the projective plane as a quotient space. Definition Let be a topological space, and let be an equivalence relation on The quotient set, is the set of equivalence classes of elements of The equivalence class of is denoted The , , associated with refers to the following surjective map: For any subset (so in particular, for every ) the following holds: The quotient space under is the quotient set equipped with the quotient topology, which is the topology whose open sets are the subsets such that is an open subset of that is, is open in the quotient topology on if and only if Thus, Equivalently, the open sets of the quotient topology are the subsets of that have an open preimage under the canonical map (which is defined by ). Similarly, a subset is closed in if and only if is a closed subset of The quotient topology is the final topology on the quotient set, with respect to the map Quotient map A map is a quotient map (sometimes called an identification map) if it is surjective, and a subset is open if and only if is open. Equivalently, a surjection is a quotient map if and only if for every subset is closed in if and only if is closed in Final topology definition Alternatively, is a quotient map if it is onto and is equipped with the final topology with respect to Saturated sets and quotient maps A subset of is called saturated (with respect to ) if it is of the form for some set which is true if and only if (although always holds for every subset equality is in general not guaranteed; and a non-saturated set exists if and only if is not injective). The assignment establishes a one-to-one correspondence (whose inverse is ) between subsets of and saturated subsets of With this terminology, a surjection is a quotient map if and only if for every subset of is open in if and only if is open in In particular, open subsets of that are saturated have no impact on whether or not the function is a quotient map; non-saturated subsets are irrelevant to the definition of "quotient map" just as they are irrelevant to the open-set definition of continuity (because a function is continuous if and only if for every subset of being open in implies is open in ). Every quotient map is continuous but not every continuous map is a quotient map. A continuous surjection to be a quotient map if and only if has some open subset such that is open in (this statement remains true if both instances of the word "open" are replaced with "closed"). Quotient space of fibers characterization Given an equivalence relation on the canonical map that sends to its equivalence class (that is, ) is a quotient map that satisfies for all ; moreover, for all if and only if In fact, let be a surjection between topological spaces (not yet assumed to be continuous or a quotient map) and declare for all that if and only if Then is an equivalence relation on such that for every so that is a singleton set, which thus induces a bijection defined by (this is well defined because is a singleton set and is just its unique element; that is, for every ). Define the map as above (by ) and give the quotient topology induced by (which makes a quotient map). These maps are related by: From this and the fact that is a quotient map, it follows that is continuous if and only if this is true of Furthermore, is a quotient map if and only if is a homeomorphism (or equivalently, if and only if both and its inverse are continuous). Related definitions A is a surjective map with the property that for every subset the restriction is also a quotient map. There exist quotient maps that are not hereditarily quotient. Examples Gluing. Topologists talk of gluing points together. If is a topological space, gluing the points and in means considering the quotient space obtained from the equivalence relation if and only if or (or ). Consider the unit square and the equivalence relation ~ generated by the requirement that all boundary points be equivalent, thus identifying all boundary points to a single equivalence class. Then is homeomorphic to the sphere Adjunction space. More generally, suppose is a space and is a subspace of One can identify all points in to a single equivalence class and leave points outside of equivalent only to themselves. The resulting quotient space is denoted The 2-sphere is then homeomorphic to a closed disc with its boundary identified to a single point: Consider the set of real numbers with the ordinary topology, and write if and only if is an integer. Then the quotient space is homeomorphic to the unit circle via the homeomorphism which sends the equivalence class of to A generalization of the previous example is the following: Suppose a topological group acts continuously on a space One can form an equivalence relation on by saying points are equivalent if and only if they lie in the same orbit. The quotient space under this relation is called the orbit space, denoted In the previous example acts on by translation. The orbit space is homeomorphic to Note: The notation is somewhat ambiguous. If is understood to be a group acting on via addition, then the quotient is the circle. However, if is thought of as a topological subspace of (that is identified as a single point) then the quotient (which is identifiable with the set ) is a countably infinite bouquet of circles joined at a single point This next example shows that it is in general true that if is a quotient map then every convergent sequence (respectively, every convergent net) in has a lift (by ) to a convergent sequence (or convergent net) in Let and Let and let be the quotient map so that and for every The map defined by is well-defined (because ) and a homeomorphism. Let and let be any sequences (or more generally, any nets) valued in such that in Then the sequence converges to in but there does not exist any convergent lift of this sequence by the quotient map (that is, there is no sequence in that both converges to some and satisfies for every ). This counterexample can be generalized to nets by letting be any directed set, and making into a net by declaring that for any holds if and only if both (1) and (2) if then the -indexed net defined by letting equal and equal to has no lift (by ) to a convergent -indexed net in Properties Quotient maps are characterized among surjective maps by the following property: if is any topological space and is any function, then is continuous if and only if is continuous. The quotient space together with the quotient map is characterized by the following universal property: if is a continuous map such that implies for all then there exists a unique continuous map such that In other words, the following diagram commutes: One says that descends to the quotient for expressing this, that is that it factorizes through the quotient space. The continuous maps defined on are therefore precisely those maps which arise from continuous maps defined on that respect the equivalence relation (in the sense that they send equivalent elements to the same image). This criterion is copiously used when studying quotient spaces. Given a continuous surjection it is useful to have criteria by which one can determine if is a quotient map. Two sufficient criteria are that be open or closed. Note that these conditions are only sufficient, not necessary. It is easy to construct examples of quotient maps that are neither open nor closed. For topological groups, the quotient map is open. Compatibility with other topological notions Separation In general, quotient spaces are ill-behaved with respect to separation axioms. The separation properties of need not be inherited by and may have separation properties not shared by is a T1 space if and only if every equivalence class of is closed in If the quotient map is open, then is a Hausdorff space if and only if ~ is a closed subset of the product space Connectedness If a space is connected or path connected, then so are all its quotient spaces. A quotient space of a simply connected or contractible space need not share those properties. Compactness If a space is compact, then so are all its quotient spaces. A quotient space of a locally compact space need not be locally compact. Dimension The topological dimension of a quotient space can be more (as well as less) than the dimension of the original space; space-filling curves provide such examples. 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237214	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AspectJ	AspectJ	AspectJ is an aspect-oriented programming (AOP) extension created at PARC for the Java programming language. It is available in Eclipse Foundation open-source projects, both stand-alone and integrated into Eclipse. AspectJ has become a widely used de facto standard for AOP by emphasizing simplicity and usability for end users. It uses Java-like syntax, and included IDE integrations for displaying crosscutting structure since its initial public release in 2001. Simple language description All valid Java programs are also valid AspectJ programs, but AspectJ lets programmers define special constructs called aspects. Aspects can contain several entities unavailable to standard classes. These are: Extension methods Allow a programmer to add methods, fields, or interfaces to existing classes from within the aspect. This example adds an acceptVisitor (see visitor pattern) method to the Point class: aspect VisitAspect { void Point.acceptVisitor(Visitor v) { v.visit(this); } } Pointcuts Allow a programmer to specify join points (well-defined moments in the execution of a program, like method call, object instantiation, or variable access). All pointcuts are expressions (quantifications) that determine whether a given join point matches. For example, this point-cut matches the execution of any instance method in an object of type Point whose name begins with set: pointcut set() : execution(* set*(..) ) && this(Point); Advices Allow a programmer to specify code to run at a join point matched by a pointcut. The actions can be performed before, after, or around the specified join point. Here, the advice refreshes the display every time something on Point is set, using the pointcut declared above: after () : set() { Display.update(); } AspectJ also supports limited forms of pointcut-based static checking and aspect reuse (by inheritance). See the AspectJ Programming Guide for a more detailed description of the language. AspectJ compatibility and implementations AspectJ can be implemented in many ways, including source-weaving or bytecode-weaving, and directly in the virtual machine (VM). In all cases, the AspectJ program becomes a valid Java program that runs in a Java VM. Classes affected by aspects are binary-compatible with unaffected classes (to remain compatible with classes compiled with the unaffected originals). Supporting multiple implementations allows the language to grow as technology changes, and being Java-compatible ensures platform availability. Key to its success has been engineering and language decisions that make the language usable and programs deployable. The original Xerox AspectJ implementation used source weaving, which required access to source code. When Xerox contributed the code to Eclipse, AspectJ was reimplemented using the Eclipse Java compiler and a bytecode weaver based on BCEL, so developers could write aspects for code in binary (.class) form. At this time the AspectJ language was restricted to support a per-class model essential for incremental compilation and load-time weaving. This made IDE integrations as responsive as their Java counterparts, and it let developers deploy aspects without altering the build process. This led to increased adoption, as AspectJ became usable for impatient Java programmers and enterprise-level deployments. Since then, the Eclipse team has increased performance and correctness, upgraded the AspectJ language to support Java 5 language features like generics and annotations, and integrated annotation-style pure-java aspects from AspectWerkz. The Eclipse project supports both command-line and Ant interfaces. A related Eclipse project has steadily improved the Eclipse IDE support for AspectJ (called AspectJ Development Tools (AJDT)) and other providers of crosscutting structure. IDE support for emacs, NetBeans, and JBuilder foundered when Xerox put them into open source, but support for Oracle's JDeveloper did appear. IDE support has been key to Java programmers using AspectJ and understanding crosscutting concerns. BEA has offered limited VM support for aspect-oriented extensions, but for extensions supported in all Java VM's would require agreement through Sun's Java Community Process (see also the java.lang.instrument package available since Java SE 5 — which is a common ground for JVM load-time instrumentation). Academic interest in the semantics and implementation of aspect-oriented languages has surrounded AspectJ since its release. The leading research implementation of AspectJ is the AspectBench Compiler, or abc; it supports extensions for changing the syntax and semantics of the language and forms the basis for many AOP experiments that the AspectJ team can no longer support, given its broad user base. Many programmers discover AspectJ as an enabling technology for other projects, most notably Spring AOP. A sister Spring project, Spring Roo, automatically maintains AspectJ inter-type declarations as its principal code generation output. History and contributors Gregor Kiczales started and led the Xerox PARC team that eventually developed AspectJ. He coined the term crosscutting. Fourth on the team, Chris Maeda coined the term aspect-oriented programming. Jim Hugunin and Erik Hilsdale (Xerox PARC team members 12 and 13) were the original compiler and weaver engineers, Mik Kersten implemented the IDE integration and started the Eclipse AJDT project with Adrian Colyer (current lead of the AspectJ project) and Andrew Clement (current compiler engineer). The AspectBench Compiler was developed and is maintained as a joint effort of the Programming Tools Group at the Oxford University Computing Laboratory, the Sable Research Group at McGill University, and the Institute for Basic Research in Computer Science (BRICS). AspectWerkz AspectWerkz is a dynamic, lightweight and high-performance AOP/AOSD framework for Java. It has been merged with the AspectJ project, which supports AspectWerkz functionality since AspectJ 5. Jonas Boner and Alex Vasseur engineered the AspectWerkz project, and later contributed to the AspectJ project when it merged in the AspectWerkz annotation style and load-time weaving support. Unlike AspectJ prior to version 5, AspectWerkz did not add any new language constructs to Java, but instead supported declaration of aspects within Java annotations. It utilizes bytecode modification to weave classes at project build-time, class load time, as well as runtime. It uses standardized . Aspects can be defined using either Java annotations (introduced with Java 5), Java 1.3/1.4 custom doclet or a simple XML definition file. AspectWerkz provides an API to use the very same aspects for proxies, hence providing a transparent experience, allowing a smooth transition for users familiar with proxies. AspectWerkz is free software. The LGPL-style license allows the use of AspectWerkz 2.0 in both commercial and open source projects. See also Aspect-oriented programming Spring AOP (part of the Spring Framework) Aspect-oriented software development References External links AJDT Aspect bench : https://web.archive.org/web/20170816093700/http://www.sable.mcgill.ca/abc/ AspectJ Home Page AspectWerkz Project homepage Improve modularity with aspect-oriented programming Spring AOP and AspectJ Introduction The AspectJ Programming Guide Xerox has for AOP/AspectJ, but published AspectJ source code under the Common Public License, which grants some patent rights. Programming languages Aspect-oriented programming Aspect-oriented software development Cross-platform software Eclipse (software) Eclipse software Eclipse technology Java programming language family Software distribution Software using the Eclipse license Programming languages created in 2001 2001 software Cross-platform free software High-level programming languages	[ -0.13202965259552002, -0.0831422209739685, -0.04221130162477493, -0.26123008131980896, -0.18302932381629944, 0.24497468769550323, -0.035890381783246994, 0.18949830532073975, -0.039397306740283966, -0.0017970947083085775, -0.5525889992713928, 0.6124551296234131, -0.7226888537406921, -0.6290187239646912, -0.05577726289629936, 0.04688585177063942, 0.2266138643026352, 0.47900187969207764, -0.5459033250808716, -0.18989624083042145, 0.12179970741271973, -0.6315052509307861, -0.3391190469264984, -0.722052276134491, 0.16615180671215057, 0.07198064029216766, 0.1545402556657791, 0.5210110545158386, -0.3692544102668762, 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237221	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle%20registration%20plate	Vehicle registration plate	A vehicle registration plate, also known as a number plate (British English), license plate (American English), or licence plate (Canadian English), is a metal or plastic plate attached to a motor vehicle or trailer for official identification purposes. All countries require registration plates for road vehicles such as cars, trucks, and motorcycles. Whether they are required for other vehicles, such as bicycles, boats, or tractors, may vary by jurisdiction. The registration identifier is a numeric or alphanumeric ID that uniquely identifies the vehicle or vehicle owner within the issuing region's vehicle register. In some countries, the identifier is unique within the entire country, while in others it is unique within a state or province. Whether the identifier is associated with a vehicle or a person also varies by issuing agency. There are also electronic license plates. Legal requirements In Europe, most governments require a registration plate to be attached to both the front and rear of a vehicle, although certain jurisdictions or vehicle types, such as motorcycles, require only one plate, which is usually attached to the rear of the vehicle. Special vehicles such as agricultural and construction equipment might have the license plate attached to other parts of the vehicle. National databases relate this number to other information describing the vehicle, such as the make, model, colour, year of manufacture, engine size, type of fuel used, mileage recorded (and other similar data in jurisdictions where vehicles are regularly inspected for roadworthiness every year or two), vehicle identification number (chassis number), and the name and address of the vehicle's registered owner or keeper. In the vast majority of jurisdictions, the government holds a monopoly on the manufacturing of vehicle registration plates for that jurisdiction. Either a government agency or a private company with express contractual authorization from the government makes plates as needed, which are then mailed to, delivered to, or picked up by the vehicle owners. Thus, it is normally illegal for private citizens to make and affix their own plates, because such unauthorized private manufacturing is equivalent to forging an official document. Alternatively, the government will merely assign plate numbers, and it is the vehicle owner's responsibility to find an approved private supplier to make a plate with that number. In some jurisdictions, plates will be permanently assigned to that particular vehicle for its lifetime. If the vehicle is either destroyed or exported to a different jurisdiction, the plate number is retired or reissued; exported vehicles must be re-registered in the jurisdiction of import. China requires the re-registration of any vehicle that crosses its borders from another country, such as for overland tourist visits, regardless of the length of time it is due to remain there; this has to be arranged with prior approval. Other jurisdictions follow a "plate-to-owner" policy, meaning that when a vehicle is sold the seller removes the current plate(s) from the vehicle. Buyers must either obtain new plates or attach plates they already hold, as well as register their vehicles under the buyer's name and plate number. A person who sells a car and then purchases a new one can apply to have the old plates put onto the new car. One who sells a car and does not buy a new one may, depending on the local laws involved, have to turn the old plates in or destroy them, or may be permitted to keep them. Some jurisdictions permit the registration of the vehicle with "personal" ("vanity" or "cherished mark") plates. In some jurisdictions, plates require periodic replacement, often associated with a design change of the plate itself. Vehicle owners may or may not have the option to keep their original plate number, and may have to pay a fee to exercise this option. Alternately, or additionally, vehicle owners have to replace a small decal on the plate or use a decal on the windshield to indicate the expiration date of the vehicle registration, periodic safety and/or emissions inspections or vehicle taxation. Other jurisdictions have replaced the decal requirement through the use of computerization: a central database maintains records of which plate numbers are associated with expired registrations, communicating with automated number plate readers to enable law-enforcement to identify expired registrations in the field. Placement Plates are usually fixed directly to a vehicle or to a plate frame that is fixed to the vehicle. Sometimes, the plate frames contain advertisements inserted by the vehicle service centre or the dealership from which the vehicle was purchased. Vehicle owners can also purchase customized frames to replace the original frames. In some jurisdictions registration plate frames are illegal or have design restrictions. For example, many states, like Texas, allow plate frames but prohibit plate frames from covering the name of the state, province, district, Native American tribe or country that issued of license plate (when that information appears on the plate). Plates are designed to conform to standards with regard to being read by eye in day or at night, or by electronic equipment. Some drivers purchase clear, smoke-colored or tinted covers that go over the registration plate to prevent electronic equipment from scanning the registration plate. Legality of these covers varies. Some cameras incorporate filter systems that make such avoidance attempts unworkable, usually with infra-red filters. Vehicles pulling trailers, such as caravans and semi-trailer trucks, are typically required to display a third registration plate on the rear of the trailer. Plate design considerations An engineering study by the University of Illinois published in 1960 recommended that the state of Illinois adopt a numbering system and plate design "composed of combinations of characters which can be perceived quickly and accurately, are legible at a distance of approximately under daylight conditions, and are readily adapted to filing and administrative procedures". It also recommended that a standard plate size of by be adopted through the United States to replace the earlier by size to allow longer registration numbers to be displayed without excessively tight spacing or excessively thin or narrow characters. In order to combat registration plate fraud, from the 1920s several jurisdictions developed their own anti-fraud typefaces so that characters cannot be painted or modified to resemble other characters. Since the 1990s, many jurisdictions have adopted the FE-Schrift typeface. English uses 10 digits and 26 letters (languages such as German, Icelandic and Danish allow for extra letters), so assuming that the letters vs. numbers must appear in particular locations, (common on plates in most jurisdictions, for instance 4 numbers and 2 letters where the letters must come first, allowing AB1234 but excluding A12B34). Allowing for repeating letters and numbers, the combinations for each of these will be: If letters and digits can appear in any order, it is problematic to allow both the letter O and the digit 0 to be used. Even if the license plate uses distinguishable characters for the two, someone transcribing the plate may not know which symbol has which meaning, and the owner of plate EM6F9VO may get in trouble for something the owner of plate EM6F9V0 did. Other letter/number pairs, like I and 1, may be similarly problematic to a lesser degree. Allowing for repeating letters and numbers, the combinations for each of these will be: History France was the first country to introduce the registration plate with the enactment of the Paris Police Ordinance on 14 August 1893, followed by Germany in 1896. The Netherlands was the first country to introduce a national registration plate, called a "driving permit", in 1898. Initially these plates were just sequentially numbered, starting at 1, but this was changed in 1906. In the United States, where each state issues plates, New York State has required plates since 1903 (black numerals on a white background) after first requiring in 1901 only that the owner's initials be clearly visible on the back of the vehicle. At first, plates were not government-issued in most jurisdictions and motorists were obliged to make their own. In 1903, Massachusetts was the first state to issue plates. In 1928, Idaho was the first state to put a logo on the plate (the "Idaho Potato"). In Spain, the first law to define rules on non-animal vehicle traction was and the registration of vehicles was defined as a provincial task in the . The first Spanish registration plate, PM-1, was issued for a Clément-Talbot on 31 October 1900 in Palma de Mallorca. From 1901 to 1905 256 vehicles were registered. Materials The earliest plates were made of porcelain baked onto iron or ceramic with no backing, which made them fragile and impractical. Few of these early plates survived. Later experimental materials include cardboard, leather, plastic, and, during wartime shortages, copper and pressed soybeans. As of the 21st century, most plates are made out of one particular metal: aluminium. Metal plates are manufactured through one of two processes: embossing or riveting. For embossing, a plate is placed between dies on each side corresponding to the desired characters and compressed by a press. For riveting, holes are drilled through the plate and then individual letters are riveted one-by-one to the plate. New technology has allowed for the development of digital license plates. In 2018, Michigan approved Public Act 656, making electronic license plates legal. Sizes Early 20th century plates varied in size and shape from one jurisdiction to the next, such that if someone moved, new holes would need to be drilled into the automobile (often on the bumper) to support the new plate. Standardization of plates came in 1957, when automobile manufacturers came to agreement with governments and international standards organizations. While peculiar local variants exist, there are three basic standards worldwide: or - in the bulk of European countries and many of their former overseas territories, as well as North Korea and South Korea. or - in the majority of North America and Central America, and parts of South America; occasionally in Switzerland and Liechtenstein; and many Persian Gulf countries, also allowed for imported vehicles in the United Kingdom. - in Australia and some other Pacific Rim countries, about halfway between the dimensions of the other two standards, longer than Western Hemisphere plates but taller than European ones. Additional sizes include: Front: - Rear: - in Monaco. from to - two line pattern, optional in several European countries for 4x4 and Imported Vehicles; from to for car and for bike - in Vietnam. - Switzerland and Liechtenstein. - in Saudi Arabia. - in Iraq. - in Japan. - in Andorra. - in Thailand. - in New Zealand. - in Chile. - in Italy (front plates), and Oman. - in Taiwan. - in San Marino. - in the Philippines - in the Mercosur member countries: Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, originally based on the 1990 Brazilian standard. - in Ecuador. - in Jordan. - in Indonesia. - in South Africa and Finland. - in China, but for New Energy vehicles. - in Syria and Tunisia. Previous sizes included: - in Paraguay and Taiwan; Paraguay now uses Mercosur size plates. - in South Korea, now uses European size plates. - in Belgium before 2013. - in Luxembourg before 2003. - in Uruguay before 2016. - in Finland before 2001. - in Serbia before 2011, based on Yugoslavia's standard. for all vehicle - in Vietnam before 2021. Africa Botswana Normal vehicles have number plates starting with the letter B, followed by three digits, followed by three letters. The digits and letters are assigned by a registrar. The three letters never include the letter Q, to avoid confusion with O. Botswana number plates have a reflective white front and yellow rear background, and black lettering. Government vehicles all have the prefix "BX" – these number plates have a white reflective background with red lettering at the front and white on red at the rear. After 'BX' is the last two numerals of the date of issue and then up to four serial numbers. Botswana Defence Force vehicles have the prefix "BDF" in white on an 'army' green background. Diplomatic vehicles' number plates start with two numerals which indicate the embassy to which they are attached, then two letters CD (Corps Diplomatique), CC (Consular Corps status) or CT (Foreign Technical and Advisory personnel) and another three digits which are serial. The official car of the Head of Mission uses the letters CMD rather than CD and the private vehicle uses CDA. This series is allocated by the Minister of Foreign Affairs. Botswana is the former British Protectorate of Bechuanaland, and number-plates then used a 'BP' prefix (then BPA, BPB, etc.) followed by up to three numbers, in white on black background, the plates being made in the characteristic style of South Africa at that time. Burkina Faso Vehicles are fitted with registration plates in the front and rear of the vehicle. Motorcycles (50cc or more) must be licensed and only bear rear plates. Registration is performed at the local police or Gendarmerie station. The first digits of the plate indicate the province in which the vehicle is registered. Only plates which meet government standards and are sold by licensed dealers may be fitted. Private passenger car registration plates have a white background with black letters and numbers. Plates exist in a long pattern and a rectangular pattern, similar in size and appearance to French plates. The plate is adorned with a small flag of Burkina Faso in the shape of the country, inscribed in a black circle. The letters "BF" appear below the circle, also in black. This circle and BF design is to the right of the long plate and to the upper right of the rectangular plate. Motorcycle plates are similar to rectangular automobile plates, but smaller. Commercial registration plates are similar in appearance to private plates, but the background is blue, and the writing and circle are white. Security forces plates are black with white letters. They are adorned with the emblem of the relevant security service. Cameroon Vehicles in Cameroon display registration plates. The current scheme of regular license plates was introduced in 1985. It has AB1234V formats or AB123VH where AB is the code region, 1234 is the number, and SH is the series. The regular plate has an orange background with black marks. Since 2005, to reflect the German FE font used, on the left side of the plate are the emblems of the Economic Community of Central African States code and the CMR emblem. Kenya The current series of vehicle registration plates in Kenya are on a white plate with black lettering and look quite similar to UK suffix style registrations. The format is LLL 000L, where ‘L’ denotes a letter and ‘0’ denotes a digit. The older series of number plates were black with white or silver lettering. The rear plates in the older series of number plates were yellow and black lettering. According to Kenya National Bureau of Statistics there are over 1,626,380 vehicles on Kenyan roads as at 2011. Morocco New-style (post-1983, black lettering on white) Moroccan vehicle registrations have one or two numbers to the right of the plate to indicate the town of registration. Each number is separated by a vertical line. To the left of the plate are a series of up to 5 digits issued consecutively. These are separated from the town of registration digits by a hyphen. Earlier plates (1972–1983, black lettering on white. Pre-1972, white lettering on black) differed in that they could have either one or two numbers to indicate the town of registration. The group of digits was separated from the rest of the plate by a vertical line. The current plates use numerals without script. Earlier plates used numerals and included Arabic script. South Africa South African number plates are unique in each of the provinces. Each province has its own number plate design and colors, as well as numbering scheme. Americas Argentina The history of registration plates in Argentina can be broken down in two major phases: the decentralized phase (until 1972) and the centralized one (since 1972). During the decentralized phase, registration plates were assigned by each municipality or by the provinces, while during the second phase, the national state took charge of standardizing and centralizing the design and style. Argentina has used the ABC 123 format since 1995. However, from 2016, new registration plates with the logo of Mercosur and the AB 123 CD format were implemented. Both formats coexist temporarily. Bolivia Bolivia's current registration plate system consists of four numbers followed by three letters. At the top of the plate, "BOLIVIA" is spelled out. At the top left corner, the Bolivian flag may be present, and at the top right corner, a letter denoting the department in which the car is registered, according to the ISO 3166-2:BO code, is displayed on either a metal tab on older plates or a sticker on newer plates. The current registration plate design consists of a white background with a blue borderline and blue letters and numbers. Serial digits progress sequentially from right to left, with the 000 AAA format followed by the 1000AAA format and currently the 4000AAA format. Older plate serials consisted of three numbers followed by three letters (A to Z, except O and Q). They had a white background with black letters and numbers. Brazil Brazil adopted its former system in 1990, which uses the form ABC•1234, with a dot between the letters and the numbers. A combination given to a particular vehicle follows it from first issue to the scrapyard: it cannot be transferred to another vehicle. Above the combination there was a metallic band with the state abbreviation (SP = São Paulo, RJ = Rio de Janeiro, PR = Paraná, AM = Amazonas, etc.) and the name of the municipality in which the vehicle title owner resides. During the first registration of a new vehicle, the registering state issues a registration plate to the vehicle rather than owner, and the serial stays with the vehicle for its life. Brazil, as a member of Mercosur, from September 2018 on, began a new registration system where plates have a blue band at the top with the logo of Mercosur on the left, the country's name centered and country flag on the right. On the bottom left, there is the international vehicle registration code for Brazil: BR. The plates are always white: the letter coloring indicates the category (e.g., black on white: private; blue on white: official, police, fire departments, etc.; red on white: taxis, buses, paid freight, etc.). A new format based on the previous one, ABC1D23, was implemented. All used cars, when transferred to another owner, must change to the new format keeping their registration, where only its second number (the fifth position of the alphanumeric combination) shall change to a letter, following the pattern: 0=A, 1=B, 2=C, 3=D, ... 9=J. , both formats coexist for the time being. Canada Some provinces issue plates in which the letters and numbers are embossed so that they are slightly raised above its surface. Others issue flat plates. The territory of Nunavut introduced the first flat registration plate in Canada in 2012–2013. When a person moves from one province to another, they are normally required to obtain new registration plates issued by the new place of residence. In the Canadian provinces and territories of Alberta, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, the Northwest Territories, Nova Scotia, Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, Saskatchewan, and the Yukon, registration plates are currently only required on the rear of the vehicle. The remaining provinces—British Columbia, Manitoba, and Ontario—require the registration plates to be mounted on both the front and rear of the vehicle. In 1956, all North American passenger vehicle registration plates, except for French-controlled St. Pierre and Miquelon, were standardized at a size of , although a smaller size is used for certain vehicle classes, such as motorcycles, and for the state of Delaware's historic alternate black and white plates, which are . The plates of the Northwest Territories are shaped like a polar bear but bolt to the standard holes. Nunavut inherited this design on its creation but switched to rectangular plates in 2012. Canadian Forces vehicles that travel on regular roads display registration plates. These vehicles have registration plates issued by the Department of National Defence. Domestic plates were issued by the DND after 1968. Prison inmates in Ontario make registration plates. Colombia Private black-on-yellow plates with the ABC·123 format are used in Colombia. The municipality of issuance is embossed at the bottom of the plate. Ecuador Vehicle number plates in Ecuador have only one design, with the word "Ecuador" appearing in uppercase letters centred at the top of the plate and a unique letter-number combination which consists of three letters (except for motorbikes, diplomatic vehicles and vehicles owned by international organisations) followed by three or more numerical digits. Formats in use are ABC-123 (old format) and ABC-1234 (new format). The first letter in the letter-number combination indicates the province of issue. The second letter might be sequential or a "key letter" identifying the type of registration plate; the following letters and numbers are assigned in sequential order to the date the vehicle has been registered. Greenland Greenlandic vehicle registration plates normally have two letters and five digits. The combination is simply a serial and has no connection with a geographic location, but the digits have number series based on vehicle type. Mexico Each Mexican state issues registration plates of a different design. Most states change designs more or less every third year, with each state on its own plate replacement cycle. Every year Mexicans pay the or ("car plates renewal tax"). A set of Mexican plates includes one pair of plates, a windshield sticker, and in a few states a plate sticker. In 2001 the size of the plate number was reduced to accommodate the addition of the state number, a legend indicating the position of the plate on the vehicle ( (front) or (rear)), and additional graphics. European-sized plates do exist in Mexico, but are not official or legal. These generally contain the same design as the standard-size plate in use at the time, and bear the standard letter and number sequence. Mexican plates come in several different classifications: private, private border, public, public border, federal public service, fiscal and customs inspection, Mexico Army, and diplomatic. The border plates were introduced in 1972 and are available in the Mexico–USA border zone. This zone is formed by the states of Baja California and Baja California Sur, as well as parts of Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas. While the state of Nuevo León shares a border with the U.S., it does not have any cities within the border zone. Panama In Panama, the design of registration plates changes every year and the plates are the standard North American size and shape. They used to be made by prison inmates but are now produced on demand and on site using a press. Plates used to have 6 numbers, but since 2013 new plates for new vehicles have 2 letters and 4 numbers. The 2 letters go before the numbers. they have a sticker on one of the corners indicating in which month of the year the plate was issued. On the bottom center of the plate is the year when the plate was issued. They also have holograms on the right edge of the plate. On the top center the plate has the word PANAMA. Government vehicles always begin with GO. Taxis begin with T and are always yellow. School buses say COLEGIAL instead of the year the plate was issued. Motorcycles begin with M. Metro buses begin with MB. Plates for motorcycles are about half the standard size. Plates of vehicles belonging to the national assembly are always white and have the logo of the national assembly on the left and two numbers on the right and are always white. Vehicles of government executives have no registration plate. Vehicles from Central America can be used freely in Panama without having to change plates but only if the vehicle will not be staying indefinitely in Panama. Vehicles must be checked every year when changing the plate. The plate must be changed every year and once the vehicle is checked a sticker must be attached to the back of the vehicle's windshield. The color of the sticker changes every year. United States Although registration plates have only existed for just over 100 years in the United States, they have developed a distinctive history that has undergone several periods and changes. The first registration plates in North America appeared in 1903 in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Soon after, other states followed suit, with virtually every state having adopted a form of registration plates by 1918. The first registration plates in the United States were made out of leather, rubber, iron, and porcelain, painted on the front in usually two different colors—one for the background and one for the lettering. This scheme held true for most states until about 1920. The front of the plate would usually contain the registration number in large digits, and in smaller lettering on one side of the plate, the two- or four-digit year number, and an abbreviated state name. Each year, citizens were usually required to obtain a new registration plate from the state government, which would have a different color scheme than the previous year, making it easier for police to identify whether citizens were current with their vehicle registration. Even before 1920, some states had adopted the technique of embossing the metal plates with raised lettering and numbering, without porcelain, and applying paint all over the plate, directly onto the metal. Minnesota introduced some registration plates during this period with three different years embossed into the plate, so that the plates were valid for three consecutive years (e.g., 1918, 1919, and 1920). In the United States, registration plates are issued by each state. The federal government issues plates only for its own vehicle fleet and for vehicles owned by foreign diplomats. In the United States, many Native American tribal governments issue plates for their members, while some states provide special issues for tribal members. Within each jurisdiction, there may also be special plates for groups such as firefighters or military veterans, and for state, municipality, or province-owned vehicles. The appearance of plates is frequently chosen to contain symbols or slogans associated with the issuing jurisdiction. Some of these are intended to promote the region. A few make political statements; for example, most plates issued in District of Columbia include the phrase "Taxation Without Representation" to highlight D.C.'s lack of a voting representative in the United States Congress. More recently, some states have also started to put a web address pertaining to the state (such as Pennsylvania, which posts the address of its tourism site). In some states (Georgia, Iowa, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee, Ohio, and some versions in Florida), the issuing county is listed at the bottom, while Kansas does so with a letter-coded registration sticker; Utah did so until 2003. Indiana identifies counties with a two-digit code in the lower right corner of its plates. Alabama, Idaho, Montana, Ohio, South Dakota, Wyoming, most Nebraska, and some Oklahoma standard issue plates designate the county by unique codes, usually numeric (Idaho uses a one-letter or one-number/one-letter code; Oklahoma uses a one-letter code), either in the plate number or registration sticker. Some states, such as New Hampshire, New Mexico, and New York, formerly used county-coded or county-labeled plates before switching to standard-progression plates. Most states use plates onto which the letters and numbers are embossed so that they are slightly raised above its surface. Characters on Vermont plates are engraved onto a large, slightly raised portion of the plate. Seventeen states—Alabama, Arizona, Delaware, Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, New Jersey, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Wyoming—and both the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, have moved to entirely digitally printed "flat" registration plates. Several other states, such as Colorado, Mississippi, Missouri, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin, produce a flat registration plate only for certain plates, such as personalized license plates and special interest plates. Nevada reverted from using flat registration plates to using embossed plates, after using flat plates as a standard issue for a few years. The numbering system of registration plates also varies among the jurisdictions. Some states issue a motorist a serial that stays with that person as long as they live in that state, while other states periodically issue new serials and completely rotate out any old ones. Some states issue registration plates to vehicles rather than owners, and the serial stays with the vehicle for its life. Several states do not regularly use certain letters – most commonly the letters I, O, and/or Q – in their plates, except on vanity plates, so as not to confuse observers with the numbers one and zero. When a person moves from one state to another, they are normally required to obtain new registration plates issued by the new place of residence. Some U.S. states will even require a person to obtain new plates if they accept employment in that state, unless they can show that they return to another state to live on a regular basis. The most prominent exceptions to this policy are active duty military service members, who legally do not change residence when they move to a new posting. Federal law specifically allows them to choose to either retain the state vehicle registration of their original residence or change registration to their state of assignment. In the United States, 20 states – Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Mississippi, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, and West Virginia – do not require an official front registration plate. In Nevada, front plates are optional if the vehicle was not designed for a front plate and the manufacturer did not provide an add-on bracket or other means of displaying the front plate. In Massachusetts, certain old rear-only plates are grandfathered, but newly issued registrations require both front and rear plates. Vehicles owned by the United States Postal Service, unlike other federally owned civilian vehicles, do not bear registration plates, but rather a postal service number such as on the Grumman LLV. In 1956, all North American passenger vehicle registration plates, except for French-controlled St. Pierre and Miquelon, were standardized at a size of , although a smaller size is used for certain vehicle classes, such as motorcycles, and for the state of Delaware's historic alternate black and white plates, which are . However, in 2012 Puerto Rico began issuing optional European-style plates that incorporate the design language of the standard-issue plates in a longer and narrower size typically seen in Europe. Tactical vehicles of the United States military do not bear registration plates, even if they travel regularly on public streets and highways. In many U.S. states, registration plates are made by prison inmates. Because of this, colloquial terms include "license plate factories" for prison and "making license plates" for serving a prison sentence. Asia Afghanistan Afghan registration plates primarily use Persian script text and numerals. The current version was introduced in 2004. Bangladesh Bangladeshi registration plates use Bengali alphabets and Bengali numerals. In Bangladesh, the Road Transport Authority (BRTA) issues vehicle registration plates for motor vehicles. The vehicle registration plates in Bangladesh use Bengali alphabets and Bengali numerals. The current version of Vehicle registration plates started in 1973. The International vehicle registration code for Bangladesh is BD. The general format of vehicle registration plates in Bangladesh is "City – Vehicle Class alphabet and No – Vehicle No". For example, : "DHAKA-D-11-9999". The "DHAKA" field represents the city name in Bengali alphabets, the "D" field represents the vehicle class in Bengali alphabets, the "11" field represents the vehicle registration serial in Bengali numerals (newer registrations have a higher serial number) and finally, the "9999" field represents the vehicle number of the vehicle in Bengali numerals. The plates are installed in both the front and rear of the vehicle, with the rear plate permanently attached to the vehicle. The plate is only removed when the vehicle has reached the end of service and has been sold for scrap. New vehicles are not delivered to the purchaser until the plates have been attached at the dealership. China Mainland The People's Republic of China issues vehicles registration plates at its Vehicle Management Offices, under the administration of the Ministry of Public Security. The current plates are of the 2007 standard (GA36-2007), blue background and consist a one-character provincial abbreviation, a letter of the Latin alphabet corresponding to a certain city in the province, and five numbers or letters of the alphabet (e.g. 京A-12345, for a vehicle in Beijing or 粤B-12345 for a vehicle from Shenzhen in Guangdong province). The numbers are produced at random, and are computer-generated at the issuing office. (A previous registration plate system, with a green background and the full name of the province in Chinese characters, actually had a sequential numbering order, and the numbering system was eventually beset with corruption). Yellow plates are issued to motorcycles and large vehicles, such as coaches and buses. Black plates are issued to vehicles belong to diplomatic missions and foreigners (including Hong Kong and Macau). Vehicles registered in Hong Kong or Macau and permitted to enter China would be required to have a separate black plate from China as Hong Kong and Macau operate their own vehicles registration system. The Chinese plates for these cars followed the pattern of the provincial character for Guangdong (粤), the Latin letter "Z", 4 letters and/or numbers, ending in the abbreviated character for the territory (e.g. 港 for Hong Kong and 澳 for Macau). For motorcycles, the front plate only included five numbers and rear contained the full information (e.g. for a motorcycle registered in Shanghai as 沪C•12345, the front plate would be "12345" and the rear plate bears the entire set). Hong Kong Hong Kong number plates follow the British system of colouring, with front white and rear yellow plates. The numbering system is two letters and (up to) four digits, e.g. AB1234. Registration plate numbers start with "AM" are reserved for government use. The front white and rear yellow background is a reflective material to comply with the BS AU145a standard. In addition, Hong Kong started a new scheme in 2006 to allow personalised registration plates, with up to eight selectable letters or numbers. Macau Macau local registration plates follow the Portuguese pre-1992 system of colour and sequence. Plates are black background with white numbers. Numbering system starts from M, and then one letter, and then 4 numbers, and separated by "-", e.g. MA-12-34. Earlier numbers will only have M instead of MA or MB or MC, etc. Taiwan In the Republic of China (Taiwan), vehicle registration plates are issued by the Ministry of Transportation and Communications. The registration numbers contain Latin letters (A to Z), Arabic numerals (0 to 9) and dash (–), and plates also bear Chinese characters. India Vehicle registration plates, usually known as number plates, are issued by the Regional Transport Office of each district. Most motor vehicles which are used on public roads are required by law to display them. The new system which is followed currently in all the states and cities came into effect in the early 1990s. The scheme comprises: A two letter identification for the state in which the vehicle is registered. A two number code to identify the Regional Transport Office (RTO) where the vehicle is registered. An alphabet code to define the series. (one or two Alphabet, depending on vehicle density of the district/RTO) A four digit serial. For Example, in the case of "MH 10 EL 5311", "MH" stands for Maharashtra, "10" stands for Sangli city RTO, and "EL 5311" denotes the series and serial number. The Delhi NCR however uses a modified system wherein an additional alphabet is inserted after the RTO code to classify vehicle type. For example, a Delhi registration plate may read "DL 12 C AB 0496" where "DL" stands for Delhi, "12 C" stands for Car, and "AB 0496" is the series and number. In this scheme, 'C' denotes Car, 'S' denotes Scooter/Motorcycle, 'R' stands for rickshaw (three-wheeler), 'F' stands for "Fancy" or VIP numbers irrespective of vehicle type; and "P" for Public transport vehicles. Some states have been adapting the dual letter series code system, for example car series' are CA, CB, CC; motorbike series' are MA, MB and so on. Most states however still use the standard series code, denoted by a single letter of the alphabet. Indonesia Indonesian vehicle plates share the legacy of the Dutch colonial era, which do not reflect the regional divisions of the country into provinces, but the old system of karesidenan or residencies. Their prefixes are therefore based on this system. There are four types of plates that are used in Indonesia, all consists of a combination of alphabet and numbers. For commercial and public vehicles, a yellow background with black typeface. For private vehicles, a black background with white typeface. For government vehicles, a red background with white typeface. Dealer plates are white background with red typeface, usually for vehicles yet to have legal and confirmed information and owner. Besides these normal plates, there are also military plates for Army, Navy, Air Force, and also the Police. While diplomatic corps get special white plates and black numbering with "CD" prefix. The normal scheme comprises a one or two letters identification for the regencies, followed by an up to four digit numbers for the car's identification, and the last one to three letters are the serial code or district identification. The expiry date of the license is embossed along the bottom and some on the top of the plate. At the middle of the plate number, the numbers are usually random or requested by the vehicle owner and has a maximum of four digits and a maximum of three letters at the end of the vehicle's plate number, for example it could be: (B 1 A), (B 12 AB), (B 123 AB), and (B 1234 ABC). Sometimes the last maximum three letters at the end of the plate identifies the district region of the registered vehicle by the first letter, for example: (B 1234 WIE) which "W" identifies the vehicle is from the region of Southern South Tangerang city (Kota Tangerang Selatan), Banten province. Vehicle owners may request their vehicle's last letters plate for their own desire, but would need more affairs by the local police registering it, for example that the owner's name is "Adi" then he would make his vehicle's plate number like so: (B 1234 ADI). Example: B 1234 AB, is mainly a vehicle registered in Jakarta, distinguishable from the letter code from the first letter of the plate, "B" represents the following cities: Jakarta, Depok, Tangerang (includes South Tangerang), and Bekasi. Mainly, vehicles registered in 2008 and later starts using three letters at the end of the whole plate, for example: B 1234 ABC L 123 MN, is a vehicle registered in Surabaya, the provincial capital of East Java Surabaya code is "L" DB 787 AA, is a vehicle registered in North Sulawesi which includes Minahasa and Manado which is the capital city of the province. North Sulawesi code is "DB" KT 8910 T, is a vehicle registered in East Kalimantan Province, Tarakan municipality, on Borneo island. East Kalimantan code is "KT" F 8888 LU, is a vehicle registered in Bogor city, West Java. Bogor city code is "F" The plates usually have their expiration dates shown below or very few on the top of the serial numbers, indicating its expiry month and year, so if it says (12•26) it means that the plate expires at December 2026, so the owner of the vehicle should pay tax and get a new plate at that time, to which the process is redone every five years. A new plate design introduced in April 2011 eliminates a white line circling the whole plate and has thinner typeface. Iran Iranian registration plates are sized to European standards. Iraq Japan Japanese vehicle registration plates fall into two classes: Prefectural, used nationwide, and Municipal. Municipal registration is typically applicable to motor vehicles that will not leave the area, such as light motorcycles. In the prefectural system, the top line names the office at which the vehicle is registered, and includes a numeric code that indicates the class of vehicle. The bottom contains one serial letter (typically a kana), and up to four digits. The classes of registration plate are divided by vehicle type and engine size. For private vehicles less than , registration plates have black text on a yellow background. Above , a white plate with green text is used. For commercial, non-private vehicles, the colors of the number plate are inverted. An official seal is applied over one (typically the left) screw, preventing the plate being removed and applied to another car. Municipal registration plates in Japan may vary in color and design. Jordan Jordan requires its residents to register their motor vehicles and display vehicle registration plates. Korea North Korea North Korean vehicle plates follow the pattern XX-##-###, where "XX" is replaced with two Hangul syllables) spelling the province name. The most common plates are embossed black-on-white to indicate state ownership; plates indicating KPA use are white-on-black. Motorcycle plates are black-on-yellow or black-on-orange. The very few privately owned motor vehicles which exist in North Korea bear black-on-red plates, while diplomatic plates are white-on-blue. Other types of vehicles (trolleys, emergency vehicles, buses/taxis) are indicated with additional numerical prefixes. South Korea In South Korea, 6 types of registration number plates (3 variations of size, both non-commercial and commercial) are issued currently. Prior to 2006, sizes of plates were for normal vehicles and for large vehicles (buses with length over and trucks with payload over ). Since November 2006, standard plate size for normal vehicles was changed to , resembling European Union standard. Nonetheless, older plates are still effective for older vehicles and some models not fit for new standard, which are mostly imported cars. One example is the Ford Mustang. Even cars with plate in front and plate in rear are not rare. Non-commercial vehicles (nationwide registration number "00-X-0000": X is one Hangeul character denoting type of vehicle) bear plates with white background and black letters, while commercial vehicles (Region name is added as prefix like "Seoul 12 GA 3456") with yellow background and black letters. In older system, non-commercial vehicles plates had green background and white letters. There are a few exceptions, including diplomats and United States military. Malaysia Malaysian registration plates are displayed at the front and rear of all private and commercial motorised vehicles in Malaysia, as required by law. The issuing of the registration plates is regulated and administered by the Malaysian Road Transport Department () or JPJ. A = Perak B = Selangor C = Pahang D = Kelantan H = Taxi J = Johore K = Kedah KV = Langkawi L = F.T. Labuan M = Malacca (Melaka) N = Negeri Sembilan P = Penang Q = Sarawak R = Perlis S = Sabah T = Trengganu V = F.T. Putra Jaya W = Federal Territory (Wilayah Persekutuan) Kuala Lumpur Nepal Nepal embossed plate was started from 2017. In Nepal, all road vehicles with or without a motor (except bicycles) are tagged with a registration number. Registration plates are commonly known as number plates. The registration plate number is issued by the zonal-level Transport Management Office, a government agency under the Department of Transport Management. The registration plates must be placed in the front as well as back of the vehicle. The President of Nepal travels in an official vehicle that has no number on its plates. Instead it has the Coat of Arms of Nepal embossed on it. Current system The current format was introduced on 21 August 2017. This format consists of L LL NNNN where: L is the category of vehicle, LL is a "counter" comprising two letters, which increments after the sequence number reaches 9999. NNNN is a sequence number from 0001 to 9999. These plates come with a RFID microchip that enables the government to maintain uniformity in issuance of number plates and prevent duplication. Similarly, the new number plates also help authorities to maintain digital records of vehicles plying on the roads, collect revenue on time and control auto theft. Pakistan Eight types of registration plates are used in Pakistan. Each province and territory issues its own number plate; the federal government issues number plates for foreign diplomats and vehicles owned by the military, police and federal departments (red for foreign diplomats and green for the federal government.) Sindh's number plates are yellow with black letters and numbers for private vehicles and Black number plates with white letters for commercial vehicles; Islamabad, NWFP, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Balochistan and Northern Areas have white number plates with black letters and numbers. The number plates also have the province or territory's name at the bottom. In Punjab however, number plates can be of any color the vehicle owner chooses. But legally it is not allowed. The first 2 letters represent the city the vehicle is registered in. From January 1, 2006, Punjab has started issuing official number plates for all cars registered in Punjab. Number plates are of Green and White color. The green part is the same all over Punjab and has a sign and 'Punjab' written on it, while the white part has the number of the vehicle. For example: RIZ 3725, is a vehicle registered in Rawalpindi, Punjab. MN 3909, is a vehicle registered in Multan, Punjab. LEL 06 4520, is a vehicle registered in Lahore, Punjab. (06 represents year 2006) All number plates use the Latin alphabet. Philippines Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabian vehicle plates display both Arabic and Latin characters. Singapore In general, every motor vehicle in Singapore has a vehicle registration number. Two colour schemes are in use: white-on-black scheme that is standard on cars from dealerships, or the Euro black-on-white (front of the vehicle) and black-on-yellow (rear) scheme, of which the number plate has to be made of a reflective plastic or metallic with textured characters which are black (for white-yellow), or white or silver (for black ones). No standardised typeface is used, though all typefaces are based on the Charles Wright number plate typeface used in the UK. Thinner-looking variants are commonly used by SBS Transit buses, taxis and goods vehicles. Rarely, the FE-Schrift font used in Germany can be seen – though the use of this font is prohibited by the Land Transport Authority (LTA). A typical vehicle registration number comes in the format "SBA 1234 A": S – Vehicle class ("S", with some exceptions, stands for a private vehicle since 1984) BA – Alphabetical series ("I" and "O" are not used to avoid confusion with "1" and "0") 1234 – Numerical series A – Checksum letter ("F", "I", "N", "O", "Q", "V" and "W" are never used as checksum letters; absent on special government vehicle plates and events vehicle plates) Sri Lanka Vehicle registration plates of Sri Lanka (known in Sri Lanka as "number plates") started soon after introduction of motorcars in 1903. Initially the numbers started with Q, and the oldest existing plate is "Q 53" of a 1903 Wolsley. Later the island was divided into sections from "A " to "Z" (Ex A 123 ), then after World War II it changed to the two Roman letter plates combining pairs of letters in the word CEYLON . These series were CL XXXX, EY XXXX, EL XXXx . Afterwards in 1956 a new system with the Sinhala script letter Sri (ශ්‍රී) in the middle was introduced, this started from Reg no "1 Sri 1". The current series of car registrations in Sri Lanka was introduced in 2000 and is on yellow number plates with black characters and a black border. On the left hand side of the number plate is the country emblem, below which is a two-letter region identifier e.g. WP represents the Western Province. The format of the remainder of the registration is LL – DDDD, with L being a letter and D being a number. The previous series of registrations had been in effect since 1956 and was on brighter yellow plates with the format DD – DDDD. Also they didn't have any national emblem or region identifier. Taxis have white number plates with red lettering. Thailand United Arab Emirates Vietnam The current Vietnamese registration plate design consists of a white background with black characters, each province has a regional number (located on the left side of the plate). Official and government cars bear blue registration plates, central government plates bear the number 80 followed by the letter A, B or M, diplomatique plates are white with NG wrote in red, company members vehicles are also white registration plate bearing LD letters in black. Military registration plates are red with white letter. For example, 51X-XXXX would be used for civilian vehicles, 80X-XXXX with blue background for central government vehicles, 80-XXX-NG-XX for diplomatic vehicles, TC-XX-XX for military vehicles and XXLD-XXX.XX for company vehicles. Europe In the European Union (EU), white or yellow number plates of a common format and size are issued throughout, although they are still optional in some member states. Nevertheless, some individual member states still use differing non-EU formats – Belgium, for example, still permits vehicles to display the older small white number plates with red lettering, and the registration plates that are issued by the government body which assigns these are of the smaller format, too. In 1908 number plates were only three numbers and one letter long. Italy still permits smaller plates to be attached to the front of a vehicle, while the rear plate complies to the usual EU format. The common design consists of a blue strip on the left of the plate, which has the EU motif (12 yellow stars), along with the country code of the member state in which the vehicle was registered. Lettering on the plate must be black on a white or yellow reflective background. According to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, vehicles in cross-border traffic are obliged to display a distinguishing sign of the country of registration on the rear of the vehicle. This sign may either be placed separately from the registration plate or may be incorporated into the vehicle registration plate. With registration plates in the common EU format, vehicles registered in the EU are no longer required to carry an international code plate or sticker for traveling within the European Economic Area. The common EU format is also recognized in countries signatory to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic. As are registration plates of other European countries similar to the EU format, such as Norwegian ones; with the Norwegian flag replacing the circle of stars. Both the common EU format, and e.g. Norwegian registration plates satisfies the requirements laid out in the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic; According to the convention, when the distinguishing sign is incorporated into the registration plate, it must also appear on the front registration plate of the vehicle, and may be supplemented with the flag or emblem of the national state, or the emblem of the regional economic integration organization to which the country belongs. Diplomatic plates are usually denoted by the letters "CD" in Europe which stands for Corps Diplomatique located usually at the beginning of the number plate (France, Belgium, Italy) or middle (Netherlands, Portugal). The United Kingdom uses "D" for "diplomat". In order to combat registration plate fraud, Germany developed a typeface which is called fälschungserschwerende Schrift (abbr.: FE-Schrift), meaning "falsification-hindering script". It is designed so that, for example, the O cannot be adjusted to look like a Q, or vice versa; nor can the P be painted to resemble an R, amongst other changes. This typeface can more easily be read by radar or visual registration plate reading machines, but can be harder to read with the naked eye, especially when the maximum allowed number of 8 characters in "Engschrift" (narrower script used when available space is limited) are printed on the plate. Many countries have since adopted FE-Schrift, or developed their own anti-fraud typeface. Denmark Denmark offers both a European or normal style registration plate. They have a fairly similar look, with the EU strip with the letters DK. Both styles are in the XX 12 345 format. The first two letters run sequentially with no ties to any geographic region. The first two digits determine the type of vehicle. For example, 10 through 18 are reserved for motorcycle. Finland EU registration plates were introduced in Finland in 2001. EU plates are automatically given to all vehicles unless the owner makes a separate request for old model plates. If desired, EU plates can be changed for old model ones at inspection sites. Registration plates used in Finland are made of aluminium with a reflective membrane coating. Numbers and letters are embossed and painted. The embossing height is 1–1.2 mm. The number sequence of the registration plate cannot start with a zero, nor can zero be the only number. The letter combination CD is reserved for diplomatic vehicles. Usually the next available ID is given as the plate number. Special registration plates with a selected ID are also available upon request. A special registration plate is a regular plate with a special ID. The ID is subject to certain restrictions and requires a separate application subject to a fee. The application fee for a special registration plate is EUR 900. A vehicle has one or two plates depending on the vehicle class. In certain cases, a vehicle can also be given an additional plate. Norway The registration number of cars in Norway is maintained by the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications. As in most countries, cars are identified only by number plates read visually. The current alphanumerical system (two letters followed by five numbers) was introduced in 1971. The design of the plates remained the same until 2002, when the road authorities decided on a new font which standardized the width of each character. The new design was unsuccessful due to legibility issues, for example the letters "A" and "R" were often hard to distinguish. From 2006 the font was changed again to improve legibility, and space was provided for a blue nationality stripe with a Norwegian flag. From 2009, plates were made of plastic, and produced in a factory at Tønsberg. From 2012, plates are again produced in aluminium. Also, electric cars have access to plates that begin with either "EL", "EK", "EV", "EB", "EC", "ED" or "EE". Russia Current Russian registration plates are a mix of French FNI, traditional Arabic "windows", and Soviet "small characters", introduced in 1993. for Soviet registration plates. There are six types of Russian registration plates. Civil plates – civil plates have white background with black numbers. The templates for number is "@###@@ \| RR" where @ is one of the "ABCEHKMOPTXУ" letters (Cyrillic letters that can be recognized by those familiar with the Latin alphabet, but actually correspond to AVSENKMORTKHU), # is a digit and RR is a region number (2 or 3 digits). Government plates – government plates have white background with black numbers. The templates for number is "@###@@ \| FL" where FL is a tricolor flag of Russia (canceled in 2007). Police plates – blue background and white characters, with "@#### \| RR" template. Diplomatic plates – red background and white characters, with "###@### \| RR" template. Military plates – black background and white characters, with "####@@ \| RR" template. Route vehicles (buses, trolleys and fixed-run taxies) – yellow background and black characters with "@@### \| RR" template. Sweden Vehicle registration plates are white with black characters. The plates have three letters, a space, two digits and lastly one digit or letter. The combination is simply a serial and has no connection with a geographic location. Vehicles like police cars, fire trucks, public buses and trolley buses use the same type of plate as normal private cars, and cannot be directly distinguished by the plate alone. It is possible to, for a fee, get a personal plate with one to seven digits. Taxis have yellow plates, with the same combination of letters and digits as 'normal' cars. The diplomatic corps have blue plates. The two first letters indicate the country or organization of the user. Military vehicles have four to six yellow digits on black background, and may be used for all kinds of vehicles from ordinary automobiles to tanks. Turkey Turkish car number plates use an indirect numbering system associated with the geographical info. In Turkey, registration plates are made by authorized private workshops. The registration plate is rectangular in shape and made of aluminum. On the left, there is the country code "TR" in a 4×10 cm blue stripe like in EU countries (without the 12 golden stars). The text is in black characters on white background, and for official vehicles white on black. On all vehicles two plates have to be present, being one in front and the other in rear except motorcycles and tractors. The serial letters use the Turkish letters except Ç, Ğ, İ, Ö, Ş and Ü. Ukraine Ukrainian regular registration plates are issued in European style, using the format AB1234CE (the prefix refers to the region), using Cyrillic letters that resemble Roman letters (A, B, C, E, H, I, K, M, O, P, T, X). The plates have, at the far left, the Ukrainian flag and UA (country code) in a 4×10 cm blue stripe like in EU countries (without the 12 golden stars). There were single-line plates for vehicles and trailers, double-line plates for vehicles with special shaped mounting place, three-lined plates for cycles (except scooters with small two-line plates). A plate with a yellow background is used for public-use vehicles such as taxis or route buses. Single-line plates are the standard European size . Ukrainian vanity plates are unique in that purchasers may choose any image to be printed on the surface of plate, to the right of the characters. United Kingdom Vehicle registration plates, usually known as number plates, have existed in the United Kingdom since 1904. Most motor vehicles which are used on public roads are required by law to display them. The Motor Car Act 1903, which came into force on 1 January 1904, required all motor vehicles to be entered on an official vehicle register, and to carry number plates. The Act was passed in order that vehicles could be easily traced in the event of an accident or contravention of the law. Vehicle registration number plates in the UK are rectangular or square in shape, with the exact permitted dimensions of the plate and its lettering set down in law. Most plates are white at the front of the vehicle and yellow at the back, with black lettering, with the exception of classic vehicles, which bear black plates at both front and rear with silver text. Within the UK itself there are currently two numbering and registration systems: one for the island of Great Britain, which is administered by the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), and one for Northern Ireland, administered by the Driver & Vehicle Agency (DVA): both have equal status. It is optional to show a national identifier on British number plates. Number plates including the "GB" code are valid in countries party to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic if displayed on its own or together with the Union Jack. In 2019, the UK government announced that it was considering introducing green number plates for zero emissions vehicles, making them easier to recognise. Consequently, from 2020, zero-emissions vehicles can receive a green band on the left-hand side of number plate (in the same place as the blue coloured band of the national identifier.) From 28 September 2021, the UK changed its mark from GB to UK, both in Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Australasia Australia In Australia, vehicle registration plates, usually known as number plates or 'rego plates', are normally issued by the State or Territory government; until 2000 some were issued by the Commonwealth government. Plates are associated with a vehicle and generally last for its life, though as they become unreadable (or for other reasons) they may be recalled or replaced with newer ones. New plates are issued when the vehicle is registered in another state, or if the owner requests them (though this depends on state laws). Australian number plates were originally issued with white characters on black plates, black on white, black on yellow and blue on white, with each state and territory being allocated a range of plates inside the larger range AAA000 to ZZZ999. New South Wales, for example, was allocated AAA000 to FZZ999, Victoria was allocated from GAA000 to MZZ999, Queensland was allocated NAA000 to QZZ999 and South Australia was allocated from RAA000 to TZZ999. Western Australia was allocated UAA000 and XAA000, Tasmania and the Australia Capital Territory were allocated the series beginning with W and Y respectively. This system worked for a few decades but had been almost completely abandoned by 1980, particularly because some states had exhausted their allocated range of combinations. The Northern Territory never adopted the system. The states then chose their own systems. New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia all retained xxx-nnn, but each started again from AAA-000. Queensland reversed the arrangement to nnn-xxx. Western Australia took nxx-nnn, and the ACT kept the Y plate range but substituted the last digit for a letter, giving Yxx-nnx. In 2013, Victoria became the last state to abandon the xxx-nnn format. Current arrangements are listed below. All current plates are manufactured to uniform dimensions and are made of pressed aluminium, except for certain special series plates; the form of which differs by state and design. In 1942, the government released a new special series only alphabet (XB-AA OPS). Current standard Australian number plate formats Australian Capital Territory: Blue text on white background, with "ACT" above and "CANBERRA – THE NATION'S CAPITAL" below.Code format: YAB-12C. New South Wales: Black text on yellow background, with "NEW SOUTH WALES" below the plate code. Also in circulation are plates showing "NEW SOUTH WALES – THE FIRST STATE" and "NEW SOUTH WALES – THE PREMIER STATE" with code xxx-nnn, from the 1980s.Code format: AB-12-CD. Victoria: Blue on white background, with "VIC – THE EDUCATION STATE" under the plate code. Older plates show, "VIC – STAY ALERT STAY ALIVE", "VICTORIA – THE PLACE TO BE", "VICTORIA – ON THE MOVE", or "VICTORIA – THE GARDEN STATE" in green on white.Code format: 1AB-2CD. Queensland: Maroon text (previously green) on white background, with "QUEENSLAND – SUNSHINE STATE" or "QUEENSLAND – THE SMART STATE" under the plate code. Code format: 123-AB4. South Australia: Black on white with "SOUTH AUSTRALIA" under code. Code format: S123-ABC. Western Australia:, Blue on white with WESTERN AUSTRALIA on blue band at top of plate. Older plates black on yellow with format nxx-nnn. Code format: 1ABC-234. Even older Western Australian plates use a locality code, followed by a sequential number, e.g. AL 123 being for Albany, plate number 123. Some rural locations added a central dot to signify if the plate was issued for shire or town based drivers. This locality based system is still active, although it needs to be offered or asked for at the time of licensing the vehicle. Tasmania: Blue on white with "TASMANIA – Explore The Possibilities " at bottom and thylacine between the 1st letter and 2 numbers digits. Older plates may show "TASMANIA – HOLIDAY ISLE" or "TASMANIA – YOUR NATURAL STATE".Code format: A-12-BC. Northern Territory: Orange text on white background with "NT – OUTBACK AUSTRALIA" over code. Code format: CA-12-BC. To show that a vehicle is registered in Australia, a sticker must be displayed in the lower left corner of either the rear left window or windscreen in annual colors on a 6-year cycle: blue, red, purple, brown, green and orange. This sticker is issued to the registered owner of the vehicle upon payment of the next year's registration fee, and shows the expiry date of the registration. They are color-coded for easy recognition of the year of expiry. The sticker shows the plate number, Vehicle Identification Number, make, model, and color of the vehicle, along with other such information. This acts as an anti-theft device, because transplanting the plates from one car to another will be in contrast to the details on the sticker. The Western Australia registration sticker shows only the month and year of expiry. However, since the Western Australian police now have such easy access to registration information based on the numberplate via in-car computer systems found in all police vehicles, registration stickers in Western Australia have been completely scrapped. As of 1 January 2010 they will no longer be required or made – a move that is said to save at least $2 million over 4 years in costs for printing and postage. Car owners will also feel the relief of not having to perform the tedious task of removing and re-applying the registration sticker every 6–12 months. As of 1 January 2013 NSW have also scrapped registration stickers. NT also scrapped registration stickers as of 1 January 2014. Tasmania scrapped registration stickers as of 1 January 2014. In the Australian Capital Territory, vehicles under 4.5 tonnes are no longer required to display registration labels as of 1 July 2013. In Queensland, when all of the 123-ABC combinations had been taken, the plates have the combination 123-AB4. When they run out of combinations for that series the number will move to the left. Code format: 123-A4B Cars owned by the government have special numberplates, some also have a crown and symbols. New Zealand The current system used in New Zealand was adopted in 1964, all vehicles were required to have their plates replaced to this system. The original format in this system was xx-nnnn with the original plate being AA1 plates were on a black background with silver text. In 1986 this was changed to a white reflective background with black text with the first plate in this style being NA1. In 2001 the final plate ZZ9999 was printed and the format was changed to ABC-123. In 2006 the text format was changed on all number plates registered after this time. Personalized number plates were introduced to New Zealand in 1987. Due to the smaller size and population of New Zealand, the same system is used across all of the country. Number plates are usually issued by the New Zealand Transport Agency. Antarctica There are no private cars in Antarctica, and therefore there is no vehicle registration authority. There are other vehicles such as tractors and AWDs; however, they are not required to display registration plates. Vanity and specialty plates In some countries, people can pay extra and get "vanity plates": registration plates with a custom number (character set). For example, a vanity registration plate might read "MY TOY". Generally vanity plates are not allowed to have profane, offensive or obscene messages on them, and of course they must also be unique. (DMVs of US states have sometimes received complaints of offensive vanity plates.) Many countries allow licensed amateur radio operators to obtain registration plates (labeled "Amateur Radio") with their call signs printed on them, allowing public service officials controlling access to disaster areas to immediately recognize and allow operators into the areas, facilitating their provision of crucial emergency communications. Some U.S. states charge lower fees for ham radio plates than for vanity plates. For example, in Virginia the annual cost of an amateur radio vanity plate is a mere $1. In the U.S., most provinces of Canada, and Australia, vehicle owners may also pay extra for specialty plates: with these, the sequence of letters and numbers is chosen by the licensing agency – as with regular plates – but the owners select a plate design that is different from the normal registration plate. Fees for specialty plates are usually channeled to a specific charity or organization. For example, California has issued the "Yosemite plate" and "whale tail plate," both aimed at conservation efforts in the respective domains. Some jurisdictions allow for these special plates to also be vanity plates, usually for an additional fee on top of the cost of the plate. In some Australian states, it is possible to purchase "personalized plates", where an individual can choose the color, design, and sometimes even the shape and size of the plate, as well as the displayed text. For example, the government of the state of Queensland offers a wide range of possibilities for customization, including some emoji. Another style of plate that is common in some states of Australia is "Euro Plates", which are the same size as European plates (rather than the narrower taller Australian plates) to fit on the numberplate holders in European cars. The world record for the most expensive registration plate is US$14 million. The registration plate "1" was bought at an auction in Abu Dhabi. Offensive and prohibited registration plates Some registration plate combinations are banned from being issued by registration authorities. These are typically combinations which, deliberately or otherwise, spell out a message that is likely to offend others. Concerns about what is considered offensive differ from country to country. In the United Kingdom, these have included combinations with sexual connotations such as BO11 LUX and BL04 JOB. The DVLA maintains blacklists of possible number/letter combinations in an attempt to prevent this. Some prohibited plates reflect religious concerns; for example, in New Jersey, a woman found she was prohibited from registering the plate 8THEIST, but permitted to register BAPTIST. A similar registration for ATHE1ST had been rejected in 2013. Both prohibitions were later lifted. In Manitoba, a plate reading ASIMIL8 was banned as being culturally offensive to indigenous people. In 2015, Maine passed legislation that removed most censorship from their vanity plate program. Plates like GETFUKT are now allowed. In some states of Germany license plates that could be mistaken for Nazi codes (with a definition further than Strafgesetzbuch section 86a) are prohibited and in some cases even license plates that had existed for decades were not grandfathered in but had to be changed as stricter regulations were applied. The letter combinations KZ, HJ, SS and SA aren't issued for license plates anywhere in Germany due to their Nazi associations. Temporary registration plates Some jurisdictions issue temporary registration plates made of cardboard or security paper or even printed on plain paper for newly purchased vehicles, for drivers waiting for plates in the mail, or other registration issues. A common length of time to have temporary plates is 30 days, although Ontario offers ten-day permits, and some U.S. states allow temporary tags to be effective for up to 90 days. Temporary registration plates are usually either attached to the vehicle in place of the rear registration plate or both registration plates or taped to the inside of the rear windshield, while some states require it to be in the front windshield. Expiration dates are usually hand written by regulatory employees or dealership sales personnel, but, due to easy alteration of hand written dates, some states now digitally print the date on the tag. If a driver continues to drive after the permit expires the vehicle can face impounding as an unplated vehicle. Novelty registration plates There also exist novelty registration plates often sold in gift or novelty shops. Similar to vanity plates, these novelties are printed with an individual's name or other words or phrases, but unlike vanity plates they are not intended for legal identification of an automobile. They can be displayed in the rear window, for example, or on the front of vehicles registered in jurisdictions that only require a valid plate on the rear of the vehicle. Novelty registration plates are usually installed by motorists or automobile dealerships. While automobile dealerships may install such plates for promoting their business, motorists may install novelty registration plates to express their brand preference or an affiliation with a group, state, country, athletic team, hobby, art, or custom. Antique auto collectors may use novelty replicas of period registration plates to give their show cars a dated look, or import vehicle owners may use a novelty replica of a foreign plate to give it a foreign image. Some states allow year of manufacture registrations where an original, official plate expiring on the model year of an antique car is revalidated. Wisconsin, for instance, permits the use of year-of-manufacture plates if the state-issued plates are also carried somewhere within the vehicle. California and Ohio also allow the Year-of-manufacture Plates. Registration plate accessories Today, plates are commonly attached with screws that mount into threaded fittings on the vehicle but originally nut-and-bolt combinations were needed to fasten the plate to a bracket, which led to the use of varied registration plate ornaments, accessories and attachments. The most common of these include fastening bolts with ornamental heads in a myriad of styles; these are generally legal everywhere providing the plate itself is not obscured. Those bolts faced with a colored glass or plastic reflector are termed registration plate jewels. Traditionally the front plate would be fastened by an amber or green jewel and the rear by a red jewel, but other colors have become available over the decades including blue, clear and, most recently, purple. The manufacture and use of registration plate toppers – attachments and accessories mounted atop plates, often as advertising premiums – has diminished because of the design of modern vehicle bodies that incorporate recessed plate mountings. But older vehicles will usually have room for such attachments that may mention vehicle dealerships, tourist attractions and petroleum companies. Some of these commercial toppers also incorporate one or more reflectors or a safety-related message. Large stand-alone glass or plastic reflectors or cataphotes – some imprinted with an advertising message – are still common plate toppers whenever registration-plate brackets are able to accommodate them. International codes According to the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, vehicles in cross-border traffic are obliged to display a distinguishing sign of the country of registration on the rear of the vehicle. This sign may either be placed separately from the registration plate or may be incorporated into the vehicle registration plate. When the distinguishing sign is incorporated into the registration plate, it must also appear on the front registration plate of the vehicle, and may be supplemented with the flag or emblem of the national state, or the emblem of the regional economic integration organization to which the country belongs. The distinguishing sign should be displayed on the far left or far right on the registration plate. When a symbol/flag/emblem is also displayed, the distinguishing sign shall obligatory be placed on the far left on the plate. The distinguishing sign shall be positioned so to be easy identifiable and so that it cannot be confused with the registration number or impair its legibility. The distinguishing sign shall therefore be at least a different color from the registration number, or have a different background color to that reserved for the registration number, or be clearly separated from the registration number, preferably with a line. The physical requirements for the separate sign are defined in Annex 3 of the Vienna Convention on Road Traffic, which states that the letters shall be in black on a white background having the shape of an ellipse with the major axis horizontal. The distinguishing sign should not be affixed in such a way that it could be confused with the registration number or impair its legibility. The allocation of codes is maintained by the United Nations (UN) as the Distinguishing Signs of Vehicles in International Traffic, being authorized by the UN's Geneva Convention on Road Traffic (1949) and Vienna Convention on Road Traffic (1968). Many, but far from all, vehicle codes created since the adoption of ISO 3166 coincide with either the ISO two- or three-letter codes. Imitation international codes In Canada, Mexico and the United States, where the international oval is not used on vehicles from neighboring countries, putting one on a car is a matter of personal choice. This has given rise to a tourist-driven industry of imitation international code stickers. For example, the island of Martha's Vineyard off the coast of Massachusetts has MV, while the Outer Banks region of North Carolina uses OBX. Long Beach Island, New Jersey uses "LBI", with the letter "I" substituted with an illustration of the island's lighthouse. The city of Key West, Florida, uses KW as part of its Conch Republic 'rebellion' from the U.S. There are also YNP ovals, for Yellowstone/Yosemite National Park. Stickers of this sort are usually visibly different from any real international code sticker, but some places sell what could appear to be real stickers, touting that the abbreviation refers to their venue. In the United Kingdom, imitation international codes are sometimes seen for the various parts of the country. For example, in Scotland, oval stickers with "Ecosse" or "Alba" (Scotland in French and Gaelic respectively) are occasionally seen. In Wales, drivers commonly display "CYM" to indicate Cymru (Wales). In the Czech Republic, in large cities (notably Prague and Brno), these imitation international codes are usually used to show the district inside the city where the driver resides (e.g. DE for Dejvice). In Spain, there are such codes for regionalist movements, such as CAT for Catalonia or AST for Asturias, which can be often seen in their reflective region. 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237223	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Profane	Profane	Profane may refer to: Profanum, a thing which is not sacred. 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237234	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Lord%20High%20Treasurers%20of%20England%20and%20Great%20Britain	List of Lord High Treasurers of England and Great Britain	This is a list of Lord High Treasurers of England and later of Great Britain. Early Nigel, nephew of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (c. 1126 – 1133) Adelelm, nephew of Roger, Bishop of Salisbury (c. 1136 – 1139) Plantagenet Richard FitzNeal, Dean of Lincoln, Bishop of London (c. 1158 – 1189) William of Ely, Archdeacon of Cleveland (1196 – August 1215) Eustace of Fauconberg, Bishop of London (4 November 1217 – October 1228) Walter Mauclerk, Bishop of Carlisle (13 November 1228 – 14 January 1233) Peter des Rivaux, Canon of St. Paul's (14 January 1233 – 1 June 1234) Hugh de Pateshull, Bishop of Coventry (1 June 1234 – March 1240) William Haverhill, Canon of Lichfield (March 1240 – 23 August 1252) Philip Lovel, Archdeacon of Coventry (27 August 1252 – October 1258) John Crakehall, Archdeacon of Bedford (2 November 1258 – 10 September 1260) John of Caux, Abbot of Petersborough (28 October 1260 – March 1263) Nicholas of Ely (6 May – 19 July 1263) Henry, Prior of St. Radegund (July – November 1263) John Chishull, acting (November 1263) Roger de la Leye, acting (30 November 1263 – 3 November 1264) Henry, Prior of St. Radegund (3 November 1264 – summer 1265) Thomas Wymondham, Preceptor of Lichfield (23 October 1265 – 6 February 1270) John Chishull (6 February 1270 – 9 June 1271) Philip of Eye, Canon of St. Paul's (16 October 1271 – 2 October 1273) Sir Joseph of Chauncy, Prior of the Knights of St. John in England (2 October 1273 – 18 June 1280) Richard de Ware, Abbot of Westminster (18 June 1280 – 1283) John Kirkby, Bishop of Ely (6 January 1284 – 26 March 1290) William of March, Bishop of Bath and Wells (6 April 1290 – 16 August 1295) John Droxford, acting (16 August – 28 September 1295) Walter Langton, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (28 September 1295 – 22 August 1307) Walter Reynolds, Bishop of Worcester (22 August 1307 – 6 July 1310) John Sandall, Provost of Wells (6 July 1310 – 23 October 1311) Walter Norwich, acting (23 October 1311 – 23 January 1312) Walter Langton, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (23 January 1312 – 17 May 1312) Walter Norwich, acting (17 May 1312 – 4 October 1312) John Sandall, acting (4 October 1312 – 26 September 1314) Walter Norwich (26 September 1314 – 27 May 1317) John Hotham, Bishop of Ely (27 May 1317 – 10 June 1318) John Walwayn, Canon of St. Paul's and Hereford (10 June – 16 November 1318) John Sandall, Bishop of Winchester (16 November 1318 – 29 September 1319) Walter Norwich, acting (29 September 1319 – 18 February 1320) Walter de Stapledon, Bishop of Exeter (18 February 1320 – 25 August 1321) Walter Norwich, acting (25 August 1321 – 10 May 1322) Walter de Stapledon, Bishop of Exeter (10 May 1322 – 3 July 1325) William Melton, Archbishop of York (3 July 1325 – 14 November 1326) John de Stratford, Bishop of Winchester (14 November 1326 – 28 January 1327) Adam Orleton, Bishop of Hereford (28 January – 28 March 1327) Henry Burghersh, Bishop of Lincoln (28 March 1327 – 2 July 1328) Thomas Charlton, Bishop of Hereford (2 July 1328 – 16 September 1329) Robert Wodehouse, Archdeacon of Richmond (16 September 1329 – 1 December 1330) William Melton, Archbishop of York (1 December 1330 – 1 April 1331) William Ayermin, Bishop of Norwich (1 April 1331 – 29 March 1332) Robert Ayleston, Archdeacon of Berkshire (29 March 1332 – 9 March 1334) Richard Bury, Bishop of Durham (9 March – 1 August 1334) Henry Burghersh, Bishop of Lincoln (1 August 1334 – 24 March 1337) William de la Zouche, Dean of York (24 March 1337 – 10 March 1338) Robert Wodehouse, Archdeacon of Richmond (10 March – 31 December 1338) William de la Zouche, Dean of York (31 December 1338 – 2 May 1340) Sir Robert Sadington (2 May – 26 June 1340) Roger Northburgh, Bishop of Coventry and Lichfield (26 June – 1 December 1340) Sir Robert Parning (15 January – 30 October 1341) William Cusance (30 October 1341 – 12 April 1344) William Edington, Bishop of Winchester (12 April 1344 – 29 November 1356) John Sheppey, Bishop of Rochester (29 November 1356 – 19 October 1360) Simon Langham, Bishop of Ely (23 November 1360 – 20 February 1363) John Barnet, Bishop of Bath and Wells, later Bishop of Ely (20 February 1363 – 27 June 1369) Thomas Brantingham, Bishop of Exeter (27 June 1369 – 27 March 1371) Richard Scrope, 1st Baron Scrope of Bolton (27 March 1371 – 26 September 1375) Sir Robert Assheton (26 September 1375 – 14 January 1377) Henry Wakefield, Bishop of Worcester (14 January 1377 – 19 July 1377) Thomas Brantingham, Bishop of Exeter (19 July 1377 – 1 February 1381) Sir Robert Hales, Prior of the Order of St. John in England (1 February – 14 June 1381) Sir Hugh Segrave (10 August 1381 – 17 January 1386) John Fordham, Bishop of Durham (17 January – 24 October 1386) John Gilbert, Bishop of Hereford (24 October 1386 – 4 May 1389) Thomas Brantingham (4 May – 20 August 1389) John Gilbert, Bishop of St David's (20 August 1389 – 2 May 1391) John Waltham, Bishop of Salisbury (2 May 1391 – 17 September 1395) Roger Walden, Archbishop of Canterbury (20 September 1395 – 22 January 1398) Guy Mone, Bishop of St. David's (22 January 1398 – 17 September 1398) William Scrope, 1st Earl of Wiltshire (17 September 1398 – 30 July 1399) Lancaster and York Sir John Norbury (3 September 1399 – 31 May 1401) Laurence Allerthorp, Canon of London, Dean of Wolverhampton (31 May 1401 – 27 February 1402) Henry Bowet, Bishop of Bath and Wells (27 February – 25 October 1402) Guy Mone, Bishop of St. David's (25 October 1402 – 9 September 1403) William de Ros, 6th Baron de Ros (9 September 1403 – 5 December 1404) Thomas Nevill, 5th Baron Furnivall (5 December 1404 – 14 March 1407) Nicholas Bubwith, Bishop of London (15 April 1407 – 14 July 1408) Sir John Tiptoft (14 July 1408 – 6 January 1410) Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham (6 January 1410 – 20 December 1411) Sir John Pelham (23 December 1411 – 21 March 1413) Thomas FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel (21 March 1413 – 13 October 1415) Sir Hugh Mortimer (10 January – 13 April 1416) Sir Roger Leche (17 April – 23 November 1416) Henry FitzHugh, 3rd Baron FitzHugh (6 December 1416 – 26 February 1421) William Kinwolmarsh, Dean of St. Martin's le-Grand (26 February 1421 – 18 December 1422) John Stafford, Bishop of Bath and Wells (18 December 1422 – 16 March 1426) Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford (16 March 1426 – 26 February 1432) John Scrope, 4th Baron Scrope of Masham (26 February 1432 – 11 August 1433) Ralph de Cromwell, 3rd Baron Cromwell (11 August 1433 – 7 July 1443) Ralph Boteler, 1st Baron Sudeley (7 July 1443 – 18 December 1446) Marmaduke Lumley, Bishop of Carlisle (18 December 1446 – 16 September 1449) James Fiennes, 1st Baron Saye and Sele (16 September 1449 – 22 June 1450) John Beauchamp, 1st Baron Beauchamp of Powick (22 June 1450 – 15 April 1452) John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester (15 April 1452 – 15 March 1455) James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond and 1st Earl of Wiltshire (15 March – 29 May 1455) Henry Bourchier, 1st Viscount Bourchier (29 May 1455 – 5 October 1456), later created Earl of Essex John Talbot, 2nd Earl of Shrewsbury (5 October 1456 – 30 October 1458) James Butler, 5th Earl of Ormond and 1st Earl of Wiltshire (30 October 1458 – 28 July 1460) Henry Bourchier, 1st Viscount Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex (28 July 1460 – 1461) John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester (14 April 1462 – 24 June 1463) Edmund Grey, 4th Baron Grey de Ruthin (24 June 1463 – 24 November 1464) Walter Blount, 1st Baron Mountjoy (24 November 1464 – 1465) Richard Woodville, 1st Earl Rivers (4 March 1466 – 12 August 1469) Sir John Langstrother (16 August – 25 October 1469) William Grey, Bishop of Ely (25 October 1469 – 10 July 1470) John Tiptoft, 1st Earl of Worcester (10 July – 18 October 1470) Sir John Langstrother (20 October 1470 – 22 April 1471) Henry Bourchier, 1st Viscount Bourchier, 1st Earl of Essex (22 April 1471 – 4 April 1483) Sir John Wood (17 May 1483 – 20 August 1484) John Tuchet, 6th Baron Audley (6 December 1484 – August 1485) Tudor John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham (14 July 1486 – 16 June 1501) Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (16 June 1501 – 4 December 1522) Thomas Howard, 3rd Duke of Norfolk (4 December 1522 – 12 December 1546) Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset (10 February 1547 – 10 October 1549) William Paulet, 1st Marquess of Winchester (3 February 1550 – 10 March 1572) William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley (July 1572 – 4 August 1598) Thomas Sackville, 1st Earl of Dorset (15 May 1599 – 19 April 1608) Stuart 1603–1649 Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury (4 May 1608 – 17 June 1612) Commission of the Treasury (17 June 1612 – 24 June 1613) Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, First Lord Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk Edward Somerset, 4th Earl of Worcester Edward la Zouche, 11th Baron Zouche Edward Wotton, 1st Baron Wotton Sir Julius Caesar (Chancellor of the Exchequer) Commission of the Treasury (24 June 1613 – 11 July 1614) Thomas Egerton, 1st Baron Ellesmere, First Lord Thomas Howard, 1st Earl of Suffolk (11 July 1614 – 1618) Commission of the Treasury (July 1618 – 14 December 1620) George Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury, First Lord Francis Bacon, 1st Baron Verulam Sir Robert Naunton Sir Fulke Greville (Chancellor of the Exchequer) Sir Julius Caesar Sir Edward Coke Henry Montagu, 1st Viscount Mandeville (14 December 1620 – 29 September 1621) Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex (29 September 1621 – 25 April 1624) James Ley, 1st Earl of Marlborough (11 December 1624 – 15 July 1628) Richard Weston, 1st Earl of Portland (15 July 1628 – 1635) Commission of the Treasury (15 March 1635 – 6 March 1636) William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury, First Lord Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester Francis Cottington, 1st Baron Cottington Sir John Coke Sir Francis Windebank William Juxon, Bishop of London (6 March 1636 – 21 May 1641) Commission of the Treasury (21 May 1641 – 3 October 1643) Edward Littleton, 1st Baron Lyttleton of Mounslow, First Lord Henry Montagu, 1st Earl of Manchester Sir John Bankes Edward Barrett, 1st Lord Barrett of Newburgh Sir Henry Vane Francis Cottington, 1st Baron Cottington (3 October 1643 – July 1646) 1660–1689 Commission of the Treasury (19 June – 8 September 1660) Sir Edward Hyde, also Lord Chancellor James Butler, 1st Marquess of Ormonde, also Lord Steward of the Household Sir George Monck, also General of the Forces Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton John Robartes, 2nd Baron Robartes, also Lord Privy Seal Thomas Colepeper, 2nd Baron Colepeper Sir Edward Montagu Sir Edward Nicholas, principal Secretary of State Sir William Morice, principal Secretary of State Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton (8 September 1660 – 16 May 1667) Commission of the Treasury (1 June 1667 – 28 November 1672) George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, First Lord (until 3 January 1670) Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Baron Ashley, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Thomas Clifford, Comptroller of the Household Sir William Coventry (until 8 April 1669) Sir John Duncombe Thomas Clifford, 1st Baron Clifford of Chudleigh (28 November 1672 – 24 June 1673) Thomas Osborne, 1st Viscount Latimer (1st Earl of Danby from 1674) (24 June 1673 – 26 March 1679) Commission of the Treasury (26 March – 21 November 1679) Arthur Capell, 1st Earl of Essex, First Lord Laurence Hyde Sir John Ernle, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Edward Dering, 2nd Baronet Sidney Godolphin Commission of the Treasury (21 November 1679 – 9 September 1684) Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester, First Lord Sir John Ernle, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Edward Dering, 2nd Baronet (until 9 July 1684) Sidney Godolphin (until 9 July 1684) Sir Stephen Fox Sir Dudley North (since 26 July 1684) Henry Frederick Thynne (since 26 July 1684) Commission of the Treasury (9 September 1684 – 16 February 1685) Sidney Godolphin, 1st Baron Godolphin, First Lord Sir John Ernle, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox Sir Dudley North Henry Frederick Thynne Laurence Hyde, 1st Earl of Rochester (16 February 1685 – 10 December 1686) Commission of the Treasury (4 January 1687 – 9 April 1689) John Belasyse, 1st Baron Belasyse, First Lord Sidney Godolphin, 1st Baron Godolphin Henry Jermyn, 1st Baron Dover Sir John Ernle, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox 1689–1714 Commission of the Treasury (9 April 1689 – 18 March 1690) Charles Mordaunt, 1st Earl of Monmouth, First Lord Henry Booth, 2nd Baron Delamere, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sidney Godolphin, 1st Baron Godolphin Sir Henry Capell Richard Hampden Commission of the Treasury (18 March 1690 – 15 November 1690) Sir John Lowther, MP for Westmorland, First Lord Richard Hampden, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox Thomas Pelham Commission of the Treasury (15 November 1690 – 1 May 1697) Sidney Godolphin, 1st Baron Godolphin, First Lord Sir John Lowther (until 21 March 1692) Richard Hampden (until 2 May 1696), also Chancellor of the Exchequer (until 3 May 1694) Sir Stephen Fox Charles Montagu, also Chancellor of the Exchequer (since 3 May 1694) Sir Edward Seymour, 4th Baronet (until 2 May 1696) Sir William Trumbull (3 May 1694 – 1 November 1695) John Smith MP for Bere Alston (since 3 May 1694) Sir Thomas Littleton (since 2 May 1696) Commission of the Treasury (1 May 1697 – 15 November 1699) Charles Montagu, MP for Westminster, First Lord, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox Sir Thomas Littleton, MP for Woodstock (until 1 June 1699) Thomas Pelham, MP for Lewes (until 1 June 1699) Ford Grey, 1st Earl of Tankerville (since 1 June 1699) John Smith, MP for Andover (since 1 June 1699) Henry Boyle, MP for Cambridge University (since 1 June 1699) Commission of the Treasury (15 November 1699 – 9 December 1700) Ford Grey, 1st Earl of Tankerville, First Lord John Smith, MP for Andover, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox, MP for Cricklade Richard Hill Henry Boyle, MP for Cambridge University Commission of the Treasury (9 December 1700 – 30 December 1701) Sidney Godolphin, 1st Lord Godolphin, First Lord John Smith, MP for Andover, also Chancellor of the Exchequer (until March 1701) Sir Stephen Fox, MP for Cricklade Henry Boyle, MP for Cambridge University, also Chancellor of the Exchequer since March 1701 Richard Hill Thomas Pelham, MP for Lewes (since March 1701) Commission of the Treasury (30 December 1701 – 8 May 1702) Charles Howard, 3rd Earl of Carlisle, First Lord Henry Boyle, MP for Cambridge University, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Sir Stephen Fox, MP for Cricklade Richard Hill Thomas Pelham, MP for Lewes Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin (8 May 1702 - 11 August 1710) Commission of the Treasury (11 August 1710 – 30 May 1711) John Poulett, 1st Earl Poulett (First Lord) Robert Harley, MP for Radnor till 23 May 1711, then 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer, also Chancellor of the Exchequer Henry Paget, MP for Staffordshire Sir Thomas Mansel, Baronet, MP for Glamorganshire Robert Benson, MP for York Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Mortimer (30 May 1711 – 30 July 1714) Charles Talbot, 1st Duke of Shrewsbury (30 July – 13 October 1714) For later officers of the treasury, see List of Lords Commissioners of the Treasury. References Lord High Treasurers Lord High Treasurers Monarchy and money	[ -0.5682950019836426, 0.17021417617797852, -0.5717873573303223, -0.4302591383457184, -0.7266511917114258, 0.7967418432235718, 0.2768036425113678, 0.406673789024353, -1.1435729265213013, 0.1739686280488968, -0.0051060812547802925, -0.10355454683303833, -0.13933074474334717, 0.2018718719482422, -0.08392832428216934, 0.23106828331947327, 0.08482813835144043, 0.711988627910614, -0.26957404613494873, -0.7347989678382874, 0.153710275888443, 0.3790673613548279, 0.12939684092998505, -0.3281380832195282, 0.04657231271266937, 0.4231066405773163, 0.8286067247390747, -0.7472793459892273, -0.6422157287597656, -0.39662307500839233, -0.14292272925376892, 0.6283419132232666, 0.7244236469268799, -0.48714369535446167, 0.09528887271881104, -1.013203501701355, 0.058019157499074936, -0.20849737524986267, -0.13016092777252197, -0.5585452318191528, 0.2157333642244339, -0.19476108253002167, 0.2135823518037796, 0.4861174523830414, 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237235	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zonophone	Zonophone	Zonophone (early on also rendered as Zon-O-Phone) was a record label founded in 1899 in Camden, New Jersey, by Frank Seaman. The Zonophone name was not that of the company but was applied to records and machines sold by Seaman's Universal Talking Machine Company from 1899 to 1903. The name was subsequently acquired by Columbia Records, the Victor Talking Machine Company, and finally the Gramophone Company/EMI Records. It has been used for a number of record publishing labels by these companies. 1899–1910s Emile Berliner, the inventor of the lateral-groove disc record and the Gramophone; Eldridge Reeves Johnson, the machinist who had improved Berliner's Gramophone to the point of marketability; and former typewriter promoter Frank Seaman formed a partnership. Berliner was to hold the patents; Johnson had manufacturing rights; and Seaman had selling rights. Seaman's contract contained a clause stating that if he could produce a Gramophone that was cheaper to manufacture, the board of directors would be compelled to assess it. Seaman complained that Johnson's version was too expensive, but Johnson wasn't interested in a redesign since he was already heavily invested producing the existing model. Seaman hired Louis Valiquet to design a less-expensive-to-manufacture version of Johnson's Gramophone. Valiquet's design was not only less expensive, but more rugged and more attractive. The Berliner board refused to consider Seaman's design, likely due to complicity between Berliner and Johnson. Seaman then began producing Valiquet's design as the Zonophone, and he marketed against the other machine he was promoting, the Gramophone. Berliner and Johnson sued Seaman for contract violations and patent infringement, and Seaman counter-sued. With the help of lawyer Philip Mauro, Seaman arranged for an alliance with Columbia Records (then manufacturing only cylinder records and machines), arguing that the patents held by Columbia concerning cylinders applied to any type of recording where a stylus 'floated' on the surface of a recording, and that Zon-o-Phone would pay royalties if Columbia helped him drive Berliner out of business. In 1900 Seaman and Mauro succeeded in getting a judge to file an injunction that Berliner and Johnson stop making their products. Johnson and Berliner counter-sued. Johnson first formed the Consolidated Talking Machine Company in order to continue in business as the Berliner name had been enjoined. Johnson formed another company, the Eldridge R. Johnson Talking Machine Company, to evade continuing injunctions as the cases proceeded through the courts, and the following year emerged victorious in court, prompting the name of their new combined company, the Victor Talking Machine Company. Further legal actions dragged on until 1903, when all of the United States and Latin American assets of Zon-o-Phone were turned over to Victor, and the European and British Commonwealth assets to the Gramophone & Typewriter Company (which would later become the Gramophone Company and launch the His Master's Voice record label). The Victor Talking Machine continued use of the Zonophone name to market cheaper records, which were not of the technical standard of the Victor label, until retiring the label in the U.S. in 1912. In the United Kingdom, Australia, and other British colonies, Zonophone was the cheaper label for Gramophone Company issues. Issue under the cheaper label appears to have been an arbitrary choice. For example, from the same session in 1905 the matrices of singer Victoria Monks were either issued on full priced Gramophone Company recordings or the much cheaper Zonophone label—with no technical differences (or indeed popularity of song). In 1911 single-sided Zonophones were withdrawn—existing titles were doubled under the Zonophone Twin label. This made the price difference between the still single-sided Gramophone Company issues and the Zonophones even greater. Ten-inch Zonophone Twins sold as 2s.6d. (£0.125) while single-sided Gramo. issues (black label) sold at 4s.6d. (£0.225). In 1913 the Gramophone Company issued an even cheaper label (Cinch) which sold at 1s.1d. (£0.06) while keeping many of the titles for sale under the Zonophone label at 2s.6d. Some Zonophone recordings were marked with early End User License Agreements (EULAs), as demonstrated by the sample label. The label EULA reads, "This patented record is licensed for sale and use only when sold at retail at a price not less than the price marked upon this record, and only for the purpose of producing sound directly from this record, and for no other purpose. The patents covering this record, and under which it is made, among others, are U.S. patents NO 534,543, dated Feb. 19, 1895, NO 548,623 dated Oct 29, 1895...This license is valid only so long as this label remains on this record, unaltered and undefaced. A purchase is an acceptance of these terms. Universal Talking Machine MFG CO, May 1, 1911." 1920s–1970s In the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth, the Gramophone Company continued to use the Zonophone label until 1931. When the company merged with the Columbia Graphophone Company to form Electrical and Musical Industries, Ltd. (EMI), the lower-priced labels of the two firms were merged also as Regal Zonophone. After World War II, Regal Zonophone was largely dormant in Britain until 1964, when the label was revived with a few beat group offerings but became primarily known for hosting the Salvation Army-affiliated band the Joystrings, who had a brace of chart placings and released several 45s, EPs, and LPs through the end of the 1960s. The Joystrings' appearance on the label hearkened back to the 1930s and 1940s when Regal Zonophone regularly released Salvation Army brass band recordings. Regal Zonophone was also widely used as a catchall EMI label in foreign territories, and often in regions or nations where the main EMI Columbia and HMV logos and trademarks were disputed or held by competitors. In West Africa (primarily today's Ghana and Nigeria) Zonophone was used as a label to record and produce Sakara, Juju and Apala music on 78 rpm discs from 1928 to the early 1950s. In 1967 Regal Zonophone was revived again as an EMI label, featuring acts signed to music publisher David Platz's independent production group, Straight Ahead, several of which had seen chart action on Deram Records. Chief among these were Procol Harum (with their label the inspiration for their "Magdalene (My Regal Zonophone)"), and the Move, joined by Tyrannosaurus Rex and Joe Cocker. This new impetus was largely dissipated by 1970, when many of the Straight Ahead acts moved to the Fly and Cube labels, although new releases as well as reissues were issued on the Regal Zonophone label through the late 1970s. 1980–present In the early 1980s, Zonophone was revived by EMI to produce punk artists such as Angelic Upstarts, the Barracudas, the Cockney Rejects, and compilations such as the Oi! album. By the mid-1980s the Zonophone imprint had disappeared again. Zonophone reappeared in the 1990s as a home for back catalogue artists and the odd one-off single. Zonophone has now become the home to the Cramps' Illegal Records recordings in the UK, albums by David McCallum, Lord Sitar, Cilla Black, and compilations of Capitol-era material from musicians such as Glen Campbell and Bobbie Gentry. In 2007, the Zonophone label was re-launched again with the release of cult, hard to find, or unreleased material from EMI's back catalogue either as CDs, digital downloads, or both. As part of Universal Music's takeover of EMI, the label was sold to Warner Music Group as part of Parlophone to comply with international regulators. See also List of record labels References External links US Zonophone masters in the Discography of American Historical Recordings Regal Zonophone label profile Highlife Piccadilly: "African Music on 45 rpm records in the UK, 1954–1981" (19 May 1999). Ray Templeton Scans of British 78 rpm record labels: includes a large number of Zonophone & Regal-Zonophone labels. 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237242	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenocarcinoma	Adenocarcinoma	Adenocarcinoma (; plural adenocarcinomas or adenocarcinomata ) (AC) is a type of cancerous tumor that can occur in several parts of the body. It is defined as neoplasia of epithelial tissue that has glandular origin, glandular characteristics, or both. Adenocarcinomas are part of the larger grouping of carcinomas, but are also sometimes called by more precise terms omitting the word, where these exist. Thus invasive ductal carcinoma, the most common form of breast cancer, is adenocarcinoma but does not use the term in its name—however, esophageal adenocarcinoma does to distinguish it from the other common type of esophageal cancer, esophageal squamous cell carcinoma. Several of the most common forms of cancer are adenocarcinomas, and the various sorts of adenocarcinoma vary greatly in all their aspects, so that few useful generalizations can be made about them. In the most specific usage (narrowest sense), the glandular origin or traits are exocrine; endocrine gland tumors, such as a VIPoma, an insulinoma, or a pheochromocytoma, are typically not referred to as adenocarcinomas but rather are often called neuroendocrine tumors. Epithelial tissue sometimes includes, but is not limited to, the surface layer of skin, glands, and a variety of other tissue that lines the cavities and organs of the body. Epithelial tissue can be derived embryologically from any of the germ layers (ectoderm, endoderm, or mesoderm). To be classified as adenocarcinoma, the cells do not necessarily need to be part of a gland, as long as they have secretory properties. Adenocarcinoma is the malignant counterpart to adenoma, which is the benign form of such tumors. Sometimes adenomas transform into adenocarcinomas, but most do not. Well differentiated adenocarcinomas tend to resemble the glandular tissue that they are derived from, while poorly differentiated adenocarcinomas may not. By staining the cells from a biopsy, a pathologist can determine whether the tumor is an adenocarcinoma or some other type of cancer. Adenocarcinomas can arise in many tissues of the body owing to the ubiquitous nature of glands within the body, and, more fundamentally, to the potency of epithelial cells. While each gland may not be secreting the same substance, as long as there is an exocrine function to the cell, it is considered glandular and its malignant form is therefore named adenocarcinoma. Histopathology Examples of cancers where adenocarcinomas are a common form: esophageal cancer; most cases in the developed world are adenocarcinomas. pancreas; over 80% of pancreatic cancers are ductal adenocarcinomas. prostate cancer is nearly always adenocarcinoma cervical cancer: most is squamous cell cancer, but 10–15% of cervical cancers are adenocarcinomas stomach cancer: is almost always an adenocarcinoma but in rare cases are extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas (also termed MALT lymphomas). Breast Most breast cancers start in the ducts or lobules, and are adenocarcinomas. The three most common histopathological types collectively represent approximately three-quarters of breast cancers: Invasive ductal carcinoma: 55% of breast cancers Ductal carcinoma in situ: 13% Invasive lobular carcinoma: 5% Colon The vast majority of colorectal cancers are adenocarcinomas. This is because the colon has numerous glands. Normal colonic glands tend to be simple and tubular in appearance with a mixture of mucus-secreting goblet cells and water-absorbing cells. These glands secrete mucus into the lumen of the colon to lubricate the feces as they pass towards the rectum. When these glands undergo a number of changes at the genetic level, they proceed in a predictable manner as they move from benign to an invasive, malignant colon cancer. In their research paper "Lessons from Hereditary Colorectal Cancer", Vogelstein, et al., suggested that colon cells lose the APC tumor suppressor gene and become a small polyp. Next, they suggested that k-Ras becomes activated and the polyp becomes a small, benign adenoma. The adenoma, lacking the "carcinoma" attached to the end of it, suggests that it is a benign version of the malignant adenocarcinoma. The gastroenterologist uses a colonoscopy to find and remove these adenomas and polyps to prevent them from continuing to acquire genetic changes that will lead to an invasive adenocarcinoma. Vogelstein et al. went on to suggest that loss of the DCC gene and of p53 result in a malignant adenocarcinoma. There will be a mass of a different color to the surrounding tissue. Bleeding from the tumor is often apparent as the tumor tends to grow blood vessels into it in a haphazard manner via secretion of a number of angiogenesis promoting factors such as VEGF. Histologically, tumours resembling the original structures are classified as well differentiated. Tumour cells that have lost any resemblance to original tissue, both in appearance and structure form, are denoted as poorly differentiated tumour cells. Regardless of the grade, malignant tumors tend to have a large nucleus with prominent nucleoli. There will also be a noticeable increase in the incidence of mitosis, or cell divisions. Lung Nearly 40% of lung cancers are adenocarcinomas, which usually originates in peripheral lung tissue. Most cases of adenocarcinoma are associated with smoking; however, among people who have smoked fewer than 100 cigarettes in their lifetimes ("never-smokers"), adenocarcinoma is the most common form of lung cancer. A subtype of adenocarcinoma, the bronchioloalveolar carcinoma, is more common in female never-smokers, and may have a better long-term survival. This cancer usually is seen peripherally in the lungs, as opposed to small cell lung cancer and squamous cell lung cancer, which both tend to be more centrally located. Other Cholangiocarcinoma, or bile duct cancer Vaginal cancer Cancer of the urachus Stomach cancer Prostate cancer Etymology The term adenocarcinoma is derived from adeno-, meaning "pertaining to a gland", and carcinoma, which describes a cancer that has developed in the epithelial cells. See also Clear-cell adenocarcinoma Fetal adenocarcinoma References External links "Adenocarcinoma"—NCI Dictionary of Cancer Terms Surgical Videos, Images and Case Studies of Adenocarcinoma of the Sinuses Glandular and epithelial neoplasia Infectious causes of cancer	[ 0.10177504271268845, 0.6850981712341309, -0.5000807046890259, -0.19783642888069153, 0.2448069155216217, 0.04130697622895241, 0.3790111541748047, 0.6207278370857239, -0.3432460129261017, -0.6050487160682678, -0.19731006026268005, 0.1623407006263733, -0.7492369413375854, 0.9024139046669006, 0.2270016074180603, 0.6471272706985474, 0.5834376215934753, 0.7690823078155518, -0.31250226497650146, 0.3723631203174591, -0.6106076836585999, -0.7592016458511353, 0.07716141641139984, -0.12536700069904327, 0.14136920869350433, -0.9657109379768372, 0.418697714805603, -0.07722790539264679, 0.4144449830055237, -0.31196093559265137, 0.14465638995170593, 0.6221874952316284, 0.2909240126609802, -0.31725677847862244, 0.024705350399017334, 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237243	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable%20stove	Portable stove	A portable stove is a cooking stove specially designed to be portable and lightweight, used in camping, picnicking, backpacking, or other use in remote locations where an easily transportable means of cooking or heating is needed. Portable stoves can be used in diverse situations, such as for outdoor food service and catering and in field hospitals. Since the invention of the portable stove in the 19th century, a wide variety of designs and models have seen use in a number of different applications. Portable stoves can be broken down into several broad categories based on the type of fuel used and stove design: unpressurized stoves that use solid or liquid fuel placed in the burner before ignition; stoves that use a volatile liquid fuel in a pressurized burner; bottled gas stoves; and gravity-fed "spirit" stoves. History Early example The shichirin, a lightweight charcoal stove, has been used in Japan in much the same form since at least the Edo period (1603-1868). Old shichirin are mainly ceramic and many can be found in old houses. Most modern Shichirin are made by heating diatomaceous earth, but the raw materials are not uniform. There are also shichirin such as those made with a double inside and outside ceramic structure. The shape is mainly cylindrical, square, or rectangular, and the size also varies. Many varieties of shichirin are made for different uses. In North America, they are also known as "hibachi" or "hibachi-style". Early European portable stoves burned animal fat and polar explorers continued to use blubber as a supplement for cooking fuel into the early 20th Century. Modern era Modern portable stoves emerged from the mid-19th century. French-born chef, Alexis Soyer, became chef de cuisine at the Reform Club in London from 1837. He instituted many innovations, including cooking with gas, refrigerators cooled by cold water, and ovens with adjustable temperatures. In 1849 Soyer began to market his portable "magic stove" which allowed people to cook food wherever they were. The design of Soyer's "Magic Stove" was based on the same principle as a kerosene lamp, in which a wick is used to draw fuel from a tank or reservoir to a burner. During the Crimean War, Soyer joined the troops at his own expense to advise the army on cooking. Later he was paid his expenses and wages equivalent to those of a Brigadier-General. He designed his own field stove, the Soyer Stove, and trained and installed in every regiment the "Regimental cook" so that soldiers would get an adequate meal and not suffer from malnutrition or die of food poisoning. Catering standards within the British Army would remain inconsistent, however, and there would not be a single Army Catering Corps until 1945. This is now part of the Royal Logistic Corps, whose catering HQ is called Soyer's House. His stove, or adaptions of it, remained in British military service into the late 20th century. In the 1850s, the famous Alpine mountaineer Francis Fox Tuckett developed an alcohol stove for campers and mountaineers known as the "Russian furnace." It was also known as the "Rob Roy," after John MacGregor, the renowned canoeist who was nicknamed "Rob Roy." MacGregor's 1866 book, "A Thousand Miles in the Rob Roy Canoe" was an international success and described his camping methods. Tuckett's stove and integral cook kit was designed to hang from a cord in the interior of a tent. Fridtjof Nansen also developed an alcohol stove in the 1880s based on the work of Adolphus Greely. This improved on early designs and later became the basis for the Trangia cooker. Carl Richard Nyberg invented the blowtorch in 1882 and began manufacturing Primus stoves a decade later. The first model, called Viktoria, was not very successful, but the later Svea did better. Other sources credit Frans W Lindqvist for the same thing at the same time. The use of single burner alcohol stoves for camping, similar to the contemporary Trangia brand, was reported as early as 1919. For many years alcohol-based stoves were used on sailboats rather than stoves using kerosene for safety reasons; these have since been largely replaced by stoves using compressed gas (such as liquefied petroleum gas, butane or propane) in disposable or refillable canisters. Stoves designed for military use, such as the World War II-era G.I. Pocket Stove, were designed to run on gasoline. So-called "white gas" or naphtha is commonly used as a fuel for camping and backpacking stoves, such as the compact Svea 123. Newer camping stoves are capable of burning multiple types of fuel, which makes them well suited for international travel where some particular types of fuel may not be readily available. The use of lightweight portable stoves for camping became commonplace in Britain and Europe in the latter half of the 19th Century. The practice gained acceptance later in North America, and coincided with increased awareness of the environmental impact that campers backpackers had on the areas where they travelled. Prior to their use, the usual practice when backpacking was to build an open fire for cooking from available materials such as fallen branches. The fire scar left on the ground would remain for two or three years before the vegetation recovered. The accumulation of fire scars in heavily travelled areas detracted from the pristine appearance that backpackers expected, leading to more widespread use of portable stoves. Uses Stoves differ widely in their size and portability. The smallest models are generally termed backpacking stoves. They are designed for use in backpacking and bicycle touring, where light weight and small size are paramount considerations. Backpacking stoves consist only of the burner, fuel tank and pot supports. The legs – if any – are often collapsible to minimize the space required. The weight may range from about 1 to 2 ounces (30 to 60 g) for simple alcohol stoves, for MSR-type stoves (without fuel weight) and canister stoves (with gas cartridge), and up to for larger stoves. Single burner alcohol stoves, beverage can stoves, and small liquid fuel and gas canister stoves are well suited for backpacking. Camping stoves are designed for use by people travelling by car, boat, canoe, or on horseback. They are similar in function and ease of use to kitchen stovetops, usually with two burners set into a table-like surface, and often with a folding lid for stowage and wind protection. This increases the weight accordingly. Unpressurized liquid-fuel stoves Single burner alcohol stoves The simplest type of stove is an unpressurized single burner design, in which the burner contains the fuel and which once lit burns until it is either extinguished or the fuel is exhausted. There are both liquid- and solid-fuel stoves of this variety. Because they are extremely small and lightweight, this type of stove tends to be favored by ultralight backpackers as well as those seeking to minimize weight and bulk, particularly for extended backpacking trips. Solid-fuel stoves are also commonly used in emergency kits both because they are compact and the fuel is very stable over time. These simple stoves are also commonly used when serving fondue. The Trangia stove is a popular commercial alcohol stove, which is available in many different models, from a single bare burner to an integrated expedition cooking system. Some of these come with a sealing cover, allowing the burner to be packed while still containing fuel, although putting the lid on while the stove is hot can damage the O ring seal (hence it may leak in transit). An even simpler system is the Sterno heater, in which the can that contains a jellied fuel also serves as the burner. Homemade beverage can stoves (or "Pepsi/beer/etc. can stoves") are similar. These are made from discarded aluminium beverage cans, and come in a wide variety of different designs. Gravity-fed spirit stoves The traditional "spirit stove" (alcohol or methylated spirits) consists of a small reservoir or fuel tank raised above and to the side of the burner. The fuel tank supplies the methylated spirits under gravity to the burner, where it is vaporized and burned. The gravity-fed spirit stove is still found in many pleasure boats, although it has largely been replaced by compressed gas stoves. Lighting a gravity-fed spirit stove is similar to lighting a traditional Primus stove. Around each burner is a priming pan used to preheat the burner. To light the stove, the burner is first turned on to allow a small amount of fuel to pass through the burner and collect as a liquid in the priming pan. The burner is then turned off, and the fuel ignited to preheat the burner. When the fuel in the pan is almost all gone, the burner is turned on again, and fuel passes into the burner where it is vaporized and passes through the jets. These stoves look and even sound a bit like pressurized burner stoves, but the fuel tank is under no pressure. They remain popular for small boats owing to the minimal fire risk they pose in a confined space. Wicking stoves Wicking stoves are typically fueled by alcohol or kerosene. ORIGO alcohol stove Project Gaia§The CleanCook Stove Butterfly 16-Wick Kerosene Cook Stove Platinum Catalysis stove Humphry Davy discovered the use of platinum in catalysis. In which a catalytic body is interposed in the path of a combustible vapor and is heated upon its passage through the catalytic body sufficiently to unite with the air upon egress from the catalytic body and then to burn upon the surface of the catalytic body. These stoves are typically described as wind-resistant, infrared, or radiant. Rechauds Catalytiques (1920, wicking) Therm'x Explorer 57C (1965, wicking) MSR Reactor (2007, pressurized) Rechaud A Catalytise Trek 270 (2010, pressurized) Pressurized liquid fuel stoves Primus stoves The introduction of the first pressurized burner portable stove is generally credited to Frans Wilhelm Lindqvist, in 1892. Lindqvist's stove was based on the pressurized blowtorch but fitted with an upturned burner assembly of his own design. Together with partner J.V. Svensson, Lindqvist established the Primus brand of stove, which quickly developed into a worldwide market leader. The kerosene burning Primus stoves and their imitators were made of brass and were a significant advance over previous designs, which had used a wick to supply liquid fuel to the burner by capillary action. The Primus burner vaporized the fuel in a loop of pipe which rose up from the fuel tank at the stove's base, and which was pre-heated with alcohol (or "methylated spirits") before being combusted in the burner. Initial pressure is provided by a small, hand-operated pump integrated into the stove's fuel tank. The flame on a Primus stove is adjusted by using the pump to increase the pressure in the tank to make the flame larger, or by venting the tank to reduce the pressure and make the flame smaller. Later models used a separate valve to adjust the flame. Primus-style stoves were made in a variety of sizes and styles, and many were designed to be disassembled for storage and transportation in a separate case. Compact camping and hiking stoves Smaller, more compact stoves were developed in the early 20th century that used petrol (gasoline), which at that time was similar to so-called white gas and did not have the additives and other constituents contained in modern gasoline. Similar in design to the kerosene-burning Primus-style stove, the smaller white gas stove was also made of brass with the fuel tank at the base and the burner assembly at the top. Unlike the Primus-style stove, however, priming both pressurizes the tank and pre-heats the burner assembly in this type of stove. Once lit, the heat from the burner maintains the pressure in the tank until the flame is extinguished. The Svea 123, introduced in 1955, is among the most popular of these "self pressurizing" stove designs, and is generally considered to be the first compact camping stove. Optimus of Sweden manufactures a line of similarly designed stoves in which the stove's components are entirely enclosed in a folding metal case, the most popular of which were the Optimus 8R and 111 (still in production as the Optimus Hiker). The Coleman Company developed a small white gas stove with integral fuel tank for the US Army in World War II, the "GI pocket stove". Coleman still makes similar stoves, such as the 442, 533 and 550B (the latter of which can also run on kerosene). These stoves have a pump to build up initial pressure in the fuel tank, but are generally self-pressurising when running (occasional re-pumping may be necessary if the stove is run at full output). In the early 1970s Mountain Safety Research (MSR) designed a pressurized burner stove intended to address performance shortcomings of white gas stoves in cold or adverse conditions, in particular for mountaineering use. First introduced in 1973 and designated the Model 9 (and later as the XGK Expedition), the MSR stove had four main parts: a free-standing burner assembly with integrated pot supports; the fuel bottle, which doubles as the stove's fuel tank; a pump that screws into the bottle; and a flexible tube or pipeline connecting the pump/bottle assembly to the burner assembly. This type of stove design, with the "outboard" fuel tank held away from the burner, is primed in the same manner as other white gas stoves; however, because the tank is not self-pressurizing, the tank must periodically be pumped to maintain pressure to the burner. Most commercial liquid fuel camping stoves on the market today are of this design. Pressurized burner stoves are now available that can burn several different fuels or volatile liquids, including alcohol, gasoline or other motor fuels, kerosene, and jet propellant. Little or no modification is needed; due to variability of the volatility of different fuels, the jets of multi-fuel stoves may need to be changed for the different fuels, and many others. Coiled burner stoves The "coiled burner" stove is a variant on the pressurized burner design, in which the burner assembly consists of a coiled loop with a small hole in the lower part, through which the vaporized fuel exits and combusts. Generally small, lightweight and cheaply made, these were sold under the brand name "Stesco", "Tay-Kit", "Handy Camper" and others. A more substantial version of the coiled burner stove is the Swiss made Borde stove. Gas cartridge stoves The design of most portable gas cartridge stoves is similar to that of many pressurized burner stoves, except the fuel tank or cartridge contains a liquefied gas – typically butane, propane or a mixture of hydrocarbons – that is held under pressure. While the gas in the cartridge is in a liquid state when stored under pressure, it vaporizes immediately as it leaves the storage bottle (i.e., without priming), arriving at the burner as a gas. The principal advantage of gas cartridge stoves is convenience: no priming is required, they are generally maintenance-free and capable of immediate high heat output, the flame is easily adjusted and they are generally considered simpler to operate. There are two basic designs for most gas cartridge stoves used for camping: the burner assembly is fitted into the top of the gas cartridge, which serves as the stove's base, or the stove is free-standing and the cartridge is separated from the burner and connected by means of a small hose or pipe. Single burner propane stoves commonly used in food service have the gas container integrated into the body of the stove. Butane cartridges are almost exclusively manufactured in South Korea with the only exception being one manufacturer in Houston, Texas. Butane canisters manufactured in South Korea contain butane from Saudi Arabia, while the American manufacturer fills canisters with domestic butane. Gas cartridges for camping stoves tend to be costly and usually are not refillable. Single-use cartridges are considered objectionable by some on environmental grounds. They perform poorly in cold weather. Until the approval of EN 417-specification Lindal valve cartridges of 1992 there was little compatibility between different makers and systems, and cartridges for older cartridge stoves were often unobtainable. Outside of camping, single-burner stoves using cans of compressed butane gas are used for catering and other food service applications. Refillable gas bottles are heavier, and tend to be used on larger stoves intended for car camping, expedition base camps, and residential use (as for barbecues). Multiple burner stoves Stoves with two or more burners that may be operated together or separately are common for use in base camp, car camping and other situations involving cooking for larger groups. The folding "suitcase" style by Coleman is the best known of this design, and is intended to be used on a flat, stable surface such as a tabletop. This type of stove may have a separate fuel tank for each burner, or more commonly a single tank shared by both burners. Multiple burner stoves generally use compressed gas, alcohol or Naphtha (also known as White gas or Coleman fuel). Solid-fuel stoves A solid-fuel stove may consist of no more than a metal base plate and container to hold the fuel, a set of legs to keep this assembly out of contact with the ground, and some supports for a billycan or other cooking vessel. This design is scalable, and may be used for anything from tiny backpacking stoves to large portable woodstoves. Fuel may be manufactured, e.g., hexamine, or natural, e.g., woody forest debris. Manufactured fuel Among compact commercial models, the Esbit hexamine stove burns small tablets of hexamine or trioxane in a folding stand made of aluminium or other base metal, and is a German design that dates from World War II. Generally intended for use by a single person, the fumes will tend to taint food if exposed to the burning tablets, and will also leave a messy residue that may be difficult to remove from cookware. Outside of America, metaldehyde is used as a solid fuel in small portable stoves. It is a lightweight fuel with little smell that burns leaving no residue. It is however toxic to animals including humans if ingested and metaldehyde fuel tablets need to be handled with care to avoid inadvertent ingestion. Natural fuel, forest wood debris Stoves that use natural solid fuel, e.g., wood and other forest debris, have an obvious advantage: the user need not carry any stove fuel on his or her back. This native fuel typically consists of twigs and small pine cones the user gathers at their campsite and places in the fuel chamber of their stove. This substitution of natural fuel for artificial fuel can amount to a savings of several ounces or pounds of fuel and their containers not carried in a traveler's pack, depending on length of trip. Issues of plumbing connections, fuel toxicity, leakage, spillage, and stove flareup are also nonexistent when using a solid-fuel portable stove. Contribution to climate change and dependence on fossil fuel is also minimized when using a portable stove powered by a local, renewable biomass resource (however, carbon dioxide is released no matter what source of fuel you use). While simple, solid-fuel stoves have some disadvantages versus their liquid-fueled counterparts. In most cases, the burn rate may be controlled only by varying the amount of fuel placed on the fire, while fluid fuels may be controlled precisely with valves. In addition, no solid fuel burns completely. Solid-fuel stoves produce a small amount of ash, and they can coat the bottoms of cooking vessels with tars and soot. In addition, because some of the chemical energy of the fuel remains locked up in the smoke and soot, solid fuel releases less heat, gram for gram. A simple hobo stove is constructed out of a discarded tin can of any size by removing the top of the can, punching a number of holes near the upper edge, and punching corresponding holes in the opposite base. Wood or other fuel is placed in the can and ignited. A pot (or larger tin can) is placed on the top of the can for cooking. Stoves of similar design can be made out of materials other than cans, such as discarded duct pipe. More complex stoves may use a double-walled design with a chamber for partial biomass gasification and additional mixing to increase heat output and provide a cleaner, more complete burn. Another type of a solid fuel stove which has been becoming more common is what is called the rocket stove. It is found more commonly in lesser-developed countries where wood fuel sources are more scarce. There are several different designs that are used but smaller ones are portable and are made of steel and other materials with insulation inside a double-walled design with a chamber for partial biomass gasification and additional mixing of air and wood gas to increase heat output and provide a cleaner, more-complete burn. The advantage of these rocket stoves is their requiring little fuel, such as wood and dry weeds, to cook a meal, and with this less air pollution. The single AA battery operated, fan-driven Sierra "Zip" stove burns small twigs, pinecones, bark, or other small flammable items. The fuel is placed into a small chamber and, with the fan turned on, burns at a high heat output of 15,000 BTUs/hr (4.40 kW), about twice that of typical gasoline stoves. Because the wood burns quickly in a Zip stove, it needs to be constantly refueled during cooking. However, because of its ability to take advantage of whatever small bits of wood that can be scrounged from the forest floor, the additional weight and bulk of packing additional fuel supplies is avoided. Ed Garvey, the noted Appalachian trail benefactor and multiple A.T. thru-hiker, carried a Zip stove with him when he hiked the A.T. at the age of 75. Fuel comparison See also Beverage-can stove BioLite Dutch oven EcoZoom Hibachi History of the portable gas stove Hobo stove Hot plate Kelly Kettle List of stoves Outdoor cooking References External links A thousand miles in the Rob Roy canoe on rivers and lakes of Europe (1866) Fireplaces Camping equipment Hiking equipment Stoves	[ 0.7457444667816162, 0.29330164194107056, -0.44233036041259766, 0.2811903953552246, 0.1174999251961708, -0.2745041251182556, 0.06759640574455261, -0.5019885897636414, -0.3791791498661041, -0.7577393651008606, -0.24965888261795044, 0.15422946214675903, 0.014407472684979439, 0.011342004872858524, -0.7427970767021179, 0.5436303615570068, 0.39206647872924805, 0.506463885307312, -0.3982415795326233, 0.12470485270023346, -0.3642423152923584, -0.551704466342926, -0.009065661579370499, 0.019850922748446465, 0.18955929577350616, 0.2090994268655777, 0.41075649857521057, 0.43909844756126404, -0.05338442325592041, -0.018079349771142006, 0.12857384979724884, 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237248	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical%20ethics	Medical ethics	Medical ethics is an applied branch of ethics which analyzes the practice of clinical medicine and related scientific research. Medical ethics is based on a set of values that professionals can refer to in the case of any confusion or conflict. These values include the respect for autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice. Such tenets may allow doctors, care providers, and families to create a treatment plan and work towards the same common goal. It is important to note that these four values are not ranked in order of importance or relevance and that they all encompass values pertaining to medical ethics. However, a conflict may arise leading to the need for hierarchy in an ethical system, such that some moral elements overrule others with the purpose of applying the best moral judgement to a difficult medical situation. Medical ethics is particularly relevant in decisions regarding involuntary treatment and involuntary commitment. There are several codes of conduct. The Hippocratic Oath discusses basic principles for medical professionals. This document dates back to the fifth century BCE. Both The Declaration of Helsinki (1964) and The Nuremberg Code (1947) are two well-known and well respected documents contributing to medical ethics. Other important markings in the history of medical ethics include Roe v. Wade in 1973 and the development of hemodialysis in the 1960s. More recently, new techniques for gene editing aiming at treating, preventing and curing diseases utilizing gene editing, are raising important moral questions about their applications in medicine and treatments as well as societal impacts on future generations, yet remain controversial due to their association with eugenics. As this field continues to develop and change throughout history, the focus remains on fair, balanced, and moral thinking across all cultural and religious backgrounds around the world. The field of medical ethics encompasses both practical application in clinical settings and scholarly work in philosophy, history, and sociology. Medical ethics encompasses beneficence, autonomy, and justice as they relate to conflicts such as euthanasia, patient confidentiality, informed consent, and conflicts of interest in healthcare. In addition, medical ethics and culture are interconnected as different cultures implement ethical values differently, sometimes placing more emphasis on family values and downplaying the importance of autonomy. This leads to an increasing need for culturally sensitive physicians and ethical committees in hospitals and other healthcare settings. History The term medical ethics first dates back to 1803, when English author and physician Thomas Percival published a document describing the requirements and expectations of medical professionals within medical facilities. The Code of Ethics was then adapted in 1847, relying heavily on Percival's words. Over the years in 1903, 1912, and 1947, revisions have been made to the original document. The practice of Medical Ethics is widely accepted and practiced throughout the world. Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early Christian teachings. The first code of medical ethics, Formula Comitis Archiatrorum, was published in the 5th century, during the reign of the Ostrogothic Christian king Theodoric the Great. In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Islamic scholarship such as Ishaq ibn Ali al-Ruhawi (who wrote the Conduct of a Physician, the first book dedicated to medical ethics), Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (known as Rhazes in the West), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholic scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis (casuistry) of Catholic moral theology. These intellectual traditions continue in Catholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics. By the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more self-conscious discourse. In England, Thomas Percival, a physician and author, crafted the first modern code of medical ethics. He drew up a pamphlet with the code in 1794 and wrote an expanded version in 1803, in which he coined the expressions "medical ethics" and "medical jurisprudence". However, there are some who see Percival's guidelines that relate to physician consultations as being excessively protective of the home physician's reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one such critic who considers Percival's codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anti-competitive, "guild"-like nature of the physician community. In addition, since the mid 19th century up to the 20th century, physician-patient relationships that once were more familiar became less prominent and less intimate, sometimes leading to malpractice, which resulted in less public trust and a shift in decision making power from the paternalistic physician model to today's emphasis on patient autonomy and self-determination. In 1815, the Apothecaries Act was passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It introduced compulsory apprenticeship and formal qualifications for the apothecaries of the day under the license of the Society of Apothecaries. This was the beginning of regulation of the medical profession in the UK. In 1847, the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, with this being based in large part upon Percival's work. While the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctively liberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics. Well-known medical ethics cases include: Albert Kligman's dermatology experiments Deep sleep therapy Doctors' Trial Greenberg v. Miami Children's Hospital Research Institute Henrietta Lacks Chester M. Southam's Cancer Injection Study Human radiation experiments Jesse Gelsinger Moore v. Regents of the University of California Surgical removal of body parts to try to improve mental health Medical Experimentation on Black Americans Milgram experiment Radioactive iodine experiments The Monster Study Plutonium injections The David Reimer case The Stanford Prison Experiment Tuskegee syphilis experiment Willowbrook State School Yanomami blood sample collection Darkness in El Dorado Since the 1970s, the growing influence of ethics in contemporary medicine can be seen in the increasing use of Institutional Review Boards to evaluate experiments on human subjects, the establishment of hospital ethics committees, the expansion of the role of clinician ethicists, and the integration of ethics into many medical school curricula. Values A common framework used when analysing medical ethics is the "four principles" approach postulated by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress in their textbook Principles of Biomedical Ethics. It recognizes four basic moral principles, which are to be judged and weighed against each other, with attention given to the scope of their application. The four principles are: Respect for autonomy – the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. Beneficence – a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. Non-maleficence – to not be the cause of harm. Also, "Utility" – to promote more good than harm. Justice – concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment. Autonomy The principle of autonomy, broken down into "autos" (self) and "nomos (rule), views the rights of an individual to self-determination. This is rooted in society's respect for individuals' ability to make informed decisions about personal matters with freedom. Autonomy has become more important as social values have shifted to define medical quality in terms of outcomes that are important to the patient and their family rather than medical professionals. The increasing importance of autonomy can be seen as a social reaction against the "paternalistic" tradition within healthcare. Some have questioned whether the backlash against historically excessive paternalism in favor of patient autonomy has inhibited the proper use of soft paternalism to the detriment of outcomes for some patients. The definition of autonomy is the ability of an individual to make a rational, uninfluenced decision. Therefore, it can be said that autonomy is a general indicator of a healthy mind and body. The progression of many terminal diseases are characterized by loss of autonomy, in various manners and extents. For example, dementia, a chronic and progressive disease that attacks the brain can induce memory loss and cause a decrease in rational thinking, almost always results in the loss of autonomy. Psychiatrists and clinical psychologists are often asked to evaluate a patient's capacity for making life-and-death decisions at the end of life. Persons with a psychiatric condition such as delirium or clinical depression may lack capacity to make end-of-life decisions. For these persons, a request to refuse treatment may be taken in the context of their condition. Unless there is a clear advance directive to the contrary, persons lacking mental capacity are treated according to their best interests. This will involve an assessment involving people who know the person best to what decisions the person would have made had they not lost capacity. Persons with the mental capacity to make end-of-life decisions may refuse treatment with the understanding that it may shorten their life. Psychiatrists and psychologists may be involved to support decision making. Beneficence The term beneficence refers to actions that promote the well being of others. In the medical context, this means taking actions that serve the best interests of patients and their families. However, uncertainty surrounds the precise definition of which practices do in fact help patients. James Childress and Tom Beauchamp in Principles of Biomedical Ethics (1978) identify beneficence as one of the core values of healthcare ethics. Some scholars, such as Edmund Pellegrino, argue that beneficence is the only fundamental principle of medical ethics. They argue that healing should be the sole purpose of medicine, and that endeavors like cosmetic surgery and euthanasia are severely unethical and against the Hippocratic Oath. Non-maleficence The concept of non-maleficence is embodied by the phrase, "first, do no harm," or the Latin, primum non nocere. Many consider that should be the main or primary consideration (hence primum): that it is more important not to harm your patient, than to do them good, which is part of the Hippocratic oath that doctors take. This is partly because enthusiastic practitioners are prone to using treatments that they believe will do good, without first having evaluated them adequately to ensure they do no harm to the patient. Much harm has been done to patients as a result, as in the saying, "The treatment was a success, but the patient died." It is not only more important to do no harm than to do good; it is also important to know how likely it is that your treatment will harm a patient. So a physician should go further than not prescribing medications they know to be harmful—he or she should not prescribe medications (or otherwise treat the patient) unless s/he knows that the treatment is unlikely to be harmful; or at the very least, that patient understands the risks and benefits, and that the likely benefits outweigh the likely risks. In practice, however, many treatments carry some risk of harm. In some circumstances, e.g. in desperate situations where the outcome without treatment will be grave, risky treatments that stand a high chance of harming the patient will be justified, as the risk of not treating is also very likely to do harm. So the principle of non-maleficence is not absolute, and balances against the principle of beneficence (doing good), as the effects of the two principles together often give rise to a double effect (further described in next section). Even basic actions like taking a blood sample or an injection of a drug cause harm to the patient's body. Euthanasia also goes against the principle of beneficence because the patient dies as a result of the medical treatment by the doctor. Double effect Double effect refers to two types of consequences that may be produced by a single action, and in medical ethics it is usually regarded as the combined effect of beneficence and non-maleficence. A commonly cited example of this phenomenon is the use of morphine or other analgesic in the dying patient. Such use of morphine can have the beneficial effect of easing the pain and suffering of the patient while simultaneously having the maleficent effect of shortening the life of the patient through the deactivation of the respiratory system. Respect for human rights The human rights era started with the formation of the United Nations in 1945, which was charged with the promotion of human rights. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) was the first major document to define human rights. Medical doctors have an ethical duty to protect the human rights and human dignity of the patient so the advent of a document that defines human rights has had its effect on medical ethics. Most codes of medical ethics now require respect for the human rights of the patient. The Council of Europe promotes the rule of law and observance of human rights in Europe. The Council of Europe adopted the European Convention on Human Rights and Biomedicine (1997) to create a uniform code of medical ethics for its 47 member-states. The Convention applies international human rights law to medical ethics. It provides special protection of physical integrity for those who are unable to consent, which includes children. No organ or tissue removal may be carried out on a person who does not have the capacity to consent under Article 5. As of December 2013, the Convention had been ratified or acceded to by twenty-nine member-states of the Council of Europe. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) also promotes the protection of human rights and human dignity. According to UNESCO, "Declarations are another means of defining norms, which are not subject to ratification. Like recommendations, they set forth universal principles to which the community of States wished to attribute the greatest possible authority and to afford the broadest possible support." UNESCO adopted the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and Biomedicine (2005) to advance the application of international human rights law in medical ethics. The Declaration provides special protection of human rights for incompetent persons. In applying and advancing scientific knowledge, medical practice and associated technologies, human vulnerability should be taken into account. Individuals and groups of special vulnerability should be protected and the personal integrity of such individuals respected. Solidarity Individualistic standards of autonomy and personal human rights as they relate to social justice seen in the Anglo-Saxon community, clash with and can also supplement the concept of solidarity, which stands closer to a European healthcare perspective focused on community, universal welfare, and the unselfish wish to provide healthcare equally for all. In the United States individualistic and self-interested healthcare norms are upheld, whereas in other countries, including European countries, a sense of respect for the community and personal support is more greatly upheld in relation to free healthcare. Acceptance of ambiguity in medicine The concept of normality, that there is a human physiological standard contrasting with conditions of illness, abnormality and pain, leads to assumptions and bias that negatively affects health care practice. It is important to realize that normality is ambiguous and that ambiguity in healthcare and the acceptance of such ambiguity is necessary in order to practice humbler medicine and understand complex, sometimes unusual usual medical cases. Thus, society's views on central concepts in philosophy and clinical beneficence must be questioned and revisited, adopting ambiguity as a central player in medical practice. Conflicts Between autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence Autonomy can come into conflict with beneficence when patients disagree with recommendations that healthcare professionals believe are in the patient's best interest. When the patient's interests conflict with the patient's welfare, different societies settle the conflict in a wide range of manners. In general, Western medicine defers to the wishes of a mentally competent patient to make their own decisions, even in cases where the medical team believes that they are not acting in their own best interests. However, many other societies prioritize beneficence over autonomy. People deemed to not be mentally competent or suffering from a mental disorder may be treated involuntarily. Examples include when a patient does not want treatment because of, for example, religious or cultural views. In the case of euthanasia, the patient, or relatives of a patient, may want to end the life of the patient. Also, the patient may want an unnecessary treatment, as can be the case in hypochondria or with cosmetic surgery; here, the practitioner may be required to balance the desires of the patient for medically unnecessary potential risks against the patient's informed autonomy in the issue. A doctor may want to prefer autonomy because refusal to respect the patient's self-determination would harm the doctor-patient relationship. Organ donations can sometimes pose interesting scenarios, in which a patient is classified as a non-heart beating donor (NHBD), where life support fails to restore the heartbeat and is now considered futile but brain death has not occurred. Classifying a patient as a NHBD can qualify someone to be subject to non-therapeutic intensive care, in which treatment is only given to preserve the organs that will be donated and not to preserve the life of the donor. This can bring up ethical issues as some may see respect for the donors wishes to donate their healthy organs as respect for autonomy, while others may view the sustaining of futile treatment during vegetative state maleficence for the patient and the patient's family. Some are worried making this process a worldwide customary measure may dehumanize and take away from the natural process of dying and what it brings along with it. Individuals' capacity for informed decision-making may come into question during resolution of conflicts between autonomy and beneficence. The role of surrogate medical decision-makers is an extension of the principle of autonomy. On the other hand, autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence may also overlap. For example, a breach of patients' autonomy may cause decreased confidence for medical services in the population and subsequently less willingness to seek help, which in turn may cause inability to perform beneficence. The principles of autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence may also be expanded to include effects on the relatives of patients or even the medical practitioners, the overall population and economic issues when making medical decisions. Euthanasia There is disagreement among American physicians as to whether the non-maleficence principle excludes the practice of euthanasia. Euthanasia is currently legal in the states of Washington, DC, California, Colorado, Oregon, Vermont, and Washington. Around the world, there are different organizations that campaign to change legislation about the issue of physician-assisted death, or PAD. Examples of such organizations are the Hemlock Society of the United States and the Dignity in Dying campaign in the United Kingdom. These groups believe that doctors should be given the right to end a patient's life only if the patient is conscious enough to decide for themselves, is knowledgeable about the possibility of alternative care, and has willingly asked to end their life or requested access to the means to do so. This argument is disputed in other parts of the world. For example, in the state of Louisiana, giving advice or supplying the means to end a person's life is considered a criminal act and can be charged as a felony. In state courts, this crime is comparable to manslaughter. The same laws apply in the states of Mississippi and Nebraska. Informed consent Informed consent refers to a patient's right to receive information relevant to a recommended treatment, in order to be able to make a well-considered, voluntary decision about their care. To give informed consent, a patient must be competent to make a decision regarding their treatment and be presented with relevant information regarding a treatment recommendation, including its nature and purpose, and the burdens, risks and potential benefits of all options and alternatives. After receiving and understanding this information, the patient can then make a fully informed decision to either consent or refuse treatment. In certain circumstances, there can be an exception to the need for informed consent, including, but not limited to, in cases of a medical emergency or patient incompetency. The ethical concept of informed consent also applies in a clinical research setting; all human participants in research must voluntarily decide to participate in the study after being fully informed of all relevant aspects of the research trial necessary to decide whether to participate or not. Informed consent is both an ethical and legal duty; if proper consent is not received prior to a procedure, treatment, or participation in research, providers can be held liable for battery and/or other torts. In the United States, informed consent is governed by both federal and state law, and the specific requirements for obtaining informed consent vary state to state. Confidentiality Confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. This concept is commonly known as patient-physician privilege. Legal protections prevent physicians from revealing their discussions with patients, even under oath in court. Confidentiality is mandated in the United States by the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 known as HIPAA, specifically the Privacy Rule, and various state laws, some more rigorous than HIPAA. However, numerous exceptions to the rules have been carved out over the years. For example, many states require physicians to report gunshot wounds to the police and impaired drivers to the Department of Motor Vehicles. Confidentiality is also challenged in cases involving the diagnosis of a sexually transmitted disease in a patient who refuses to reveal the diagnosis to a spouse, and in the termination of a pregnancy in an underage patient, without the knowledge of the patient's parents. Many states in the U.S. have laws governing parental notification in underage abortion. Those working in mental health have a duty to warn those who they deem to be at risk from their patients in some countries. Traditionally, medical ethics has viewed the duty of confidentiality as a relatively non-negotiable tenet of medical practice. More recently, critics like Jacob Appel have argued for a more nuanced approach to the duty that acknowledges the need for flexibility in many cases. Confidentiality is an important issue in primary care ethics, where physicians care for many patients from the same family and community, and where third parties often request information from the considerable medical database typically gathered in primary health care. Privacy and the Internet In increasing frequency, medical researchers are researching activities in online environments such as discussion boards and bulletin boards, and there is concern that the requirements of informed consent and privacy are not applied, although some guidelines do exist. One issue that has arisen, however, is the disclosure of information. While researchers wish to quote from the original source in order to argue a point, this can have repercussions when the identity of the patient is not kept confidential. The quotations and other information about the site can be used to identify the patient, and researchers have reported cases where members of the site, bloggers and others have used this information as 'clues' in a game in an attempt to identify the site. Some researchers have employed various methods of "heavy disguise." including discussing a different condition from that under study. Healthcare institutions' websites have the responsibility to ensure that the private medical records of their online visitors are secure from being marketed and monetized into the hands of drug companies, occupation records, and insurance companies. The delivery of diagnosis online leads patients to believe that doctors in some parts of the country are at the direct service of drug companies, finding diagnosis as convenient as what drug still has patent rights on it. Physicians and drug companies are found to be competing for top ten search engine ranks to lower costs of selling these drugs with little to no patient involvement. ] With the expansion of internet healthcare platforms, online practitioner legitimacy and privacy accountability face unique challenges such as e-paparazzi, online information brokers, industrial spies, unlicensed information providers that work outside of traditional medical codes for profit. The American Medical Association (AMA) states that medical websites have the responsibility to ensure the health care privacy of online visitors and protect patient records from being marketed and monetized into the hands of insurance companies, employers, and marketers. [40] With the rapid unification of healthcare, business practices, computer science and e-commerce to create these online diagnostic websites, efforts to maintain health care system's ethical confidentiality standard need to keep up as well. Over the next few years, the Department of Health and Human Services has stated that they will be working towards lawfully protecting the online privacy and digital transfers of patient Electronic Medical Records (EMR) under The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). [41] Control, resolution, and enforcement In the UK, medical ethics forms part of the training of physicians and surgeons and disregard for ethical principles can result in doctors barred from medical practice after a decision by the Medical Practitioners Tribunal Service. To ensure that appropriate ethical values are being applied within hospitals, effective hospital accreditation requires that ethical considerations are taken into account, for example with respect to physician integrity, conflict of interest, research ethics and organ transplantation ethics. Guidelines There is much documentation of the history and necessity of the Declaration of Helsinki. The first code of conduct for research including medical ethics was the Nuremberg Code. This document had large ties to Nazi war crimes, as it was introduced in 1997, so it didn't make much of a difference in terms of regulating practice. This issue called for the creation of the Declaration. There are some stark differences between the Nuremberg Code and the Declaration of Helsinki, including the way it is written. Nuremberg was written in a very concise manner, with a simple explanation. The Declaration of Helsinki is written with a thorough explanation in mind and including many specific commentaries. In the United Kingdom, General Medical Council provides clear overall modern guidance in the form of its 'Good Medical Practice' statement. Other organizations, such as the Medical Protection Society and a number of university departments, are often consulted by British doctors regarding issues relating to ethics. Ethics committees Often, simple communication is not enough to resolve a conflict, and a hospital ethics committee must convene to decide a complex matter. These bodies are composed primarily of healthcare professionals, but may also include philosophers, lay people, and clergy – indeed, in many parts of the world their presence is considered mandatory in order to provide balance. With respect to the expected composition of such bodies in the US, Europe and Australia, the following applies. U.S. recommendations suggest that Research and Ethical Boards (REBs) should have five or more members, including at least one scientist, one non-scientist, and one person not affiliated with the institution. The REB should include people knowledgeable in the law and standards of practice and professional conduct. Special memberships are advocated for handicapped or disabled concerns, if required by the protocol under review. The European Forum for Good Clinical Practice (EFGCP) suggests that REBs include two practicing physicians who share experience in biomedical research and are independent from the institution where the research is conducted; one lay person; one lawyer; and one paramedical professional, e.g. nurse or pharmacist. They recommend that a quorum include both sexes from a wide age range and reflect the cultural make-up of the local community. The 1996 Australian Health Ethics Committee recommendations were entitled, "Membership Generally of Institutional Ethics Committees". They suggest a chairperson be preferably someone not employed or otherwise connected with the institution. Members should include a person with knowledge and experience in professional care, counseling or treatment of humans; a minister of religion or equivalent, e.g. Aboriginal elder; a layman; a laywoman; a lawyer and, in the case of a hospital-based ethics committee, a nurse. The assignment of philosophers or religious clerics will reflect the importance attached by the society to the basic values involved. An example from Sweden with Torbjörn Tännsjö on a couple of such committees indicates secular trends gaining influence. Cultural concerns Cultural differences can create difficult medical ethics problems. Some cultures have spiritual or magical theories about the origins and cause of disease, for example, and reconciling these beliefs with the tenets of Western medicine can be very difficult. As different cultures continue to intermingle and more cultures live alongside each other, the healthcare system, which tends to deal with important life events such as birth, death and suffering, increasingly experiences difficult dilemmas that can sometimes lead to cultural clashes and conflict. Efforts to respond in a culturally sensitive manner go hand in hand with a need to distinguish limits to cultural tolerance. Culture and language As more people from different cultural and religious backgrounds move to other countries, among these, the United States, it is becoming increasingly important to be culturally sensitive to all communities in order to provide the best health care for all people. Lack of cultural knowledge can lead to misunderstandings and even inadequate care, which can lead to ethical problems. A common complaint patients have is feeling like they are not being heard, or perhaps, understood. Preventing escalating conflict can be accomplished by seeking interpreters, noticing body language and tone of both yourself and the patient as well as attempting to understand the patient's perspective in order to reach an acceptable option. Some believe most medical practitioners in the future will have to be or greatly benefit from being bilingual. In addition to knowing the language, truly understanding culture is best for optimal care. Recently, a practice called 'narrative medicine' has gained some interest as it has a potential for improving patient-physician communication and understanding of patient's perspective. Interpreting a patient's stories or day-to-day activities as opposed to standardizing and collecting patient data may help in acquiring a better sense of what each patient needs, individually, with respect to their illness. Without this background information, many physicians are unable to properly understand the cultural differences that may set two different patients apart, and thus, may diagnose or recommend treatments that are culturally insensitive or inappropriate. In short, patient narrative has the potential for uncovering patient information and preferences that may otherwise be overlooked. Medical humanitarianism In order to address the underserved, uneducated communities in need of nutrition, housing, and healthcare disparities seen in much of the world today, some argue that we must fall back on ethical values in order to create a foundation to move towards a reasonable understanding, which encourages commitment and motivation to improve factors causing premature death as a goal in a global community. Such factors – such as poverty, environment and education – are said to be out of national or individual control and so this commitment is by default a social and communal responsibility placed on global communities that are able to aid others in need. This is based on the framework of 'provincial globalism,' which seeks a world in which all people have the capability to be healthy. One concern regarding the intersection of medical ethics and humanitarian medical aid is how medical assistance can be as harmful as it is helpful to the community being served. One such example being how political forces may control how foreign humanitarian aid can be utilized in the region it is meant to be provided in. This would be congruous in situations where political strife could lead such aid being used in favor of one group over another. Another example of how foreign humanitarian aid can be misused in its intended community includes the possibility of dissonance forming between a foreign humanitarian aid group and the community being served. Examples of this could include the relationships being viewed between aid workers, style of dress, or the lack of education regarding local culture and customs. Humanitarian practices in areas lacking optimum care can also pause other interesting and difficult ethical dilemmas in terms of beneficence and non-maleficence. Humanitarian practices are based upon providing better medical equipment and care for communities whose country does not provide adequate healthcare. The issues with providing healthcare to communities in need may sometimes be religious or cultural backgrounds keeping people from performing certain procedures or taking certain drugs. On the other hand, wanting certain procedures done in a specific manner due to religious or cultural belief systems may also occur. The ethical dilemma stems from differences in culture between communities helping those with medical disparities and the societies receiving aid. Women's rights, informed consent and education about health become controversial, as some treatments needed are against societal law, while some cultural traditions involve procedures against humanitarian efforts. Examples of this are female genital mutilation (FGM), aiding in reinfibulation, providing sterile equipment in order to perform procedures such as FGM, as well as informing patients of their HIV positive testing. The latter is controversial because certain communities have in the past outcast or killed HIV positive individuals. Healthcare reform and lifestyle Leading causes of death in the United States and around the world are highly related to behavioral consequences over genetic or environmental factors. This leads some to believe true healthcare reform begins with cultural reform, habit and overall lifestyle. Lifestyle, then, becomes the cause of many illnesses and the illnesses themselves are the result or side-effect of a larger problem. Some people believe this to be true and think that cultural change is needed in order for developing societies to cope and dodge the negative effects of drugs, food and conventional modes of transportation available to them. In 1990, tobacco use, diet, and exercise alone accounted for close to 80 percent of all premature deaths and continue to lead in this way through the 21st century. Heart disease, stroke, dementia, and diabetes are some of the diseases that may be affected by habit-forming patterns throughout our life. Some believe that medical lifestyle counseling and building healthy habits around our daily lives is one way to tackle health care reform. Other cultures and healthcare Buddhist medicine Buddhist ethics and medicine are based on religious teachings of compassion and understanding of suffering and cause and effect and the idea that there is no beginning or end to life, but that instead there are only rebirths in an endless cycle. In this way, death is merely a phase in an indefinitely lengthy process of life, not an end. However, Buddhist teachings support living one's life to the fullest so that through all the suffering which encompasses a large part of what is life, there are no regrets. Buddhism accepts suffering as an inescapable experience, but values happiness and thus values life. Because of this suicide, and euthanasia, are prohibited. However, attempts to rid oneself of any physical or mental pain and suffering are seen as good acts. On the other hand, sedatives and drugs are thought to impair consciousness and awareness in the dying process, which is believed to be of great importance, as it is thought that one's dying consciousness remains and affects new life. Because of this, analgesics must not be part of the dying process, in order for the dying person to be present entirely and pass on their consciousness wholesomely. This can pose significant conflicts during end of life care in Western medical practice. Chinese medicine In traditional Chinese philosophy, human life is believed to be connected to nature, which is thought of as the foundation and encompassing force sustaining all of life's phases. Passing and coming of the seasons, life, birth and death are perceived as a cyclic and perpetual occurrences that are believed to be regulated by the principles of yin and yang. When one dies, the life-giving material force referred to as ch'i, encompassing both body and spirit, rejoins the material force of the universe and cycles on with respect to the rhythms set forth by yin and yang. Because many Chinese people believe that circulation of both physical and 'psychic energy' is important to stay healthy, procedures which require surgery, as well as donations and transplantations of organs, are seen as a loss of ch'i, resulting in the loss of someone's vital energy supporting their consciousness and purpose in their lives. Furthermore, a person is never seen as a single unit but rather as a source of relationship, interconnected in a social web. Thus, it is believed that what makes a human one of us is relatedness and communication and family is seen as the basic unit of a community. This can greatly affect the way medical decisions are made among family members, as diagnoses are not always expected to be announced to the dying or sick, the elderly are expected to be cared for and represented by their children and physicians are expected to act in a paternalistic way. In short, informed consent as well as patient privacy can be difficult to enforce when dealing with Confucian families. Furthermore, some Chinese people may be inclined to continue futile treatment in order to extend life and allow for fulfillment of the practice of benevolence and humanity. In contrast, patients with strong Daoist beliefs may see death as an obstacle and dying as a reunion with nature that should be accepted, and are therefore less likely to ask for treatment of an irreversible condition. Islamic culture and medicine Some believe Islamic medical ethics and framework remain poorly understood by many working in healthcare. It is important to recognize that for people of Islamic faith, Islam envelops and affects all aspects of life, not just medicine. Because many believe it is faith and a supreme deity that hold the cure to illness, it is common that the physician is viewed merely as help or intermediary player during the process of healing or medical care. In addition to Chinese culture's emphasis on family as the basic unit of a community intertwined and forming a greater social construct, Islamic traditional medicine also places importance on the values of family and the well-being of a community. Many Islamic communities uphold paternalism as an acceptable part of medical care. However, autonomy and self-rule is also valued and protected and, in Islamic medicine, it is particularly upheld in terms of providing and expecting privacy in the healthcare setting. An example of this is requesting same gender providers in order to retain modesty. Overall, Beauchamp's principles of beneficence, non-maleficence and justice are promoted and upheld in the medical sphere with as much importance as in Western culture. In contrast, autonomy is important but more nuanced. Furthermore, Islam also brings forth the principles of jurisprudence, Islamic law and legal maxims, which also allow for Islam to adapt to an ever-changing medical ethics framework. Conflicts of interest Physicians should not allow a conflict of interest to influence medical judgment. In some cases, conflicts are hard to avoid, and doctors have a responsibility to avoid entering such situations. Research has shown that conflicts of interests are very common among both academic physicians and physicians in practice. Referral Doctors who receive income from referring patients for medical tests have been shown to refer more patients for medical tests. This practice is proscribed by the American College of Physicians Ethics Manual. Fee splitting and the payments of commissions to attract referrals of patients is considered unethical and unacceptable in most parts of the world. Vendor relationships Studies show that doctors can be influenced by drug company inducements, including gifts and food. Industry-sponsored Continuing Medical Education (CME) programs influence prescribing patterns. Many patients surveyed in one study agreed that physician gifts from drug companies influence prescribing practices. A growing movement among physicians is attempting to diminish the influence of pharmaceutical industry marketing upon medical practice, as evidenced by Stanford University's ban on drug company-sponsored lunches and gifts. Other academic institutions that have banned pharmaceutical industry-sponsored gifts and food include the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, University of Michigan, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University. Treatment of family members The American Medical Association (AMA) states that "Physicians generally should not treat themselves or members of their immediate family". This code seeks to protect patients and physicians because professional objectivity can be compromised when the physician is treating a loved one. Studies from multiple health organizations have illustrated that physician-family member relationships may cause an increase in diagnostic testing and costs. Many doctors still treat their family members. Doctors who do so must be vigilant not to create conflicts of interest or treat inappropriately. Physicians that treat family members need to be conscious of conflicting expectations and dilemmas when treating relatives, as established medical ethical principles may not be morally imperative when family members are confronted with serious illness. Sexual relationships Sexual relationships between doctors and patients can create ethical conflicts, since sexual consent may conflict with the fiduciary responsibility of the physician. Out of the many disciplines in current medicine, there are studies that have been conducted in order to ascertain the occurrence of Doctor-Patient sexual misconduct. Results from those studies appear to indicate that certain disciplines are more likely to be offenders than others. Psychiatrists and obstetrician-gynecologists, for example, are two disciplines noted for having a higher rate of sexual misconduct. The violation of ethical conduct between doctors and patients also has an association with the age and sex of doctor and patient. Male physicians aged 40–49 and 50–59 years are two groups that have been found to be more likely to have been reported for sexual misconduct, while women aged 20–39 have been found to make up a significant portion of reported victims of sexual misconduct. Doctors who enter into sexual relationships with patients face the threats of losing their medical license and prosecution. In the early 1990s, it was estimated that 2–9% of doctors had violated this rule. Sexual relationships between physicians and patients' relatives may also be prohibited in some jurisdictions, although this prohibition is highly controversial. Futility In some hospitals, medical futility is referred to as treatment that is unable to benefit the patient. An important part of practicing good medical ethics is by attempting to avoid futility by practicing non-maleficence. What should be done if there is no chance that a patient will survive or benefit from a potential treatment but the family members insist on advanced care? Previously, some articles defined futility as the patient having less than a one percent chance of surviving. Some of these cases are examined in court. Advance directives include living wills and durable powers of attorney for health care. (See also Do Not Resuscitate and cardiopulmonary resuscitation) In many cases, the "expressed wishes" of the patient are documented in these directives, and this provides a framework to guide family members and health care professionals in the decision-making process when the patient is incapacitated. Undocumented expressed wishes can also help guide decisions in the absence of advance directives, as in the Quinlan case in Missouri. "Substituted judgment" is the concept that a family member can give consent for treatment if the patient is unable (or unwilling) to give consent themselves. The key question for the decision-making surrogate is not, "What would you like to do?", but instead, "What do you think the patient would want in this situation?". Courts have supported family's arbitrary definitions of futility to include simple biological survival, as in the Baby K case (in which the courts ordered a child born with only a brain stem instead of a complete brain to be kept on a ventilator based on the religious belief that all life must be preserved). Baby Doe Law establishes state protection for a disabled child's right to life, ensuring that this right is protected even over the wishes of parents or guardians in cases where they want to withhold treatment. See also Applied ethics Bioethics The Citadel Clinical Ethics Clinical governance Do not resuscitate Empathy Ethical code Ethics of circumcision Euthanasia Evidence-based medical ethics Fee splitting Hastings Center Healthcare in India Hippocratic Oath Human radiation experiments Islamic bioethics Jewish medical ethics Joint Commission International, JCI MacLean Center for Clinical Medical Ethics Medical Code of Ethics Medical Law International Medical law Medical torture Pharmacological torture Military medical ethics Nursing ethics Patient abuse Philosophy of Healthcare Political abuse of psychiatry Project MKULTRA Research ethics consultation Resources for clinical ethics consultation Right to health Seven Sins of Medicine U.S. patients' bill of rights UN Principles of Medical Ethics Unethical human experimentation World Medical Association Reproductive medicine Abortion / Abortion debate Eugenics Gene splicing Human cloning Human genetic engineering Human trafficking Medical research Animal testing Children in clinical research CIOMS Guidelines Clinical Equipoise Clinical research ethics Declaration of Geneva Declaration of Helsinki Declaration of Tokyo Ethical problems using children in clinical trials First-in-man study Good clinical practice Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act Institutional Review Board Nuremberg Code Research ethics consultation Universal Declaration of Human Rights References Sources Beauchamp, Tom L., and Childress, James F. 2001. Principles of Biomedical Ethics. New York: Oxford University Press. Brody, Baruch A. 1988. Life and Death Decision Making. New York: Oxford University Press. Curran, Charles E. "The Catholic Moral Tradition in Bioethics" in Walter and Klein (below). See especially chapter 1, "Historical background to the discipline." «Législation, éthique et déontologie», Bruxelles: Editions de Boeck Université, 2011, Karine BREHAUX, . 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237250	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feijoa%20sellowiana	Feijoa sellowiana	Feijoa sellowiana is a species of flowering plant in the myrtle family, Myrtaceae. It is native to the highlands of southern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, Uruguay, northern Argentina, and Colombia. It is widely cultivated as an ornamental tree and for its fruit. Common names include feijoa (, , or ), pineapple guava and guavasteen, although it is not a true guava. It is an evergreen shrub or small tree, in height. Etymology Feijoa sellowiana Berg is from the genus which the German botanist, Ernst Berger, named after João da Silva Feijó, a Portuguese naturalist, and the specific name honors Friedrich Sellow, a German who first collected specimens of feijoa in southern Brazil. It has been nicknamed "pineapple guava", "Brazilian guava", "fig guava" or "guavasteen" among different countries. Fruit The fruit, known as feijoa, matures in autumn and is green, ellipsoid, and about the size of a chicken egg. It has a sweet, aromatic flavour, which tastes like pineapple, apple, and mint. The flesh is juicy and is divided into a clear, gelatinous seed pulp and a firmer, slightly granular, opaque flesh nearer the skin. The fruit falls to the ground when ripe and at its fullest flavour, but it may be picked from the tree prior to falling to prevent bruising. The fruit pulp resembles the closely related guava, having a gritty texture. The feijoa pulp is used in some natural cosmetic products as an exfoliant. Feijoa fruit has a distinctive, potent smell that resembles that of a fine perfume. The aroma is due to the ester methyl benzoate and related compounds that exist in the fruit. Growing conditions The plant is a warm-temperate, subtropical plant that also will grow in the tropics, but requires at least 50 hours of winter chilling to fruit, and is frost-tolerant. When grown from seed, feijoas are noted for slow growth during their first year or two, and young plants, though cold tolerant, can be sensitive to high wind. In the Northern Hemisphere, the species has been cultivated as far north as western Scotland, but under such conditions it does not fruit every year, as winter temperatures below approximately kill the flower buds. Summer temperatures above may also have an adverse effect upon fruit set. Feijoas are somewhat tolerant of drought and salt in soils, though fruit production can be adversely affected. Tolerant to partial shade, regular watering is essential while the fruit is maturing. Cultivation Some grafted cultivars of feijoa are self-fertile. Most are not, and require a pollinator. Seedlings may or may not be of usable quality, and may or may not be self-fertile. Feijoas will mature into a sprawly shrub, but can be kept successfully as a large container plant, though accommodations will need to be made for the width of the plants, and the need to encourage new growth for fruit production. Feijoas are occasionally found as landscape plants in Texas, Florida, California, and the maritime Pacific Northwest. They can succeed in greenhouses in temperate parts of the United States, and have been grown in-ground as fruiting trees on the United States east coast in coastal Georgia and South Carolina as well as in California. Other regions of the United States such as the southernmost Appalachian Mountains, and the immediate coastal region from North Carolina to Delaware would warrant further investigation. The fruit has been widely grown in New Zealand since the 1920s, and it has become a popular garden tree. It is commonly available in season from March to June. In New Zealand, the pollinators of this plant are bees, bumblebees, and medium-sized birds. The silvereye is a pollinator in the cooler parts of the South Island; the blackbird and the Indian myna, which feeds on the sweet, fleshy flower petals, are pollinators further north. In some areas where the species has been introduced, however, the trees have been unproductive due to lack of pollinators. The shrub has very few insect pests, although guava moth is a problem in northern New Zealand. In the South Caucasus, feijoa has been cultivated in the southern coastal region of Azerbaijan since 1928; cultivation in neighboring Georgia has gradually increased to about in 1986. Sale and shipping Ripe fruit is prone to bruising; difficulty maintaining the fruit in good condition for any length of time, along with the short period of optimum ripeness and full flavor, probably explains why feijoas frequently are not exported, and where grown commercially, are typically sold close to the source of the crop. However, intercontinental shipping of feijoa by sea or air has been successful. Because of the relatively short shelf life, storekeepers need to be careful to replace older fruit regularly to ensure high quality. In some countries, they also may be purchased at roadside stalls, often at a lower price. Feijoas may be cool-stored for approximately a month and still have a few days of shelf life at optimum eating maturity. They also may be frozen for up to one year without a loss in quality. Consumption Nutrition of raw feijoa provides 55 calories and is 13% carbohydrates, 8% sugars, and 1% each of fat and protein. The raw fruit is a rich source of vitamin C, providing 40% of the Daily Value, but supplies no other micronutrients in significant amount. Food uses Although the skin is edible, the fruit usually is eaten by cutting it in half, then scooping out the pulp with a spoon. The fruit has a juicy, sweet seed pulp and slightly gritty flesh nearer the skin. The flower petals are edible. The most common uses are eating raw, desserts such as sorbet, sweet pies, crumbles, or in salads. They are regularly consumed by birds. Varieties Numerous cultivars of feijoa have been developed. These include: Anatoki Apollo Bambina Barton Den's Choice Choiceana Coolidge Edenvale Improved Coolidge Edenvale Late Edenvale Supreme Gemini Kaiteri Kakariki (a cultivar developed by Waimea Nurseries, New Zealand, large flavor-filled fruit, named for the Māori word for green) Mammoth – named for its relatively massive fruits Moore Nazemetz Opal Star Pineapple Gem Smilax – mid-sized, spherical fruits with smooth texture Trask Triumph Unique (NZ cultivar, particularly tolerant of clay soils, and self pollinating) Vista Long – noted for the long shape of its fruits, developed in Vista, CA Wiki Tu References External links Feijoa: Plants for a Future Le feijoa, à voir et à manger dans Jardins de France N°647 Myrtaceae Plants described in 1941 Crops originating from Argentina Crops originating from Brazil Crops originating from Uruguay Trees of Argentina Trees of Brazil Trees of Uruguay Tropical fruit	[ -0.31962132453918457, -0.14805980026721954, -0.20655256509780884, -0.6124023795127869, 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237253	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Bandura	Albert Bandura	Albert Bandura (; December 4, 1925 – July 26, 2021) was a Canadian-American psychologist who was the David Starr Jordan Professor in Psychology at Stanford University. Bandura was responsible for contributions to the field of education and to several fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy, and personality psychology, and was also of influence in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory (renamed the social cognitive theory) and the theoretical construct of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo doll experiment. This Bobo doll experiment demonstrated the concept of observational learning. A 2002 survey ranked Bandura as the fourth most-frequently cited psychologist of all time, behind B. F. Skinner, Sigmund Freud, and Jean Piaget. During his lifetime, Bandura was widely described as the greatest living psychologist, and as one of the most influential psychologists of all time. Early life Bandura was born in Mundare, Alberta, an open town of roughly four hundred inhabitants, as the youngest child, and only son, in a family of six. The limitations of education in a remote town such as this caused Bandura to become independent and self-motivated in terms of learning, and these primarily developed traits proved very helpful in his lengthy career. Bandura was of Polish and Ukrainian descent; his father was from Kraków, Poland whilst his mother was from Ukraine. Bandura's parents were a key influence in encouraging him to seek ventures out of the small hamlet they resided in. The summer after finishing high school, Bandura worked in the Yukon to protect the Alaska Highway against sinking. Bandura later credited his work in the northern tundra as the origin of his interest in human psychopathology. It was in this experience in the Yukon, where he was exposed to a subculture of drinking and gambling, which helped broaden his perspective and scope of views on life. Bandura arrived in the US in 1949 and was naturalized in 1956. He married Virginia Varns (1921–2011) in 1952, and they raised two daughters, Carol and Mary. Education and academic career Bandura's introduction to academic psychology arrived by a fluke; as a student with little to do in early mornings, he took a psychology course in order to pass the time and became passionate about the subject. Bandura graduated in three years, in 1949, with a B.A. from the University of British Columbia, winning the Bolocan Award in psychology, and then moved to the then-epicenter of theoretical psychology, the University of Iowa, from where he obtained his M.A. in 1951 and Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology in 1952. Arthur Benton was his academic adviser at Iowa, giving Bandura a direct academic descent from William James, while Clark Hull and Kenneth Spence were influential collaborators. During his Iowa years, Bandura came to support a style of psychology that sought to investigate psychological phenomena through repeatable, experimental testing. His inclusion of such mental phenomena as imagery and representation, and his concept of reciprocal determinism, which postulated a relationship of mutual influence between an agent and its environment, marked a radical departure from the dominant behaviorism of the time. Bandura's expanded array of conceptual tools allowed for more potent modeling of such phenomena as observational learning and self-regulation, and provided psychologists with a practical way in which to theorize about mental processes, in opposition to the mentalistic constructs of psychoanalysis and personality psychology. Post-doctoral work Upon graduation, he completed his postdoctoral internship at the Wichita Guidance Center. The following year, 1953, he accepted a teaching position at Stanford University, which he held until becoming professor emeritus in 2010. In 1974, he was elected president of the American Psychological Association (APA), which is the world's largest association of psychologists. Bandura would later state the only reason he agreed to be in the running for the APA election was because he wanted his 15 minutes of fame without any intentions of being elected. He also worked as a sports coach. Research Bandura was initially influenced by Robert Sears' work on familial antecedents of social behavior and identificatory learning and gave up his research of the psychoanalytic theory. He directed his initial research to the role of social modeling in human motivation, thought, and action. In collaboration with Richard Walters, his first doctoral student, he engaged in studies of social learning and aggression. Their joint efforts illustrated the critical role of modeling in human behavior and led to a program of research into the determinants and mechanisms of observational learning. Social learning theory The initial phase of Bandura's research analyzed the foundations of human learning and the willingness of children and adults to imitate behavior observed in others, in particular, aggression. He found that according to Social Learning theory, models are an important source for learning new behaviors and for achieving behavioral change in institutionalized settings. Social learning theory posits that there are three regulatory systems that control behavior. First, the antecedent inducements greatly influence the time and response of behavior. The stimulus that occurs before the behavioral response must be appropriate in relation to social context and performers. Second, response feedback influences also serve an important function. Following a response, the reinforcements, by experience or observation, will greatly impact the occurrence of the behavior in the future. Third, the importance of cognitive functions in social learning. For example, for aggressive behavior to occur some people become easily angered by the sight or thought of individuals with whom they have had hostile encounters, and this memory is acquired through the learning process. Social learning theory became one of the theoretical frameworks for Entertainment-Education, a method of creating socially beneficial entertainment pioneered by Miguel Sabido. Bandura and Sabido went on to forge a close relationship and further refine the theory and practice. Aggression His research with Walters led to his first book, Adolescent Aggression in 1959, and to a subsequent book, Aggression: A Social Learning Analysis in 1973. During a period dominated by behaviorism in the mold of B.F. Skinner, Bandura believed the sole behavioral modifiers of reward and punishment in classical and operant conditioning were inadequate as a framework, and that many human behaviors were learned from other humans. Bandura began to analyze the means of treating unduly aggressive children by identifying sources of violence in their lives. Initial research in the area had begun in the 1940s under Neal Miller and John Dollard; his continued work in this line eventually culminated in the Bobo doll experiment, and in 1977's hugely influential treatise, Social Learning Theory. Many of his innovations came from his focus on empirical investigation and reproducible investigation, which were alien to a field of psychology dominated by the theories of Freud. In 1961 Bandura conducted a controversial experiment known as the Bobo doll experiment, designed to show that similar behaviors were learned by individuals shaping their own behavior after the actions of models. Bandura's results from this experiment changed the course of modern psychology, and were widely credited with helping shift the focus in academic psychology from pure behaviorism to cognitive psychology. Moreover, the Bobo doll experiment emphasized how young individuals are influenced by the acts of adults. When the adults were praised for their aggressive behavior, the children were more likely to keep on hitting the doll. However, when the adults were punished, they consequently stopped hitting the doll as well. The experiment is among the most lauded and celebrated of psychological experiments. Social cognitive theory By the mid-1980s, Bandura's research had taken a more holistic bent, and his analysis tended towards giving a more comprehensive overview of human cognition in the context of social learning. The theory he expanded from social learning theory soon became known as social cognitive theory. Social foundations of thought and action In 1986, Bandura published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, in which he re-conceptualized individuals as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting, and self-regulating, in opposition to the orthodox conception of humans as governed by external forces. He advanced concepts of triadic reciprocal causation, which determined the connections between human behavior, environmental factors, and personal factors such as cognitive, affective, and biological events, and of reciprocal determinism, governing the causal relations between such factors. Bandura's emphasis on the capacity of agents to self-organize and self-regulate would eventually give rise to his later work on self-efficacy. Self-efficacy In 1963, he published Social Learning and Personality Development. In 1974, Stanford University awarded him an endowed chair and he became David Starr Jordan Professor of Social Science in Psychology. In 1977, he published Social Learning Theory, a book that altered the direction psychology took in the 1980s. While investigating the processes by which modeling alleviates phobic disorders in snake-phobics, he found that self-efficacy beliefs (which the phobic individuals had in their own capabilities to alleviate their phobia) mediated changes in behavior and in fear-arousal. He launched a major program of research examining the influential role of self-referent thought in psychological functioning. Although he continued to explore and write on theoretical problems relating to myriad topics, from the late 1970s he devoted much attention to exploring the role of self-efficacy beliefs in human functioning. In 1986 he published Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, a book in which he offered a social cognitive theory of human functioning that accords a central role to cognitive, vicarious, self-regulatory and self-reflective processes in human adaptation and change. This theory has its roots in an agentic perspective that views people as self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating, not just as reactive organisms shaped by environmental forces or driven by inner impulses. His book, Self-efficacy: The exercise of control was published in 1997. Bandura on education Bandura's social learning theory contributes to students and teachers within the field of education. In 1986, Bandura changed the name of the social learning theory to social cognitive theory. The social cognitive theory still focuses on how behavior and growth are affected by the cognitive operations that occur during social activities. The key theoretical components of the social cognitive theory that are applied in education are self-efficacy, self-regulation, observational learning, and reciprocal determinism. The social cognitive theory can be applied to motivation and learning for students and teachers.<ref name=Barabarnelli>Bandura, A.; Barbaranelli, C. (1996). "Multifaceted impact of self-efficacy beliefs on academic functioning". Child Development, 67" (3), 1206-1222</ref> Bandura's research shows that high perceived self-efficacy leads teachers and students to set higher goals and increases the likelihood that they will dedicate themselves to those goals.Bandura, A.; Wood, R. (1989). "Effect of perceived controllability and performance standards on self-regulation of complex decision making". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56 (5), 805-814 In an educational setting self-efficacy refers to a student or teacher's confidence to participate in certain actions that will help them achieve distinct goals. Death Bandura died at his home in Stanford on July 26, 2021, from congestive heart failure, at the age of 95. Awards Bandura received more than sixteen honorary degrees, including those from the University of British Columbia, the University of Ottawa, Alfred University, the University of Rome, the University of Lethbridge, the University of Salamanca in Spain, Indiana University, the University of New Brunswick, Penn State University, Leiden University, Freie Universität Berlin, the Graduate Center of the City University of New York, Universitat Jaume I in Spain, the University of Athens, the University of Alberta, and the University of Catania. He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1980. He received the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions from the American Psychological Association in 1980 for pioneering the research in the field of self-regulated learning. In 1999 he received the Thorndike Award for Distinguished Contributions of Psychology to Education from the American Psychological Association, and in 2001, he received the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. He was the recipient of the Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology Award from the American Psychological Association and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Western Psychological Association, the James McKeen Cattell Award from the American Psychological Society, and the Gold Medal Award for Distinguished Lifetime Contribution to Psychological Science from the American Psychological Foundation. In 2008, he received the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award for contributions to psychology. In 2014, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his foundational contributions to social psychology, notably for uncovering the influence of observation on human learning and aggression". In 2016, he was awarded the National Medal of Science by president Barack Obama. Honorary Societies Albert Bandura was inducted into the PSI CHI International Honor Society for Psychology. Major books The following books have more than 5,000 citations in Google Scholar: Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: the exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. His other books are Bandura, A., & Walters, R.H. (1959). Adolescent Aggression. Ronald Press: New York. Bandura, A. (1962). Social Learning through Imitation. University of Nebraska Press: Lincoln, NE. Bandura, A. and Walters, R. H.(1963). Social Learning & Personality Development. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, INC: NJ. Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Bandura, A. (1971). Psychological modeling: conflicting theories. Chicago: Aldine·Atherton. Bandura, A. (1973). Aggression: a social learning analysis. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A., & Ribes-Inesta, Emilio. (1976). Analysis of Delinquency and Aggression. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, INC: NJ. Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (2015). Moral Disengagement: How People Do Harm and Live with Themselves. New York, NY: Worth. Notes References Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Bandura, A. (1989). Social cognitive theory. In R. Vasta (Ed.), Annals of Child Development, 6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1–60). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Bandura, A., & Walters. Richard H. (1959). Adolescent aggression; a study of the influence of child-training practices and family interrelationships. New York: Ronald Press. Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1963). Social learning and personality development. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Evans, R. I. (1989). Albert Bandura: The man and his ideas: A dialogue. New York: Praeger. Zimmerman, Barry J., & Schunk, Dale H. (Eds.)(2003). Educational psychology: A century of contributions''. Mahwah, NJ, US: Erlbaum. Great Canadian Psychology Website – Albert Bandura Biography Albert Bandura discuses Moral Disengagement (in Russian) DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.10808 Social learning theory and aggression External links 1925 births 2021 deaths People from Lamont County Canadian expatriate academics in the United States Canadian psychologists 20th-century psychologists 21st-century psychologists Canadian people of Polish descent Canadian people of Ukrainian descent Educational psychologists Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Moral psychologists Officers of the Order of Canada Positive psychologists Presidents of the American Psychological Association Social psychologists Stanford University Department of Psychology faculty University of British Columbia alumni University of Iowa alumni	[ -0.39322248101234436, 0.28899121284484863, -0.9074923992156982, -0.203412726521492, 0.04739784821867943, 0.5554584860801697, 0.6617083549499512, -0.19296099245548248, -0.10999111086130142, 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237254	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile%20Berliner	Emile Berliner	Emile Berliner (May 20, 1851 – August 3, 1929) originally Emil Berliner, was a German-American inventor. He is best known for inventing the lateral-cut flat disc record (called a "gramophone record" in British and American English) used with a gramophone. He founded the United States Gramophone Company in 1894; The Gramophone Company in London, England, in 1897; Deutsche Grammophon in Hanover, Germany, in 1898; and Berliner Gram-o-phone Company of Canada in Montreal in 1899 (chartered in 1904). Early life Berliner was born in Hanover, Germany, in 1851 into a Jewish merchant family. Though Jewish, his religious persuasion would develop into agnosticism. He completed an apprenticeship to become a merchant, as was family tradition. While his real hobby was invention, he worked as an accountant to make ends meet. To avoid being drafted for the Franco-Prussian War, Berliner migrated to the United States of America in 1870 with a friend of his father's, in whose shop he worked in Washington, D.C. He moved to New York and, living off temporary work, such as doing the paper route and cleaning bottles, he studied physics at night at the Cooper Union Institute. Career After some time working in a livery stable, he became interested in the new audio technology of the telephone and phonograph, and invented an improved telephone transmitter (one of the first type of microphones). The patent was acquired by the Bell Telephone Company (see The Telephone Cases). In America, Thomas Edison and Berliner fought a long legal battle over the patent rights. On February 27, 1901 the United States Court of Appeals declared Berliner's patent void and awarded Edison full rights to the invention, stating "Edison preceded Berliner in the transmission of speech ... The use of carbon in a transmitter is, beyond controversy, the invention of Edison" and the patent was ruled invalid. Berliner subsequently moved to Boston in 1877 and worked for Bell Telephone until 1883, when he returned to Washington and established himself as a private researcher. Emile Berliner became a United States citizen in 1881. Berliner also invented what was probably the first radial aircraft engine (1908), a helicopter (1919), and acoustical tiles (1920s). In 1886 Berliner began experimenting with methods of sound recording and reproduction. He was granted his first patent for what he called the "Gramophone" in 1887. The patent described recording sound using horizontal modulation of a stylus as it traced a line on a rotating cylindrical surface coated with an unresisting opaque material such as lampblack, subsequently fixed with varnish and used to photoengrave a corresponding groove into the surface of a metal playback cylinder. In practice, Berliner opted for the disc format, which made the photoengraving step much less difficult and offered the prospect of making multiple copies of the result by some simpler process such as electrotyping, molding or stamping. In 1888 Berliner was using a more direct recording method, in which the stylus traced a line through a very thin coating of wax on a zinc disc, which was then etched in acid to convert the line of bared metal into a playable groove. By 1890 a Berliner licensee in Germany was manufacturing a toy Gramophone and five-inch hard rubber discs (stamped-out replicas of etched zinc master discs), but because key U.S. patents were still pending they were sold only in Europe. Berliner meant his Gramophone to be more than a mere toy, and in 1894 he persuaded a group of businessmen to invest $25,000, with which he started the United States Gramophone Company. He began marketing seven-inch records and a more substantial Gramophone, which was, however, still hand-propelled like the smaller toy machine. The difficulty in using early hand-driven Gramophones was getting the turntable to rotate at an acceptably steady speed while playing a disc. Engineer Eldridge R. Johnson, the owner of a small machine shop in Camden, New Jersey, assisted Berliner in developing a suitable low-cost wind-up spring motor for the Gramophone and became Berliner's manufacturer. Berliner gave Frank Seaman the exclusive sales rights in the U.S., but after disagreements Seaman began selling his own version of the Gramophone, as well as unauthorized copies of Berliner's records, and Berliner was legally barred from selling his own products. The U.S. Berliner Gramophone Company shut down in mid-1900 and Berliner moved to Canada. Following various legal maneuvers, the Victor Talking Machine Company was officially founded by Eldridge Johnson in 1901 and the trade name "Gramophone" was completely and permanently abandoned in the U.S., although its use continued elsewhere. The Berliner Gramophone Co. of Canada was chartered on 8 April 1904 and reorganized as the Berliner Gramophone Co. in 1909 in Montreal's Saint Henri district. The Gramophone The Gramophone was presented as an apparatus for making permanent records of the human voice or other sounds, including music of all kinds and for reproducing the same at any time thereafter as often as desired. The records were of hard rubber, solid metal or other indestructible material and could, therefore, be handled without fear of breaking or injuring them. The sound records were grooves of even depth, but of varying direction, as opposed to those of straight lines and various depths in the Phonograph and Graphophone. These records could be multiplied at will to any extent, and each copy would sound precisely like the original. It was based on the Leon Scott Phonautograph, which was invented nearly forty years before, and which traced sound as curvilinear lines upon the smoked surface of a brass cylinder by means of a diaphragm with a stylus attached to its center. Early in 1877, or six months before the discovery of the phonograph principle by indenting tin-foil or wax, Charles Cros, of Paris, had conceived and placed on file the theory that if the curvilinear record of a Scott Phonautograph be photo-engraved, and such an engraving be made to act again on a stylus attached to a diaphragm, the original sound would be reproduced with absolute accuracy. This was the first conception of a sound-reproducing machine. Cros, however, did not put this idea into practical operation, presumably on account of the many technical difficulties which had to be overcome in order to accomplish it. Emile Berliner undertook to reproduce the human voice on a similar principle, and after much study and experimenting, secured fundamental patents covering the general process and its essential details. In his machine, which he called The Gramophone (from phonautogram or phonautographic record) the voice was first traced in curvilinear lines as in the Scott machine, but on a metal plate covered with a very delicate layer of fatty etching ground, and the lines were then “etched” in to the metal plate by immersing the same in acid. From this faithfully etched record the voice could readily be reproduced, and copied at will by electrotyping or other modes of multiplying. Berliner's other inventions include a new type of loom for mass-production of cloth; an acoustic tile; and an early version of the helicopter. According to a July 1, 1909, report in The New York Times, a helicopter built by Berliner and J. Newton Williams of Derby, Connecticut, had lifted its operator (Williams) "from the ground on three occasions" at Berliner's laboratory in the Brightwood neighborhood of Washington, D.C. Between 1907 and 1926, Berliner dedicated himself to improving the technologies of vertical flight through the development of a light-weight rotary engine, which he improved upon throughout the 1910s and 1920s. With R.S. Moore, also a Scientist and Inventor, as his chief assistant, Berliner obtained automobile engines from the Adams Company in Dubuque, Iowa, manufacturer of the Adams-Farwell automobile. This car used air cooled three- or five-cylinder rotary engines, which were developed in-house by Fay Oliver Farwell (1859–1935). Berliner and Farwell adapted them for use in perfecting "machines" produced for vertical flight. His realizations allowed him to move away from the heavy in-line engines to lighter rotary models, which led to the invention of a 6-hp rotary engine for the improvement of vertical flight. It was these experiments that led to the formal creation of the Gyro Motor Company in 1909 and it was the creation of the 6-hp rotary engine that initiated the use of rotary engines in aviation. The Gyro Motor Company manufactured these and other improved versions of the Gyro Engine between 1909 and roughly 1926. The building used for these operations exists at 774 Girard Street, NW, Washington, D.C., where its principal facade is in the Fairmont-Girard alleyway. By 1910, continuing to advance vertical flight, Berliner experimented with the use of a vertically mounted tail rotor to counteract torque on his single main rotor design. It was this configuration that led to the mechanical development of practical helicopters of the 1940s. When the Gyro Motor Company opened, Spencer Heath (1876–1963), a mechanical engineer (among other things), became the manager. Heath was connected with the American Propeller Manufacturing Company, also a manufacturer of aeronautical related mechanisms and products in Baltimore, Maryland. Both R.S. Moore, Designer and Engineer, and Joseph Sanders (1877–1944), inventor, engineer, and manufacturer, were involved in the original operations of the company. Berliner was president of the newly founded Gyro Motor Company and much of his time was spent dealing with business operations. On June 16, 1922, Berliner and his son, Henry, demonstrated a working helicopter for the United States Army. Henry became disillusioned with helicopters in 1925, and in 1926 founded the Berliner Aircraft Company, which merged to become Berliner-Joyce Aircraft in 1929. Berliner, who suffered a nervous breakdown in 1914, was also active in advocating improvements in public health and sanitation. He also advocated for women's equality and, in 1908, established the scholarship program, Sarah Berliner Research Fellowship, in honor of his mother. Berliner also supported and advocated Zionism. Awards Berliner was awarded the Franklin Institute's John Scott Medal in 1897, and later the Elliott Cresson Medal in 1913 and the Franklin Medal in 1929. Death On August 3, 1929, Berliner died of a heart attack at his home at the Wardman Park Hotel in Washington D.C., at the age of 78. He is buried in Rock Creek Cemetery in Washington, D.C., alongside his wife and a son, Herbert Samuel Berliner. Publications Books Conclusions, 1899, Levytype Corporation, Philadelphia The Milk Question and Mortality Among Children Here and in Germany: An Observation, 1904, The Society for Prevention of Sickness Some Neglected Essentials in the Fight against Consumption, 1907, The Society for Prevention of Sickness A Study Towards the Solution of Industrial Problems in the New Zionist Commonwealth, 1919, N. Peters Muddy Jim and other rhymes: 12 illustrated health jingles for children, 1919, Jim Publication Company. Patents Patent images in Tag Image File Format Telephone (induction coils), filed October 1877, issued January 1878 Telephone (carbon diaphragm microphone), filed August 1879, issued December 1879 Microphone (loose carbon rod), filed September 1879, issued February 1880 Microphone (spring carbon rod), filed Nov 1879, issued March 1880 UK Patent 15232 filed November 8, 1887 Gramophone (horizontal recording), original filed May 1887, refiled September 1887, issued November 8, 1887 Process of Producing Records of Sound (recorded on a thin wax coating over metal or glass surface, subsequently chemically etched), filed March 1888, issued May 1888 Combined Telegraph and Telephone (microphone), filed June 1877, issued November 1891 Sound Record and Method of Making Same (duplicate copies of flat, zinc disks by electroplating), filed March 1893, issued October 1895 Gramophone (recorded on underside of flat, transparent disk), filed November 7, 1887, issued July 1896 References Further reading External links Emile Berliner and the Birth of the Recording Industry at the Library of Congress including audio archive and family tree Emile Berliner: Inventor of the Gramophone (Library of Congress) Berliner - Inventor of the Gramophone and the "flat" record - Canadian Communication Foundation Berliner timeline and patent list The Berliner helicopters at the National Air and Space Museum Berliner helicopter at College Park, Maryland Berliner in the Inventor's Hall of Fame Illustrated Berliner page Contents of Berliner's case file at The Franklin Institute contains evidence and correspondence with Berliner regarding the award of his 1929 Franklin Medal for acoustic engineering and development of the gramophone Musée des ondes Emile Berliner in Montreal, Quebec contains over 30,000 recordings and other artifacts Website Emil Berliner Studios in Berlin, Germany – The History of the Record by Peter K. Burkowitz (the other side) 1851 births 1929 deaths 19th-century American inventors 20th-century American inventors American agnostics American health activists American women's rights activists American Zionists Burials at Rock Creek Cemetery Cooper Union alumni Discovery and invention controversies German agnostics German emigrants to the United States 19th-century German inventors German people of Jewish descent Jewish agnostics People from the Kingdom of Hanover	[ 0.2839406728744507, 0.5053130388259888, -0.4515827000141144, 0.3943903148174286, 0.19539380073547363, 0.5014052391052246, 0.46760112047195435, -0.5400879383087158, -0.055323705077171326, -0.6917707324028015, -0.05891285836696625, -0.49348360300064087, -0.05524410679936409, 0.6818084120750427, -0.323616623878479, -0.06581515073776245, -0.6679961681365967, 0.08033140748739243, -0.36565738916397095, 0.5410038828849792, -0.7549877166748047, -0.7854534387588501, 0.45536378026008606, -0.006350875366479158, -0.5408346652984619, 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237263	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xia	Xia	Xia (Hsia in Wade–Giles) may refer to: Chinese history Xia dynasty (c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC), the first orthodox dynasty in Chinese history Xia (Sixteen Kingdoms) (407–431), a Xiongnu-led dynasty Xia (617–621), a state founded by Dou Jiande near the end of the Sui dynasty Western Xia (1038–1227), a Tangut-led dynasty Eastern Xia (1215–1233), a Jurchen-led dynasty Ming Xia (1362–1371), a short-lived dynasty that existed during the late Yuan dynasty period Other uses Huaxia or Xia, an ancient ethnic group later known as the Han Chinese Xia (surname), a Chinese surname Xia (philosophy), a Chinese philosophy similar (but not identical) to the chivalrous code of European knights Xia County, Shanxi, China Xiafs, a file system developed for the Linux operating system together with the Ext2 file system Xia class submarine, a Chinese ballistic missile submarine XIA, the ICAO Code for Irving Oil, Canada XIA (Junsu), a Korean pop artist also known as Xiah and Junsu Xia, the former stage name of Korean pop artist Jang Jin Young, formerly of RaNiA Xia, a place in the fictional Bionicle universe Xia, a hero or knight-errant in Chinese fiction, see wuxia See also Sia (disambiguation)	[ 0.34975236654281616, -0.07659289240837097, -0.8903211355209351, -0.17630673944950104, -0.5538532137870789, 0.3135268986225128, 0.03942015767097473, 0.638737142086029, -0.1306084245443344, -0.6298401355743408, -0.2568366527557373, -0.2914838194847107, 0.03298875689506531, 0.2772725522518158, -0.02605145238339901, 0.15693038702011108, 0.03873070701956749, 0.4186771810054779, -0.13670429587364197, 0.03895512595772743, -0.22343355417251587, -0.2904416024684906, 0.05485301464796066, -0.1887844204902649, 0.12656064331531525, -0.5306569337844849, 0.4615386128425598, -0.1011674553155899, 0.8005537390708923, -0.2159888744354248, -0.1989983320236206, 0.5175428986549377, -0.21091683208942413, 0.5201332569122314, -0.45721182227134705, -0.037341415882110596, 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237274	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thriller%20%28genre%29	Thriller (genre)	Thriller is a genre of fiction, having numerous, often overlapping subgenres. Thrillers are characterized and defined by the moods they elicit, giving viewers heightened feelings of suspense, excitement, surprise, anticipation and anxiety. Successful examples of thrillers are the films of Alfred Hitchcock. Thrillers generally keep the audience on the "edge of their seats" as the plot builds towards a climax. The cover-up of important information is a common element. Literary devices such as red herrings, plot twists, unreliable narrators, and cliffhangers are used extensively. A thriller is often a villain-driven plot, whereby they present obstacles that the protagonist must overcome. Characteristics Writer Vladimir Nabokov, in his lectures at Cornell University, said: In an Anglo-Saxon thriller, the villain is generally punished, and the strong silent man generally wins the weak babbling girl, but there is no governmental law in Western countries to ban a story that does not comply with a fond tradition, so that we always hope that the wicked but romantic fellow will escape scot-free and the good but dull chap will be finally snubbed by the moody heroine. Thrillers may be defined by the primary mood that they elicit: suspenseful excitement. In short, if it "thrills", it is a thriller. As the introduction to a major anthology says: Suspense Suspense is a crucial characteristic of the thriller genre. It gives the viewer a feeling of pleasurable fascination and excitement mixed with apprehension, anticipation, and tension. These develop from unpredictable, mysterious, and rousing events during the narrative, which makes the viewer or reader think about the outcome of certain actions. Suspense builds in order to make those final moments, no matter how short, the most memorable. The suspense in a story keeps the person hooked to reading or watching more until the climax is reached. In terms of narrative expectations, it may be contrasted with curiosity and surprise. The objective is to deliver a story with sustained tension, surprise, and a constant sense of impending doom. As described by film director Alfred Hitchcock, an audience experiences suspense when they expect something bad to happen and have (or believe they have) a superior perspective on events in the drama's hierarchy of knowledge, yet they are powerless to intervene to prevent it from happening. Suspense in thrillers is often intertwined with hope and anxiety, which are treated as two emotions aroused in anticipation of the conclusion - the hope that things will turn out all right for the appropriate characters in the story, and the fear that they may not. The second type of suspense is the "...anticipation wherein we either know or else are fairly certain about what is going to happen but are still aroused in anticipation of its actual occurrence." According to Greek philosopher Aristotle in his book Poetics, suspense is an important building block of literature, and this is an important convention in the thriller genre. Thriller music has been shown to create distrust and ominous uncertainty between the viewer of a film and the character on screen at the time when the music is playing. Themes and characters Common methods and themes in crime and action thrillers are ransoms, captivities, heists, revenge, and kidnappings. Common in mystery thrillers are investigations and the whodunit technique. Common elements in dramatic and psychological thrillers include plot twists, psychology, obsession and mind games. Common elements of science-fiction thrillers are killing robots, machines or aliens, mad scientists and experiments. Common in horror thrillers are serial killers, stalking, deathtraps and horror-of-personality. Elements such as fringe theories, false accusations and paranoia are common in paranoid thrillers. Threats to entire countries, spies, espionage, conspiracies, assassins and electronic surveillance are common in spy thrillers. Characters may include criminals, stalkers, assassins, innocent victims (often on the run), menaced women, psychotic individuals, spree killers, sociopaths, agents, terrorists, cops and escaped cons, private eyes, people involved in twisted relationships, world-weary men and women, psycho-fiends, and more. The themes frequently include terrorism, political conspiracy, pursuit, or romantic triangles leading to murder. Plots of thrillers involve characters which come into conflict with each other or with outside forces. The protagonist of these films is set against a problem. No matter what subgenre a thriller film falls into, it will emphasize the danger that the protagonist faces. The protagonists are frequently ordinary citizens unaccustomed to danger, although commonly in crime and action thrillers, they may also be "hard men" accustomed to danger such as police officers and detectives. While protagonists of thrillers have traditionally been men, women lead characters are increasingly common. In psychological thrillers, the protagonists are reliant on their mental resources, whether it be by battling wits with the antagonist or by battling for equilibrium in the character's own mind. The suspense often comes from two or more characters preying upon one another's minds, either by playing deceptive games with the other or by merely trying to demolish the other's mental state. Story and setting An atmosphere of menace and sudden violence, such as crime and murder, characterize thrillers. The tension usually arises when the character(s) is placed in a dangerous situation, or a trap from which escaping seems impossible. Life is threatened, usually because the principal character is unsuspectingly or unknowingly involved in a dangerous or potentially deadly situation. Hitchcock's films often placed an innocent victim (an average, responsible person) into a strange, life-threatening or terrorizing situation, in a case of mistaken identity or wrongful accusation. Thrillers take place mostly in ordinary suburbs and cities, although sometimes they may take place wholly or partly in exotic settings such as foreign cities, deserts, polar regions, or the high seas. These usually tough, resourceful, but essentially ordinary heroes are pitted against villains determined to destroy them, their country, or the stability of the free world. Often in a thriller movie, the protagonist is faced with what seem to be insurmountable problems in his mission, carried out against a ticking clock, the stakes are high and although resourceful, they face personal dilemmas along the way forcing them to make sacrifices for others. History in literature Ancient epic poems such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, Homer's Odyssey and the Mahābhārata may have used similar narrative techniques to modern thrillers. The Three Apples, a tale in the One Thousand and One Nights (Arabian Nights), is a murder mystery with multiple plot twists and detective fiction elements. In this tale, a fisherman discovers a heavy locked chest along the Tigris river and he sells it to the Abbasid Caliph, Harun al-Rashid, who then has the chest broken open only to find inside it the dead body of a young woman who was cut into pieces. Harun orders his vizier, Ja'far ibn Yahya, to solve the crime and find the murderer within three days. This whodunit mystery has also been considered a detective story, though it lacks a sleuth. The Count of Monte Cristo (1844) is a swashbuckling revenge thriller about a man named Edmond Dantès who is betrayed by his friends and sent to languish in the notorious Château d'If. His only companion is an old man who teaches him everything from philosophy to mathematics to swordplay. Just before the old man dies, he reveals to Dantès the secret location of a great treasure. Shortly after, Dantès engineers a daring escape and uses the treasure to reinvent himself as the Count of Monte Cristo. Thirsting for vengeance, he sets out to punish those who destroyed his life. The first recognizable modern thriller was Erskine Childer’s The Riddle of the Sands (1903), in which two young Englishmen stumble upon a secret German armada preparing to invade their homeland. The Thirty-Nine Steps (1915) is an early thriller by John Buchan, in which an innocent man becomes the prime suspect in a murder case and finds himself on the run from both the police and enemy spies. The Spy Who Came in from the Cold (1963) by John le Carré is set in the world of Cold War espionage and helped to usher in an era of thriller fiction based around professional spies and the battle of wits between rival spymasters. Television There have been at least two television series called simply Thriller, one made in the U.S. in the 1960s and one made in the UK in the 1970s. Although in no way linked, both series consisted of one-off dramas, each utilising the familiar motifs of the genre. The Twilight Zone consists of suspenseful unrelated dramas depicting characters dealing with paranormal, futuristic, supernatural, or otherwise disturbing or unusual events. Characters who find themselves dealing with these strange, sometimes inexplicable happenings are said to have crossed over into "The Twilight Zone". Each story typically features a moral and a surprise ending. See also Thriller film Adventure fiction Giallo Horror and terror International Thriller Writers List of thriller films List of thriller writers Spy fiction Suspense References External links What Is A Thriller at celadonbooks.com. 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237275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lantern	Lantern	A lantern is an often portable source of lighting, typically featuring a protective enclosure for the light sourcehistorically usually a candle or a wick in oil, and often a battery-powered light in modern timesto make it easier to carry and hang up, and make it more reliable outdoors or in drafty interiors. Lanterns may also be used for signaling, as torches, or as general light-sources outdoors. Use The lantern enclosure was primarily used to prevent a burning candle or wick being extinguished from wind, rain or other causes. Some antique lanterns have only a metal grid, indicating their function was to protect the candle or wick during transportation and avoid the excess heat from the top to avoid unexpected fires. Another important function was to reduce the risk of fire should a spark leap from the flame or the light be dropped. This was especially important below deck on ships: a fire on a wooden ship was a major catastrophe. Use of unguarded lights was taken so seriously that obligatory use of lanterns, rather than unprotected flames, below decks was written into one of the few known remaining examples of a pirate code, on pain of severe punishment. Lanterns may also be used for signaling. In naval operations, ships used lights to communicate at least as far back as the Middle Ages; the use of a lantern that blinks code to transmit a message dates to the mid-1800s. In railroad operations, lanterns have multiple uses. Permanent lanterns on poles are used to signal trains about the operational status of the track ahead, sometimes with color gels in front of the light to signify stop, etc. Historically, a flagman at a level crossing used a lantern to stop cars and other vehicular traffic before a train arrived. Lanterns also provided a means to signal from train-to-train or from station-to-train. A "dark lantern" was a candle lantern with a sliding shutter so that a space could be conveniently made dark without extinguishing the candle. For example, in the Sherlock Holmes story "The Red-Headed League", the detective and police make their way down to a bank vault by lantern light but then put a 'screen over that dark lantern' in order to wait in the dark for thieves to finish tunneling. This type of lantern could also preserve the light source for sudden use when needed. Lanterns may be used in religious observances. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, lanterns are used in religious processions and liturgical entrances, usually coming before the processional cross. Lanterns are also used to transport the Holy Fire from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on Great Saturday during Holy Week. Lanterns are used in many Asian festivals. During the Ghost Festival, lotus shaped lanterns are set afloat in rivers and seas to symbolically guide the lost souls of forgotten ancestors to the afterlife. During the Lantern Festival, the displaying of many lanterns is still a common sight on the 15th day of the first lunar month throughout China. During other Chinese festivities, kongming lanterns (sky lanterns) can be seen floating high into the air. Lanterns are the central theme of the Seoul Lantern Festival in South Korea. However, some jurisdictions and organizations ban the use of sky lanterns because of concerns about fire and safety. The term "lantern" can be used more generically to mean a light source, or the enclosure for a light source, even if it is not portable. Decorative lanterns exist in a wide range of designs. Some hang from buildings, such as street lights enclosed in glass panes. Others are placed on or just above the ground; low-light varieties can function as decoration or landscape lighting, and can be a variety of colours and sizes. The housing for the top lamp and lens section of a lighthouse may be called a lantern. Etymology The word lantern comes via French from Latin meaning "lamp, torch," possibly itself derived from Greek. An alternate historical spelling was "lanthorn", believed to derive from the early use of horn windows. Construction Lanterns were usually made from a metal frame with several sides (usually four, but up to eight) or round, commonly with a hook or a hoop of metal on top. Windows of some translucent material may be fitted in the sides; these are now usually glass or plastic but formerly were thin sheets of animal horn, or tinplate punched with holes or decorative patterns. Paper lanterns are made in societies around the world. A lantern generally contains a burning light source: a candle, liquid oil with a wick, or gas with a mantle. The ancient Chinese sometimes captured fireflies in transparent or semi-transparent containers and used them as (short-term) lanterns, and use of fireflies in transparent containers was also a widespread practice in ancient India; however, since these were short-term solutions, the use of fire torches was more prevalent. Modern varieties often place an electric light in a decorative glass case. History Lanterns have been used functionally, for light rather than decoration, since antiquity. Some used a wick in oil, while others were essentially protected candle-holders. Before the development of glass sheets, animal horn scraped thin and flattened was used as the translucent window. Beginning in the Middle Ages, European towns hired watchmen to patrol the streets at night, as a crime deterrent. Each watchman carried a lantern or oil lamp against the darkness. The practice continued up through at least the 18th century. Public spaces became increasingly lit with lanterns in the 1500s, especially following the invention of lanterns with glass windows, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parlement decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Beginning in 1667 during the reign of King Louis XIV, thousands of street lights were installed in Parisian streets and intersections. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended apart on a cord over the middle of the street at a height of ; as an English visitor enthused in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, public street lighting was implemented around the end of the 17th century; a diarist wrote in 1712 that ‘All the way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen's Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating the roads on dark nights.’ Modern lanterns Fueled lanterns All fueled lanterns are somewhat hazardous owing to the danger of handling flammable and toxic fuel, danger of fire or burns from the high temperatures involved, and potential dangers from carbon monoxide poisoning if used in an enclosed environment. Simple wick lanterns remain available. They are cheap and durable and usually can provide enough light for reading. They require periodic trimming of the wick and regular cleaning of soot from the inside of the glass chimney. Mantle lanterns use a woven ceramic impregnated gas mantle to accept and re-radiate heat as visible light from a flame. The mantle does not burn (but the cloth matrix carrying the ceramic must be "burned out" with a match prior to its first use). When heated by the operating flame the mantle becomes incandescent and glows brightly. The heat may be provided by a gas, by kerosene, or by a pressurized liquid such as "white gas", which is essentially naphtha. For protection from the high temperatures produced and to stabilize the airflow, a cylindrical glass shield called the globe or chimney is placed around the mantle. Manually pressurized lanterns using white gas (also marketed as Coleman fuel or "Camp Fuel") are manufactured by the Coleman Company in one and two-mantle models. Some models are dual fuel and can also use gasoline. These are being supplanted by a battery-powered fluorescent lamp and LED models, which are safer in the hands of young people and inside tents. Liquid fuel lanterns remain popular where the fuel is easily obtained and in common use. Many portable mantle-type fuel lanterns now use fuel gases that become liquid when compressed, such as propane, either alone or combined with butane. Such lamps usually use a small disposable steel container to provide the fuel. The ability to refuel without liquid fuel handling increases safety. Additional fuel supplies for such lamps have an indefinite shelf life if the containers are protected from moisture (which can cause corrosion of the container) and excess heat. Electric lanterns Lanterns designed as permanently mounted electric lighting fixtures are used in interior, landscape, and civic lighting applications. Styles can evoke former eras, unify street furniture themes, or enhance aesthetic considerations. They are manufactured for use with various wired voltage supplies. Various battery types are used in portable light sources. They are more convenient, safer, and produce less heat than combustion lights. Solar-powered lanterns have become popular in developing countries, where they provide a safer and cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps. Lanterns utilizing LEDs are popular as they are more energy-efficient and rugged than other types, and prices of LEDs suitable for lighting have dropped. Some rechargeable fluorescent lanterns may be plugged in at all times and may be set up to illuminate upon a power failure, a useful feature in some applications. During extensive power failures (or for remote use), supplemental recharging may be provided from an automobile's 12-volt electrical system or from a modest solar-powered charger. Gallery Hand-held lanterns Exterior lighting In popular culture The derived term "lantern jaw[ed]" is used in two quite different still current ways, comparing faces with different types of lantern. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it refers to "long thin jaws, giving a hollow appearance to the cheek"; this use was recorded in 1361, referring to a lantern with concave horn sides before glass was in use. Another meaning of "lantern jaw" compares a lantern with a jutting base – such as the 15th-century example above – to the face of a person with the extended chin of mandibular prognathism; this condition was also known as Habsburg jaw or Habsburg lip, as it was a hereditary feature of the House of Habsburg (see, for example, portraits of ). Raise the Red Lantern, a 1991 Chinese film, prominently features lanterns as a motif. "The Tell-Tale Heart", a short story by Edgar Allan Poe, features the use of a dark lantern by the protagonist to shine a single ray of light on his victim's eye. 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237303	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce%20Almighty	Bruce Almighty	Bruce Almighty is a 2003 American fantasy comedy film directed by Tom Shadyac and written by Steve Koren, Mark O'Keefe and Steve Oedekerk. The film stars Jim Carrey as Bruce Nolan, a down-on-his-luck television reporter who complains to God (played by Morgan Freeman) that he is not doing his job correctly and is offered the chance to try being God himself for one week. The film is Shadyac and Carrey's third collaboration, as they had worked together previously on Ace Ventura: Pet Detective in 1994 and Liar Liar in 1997. It co-stars Jennifer Aniston, Philip Baker Hall and Steve Carell. When released in American theaters on May 23, 2003, Bruce Almighty opened to mixed reviews from critics, but was a box-office success and grossed $85.9 million, making it the top Memorial Day opening weekend of any film in history at the time. The film surprised film pundits when it beat The Matrix Reloaded the following weekend. By the end of its theatrical run, the film had made $242 million domestically and a total $484 million worldwide, making it Carrey's highest-grossing film worldwide, as well as the fifth-highest-grossing film of 2003. Evan Almighty, a spin-off sequel focusing on Steve Carell's character, with Shadyac and Oedekerk returning to direct and write, and Freeman also reprising his role, was released on June 22, 2007. Plot Bruce Nolan is a television field reporter for Eyewitness News on WKBW-TV in Buffalo, New York, but desires to be the news anchorman. When Bruce is passed over for promotion by his rival, Evan Baxter, he becomes furious and vents on live T.V.; his actions lead to him being fired from the station. Following a series of misfortunes, Bruce takes his anger out on God and complains that "He's the one that should be fired". Bruce receives a message on his pager, which takes him to an empty warehouse where he meets God. God offers to give Bruce His powers to prove that He is doing the job correctly. God only gives Bruce two rules: he cannot tell others he has God's powers, nor can he use the powers to alter free will. Bruce is initially jubilant with the powers, using them for personal gain, such as exposing a woman's panties, getting his job back, and impressing his girlfriend, Grace Connelly. Bruce finds ways of using his powers around Buffalo to cause miraculous events to occur at otherwise mundane events that he covers, such as discovering Jimmy Hoffa's body or causing a meteor to harmlessly land near a cook-off, earning him the name "Mr. Exclusive". Bruce then causes Evan to embarrass himself on-air, causing Evan to be fired in favor of Bruce as the new anchor. During this, Bruce continues to hear voices in his head. He later re-encounters God, who explains that the voices are prayers, meant for God, that Bruce must deal with. Bruce creates a computerized email-like system to receive the prayers and respond but finds that the influx is far too many for him to handle—even though God has stated that Bruce is only receiving prayers from a section of the Buffalo area—and sets the program to answer every prayer Yes automatically. Bruce attends a party celebrating his promotion. When Grace arrives, she finds Bruce kissing his co-anchor, Susan Ortega, after she forcefully comes on to him, and quickly leaves. Bruce follows her, trying to use his powers to convince her to stay but cannot influence her free will. As Bruce looks around, he realizes that Buffalo has fallen into chaos due to his actions: parts of the city believe the Apocalypse is nearly upon Earth due to the meteor strikes, while a large number of people, all having prayed to win the multi-million dollar lottery and finding they all won reducing their prize to a few dollars, have started rioting in the streets. Bruce returns to God, who explains that He cannot solve all the problems and Bruce must figure out a way himself. Bruce then goes about helping people without using his powers, including giving Evan his job back. As Bruce reads through the prayers on his computer, he finds several from Grace, wishing for his success and well-being. As Bruce reads it, another prayer from Grace arrives, this one wishing to not be in love with him anymore. Bruce is stunned and walks alone on a highway. Heartbroken, he asks God to take back His powers and letting his fate be in His hands. Bruce is suddenly hit by a truck and regains his consciousness in a white void. God appears, and He asks Bruce what he really wants; Bruce admits that he only wants to make sure Grace finds a man that would make her happy. God agrees and brings Bruce back to life. Bruce wakes up and finds himself in the hospital. Grace arrives shortly after. She and Bruce rekindle their relationship, and later become engaged. Following his recovery, Bruce returns to field reporting, and continues to report offbeat news stories. Cast Jim Carrey as Bruce Nolan Morgan Freeman as God Jennifer Aniston as Grace Connelly, Bruce's girlfriend Catherine Bell as Susan Ortega, Bruce's co-anchor Steve Carell as Evan Baxter (credited as Steven Carell), Bruce's rival Philip Baker Hall as Jack Baylor Lisa Ann Walter as Debbie Connelly, Grace's sister Paul Satterfield as Dallas Coleman Nora Dunn as Ally Loman Eddie Jemison as Bobby Sally Kirkland as Anita Mann Micah Stephen Williams as boy on bike Tony Bennett as himself Carlos Sánchez as Juan Valdez John Murphy as himself Madeline Lovejoy as Zoe Noel Gugliemi as Hector Production Filming of Buffalo was done in the "New York Street" at Universal Studios Hollywood. The restaurant with Tony Bennett was filmed at Cicada, in the James Oviatt Building, downtown Los Angeles. The spa scene with Jennifer Aniston was filmed in the Shoin building at The Japanese Garden in Los Angeles. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has a score of 48% based on 193 reviews, with an average rating of 5.70/10. The site's critical consensus reads, "Carrey is hilarious in the slapstick scenes, but Bruce Almighty gets bogged down in treacle." On Metacritic, it has a score of 46 out of 100, based on 35 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three out of four stars, calling it: "A charmer, the kind of movie where Bruce learns that while he may not ever make a very good God, the experience may indeed make him a better television newsman." Ebert praised Aniston's performance: "Aniston, as a sweet kindergarten teacher and fiancee, shows again (after "The Good Girl") that she really will have a movie career." Varietys Robert Koehler gave the film a mixed review: "There's remarkably little done with a premise snatched from high-concept heaven, adding yet another file to the growing cabinet of under-realized comedies." The film was released in the United Kingdom on June 27, 2003, and topped the country's box office that weekend. The Los Angeles Times gave it a negative review and called it "not so mighty." Controversies The film was banned in Egypt because of its portrayal of God as an ordinary man. Bans in both Malaysia and Egypt were eventually lifted after the nations' censorship boards gave the film their highest rating (18-PL in the case of Malaysia). As God contacts Bruce using an actual phone number rather than one in the standard fictional 555 telephone exchange, several people and groups sharing this number received hundreds of phone calls from people wanting to talk to God, including a church in North Carolina, US (where the minister was named Bruce), a pastor in northern Wisconsin and a man running a sandwich shop in Manchester, England. The producers noted that the number (776-2323) was not in use in the area code (716, which was never specified on screen) in the film's story, but did not check anywhere else. For the home-video and television versions of the film, the number was changed to the fictional 555–0123. Sequel A sequel and spin-off, titled Evan Almighty, was released on June 22, 2007, with Steve Carell reprising his role as Evan Baxter and Morgan Freeman returning to his role as God. Although Shadyac returned to direct the sequel, neither Carrey nor Aniston was involved with the film, and Carrey's character, Bruce, is never mentioned in the film. The film was a critical and commercial failure. Accolades Soundtrack The soundtrack was released on June 3, 2003, by Varèse Sarabande. Tracks 8-13 are from the score composed by John Debney, performed by the Hollywood Studio Symphony (conducted by Pete Anthony) with Brad Dechter and Sandy De Crescent. Track listing "One of Us" - Joan Osborne "God Shaped Hole" - Plumb "You're a God" - Vertical Horizon "The Power" - Snap! "A Little Less Conversation" - Elvis vs. JXL "The Rockafeller Skank" - Fatboy Slim "God Gave Me Everything" - Mick Jagger featuring Lenny Kravitz "AB Positive" "Walking on Water" "Seventh at Seven" "Bruce Meets God" "Bruce's Prayer" "Grace's Prayer" Adaptations Arai En 305-il Kadavul God Tussi Great Ho Evan Almighty, a follow-up film starring Steve Carell instead of Carrey The Story of God with Morgan Freeman, a spin-off documentary television series starring Morgan Freeman References External links 2003 films 2003 comedy films 2003 fantasy films 2000s fantasy-comedy films American films American fantasy-comedy films English-language films Films about Christianity Films about God Films about television Films about wish fulfillment Films directed by Tom Shadyac Films scored by John Debney Films set in Buffalo, New York Films shot in Los Angeles Films with screenplays by Steve Oedekerk Religious comedy films Spyglass Entertainment films Universal Pictures films Censored films Religious 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237305	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abel%27s%20theorem	Abel's theorem	In mathematics, Abel's theorem for power series relates a limit of a power series to the sum of its coefficients. It is named after Norwegian mathematician Niels Henrik Abel. Theorem Let be a power series with real coefficients with radius of convergence Suppose that the series converges. Then is continuous from the left at that is, The same theorem holds for complex power series provided that within a Stolz sector, that is, a region of the open unit disk where for some Without this restriction, the limit may fail to exist: for example, the power series converges to at but is unbounded near any point of the form so the value at is not the limit as tends to 1 in the whole open disk. Note that is continuous on the real closed interval for by virtue of the uniform convergence of the series on compact subsets of the disk of convergence. Abel's theorem allows us to say more, namely that is continuous on Remarks As an immediate consequence of this theorem, if is any nonzero complex number for which the series converges, then it follows that in which the limit is taken from below. The theorem can also be generalized to account for sums which diverge to infinity. If then However, if the series is only known to be divergent, but for reasons other than diverging to infinity, then the claim of the theorem may fail: take, for example, the power series for At the series is equal to but We also remark the theorem holds for radii of convergence other than : let be a power series with radius of convergence and suppose the series converges at Then is continuous from the left at that is, Applications The utility of Abel's theorem is that it allows us to find the limit of a power series as its argument (that is, ) approaches from below, even in cases where the radius of convergence, of the power series is equal to and we cannot be sure whether the limit should be finite or not. See for example, the binomial series. Abel's theorem allows us to evaluate many series in closed form. For example, when we obtain by integrating the uniformly convergent geometric power series term by term on ; thus the series converges to by Abel's theorem. Similarly, converges to is called the generating function of the sequence Abel's theorem is frequently useful in dealing with generating functions of real-valued and non-negative sequences, such as probability-generating functions. In particular, it is useful in the theory of Galton–Watson processes. Outline of proof After subtracting a constant from we may assume that Let Then substituting and performing a simple manipulation of the series (summation by parts) results in Given pick large enough so that for all and note that when lies within the given Stolz angle. Whenever is sufficiently close to we have so that when is both sufficiently close to and within the Stolz angle. Related concepts Converses to a theorem like Abel's are called Tauberian theorems: There is no exact converse, but results conditional on some hypothesis. The field of divergent series, and their summation methods, contains many theorems of abelian type and of tauberian type. See also Further reading - Ahlfors called it Abel's limit theorem. External links (a more general look at Abelian theorems of this type) Theorems in real analysis Theorems in complex analysis Mathematical series Niels Henrik Abel Summability methods	[ -0.4300355315208435, -0.252104789018631, -0.3989916741847992, -0.1318824589252472, -0.6875547170639038, -0.12640473246574402, 0.05457279458642006, -0.577334463596344, 0.11769221723079681, -0.537162721157074, -0.3802974224090576, 0.10451071709394455, -0.4741397798061371, 0.18036334216594696, -0.04110677167773247, 0.5023263096809387, -0.0180239025503397, 0.44318097829818726, -0.8859114646911621, -0.6413402557373047, 0.6284594535827637, 0.42920151352882385, 0.7084624171257019, -0.06948548555374146, 0.0054262056946754456, -0.11872665584087372, 0.30705976486206055, 0.12223274260759354, 0.22514212131500244, 0.7226487398147583, -0.29992225766181946, 0.5096318125724792, 0.31434881687164307, 0.08378034085035324, 0.2951734960079193, 0.029061291366815567, 0.4071761965751648, 0.035758648067712784, 0.162917360663414, 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237307	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony%20Lovato	Tony Lovato	Anthony Cappiello John Lovato (born June 20, 1980) is an American musician who serves as the vocalist and guitarist of the pop punk band Mest. Early life Lovato was born in Blue Island, Illinois. He started getting involved in music at 12 years old and played drums for the White power band Confederate Storm. Lovato later condemned his actions, stating that he left the band at the age of 13 or 14, thinking, "This isn't who I am. I've got Mexican friends and I've got black friends, and I don't dislike them, so how can I be part of this when my true feelings are everything that's not that?" He later became involved in anti-racist activism, drawing on his experience to educate others on issues of race and influence. Musical career Mest (1995–2006, 2008–present) Lovato, his brother Steve and their cousin Matt founded Mest in 1995. Lovato wrote the majority of the lyrics for their self-released debut studio album Mo' Money, Mo' 40z, released in 1998. Their major label debut, Wasting Time, was released in July 2000 via Maverick Records. Their third studio album Destination Unknown, was released in October 2001. The band's self-titled album was released in June 2003, produced by John Feldmann. Their fifth album, Photographs, was released in October 2005. In 2006, the band announced on their Myspace page that they were disbanding. In October 2008, Lovato staged a reunion tour of Mest, with Steve Lovato taking bass guitar duties, Chris Wilson (formerly of Good Charlotte) taking over on drums, and Ryan Clayton covering lead guitar. None of the other former members of Mest took part in the reunion. A brief reunion a few years later set the stage for the band to get back together, and they toured as well as releasing the sixth studio album Not What You Expected in January 2013. Their first acoustic album, Broken Down, was released in March 2014, and their second, Broken Down 2, in October 2017. On September 13, 2019, they released a single titled "The Upside Down" from the seventh studio album, Masquerade, which was released in January 2020. Kisses for Kings (2006–2011) In 2006, after Lovato moved to Los Angeles, he started his new project, A Permanent Holiday. Founding members included Jordon "Charlie Scene" Terrell (of Hollywood Undead) on guitar, Jorell "J-Dog" Decker (of Hollywood Undead) on bass and Adam Garbett (of Just Ask) on drums. Shortly after its launch, he gave a preview of the new project with several demos including "The Thought of You", "A Taste of Honesty", "The Night" and another unmixed demo called "SOS". They have performed on the 2007 Warped Tour and toured in July 2009 with Hollywood Undead, Red Jumpsuit Apparatus and The Sleeping on the "Taking Care of Business Tour". In 2009, the band announced they would be returning with new name Kisses for Kings an entirely new lineup – Lovato on vocals, Mike Longworth on guitar, Ryan Clayton on bass, and Richie Gonzales on drums – and released five demo tracks titled "Like Always" (featuring M. Shadows), "Forgive Me", "Bad Disease", "You Don't Know What I Know" and "Risk It All". In May 2010, the band released debut EP Forget to Remember which included collaborations with Deuce, Johnny 3 Tears and Craig Mabbitt. After releasing the EP in 2010, no public updates were made regarding the future of Kisses for Kings. London Falling (2015) In 2015, Lovato started new project with former bassist Falling in Reverse, Ronnie Ficarro, called London Falling. In April 2016, the band released their debut single "Nightmare" off their upcoming EP. In 2015, Lovato performed twice for each concert on the Three-Headed Monstour, once with London Falling and once with Mest. Other appearances Lovato appeared in Good Charlotte's music videos for "Festival Song", "The Anthem" and "Like It's Her Birthday". He also made an appearance in Escape the Fate's music video "Something" and "City of Sin", Hollywood Undead's music video "Everywhere I Go" and The Vibrators's music video "One More". Legal issues In 2007, Lovato was jailed on suspicion of murder in Los Angeles after police said he confessed to stabbing his then-current girlfriend's ex-boyfriend. He was held in lieu of $1 million bail after telling police that he was assaulted earlier in the day by Wayne Hughes, 25, in the underground parking lot of Archstone Apartments in the suburb of Studio City. On March 26, 2007, Good Charlotte's Benji and Joel Madden expressed their sadness, telling MTV Radio, "We're all praying for him. We're really bummed. We all have faith that it'll all work out for the best." The following day, Lovato was released from jail and homicide charges against him were dropped. A spokeswoman for the Los Angeles District Attorney's office stated: "We determined that the suspect and victim had dated the same girl back-and-forth for over a year. There had been threats, and the victim sent several threatening messages to the suspect. Apparently, there was some mutual combat and Lovato attempted to separate himself from the victim when the victim challenged him to a fight. The victim followed Lovato to an isolated spot in the underground garage and tried to fight him. Lovato defended himself, and there was insufficient evidence to show that it was not a justifiable use of reasonable force in self-defense." Discography with Mest Mo' Money, Mo' 40z (1998) Wasting Time (2000) Destination Unknown (2001) Mest (2003) Photographs (2005) Not What You Expected (2013) Broken Down (2014) Broken Down 2 (2017) Masquerade (2020) with Kisses for Kings Forget to Remember (EP; 2010) with London Falling "Nightmare" (single, 2016) Collaborations "Stand Your Ground" by Holly Would Surrender (Kaleidoscope, 2016) "Gone Forever" by NewDrive (Closed Doors and Broken Mirrors, 2016) "Where the Highway Ends" by TLE (Single, 2018) "The World in My Hands" by Ice Nine Kills (The Silver Scream, 2018) "Can You Feel the Love Tonight" by Punk Rock Factory (A Whole New Wurst, 2020) References External links Tony Lovato on Twitter 1980 births American punk rock musicians American people of Italian descent Living people Singers from Illinois People from Blue Island, Illinois American male guitarists Guitarists from Illinois 21st-century American singers 21st-century American guitarists 21st-century American male singers	[ 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237326	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Stookey	Paul Stookey	Noel Paul Stookey (born December 30, 1937) is an American singer-songwriter. Stookey is known as "Paul" in the folk trio Peter, Paul and Mary; however, he has been known by his first name, Noel, throughout his life. He continues to work as a singer and an activist, performing as a solo artist, and occasionally performing with Peter Yarrow. Early life Stookey was born in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. His family moved to Birmingham, Michigan, when he was 12 years old, and he graduated from Birmingham High School (now Seaholm High School) in 1955. Stookey is an alumnus of Michigan State University (MSU) in East Lansing, Michigan. While attending MSU, he joined Delta Upsilon fraternity. Though he credits a deep spiritual core for his work, Stookey "dispelled reports that he was born a Buddhist, saying his mother was a Roman Catholic and his dad was an ex-Mormon" and recalling the family's "eclectic attendance at church. I had no real spiritual sense until I was 30.'" Personal life Stookey married Elizabeth "Betty" Bannard in 1963 and they have three daughters. After raising their family in Blue Hill, Maine, the couple lived for several years in Massachusetts while Betty served as the Northfield Mount Hermon School chaplain, and in 2005, they returned to Maine. Stookey originally recorded his solo albums in his private studio—a converted chicken coop—on his Maine property. This studio, known as "The Henhouse", was also the origin point of the first broadcasts of WERU upon that station's inception in 1988. Stookey is a born again Christian. Music career Peter, Paul and Mary Performing as Paul in the Peter, Paul and Mary trio, he participated in one of the best-known ensembles of the 1960s phase of the American folk music revival, and included some of his solo songs and extended monologues in their performances and recordings. In addition to his recordings with the trio, he released a number of solo works, several albums with the ensemble Bodyworks, and some anthologies. He was an important artist in the young Jesus music movement, which would later bloom into the Christian music industry, although his generally liberal political views distinguish him from many such artists. In 1986, Stookey teamed up with Jim Newton, Paul G. Hill, and Denny Bouchard at Celebration Shop in Texas. The company, now known as Hugworks, uses original musical compositions as music therapy to address the special needs of children. The company has produced three award-winning children's CDs used in hospitals, medical camps and homes across the country. Stookey was awarded the Kate Wolf Memorial Award by the World Folk Music Association in 2000. After Peter, Paul and Mary Paul performed as a member of Peter, Paul and Mary until the death of Mary in September 2009. His work after Peter, Paul and Mary has emphasized his Christian faith, family life and social concerns. He remains active in the music industry, performing as a solo act, and also performing occasionally with Peter Yarrow. In 2000 Noel and his daughter, Elizabeth Stookey Sunde, founded the nonprofit Music to Life, which builds on the strong historical legacy of social movements' intentional use of music to educate, recruit, and mobilize. M2L revitalizes music to meet the challenges of the modern world and revolutionize the role activist artists can play in accelerating social change. Music to Life understands the complexity of contemporary causes and the diversity of musical genres. They blend this knowledge with multimedia technologies and programming techniques to develop unique musical experiences that amplify an organization's message, spark engagement with a cause, and empower activist artists to stand on the front lines of social change. In January 2011, centered on Martin Luther King Jr. Day, Stookey participated in several events at Dartmouth College that celebrated King's life, including "Music for Social Change with Noel Paul Stookey and Company." Compositions Stookey's best-known composition is "The Wedding Song (There Is Love)", that charted in 1971 and remains popular for performance during wedding services. He wrote the song as a wedding gift for Peter Yarrow, and refused to perform it for the public until Yarrow requested it at a concert where his wife was present. Stookey assigned the copyright of this song to the Public Domain Foundation, a nonprofit 501(c)3 that facilitates the creation and impact of music for social change (M4SC). Generating over $1.5 million for charity worldwide, PDF has facilitated the creation of M4SC through its Music to Life (M2L) contest and other educational, entertainment and outreach activities, bringing together the global community, communicating how activism through music is alive and possible. Production He also has production credits on albums by several lesser-known singer-songwriters, including Dave Mallett and Gordon Bok. He was the founder of the Neworld Multimedia record label. Charting Single – Billboard (United States) Discography {\| class="wikitable" !Year !Title !Record Label \|- \|2022 \|fazz:NOW&THEN \|Neworld Multimedia \|- \|2018 \|something' special – a noel paul stookey holiday recollection \|Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2017 \| Summerfallwinterspring (four-song EP) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2015 \| At Home: The Maine Tour (DVD and CD) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2012 \| The Cabin Fever Waltz (EP with the Bangor Symphony Orchestra) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2012 \| One & Many \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2012 \| Cue the Moon (digital download EP) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2012 \| Capricious Bird (digital download EP) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2012 \| One Voice and One Guitar (digital download EP) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2007 \| Facets \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2004 \| Virtual Party \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2002 \| Circuit Rider (A Noel Paul Stookey / Bodyworks compilation) \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 2001 \| There Is Love (A Holiday Music Celebration) with Michael Kelly Blanchard \| Neworld Multimedia \|- \| 1990 \| In Love Beyond Our Lives (Noel Paul Stookey/ Bodyworks) \| Gold Castle \|- \| 1985 \| State of the Heart (Noel Paul Stookey/ Bodyworks) \| Newpax \|- \| 1984 \| There Is Love (A Noel Paul Stookey Anthology) \| Newpax \|- \| 1982 \| Wait'll You Hear This (Noel Paul Stookey/ Bodyworks) \| Newpax \|- \| 1979 \| Band & Bodyworks (Noel Paul Stookey/ Bodyworks) \| Neworld \|- \| 1977 \| Something New And Fresh \| Neworld \|- \| 1977 \| Real To Reel \| Neworld \|- \| 1973 \| One Night Stand \| Warner Bros. \|- \| 1971 \| Paul And (Released August 16, 1971) \| Warner Bros \|- \| 1954 \| "The Birds Fly Home (The Birds of Paradise, Stookey's high school band)" \| Independent release \|} References External links Peter, Paul and Mary official website 1937 births Living people American folk guitarists American folk singers American male singer-songwriters Michigan State University alumni People from Blue Hill, Maine People from Greenwich Village People from Birmingham, Michigan American performers of Christian music Warner Records artists American baritones American acoustic guitarists American male guitarists Singer-songwriters from Michigan Guitarists from Michigan American banjoists 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American male musicians Singer-songwriters from New York (state)	[ -0.1845332831144333, 0.2363799810409546, -0.9118967056274414, -0.14141955971717834, -0.09674113243818283, 0.5420564413070679, 0.7210901379585266, 0.3302018940448761, -0.0788642168045044, -0.32950761914253235, 0.049632228910923004, 0.5524854063987732, -0.44755858182907104, 0.15452586114406586, -0.617294192314148, 0.2668716013431549, -0.25755980610847473, -0.1708659529685974, -0.14024126529693604, -0.1597418189048767, -0.3656536340713501, -0.3364792764186859, -0.04614967480301857, 0.1723007708787918, -0.03986645117402077, 0.5784024000167847, -0.2392183393239975, -0.29250359535217285, 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237327	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Travers%20%28disambiguation%29	Mary Travers (disambiguation)	Mary Travers (1936–2009) was an American singer-songwriter and member of the folk-pop group, Peter, Paul and Mary. Mary Travers may also refer to: Mary Rose-Anna Travers (1894–1941), Québécoise singer known as Madame Bolduc or La Bolduc Mary Travers (murder victim) (died 1984), victim of The Troubles murdered by IRA militant Mary McArdle Mary Travers Murphy (born 1958), former television journalist and politician Mary Widdicombe Travers (c. 1783–1854), Newfoundland entrepreneur and philanthropist	[ -0.31476879119873047, 0.17027641832828522, -0.6747058033943176, -0.17975862324237823, 0.1909954994916916, 0.8364685773849487, 1.2863935232162476, -0.14992699027061462, -0.7035189867019653, -0.20275723934173584, 0.45013925433158875, 0.1522170603275299, -0.06806596368551254, 0.5298680067062378, -0.8658376336097717, 0.13941903412342072, -0.054394323378801346, 0.2314264476299286, -0.16058628261089325, -0.4343207776546478, -0.24630363285541534, -0.310047447681427, 0.15493503212928772, -0.252810537815094, -0.29692724347114563, 0.5234754085540771, -0.07626352459192276, -0.43645960092544556, 0.41564640402793884, 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237330	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumbricals%20of%20the%20hand	Lumbricals of the hand	The lumbricals are intrinsic muscles of the hand that flex the metacarpophalangeal joints, and extend the interphalangeal joints. The lumbrical muscles of the foot also have a similar action, though they are of less clinical concern. Structure The lumbricals are four, small, worm-like muscles on each hand. These muscles are unusual in that they do not attach to bone. Instead, they attach proximally to the tendons of flexor digitorum profundus, and distally to the extensor expansions. The first and second lumbricals are unipennate, while the third and fourth lumbricals are bipennate. Nerve supply The first and second lumbricals (the most radial two) are innervated by the median nerve. The third and fourth lumbricals (most ulnar two) are innervated by the ulnar nerve. This is the usual innervation of the lumbricals (occurring in 60% of individuals). However 1:3 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) and 3:1 (median:ulnar - 20% of individuals) also exist. The lumbrical innervation always follows the innervation pattern of the associated muscle unit of flexor digitorum profundus (i.e. if the muscle units supplying the tendon to the middle finger are innervated by the median nerve, the second lumbrical will also be innervated by the median nerve). Blood supply Four separate sources supply blood to these muscles: the superficial palmar arch, the common palmar digital artery, the deep palmar arch, and the dorsal digital artery. Function The lumbrical muscles, with the help of the interosseous muscles, simultaneously flex the metacarpophalangeal joints while extending both interphalangeal joints of the digit on which it inserts. The lumbricals are used during an upstroke in writing. Etymology The term "lumbrical" comes from the Latin, meaning "worm". Additional images References Muscles of the upper limb Hand	[ -0.3283756375312805, -0.23800355195999146, 0.2630114257335663, -0.20513904094696045, -0.07399877160787582, 0.5030059218406677, -0.5018051266670227, 0.6435975432395935, -0.28317931294441223, -0.6768292188644409, 0.0646306499838829, 0.7282925844192505, 0.0569307766854763, -0.08543866127729416, -0.30042552947998047, 0.31235378980636597, 0.268341064453125, 0.08755727857351303, 0.3861713409423828, -0.28834226727485657, 0.18513630330562592, -0.12178858369588852, 0.5698026418685913, -0.023592878133058548, 0.33978182077407837, -0.11283944547176361, -0.28799545764923096, 0.3023582100868225, 0.1813397854566574, -0.2917572557926178, -0.7917723655700684, 0.9666369557380676, -0.2861707806587219, -1.0254616737365723, -0.21653273701667786, -0.5367751717567444, 0.27408039569854736, -0.7143246531486511, 0.11736757308244705, -0.39329323172569275, -0.05901125818490982, -0.13845226168632507, 0.30645042657852173, 0.34499305486679077, 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237332	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Patti%20Records	Black Patti Records	Black Patti Records was a short-lived American record label based in Chicago, Illinois, United States, founded by Mayo Williams in 1927. It was named after the black opera singer Matilda Sissieretta Joyner Jones, who was called Black Patti because some thought she resembled the Italian opera singer Adelina Patti. The label lasted seven months and produced 55 records. The Black Patti peacock logo was used in the 1960s by Nick Perls for his Belzona and Yazoo labels. At Paramount, Mayo Williams was a successful producer of race records, i.e., records made by black musicians to be sold to black customers. When he left Paramount to start Black Patti. he had no equipment, only his Chicago office space. The records were pressed at Gennett Records in Richmond, Indiana. The catalog included jazz, blues, sermons, spirituals, and vaudeville skits, most but not all by black entertainers. Willie Hightower was among the musicians who recorded for the label. Williams closed the label before the end of 1927. List of known Black Patti 78 rpm singles See also List of record labels References External links Mayo 'Ink' Williams biography American record labels Record labels established in 1927 Record labels disestablished in 1927 Blues record labels Jazz record labels	[ 0.22152309119701385, 0.25499123334884644, -0.9444758892059326, -0.11584971845149994, 0.0594753623008728, 0.403613418340683, -0.03749346360564232, 0.2692355811595917, -0.7227494716644287, -0.2271893173456192, 0.38738009333610535, 0.37939149141311646, -0.5806121826171875, 0.6961432695388794, -0.46522256731987, 0.2856164276599884, 0.21002957224845886, -0.2366158664226532, -0.3345426619052887, -0.5468037724494934, -0.08013918995857239, 0.06350108981132507, 0.3114703297615051, 0.23891054093837738, -0.5046923160552979, 0.2023548036813736, 0.16681231558322906, 0.13113325834274292, -0.33735206723213196, 0.4493993818759918, 0.4856201708316803, 0.27593132853507996, 0.3414738178253174, -0.03443759307265282, -0.13192035257816315, 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237339	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Te%20Deum	Te Deum	The "Te Deum" (, ; from its incipit, , ) is a Latin Christian hymn traditionally ascribed to AD 387 authorship, but with antecedents that place it much earlier. It is central to the Ambrosian hymnal, which spread throughout the Latin Church with other parts of the Milanese Rite in the 6th to 8th centuries. It is sometimes known as the "Ambrosian Hymn", although authorship by Saint Ambrose is unlikely. The term "Te Deum" can also refer to a short religious service (of blessing or thanks) based upon the hymn. History Authorship of the hymn is traditionally ascribed to Saint Ambrose (died 397) or Saint Augustine (died 430). In 19th-century scholarship, Saint Hilary of Poitiers (died 367) and Saint Nicetas of Remesiana (died 414) were proposed as possible authors. In the 20th century, the association with Nicetas has been deprecated, so that the hymn, while almost certainly dating to the 4th century, is considered as being of uncertain authorship. Authorship of Nicetas of Remesiana was suggested by the association of the name "Nicetas" with the hymn in manuscripts from the 10th century onward, and was particularly defended in the 1890s by Germain Morin. Hymnologists of the 20th century, especially Ernst Kähler (1958), have shown the association with "Nicetas" to be spurious. It has structural similarities with a eucharistic prayer and it has been proposed that it was originally composed as part of one. The hymn was part of the Old Hymnal since it was introduced to the Benedictine order in the 6th century, and it was preserved in the Frankish Hymnal of the 8th century. It was, however, removed from the New Hymnal which became prevalent in the 10th century. It was restored in the 12th century in hymnals that attempted to restore the praiseful intent of the rule of St. Benedict. In the traditional office, the "Te Deum" is sung at the end of Matins on all days when the Gloria is said at Mass; those days are all Sundays outside Advent, Septuagesima, Lent, and Passiontide; on all feasts (except the Triduum) and on all ferias during Eastertide. Before the 1961 reforms of Pope John XXIII, neither the Gloria nor the Te Deum were said on the feast of the Holy Innocents, unless it fell on Sunday, as they were martyred before the death of Christ and therefore could not immediately attain the beatific vision. In the Liturgy of the Hours of Pope Paul VI, the "Te Deum" is sung at the end of the Office of Readings on all Sundays except those of Lent, on all solemnities, on the octaves of Easter and Christmas, and on all feasts. A plenary indulgence is granted, under the usual conditions, to those who recite it in public on New Year's Eve. It is also used together with the standard canticles in Morning Prayer as prescribed in the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, as an option in Morning Prayer or Matins for Lutherans, and is retained by many churches of the Reformed tradition. The hymn is in regular use in the Catholic Church, Lutheran Church, Anglican Church and Methodist Church (mostly before the Homily) in the Office of Readings found in the Liturgy of the Hours, and in thanksgiving to God for a special blessing such as the election of a pope, the consecration of a bishop, the canonization of a saint, a religious profession, the publication of a treaty of peace, a royal coronation, etc. It is sung either after Mass or the Divine Office or as a separate religious ceremony. The hymn also remains in use in the Anglican Communion and some Lutheran Churches in similar settings. Text The petitions at the end of the hymn (beginning Salvum fac populum tuum) are a selection of verses from the book of Psalms, appended subsequently to the original hymn. The hymn follows the outline of the Apostles' Creed, mixing a poetic vision of the heavenly liturgy with its declaration of faith. Calling on the name of God immediately, the hymn proceeds to name all those who praise and venerate God, from the hierarchy of heavenly creatures to those Christian faithful already in heaven to the Church spread throughout the world. The hymn then returns to its credal formula, naming Christ and recalling his birth, suffering and death, his resurrection and glorification. At this point the hymn turns to the subjects declaiming the praise, both the universal Church and the singer in particular, asking for mercy on past sins, protection from future sin, and the hoped-for reunification with the elect. Latin and English text In the Book of Common Prayer, verse is written in half-lines, at which reading pauses, indicated by colons in the text. Service A Te Deum service is a short religious service, based upon the singing of the hymn, held to give thanks. In Sweden, for example, it may be held in the Royal Chapel in connection with the birth of a Prince or Princess, christenings, milestone birthdays, jubilees and other important events within the Royal Family of Sweden. In Luxembourg, a service is held annually in the presence of the Grand-Ducal Family to celebrate the Grand Duke's Official Birthday, which is also the nation's national day, on either 23 or 24 June. It is also celebrated in some South American countries such as Argentina, Chile, and Peru on their national days. Musical settings The text has been set to music by many composers, with settings by Zelenka, Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Berlioz, Verdi, Bruckner, Furtwängler, Dvořák, Britten, Kodály, and Pärt among the better known. Jean-Baptiste Lully wrote a setting of Te Deum for the court of Louis XIV of France, and received a fatal injury while conducting it. Michel Richard de Lalande wrote a setting of the "Te Deum", S.32. The prelude to Marc-Antoine Charpentier's setting is well known in Europe on account of its being used as the theme music for Eurovision network broadcasts of the European Broadcasting Union, most notably the Eurovision Song Contest and Jeux Sans Frontières. He wrote also three other settings of the "Te Deum": H.145, H.147, H.148. Henry Desmarets, two settings of Te Deum (1687). Louis-Nicolas Clérambault wrote three settings of the "Te Deum": C.135, C.136, C.155. Earlier it had been used as the theme music for Bud Greenspan's documentary series, The Olympiad. Sir William Walton's Coronation Te Deum was written for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Other English settings include those by Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Henry Purcell, Edward Elgar, and Herbert Howells, as well as five settings by George Frideric Handel and three settings by Charles Villiers Stanford. Puccini's opera Tosca features a dramatic performance of the initial part of the "Te Deum" at the end of Act I. The traditional chant melody was the basis for elaborate "Te Deum" compositions by notable French composer organists, Louis Marchand, Guillaume Lasceux, Charles Tournemire (1930), Jean Langlais (1934), and Jeanne Demessieux (1958), which are still widely performed today. A version by Father Michael Keating is popular in some Charismatic circles. Mark Hayes wrote a setting of the text in 2005, with Latin phrases interpolated amid primarily English lyrics. In 1978, British hymnodist Christopher Idle wrote God We Praise You, a version of the text in 8.7.8.7.D meter, set to the tune Rustington. British composer John Rutter has composed two settings of this hymn, one entitled Te Deum and the other Winchester Te Deum. Igor Stravinsky set the first 12 lines of the text as part of The Flood in 1962. Antony Pitts was commissioned by the London Festival of Contemporary Church Music to write a setting for the 2011 10th Anniversary Festival. The 18th-century German hymn Großer Gott, wir loben dich is a free translation of the Te Deum, which was translated into English in the 19th century as "Holy God, We Praise Thy Name." Te Deum by Hector Berlioz Te Deum (1878) by Georges Bizet, for soprano, tenor, mixed choir and orchestra Te Deum Laudamus, the second part of Symphony No. 1 in D minor ("Gothic") (1919–1927) by Havergal Brian Two settings by Benjamin Britten: Te Deum in C (1934) and Festival Te Deum (1944) Te Deum by Anton Bruckner [[Te Deum (Charpentier)\|Te Deum H 145 H 145 a (1670), Te Deum H 146 (1690), Te Deum H 147 (1690), Te Deum H 148 (1698-99)]] by Marc-Antoine Charpentier Te Deum from Paris & Te Deum from Lyon by Henry Desmarest Te Deum for Great Chorus by Louis-Nicolas ClérambaultTe Deum by Antonín Dvořák Utrecht Te Deum and Jubilate (1713), Dettingen Te Deum (1743) by George Frideric HandelTe Deum by Joseph HaydnShort Festival Te Deum by Gustav HolstTe Deum by Herbert HowellsTe Deum by Johann Hummel Te Deum by Karl Jenkins Te Deum by Zoltán Kodály Te Deum by Michel-Richard de LalandeTe Deum from Morning Service in E-flat major by John LoretzTe Deum by Jean-Baptiste Lully (1677)Te Deum by James MacMillanTe Deum by Felix MendelssohnTe Deum by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Te Deum by Arvo PärtTe Deum by Krzysztof PendereckiTe Deum in Giacomo Puccini's Opera ToscaTe Deum by Antoine ReichaTe Deum by John Milford Rutter Te Deum by Charles Villiers StanfordFestival Te Deum and Te Deum Laudamus by Arthur SullivanTe Deum, the final part of Quattro pezzi sacri by Giuseppe VerdiTe Deum'' by Jan Dismas Zelenka, two settings, ZWV 145 (1724) and ZWV 146 (1731) References External links Catholic Encyclopedia entry 4th-century poems Catholic liturgy Christian hymns Christian worship and liturgy Latin religious words and phrases Latin-language Christian hymns Liturgy of the Hours	[ 0.12228001654148102, 0.5570206046104431, -0.35195785760879517, -0.3261118531227112, 0.10586502403020859, 0.6974899768829346, 0.41588544845581055, 0.19718243181705475, 0.30453431606292725, -0.26244714856147766, -0.41706380248069763, 0.22699841856956482, 0.08300717175006866, 0.18233813345432281, -0.6285355091094971, 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237365	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20colours	National colours	National colours are frequently part of a country's set of national symbols. Many states and nations have formally adopted a set of colours as their official "national colours" while others have de facto national colours that have become well known through popular use. National colours often appear on a variety of different media, from the nation's flag to the colours used in sports. Africa North America Sub-national colours South America Asia Europe Sub-national colours Oceania Sub-national colours Countries with limited or no recognition These are the national colours for countries or states that have limited or no recognition. Former countries Caliphates Ancient/Imperial Chinese dynasties Supranational organisations Some noted supranational organisations like the United Nations and the European Union have their own colours as part of their branding and marketing. They are usually taken from the organisation's flag. Although they do not have national sporting teams, the colours can be used for anything connected to the organisation, like associated bodies. Examples of use of these colours United Nations: the recognisable blue helmets of the peacekeeping operations and the flags of associated UN agencies like the World Health Organisation, with the UN's light blue and white. European Union: the blue and yellow of the EU flag; uses include the blue European Health Insurance Card and the Blue Card for skilled immigration. See also Tricolour List of international auto racing colours Lists of national symbols References color in culture	[ 0.5793126225471497, 0.07643701881170273, -0.5138840675354004, 0.04689840227365494, -0.4465016722679138, 0.38104012608528137, 0.7981144785881042, 0.7044772505760193, -0.6465916037559509, -0.7916436791419983, -0.9293686151504517, 0.051257602870464325, -0.1806788593530655, 0.5291488766670227, -0.04395727068185806, 0.5632539987564087, 0.329834520816803, 1.1399118900299072, 0.11343397200107574, 0.14808277785778046, -0.6111366152763367, -0.10437504202127457, 0.09334026277065277, -0.3497903645038605, 0.5163070559501648, -0.5896978378295898, 0.4996373951435089, -0.1645650565624237, 0.34195035696029663, 0.4813883900642395, 0.16677317023277283, 0.3398951292037964, 0.10617677122354507, 0.41585326194763184, 0.2050691694021225, -0.7821046113967896, 0.08711925894021988, -0.2546204924583435, 0.16839177906513214, -0.6020901203155518, -0.04410604387521744, -0.28777751326560974, 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237372	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelina%20Patti	Adelina Patti	Adelina Patti (19 February 184327 September 1919) was an Italian 19th-century opera singer, earning huge fees at the height of her career in the music capitals of Europe and America. She first sang in public as a child in 1851, and gave her last performance before an audience in 1914. Along with her near contemporaries Jenny Lind and Thérèse Tietjens, Patti remains one of the most famous sopranos in history, owing to the purity and beauty of her lyrical voice and the unmatched quality of her bel canto technique. The composer Giuseppe Verdi, writing in 1877, described her as being perhaps the finest singer who had ever lived and a "stupendous artist". Verdi's admiration for Patti's talent was shared by numerous music critics and social commentators of her era. Biography She was born Adela Juana Maria Patti, in Madrid, the youngest child of tenor Salvatore Patti (1800–1869) and soprano Caterina Barilli (died 1870). Her Italian parents were working in Spain, at the time of her birth. Because her father came from Sicily, Patti was born a subject of the King of the Two Sicilies. She later carried a French passport, as her first two husbands were French. Her sisters Amalia and Carlotta Patti were also singers. Her brother Carlo Patti was a violinist who married actress Effie Germon. In her childhood, the family moved to New York City. Patti grew up in the Wakefield section of the Bronx, where her family's home remains standing. Patti sang professionally from childhood, and developed into a coloratura soprano with perfectly equalized vocal registers and a surprisingly warm, satiny tone. Patti learned how to sing and gained understanding of voice technique from her brother-in-law Maurice Strakosch, who was a musician and impresario. Vocal development Adelina Patti made her operatic debut at age 16 on 24 November 1859 in the title role of Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor at the Academy of Music, New York. On 24 August 1860, she and Emma Albani were soloists in the world premiere of Charles Wugk Sabatier's Cantata in Montreal which was performed in honour of the visit of the Prince of Wales. In 1861, at the age of 18, she was invited to Covent Garden, to execute the role of Amina in Bellini's La sonnambula. She had such remarkable success at Covent Garden that season, she bought a house in Clapham and, using London as a base, went on to conquer the European continent, performing Amina in Paris and Vienna in subsequent years with equal success. During an 1862 American tour, she sang John Howard Payne's song "Home! Sweet Home!" at the White House for President Abraham Lincoln and wife, Mary Todd Lincoln. The Lincolns were mourning the death of their son Willie, who had died of typhoid. Moved to tears, the Lincolns requested an encore of the song. Henceforth, it would become associated with Adelina Patti, and she performed it many times as a bonus item at the end of recitals and concerts. Patti's career was one of success after success. She sang not only in England and the United States, but also as far afield in mainland Europe as Russia, and in South America as well, inspiring audience frenzy and critical superlatives wherever she went. Her girlish good looks gave her an appealing stage presence, which added to her celebrity status. In 1869-1870 she engaged in tours through the Europe and Russia. Concerts in Moscow and Saint Petersburg were very successful and Patti repeated her Russian trips throughout the 1870s. In Russia, she made highly prolific friendships with the top eschelons of Russian aristocracy, musicians, writers and intellectuals such Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Anton Rubinstein, Alexander Serov and Vladimir Stasov. In St. Petersburg, during seasons 1874-75s, Patti met Ernesto Nicolini (in future her second husband) for the first time. At that time she also became acquainted with prominent Russian historian Dmitry Ilovaysky and with his family. This friendship was to last for decades and Ilovaysky's cousin Stepan, the stalmeister of Tsar Alexander III even travelled to Wales to meet Adelina during the first half of the 1880s. Patti was also a teacher of Ilovaysky's daughter . During the 1860s, Patti possessed a sweet, high-lying voice of birdlike purity and remarkable flexibility which was ideal for such parts as Zerlina, Lucia and Amina; but, as Verdi noted in 1878, her lower notes gained fullness and beauty when she grew older, enabling her to excel in weightier fare. Patti, however, turned into a conservative singer in the final phase of her operatic and concert career. She knew what suited her aging voice to perfection and she stuck to it. Typically, her recital programmes during the 1890s featured an array of familiar, often sentimental, not-too-demanding popular tunes of the day, which were sure to appeal to her adoring fans. But during her mature prime in the 1870s and '80s, Patti had been a more enterprising singer, proving to be an effective actress in those lyric roles that required the summoning forth of deep emotions, such as Gilda in Rigoletto, Leonora in Il trovatore, the title part in Semiramide, Zerlina in Don Giovanni and Violetta in La traviata. She also had been prepared to tackle quite dramatic parts in operas like L'Africaine, Les Huguenots and even Aida. She never attempted to sing any verismo parts, however, because these became popular only in the twilight of her career, during the final decade of the 19th century. Many years earlier, Patti had experienced an amusing encounter in Paris with the bel canto-opera composer Gioachino Rossini, who was a staunch upholder of traditional Italian singing values. It is related that when Patti's mentor (and brother-in-law), Strakosch, presented her to Rossini at one of his fashionable receptions during the 1860s, she was prevailed upon to sing "Una voce poco fa", from Rossini's The Barber of Seville—with embellishments added by Strakosch to show off the soprano's voice. "What composition was that?", asked the prickly Rossini. "Why, maestro, your own" replied Strakosch. "Oh no, that is not my composition, that is Strakoschonnerie", Rossini retorted. ('Cochonnerie' is a strong French idiom indicating "garbage" and literally meaning "that which is characteristic of or fit for pigs.") Financial acumen and retirement In her prime, Patti commanded a payment of $5,000 per night, in gold, before the performance. Her contracts stipulated that her name be top-billed and printed larger than any other name in the cast. Her contracts also insisted that while she was "free to attend all rehearsals, she was not obligated to attend any". In his memoirs, the famous opera promoter "Colonel" Mapleson recalled Patti's stubborn personality and sharp business sense. She reportedly had a parrot whom she had trained to shriek, "CASH! CASH!" whenever Mapleson walked in the room. Jerome K. Jerome wrote in 1926: Patti enjoyed the trappings of fame and wealth, but she was not profligate with her earnings, especially after losing a large proportion of her assets as a result of the break-up of her first marriage (see below). She invested wisely large sums of money, and unlike some of her extravagant former colleagues, such as the star tenor Giovanni Mario, who died in poverty, she saw out her days amid luxurious surroundings. In 1893, Patti created the title role of Gabriella in a now-forgotten opera by Emilio Pizzi at its world premiere in Boston. Patti had commissioned Pizzi to write the opera for her. Ten years later, she undertook one final singing tour of the United States; however, it turned out to be a critical, financial and personal failure, owing to the deterioration of her voice through age and wear-and-tear. From then on she restricted herself to the occasional concert here or there, or to private performances mounted at a little theatre she had built in her impressive residence, Craig-y-Nos Castle in Wales. She last sang in public on 24 October 1914, taking part in a Red Cross concert at London's Royal Albert Hall that had been organised to aid victims of World War I. She lived long enough to see the war end, dying in 1919 of natural causes. Recordings The first recordings of her voice were made ca. 1890 on phonograph cylinders for Thomas Marshall in New York. Neither the recorded title, nor their number are known. The recordings are lost. Patti cut more than 30 disc gramophone recordings of songs and operatic arias (some of them duplicates) — plus one spoken voice recording (a New Year's greeting to her third husband, which she intended him to keep as a memento) — at her Welsh home in 1905 and 1906 for the Gramophone & Typewriter Company. By then she was aged in her 60s, with her voice well past its prime after a busy operatic career stretching all the way back to 1859. Nonetheless, the limpid purity of her tone and the smoothness of her legato line remained uniquely impressive, compensating to some extent for the weakening of her breath control. The records also display a lively singing personality as well as a surprisingly strong chest voice and a mellow timbre. Her trill remains wonderfully fluent and accurate and her diction is excellent. Overall her discs have a charm and musicality that give us a hint of why, at her peak, she commanded $5,000 a night. Patti's recorded legacy included a number of songs and arias from the following operas: Le Nozze di Figaro, Don Giovanni, Faust, Martha, Norma, Mignon and La sonnambula. The records were produced by the Gramophone & Typewriter Company, forerunner of EMI Records, and were issued in the United States by the Victor Talking Machine Company. Patti's piano accompanist, Landon Ronald, wrote of his first recording session with the diva, "When the little (gramophone) trumpet gave forth the beautiful tones, she went into ecstasies! She threw kisses into the trumpet and kept on saying, 'Ah! Mon Dieu! Maintenant je comprends pourquoi je suis Patti! Oh oui! Quelle voix! Quelle artiste! Je comprends tout!' [Ah! My Lord! Now I understand why I am Patti! Oh yes! What a voice! What an artist! I understand everything!] Her enthusiasm was so naïve and genuine that the fact that she was praising her own voice seemed to us all to be right and proper." Thirty-two Patti recordings were reissued on CD in 1998 by Marston Records (catalogue number 52011-2). Personal life Patti is thought by some to have had a dalliance with the tenor Mario, who is said to have bragged at Patti's first wedding that he had already "made love to her many times". Engaged as a minor to Henri de Lossy, Baron of Ville, Patti wed three times: first, in 1868, to Henri de Roger de Cahusac, Marquess of Caux (1826–1889). The marriage soon collapsed; both had affairs and de Caux was granted a legal separation in 1877 and divorced in 1885. The union was dissolved with bitterness and cost her half her fortune. She then lived with the French tenor Ernesto Nicolini for many years until, following her divorce from Caux, she was able to marry him in 1886. That marriage lasted until his death and was seemingly happy, but Nicolini disinherited Patti, suggesting some tension in the last years. Patti's last marriage, in 1899, was to Baron Rolf Cederström (1870–1947), a priggish, but handsome, Swedish aristocrat many years her junior. The Baron severely curtailed Patti's social life. He cut down her domestic staff from 40 to 18, but gave her the devotion and flattery that she needed, becoming her sole legatee. After her death, he married a much younger woman. Their only daughter, Brita Yvonne Cederström (born 1924), ended up as Patti's sole heir. Patti had no children, but was close to her nieces and nephews. The two-time Tony Award-winning Broadway actress and singer Patti LuPone is a great-grand niece and namesake. Drummer Scott Devours is her third great nephew. Patti developed a love for billiards and became a reputable player, making guest appearances at many major billiard events for exhibition matches and fancy shot displays. In her retirement, Patti, now officially Baroness Cederström, settled in the Swansea Valley in south Wales, where she purchased Craig-y-Nos Castle. There she had a $2000 billiard table installed, and her own private theatre, a miniature version of the one at Bayreuth, and made her gramophone recordings. Patti also funded Craig-y-nos railway station on the Neath and Brecon Railway. In 1918, she presented the Winter Garden building from her Craig-y-Nos estate to the city of Swansea. It was re-erected and renamed the Patti Pavilion. She died at Craig-y-Nos and eight months later was buried at the Père Lachaise Cemetery in Paris to be close to her father and favourite composer, Rossini, in accordance with the wishes in her will. Voice Adelina Patti had a warm, crystalline, and very agile high soprano voice. Her vocal emission was of perfect equality and her vocal range was wide, from low C to high F (C4 – F6). Regarding her technique, critic Rodolfo Celletti said, "Her voice was a technical marvel. The staccatos were marvels of accuracy, even in the trickiest intervals, her legato was impressively smooth and pure; she connects the voice from note to note, phrase to phrase, lifting and gliding with an exceptional virtuosity. Her chromatic scale was deliciously sweet, and her trill was wonderful and solid." Accolades and homages La Vie parisienne by Jacques Offenbach, with book by Henri Meilhac and Ludovic Halévy (1866), mentions Adelina Patti: "Je veux, moi, dans la capitaleVoir les divas qui font fureurVoir la Patti dans Don PasqualeEt Thérésa dans le Sapeur" Other works of literature and music evoking Patti include: Anna Karenina by Leo Tolstoy The Picture of Dorian Gray by Oscar Wilde The Age of Innocence by Edith Wharton Nana by Émile Zola Boroña by Leopoldo Alas Sherlock Holmes by Arthur Conan Doyle The Village in the Treetops by Jules Verne Hitty, Her First Hundred Years by Rachel Field The song "The Deadwood Stage (Whip-Crack-Away!)" featured in both Calamity Jane film and Calamity Jane stage musical mentions a hat that Patti wore as part of the contents for sale in the stagecoach's offerings. In the 1890s, African-American singer Sissieretta Jones adopted the stage name "Black Patti," and called her company "Black Patti's Troubadours." The Ballad of Baby Doe by Douglas Moore Notes References External links Adelina Patti on BBC Cymru Wales Patti sings at the Cincinnati Opera Festival 1882 attended by Oscar Wilde. 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237373	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20symbol	National symbol	A national symbol is a symbol of any entity considering and manifesting itself to the world as a national community: the sovereign states but also nations and countries in a state of colonial or other dependence, federal integration, or even an ethnocultural community considered a 'nationality' despite having no political autonomy. National symbols intend to unite people by creating visual, verbal, or iconic representations of the national people, values, goals, or history. These symbols are often rallied around as part of celebrations of patriotism or aspiring nationalism (such as independence, autonomy or separation movements) and are designed to be inclusive and representative of all the people of the national community. Common official national symbols The flag or banner of a nation-state The coat of arms of the land or ruling dynasty The seal or stamp of the land or ruling dynasty The head of state, especially in a monarchy The associated device and motto can also be used separately The national colors, often derived from the above Abstract symbols National anthems, royal and imperial hymns; alongside such official hymns custom may also recognize the national symbol values of very popular songs Unofficial national symbols In many ways, well-known sights in a country can also be seen as national symbols, as can traditional items of handicraft, folk costumes, natural monuments, national epics and national myths, as well as symbols used by national sports teams and their supporters. See also List of national symbols Cultural icon Floral emblem National cockade Religion in national symbols References	[ 0.48206961154937744, -0.16616269946098328, -0.30797234177589417, 0.08718086779117584, -0.17301234602928162, 0.07818451523780823, 0.6528269052505493, 0.60664963722229, -0.3405766189098358, -0.8609790205955505, -0.6092097759246826, -0.05176135525107384, -0.11234239488840103, 0.6835923194885254, 0.14359672367572784, 0.5468156933784485, 0.42318302392959595, 0.7779306769371033, -0.024833260104060173, 0.29376766085624695, -1.1835676431655884, -0.11087942123413086, 0.014624117873609066, -0.5222105979919434, 0.6698082089424133, -0.4303257167339325, 0.6346485614776611, -0.322454035282135, 0.011104527860879898, 0.4748108983039856, 0.022481463849544525, 0.2582677900791168, -0.15443269908428192, 0.31140488386154175, 0.032364681363105774, -0.5268321633338928, 0.023439763113856316, -0.1746637374162674, 0.0031437608413398266, -0.8247396945953369, 0.13187961280345917, 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237404	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaibun	Kaibun	Kaibun (回文; literally circle sentence) is a Japanese equivalent of the palindrome, or in other words, a sentence that reads the same from the beginning to the end or from the end to the beginning. The unit of kaibun is mora, since the Japanese language uses syllabaries, hiragana and katakana. Single word palindromes are not uncommon in Japanese. For example, Ku-ku (九九, multiplication table), Shi-n-bu-n-shi (新聞紙, newspaper), to-ma-to (トマト, tomato), etc. So kaibun usually refers to a palindromic sentence, but a passage can be a kaibun too. The topic marker "wa" (は) can be treated as "ha" and small kana ゃ,ゅ and ょ are usually allowed to be interpreted as big kana や, ゆ and よ. In classics, diacritic marks are often ignored. Rather than saying "read the same forwards and backwards", because Japanese is traditionally written vertically, Japanese people describe the word as being the same when read from the top (ue kara yomu) as when read from the bottom (shita kara yomu). Famous kaibun Ta-ke-ya-bu ya-ke-ta (竹薮焼けた) - A bamboo grove has been burned. Wa-ta-shi ma-ke-ma-shi-ta-wa (私負けましたわ) - I have lost. Na-ru-to wo to-ru-na (なるとを取るな) - Do not take my naruto (spiral-shaped fishcake). Shi-na-mo-n pa-n mo re-mo-n pa-n mo na-shi (シナモンパンもレモンパンも無し) - There is neither cinnamon bread nor lemon bread. Na-ga-ki yo-no to-ho-no ne-bu-ri-no mi-na me-za-me na-mi-no-ri-bu-ne-no o-to-no-yo-ki-ka-na (長き世の遠の眠りの皆目覚め波乗り船の音の良きかな) Tanka - Everybody gets awakened from a long sleep and enjoys the sound of waves on which the boat is gliding along. Yo-no-na-ka, ho-ka-ho-ka na-no-yo (世の中、ホカホカなのよ) - The world is a warm place. 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237405	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romeo%20Records	Romeo Records	Romeo Records was an American jazz record label that started in 1926 as a subsidiary of Cameo Records. The discs were sold exclusively at S. H. Kress & Co. department stores and retailed for 25 cents each. In 1931 Romeo was acquired by the American Record Corporation and continued through 1938 until the cessation of ARC's dime-store labels: (Perfect, Melotone, Banner, and Oriole). From the beginning, Romeo discs had a maroon label. It was changed to a black label in 1931 and then became blue in 1935. See also List of record labels References External links Romeo Records on the Internet Archive's Great 78 Project American record labels Record labels established in 1926 Record labels disestablished in 1938 S. H. Kress & Co. 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237407	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sundering%20of%20the%20Elves	Sundering of the Elves	In J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the Elves or Quendi are a sundered (divided) people. They awoke at Cuiviénen on the continent of Middle-earth, where they were divided into three tribes: Minyar (the Firsts), Tatyar (the Seconds) and Nelyar (the Thirds). After some time, they were summoned by Oromë to live with the Valar in Valinor, on Aman. That summoning and the Great Journey that followed split the Elves into two main groups (and many minor ones), which were never fully reunited. Overview The Elves awoke at Cuiviénen, a bay on the eastern side of the Sea of Helcar, on the continent of Middle-earth, where they were divided into three tribes: Minyar (the Firsts), Tatyar (the Seconds) and Nelyar (the Thirds). After some time, they were summoned by the Vala Oromë, the huntsman, to live with him and the other Valar in Valinor, on Aman. The Eldar are those who accepted the summons. Their name, literally Star People, was given to them by Oromë, in their own language, Primitive Quendian. The Avari are those who refused the summons. Half of the Avari came from the largest tribe, the Nelyar, but most of the Nelyar went on the journey. Sundering of the Eldar The Eldar migrated westwards across the north of Middle-earth, dividing into three groups. All the Minyar became the Vanyar, meaning the Fair Elves, with golden-blond hair. Half of the Tatyar became the Noldor or Deep Elves, with deep knowledge of crafts and skills. More than half of the Nelyar became the Teleri (Those who come last) or, as they referred to themselves, the Lindar or Singers. They stayed on the east of Aman, in Tol Eressëa. Sindar Those of the Teleri who reached Beleriand by the Great Sea but chose not to cross to Valinor were later called the Sindar (Grey Elves). They stayed in the west of Middle-earth and were ruled by Thingol. Many of the Teleri (Sindar) chose to remain behind in order to look for their lord Thingol (Elwë), who disappeared near the end of the journey. These later inhabited Doriath and were named the Iathrim or People of the Girdle, for the magical 'Girdle of Melian' that surrounded and protected the kingdom. Those of the Teleri (Sindar) who came to the shores of the Great Sea of Belegaer but decided to stay there or arrived too late to be ferried were called the Falathrim (People of the Shore). They were ruled by Cirdan the Shipwright. Those of the Teleri (Sindar) who chose to remain behind and populated the lands to the north-west of Beleriand were called the Mithrim or Grey People, giving their name to the region and the great lake there. Most of them later merged with the Noldor who returned to Middle-earth, especially those of Gondolin. Those of the Teleri who reached Aman were called Amanyar Teleri; they were also called the Falmari, the People of the Waves, expert with ships and the sea. Nandor Those of the Teleri who refused to cross the Misty Mountains and stayed in the valley of Anduin were called the Nandor (Those [Elves] who turn back). Those of the Nandor who later entered Beleriand were called the Laiquendi (Green Elves or Green People, so named because their attire was often green.) "Laiquendi" was the term in Quenya, while the Sindarin version was "Laegrim". They settled in Ossiriand, an eastern region of Beleriand, and were famous for their singing. Hearing of the peaceful territories of King Thingol, Denethor, son of Lenwë, collected as many of his scattered people as he could and finally ventured westward over the Ered Luin, where he was accepted by the King as ancient kindred (King Elu Thingol being in fact Elwë, brother of Olwë) and were given Ossiriand to reside in. Although some instances Green-elves of Ossiriand did participate in the battles and strife concerning Morgoth (the First Battle of Beleriand for example), they were for the most part a simple, peaceful, and reclusive people. The Nandor who stayed around Anduin became known as the Tawarwaith, living in Mirkwood; they were also called Silvan or Wood Elves. They were joined there by those Avari who eventually decided to move to the West. Vanyar The Vanyar were the fairest and most noble of the High Elves; their name means "the Fair", as they have golden hair. Their small clan was founded by Imin, the first Elf to awaken at Cuiviénen, with his wife Iminyë and their twelve companions: they broadly correspond to the Minyar. Ingwë was the Vanya Elf to travel with the Vala Oromë to Valinor, and became their king. The Vanyar spoke a dialect of Quenya called Vanyarin. Since they stayed in Valinor, they played no part in the wars in Beleriand, except for the War of Wrath that brought an end to the region. Light and Dark Elves The Vanyar, the Noldor, and those of the Teleri who reached Valinor are called the Calaquendi (Elves of Light) because they saw the light of the Two Trees of Valinor. In Quenya, the language of the Noldor in Valinor, all other Elves were called the Moriquendi (Elves of Darkness) in recognition of the fact that they did not see (and did not desire) the Light of Valinor, but later the Sindar were counted among neither of these groups. Instead, Moriquendi was used for all other Elves except Noldor, Vanyar, and Sindar. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that the Sundering allowed Tolkien to explain the existence of Norse mythology's Dökkálfar and Ljósálfar, Light and Dark Elves. The Light Elves lived in Alfheim ("Elfhome") and correspond to his Calaquendi. The Dark Elves, who lived underground in Svartalfheim ("Black Elfhome"), Tolkien "rehabilitates" as his Moriquendi. Noldorin Exiles Most of the Noldor returned with Fëanor to Beleriand in Middle-earth before the raising of the Sun. Fëanor however sailed in haste in ships stolen from the (Telerin) Falmari, leaving behind his half-brother Fingolfin's Noldor who also wanted to return. Fingolfin was forced to make the perilous journey on foot via the Helcaraxe, the Grinding Ice of the far north, creating further hostility. These groups of Noldor became known as the Exiles. In Beleriand they became divided by the place of dwelling, namely Hithlum, Gondolin, Dorthonion, Nargothrond and the March of Maedhros. Merging of Noldor and Sindar After the War of Wrath the greater part of the surviving Noldor and Sindar (mostly mingled into a single people) returned into the West to dwell in Tol Eressëa. Many remained in Middle-earth throughout the Second and Third Ages, entering the realms of Lothlórien and Mirkwood of the Wood Elves or establishing the kingdoms of Lindon, Eregion, Lothlórien and Rivendell. Havens or seaports Because the Eldar's seaports on the shores of Middle-earth connected them with the blessed lands of Valinor, these "havens" were important places in their world. Those on Middle-earth were: Brithombar and Eglarest, the Havens of the Falas in Beleriand, destroyed at the end of the First Age Edhellond, in southern Gondor Mithlond, the Grey Havens of Eriador Harlond and Forlond, the havens of Lindon, all that was left of Beleriand Those on other shores were: Alqualondë, the Swanhaven of the Teleri of Valinor Eldalondë, a haven of Númenor, the island destroyed at the end of the Second Age Avallónë, the haven of the island of Tol Eressëa, which the Vala Ulmo had pushed backwards and forwards to carry the Elves to Aman. The name may have been intended to echo the Arthurian island of Avalon. Sundering of the Avari After the Separation the Avari became divided even more than the Eldar, though little of their history became known to the Elves and Men of the West of Middle-earth, and they barely feature in the legendarium. At least six kindreds existed, and they continued to call themselves 'Quendi', considering those who went away, the Eldar, as deserters. Some of these tribes later journeyed westward, intermingling with the Nandor in Rhovanion, and a few even reached Beleriand, though usually remaining on unfriendly terms with the Sindar. Analysis Matthew Dickerson, writing in the J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia, notes the "very complicated changes, with shifting meanings assigned to the same names" as Tolkien worked on his conception of the elves and their divisions and migrations. All the same, he notes, Tolkien kept to a consistent scheme. He states that the sundering of the elves allowed Tolkien, a professional philologist, to develop two languages, distinct but related, Quenya for the Eldar and Sindarin for the Sindar, citing Tolkien's own statement that the stories were made to create a world for the languages, not the reverse. Shippey suggests that the "real root" of The Silmarillion lay in the linguistic relationship, complete with sound-changes and differences of semantics, between the two languages of the divided elves. He adds that the elves are separated not by colour, despite names like light and dark, but by their history, including their migrations. The Tolkien scholar Verlyn Flieger states that in the Lhammas and "The Etymologies" Tolkien used the Indo-European type of proto-languages with branches and sub-branches of language families while inventing his various languages of Middle-earth. This "concept of increasing separation" is analogous to the progressive decline and fall in Middle-earth from its initial perfection, of which the Sundering of the Elves is a major element. See also Elvish languages (Middle-earth) Galadriel Notes References Primary This list identifies each item's location in Tolkien's writings. 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237408	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvertone%20Records	Silvertone Records	Silvertone Records has been the name for at least three record companies: Silvertone Records (1916), a United States-based company. Silvertone Records (Selfridges), a United Kingdom-based company that existed in the 1930s Silvertone Records (1980), a United Kingdom-based company.	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237412	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20sounds	Heart sounds	Heart sounds are the noises generated by the beating heart and the resultant flow of blood through it. Specifically, the sounds reflect the turbulence created when the heart valves snap shut. In cardiac auscultation, an examiner may use a stethoscope to listen for these unique and distinct sounds that provide important auditory data regarding the condition of the heart. In healthy adults, there are two normal heart sounds, often described as a lub and a dub that occur in sequence with each heartbeat. These are the first heart sound (S1) and second heart sound (S2), produced by the closing of the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves, respectively. In addition to these normal sounds, a variety of other sounds may be present including heart murmurs, adventitious sounds, and gallop rhythms S3 and S4. Heart murmurs are generated by turbulent flow of blood and a murmur to be heard as turbulent flow must require pressure difference of at least 30 mm of Hg between the chambers and the pressure dominant chamber will outflow the blood to non-dominant chamber in diseased condition which leads to Left-to-right shunt or Right-to-left shunt based on the pressure dominance. Turbulence may occur inside or outside the heart; if it occurs outside the heart then the turbulence is called bruit or vascular murmur. Murmurs may be physiological (benign) or pathological (abnormal). Abnormal murmurs can be caused by stenosis restricting the opening of a heart valve, resulting in turbulence as blood flows through it. Abnormal murmurs may also occur with valvular insufficiency (regurgitation), which allows backflow of blood when the incompetent valve closes with only partial effectiveness. Different murmurs are audible in different parts of the cardiac cycle, depending on the cause of the murmur. Primary heart sounds Normal heart sounds are associated with heart valves closing: First heart sound The first heart sound, or S1, forms the "lub" of "lub-dub" and is composed of components M1 (mitral valve closure) and T1 (tricuspid valve closure). Normally M1 precedes T1 slightly. It is caused by the closure of the atrioventricular valves, i.e. tricuspid and mitral (bicuspid), at the beginning of ventricular contraction, or systole. When the ventricles begin to contract, so do the papillary muscles in each ventricle. The papillary muscles are attached to the cusps or leaflets of the tricuspid and mitral valves via chordae tendineae (heart strings). When the papillary muscles contract, the chordae tendineae become tense and thereby prevent the backflow of blood into the lower pressure environment of the atria. The chordae tendineae act a bit like the strings on a parachute, and allow the leaflets of the valve to balloon up into the atria slightly, but not so much as to evert the cusp edges and allow backflow of blood. It is the pressure created from ventricular contraction that closes the valve, not the papillary muscles themselves. The contraction of the ventricle begins just prior to AV valves closing and prior to the opening of the semilunar valves. The sudden tensing of the chordae tendineae and the squeezing of the ventricles against closed semilunar valves, send blood rushing back toward the atria, and the parachute-like valves catch the rush of blood in their leaflets causing the valve to snap shut. The S1 sound results from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal by the valves. The delay of T1 even more than normally causes the split S1 which is heard in a right bundle branch block. Second heart sound The second heart sound, or S2, forms the "dub" of "lub-dub" and is composed of components A2 (aortic valve closure) and P2 (pulmonary valve closure). Normally A2 precedes P2 especially during inspiration where a split of S2 can be heard. It is caused by the closure of the semilunar valves (the aortic valve and pulmonary valve) at the end of ventricular systole and the beginning of ventricular diastole. As the left ventricle empties, its pressure falls below the pressure in the aorta. Aortic blood flow quickly reverses back toward the left ventricle, catching the pocket-like cusps of the aortic valve, and is stopped by aortic valve closure. Similarly, as the pressure in the right ventricle falls below the pressure in the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary valve closes. The S2 sound results from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal. Splitting of S2, also known as physiological split, normally occurs during inhalation because the decrease in intrathoracic pressure increases the time needed for pulmonary pressure to exceed that of the right ventricular pressure. A widely split S2 can be associated with several different cardiovascular conditions, and the split is sometimes wide and variable whereas, sometimes wide and fixed. The wide and variable split occurs in Right bundle branch block, pulmonary stenosis, pulmonary hypertension and ventricular septal defects. The wide and fixed splitting of S2 occurs in atrial septal defect. Pulmonary S2 (P2) will be accentuated (loud P2) in pulmonary hypertension and pulmonary embolism. S2 becomes softer in aortic stenosis. Extra heart sounds The rarer extra heart sounds form gallop rhythms and are heard in both normal and abnormal situations. Third heart sound The third heart sound, or S3 is rarely heard, and is also called a protodiastolic gallop, ventricular gallop, or informally the "Kentucky" gallop as an onomatopoeic reference to the rhythm and stress of S1 followed by S2 and S3 together (S1=Ken; S2=tuck; S3=y). "lub-dub-ta" or "slosh-ing-in" If new, indicates heart failure or volume overload. It occurs at the beginning of diastole after S2 and is lower in pitch than S1 or S2 as it is not of valvular origin. The third heart sound is benign in youth, some trained athletes, and sometimes in pregnancy but if it re-emerges later in life it may signal cardiac problems, such as a failing left ventricle as in dilated congestive heart failure (CHF). S3 is thought to be caused by the oscillation of blood back and forth between the walls of the ventricles initiated by blood rushing in from the atria. The reason the third heart sound does not occur until the middle third of diastole is probably that during the early part of diastole, the ventricles are not filled sufficiently to create enough tension for reverberation. It may also be a result of tensing of the chordae tendineae during rapid filling and expansion of the ventricle. In other words, an S3 heart sound indicates increased volume of blood within the ventricle. An S3 heart sound is best heard with the bell-side of the stethoscope (used for lower frequency sounds). A left-sided S3 is best heard in the left lateral decubitus position and at the apex of the heart, which is normally located in the 5th left intercostal space at the midclavicular line. A right-sided S3 is best heard at the lower left sternal border. The way to distinguish between left and right-sided S3 is to observe whether it increases in intensity with inhalation or exhalation. A right-sided S3 will increase on inhalation, while a left-sided S3 will increase on exhalation. S3 can be a normal finding in young patients but is generally pathologic over the age of 40. The most common cause of pathologic S3 is congestive heart failure. Fourth heart sound The fourth heart sound, or S4 when audible in an adult is called a presystolic gallop or atrial gallop. This gallop is produced by the sound of blood being forced into a stiff or hypertrophic ventricle. "ta-lub-dub" or "a-stiff-wall" It is a sign of a pathologic state, usually a failing or hypertrophic left ventricle, as in systemic hypertension, severe valvular aortic stenosis, and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The sound occurs just after atrial contraction at the end of diastole and immediately before S1, producing a rhythm sometimes referred to as the "Tennessee" gallop where S4 represents the "Ten-" syllable. It is best heard at the cardiac apex with the patient in the left lateral decubitus position and holding his breath. The combined presence of S3 and S4 is a quadruple gallop, also known as the "Hello-Goodbye" gallop. At rapid heart rates, S3 and S4 may merge to produce a summation gallop, sometimes referred to as S7. Atrial contraction must be present for production of an S4. It is absent in atrial fibrillation and in other rhythms in which atrial contraction does not precede ventricular contraction. Murmurs Heart murmurs are produced as a result of turbulent flow of blood strong enough to produce audible noise. They are usually heard as a whooshing sound. The term murmur only refers to a sound believed to originate within blood flow through or near the heart; rapid blood velocity is necessary to produce a murmur. Most heart problems do not produce any murmur and most valve problems also do not produce an audible murmur. Murmurs can be heard in many situations in adults without major congenital heart abnormalities: Regurgitation through the mitral valve is by far the most commonly heard murmur, producing a pansystolic/holosystolic murmur which is sometimes fairly loud to a practiced ear, even though the volume of regurgitant blood flow may be quite small. Yet, though obvious using echocardiography visualization, probably about 20% of cases of mitral regurgitation do not produce an audible murmur. Stenosis of the aortic valve is typically the next most common heart murmur, a systolic ejection murmur. This is more common in older adults or in those individuals having a two-leaflet, not a three-leaflet, aortic valve. Regurgitation through the aortic valve, if marked, is sometimes audible to a practiced ear with high quality, especially electronically amplified, stethoscope. Generally, this is a very rarely heard murmur, even though aortic valve regurgitation is not so rare. Aortic regurgitation, though obvious using echocardiography visualization, usually does not produce an audible murmur. Stenosis of the mitral valve, if severe, also rarely produces an audible, low frequency soft rumbling murmur, best recognized by a practiced ear using high quality, especially electronically amplified, stethoscope. Other audible murmurs are associated with abnormal openings between the left ventricle and right heart or from the aortic or pulmonary arteries back into a lower pressure heart chamber. Though several different cardiac conditions can cause heart murmurs, the murmurs can change markedly with the severity of the cardiac disease. An astute physician can sometimes diagnose cardiac conditions with some accuracy based largely on the murmur, related physical examination, and experience with the relative frequency of different heart conditions. However, with the advent of better quality and wider availability of echocardiography and other techniques, heart status can be recognized and quantified much more accurately than formerly possible with only a stethoscope, examination, and experience. Another advantage to the use of the echocardiogram is that the devices can be handheld. Effects of breathing Inhalation decreases intrathoracic pressure which allows more venous blood to return to the right heart (pulling blood into the right side of the heart via a vacuum-like effect). Therefore, right-sided heart murmurs generally increase in intensity with inhalation. The decreased (more negative) intrathoracic pressure has an opposite effect on the left side of the heart, making it harder for the blood to exit into circulation. Therefore, left-sided murmurs generally decrease in intensity during inhalation. Increasing venous blood return to the right side of the heart by raising a patient's legs to a 45-degree while lying supine produces similar effect which occurs during inhalation. Inhalation can also produce a non-pathological split S2 which will be heard upon auscultation. With exhalation, the opposite haemodynamic changes occur: left-sided murmurs generally increase in intensity with exhalation. Interventions that change murmurs There are a number of interventions that can be performed that alter the intensity and characteristics of abnormal heart sounds. These interventions can differentiate the different heart sounds to more effectively obtain a diagnosis of the cardiac anomaly that causes the heart sound. Other abnormal sounds Clicks – Heart clicks are short, high-pitched sounds that can be appreciated with modern non-invasive imaging techniques. Rubs – The pericardial friction rub can be heard in pericarditis, an inflammation of the pericardium, the sac surrounding the heart. This is a characteristic scratching, creaking, high-pitched sound emanating from the rubbing of both layers of inflamed pericardium. It is the loudest in systole, but can often be heard at the beginning and at the end of diastole. It is very dependent on body position and breathing, and changes from hour to hour. Surface anatomy The aortic area, pulmonic area, tricuspid area and mitral area are areas on the surface of the chest where the heart is auscultated. Heart sounds result from reverberation within the blood associated with the sudden block of flow reversal by the valves closing. Because of this, auscultation to determine function of a valve is usually not performed at the position of the valve, but at the position to where the sound waves reverberate. Recording heart sounds Using electronic stethoscopes, it is possible to record heart sounds via direct output to an external recording device, such as a laptop or MP3 recorder. The same connection can be used to listen to the previously recorded auscultation through the stethoscope headphones, allowing for a more detailed study of murmurs and other heart sounds, for general research as well as evaluation of a particular patient's condition. See also Pulse Precordial examination Benign pediatric heart murmur Iambic pentameter, a metre in poetry that follows a similar rhythm to the human heartbeat Pulsatile tinnitus – hearing a heartbeat sound in one or both ears Souffle (heart sound) References External links Heart Sounds – Heart Murmurs. practicalclinicalskills.com Cardiology Audible medical signs Symptoms and signs: Cardiac	[ 0.4493711590766907, 0.45093655586242676, -0.3015761971473694, -0.27831605076789856, -0.10206639021635056, 0.39228761196136475, 0.48950961232185364, 0.18656973540782928, -0.1967160552740097, -0.9050989151000977, -0.13828155398368835, 0.4080486595630646, -0.08902882039546967, 0.22095854580402374, 0.07865363359451294, -0.14812777936458588, 0.6520190238952637, 0.5856510996818542, 0.4985860586166382, -0.2960822880268097, -0.16272911429405212, 0.20784510672092438, 0.691240668296814, 0.3323292136192322, 0.23131003975868225, 0.11403408646583557, -0.2984042167663574, -0.12012180685997009, 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237413	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herwin%20Records	Herwin Records	Herwin Records was a mail-order record label founded in 1925 by two brothers, Herbert and Edwin Schiele in St. Louis, Missouri. The name of the label comes from their first names (HERbert and EdWIN). Herwin sold budget jazz, blues, and old-time music discs that were pressed by Gennett and Paramount. The records were advertised in farming magazines and sold through the mail. The catalogue included Charley Patton, Chubby Parker, and Ernest Stoneman. Herwin closed in 1930 when it was bought by the Wisconsin Chair Company, the owner of Paramount. A second Herwin Records was started in 1971 by Bernard Klatzko, a collector who reissued rare, early-jazz discs. See also List of record labels References External links Illustrated Herwin Records discography ("Postwar" Klatzko releases) American record labels Record labels established in 1924 Record labels disestablished in 1930 Re-established companies Blues record labels Jazz record labels	[ 0.023783288896083832, 0.5035265684127808, -0.3588608503341675, -0.04867682605981827, -0.27012959122657776, 0.09957446902990341, 0.5827211737632751, -0.13082431256771088, 0.007839346304535866, -0.28389638662338257, 0.2734329402446747, 0.2559577524662018, 0.17001265287399292, 0.909950315952301, -0.45494887232780457, -0.525769829750061, 0.11435677111148834, 0.23651790618896484, -0.10101917386054993, -0.738635241985321, -0.23557564616203308, -0.5211142897605896, 0.4578762948513031, -0.07450113445520401, -0.16677939891815186, -0.18873444199562073, 0.09339840710163116, -0.06121591478586197, -0.4703075587749481, -0.15421001613140106, 0.4567350447177887, 0.8918089270591736, 0.2909201383590698, -0.5467048287391663, 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237414	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aortic%20valve	Aortic valve	The aortic valve is a valve in the heart of humans and most other animals, located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It is one of the four valves of the heart and one of the two semilunar valves, the other being the pulmonary valve. The aortic valve normally has three cusps or leaflets, although in 1–2% of the population it is found to congenitally have two leaflets. The aortic valve is the last structure in the heart the blood travels through before stopping the flow through the systemic circulation. Structure The aortic valve normally has three cusps however there is some discrepancy in their naming. They may be called the left coronary, right coronary and non-coronary cusp. Some sources also advocate they be named as a left, right and posterior cusp. Anatomists have traditionally named them the left posterior (origin of left coronary), anterior (origin of the right coronary) and right posterior. The three cusps, when the valve is closed, contain a sinus called an aortic sinus or sinus of Valsalva. In two of these cusps, the origin of the coronary arteries are found. The width of the sinuses in cross-section is wider than the left ventricular outflow tract as well as wider than the ascending aorta. The junction of the sinuses with the aorta is called the sinotubular junction. The aortic valve is located posterior to the pulmonary valve and the commissure where the anterior two cusps join together points toward the pulmonary valve. It is these two sinuses that contain the origin of the coronary arteries. In the congenital disease known as transposition of the great arteries, these two valves are reversed (the anterior valve is the aortic valve) and the origin of the coronaries still follows this "rule" that the origins are in the sinuses facing the pulmonary valve. The term "semilunar" refers to an approximate half-moon shape of the valve leaflets. Function When the left ventricle contracts (systole), pressure rises in the left ventricle. When the pressure in the left ventricle rises above the pressure in the aorta, the aortic valve opens, allowing blood to exit the left ventricle into the aorta. When ventricular systole ends, pressure in the left ventricle rapidly drops. When the pressure in the left ventricle decreases, the momentum of the vortex at the outlet of the valve forces the aortic valve to close. The closure of the aortic valve contributes the A2 component of the second heart sound (S2). Insufficiency Closure of the aortic valve permits maintaining high pressures in the systemic circulation while reducing pressure in the left ventricle to permit blood flow from the lungs to fill the left ventricle. Abrupt loss of function of the aortic valve results in acute aortic insufficiency and loss in the normal diastolic blood pressure resulting in a wide pulse pressure and bounding pulses. The endocardium perfuses during diastole and so acute aortic insufficiency (also known as aortic regurgitation) can reduce perfusion of the heart. Consequently, heart failure and pulmonary edema can develop. Slowly worsening aortic insufficiency results in a chronic insufficiency which permits the heart to compensate (unlike acute insufficiency). This compensation is through hypertrophy of the left ventricle and return to normal filling pressures. Stenosis Inadequate opening of the aortic valve, often through calcification, results in higher flow velocities through the valve and larger pressure gradients. Diagnosis of aortic stenosis is contingent upon quantification of this gradient. This condition also results in hypertrophy of the left ventricle. Clinical significance A normally functioning valve permits normal physiology and dysfunction of the valve results in left ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure. Dysfunctional aortic valves often present as heart failure by non-specific symptoms such as fatigue, low energy, and shortness of breath with exertion. Common causes of aortic regurgitation include vasodilation of the aorta, previous rheumatic fever, infection such as infective endocarditis, degeneration of the aortic valve, and Marfan's syndrome. Aortic stenosis can also be caused by rheumatic fever and degenerative calcification. The most common congenital heart defect is the bicuspid aortic valve (fusion of two cusps together) commonly found in Turner syndrome. Once diagnosed, the two options are to repair or replace the valve. Aortic valve repair Aortic valve repair or aortic valve reconstruction describes the reconstruction of both form and function of the native and dysfunctioning aortic valve. Most frequently it is applied for the treatment of aortic regurgitation. It can also become necessary for the treatment of aortic aneurysm, or less frequently for congenital aortic stenosis. Aortic valve replacement Replacement of the aortic valve is done by replacing the native valve with a prosthetic valve. Traditionally, this has been a surgical procedure (surgical AVR or SAVR) but a non-surgical option called transcatheter aortic valve replacement (TAVR) or TAVI transcatheter aortic valve implantation delivers a prosthetic valve through a catheter. The choice between SAVR and TAVR often relies on the open-heart surgical risk and indications for other open heart surgeries (etc., coronary bypass, other valve dysfunction). The Bentall procedure is a type of surgical procedure when the aortic valve, aortic root, and ascending aorta are replaced in a single operation. There are two basic types of artificial heart valve: mechanical and tissue. Mechanical valves are made of metal and have evolved over time ("ball and cage", "bileaflet"). Mechanical valves require lifelong anticoagulation to avoid forming blood clots on the valves that can lead to embolism often resulting in stroke. These tend to be favored in younger individuals as they typically last longer than tissue valves. The shape of these valves do not mimic normal heart valves. Tissue heart valves are usually made from animal tissues, either animal heart valve tissue or animal pericardial tissue, and commonly porcine. The tissue is pretreated by removing antigens to prevent rejection and to prevent calcification. These valves tend to model after normal valves by having leaflets that form cusps and sinuses. There are alternatives to animal tissue valves. In some cases, a human aortic valve can be implanted. These are called homografts. Homograft valves are donated by patients and recovered after the patient expires. The durability of homograft valves is probably the same as for porcine tissue valves. Another procedure for aortic valve replacement is the Ross procedure (after Donald Ross) or pulmonary autograft. The Ross procedure involves going to surgery to have the aortic valve removed and replacing it with the patient's own pulmonary valve. A pulmonary homograft (a pulmonary valve taken from a cadaver) or a valvular prothesis is then used to replace the patient's own pulmonary valve. The first minimally invasive aortic valve surgery took place at the Cleveland Clinic in 1996. Endocarditis Endocarditis is infection of the heart and this often results in vegetations growing on valves. While it is possible for it to affect the aortic valve, it is not the most likely spot. Evaluation Evaluation of the aortic valve can be done with several modalities. Auscultation with a stethoscope is quick and easy. It contributes the A2 component to the second heart sound and changes with inspiration ("splitting") Transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) is used as the first test because it is non-invasive. Using TTE, the degree of stenosis and insufficiency can be quantified to grade the valve dysfunction. Transesophageal echocardiography is less often used for aortic stenosis & insufficiency because the angle between the probe and the aortic valve is not optimal (the best window is a transgastric view). MRI and CT can be used to evaluate the valve, but much less commonly than TTE. Quantification of the maximum velocity through the valve, the area of the opening of the valve, calcification, morphology (tricuspid, bicuspid, unicuspid), and size of the valve (annulus, sinuses, sinotubular junction) are common parameters when evaluating the aortic valve. Invasive measurement of the aortic valve can be done during a cardiac catheterization in which the pressure in the left ventricle and aorta can be measured simultaneously. Additional images References External links Cardiac anatomy Heart valves	[ -0.4482198655605316, 0.03694815933704376, 0.2061741203069687, -0.11538182944059372, 0.03619294613599777, 0.32798242568969727, 0.5979546308517456, 0.28239014744758606, 0.22432254254817963, -0.7501423358917236, -0.3056756854057312, 0.5310104489326477, -0.17740702629089355, 0.17625650763511658, -0.1220429390668869, 0.2070041298866272, 0.7732135653495789, 0.12502366304397583, 0.25800061225891113, -0.4584178626537323, -0.1875195950269699, -0.3436592221260071, 0.5150648355484009, -0.0037338407710194588, 0.5546464323997498, -0.885957658290863, -0.5854949355125427, -0.35854214429855347, 0.33773624897003174, -0.3074776530265808, -0.12070737779140472, 0.9498191475868225, 0.2590363323688507, -0.8919709920883179, -0.08063960075378418, -0.2950141131877899, 0.059710416942834854, -0.4372439384460449, -0.23256635665893555, -0.23340080678462982, -0.4377431571483612, -0.09595698118209839, 0.7802332043647766, 0.1283145695924759, 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237415	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitral%20valve	Mitral valve	The mitral valve (), also known as the bicuspid valve or left atrioventricular valve, is one of the four heart valves. It has two cusps or flaps and lies between the left atrium and the left ventricle of the heart. The heart valves are all one-way valves allowing blood flow in just one direction. The mitral valve and the tricuspid valve are known as the atrioventricular valves because they lie between the atria and the ventricles. In normal conditions, blood flows through an open mitral valve during diastole with contraction of the left atrium, and the mitral valve closes during systole with contraction of the left ventricle. The valve opens and closes because of pressure differences, opening when there is greater pressure in the left atrium than ventricle and closing when there is greater pressure in the left ventricle than atrium. In abnormal conditions, blood may flow backward through the valve (mitral regurgitation) or the mitral valve may be narrowed (mitral stenosis). Rheumatic heart disease often affects the mitral valve; the valve may also prolapse with age and be affected by infective endocarditis. The mitral valve is named after the mitre of a bishop, which resembles its flaps. Structure The mitral valve is typically in area and sits in the left heart between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It has two leaflets (or "cusps"), an anteromedial leaflet (AMVL) and a posterolateral leaflet (PMVL). The opening of the mitral valve is surrounded by a fibrous ring known as the mitral annulus. The anterior cusp covers approximately two-thirds of the valve (imagine a crescent moon within the circle, where the crescent represents the posterior cusp). Although the anterior leaflet takes up a larger part of the ring and rises higher, the posterior leaflet has a larger surface area. Leaflets In Carpentier's classification of a mitral valve, both the posterior and anterior mitral valve leaflets are divided into eight segments: P3 (medial scallop), P2 (middle scallop), P1 (lateral scallop), A3 (anteromedial segment), A2 (anteromedial), A1 (anterolateral), PMC (posteromedial commissure), ALC (anterolateral commissure). Mitral leaflet thickness is usually about 1 mm but sometimes can range from 3–5 mm. Chordae tendineae The valve leaflets are prevented from prolapsing into the left atrium by the action of chordae tendineae. The chordae tendineae are inelastic tendons attached at one end to papillary muscles in the left ventricle, and at the other to the valve cusps. Papillary muscles are finger-like projections from the wall of the left ventricle. When the left ventricle contracts, the pressure in the ventricle forces the valve to close, while the tendons keep the leaflets coapting together and prevent the valve from opening in the wrong direction (thus preventing blood flowing back to the left atrium). Each chord has a different thickness. The thinnest ones are attached to the free leaflet margin, whereas the thickest ones (strut chords) are attached further from the free margin. This disposition has important effects on systolic stress distribution physiology. Annulus The mitral annulus is a fibrous ring that is attached to the mitral valve leaflets. Unlike prosthetic valves, it is not continuous. The mitral annulus is saddle shaped and changes in shape throughout the cardiac cycle. The annulus contracts and reduces its surface area during systole to help provide complete closure of the leaflets. Expansion of the annulus can result in leaflets that do not join soundly together, leading to functional mitral regurgitation. The normal diameter of the mitral annulus is , and the circumference is . Microscopically, there is no evidence of an annular structure anteriorly, where the mitral valve leaflet is contiguous with the posterior aortic root. Function During left ventricular diastole, after the pressure drops in the left ventricle due to relaxation of the ventricular myocardium, the mitral valve opens, and blood travels from the left atrium to the left ventricle. About 70 to 80% of the blood that travels across the mitral valve occurs during the early filling phase of the left ventricle. This early filling phase is due to active relaxation of the ventricular myocardium, causing a pressure gradient that allows a rapid flow of blood from the left atrium, across the mitral valve. This early filling across the mitral valve is seen on doppler echocardiography of the mitral valve as the E wave. After the E wave, there is a period of slow filling of the ventricle. Left atrial contraction (left atrial systole) (during left ventricular diastole) causes added blood to flow across the mitral valve immediately before left ventricular systole. This late flow across the open mitral valve is seen on doppler echocardiography of the mitral valve as the A wave. The late filling of the left ventricle contributes about 20% to the volume in the left ventricle prior to ventricular systole and is known as the atrial kick. The mitral annulus changes in shape and size during the cardiac cycle. It is smaller at the end of atrial systole due to the contraction of the left atrium around it, like a sphincter. This reduction in annulus size at the end of atrial systole may be important for the proper coapting of the leaflets of the mitral valve when the left ventricle contracts and pumps blood. Leaking valves can be corrected by mitral valve annuloplasty, a common surgical procedure that aims at restoring proper leaflet adjustment. Clinical significance Disease There are some valvular heart diseases that affect the mitral valve. Mitral stenosis is a narrowing of the valve. This can be heard as an opening snap; a heart sound which is not normally present. Classic mitral valve prolapse is caused by an excess of connective tissue that thickens the spongiosa layer of the cusp and separates collagen bundles in the fibrosa. This weakens the cusps and adjacent tissue, resulting in an increased cuspal area and lengthening of the chordae tendineae. Elongation of the chordae tendineae often causes rupture, commonly to the chordae attached to the posterior cusp. Advanced lesions—also commonly involving the posterior leaflet—lead to leaflet folding, inversion, and displacement toward the left atrium. A valve prolapse can result in mitral insufficiency, which is the regurgitation or backflow of blood due to the incomplete closure of the valve. Rheumatic heart disease often affects the mitral valve. The valve may also be affected by infective endocarditis Surgery can be performed to replace or repair a damaged valve. A less invasive method is that of mitral valvuloplasty which uses a balloon catheter to open up a stenotic valve. Rarely there can be a severe form of calcification of the mitral valve annulus that can be mistaken for an intracardiac mass or thrombus. Investigation The closing of the mitral valve and the tricuspid valve constitutes the first heart sound (S1), which can be heard with a stethoscope. It is not the valve closure itself which produces the sound but the sudden cessation of blood flow, when the mitral and tricuspid valves close.. Abnormalities associated with the mitral valve can often be heard when listening with a stethoscope. The mitral valve is often also investigated using an ultrasound scan, which can reveal the size and flow of blood through the valve. Etymology The word mitral comes from Latin, meaning "shaped like a mitre" (bishop's hat). The word bicuspid uses combining forms of bi-, from Latin, meaning "double", and cusp, meaning "point", reflecting the dual-flap shape of the valve. Gallery References External links — "Valves of the heart" Cardiac Valve Animations - Perioperative Interactive Education Group — Cardiac valve animations Further reading Ingels Jr, Neil B and Karlsson, Matts. Mitral Valve Mechanics. Linköping University Electronic Press, 2016. . 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237416	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricuspid%20valve	Tricuspid valve	The tricuspid valve, or right atrioventricular valve, is on the right dorsal side of the mammalian heart, at the superior portion of the right ventricle. The function of the valve is to prevent back flow (regurgitation) of blood from the right ventricle into the right atrium during right ventricular contraction: systole. Structure The tricuspid valve usually has three cusps or leaflets, named the anterior, posterior, and septal cusps. Each leaflet is connected via chordae tendineae to the anterior, posterior, and septal papillary muscles of the right ventricle, respectively. Tricuspid valves may also occur with two or four leaflets; the number may change over a lifetime. Function The tricuspid valve functions as a one-way valve that closes during ventricular systole to prevent regurgitation of blood from the right ventricle back into the right atrium. It opens during ventricular diastole, allowing blood to flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle. The back flow of blood is also known as regression or tricuspid regurgitation. Tricuspid regurgitation can result in increased ventricular preload because the blood refluxed back into the atrium is added to the volume of blood that must be pumped back into the ventricle during the next cycle of ventricular diastole. Increased right ventricular preload over a prolonged period of time may lead to right ventricular enlargement (dilatation), which can progress to right heart failure if left uncorrected. Disorders Infected valves can result in endocarditis in intravenous drug users. Patients who inject narcotics or other drugs intravenously may introduce infection, which can travel to the right side of the heart, most often caused by the bacteria S. aureus. In patients without a history of intravenous exposure, endocarditis is more frequently left-sided. The tricuspid valve can be affected by rheumatic fever, which can cause tricuspid stenosis or tricuspid regurgitation. Some individuals are born with congenital abnormalities of the tricuspid valve. Congenital apical displacement of the tricuspid valve is called Ebstein's anomaly and typically causes significant tricuspid regurgitation. Certain carcinoid syndromes can affect the tricuspid valve by producing fibrosis due to serotonin production by those tumors. The first endovascular tricuspid valve implant was performed by surgeons at the Cleveland Clinic. Tricuspid regurgitation Tricuspid regurgitation (TR) is common and is estimated to occur in 65–85% of the population. In The Framingham Heart Study presence of any severity of tricuspid regurgitation, ranging from trace to above moderate was in 82% of men and in 85.7% of women. Mild tricuspid regurgitation tend to be common and benign and in structurally normal tricuspid valve apparatus can be considered a normal variant. Moderate or severe tricuspid regurgitation is usually associated with tricuspid valve leaflet abnormalities and/or possibly annular dilation and is usually pathologic which can lead to irreversible damage of cardiac muscle and worse outcomes due to chronic prolonged right ventricular volume overload. Additional images See also Tricuspid atresia Cavo-tricuspid isthmus Lancisi's sign Right atrial enlargement References External links Photo of model: circulation/tricuspidvalve04 at Waynesburg College Cardiac Valve Animations - Perioperative Interactive Education Group Cardiac anatomy Heart valves	[ -0.24687962234020233, -0.24996481835842133, -0.07663241028785706, 0.13074320554733276, 0.10185403376817703, 0.45787426829338074, 0.12269771844148636, -0.0003256513737142086, 0.01329036708921194, -0.8952733278274536, 0.02674945816397667, 0.8262558579444885, -0.194337859749794, 0.041037727147340775, 0.07122522592544556, 0.43262073397636414, 0.5267680883407593, -0.0034532167483121157, 0.29364168643951416, -0.4569902718067169, -0.26163506507873535, -0.3312733471393585, 0.6370192170143127, -0.16700755059719086, 0.5509929656982422, -0.534258246421814, -0.23862119019031525, -0.00968142133206129, 0.3698247969150543, -0.3328837752342224, 0.10687090456485748, 0.7357803583145142, -0.28489819169044495, 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237419	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart%20murmur	Heart murmur	Heart murmurs are heart sounds produced when blood is pumped across a heart valve and creates a sound loud enough to be heard with a stethoscope. Murmurs are of various types and are important in the detection of cardiac and valvular pathologies (i.e. can be a sign of heart diseases or defects). There are two types of murmurs. A functional murmur or "physiologic murmur" is a heart murmur that is primarily due to physiologic conditions outside the heart. Other types of murmurs are due to structural defects in the heart itself. Functional murmurs are benign (an "innocent murmur"). Murmurs may also be the result of various problems, such as narrowing or leaking of valves, or the presence of abnormal passages through which blood flows in or near the heart. Such murmurs, known as pathologic murmurs, should be evaluated by a cardiologist. Heart murmurs are most frequently categorized by timing, into systolic heart murmurs and diastolic heart murmurs, differing in the part of the heartbeat on which they can be heard. However, continuous murmurs cannot be directly placed into either category. Classification Murmurs can be classified by seven different characteristics: timing, shape, location, radiation, intensity, pitch and quality. Timing refers to whether the murmur is a systolic or diastolic murmur. Shape refers to the intensity over time; murmurs can be crescendo, decrescendo or crescendo-decrescendo. Crescendo murmurs progressively increase in intensity. Decrescendo murmurs progressively decrease in intensity. With crescendo–decrescendo murmurs (diamond- or kite-shaped murmurs), a progressive increase in intensity is followed by a progressive decrease in intensity. Location refers to where the heart murmur is usually heard best. There are four places on the anterior chest wall to listen for heart murmurs; each of the locations roughly corresponds to a specific part of the heart and should be listened to (through the stethoscope) with the patient lying down, face up. The four locations are: Aortic region - the 2nd right intercostal space. Pulmonic region - the 2nd left intercostal spaces. Tricuspid region - the 4th left intercostal space. Mitral region - the 5th left mid-clavicular intercostal space. Additional maneuvers can be performed for additional auscultation: Left lateral decubitus. With the patient sitting upright. With the patient leaning forward and exhaling. Radiation refers to where the sound of the murmur radiates. The rule of thumb is that the sound radiates in the direction of the blood flow. Intensity refers to the loudness of the murmur, and is graded according to the Levine scale, from 1 to 6: The murmur is only audible on listening carefully for some time. The murmur is faint but immediately audible on placing the stethoscope on the chest. A loud murmur readily audible but with no palpable thrill. A loud murmur with a palpable thrill. A loud murmur with a palpable thrill. The murmur is so loud that it is audible with only the rim of the stethoscope touching the chest. A loud murmur with a palpable thrill. The murmur is audible with the stethoscope not touching the chest but lifted just off it. Pitch may be low, medium or high and is determined by whether it can be auscultated best with the bell or diaphragm of a stethoscope. Quality refers to unusual characteristics of a murmur, such as blowing, harsh, rumbling or musical. Mnemonics A mnemonic to remember what characteristics to look for when listening to murmurs is SCRIPT: Site, Configuration (shape), Radiation, Intensity, Pitch and quality, and Timing in the cardiac cycle. The use of two simple mnemonics may help differentiate systolic and diastolic murmurs; PASS and PAID. Pulmonary and aortic stenoses are systolic while pulmonary and aortic insufficiency (regurgitation) are diastolic. Mitral and tricuspid defects are opposite. Interventions that change murmur sounds Inhalation leads to an increase in intrathoracic negative pressure, which increases the capacity of pulmonary circulation, thereby prolonging ejection time. This will affect the closure of the pulmonary valve. This finding, also called Carvallo's maneuver, has been found by studies to have a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 80% to 88% in detecting murmurs originating in the right heart. specifically positive Carvallo's sign describes the increase in intensity of a tricuspid regurgitation murmur with inspiration. Abrupt standing Squatting, by increasing afterload and increasing preload. Handgrip maneuver, by increasing afterload Valsalva maneuver. One study found the Valsalva maneuver to have a sensitivity of 65%, specificity of 96% in detecting hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (HOCM). Both standing and Valsalva maneuver will decrease venous return and subsequently decrease left ventricular filling, resulting in an increase in the loudness of the murmur of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, since outflow obstruction is increased by decreasing preload. Alternatively, squatting increases systemic vascular resistance, increasing afterload and helping to hold the obstruction in a more open configuration, decreasing the murmur. Maximum handgrip exercise also results in a decrease in the loudness of the murmur. Post ectopic potentiation Inhaled amyl nitrite is a vasodilator that diminishes systolic murmurs in left-to-right shunts in ventricular septal defects, and reveals right-to left shunts in the setting of a pulmonic stenosis and a ventricular septal defect. Methoxamine Positioning of the patient. That is, putting patients in the left lateral position will allow a murmur in the mitral valve area to be more pronounced. Anatomic sources Systolic Aortic valve stenosis typically is a crescendo/decrescendo systolic murmur best heard at the right upper sternal border sometimes with radiation to the carotid arteries. In mild aortic stenosis, the crescendo-decrescendo is early peaking whereas in severe aortic stenosis, the crescendo is late-peaking, and the S2 heart sound may be obliterated. Stenosis of Bicuspid aortic valve is similar to the aortic valve stenosis heart murmur, but a systolic ejection click may be heard after S1 in calcified bicuspid aortic valves. Symptoms tend to present between 40 and 70 years of age. Mitral regurgitation typically is a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur heard best at the apex, and may radiate to the axilla or precordium. A systolic click may be heard if there is associated mitral valve prolapse. Valsalva maneuver in mitral regurgitation associated with mitral valve prolapse will decrease left ventricular preload and move the murmur onset closer to S1, and isometric handgrip, which increases left ventricular afterload, will increase murmur intensity. In acute severe mitral regurgitation, a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur may not be heard. Pulmonary valve stenosis typically is a crescendo-decrescendo systolic murmur heard best at the left upper sternal border, associated with a systolic ejection click that increases with inspiration (due to increased venous return to the right side of the heart) and sometimes radiates to the left clavicle. Tricuspid valve regurgitation presents as a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur at the left lower sternal border with radiation to the left upper sternal border. Prominent v and c waves may be seen in the JVP (jugular venous pressure). The murmur will increase with inspiration. Hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy (or hypertrophic subaortic stenosis) will be a systolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur best heard at the left lower sternal border. Valsalva maneuver will increase the intensity of the murmur, as will changing positions from squatting to standing. Atrial septal defect will present with a systolic crescendo-decrescendo murmur best heard at the left upper sternal border due to increased volume going through the pulmonary valve, and is associated with a fixed, split S2 and a right ventricular heave. Ventricular septal defect (VSD) will present as a holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur at the left lower sternal border, associated with a palpable thrill, and increases with isometric handgrip. A right to left shunt (Eisenmenger syndrome) may develop with uncorrected VSDs due to worsening pulmonary hypertension, which will increase the murmur intensity and be associated with cyanosis. Flow murmur may be heard at the right upper sternal border in certain conditions, such as anemia, hyperthyroidism, fever, and pregnancy. Diastolic Aortic valve regurgitation will present as a diastolic decrescendo murmur heard at the left lower sternal border or right lower sternal border (when associated with a dilated aorta). This may be associated with bounding carotid and peripheral pulses (Corrigan's pulse, Watson's water hammer pulse), and a widened pulse pressure. Mitral stenosis typically presents as a diastolic low-pitched decrescendo murmur best heard at the cardiac apex in the left lateral decubitus position. It may be associated with an opening snap. Increasing severity will shorten the time between S2(A2) and the opening snap. (i.e. In severe MS the opening snap will occur earlier after A2) Tricuspid valve stenosis presents as a diastolic decrescendo murmur at the left lower sternal border, and signs of right heart failure may be seen on exam. Pulmonary valve regurgitation presents as a diastolic decrescendo murmur at the left lower sternal border. A palpable S2 in the second left intercostal space correlates with pulmonary hypertension due to mitral stenosis. Continuous and Combined Systolic/Diastolic Patent ductus arteriosus may present as a continuous murmur radiating to the back. Severe coarctation of the aorta can present with a continuous murmur: a systolic component at the left infraclavicular region and the back due to the stenosis, and a diastolic component over the chest wall due to blood flow through collateral vessels. Acute severe aortic regurgitation is associated with a three phase murmur, specifically a midsystolic murmur followed by S2, followed by a parasternal early diastolic and mid-diastolic murmur (Austin Flint murmur). Although the exact cause of an Austin Flint murmur is unknown, it is hypothesized that the mechanism of murmur is from the severe aortic regurgitation jet vibrating the anterior mitral valve leaflet, colliding with the mitral inflow during diastole, with increased mitral inflow velocity from the narrowed mitral valve orifice leading to the jet impinging on the myocardial wall. Another uncommon cause of a continuous murmur is a ruptured sinus of valsalva. Usually the murmur is well heard in the aortic area and along the left sternal border. Types and disease associations Continuous machinery murmur, at the left upper sternal border Classic for a patent ductus arteriosus, and in serious cases associated with poor feeding, failure to thrive and respiratory distress. Other examination findings may include widened pulse pressures and bounding pulses. Systolic murmur loudest below the left scapula Classic for a coarctation of the aorta which is often seen in Turner's Syndrome, (gonadal dysgenesis), an X-linked disorder with a part missing of the X-chromosome. Other findings of this murmur is radio-femoral delay, and different blood pressures in the upper and lower extremities. Harsh holosystolic (pansystolic) murmur at the left lower sternal border Classic for a ventricular septal defect. It is in these children that the delayed-onset cyanotic heart disease occurs known as Eisenmenger syndrome, which is a reversal of the left-to-right heart shunt as the right ventricle hypertrophies, causing a right-to-left shunt and resulting cyanosis. Widely split fixed S2 and systolic ejection murmur at the left upper sternal border Classically due to a patent foramen ovale or atrial septal defect, which is lack of closure of the foramen ovale. This produces a left-to-right shunt initially, thus does not produce cyanosis, but causes pulmonary hypertension. Longstanding uncorrected atrial septal defects can also result in Eisenmenger's syndrome with resultant cyanosis. Cooing dove murmur The cooing dove murmur is a cardiac murmur with a musical quality (high pitched - hence the name) and is associated with aortic valve regurgitation (or mitral regurgitation before rupture of chordae). It is a diastolic murmur which can be heard over the mid-precordium. See also Benign paediatric heart murmur George Alexander Gibson discoverer of the Gibson murmur. Precordial examination References External links Heart murmurs Turbulence he:איוושה	[ 0.400039404630661, 0.10964464396238327, -0.10060333460569382, -0.42958498001098633, -0.0909043699502945, 0.16559526324272156, 0.3224838376045227, 0.39794111251831055, 0.005540263839066029, -0.7175687551498413, -0.1638151854276657, 0.40458282828330994, -0.09875175356864929, 0.4654170870780945, 0.004749072249978781, -0.03520571067929268, 0.5622932314872742, 0.6990845203399658, 0.5027898550033569, -0.3067161440849304, -0.0666009709239006, 0.03763322904706001, 0.5597261786460876, 0.07501611858606339, -0.01682717353105545, 0.037677958607673645, -0.3091842830181122, -0.25282129645347595, 0.12603367865085602, -0.05577229708433151, 0.21270905435085297, 1.3786723613739014, 0.3897940516471863, -0.32033273577690125, -0.20530904829502106, -0.3529495894908905, -0.08016908913850784, -0.35595715045928955, -0.3652767837047577, -0.1769648790359497, -0.7006744742393494, -0.4398084580898285, 0.48484018445014954, 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237424	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill%20Creek%20%28Ohio%29	Mill Creek (Ohio)	The Mill Creek is a stream in southwest Ohio. It flows southwest and south from its headwaters in Liberty Township of Butler County through central Hamilton County and the heart of Cincinnati into the Ohio River just west of downtown. The section of Interstate 75 through Cincinnati is known as the Mill Creek Expressway. The Mill Creek Valley is a remnant of the Deep Stage Ohio River from the days of the Last Glacial Maximum. The stream, with its water power and valley, were important to the development of Cincinnati. Then, for a time, the steep hillsides that surround the creek limited expansion and gave impetus to the free growth of surrounding communities that were over that barrier. Finally, inclined planes solved the problem, before highways and automobiles eliminated it. Pollution Throughout Cincinnati's history, Mill Creek has been the scene of heavy industry. At the turn of the 20th-century, it was seen as "a great open city sewer". In 1997, it was described as "the most endangered urban river in America." Discharge A USGS stream gauge on the creek at Mitchell Avenue in Cincinnati recorded a mean annual discharge of during the four combined water years 1942-1943 and 1946-1947. Crossings A number of substantial viaducts cross the valley of the Mill Creek. From south to north, the crossings - both high above and near the water level - are: CSX Transportation rail spur Sixth Street Expressway/Waldvogel Viaduct (U.S. Route 50/State Route 264) Sixth Street and the Indiana and Ohio Railway "Ditch Track" CSX "Oklahoma Track" on the Indiana Subdivision CSX "Cincinnati Industrial Track" (former Toledo Subdivision main track) Eighth Street Viaduct Gest Street Western Hills Viaduct Hopple Street Viaduct Millcreek Road Spring Grove Avenue Interstate 74/U.S. Route 27/U.S. Route 52 Ludlow Viaduct (Hamilton Avenue) (US 127) CSX railroad Clifton Avenue Mitchell Avenue CSX Railroad Spring Grove Avenue Cognis Corporation pipe bridge CSX rail spur CSX railroad Cognis Corporation pipe bridge Cognis Corporation (private roadway) Cognis Corporation (private roadway) Cognis Corporation pipe bridge Cognis Corporation (private roadway) CSX rail spur Center Hill Avenue West Seymour Avenue West North Bend Road CSX Railroad Vine Street (SR 4) Anthony Wayne Avenue CSX Railroad Private roadway Interstate 75 SR 126 eastbound (Ronald Reagan Highway) SR 126 westbound (Ronald Reagan Highway) East Galbraith Road Clark Road Koehler Avenue (Davis Street) Interstate 75 West Benson Street (East Wyoming Avenue) Interstate 75 West Columbia Avenue General Electric Aviation (private roadway) Norfolk Southern Railroad Formica Corporation (private roadway) Cunningham Drive Glendale-Milford Road Norfolk Southern Railroad Norfolk Southern Railroad Norfolk Southern Railroad Norfolk Southern Railroad Medallion Drive CSX Railroad East Sharon Road CSX Railroad East Kemper Road Interstate 275 CSX Railroad East Crescentville Road Allen Road Village Centre Avenue Union Centre Boulevard West Chester Road See also List of rivers of Ohio References Ohio Environmental Protection Agency. 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237438	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gloria%20Foster	Gloria Foster	Gloria Foster (November 15, 1933 – September 29, 2001) was an American actress. She had acclaimed roles in plays In White America and Having Our Say, winning three Obie Awards during her career. She played the Oracle in The Matrix (1999) and The Matrix Reloaded (2003) films, the latter film being her last. She played the role of the mother of Yusef Bell in the mini series The Atlanta Child Murders which aired in 1985. Early life Foster was born on November 15, 1933, in Chicago, Illinois. As a young child she was put into the custody of her maternal grandparents. She never knew who her father was and she moved to Janesville, Wisconsin after her mother was hospitalized for a mental illness. She attended the University of Illinois at Chicago, where she participated in plays, but did not focus on acting. She decided to be a professional actor when her godmother introduced her to the Goodman Theatre in Chicago. She became one of the few African Americans at the Goodman School of Drama at the Art Institute of Chicago (now at DePaul University). During her studying at the Goodman School she also, "learned professional acting skills in the Court Theater at the University of Chicago". One of her most influential instructors was Bella Itkin, who cast Gloria in many classical roles. Gloria Foster began acting on Broadway in 1963. Her first role was Ruth in the show of A Raisin in the Sun. Her first professional performance was In White America. Foster, "play[s] a 13-year-old Arkansas girl who tries to enter her Little Rock school". She won an Obie Award or Off-Broadway Theater Award. Instead having to audition for roles, people started to make parts for her to be in. She was known for her work with Joe Papp, and appeared in his productions of Long Day's Journey into Night, Chekhov's Cherry Orchard, Brecht's Mother Courage (adapted by Ntozake Shange), and Shakespeare's Coriolanus. Foster searched for roles in which she could perform to the best of her ability. She once said, "Young people today, I think, are thinking in terms of stepping stones.…I don't know that I ever thought that way. It sounds ridiculous, but I was always thinking in terms of a more difficult role". Personal life Foster married the actor Clarence Williams III in 1967. They appeared on an episode of Williams's television show The Mod Squad that ran from 1968 to 1973; Foster made two guest appearances. The two acted together in a 1964 film, The Cool World. Williams was the one to announce her death in 2001. While Foster did not have many close relatives, she stayed in contact with her Delta Sigma Theta sorority sister, Cicely Tyson. Tyson stated that, although they did not see each other often, their telephone conversations would often last for hours. Highlights Moving from the New York stage, Gloria Foster started to do roles on the big screen. She was in many theatrical performances and also performed some roles on television. The Cool World (1964) – This was Gloria Foster's first appearance on a full-length feature film. She played Mrs. Custis. It was on the set of this film that she starred next to her future husband, Clarence Williams III. Nothing But a Man (1964) – Gloria Foster plays a woman named Lee, who lives with the main character's (Duff Anderson) father. She was also active in television, appearing in such programs as I Spy, two episodes of Law & Order and The Cosby Show (1987). Her character in both Law and Order episodes, named Satima Tate, was based on the widow of Malcolm X, Betty Shabazz. The first episode, titled Conspiracy (1992), was based on Malcolm X's assassination. Malcolm X was played by Hal Miller. The second episode, titled Entrapment (1997), focused on her character's children's acts of revenge against the people they believed were really responsible. She returned to theatre again in 1995, acting alongside Mary Alice (who was later to replace her in The Matrix films following her death), appearing as 103-year-old Sadie Delany, in Having Our Say, on Broadway at the Booth Theatre, for which she received rave reviews. The Matrix (1999) and The Matrix Reloaded (2003) – She played the Oracle, however, she died during filming and was thus unable to portray her role in the third film. As a result, Mary Alice replaced her in The Matrix Revolutions and Enter the Matrix. Death Gloria Foster died on September 29, 2001, at age 67. The cause of her death was diabetes. A memorial was held at Cypress Hills Cemetery in Brooklyn on October 15, 2001. Martin Duberman, the author of In White America, told the audience about her 1963 performance that, "she embodied it. At the end of the scene each night, there were tears streaming down her face, her body was trembling, but her dignity was intact ... Foster had to be covered with blankets in order to calm her shaking". She is interred in Kensico Cemetery in Valhalla, New York. Filmography Film The Cool World (1964) as Mrs. Custis Nothing But a Man (1964) as Lee The Comedians (1967) as Mrs. Philipot The Angel Levine (1970) as Sally Man and Boy (1972) as Ivy Revers Leonard Part 6 (1987) as Medusa City of Hope (1991) as Jeanette The Matrix (1999) as The Oracle The Matrix Reloaded (2003) as The Oracle (posthumous release) The Matrix Resurrections (2021) as The Oracle (Archive Footage) Television The Bill Cosby Show as Dolores Winters I Spy (1968) as Shana The Outcasts (1968), "Take Your Lover in The Ring", Episode #5, as Sabina Mod Squad (1969) as Jenny To All My Friends on Shore (1972) as Serena Top Secret (1978) as Judith The Files on Jill Hatch (1983) as Mrs. Hatch House of Dies Drear (1984) as Sheila Small The Atlanta Child Murders (1985) (miniseries) as Camille Bell The Cosby Show (1987) as Dr. Barbara Bracy Separate but Equal (1991) as Buster Law & Order (1992 and 1997) as Mrs. Tate Percy & Thunder (1993) as Sugar Brown References External links Gloria Foster Biography, UMass. Gloria Foster Biography, New York Times. Gloria Is The Glory, New York Times, March 26, 1972. 1933 births 2001 deaths Burials at Cypress Hills Cemetery Deaths from diabetes Actresses from Chicago Actresses from Wisconsin Obie Award recipients University of Illinois alumni DePaul University alumni Burials at Kensico Cemetery 20th-century American actresses 21st-century American actresses African-American actresses American television actresses American film actresses American stage actresses Delta Sigma Theta members People from Janesville, Wisconsin 20th-century African-American women 20th-century African-American people 21st-century African-American women 21st-century African-American people	[ -0.35115861892700195, -0.22610816359519958, -1.050231695175171, -0.3773554265499115, -0.1194320023059845, 0.6854749917984009, 0.6667001247406006, 0.015595115721225739, -0.16853109002113342, -0.19660684466362, 0.3967313766479492, 0.668623685836792, 0.3871682286262512, 0.4359906315803528, -0.938984215259552, 0.1512306034564972, 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237439	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexor%20digitorum%20profundus%20muscle	Flexor digitorum profundus muscle	The flexor digitorum profundus is a muscle in the forearm of humans that flexes the fingers (also known as digits). It is considered an extrinsic hand muscle because it acts on the hand while its muscle belly is located in the forearm. Together the flexor pollicis longus, pronator quadratus, and flexor digitorum profundus form the deep layer of ventral forearm muscles. The muscle is named . Structure Flexor digitorum profundus originates in the upper 3/4 of the anterior and medial surfaces of the ulna, interosseous membrane and deep fascia of the forearm. The muscle fans out into four tendons (one to each of the second to fifth fingers) to the palmar base of the distal phalanx. Along with the flexor digitorum superficialis, it has long tendons that run down the arm and through the carpal tunnel and attach to the palmar side of the phalanges of the fingers. Flexor digitorum profundus lies deep to the superficialis, but it attaches more distally. Therefore, profundus's tendons go through the tendons of superficialis, and end up attaching to the distal phalanx. For this reason profundus is also called the perforating muscle. The lumbricals of the hand arise from the radial side of its tendons. Nerve supply Flexor digitorum profundus is a composite muscle innervated by the anterior interosseous nerve and ulnar nerves. The medial aspect of the muscle (which flexes the 4th and 5th digit) is supplied by the ulnar nerve (C8, T1). The lateral aspect (which flexes the 2nd and 3rd digit) is innervated by the median nerve, specifically the anterior interosseous branch (C8, T1). It is one of two flexor muscles that is not exclusively supplied by the median nerve (the other is flexor carpi ulnaris). In the forearm, the median nerve travels distally between the flexor digitorum superficialias and the flexor digitorum profundus. Variation The tendon of the index finger often has a separate muscle belly. Function Flexor digitorum profundus is a flexor of the wrist (midcarpal), metacarpophalangeal and interphalangeal joints. The lumbricals, intrinsic muscles of the hand, attach to the tendon of flexor digitorum profundus. Thus, the flexor muscle is used to aid the lumbrical muscles in their role as extensors of the interphalangeal joints. As the lumbrical muscles originate on the palmar side of the hand and attach on the dorsal aponeurosis, power is transferred from the flexor digitorum profundus muscle to fully extend the fingers as well as flex the metacarpophalangeal joints. The tension generated by flexor digitorum profundus at the more distal joints is determined by wrist position. Flexion of the wrist causes muscle shortening at that point, reducing tension that can be generated more distally. Fingers cannot be fully flexed if the wrist is fully flexed. Other animals In many primates, the FDP is fused with the flexor pollicis longus (FPL). In great apes the belly of the FDP has a separate tendon for the FDP. In lesser apes, both muscles have separate bellies in the forearm, but in Old World monkeys they separate in the carpal tunnel. The lack of differentiation in the FDP musculature in baboons makes it unlikely that this monkey can control individual fingers independently. Additional images See also Jersey finger, a rupture of the tendon connecting to the muscle Notes References (Abstract, PubMed) (PDF, Smithsonian) External links Muscles of the upper limb	[ -0.4384968876838684, -0.4645768702030182, 0.0940871611237526, -0.02521328628063202, -0.3617139160633087, 0.6846305727958679, 0.5253328084945679, 0.1774122267961502, -0.8065282702445984, -0.32765257358551025, 0.17462360858917236, 0.5903158783912659, -0.25601926445961, -0.4405491054058075, -0.1793103963136673, 0.4303610622882843, 0.06405887007713318, 0.042812831699848175, 0.22377638518810272, -0.05898139998316765, 0.1196732223033905, -0.18080344796180725, 1.0731784105300903, -0.5572863221168518, -0.3225398659706116, 0.01598294824361801, 0.14751189947128296, 0.7537806034088135, -0.0772416889667511, -0.3263595998287201, -0.2992868423461914, 0.480861097574234, -0.294416606426239, -0.48165205121040344, -0.44955968856811523, -0.3256826400756836, 0.29257991909980774, -0.6390557289123535, 0.5692068934440613, 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237443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Dassin	Joe Dassin	Joseph Ira Dassin (; 5 November 1938 – 20 August 1980) was an American-French singer-songwriter and actor. He was the son of film director Jules Dassin. Early life Dassin was born in New York City to American film director Jules Dassin (1911–2008) and Béatrice Launer (1913–1994), a New York-born violinist, who after graduating from a Hebrew High School in the Bronx studied with the British violinist Harold Berkely at the Juilliard School of Music. His father was of Ukrainian-Jewish and Polish-Jewish extraction, his maternal grandfather was an Austrian-Jewish immigrant, who arrived in New York with his family at age 11. He began his childhood first in New York City and Los Angeles. However, after his father fell victim to the Hollywood blacklist in 1950, he and his family moved from place to place across Europe. Dassin studied at the International School of Geneva and the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland, and graduated in Grenoble. Dassin moved back to the United States, where he attended the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan from 1957 to 1963, winning an undergraduate Hopwood Award for fiction in 1958 and earning a Bachelor of Arts in 1961 and a Master of Arts in 1963, both in Anthropology. Career Moving to France, Dassin worked as a technician for his father and appeared as an actor in supporting roles, among others in three movies directed by his father, including Topkapi (1964) in which he played the role of Josef. He met Valentin Teboul in Paris writing the famous Champs-Elysées Song in 1964. On 26 December 1964, Dassin signed with CBS Records, making him the first French singer to be signed with an American record label. By the early 1970s, Dassin's songs were at the top of the charts in France, and he became immensely popular there. He recorded songs in German, Spanish, Italian, and Greek, as well as French and English. Amongst his most popular songs are "Les Champs-Élysées" (Originally "Waterloo Road") (1969), "Salut les amoureux" (originally "City of New Orleans") (1973), "L'Été indien" (1975), "Et si tu n'existais pas" (1975), and "À toi" (1976). Cinema Joe Dassin appeared in the following movies: 1957 : He Who Must Die, by Jules Dassin : Benos 1958 : The Law (1959 film), by Jules Dassin : Nico 1964 : Topkapi (film), by Jules Dassin : Joseph 1965 : Lady L, by Peter Ustinov : police inspector 1965 : Nick Carter and Red Club, by Jean-Paul Savignac : Janos Adler Personal life Dassin married Maryse Massiéra in Paris on 18 January 1966. Their son Joshua was born two and a half months early on 12 September 1973, and died five days later. Overcome by grief, Joe became deeply depressed. Despite all their efforts, their marriage did not survive. In 1977, one year after their move to their newly built home in Feucherolles, just outside Paris, they divorced. On 14 January 1978, Dassin married Christine Delvaux in Cotignac. Their first son, Jonathan, was born on 14 September 1978; and their second son, Julien, arrived on 22 March 1980. Christine died in December 1995. Death Dassin died from a heart attack during a vacation to Tahiti on 20 August 1980. He was eating lunch with family and friends at the restaurant Chez Michel et Éliane in Papeete when he suddenly slumped in his chair, unconscious. A doctor who was also eating at the restaurant gave Dassin a heart massage, but Dassin died at the restaurant. The only ambulance in Papeete was unavailable at the time and took 40 minutes to arrive. His body is interred in the Beth Olam section of Hollywood Forever Cemetery in Hollywood, California. Tributes In 2020, many established artists paid tribute to Joe Dassin songs in a covers / tribute album À toi, Joe Dassin. The album peaked at #44 in the French SNEP Albums chart. It also charted in Belgium peaking at #26 in the country's Ultratop albums francophone chart and also peaking at #4 in the Swiss Hitparade Albums chart. Artists interpreting Joe Dassin songs on the album included Ycare, Axelle Red, Les Frangines, Trois Cafés Gourmands, Patrick Fiori, Lola Dubini, Jérémy Frerot, Tibz, Aldebert, Kids United Nouvelle Génération, Carla, Jonathan Dassin, Madame Monsieur, Julien Dassin, La Deryves, 21 Juin Le Duo, and Camélia Jordana. Discography References External links 1938 births 1980 deaths American folk guitarists American male guitarists American pop guitarists American people of Austrian-Jewish descent American people of Russian-Jewish descent American people of Polish-Jewish descent American male singer-songwriters American expatriates in Switzerland American emigrants to France French-language singers of the United States Jewish American musicians Jewish singers Singers from New York City University of Michigan College of Literature, Science, and the Arts alumni CBS Records artists Columbia Records artists RCA Records artists Burials at Hollywood Forever Cemetery 20th-century American singers 20th-century American guitarists Guitarists from New York City 20th-century American male singers Hopwood Award winners Deaths in Tahiti International School of Geneva alumni Singer-songwriters from New York (state)	[ -0.28136181831359863, 0.17349408566951752, -1.2343430519104004, -0.2665066123008728, 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237447	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill%20Creek%20Township%2C%20Hamilton%20County%2C%20Ohio	Mill Creek Township, Hamilton County, Ohio	Millcreek Township (or Mill Creek Township) is a survey township in south-central Hamilton County, Ohio, that also existed as a civil township from 1810 until 1943. Once the most important township in the county, it was largely absorbed by Cincinnati and its suburbs, nominally remaining as a paper township from 1943 until 1953. It was abolished when the rest of its unincorporated territory, consisting of Wesleyan Cemetery, became part of Cincinnati. As the original survey township covers a large portion of present-day Cincinnati, references to it are frequently encountered by genealogists. Name Millcreek Township is named after Mill Creek, which runs through it. Statewide, other Millcreek Townships are located in Coshocton, Union, and Williams counties. History In 1809, residents of Cincinnati Township and Springfield Township successfully petitioned the Hamilton County Board of County Commissioners to form a new township corresponding to fractional range two, township three of the Symmes Purchase, a total of . Township trustees were first elected on February 1810. On February 28, 1870, Cincinnati annexed Lick Run and Camp Washington. By 1881, Cincinnati had annexed the village of Cumminsville (now Northside) within the township limits. By 1904, Cincinnati had also annexed the villages of Winton Place (now Spring Grove Village) and Bond Hill. However, there was confusion because no action had been taken to also transfer them from Millcreek Township to Cincinnati Township, which was by then a paper township whose sole purpose was to exclude land from any real township. By 1912, annexations by Cincinnati left Elmwood Place and Wesleyan Cemetery as the only unincorporated portions of the township, prompting an investigation into whether the township should be abolished. Norwood withdrew from the township around 1938 by forming its own paper township. In 1939 and 1941, Cincinnati attempted to annex the , unincorporated enclave occupied by the historic Wesleyan Cemetery. However, burial lot owners and relatives of people buried at the cemetery successfully defeated the annexation over fears that the city would run a street through the cemetery. In 1943, St. Bernard and Elmwood Place (now a village) withdrew from the township as well, reducing it to only the cemetery and $517.35 in assets. Attorney General Thomas J. Herbert issued an opinion that the cemetery enclave should be considered part of Cincinnati and the township should be abolished. However, the matter was not settled: state law required the freeholders within a territory to vote on annexation, but no freeholder remained in the township to vote in favor. The township's one resident of voting age, the cemetery's sexton, did not own the cemetery; conversely, the Wesleyan Cemetery Association's board members did not reside at the cemetery. Meanwhile, the sexton could not simultaneously serve in all three trustee positions that state law requires of a functioning township government. The county also sought to avoid setting up a special polling place for the sexton, which would have required the appointment of six election officers. In 1950, Cincinnati sued the Wesleyan Cemetery Association in Hamilton County Common Pleas Court to determine whether the city has jurisdiction over the cemetery. Despite being in the middle of an urban area, the cemetery had no provisions for police or fire protection. In 1953, a bill introduced by State Representative Robert F. Reckman to consider remnants of townships with no resident freeholders to be part of municipalities as if they had been annexed was approved by the Governor. On October 20, 1953, the Clerk of Council of the City of Cincinnati issued a certificate and plat stating that that part of Wesleyan Cemetery that was a remnant of Mill Creek Township was then part of the City of Cincinnati. Despite this action by the City, news articles refer to the cemetery as constituting nonfunctioning Millcreek Township as late as 1961. During the 1990s and 2000s, the cemetery passed from one caretaker to another amid controversy about mismanagement. The cemetery grew unkempt and attracted prostitutes and drug dealers. Attorney General Jim Petro stepped in, obtaining a ruling in Common Pleas Court that removed the caretaker and declared Wesleyan a public cemetery. Cincinnati unsuccessfully fought in court to avoid taking over management of the cemetery. Geography The original territory of Millcreek Township was bounded by Cincinnati Township and Storrs Township to the south, Green Township to the west, Springfield Township to the north, and Columbia Township and Spencer Township to the east. The following villages were at some point located in Millcreek Township: Avondale (annexed by Cincinnati) Bond Hill (annexed by Cincinnati) Carthage (partially in the township; annexed by Cincinnati) Clifton (annexed by Cincinnati) College Hill (annexed by Cincinnati) Cumminsville (annexed by Cincinnati) Elmwood Place (incorporated and withdrew) Mount Airy (partially in the township; annexed by Cincinnati) Norwood (incorporated and withdrew) St. Bernard (incorporated and withdrew) Winton Place (annexed by Cincinnati) Woodburn (annexed by Cincinnati) References Further reading External links Hamilton County Recorder's Office – Township Maps Townships in Hamilton County, Ohio Paper townships History of Cincinnati Populated places established in 1810 Populated places disestablished in 1943	[ -0.8238063454627991, 0.4815327525138855, -0.5079308152198792, 0.4164048433303833, 0.2861069440841675, 0.2902195453643799, 0.40004435181617737, 0.7569223046302795, -0.252562016248703, 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237455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigi%20Fern%C3%A1ndez	Gigi Fernández	Beatriz "Gigi" Fernández (born February 22, 1964) is a Puerto Rican former professional tennis player. She turned professional in 1983 and is the first Puerto Rican to be inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Fernández won 17 Grand Slam doubles titles and two Olympic gold medals representing the United States, and reached the world No. 1 ranking in women's doubles. She reached a career-high singles ranking of 17 in 1991. Since retiring from the professional tour in 1997 at the age of 33, Fernández has been a tennis coach and entrepreneur. She now shares her knowledge of doubles with tennis enthusiasts throughout the US by conducting Master Doubles with Gigi Clinics and Doubles Boot Camps. Career Fernández was recognized primarily as a doubles specialist during her professional career. She won a career doubles Grand Slam with 17 Grand Slam women's doubles title – six French Open, five US Open, four Wimbledon, and two Australian Open winning at least one Grand Slam title every year from 1988 to 1997, except 1989, and for three straight years winning three of the four Grand Slam doubles titles in the same year (1992–1994). She won 14 of her 17 Grand Slam titles partnering Natasha Zvereva; their partnership is the second most successful doubles pair in the Open era after Martina Navratilova and Pam Shriver. In mixed doubles, Fernández was the runner-up in three of the four Grand Slam mixed doubles events in 1995 (Australian Open, Wimbledon, and US Open) partnering Cyril Suk. Fernández captured 68 career titles in women's doubles and reached the world No. 1 doubles ranking in 1991 and attained the No. 1 ranking again in 1993, 1994 and 1995. She won a total of 69 doubles titles during her career. Fernández represented the United States at the Olympic Games in 1992 (Barcelona) and 1996 (Atlanta). She teamed with Mary Joe Fernández (no relation) to win the women's doubles gold medal on both occasions. The first gold medal was won against the home team of Conchita Martínez and Arantxa Sánchez Vicario with the king and queen of Spain in the audience. The two medals are on Fernández's desk, and a license plate on her car states "DBL GLD". Fernández represented Puerto Rico when San Juan played host to the Pan Am Games in 1979. Just 15, Fernández won a bronze medal. In 1982 at the Central American-Caribbean Games in Cuba, she teamed with Marilda Julia to win doubles gold and won a silver medal in the singles as well. She represented Puerto Rico at the 1984 Olympics. Fernández was also on the United States team that won the Federation Cup in 1990. In singles, Fernández reached as high as world No. 17. She also won two top-level titles and reached the semifinals at Wimbledon in 1994 (ranked 99 becoming the lowest-ranked grand Slam singles semifinalist at Wimbledon) and the quarterfinals at the US Open in 1991 and 1994. Fernández retired from the professional tour in 1997, and in 1999, she was named Puerto Rico's "Female Athlete of the Century". On July 12, 2010, Fernández was inducted in the International Tennis Hall of Fame with Zvereva. Personal life Her parents are Tuto Fernández, a well-known doctor in Puerto Rico, and Beatriz Fernández. Her cousin José Ferrer was a famous Puerto Rican actor and director. Fernández started playing tennis when she was seven. She studied at the prestigious Academia San José in Guaynabo. When she turned professional in 1983, she became Puerto Rico's first female professional athlete. Before turning professional, she played tennis for one season at Clemson University in 1982–83, where she was singles and doubles All-American and reached the National Collegiate Athletics Association singles final. Since retiring from the tour, Fernández has worked as a tennis coach. She has coached players including the former world No. 1 doubles player Rennae Stubbs, Lisa Raymond, and Samantha Stosur. She coached Sam Stosur to her first Grand Slam title at the 2005 US Open with Lisa Raymond. She also coached for the Puerto Rican national team and the University of South Florida. She earned a Bachelor of Arts in psychology from the University of South Florida in 2003 and later graduated from Rollins College's Crummer School of Business where she earned a Master of Business Administration. She is the mother of twins, Karson Xavier and Madison Jane, and the partner of retired professional golfer and former LPGA and WWE executive Jane Geddes. In 2010, Fernández started a company named Baby Goes Pro. She presently resides in Tampa, Florida and was the Director of Adult Tennis at Chelsea Piers Connecticut, as well as Summer Director at The Long Ridge Tennis Club. In a 2021 interview, Fernández states she receives a lot of negative comments from some Puerto Ricans via her social media and that it saddens her. Major finals Grand Slam finals Doubles: 23 (17–6) Mixed doubles: 3 (0–3) Olympic finals Doubles: 2 (2 gold medals) WTA Tour titles Singles (2) Doubles (69) 1985: Washington (with Martina Navratilova), Miami (w/Navratilova), Toronto (w/Navratilova), Fort Lauderdale (with Robin White) 1987: U.S. Indoor Championships (with Lori McNeil), Newport (w/McNeil), Mahwah (w/McNeil) 1988: Tokyo Outdoor (w/White), US Open (w/White) 1989: Newport (w/McNeil), Toronto (w/White), Tokyo Doubles Championships (w/White), Filderstadt (w/White) 1990: Tokyo/Pan Pacific (with Elizabeth Smylie), Hamburg (w/Navratilova), Los Angeles (with Jana Novotná), US Open (w/Navratilova), New England (with Helena Suková) 1991: Brisbane (w/Novotná), Chicago (w/Novotna), Light n' Lively Doubles (w/Suková), French Open (w/Novotna), Oakland (with Patty Fendick), Indianapolis (w/Fendick) 1992: Houston (w/Fendick), French Open (with Natasha Zvereva), Wimbledon (w/Zvereva), Barcelona Olympics (with Mary Joe Fernández), US Open (w/Zvereva), Oakland (w/Zvereva), Philadelphia (w/Zvereva) 1993: Australian Open (w/Zvereva), Delray Beach (w/Zvereva), Light n' Lively Doubles (w/Zvereva), Hilton Head (w/Zvereva), Berlin (w/Zvereva), French Open (w/Zvereva), Eastbourne (w/Zvereva), Wimbledon (w/Zvereva), San Diego (w/Suková), Leipzig (w/Zvereva), Filderstadt (w/Zvereva), Virginia Slims Championships (w/Zvereva) 1994: Australian Open (w/Zvereva), Chicago (w/Zvereva), Miami (w/Zvereva), Italian Open (w/Zvereva), Berlin (w/Zvereva), French Open (w/Zvereva), Eastbourne (w/Zvereva), Wimbledon (w/Zvereva), Filderstadt (w/Zvereva), Philadelphia (w/Zvereva), Virginia Slims Championships (w/Zvereva) 1995: Tokyo/Pan Pacific (w/Zvereva), Hamburg (with Martina Hingis), Rome (w/Zvereva), French Open (w/Zvereva), San Diego (w/Zvereva), Los Angeles (w/Zvereva), US Open (w/Zvereva), Filderstadt (w/Zvereva) 1996: Tokyo/Pan Pacific (w/Zvereva), Atlanta Olympics (w/Mary Joe Fernández), San Diego (with Conchita Martínez), US Open (w/Zvereva) 1997: Sydney (with Arantxa Sánchez Vicario), French Open (w/Zvereva), Wimbledon (w/Zvereva) Doubles performance timeline See also History of women in Puerto Rico List of Puerto Ricans Monica Puig Sports in Puerto Rico References External links 1964 births American female tennis players Australian Open (tennis) champions Clemson Tigers women's tennis players French Open champions Hispanic and Latino American sportspeople International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's doubles Lesbian sportswomen LGBT sportspeople from Puerto Rico LGBT tennis players Living people Olympic gold medalists for the United States in tennis Olympic tennis players of Puerto Rico Sportspeople from San Juan, Puerto Rico Sportspeople from Stamford, Connecticut People from Seminole County, Florida Puerto Rican female tennis players Rollins College alumni South Florida Bulls women's tennis coaches Tennis people from Florida Tennis players at the 1979 Pan American Games Tennis players at the 1983 Pan American Games Tennis players at the 1984 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 1992 Summer Olympics Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics US Open (tennis) champions Wimbledon champions Medalists at the 1996 Summer Olympics Medalists at the 1992 Summer Olympics Pan American Games bronze medalists for Puerto Rico Pan American Games silver medalists for Puerto Rico Pan American Games medalists in tennis Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in tennis Central American and Caribbean Games gold medalists for Puerto Rico Central American and Caribbean Games silver medalists for Puerto Rico Central American and Caribbean Games bronze medalists for Puerto Rico Medalists at the 1979 Pan American Games Medalists at the 1983 Pan American Games American tennis coaches	[ -0.37725964188575745, -0.40115803480148315, -0.3318994641304016, -0.1622372567653656, -0.4626479148864746, 0.5080869197845459, 0.23800639808177948, 0.42573291063308716, 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237456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ransom%20Everglades%20School	Ransom Everglades School	Ransom Everglades is an independent, non-profit, co-educational, college-preparatory day school serving grades six to twelve in Coconut Grove in Miami, Florida. It formed with the merger in 1974 of the Everglades School for Girls and the Ransom School for Boys. It's described as a college preparatory school and 100% of Ransom Everglades' students attend a four-year institution after graduation. Admission to the school is selective and tuition costs $43,420 per year (2021–22). Tuition includes lunch and most fees except for books. A significant, need-based financial aid program is available. Graduating classes each year range between 150 and 160 students. All students matriculate to four year universities; typically, more than 85% of graduating students continue on to out-of-state colleges and universities. Ransom Everglades is fully accredited by the Southern Association of Independent Schools and the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (AdvancED). Membership is held in the Southern and National Associations for College Admission Counseling, the National Association of Independent Schools, the College Entrance Examination Board, the Enrollment Management Association, the Council for Spiritual and Ethical Education, the Global Online Academy, the Mastery Transcript Consortium, and the Independent Curriculum Group, among other educational organizations. The school appeared as the #1 Private High School in Florida in the 2018 Niche rankings. History Paul C. Ransom, an educator and New York lawyer, opened Pine Knot Camp in 1896 as a school for boys in Coconut Grove. In 1902 he combined that with a campus in the Adirondacks of New York to create the Adirondack-Florida School, the first migratory boarding school. Ransom emphasized a curriculum based on experiential learning. Students attended classes on the Florida campus in the winter and on the New York campus in fall and spring. The school suspended operations during World War II. After the war the school reopened in 1947. In 1949 the Adirondack campus was shut down and the school continued in Coconut Grove as the Ransom School for Boys. Ransom School changed from a boarding to a day school in 1972. Its counterpart, the Everglades School for Girls, began in 1955 founded by Marie B. Swenson. The schools merged and took its current name in 1974. The school continues to be influenced and guided by the values of its founders. Ransom's letter to prospective students, stating an interest only in boys who "believe that they are in the world not so much for what they can get out of it as for what they can put into it" is read to the students at the beginning of the year by the Head of School. Meanwhile, inspired by the philosophy of Marie B. Swenson, who opened the Everglades School for Girls to all students, regardless of race, religion, or ethnicity, the school today values a diverse community of learners. According to the school profile, 50% of students hail from multicultural backgrounds and more than 20% speak a language other than English at home. A financial aid program is able to meet the demonstrated need of all qualified students once they are admitted. Ransom Everglades has longstanding community partnerships with Breakthrough Miami, St. Alban's Child Enrichment Center, Booker T. Washington High School, ARC of South Florida, MUVE and the Reclamation Project, and many other community organizations. After a devastating earthquake struck Haiti in January 2010, students at Ransom Everglades raised almost $30,000 which they donated to relief efforts in that country. Campuses The school occupies two campuses. The "Upper School" (Ransom Campus) serves grades nine through twelve and is located on Main Highway on the shore of Biscayne Bay, the site of the original Pine Knot Camp. This makes it the oldest South Florida school still in its original location. The original site of the Everglades School for Girls is now the "Middle School" campus (Everglades Campus), serving grades six through eight and located on South Bayshore Drive, about one and a half miles from the Upper School. It is not on the water but is in a residential neighborhood and a mile away from the restaurants and shops of Coconut Grove. Three early twentieth century buildings still stand on the Ransom campus. The pagoda was built in 1902. It was once the whole school—the place where the original students both learned and lived. Now, the building serves as the Head of School's office, an event and study space, and faculty offices. It's often featured in historic pictures of South Miami, and in 1973 was listed in the National Register of Historic Places. Like the Pagoda, the "Ransom Cottage" is constructed from local materials, largely Dade County pine, and is also on the National Register of Historic Places. Built in 1906, the cottage has been used as the infirmary, the Headmaster's residence, and the band room. Restored in 1998, now the cottage is a conference room and meeting space. In June 2016, Ransom Everglades acquired the La Brisa property adjacent to the Ransom Campus. The 6.9 acre campus includes a restored 1920s home that sits 23 feet above sea level. According to Penny Townsend, the Head of School, the acquisition of the campus will allow the school to "improve our facilities, add vital greenspace and continue our long tradition of respecting, protecting and learning from the treasures of Old Florida and Miami’s precious coastal ecosystems.” Both Campuses are featured in the 1998 movie Wild Things. Academics The school offers more than 20 Advanced Placement courses each year, and typically 90% or more of the 900+ AP exams taken each year result in a score of 3 or better. In the Fall of 2018, 16 Ransom Everglades seniors were named National Merit Semi-Finalists. Athletics The school has a comprehensive athletic program with over 70 teams among 18 interscholastic sports. Ransom Everglades has fielded state championship teams in recent years in Water Polo (2014, 2015, 2016, 2019), Soccer (2015, 2016), Tennis (2014, 2018), and Volleyball (2013). Notable alumni Butch Brickell - Racing driver and stuntman notable for his work in such movies as 2 Fast 2 Furious, True Lies, and others Majandra Delfino - Actress on Roswell TV series Pamela Druckerman - Writer and journalist Marc Fein - Sports broadcaster Jeffry P. Freundlich (pen name: Jeff Lindsay) - writer of the Darkly Dreaming Dexter series, which has been adapted into the hit television series Dexter. The school is part of the fifth novel of the series, Dexter is Delicious, with some of the characters being Ransom Everglades students. Timothy Greenfield-Sanders - Documentary filmmaker and portrait photographer Lillian Guerra - Author, widely published historian, and Professor at the University of Florida Debby Herbenick - Research scientist in sexuality at Indiana University. Sex advice columnist, writer, and blogger Ashleigh Johnson - Olympic Gold Medalist member of the 2016 United States women's national water polo team Phillip Lord - Oscar-winning director of the films Cloudy With a Chance of Meatballs, 21 Jump Street, The Lego Movie, and Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse. Mike Malinin - Drummer for the Goo Goo Dolls since 1995. Robert Malval - 5th Prime Minister of Haiti Jeanine Mason - Winner of Season 5 of Fox's So You Think You Can Dance. Jay Pierrepont Moffat - Diplomat, historian, statesman. Dan Otero - New York Yankees pitcher Skylar Satenstein - cosmetic surgeon, inspiration for Good Will Hunting Arlene Sierra - Composer. Sam Singer (born 1995) - American-Israeli basketball player for Israeli team Bnei Herzliya Laurinda Hope Spear - Founder of Arquitectonica. Devi Sridhar - Professor of global public health at the University of Edinburgh (Andrea) Ondi Timoner- film director, only director to win Sundance Grand Jury award twice Jordi Vilasuso - Cuban-American award-winning soap opera actor Carlos Watson - Television host Bruce Weitz - Actor, best known as undercover cop Sgt. Michael "Mick" Belker in the 1980s TV series Hill Street Blues Sloan Wilson - Author, most notable for his novel The Man in the Gray Flannel Suit Pamela Golbin - Curator, author and fashion historian Rachel Feinstein (artist) - American artist References Notes Bibliography Blanc, Giulio, editor. Ransom Everglades; Reflections of a School, 1893-1978. Miami: Banyan Books (1979) Headley, Gwyn (1996) Architectural Follies in America. Klepser, Carolyn and Arva Moore Parks (2002) Miami Then and Now (Then & Now). Thunder Bay Press, Liles, Harriet, editor. Miami Diary 1896. (no place, no publisher) (1996) Lovejoy, Clarence Earle (1963) Lovejoy's Prep School Guide Peterson's (2008) Private Secondary Schools 2008. Pincus, Laura and Arva Moore Parks. (2003) Honor & Excellence: A Century Of Ransom Everglades School. Centennial Press, Parks, Avra Moore and Munroe, Ralph (2004) The Forgotten Frontier: Florida Through the Lens of Ralph Middleton Munroe. Plasencia, Alex (2011) "A History of West Coconut Grove from 1925: Slum Clearance, Concrete Monsters, and the Dichotomy of East and West Coconut Grove". Clemson University: Tiger Prints External links 2006 Best Private School awarded by Miami New Times Privateschoolsreport.com statistics Ransom Everglades School history web page Ransom Everglades Athletics Ransom Everglades School Tuition Private schools in Miami-Dade County, Florida High schools in Miami-Dade County, Florida Private high schools in Florida Coconut Grove (Miami) Private middle schools in Florida Preparatory schools in Florida 1903 establishments in Florida Schools in Miami	[ 0.08467883616685867, -0.0371398888528347, 0.19741956889629364, 0.4652186632156372, 0.961033284664154, -0.11661452800035477, 0.275485098361969, 0.6684882044792175, -0.24151276051998138, 0.20978455245494843, -0.2980632781982422, 0.5565181374549866, 0.19644714891910553, 0.33444681763648987, -0.4649049937725067, 0.09188027679920197, 0.9466910362243652, 0.8209366798400879, -0.09720154851675034, -0.4588688313961029, -0.45384353399276733, -0.5522071719169617, 0.2708594501018524, 0.1480264514684677, 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237458	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thenar%20eminence	Thenar eminence	The thenar eminence is the mound formed at the base of the thumb on the palm of the hand by the intrinsic group of muscles of the thumb. The skin overlying this region is the area stimulated when trying to elicit a palmomental reflex. The word thenar comes . Structure The following three muscles are considered part of the thenar eminence: Abductor pollicis brevis abducts the thumb. This muscle is the most superficial of the thenar group. Flexor pollicis brevis, which lies next to the abductor, will flex the thumb, curling it up in the palm. (The Flexor pollicis longus, which is inserted into the distal metacarpal of the thumb, is not considered part of the thenar eminence.) Opponens pollicis lies deep to abductor pollicis brevis. As its name suggests it opposes the thumb, bringing it against the fingers. This is a very important movement, as most of human hand dexterity comes from this action. Another muscle that controls movement of the thumb is adductor pollicis. It lies deeper and more distal to flexor pollicis brevis. Despite its name, its main action is mainly rotation and opposition. It is not in the thenar group of muscles, so is supplied by the ulnar nerve. Nerve supply The opponens pollicis and abductor pollicis brevis are normally innervated by the median nerve. The flexor pollicis brevis has two heads a superficial and a deep. The flexor pollicis brevis (FPB) is typically an ulnar-innervated muscle. Due to a common interconnection between the median and ulnar nerves in the hand (Riche-Cannieu interconnection), the Median nerve may innervate the FPB in 35% of people. It is innervated by the Ulnar nerve in 50% of people and by both the median and ulnar nerves in 15%. The adductor pollicis is typically innervated by the ulnar nerve. There are normal variations. In a Cannieu-Riche anastomosis, fibers from the deep palmar branch of the ulnar nerve innervate the opponens pollicis and/or abductor pollicis brevis. Regardless of their final innervation, the nerves that reach the thenar muscles arise from the C8 and T1 roots, pass through the lower trunk of the plexus, and then through the medial cord of the plexus. The ulnar nerve is exclusively responsible for the innervations of the hypothenar eminence. Both nerves contribute to the innervations of the midpalmar group. The muscles in this location are usually innervated by the recurrent branch of the median nerve. They all control movement of the thumb. The innervation of these muscles by the median nerve is unusual, as most of the intrinsic muscles on the palm of the hand are supplied by the ulnar nerve. The lateral two lumbrical muscles are the other exception. Additional images See also Hypothenar eminence References External links Hand Muscles of the upper limb	[ -0.9726600050926208, 0.037158478051424026, 0.24386483430862427, -0.3463711142539978, 0.17456264793872833, 0.521334171295166, -0.36136046051979065, 0.19307366013526917, 0.013623790815472603, -0.5392410755157471, -0.13438022136688232, 0.7155799865722656, 0.15631477534770966, -0.07119865715503693, -0.13781622052192688, -0.02194984257221222, 0.46651461720466614, 0.2766379117965698, 0.07492049783468246, -0.38343507051467896, 0.23831787705421448, -0.11810838431119919, 0.15831036865711212, -0.3934464454650879, 0.5902418494224548, -0.37761273980140686, 0.13357703387737274, -0.1439317911863327, 0.3978484570980072, -0.1972980797290802, -0.9345896244049072, 0.4655081033706665, -0.2332591712474823, -1.001011848449707, 0.04473463445901871, -0.3212488293647766, 0.2265693098306656, -0.4454570412635803, -0.3325869143009186, -0.568790078163147, 0.18479250371456146, -0.2534540295600891, 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237460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional%20wisdom	Conventional wisdom	The conventional wisdom or received opinion is the body of ideas or explanations generally accepted by the public and/or by experts in a field. In religion, this is known as orthodoxy. Etymology The term is often credited to the economist John Kenneth Galbraith, who used it in his 1958 book The Affluent Society: However, the term dates back to at least 1838. Conventional wisdom was used in a number of other works before Galbraith, occasionally in a benign or neutral sense, but more often pejoratively. However, previous authors used it as a synonym for 'commonplace knowledge'. Galbraith specifically prepended 'The' to the phrase to emphasize its uniqueness, and sharpened its meaning to narrow it to those commonplace beliefs that are also acceptable and comfortable to society, thus enhancing their ability to resist facts that might diminish them. He repeatedly referred to it throughout the text of The Affluent Society, invoking it to explain the high degree of resistance in academic economics to new ideas. For these reasons, he is usually credited with the invention and popularization of the phrase in modern usage. Accuracy Conventional wisdom is not necessarily true. It is often seen as a hindrance to the acceptance of new information, and to the introduction of new theories and explanations, an obstacle that must be overcome by legitimate revisionism. That is, conventional wisdom has a property analogous to inertia that opposes the introduction of contrary belief, sometimes to the point of absurd denial of the new information or interpretation by persons strongly holding an outdated but conventional view. Since conventional wisdom is convenient, appealing, and deeply assumed by the public, this inertia can last even after many experts and/or opinion leaders have shifted to a new convention. Conventional wisdom may be political, being closely related to the phenomenon of talking points. The term is used pejoratively to suggest that consistently repeated statements become conventional wisdom whether they are true or not. More generally, it refers to accepted truth that almost no one seems to dispute, and so it is used as a gauge (or wellspring) of normative behavior or belief, even within a professional context. For example, the conventional wisdom in 1950, even among most doctors, was that smoking tobacco is not particularly harmful to one's health. The conventional wisdom today: it is. More narrowly, the conventional wisdom in science and engineering once was that a man would suffer lethal injuries if he experienced more than eighteen g-forces in an aerospace vehicle, but it is so no longer. (John Stapp repeatedly withstood far more in his research, peaking above 46 Gs in 1954). Sometimes, the present conventional wisdom treats of past conventional wisdom. For example, "It is widely believed that prior to Christopher Columbus people thought the world was flat, but in actuality, scholars of that time had long accepted that the earth is a sphere." That sentence is true; yet, if enough people read and believed it, it would supplant the old belief (in a prevailing view of a flat earth in Columbus's time), becoming the new conventional wisdom. (Ironically, that shift would falsify the quoted sentence by declaring incorrectly that most people hold a false belief about the past.) Integration with scientific evidence Evidence-based medicine is a deliberate effort to acknowledge expert opinion (conventional wisdom) and how it coexists with scientific data. Evidence-based medicine acknowledges that expert opinion is "evidence" and plays a role to fill the "gap between the kind of knowledge generated by clinical research studies and the kind of knowledge necessary to make the best decision for individual patients." See also Argumentum ad populum Boiling frog Common sense Consensus reality Convenience Contrarian Dominant ideology Mass psychology Paradigm shift Social constructionism Social loafing Speaking truth to power Truthiness References Informational notes Citations Further reading Consensus reality Public opinion	[ 0.4246229827404022, 0.5448497533798218, -0.38750651478767395, 0.3842628002166748, -0.21597348153591156, 0.2017524093389511, 0.5389020442962646, 0.5149502754211426, 0.3694913387298584, -0.1705855280160904, -0.7721430063247681, 0.9835185408592224, 0.2576915919780731, 0.25900745391845703, -0.3621671795845032, 0.29049643874168396, 0.735460638999939, 0.3521275520324707, 0.3818292021751404, 0.20973843336105347, -0.19310493767261505, 0.10352151840925217, -0.09760864078998566, -0.5542879104614258, 0.09942947328090668, 0.013987397775053978, 0.39488938450813293, -0.298979789018631, -0.26487666368484497, -0.1757698655128479, 0.10050969570875168, 0.4565044641494751, -0.32693538069725037, 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237461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paymaster	Paymaster	A paymaster is someone appointed by a group of buyers, sellers, investors or lenders to receive, hold, and dispense funds, commissions, fees, salaries (remuneration) or other trade, loan, or sales proceeds within the private sector or public sector. Specific titles within the British government are Paymaster of the Forces, Paymaster-General and Paymaster of Pensions. Purpose The primary purpose of a paymaster is to receive fees in escrow by buyers in a large transaction, and disburse to the sellers and brokers on the transaction. A paymaster is usually, but not required to be, a lawyer (also known as a 'lawyer paymaster'). When dealing with commission payments on contracts dealing with large amounts of money (such as Oil, Gas, Steel, Iron, Gold, MTN's, VG's, T-Strips, and other instruments), most banks in the United States are very wary of handling such large amounts of money. In addition, most buyers and sellers of such transactions want to place the money with a neutral third party for disbursement. In most cases, the buyer and the seller involved in the transaction require a paymaster be named to handle all incoming and outgoing funds. A paymaster is a neutral third party and has no knowledge of any particulars of the transaction. They handle the incoming commissions, and then disburses the funds accordingly. In return for their services the paymaster charges a small fee, which is paid directly to them out of the commission proceeds prior to disbursement. Requirements for position In US, there is no licensing requirement to be a paymaster. However, a paymaster often is a licensed lawyer, due to the security and safety issue that lawyers in the U.S. are required to hold any funds that do not belong directly to them in an "Attorney's Trust Account" (also known as an IOLTA account), which is monitored by the state bar, in the state in which the lawyer practices. United States Military In the American Civil War era, a paymaster was generally a commissioned person in the army who held the relative rank of captain or major, depending on cumulative time in service of the person and the period in which they served (the regulations changed over time). The navy was similar, with the equivalent rank as lieutenant, lieutenant commander or commander. 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237462	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paymaster%20General	Paymaster General	Her Majesty's Paymaster General or HM Paymaster General is a ministerial position in the Cabinet Office of the United Kingdom. The incumbent Paymaster General is Michael Ellis MP. History The post was created in 1836 by the merger of the positions of the offices of the Paymaster of the Forces (1661–1836), the Treasurer of the Navy (1546–1835), the Paymaster and Treasurer of Chelsea Hospital (responsible for Army pensions) (1681–1835) and the Treasurer of the Ordnance (1670–1835). Initially, the Paymaster General only had responsibilities in relation to the armed services but in 1848 two more offices were merged into that of Paymaster General: the Paymaster of Exchequer Bills (1723–1848) and the Paymaster of the Civil Service (1834–1848), the latter followed by its Irish counterpart in 1861. They thus became 'the principal paying agent of the government and the banker for all government departments except the revenue departments and the National Debt Office'. From 1848 to 1868, the post was held concurrently with that of Vice-President of the Board of Trade. The longest-serving holder of the post was Dawn Primarolo, whose portfolio covered HM Revenue and Customs (formerly the Inland Revenue and HM Customs and Excise), and who served from 1999 to 2007. Role Today, the Paymaster General is usually a minister without portfolio available for any duties which the government of the day may designate. The post may be combined with another office, or may be left unfilled. Though the Paymaster General was titular head of the Paymaster General's Office, their executive functions were delegated to the Assistant Paymaster General, a permanent civil servant who (though acting in the name of the Paymaster General) was answerable to the Chancellor of the Exchequer. Office of HM Paymaster General The Paymaster General was formerly in nominal charge (and at one time in actual charge) of the Office of HM Paymaster General (OPG), which held accounts at the Bank of England on behalf of government departments and selected other public bodies. Funds which were made available from the Consolidated Fund were then channelled into OPG accounts, from where they were used by the relevant body. OPG operated a full range of accounts and banking transaction services, including cheque and credit, BACS and CHAPS services for its customers via an electronic banking system. Integration of OPG accounts held with commercial banks was provided by the private company Xafinity Paymaster which is now part of the Equiniti group. However, in 2008, the government announced that the Office of the Paymaster General would be incorporated into a new body, the Government Banking Service, which also provides banking operations for HM Revenue & Customs and National Savings and Investments. Following the Bank of England's decision to withdraw from providing retail banking services, retail banking and payment services for the GBS are provided by a range of financial institutions including Barclays, Citibank, NatWest, Bottomline and Worldpay, although the Bank of England still plays a role in managing the government's higher level accounts. List of paymasters general 19th century Sir Henry Parnell, Bt. 1836–1841 Edward Stanley 1841 Sir Edward Knatchbull, Bt. 1841–1845 Bingham Baring 1845–1846 Thomas Babington Macaulay 1846–1848 Granville Leveson-Gower, 2nd Earl Granville 1848–1852 Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley 1852 Charles Abbot, 2nd Baron Colchester 1852 Edward Stanley, 2nd Baron Stanley of Alderley 1853–1855 Edward Pleydell-Bouverie 1855 Robert Lowe 1855–1858 Richard Hely-Hutchinson, 4th Earl of Donoughmore 1858–1859 Algernon Percy, Lord Lovaine 1859 James Wilson 1859 William Cowper 1859–1860 William Hutt 1860–1865 George Goschen 1865–1866 William Monsell 1866 Stephen Cave 1866–1868 Frederick Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, 1st Earl of Dufferin 1868–1872 Hugh Childers 1872–1873 William Adam 1873–1874 Stephen Cave 1874–1880 David Plunket 1880 George Glyn, 2nd Baron Wolverton 1880–1885 Frederick Lygon, 6th Earl Beauchamp 1885–1886 Thomas Hovell-Thurlow-Cumming-Bruce, 5th Baron Thurlow 1886 Frederick Lygon, 6th Earl Beauchamp 1886–1887 Adelbert Brownlow-Cust, 3rd Earl Brownlow 1887–1889 Victor Child Villiers, 7th Earl of Jersey 1889–1890 Robert Windsor-Clive, 14th Baron Windsor 1890–1892 Charles Seale-Hayne 1892–1895 John Hope, 7th Earl of Hopetoun 1895–1899 Charles Spencer-Churchill, 9th Duke of Marlborough 1899–1902 20th century Savile Crossley 1902–1905 Richard Causton (1st Baron Southwark after 13 July 1910) 1905–1910 Ivor Guest, 1st Baron Ashby St Ledgers 1910–1912 Edward Strachey, 1st Baron Strachie 1912–1915 Thomas Legh, 2nd Baron Newton 1915–1916 Arthur Henderson 1916 Joseph Compton-Rickett 1916–1919 Tudor Walters 1919–1922 Office vacant 1922–1923 Neville Chamberlain 1923 William Joynson-Hicks 1923 Archibald Boyd-Carpenter 1923–1924 Harry Gosling 1924 Office vacant 1924–1925 George Sutherland-Leveson-Gower, 5th Duke of Sutherland 1925–1928 Richard Onslow, 5th Earl of Onslow 1928–1929 Sydney Arnold 1929–1931 Office vacant 1931 Tudor Walters 1931 Ernest Lamb, 1st Baron Rochester 1931–1935 Robert Hutchison, 1st Baron Hutchison of Montrose 1935–1938 Geoffrey FitzClarence, 5th Earl of Munster 1938–1939 Edward Turnour, 6th Earl Winterton 1939 Office vacant 1939–1940 Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, Viscount Cranborne 1940 Office vacant 1940–1941 Maurice Hankey 1941–1942 William Jowitt 1942 Frederick Lindemann, 1st Baron Cherwell 1942–1945 Office vacant 1945–1946 Arthur Greenwood 9 July 1946 Lab Hilary Marquand 5 March 1947 Lab The Viscount Addison 2 July 1948 also Leader of the House of Lords Lab The Lord Macdonald of Gwaenysgor 1 April 1949 Lab 21st century List of shadow paymasters general References External links Office of the Paymaster General – archived version, as of June 2008. 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237463	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaseolus	Phaseolus	Phaseolus (bean, wild bean) is a genus of herbaceous to woody annual and perennial vines in the family Fabaceae containing about 70 plant species, all native to the Americas, primarily Mesoamerica. It is one of the most economically important legume genera. Five of the species have been domesticated since pre-Columbian times for their beans: P. acutifolius (tepary bean), P. coccineus (runner bean), P. dumosus (year bean), P. lunatus (lima bean), and P. vulgaris (common bean). Most prominent among these is the common bean, P. vulgaris, which today is cultivated worldwide in tropical, semitropical, and temperate climates. Ecology Phaseolus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species, including common swift, garden dart, ghost moth Hypercompe albicornis, H. icasia and the nutmeg. Etymology The generic name Phaseolus was introduced by Linnaeus in 1753, from the Latin phaseolus, a diminutive of phasēlus, in turn borrowed from Greek φάσηλος 'cowpea', of unknown origin. The Latin word phaseolus is often incorrectly glossed as 'kidney bean', a New World crop. Taxonomy Previous classifications placed a number of other well-known legume species in this genus, but they were subsequently reassigned to the genus Vigna, sometimes necessitating a change of species name. For example, older literature refers to the mung bean as Phaseolus aureus, whereas more modern sources classify it as Vigna radiata. Similarly, the snail bean Vigna caracalla was discovered in 1753 and in 1970 moved from Phaseolus to Vigna. The modern understanding of Phaseolus indicates a genus endemic only to the New World. Species Species have been organized into eight groups based on phylogenetic clades: Filiformis group Phaseolus angustissimus A. Gray Phaseolus filiformis—slimjim bean Phaseolus carterae Leptostachyus group Phaseolus leptostachyus Phaseolus macvaughii Phaseolus micranthus Lunatus group Phaseolus augusti Phaseolus bolivianus Phaseolus lunatus—lima bean, butter bean Phaseolus pachyrrhizoides Phaseolus viridis Phaseolus mollis Pauciflorus group Phaseolus pauciflorus Phaseolus parvulus Phaseolus perplexus Phaseolus pluriflorus Phaseolus tenellus Pedicellatus group Phaseolus altimontanus Phaseolus dasycarpus Phaseolus esperanzae Phaseolus grayanus Phaseolus laxiflorus Phaseolus neglectus Phaseolus pedicellatus Phaseolus texensis Polystachios group Phaseolus albinervus Phaseolus jaliscanus Phaseolus juquilensis Phaseolus maculatus—spotted bean Phaseolus marechalii Phaseolus polystachios Phaseolus reticulatus Phaseolus ritensis Phaseolus smilacifolius Tuerckheimii group Phaseolus chiapasanus Phaseolus gladiolatus Phaseolus hintonii Phaseolus oligospermus Phaseolus tuerckheimii Phaseolus xanthrotrichus Phaseolus zimapanensis Vulgaris group Phaseolus acutifolius—tepary bean Phaseolus albescens Phaseolus coccineus—runner bean Phaseolus costaricensis Phaseolus dumosus—year bean Phaseolus parvifolius Phaseolus persistentus Phaseolus vulgaris—common bean, French bean, black bean, kidney bean, pinto bean, green bean Uncategorized Phaseolus amblyosepalus Phaseolus anisotrichos Phaseolus brevicalyx Phaseolus chacoensis Phaseolus cibellii Phaseolus galactoides Phaseolus glabellus Phaseolus leucanthus Phaseolus macrolepis Phaseolus massaiensis Phaseolus microcarpus Phaseolus nelsonii Phaseolus oaxacanus Phaseolus plagiocylix Phaseolus polymorphus Phaseolus sonorensis Phaseolus vulcanicus Allergenicity The Phaseolus plant has an OPALS plant allergy scale rating of 4 out of 10, indicating moderate potential to cause allergic reactions, exacerbated by over-use of the same plant throughout a garden. Leaves can cause skin rash and old plants often carry Rust (fungus). References Fabaceae genera Phaseoleae Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	[ -0.26768845319747925, -0.14612539112567902, 0.1332319676876068, -0.3537617623806, 0.2152290791273117, -0.04020800068974495, -0.05962907150387764, 0.7355325222015381, -0.240976944565773, -0.05256872624158859, -0.021168528124690056, -0.3694595992565155, -0.8222624063491821, 0.01678495854139328, 0.08624293655157089, 0.1049976795911789, 0.4727168679237366, 0.5480270981788635, -0.012056195177137852, 0.2862171232700348, 0.09696738421916962, -0.24300697445869446, 0.45234107971191406, -0.23357291519641876, 0.48910921812057495, -0.44674065709114075, -0.097242571413517, 0.46892985701560974, 0.23339730501174927, 0.2896896302700043, -0.36168453097343445, 0.16011656820774078, 1.0063096284866333, -0.22552068531513214, 0.2821964919567108, 0.5297435522079468, -0.40539705753326416, 0.1261516809463501, 0.04496059939265251, -0.9140969514846802, -0.029567547142505646, 0.3607421815395355, -0.05634769797325134, 0.3557794690132141, 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237465	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revisionism	Revisionism	Revisionism may refer to: Historical revisionism, the critical re-examination of presumed historical facts and existing historiography The "revisionists" school of thought in Soviet and Communist studies, as opposed to the Cold War "traditionalists" school Historical negationism, concerted denial of claims accepted by mainstream historians, may purport to be historical revisionism but its methodologies have no basis in historiography/profession of history Revisionist School of Islamic Studies, which questions whether the traditional accounts about Islam's early times are reliable historical sources Revisionism (Ireland), an issue in Irish historiography Revisionism (Spain), a derogatory term used in Spanish historiographic debate Revisionist Zionism, a nationalist faction within the Zionist movement Marxist revisionism, a pejorative term used by some Marxists to describe ideas based on a revision of fundamental Marxist premises Fictional revisionism, the retelling of a story with substantial alterations in character or environment, to "revise" the view shown in the original work Territorial revisionism, a euphemism for revanchism or irredentism Revisionism theory, another word for reformism The reevaluation of one's experiences with a hindsight bias See also Anti-revisionism, a concept in communism Censorship Revision (disambiguation)	[ 0.18972983956336975, 0.4914512038230896, -0.568605899810791, 0.11979898065328598, -0.2272227555513382, -0.042768701910972595, 0.7186980843544006, 0.7135556936264038, 0.08563853055238724, -0.20466220378875732, -0.614639937877655, 0.35454118251800537, -0.18402008712291718, 1.1552014350891113, -0.2622659504413605, 0.7067628502845764, 0.43332868814468384, 0.10429808497428894, -0.16267332434654236, 0.19435147941112518, -0.4067597985267639, -0.042500533163547516, -0.09759078919887543, -0.5373175144195557, -0.07424360513687134, 0.021939612925052643, 0.49658727645874023, 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237467	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicola%20Pisano	Nicola Pisano	Nicola Pisano (also called Niccolò Pisano, Nicola de Apulia or Nicola Pisanus; c. 1220/1225 – c. 1284) was an Italian sculptor whose work is noted for its classical Roman sculptural style. Pisano is sometimes considered to be the founder of modern sculpture. Early life His birth date or origins are uncertain. He was born in Apulia, as the son of "Petrus de Apulia", as stated in the archives of the Cathedral of Siena. Nicola Pisano was probably trained in the local workshops of the emperor Frederick II, and he attended his coronation. Here he was trained to give to the traditional representations more movement and emotions, intertwining Classical and Christian traditions. His only remaining works from this period are two griffon heads with a soft chiaroscuro effect. Around 1245 he moved to Tuscany to work at the Prato Castle. The lions on the portal of this castle are probably by his hand. "The head of a young girl" (now displayed in the Museo del Palazzo Venezia in Rome), cut in hardstone of Elba, is also ascribed to Nicola Pisano in the same period. He moved to Lucca, working at façade of the Cathedral of Saint Martin, resulting in the relief Deposition from the Cross (on the north tympanum) and the lintel reliefs Nativity and Adoration of the Magi. Pulpit of the Pisa baptistery He moved to Pisa between 1245 and 1250, where his son Giovanni Pisano was born. Around 1255 he received a commission for the pulpit in the baptistery of Pisa. He finished this work in 1260 and signed with "Nicola Pisanus". He was aided by several assistants, among which were Arnolfo di Cambio and Lapo di Ricevuto. In this pulpit, considered one of his masterworks, he succeeded in making a synthesis of the French Gothic style with the Classical style of ancient Rome, as he had seen on the sarcophagi of the Camposanto in Pisa, such as the scene Meleager hunting the Calydonian Boar on a sarcophagus brought as booty to Pisa by its navy. Vasari relates that Nicola Pisano constantly studied these Roman remains and the Roman sculptures from Augustan times seem to have marked a deep impression on him. In the panel Representation the Madonna reminds us of the regal bearing of goddesses in late Roman sculpture, while the expressive face of St. Anne shows the ravages of age. The pulpit rests on a central column. This central column rests on sculptures of animals and telamons and is surrounded by six columns of different height, three of which rest on a lion, while the other three rest on octagonal bases. The columns came from remains at Ostia. The Corinthian capitals support trefoil Gothic arches, richly decorated with Prophets and Evangelists in the spandrels. These arches are separated by sculptures of St. John the Baptist, St. Michael and the Virtues and, surprisingly, a nude Hercules. The hexagonal pulpit itself consists of five scenes in white Carrara marble from the Life of Christ : the Nativity, the Annunciation, the Annunciation to the Shepherds are juxtaposed in the first relief, the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation, the Crucifixion and the Last Judgement. The backgrounds of these scenes were originally painted and enamelled, while the eyes of the figures were coloured. This contributed to a realistic depiction of these religious scenes. All these scenes, except the last two, reflect his knowledge of the style on the sarcophagi. The figures wear tunics in a Roman fashion. The Virgin wears a pallium over her head in the same manner as a Roman matron. The scene The Last Judgement was probably based on a Byzantine ivory and The Crucifixion was sculpted with the same elegance as contemporary French Gothic art. He must have found his inspiration for this pulpit in the triumphal arches he had seen in Rome when travelling to Ostia. The form of this pulpit diverges completely from contemporary art. The sculptures are represented in the same manner as those of the Arch of Constantine in Rome, with the figures standing atop columns. Furthermore, the same arch has an attic storey with sculpted scenes, as does the pulpit. Between 1260 and 1264 he finished the work of the architect Diotisalvi on the dome of the baptistery. He increased its height with a system of two domes : a small truncated cone on top of the hemispherical dome. The two rows of traceried gables were later decorated by his son Giovanni Pisano between 1277 and 1284. Shrine of Saint Dominic (Bologna) During 1264 he was asked to work on the Shrine of Saint Dominic in the Basilica of San Domenico in Bologna. He was certainly responsible for the design, but his input was probably minimal. In 1265 he was already at work on the pulpit for the Siena Cathedral. The front side was done in his workshop, partially by Nicola Pisano himself but mostly by his assistant Lapo di Ricevuto. It would almost take 500 years to finish this shrine through the work of famous sculptors: Arnolfo di Cambio, fra Guglielmo Agnelli, Niccolò dell'Arca, the young Michelangelo, Girolamo Coltellini and Giovanni Batista Boudard. The expressive face of saint Dominic, so different from the more blander faces in the front panel "Saint Dominic resurrects Napoleone Orsini", is attributed to Arnolfo di Cambio. Pulpit of the Siena Cathedral In September 1265 he was given his next major assignment: a marble pulpit for the Siena Cathedral. This pulpit, made of Carrara marble, was sculpted between the end of 1265 and November 1268 with the extensive participation of his son Giovanni Pisano and his assistants Arnolfo di Cambio, Lapo di Ricevuto and several other artists. This is the earliest remaining work in the cathedral. Nicola Pisano was given this commission due to his fame by the Pisa pulpit. This pulpit, resembling the Pisa pulpit but larger, is even more ambitious and is considered his masterpiece. The whole message of the pulpit is concerned with the doctrine of Salvation and the Last Judgment. Pistoia and Perugia In July 1273 Nicola Pisano was commissioned by the Operai di San Jacopo of Pistoia to make the altar of San Jacopo in the cathedral of San Zeno. He worked on it together with his son Giovanni. The chapel of San Jacopo was demolished in 1786. The Holy Water stoup with its three female figures was probably sculpted at the same time. Giovanni Pisano would later make his first pulpit in the same cathedral. His last major commission was the Great Fountain at Perugia (1277–1278). The fountain with three superposed basins was designed by Fra Bevignate and Boninsegna. The fountain certainly shows the delicate hand of Nicolò Pisano, but most sculpting was executed by his son Giovanni Pisano and his assistants. By its richness in details and by its iconography, this last work shows a rapprochement to French Gothic art. Conclusion Although influenced by the works of Classical Antiquity, Nicola was not simply an imitator. His figures are original creations that came into being through a thorough study and understanding of the antique prototypes and the reinstating of antique representations. His works are the most important precursors of Italian Renaissance sculpture. Surveys of Italian Renaissance art often begin with the year 1260, the year that Nicola Pisano dated his pulpit in the Pisa baptistery. On the other hand, as the pulpit of the Siena Cathedral shows, Nicola Pisano was still attached to the contemporary Gothic art. This characteristic may arise because this pulpit was finished by his son Giovanni Pisano who did not appreciate Antiquity in the same manner. Both styles coexisted for several generations. International Gothic and its variations became briefly more popular in the Early 15th century than the Classicism of the High Renaissance. Nicola Pisano has pushed 13th century Tuscan sculpture in the direction of an art that integrated the features of Roman art, while simultaneously staying attached to the Gothic art from Northern Europe. The true inheritor of Nicola's classical style was Arnolfo di Cambio (c. 1250–1302), whose early death left the field clear for Giovanni Pisano, who, by then, was already pursuing his own mixture of French Gothic and the classical style. Giorgio Vasari included a biography of Nicola Pisano in his Lives. Notes References External links The Life of Pisano 1220s births 1284 deaths People from Apulia 13th-century Italian sculptors Italian male sculptors Gothic sculptors	[ -0.403890997171402, -0.3748742640018463, -0.05384229123592377, 0.020742405205965042, -0.07604268193244934, 0.9464221000671387, -0.17454883456230164, 0.342083215713501, -0.6849926710128784, -0.7033807635307312, -0.021094055846333504, -0.2647416591644287, -0.4690043330192566, -0.11214595288038254, -0.3632265329360962, -0.16350141167640686, 0.7035506963729858, -0.48302537202835083, -0.643925130367279, -0.054301392287015915, -0.06193013861775398, 0.3162647485733032, -0.4249953031539917, 0.25954681634902954, -0.28946974873542786, 0.08850481361150742, -0.05755402147769928, -0.2574557662010193, 0.15913602709770203, -0.4321800768375397, -0.06366020441055298, 0.7914564609527588, 0.3445962369441986, -0.3774464726448059, -1.0194523334503174, 0.2360621988773346, 0.3477662205696106, 0.2582760751247406, -0.4147471785545349, 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237469	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermatome	Dermatome	Dermatome may refer to: Dermatome (anatomy), an area of skin that is supplied by a single pair of dorsal roots Dermatome (instrument), a surgical instrument used to produce thin slices of skin Dermatome, the portion of the embryonic paraxial mesoderm, the somite, which gives rise to dermis	[ 0.8347764611244202, 0.2942374646663666, -0.3698796331882477, 0.2824026942253113, 0.22111283242702484, 0.32756638526916504, -0.030414259061217308, 0.16792386770248413, 0.12892551720142365, -0.9390895366668701, -0.5568313002586365, 0.9089605212211609, 0.06507456302642822, 0.16517144441604614, -0.3168427050113678, 0.2137877494096756, 0.4156535267829895, 0.31685975193977356, -0.013652091845870018, 0.16663455963134766, -0.9040746092796326, -0.5957502722740173, -0.0325554795563221, -0.38935691118240356, 0.2731162905693054, -0.21768122911453247, 0.5544052124023438, 0.432168573141098, 0.11778748780488968, -0.006832600571215153, 0.09397470951080322, 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237471	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paymaster%20of%20the%20Forces	Paymaster of the Forces	The Paymaster of the Forces was a position in the British government. The office was established in 1661, one year after the Restoration of the Monarchy to King Charles II, and was responsible for part of the financing of the British Army, in the improved form created by Oliver Cromwell during the Commonwealth. The full title was Paymaster-General of His Majesty's Forces. It was abolished in 1836, near the end of the reign of King William IV, and was replaced by the new post of Paymaster General. History The first to hold the office was Sir Stephen Fox (1627–1716), an exceptionally able administrator who had remained a member of the household of King Charles II during his exile in France. Before his time, and before the Civil War, there was no standing army and it had been the custom to appoint treasurers-at-war, ad hoc, for campaigns. Within a generation of the Restoration, the status of the paymastership began to change. In 1692 the then paymaster, Richard Jones, 1st Earl of Ranelagh, was made a member of the Privy Council; and thereafter every paymaster, or when there were two paymasters at least one of them, joined the Privy Council if not already a member. From the accession of Queen Anne the paymaster tended to change with the government. By the 18th century the office had become a political prize and potentially the most lucrative that a parliamentary career could obtain. Appointments to the office were therefore made often not due to merit alone, but also to political affiliation. It was occasionally a cabinet-level post in the 18th and early 19th centuries, and many future prime ministers served as paymaster. Before the development of the banking system, the duty of the paymaster was to act as the personal sole domestic banker of the army. He received, mainly from the Exchequer, the sums voted by Parliament for military expenditure. Other sums were also received, for example from the sale of old stores. He disbursed these sums, by his own hands or by deputy paymasters, under the authority of sign-manual warrants for ordinary expenses of the army, and under Treasury warrants for extraordinary expenses (expenses unforeseen and unprovided for by Parliament). During the whole time in which public money was in his hands, from the day of receipt until the receipt of his final discharge (the quietus of the Pipe Office), he assumed unlimited personal liability for the funds, thus his private estate was liable for the money in his hands. Failing the quietus this liability remained without limit of time, passing on his death to his heirs and legal representatives. Appointments were made by the Crown by letters patent under the Great Seal. The patent salary was £400 from 1661 to 1680 and 20 shillings a day thereafter, except for the years 1702–07 when it was fixed at 10 shillings a day. The office of Paymaster of the Forces was abolished in 1836 and superseded with the formation of the post of Paymaster General. List of Paymasters of the Forces Office merged into that of Paymaster General, 1836. Paymaster of the Forces Abroad From 1702 to 1714, during the War of the Spanish Succession, there was a distinct Paymaster of the Forces Abroad, appointed in the same manner as the Paymaster. These were appointed to a special office to oversee the pay of Queen Anne's army in the Low Countries, and are not in the regular succession of Paymasters of the Forces. The salary of the position was 10 shillings a day. Colonel Thomas Moore was paymaster of the land forces in Minorca and in the garrisons of Dunkirk and Gibraltar and is not always counted among the Paymasters of the Forces Abroad. Charles Fox (23 December 1702 – 10 May 1705) The Hon. James Brydges (10 May 1705 – 4 September 1713) Col. Thomas Moore (4 September 1713 – 3 October 1714) See also Master-General of the Ordnance British Army Paymaster-General Notes and references Notes References	[ 0.3478359282016754, 0.3629482686519623, -0.12971360981464386, -0.28414392471313477, -0.7915102243423462, 0.3978932201862335, 0.5057284235954285, 0.06781551986932755, -0.6965967416763306, 0.04332002252340317, -0.9473031163215637, -0.18018798530101776, -0.28445297479629517, -0.24533742666244507, -0.14186416566371918, 0.1547272503376007, 0.18060480058193207, 0.1352597326040268, -0.014350276440382004, -0.8328443169593811, -0.10586731880903244, 0.36953237652778625, -0.21701906621456146, -0.06793221831321716, -0.21556690335273743, -0.02824661321938038, 0.588373064994812, 0.20827439427375793, -0.02039307728409767, -0.4208444654941559, 0.37934502959251404, -0.16347110271453857, -0.15326863527297974, -0.42222729325294495, -0.25582924485206604, -0.17137464880943298, -0.13792914152145386, -0.1991562396287918, -0.049405645579099655, 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237477	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular%20DNA	Circular DNA	Circular DNA is DNA that forms a closed loop and has no ends. Examples include: Plasmids, mobile genetic elements cccDNA, formed by some viruses inside cell nuclei Circular bacterial chromosomes Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA), and that of other plastids Extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA) See also Inverse polymerase chain reaction (Inverse PCR), technique for finding unknown DNA flanking known DNA Effect of circular DNA on gel electrophoresis Cyclic nucleotide Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) Circular RNA Cyclic peptide	[ 0.14453260600566864, 0.28209972381591797, -0.3388867974281311, 0.2424219697713852, -0.7513951659202576, -0.27140524983406067, 0.3167952597141266, 0.383165180683136, -0.24176396429538727, -0.3985777497291565, -0.09587132930755615, -0.368112176656723, -0.6433475017547607, 0.8656783699989319, -0.44691193103790283, 0.6590349674224854, -0.24943941831588745, 0.14629746973514557, 0.10757753252983093, -0.3992205262184143, -0.05382277071475983, -0.3137902617454529, 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237478	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sid%20Meier%27s%20Colonization	Sid Meier's Colonization	Sid Meier's Colonization is a computer game by Brian Reynolds and Sid Meier released by MicroProse in 1994. It is a turn-based strategy game themed on the early European colonization of the New World, starting in 1492 and lasting until 1850. It was originally released for DOS, and later ported to Windows 3.1 (1995), the Amiga (1995), and Macintosh (1995). American video game publisher Tommo purchased the rights to this game in 2015 and digitally published it through their Retroism brand. Colonization is much like a more-developed version of Sid Meier's previous game Civilization (1991) in visual design and handling, but the two have marked differences in gameplay. Instead of forging a nation from nothing, the player manages the cross-Atlantic expansion of an established one in the service of the Crown. As the colonies become more self-sufficient their subservience shifts from boon towards bane, and to win the player must ultimately declare independence and defeat the Royal Expeditionary Force in battle. Gameplay The game begins in 1492. The player controls the colonial forces of either England, France, The Netherlands, or Spain; the other powers are then played by the computer. Each nation has unique abilities that favor certain strategies. There is a choice between a historical map (America) or a randomly generated map (the New World), and players may also construct their own map with the included scenario editor. The journey begins with a ship and two units arriving at the new world; as the ship moves into the unknown, the map is revealed. Subsequently, the player makes landfall, explores the New World, meets the indigenous Indians, builds colonies and buildings, and improves and works the surrounding land. The ship can return to Europe to collect more colonists and sell and buy items. The colonists can work the immediate land around the colony. Different map squares can yield different resources; for instance, most squares can produce food, while only forests can yield lumber. Harvested resources from the land, such as cotton or tobacco, can be manufactured and converted into commodities, such as cloth and cigars, and either used or sold. The prices of commodities in Europe fluctuate depending upon supply and demand. With money, the player is able to buy goods, fund faster building construction, recruit new colonists, or buy ships and artillery. The king may at different times raise colonial taxes to pay for a war taking place in Europe or for some other reason. The player is also required to protect their colonies from potential invasion by equipping and stationing soldiers. Moreover, the player manages their citizens, educating them in various skills to increase their productivity in areas such as farming, gathering of resources, or manufacturing. Players may send missionaries into Indian villages to convert them to Christianity. The Indians may accept and convert, or they may refuse and burn the missionary at the stake. If another colonial power has already established a mission in a village, a missionary may attempt to denounce them as heretics with an equal 50/50 chance of success or failure. When waging war, the player has a basic colonial army consisting of militiamen, artillery, cavalry, and ships. Weapons and soldiers can be purchased from Europe; however to win independence, the player will need to develop an indigenous armaments industry. Indians will initially only have braves and no horses or guns; over time they may obtain them via trade or defeating colonial forces in battle. Guns and horses must be available in a colony to equip citizens and turn them into soldiers. If a colonial power captures a colony, it will remain in their possession unless it is retaken by force. Indians will destroy a colony if they capture it. Colonies are most often built on the coast; although they can be built inland, the player must build wagons to transport goods between colonies. In addition, wagons are necessary to trade with inland Indian villages. Goods may be sold to rival colonial powers, sent back to Europe for sale, or sold to Indian villages. Colonists come in four types. The first is the basic free citizen, who has no particular skills but may be assigned to any job. If a citizen performs the same job for a certain length of time, the game may upgrade him to a specialist in that particular job. The second is the indentured servant. He is suitable for performing unskilled labor, but less productive at skilled trades. With enough time at a particular job, he may become a free citizen. The third is the petty criminal. Like the indentured servant, petty criminals are only useful for unskilled labor. Petty criminals can eventually become free citizens through military service. If they survive enough battles eventually they are promoted to indentured servant followed eventually by free citizen. All free citizens can become veterans by winning enough battles. Citizens may also travel to an Indian village and learn a skill from the natives such as tobacco farming. The Indians will not permit petty criminals to live among them, but will teach free citizens and indentured servants. In addition, missionaries may convert Indians to Christianity and convince them to live in the player's towns, where they are a little better than free citizens at working the land (and unlike specialists, are better at any type of it), but poor at industrial trades. Specialists are citizens who are trained and skilled at a specific profession. These can be free citizens, indentured servants, or petty criminals who learned the profession by doing the job, through education, or by visiting an Indian village (except criminals), or they can be pre-existing specialists (obtained via European immigration). Some professions, for example growing cotton, sugar and tobacco, can only be learned in Indian villages or in a colony, and are unknown in Europe. Eventually the player can build schoolhouses where they can teach their citizens to become specialists in specific professions. The player may at any time unassign a specialist and turn him back into an ordinary free citizen. Horses can be imported from Europe. If any colony has two or more horses, they will breed up to a maximum number. An unskilled colonist (including a petty criminal) who enters a neutral or friendly Indian village on horseback may (rarely) be killed, may be given a gift, or may be promoted to be a specialist scout. Seasoned scouts have a better chance to meet with a favorable reaction when entering a village, and an improved chance of discovering a fabled "Fountain of Youth" when investigating ancient ruins—which will provoke a sudden influx of potential colonists of all types to the player's European port. Further, mounted soldiers are more effective and have a better survival rate than dismounted infantry. Each colonial power has certain bonuses that make them unique and different from each other. Aside from European colonial powers, the NPC powers include eight Native American tribes, in four main categories. Each Native American settlement can convert one regular colonist into a specialist. More advanced tribes (Incas and Aztecs) live in larger cities. Analogous to "Wonders of the World" in the Civilization series of games, social and industrial advances are achieved by the addition of "Founding Fathers" to the "Continental Congress", which are gained by generating a sufficient number of "Liberty Bells" through the colonial pride of settlers. These are all named after real historical figures, such as Francisco Vásquez de Coronado and Pocahontas. One main driving impulse in Colonization is the harvesting of natural resources, such as lumber (for building), ore (for manufacturing), and food (for population growth). Squares on the map have basic values of resource output (depending on the type of terrain and if a river runs through it), but certain "prime" squares have double or higher output values, making them highly desirable. Pioneers can, at the cost of expending tools, create roads on tiles, increasing their yield and removing terrain movement penalties, or remove features such as forests to make room for agriculture. They can also "plow" flat terrain to increase agricultural yields. The ultimate goal of the game is winning independence from the mother country. When the player is producing sufficient Liberty Bells, he may choose to declare independence. He then has to defeat most of the King's army to win, which is not an easy task as the royal army and navy are individually more powerful and usually more numerous than the player's colonial forces, although the King's troops are unused to fighting in the New World and are more easily defeated in rough terrain. Other colonial powers may help with the enterprise, analogous to the French intervention in the American Revolutionary War. Of course, if the player has a large enough treasury, another foreign power may provide military aid in the form of mercenaries. Development Computer Gaming Worlds "The Rumor Bag" column reported in April 1994 that "MicroProse is working on a game like Sid Meier's Civilization that covers the Age of Colonization". GOG.com released an emulated version for Microsoft Windows, Linux and Mac OS X in 2012. Reception Sales of Sid Meier's Colonization surpassed 350,000 copies by September 1997. In 1996, Colonization was ranked the fourth best game of all time by Amiga Power. It was named the 52nd best computer game ever by PC Gamer UK in 1997. Next Generation stated that "MPS Labs borrowed heavily from classic hits of the past to create a surprisingly addictive title with a flavor all its own." Remakes FreeCol released in 2003, is an open-source and fan-made remake of Colonization. It is under continued development. The 2008 release Civilization IV: Colonization is a Firaxis remake of the original Colonization for Microsoft Windows. It uses the upgraded Civilization IV engine and features the original gameplay (with some changes, particularly to colonist education), 3D graphics, an updated AI, and multiplayer support. References External links A Colonization fan site 1994 video games Age of Discovery video games Amiga games 4X video games Colonization DOS games Games commercially released with DOSBox Linux games Classic Mac OS games MicroProse games Colonization Turn-based strategy video games Video games about the American Revolution Video games developed in the United States Video games scored by Allister Brimble Video games scored by Jeff Briggs Video games set in the 18th century Windows games Historical simulation games Colonialism in popular culture	[ -0.051774293184280396, 0.6611588001251221, 0.004652061965316534, -0.05936502665281296, 0.6868501305580139, 0.2028273642063141, -0.5599530935287476, 0.20665454864501953, 0.2823171317577362, -0.9128217101097107, 0.13583672046661377, 0.1416793316602707, -0.47076496481895447, 0.5826597213745117, 0.3248618245124817, 0.3314169645309448, -0.053506676107645035, -0.1988060623407364, -0.8168571591377258, -0.15300597250461578, -0.207090824842453, 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237482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexor%20digitorum%20superficialis%20muscle	Flexor digitorum superficialis muscle	Flexor digitorum superficialis (flexor digitorum sublimis) is an extrinsic flexor muscle of the fingers at the proximal interphalangeal joints. It is in the anterior compartment of the forearm. It is sometimes considered to be the deepest part of the superficial layer of this compartment, and sometimes considered to be a distinct, "intermediate layer" of this compartment. It is relatively common for the Flexor digitorum superficialis to be missing from the little finger, bilaterally and unilaterally, which can cause problems when diagnosing a little finger injury. Structure The muscle has two classically described heads – the humeroulnar and radial – and it is between these heads that the median nerve and ulnar artery pass. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint gives its origin to part of this muscle. Four long tendons come off this muscle near the wrist and travel through the carpal tunnel formed by the flexor retinaculum. These tendons, along with those of flexor digitorum profundus, are enclosed by a common flexor sheath. The tendons attach to the anterior margins on the bases of the intermediate phalanges of the four fingers. These tendons have a split (Camper's Chiasm) at the end of them through which the tendons of flexor digitorum profundus pass. Innervation The Flexor digitorium superficialis muscle is innervated by the median nerve (C7, C8, T1). Function The primary function of flexor digitorum superficialis is flexion of the middle phalanges of the four fingers (excluding the thumb) at the proximal interphalangeal joints, however under continued action it also flexes the metacarpophalangeal joints and wrist joint. To test flexor digitorum superficialis, one finger is flexed at the proximal interphalangeal joint against resistance, while the remaining three fingers are held fully extended (to inactivate flexor digitorum profundus). Additional images References External links Muscles of the upper limb Forearm	[ -0.6050795316696167, -0.8173288106918335, 0.29093119502067566, -0.004790277220308781, -0.136759415268898, 0.9116005301475525, 0.5181378126144409, 0.4307473301887512, -0.6868977546691895, -0.7385807037353516, 0.1838037669658661, 0.6023802757263184, -0.16706284880638123, 0.031421031802892685, 0.1554723083972931, 0.46274498105049133, 0.22259549796581268, 0.18815715610980988, -0.05078480392694473, 0.037835970520973206, 0.19782550632953644, -0.20649008452892303, 1.0572949647903442, -0.8609223961830139, -0.4811200797557831, 0.0002570720389485359, 0.0003545096260495484, 0.6057677268981934, -0.04615051671862602, -0.380651593208313, -0.5631568431854248, 0.14928413927555084, -0.310441792011261, -0.6373725533485413, -0.6666490435600281, -0.4125259816646576, 0.44363370537757874, -0.47860288619995117, 0.5098486542701721, -0.5102657675743103, 0.13370829820632935, -0.5206264853477478, 0.00725011620670557, 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237485	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%20Bay	Massachusetts Bay	Massachusetts Bay is a bay on the Atlantic Ocean that forms part of the central coastline of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Description The bay extends from Cape Ann on the north to Plymouth Harbor on the south, a distance of about . Its northern and southern shores incline toward each other through the entrance to Boston Harbor, where they are about five miles apart. The depth from the base of the triangle to Boston Harbor is about . The westmost point of the bay is at the city of Boston. The northern shore of Massachusetts Bay is rocky and irregular, but the southern shore is low, marshy, and sandy. Along the shores are a number of capes and headlands, and off the coast a number of small islands, especially in the entrance to Boston Harbor. The principal inlets are: on the north coast, Gloucester Harbor, Nahant Bay, Salem Harbor, Marblehead Harbor, and Lynn Harbor, and on the west, Boston Harbor, Dorchester Bay, and Quincy Bay (the two latter being part of the Outer Boston Harbor), and on the south coast, Hingham Bay. Massachusetts Bay is itself part of the Gulf of Maine, which extends from Nova Scotia south to Cape Cod Bay. Cape Cod Bay is sometimes considered to be part of Massachusetts Bay. Under this interpretation, the name "Massachusetts Bay" denotes the entire rectangular area of ocean between Cape Ann and Cape Cod. Massachusetts Bay Disposal Site The Massachusetts Bay Disposal Site in deep water off the coast has been used for ocean dumping, to dispose of munitions, dredged material, rock and construction debris and sunken vessels. Between 1919 and 1970 chemical warfare munitions were dumped, and after World War II hundreds of thousands of tons of surplus artillery and munitions, which are the majority of munitions washed up on shore. Most of them are inert UXO but occasionally they are live. Fishermen have brought a torpedo into Provincetown, Massachusetts, a depth charge into Gloucester, Massachusetts and mustard munitions into New Bedford, Massachusetts. References External links Bays of Massachusetts Bays of Essex County, Massachusetts Bays of Plymouth County, Massachusetts Bodies of water of Suffolk County, Massachusetts	[ -0.915097713470459, 0.21958474814891815, -0.15548285841941833, -0.2792186141014099, 0.5784294605255127, 0.5858697891235352, 0.5105840563774109, 1.2349622249603271, -0.4251537621021271, -0.8917649388313293, -0.24511770904064178, 0.3980448246002197, 0.123923160135746, 0.2691796123981476, -0.4301392138004303, 0.44400104880332947, 0.33917099237442017, 0.1320682018995285, 0.5645551085472107, -0.22124847769737244, -0.3966490626335144, -0.5531613826751709, 0.41330739855766296, -0.023116042837500572, -0.22144971787929535, -0.10384391993284225, 0.5220890641212463, 0.3834655284881592, 0.19824275374412537, 0.11847691982984543, -0.4857451617717743, 0.4944934546947479, -0.6109744906425476, -0.48827746510505676, 0.3760603368282318, -0.3329935371875763, -0.014291971921920776, 0.20438174903392792, -0.8667119145393372, 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237489	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retsina	Retsina	Retsina () is a Greek white (or rosé) resinated wine, which has been made for at least 2,000 years. Its unique flavor is said to have originated from the practice of sealing wine vessels, particularly amphorae, with Aleppo Pine resin in ancient times. Before the invention of impermeable glass bottles, oxygen caused many wines to spoil within the year. Pine resin helped keep air out, while infusing the wine with resin aroma. The Romans began to use barrels in the 3rd century AD, removing any oenological necessity for resin, but the flavor itself was so popular that the style is still widespread today. History The earliest recorded mention of using resin with wine amphorae is by the first-century Roman writer Columella, who detailed in his work De Re Rustica (12,20,3 and 12,22,2) the different type of resin that could be used to seal a container or be mixed into the wine. He recommended, however, that the very best wines should not be mixed with resin because of the unpleasant flavor introduced thereby. His contemporary, Pliny the Elder, does recommend the use of adding resin to the fermenting wine must in his work Naturalis Historia (14.124) with the resin from mountainous areas having a better aroma than those that come from lower lands (16.60). The Roman settlements in Illyria, Cisalpine Gaul and Gallia Narbonensis did not use resin-coated amphorae due to the lack of suitable local pine trees and began to develop solid, less leak-prone wooden barrels in the 1st century AD. By the 3rd century, barrel making was prevalent throughout the Roman Empire. The exception was the eastern empire regions of Byzantium which had developed a taste for the strong, pungent wine and continued to produce resinated wine long after the western Roman empire stopped. The difference in taste between the two empires took center stage in the work of the historian Liutprand of Cremona and his Relatio de Legatione Constantinopolitana. In 968, Liutprand was sent to Constantinople to arrange a marriage between the daughter of the late Emperor Romanos II and the future Holy Roman Emperor Otto II. According to Liutprand, he was treated very rudely and in an undignified manner by the court of Nikephoros II, being served goat stuffed with onion and served in fish sauce and "undrinkable" wine mixed with resin, pitch and gypsum—very offensive to his Germanic tastes. Pilgrims and Crusaders to the Holy Land during the Middle Ages recorded their experiences with the strong, resin wines of the Greek islands. Pietro Casola, an Italian noble who traveled to Jerusalem in 1494, wrote about the wines and cuisines of the places he stopped at along the way. In one of his entries, about his visit to Modone on Peloponnese, he wrote about the bounty of good quality wines made from Malmsey, Muscatel and Rumney varieties. Everything he tried was pleasing, except the strong, resinated wine with an unpleasant odor. Anecdotal history Popular anecdotes about the evolution of retsina stem from the Roman conquest of Greece. Stories claim that the Romans plundered the wines of Greece, angering the citizens who turned to pine resin as a way of extending their store of wine and as a deterrent to their thirsty conquerors. The harsh flavor was said to put off the Romans, who refused to drink the bitter ferment. Another anecdote claims that an excess of undiluted retsina was lethal for King Eric I of Denmark and Sigurd I of Norway. Wine regions In Greece, local Retsina is produced throughout the country. Major production centers around Attica, Boeotia and Euboea. The European Union treats the name "Retsina" as a protected designation of origin and traditional appellation for Greece and parts of the southern regions of Cyprus. An Australian wine style made in South Australia can be called "resinated wine" but not "Retsina". Grapes and winemaking Today the traditional grape for Retsina is Savatiano with Assyrtiko and Rhoditis sometimes blended in, as well as other grape varieties throughout Greece. On the island of Rhodes, Athiri is the main grape. Modern Retsina is made following the same winemaking techniques of white wine or rosé with the exception of small pieces of Aleppo pine resin added to the must during fermentation. The pieces stay mixed with the must, and elute an oily resin film on the liquid surface; at racking the wine is clarified and the solids and surface film are removed from the finished wine. Nowadays, protecting the new wine from oxidation is easy to do with far simpler means and much less resin is used than traditionally called for. Such wines lack the pungent "whiff of turpentine" streak of old, and are considered ideal accompaniments to such strong-tasting local cuisine as pastırma or garlic dips, which are often consumed as mezes with alcoholic beverages. 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237491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vauquelin	Vauquelin	Vauquelin is a Norman-French surname, former first name (Walchelin, Walkelin). It may refer to one of the following : People Vauquelin de Ferrière, the French name of Walkelin(e) de Ferrers (died 1040), a Norman baron of Ferrières-Saint-Hilaire Vauquelin de Winchester, the French name of Walkelin (died 1098), the first Norman bishop of Winchester Jean Vauquelin (1728-1772), a French naval officer Jean Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1536-1608), a French poet Kévin Vauquelin (born 2001), a French cyclist Nicolas Vauquelin des Yveteaux (1567–1649), a French poet, the son of Jean Vauquelin de la Fresnaye Louis Nicolas Vauquelin (1763-1829), a French pharmacist and chemist Moise Vauquelin (17th century), a French buccaneer Roger Vauquelin des Yveteaux, the president of the 1940s French fascist youth organization Jeunesse Populaire Française Other Vauquelin class destroyer of French Navy Vauquelin Square in Montreal Other spellings Jean Wauquelin (died 1452), French writer and translator Michel Gauquelin (1928 - 1991), a French psychologist and statistician	[ 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237494	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management%20information%20system	Management information system	A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. The study of the management information systems involves people, processes and technology in an organizational context. In a corporate setting, the ultimate goal of the use of a management information system is to increase the value and profits of the business. This is done by providing managers with timely and appropriate information allowing them to make effective decisions within a shorter period of time. History While it can be contested that the history of management information systems date as far back as companies using ledgers to keep track of accounting, the modern history of MIS can be divided into five eras originally identified by Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane Laudon in their seminal textbook Management Information Systems. First Era – Mainframe and minicomputer computing Second Era – Personal computers Third Era – Client/server networks Fourth Era – Enterprise computing Fifth Era – Cloud computing The first era (mainframe and minicomputer computing) was ruled by IBM and their mainframe computers for which they supplied both the hardware and software. These computers would often take up whole rooms and require teams to run them. As technology advanced, these computers were able to handle greater capacities and therefore reduce their cost. Smaller, more affordable minicomputers allowed larger businesses to run their own computing centers in-house / on-site / on-premises. The second era (personal computers) began in 1965 as microprocessors started to compete with mainframes and minicomputers and accelerated the process of decentralizing computing power from large data centers to smaller offices. In the late 1970s, minicomputer technology gave way to personal computers and relatively low-cost computers were becoming mass market commodities, allowing businesses to provide their employees access to computing power that ten years before would have cost tens of thousands of dollars. This proliferation of computers created a ready market for interconnecting networks and the popularization of the Internet. (The first microprocessor—a four-bit device intended for a programmable calculator—was introduced in 1971, and microprocessor-based systems were not readily available for several years. The MITS Altair 8800 was the first commonly known microprocessor-based system, followed closely by the Apple I and II. It is arguable that the microprocessor-based system did not make significant inroads into minicomputer use until 1979, when VisiCalc prompted record sales of the Apple II on which it ran. The IBM PC introduced in 1981 was more broadly palatable to business, but its limitations gated its ability to challenge minicomputer systems until perhaps the late 1980s to early 1990s.) The third era (client/server networks) arose as technological complexity increased, costs decreased, and the end-user (now the ordinary employee) required a system to share information with other employees within an enterprise. Computers on a common network shared information on a server. This lets thousands and even millions of people access data simultaneously on networks referred to as Intranets. The fourth era (enterprise computing) enabled by high speed networks, consolidated the original department specific software applications into integrated software platforms referred to as enterprise software. This new platform tied all aspects of the business enterprise together offering rich information access encompassing the complete management structure. Technology The terms management information system (MIS), Information management system (IMS), information system (IS), enterprise resource planning (ERP), computer science, electrical computer engineering, and information technology management (IT) are often confused. MIS is a hierarchical subset of information systems. MIS are more organization-focused narrowing in on leveraging information technology to increase business value. Computer science is more software-focused dealing with the applications that may be used in MIS. Electrical computer engineering is product-focused mainly dealing with the hardware architecture behind computer systems. ERP software is a subset of MIS and IT management refers to the technical management of an IT department which may include MIS. A career in MIS focuses on understanding and projecting the practical use of management information systems. It studies the interaction, organization and processes among technology, people and information to solve problems. Management While management information systems can be used by any and every level of management, the decision of which systems to implement generally falls upon the chief information officers (CIO) and chief technology officers (CTO). These officers are generally responsible for the overall technology strategy of an organization including evaluating how new technology can help their organization. They act as decision-makers in the implementation process of new MIS. Once decisions have been made, IT directors, including MIS directors, are in charge of the technical implementation of the system. They are also in charge of implementing the policies affecting the MIS (either new specific policies passed down by the CIOs or CTOs or policies that align the new systems with the organization's overall IT policy). It is also their role to ensure the availability of data and network services as well as the security of the data involved by coordinating IT activities. Upon implementation, the assigned users will have the appropriate access to relevant information. It is important to note that not everyone inputting data into MIS need necessarily be management level. It is common practice to have inputs to MIS be inputted by non-managerial employees though they rarely have access to the reports and decision support platforms offered by these systems. Types The following are types of information systems used to create reports, extract data, and assist in the decision making processes of middle and operational level managers. Decision support systems (DSSs) are computer program applications used by middle and higher management to compile information from a wide range of sources to support problem solving and decision making. A DSS is used mostly for semi-structured and unstructured decision problems. Executive information system (EIS) is a reporting tool that provides quick access to summarized reports coming from all company levels and departments such as accounting, human resources and operations. Marketing information systems are management Information Systems designed specifically for managing the marketing aspects of the business. Accounting information systems are focused accounting functions. Human resource management systems are used for personnel aspects. Office automation systems (OAS) support communication and productivity in the enterprise by automating workflow and eliminating bottlenecks. OAS may be implemented at any and all levels of management. School Information Management Systems (SIMS) cover school administration, often including teaching and learning materials. Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software facilitates the flow of information between all business functions inside the boundaries of the organization and manage the connections to outside stakeholders. Local databases, can be small, simplified tools for managers and are considered to be a primal or base level version of a MIS. Advantages and disadvantages The following are some of the benefits that can be attained using MIS: Improve an organization's operational efficiency, add value to existing products, engender innovation and new product development, and help managers make better decisions. Companies are able to identify their strengths and weaknesses due to the presence of revenue reports, employee performance records etc. Identifying these aspects can help a company improve its business processes and operations. Giving an overall picture of the company. Acting as a communication and planning tool. The availability of customer data and feedback can help the company to align its business processes according to the needs of its customers. The effective management of customer data can help the company to perform direct marketing and promotion activities. MIS can help a company gain a competitive advantage. MIS reports can help with decision-making as well as reduce downtime for actionable items. Some of the disadvantages of MIS systems: Retrieval and dissemination are dependent on technology hardware and software. Potential for inaccurate information. Enterprise applications Enterprise systems—also known as enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems—provide integrated software modules and a unified database that personnel use to plan, manage, and control core business processes across multiple locations. Modules of ERP systems may include finance, accounting, marketing, human resources, production, inventory management, and distribution. Supply chain management (SCM) systems enable more efficient management of the supply chain by integrating the links in a supply chain. This may include suppliers, manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, and final customers. Customer relationship management (CRM) systems help businesses manage relationships with potential and current customers and business partners across marketing, sales, and service. Knowledge management system (KMS) helps organizations facilitate the collection, recording, organization, retrieval, and dissemination of knowledge. This may include documents, accounting records, unrecorded procedures, practices, and skills. Knowledge management (KM) as a system covers the process of knowledge creation and acquisition from internal processes and the external world. The collected knowledge is incorporated in organizational policies and procedures, and then disseminated to the stakeholders. See also Bachelor of Computer Information Systems Business intelligence Business performance management Business rule Corporate governance of information technology Data mining Predictive analytics Purchase order request Enterprise architecture Enterprise information system Enterprise planning system Management by objectives Online analytical processing Online office suite Real-time computing Real-time marketing References External links MIS Links (University of York) Executive Information Systems: Minimising the risk of development Business software Decision support systems Information systems Information technology management Management systems School-administration software	[ -0.02728920616209507, 0.1119484230875969, -0.0999741181731224, 0.431443989276886, 0.5164058804512024, 0.07165999710559845, 0.001711892313323915, 0.22368860244750977, -0.5788025856018066, -0.7492624521255493, -0.49375689029693604, 0.7238699793815613, -0.17276640236377716, 0.2838752567768097, 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237495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information%20system	Information system	An information system (IS) is a formal, sociotechnical, organizational system designed to collect, process, store, and distribute information. From a sociotechnical perspective, information systems are composed by four components: task, people, structure (or roles), and technology. Information systems can be defined as an integration of components for collection, storage and processing of data of which the data is used to provide information, contribute to knowledge as well as digital products that facilitate decision making. A computer information system is a system that is composed of people and computers that processes or interprets information. The term is also sometimes used to simply refer to a computer system with software installed. "Information systems" is also an academic field study about systems with a specific reference to information and the complementary networks of computer hardware and software that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create and also distribute data. An emphasis is placed on an information system having a definitive boundary, users, processors, storage, inputs, outputs and the aforementioned communication networks. In many organizations, the department or unit responsible for information systems and data processing is known as "information services". Any specific information system aims to support operations, management and decision-making. An information system is the information and communication technology (ICT) that an organization uses, and also the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes. Some authors make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing instead on the end-use of information technology. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes. Alter argues for advantages of viewing an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans or machines perform processes and activities using resources to produce specific products or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying information. As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decision making and action. Information systems are the primary focus of study for organizational informatics. Overview Silver et al. (1995) provided two views on IS that includes software, hardware, data, people, and procedures. The Association for Computing Machinery defines "Information systems specialists [as] focus[ing] on integrating information technology solutions and business processes to meet the information needs of businesses and other enterprises." There are various types of information systems, for example: transaction processing systems, decision support systems, knowledge management systems, learning management systems, database management systems, and office information systems. Critical to most information systems are information technologies, which are typically designed to enable humans to perform tasks for which the human brain is not well suited, such as: handling large amounts of information, performing complex calculations, and controlling many simultaneous processes. Information technologies are a very important and malleable resource available to executives. Many companies have created a position of chief information officer (CIO) that sits on the executive board with the chief executive officer (CEO), chief financial officer (CFO), chief operating officer (COO), and chief technical officer (CTO). The CTO may also serve as CIO, and vice versa. The chief information security officer (CISO) focuses on information security management. The six components that must come together in order to produce an information system are: Hardware: The term hardware refers to machinery and equipment. In a modern information system, this category includes the computer itself and all of its support equipment. The support equipment includes input and output devices, storage devices and communications devices. In pre-computer information systems, the hardware might include ledger books and ink. Software: The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals (if any) that support them. Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware parts of the system to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input/output medium, often a disk or tape. The "software" for pre-computer information systems included how the hardware was prepared for use (e.g., column headings in the ledger book) and instructions for using them (the guidebook for a card catalog). Data: Data are facts that are used by systems to produce useful information. In modern information systems, data are generally stored in machine-readable form on disk or tape until the computer needs them. In pre-computer information systems, the data are generally stored in human-readable form. Procedures: Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of an information system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a system. People: Every system needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most overlooked element of the system is the people, probably the component that most influence the success or failure of information systems. This includes "not only the users, but those who operate and service the computers, those who maintain the data, and those who support the network of computers." Internet: is a combination of data and people . (Although this component isn't necessary to function). Data is the bridge between hardware and people. This means that the data we collect is only data until we involve people. At that point, data is now information. Types of information system The "classic" view of Information systems found in textbooks in the 1980s was a pyramid of systems that reflected the hierarchy of the organization, usually transaction processing systems at the bottom of the pyramid, followed by management information systems, decision support systems, and ending with executive information systems at the top. Although the pyramid model remains useful since it was first formulated, a number of new technologies have been developed and new categories of information systems have emerged, some of which no longer fit easily into the original pyramid model. Some examples of such systems are: decision support system social information systems process control system management information system intelligent system enterprise systems data warehouses enterprise resource planning computing platform expert systems search engines geographic information system global information system multimedia information system office automation. A computer(-based) information system is essentially an IS using computer technology to carry out some or all of its planned tasks. The basic components of computer-based information systems are: Hardware- these are the devices like the monitor, processor, printer, and keyboard, all of which work together to accept, process, show data, and information. Software- are the programs that allow the hardware to process the data. Databases- are the gathering of associated files or tables containing related data. Networks- are a connecting system that allows diverse computers to distribute resources. Procedures- are the commands for combining the components above to process information and produce the preferred output. The first four components (hardware, software, database, and network) make up what is known as the information technology platform. Information technology workers could then use these components to create information systems that watch over safety measures, risk and the management of data. These actions are known as information technology services. Certain information systems support parts of organizations, others support entire organizations, and still others, support groups of organizations. Recall that each department or functional area within an organization has its own collection of application programs or information systems. These functional area information systems (FAIS) are supporting pillars for more general IS namely, business intelligence systems and dashboards . As the name suggests, each FAIS supports a particular function within the organization, e.g.: accounting IS, finance IS, production-operation management (POM) IS, marketing IS, and human resources IS. In finance and accounting, managers use IT systems to forecast revenues and business activity, to determine the best sources and uses of funds, and to perform audits to ensure that the organization is fundamentally sound and that all financial reports and documents are accurate. Other types of organizational information systems are FAIS, Transaction processing systems, enterprise resource planning, office automation system, management information system, decision support system, expert system, executive dashboard, supply chain management system, and electronic commerce system. Dashboards are a special form of IS that support all managers of the organization. They provide rapid access to timely information and direct access to structured information in the form of reports. Expert systems attempt to duplicate the work of human experts by applying reasoning capabilities, knowledge, and expertise within a specific domain. Information system development Information technology departments in larger organizations tend to strongly influence the development, use, and application of information technology in the business. A series of methodologies and processes can be used to develop and use an information system. Many developers use a systems engineering approach such as the system development life cycle (SDLC), to systematically develop an information system in stages. The stages of the system development lifecycle are planning, system analysis, and requirements, system design, development, integration and testing, implementation and operations, and maintenance. Recent research aims at enabling and measuring the ongoing, collective development of such systems within an organization by the entirety of human actors themselves. An information system can be developed in house (within the organization) or outsourced. This can be accomplished by outsourcing certain components or the entire system. A specific case is the geographical distribution of the development team (offshoring, global information system). A computer-based information system, following a definition of Langefors, is a technologically implemented medium for: recording, storing, and disseminating linguistic expressions, as well as for drawing conclusions from such expressions. Geographic information systems, land information systems, and disaster information systems are examples of emerging information systems, but they can be broadly considered as spatial information systems. System development is done in stages which include: Problem recognition and specification Information gathering Requirements specification for the new system System design System construction System implementation Review and maintenance. As an academic discipline The field of study called information systems encompasses a variety of topics including systems analysis and design, computer networking, information security, database management, and decision support systems. Information management deals with the practical and theoretical problems of collecting and analyzing information in a business function area including business productivity tools, applications programming and implementation, electronic commerce, digital media production, data mining, and decision support. Communications and networking deals with telecommunication technologies. Information systems bridges business and computer science using the theoretical foundations of information and computation to study various business models and related algorithmic processes on building the IT systems within a computer science discipline. Computer information system(s) (CIS) is a field studying computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society, whereas IS emphasizes functionality over design. Several IS scholars have debated the nature and foundations of Information Systems which have its roots in other reference disciplines such as Computer Science, Engineering, Mathematics, Management Science, Cybernetics, and others. Information systems also can be defined as a collection of hardware, software, data, people, and procedures that work together to produce quality information. Related terms Similar to computer science, other disciplines can be seen as both related and foundation disciplines of IS. The domain of study of IS involves the study of theories and practices related to the social and technological phenomena, which determine the development, use, and effects of information systems in organizations and society. But, while there may be considerable overlap of the disciplines at the boundaries, the disciplines are still differentiated by the focus, purpose, and orientation of their activities. In a broad scope, the term Information Systems is a scientific field of study that addresses the range of strategic, managerial, and operational activities involved in the gathering, processing, storing, distributing, and use of information and its associated technologies in society and organizations. The term information systems is also used to describe an organizational function that applies IS knowledge in the industry, government agencies, and not-for-profit organizations. Information Systems often refers to the interaction between algorithmic processes and technology. This interaction can occur within or across organizational boundaries. An information system is a technology an organization uses and also the way in which the organizations interact with the technology and the way in which the technology works with the organization's business processes. Information systems are distinct from information technology (IT) in that an information system has an information technology component that interacts with the processes' components. One problem with that approach is that it prevents the IS field from being interested in non-organizational use of ICT, such as in social networking, computer gaming, mobile personal usage, etc. A different way of differentiating the IS field from its neighbours is to ask, "Which aspects of reality are most meaningful in the IS field and other fields?" This approach, based on philosophy, helps to define not just the focus, purpose, and orientation, but also the dignity, destiny and, responsibility of the field among other fields. Career pathways Information Systems workers enter a number of different careers: Information System Strategy Management Information Systems – A management information system (MIS) is an information system used for decision-making, and for the coordination, control, analysis, and visualization of information in an organization. Project Management – Project management is the practice of initiating, planning, executing, controlling, and closing the work of a team to achieve specific goals and meet specific success criteria at the specified time. Enterprise Architecture – A well-defined practise for conducting enterprise analysis, design, planning, and implementation, using a comprehensive approach at all times, for the successful development and execution of strategy. IS Development IS Organization IS Consulting IS Security IS Auditor There is a wide variety of career paths in the information systems discipline. "Workers with specialized technical knowledge and strong communications skills will have the best prospects. Workers with management skills and an understanding of business practices and principles will have excellent opportunities, as companies are increasingly looking to technology to drive their revenue." Information technology is important to the operation of contemporary businesses, it offers many employment opportunities. The information systems field includes the people in organizations who design and build information systems, the people who use those systems, and the people responsible for managing those systems. The demand for traditional IT staff such as programmers, business analysts, systems analysts, and designer is significant. Many well-paid jobs exist in areas of Information technology. At the top of the list is the chief information officer (CIO). The CIO is the executive who is in charge of the IS function. In most organizations, the CIO works with the chief executive officer (CEO), the chief financial officer (CFO), and other senior executives. Therefore, he or she actively participates in the organization's strategic planning process. Research Information systems research is generally interdisciplinary concerned with the study of the effects of information systems on the behaviour of individuals, groups, and organizations. Hevner et al. (2004) categorized research in IS into two scientific paradigms including behavioural science which is to develop and verify theories that explain or predict human or organizational behavior and design science which extends the boundaries of human and organizational capabilities by creating new and innovative artifacts. Salvatore March and Gerald Smith proposed a framework for researching different aspects of Information Technology including outputs of the research (research outputs) and activities to carry out this research (research activities). They identified research outputs as follows: Constructs which are concepts that form the vocabulary of a domain. They constitute a conceptualization used to describe problems within the domain and to specify their solutions. A model which is a set of propositions or statements expressing relationships among constructs. A method which is a set of steps (an algorithm or guideline) used to perform a task. Methods are based on a set of underlying constructs and a representation (model) of the solution space. An instantiation is the realization of an artefact in its environment. Also research activities including: Build an artefact to perform a specific task. Evaluate the artefact to determine if any progress has been achieved. Given an artefact whose performance has been evaluated, it is important to determine why and how the artefact worked or did not work within its environment. Therefore, theorize and justify theories about IT artefacts. Although Information Systems as a discipline has been evolving for over 30 years now, the core focus or identity of IS research is still subject to debate among scholars. There are two main views around this debate: a narrow view focusing on the IT artifact as the core subject matter of IS research, and a broad view that focuses on the interplay between social and technical aspects of IT that is embedded into a dynamic evolving context. A third view calls on IS scholars to pay balanced attention to both the IT artifact and its context. Since the study of information systems is an applied field, industry practitioners expect information systems research to generate findings that are immediately applicable in practice. This is not always the case however, as information systems researchers often explore behavioral issues in much more depth than practitioners would expect them to do. This may render information systems research results difficult to understand, and has led to criticism. In the last ten years, the business trend is represented by the considerable increase of Information Systems Function (ISF) role, especially with regard to the enterprise strategies and operations supporting. It became a key factor to increase productivity and to support value creation. To study an information system itself, rather than its effects, information systems models are used, such as EATPUT. The international body of Information Systems researchers, the Association for Information Systems (AIS), and its Senior Scholars Forum Subcommittee on Journals (23 April 2007), proposed a 'basket' of journals that the AIS deems as 'excellent', and nominated: Management Information Systems Quarterly (MISQ), Information Systems Research (ISR), Journal of the Association for Information Systems (JAIS), Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS), European Journal of Information Systems (EJIS), and Information Systems Journal (ISJ). A number of annual information systems conferences are run in various parts of the world, the majority of which are peer reviewed. The AIS directly runs the International Conference on Information Systems (ICIS) and the Americas Conference on Information Systems (AMCIS), while AIS affiliated conferences include the Pacific Asia Conference on Information Systems (PACIS), European Conference on Information Systems (ECIS), the Mediterranean Conference on Information Systems (MCIS), the International Conference on Information Resources Management (Conf-IRM) and the Wuhan International Conference on E-Business (WHICEB). AIS chapter conferences include Australasian Conference on Information Systems (ACIS), Information Systems Research Conference in Scandinavia (IRIS), Information Systems International Conference (ISICO), Conference of the Italian Chapter of AIS (itAIS), Annual Mid-Western AIS Conference (MWAIS) and Annual Conference of the Southern AIS (SAIS). EDSIG, which is the special interest group on education of the AITP, organizes the Conference on Information Systems and Computing Education and the Conference on Information Systems Applied Research which are both held annually in November. See also Related studies Information management Computer science Human–computer interaction Informatics Bioinformatics Health informatics Business informatics Cheminformatics Disaster informatics Geoinformatics Information science Web sciences Management information system (MIS) Formative context Data processing Library science Components Data architect Data modeling Data processing system Data Reference Model Database EATPUT Metadata Predictive Model Markup Language Semantic translation Three schema approach Implementation Enterprise information system Environmental Modeling Center Information processing system INFORMS References Further reading Rainer, R. Kelly and Cegielski, Casey G. (2009). "Introduction to Information Systems: Enabling and Transforming Business, 3rd Edition" Kroenke, David (2008). Using MIS – 2nd Edition. Lindsay, John (2000). Information Systems – Fundamentals and Issues. Kingston University, School of Information Systems Dostal, J. School information systems (Skolni informacni systemy). In Infotech 2007 – modern information and communication technology in education. Olomouc, EU: Votobia, 2007. s. 540 – 546. . O'Leary, Timothy and Linda. (2008). Computing Essentials Introductory 2008. McGraw-Hill on Computing2008.com Imperial College London – Information Systems Engineering degree – Information Systems Engineering Sage, S.M. "Information Systems: A brief look into history", Datamation, 63–69, Nov. 1968. – Overview of the early history of IS. Cy18mis546 Group 5 – http://www.ramblingdata.com.s3-website.us-east-2.amazonaws.com External links Association for Information Systems (AIS) IS History website Center for Information Systems Research – Massachusetts Institute of Technology European Research Center for Information Systems Index of Information Systems Journals European eCompetence Frame Information	[ 0.4051896333694458, 0.11797112226486206, -0.07799822837114334, 0.587401270866394, 0.48024383187294006, -0.06409299373626709, 0.03857320174574852, 0.5439043641090393, -0.27051079273223877, -0.9657347202301025, -0.6107459664344788, 0.467520534992218, -0.32606473565101624, 0.4268520772457123, 0.17865338921546936, 0.09080101549625397, 0.4164414703845978, 0.2634008228778839, 0.14402398467063904, 0.2981819808483124, -0.9243534207344055, 0.2535383105278015, -0.21757648885250092, -0.21940447390079498, 0.3639386296272278, -0.18557047843933105, -0.15659362077713013, -0.1920602023601532, -0.008468729443848133, -0.047154996544122696, 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237500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headhunting	Headhunting	Headhunting is the practice of hunting a human and collecting the severed head after killing the victim, although sometimes more portable body parts (such as ear, nose or scalp) are taken instead as trophies. Headhunting was practised in historic times in parts of Europe, East Asia, Oceania, Southeast Asia, South Asia, Mesoamerica, West and Central Africa. The headhunting practice has been the subject of intense study within the anthropological community, where scholars try to assess and interpret its social roles, functions, and motivations. Anthropological writings explore themes in headhunting that include mortification of the rival, ritual violence, cosmological balance, the display of manhood, cannibalism, dominance over the body and soul of his enemies in life and afterlife, as a trophy and proof of killing (achievement in hunting), show of greatness, prestige by taking on a rival's spirit and power, and as a means of securing the services of the victim as a slave in the afterlife. Today's scholars generally agree that headhunting's primary function was ritual and ceremonial. It was part of the process of structuring, reinforcing, and defending hierarchical relationships between communities and individuals. Some experts theorize that the practice stemmed from the belief that the head contained "soul matter" or life force, which could be harnessed through its capture. Asia and Oceania Melanesia Headhunting was practised by many Austronesian people in Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands. Headhunting has at one time or another been practised among most of the peoples of Melanesia, including New Guinea. A missionary found 10,000 skulls in a community longhouse on Goaribari Island in 1901. Historically, the Marind-anim in New Guinea were famed because of their headhunting. The practice was rooted in their belief system and linked to the name-giving of the newborn. The skull was believed to contain a mana-like force. Headhunting was not motivated primarily by cannibalism, but the dead person's flesh was consumed in ceremonies following the capture and killing. The Korowai, a Papuan tribe in the southeast of Irian Jaya, live in tree houses, some nearly 40 metres high. This was originally believed to be a defensive practice, presumably as protection against the Citak, a tribe of neighbouring headhunters. Some researchers believe that the American Michael Rockefeller, who disappeared in New Guinea in 1961 while on a field trip, may have been taken by headhunters in the Asmat region. He was the son of New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller. In The Cruise of the Snark (1911), the account by Jack London of his 1905 adventure sailing in Micronesia, he recounted that headhunters of Malaita attacked his ship during a stay in Langa Langa Lagoon, particularly around Laulasi Island. His and other ships were kidnapping villagers as workers on plantations, a practice known as blackbirding. Captain Mackenzie of the ship Minolta was beheaded by villagers as retribution for the loss of village men during an armed labour "recruiting" drive. The villagers believed that the ship's crew "owed" several more heads before the score was even. Southeast Asia In Southeast Asia, anthropological writings have explored headhunting and other practises of the Murut, Dusun Lotud, Ilongot, Igorot, Iban, Dayak, Berawan, Wana, and Mappurondo tribes. Among these groups, headhunting was usually a ritual activity rather than an act of war or feuding. A warrior would take a single head. Headhunting acted as a catalyst for the cessation of personal and collective mourning for the community's dead. Ideas of manhood and marriage were encompassed in the practice, and the taken heads were highly prized. Other reasons for headhunting included capture of enemies as slaves, looting of valuable properties, intra and inter-ethnic conflicts, and territorial expansion. Italian anthropologist and explorer Elio Modigliani visited the headhunting communities in South Nias (an island to the west of Sumatra) in 1886; he wrote a detailed study of their society and beliefs. He found that the main purpose of headhunting was the belief that, if a man owned another person's skull, his victim would serve as a slave of the owner for eternity in the afterlife. Human skulls were a valuable commodity. Sporadic headhunting continued in Nias island until the late 20th century, the last reported incident dating from 1998. Headhunting was practised among Sumba people until the early 20th century. It was done only in large war parties. When the men hunted wild animals, by contrast, they operated in silence and secrecy. The skulls collected were hung on the skull tree erected in the center of village. As recently as 1998, in Waikabubak, a major clash of clans resulted in some people being decapitated. This was reminiscent of the headhunting tradition. Kenneth George wrote about annual headhunting rituals that he observed among the Mappurondo religious minority, an upland tribe in the southwest part of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi. Heads are not taken; instead, surrogate heads in the form of coconuts are used in a ritual ceremony. The ritual, called pangngae, takes place at the conclusion of the rice-harvesting season. It functions to bring an end to communal mourning for the deceased of the past year; express intercultural tensions and polemics; allow for a display of manhood; distribute communal resources; and resist outside pressures to abandon Mappurondo ways of life. United States authorities in the Philippines suppressed headhunting among the Ilongot in the 1930s. The Igorot in the Philippines also practiced headhunting. The Wa tribe, whose domain straddles the Burma-China border, were once known to Europeans as the "Wild Wa" for their "savage" behavior. Until the 1970s, the Wa practiced headhunting. In Sarawak, the north-western region of the island of Borneo, "White Rajah" James Brooke and his descendants established a dynasty. They eradicated headhunting in the hundred years before World War II. Before Brooke's arrival, the Iban had migrated from the middle Kapuas region into the upper Batang Lupar river region by fighting and displacing the small existing tribes, such as the Seru and Bukitan. Another successful migration by the Iban was from the Saribas region into the Kanowit area in the middle of the Batang Rajang river, led by the famous Mujah "Buah Raya". They fought and displaced such tribes as the Kanowit and Baketan. Brooke first encountered the headhunting Iban of the Saribas-Skrang in Sarawak at the Battle of Betting Maru in 1849. He gained the signing of the Saribas Treaty with the Iban chief of that region, who was named Orang Kaya Pemancha Dana "Bayang". Subsequently, the Brooke dynasty expanded their territory from the first small Sarawak region to the present-day state of Sarawak. They enlisted the Malay, Iban, and other natives as a large unpaid force to defeat and pacify any rebellions in the states. The Brooke administration prohibited headhunting (ngayau in Iban language) and issued penalties for disobeying the Rajah-led government decree. During expeditions sanctioned by the Brooke administration, they allowed headhunting. The natives who participated in Brooke-approved punitive expeditions were exempted from paying annual tax to the Brooke administration and/or given new territories in return for their service. There were intra-tribal and intertribal headhunting. The most famous Iban warrior to resist the authority of the Brooke administration was Libau "Rentap". The Brooke government had to send three successive punitive expeditions in order to defeat Rentapi at his fortress on the top of Sadok Hill. Brooke's force suffered major defeats during the first two expeditions. During the third and final expedition, Brooke built a large cannon called Bujang Sadok (Prince of Sadok Mount) to rival Rentap's cannon nicknamed Bujang Timpang Berang (The One Arm Bachelor) and made a truce with the sons of a famous chief, who supported Rentap in not recognizing the government of Brooke due to his policies. The Iban performed a third major migration from upper Batang Ai region in the Batang Lupar region into the Batang Kanyau (Embaloh) onwards the upper Katibas and then to the Baleh/Mujong regions in the upper Batang Rajang region. They displaced the existing tribes of the Kayan, Kajang, Ukit, etc. The Brooke administration sanctioned the last migrations of the Iban, and reduced any conflict to a minimum. The Iban conducted sacred ritual ceremonies with special and complex incantations to invoke god's blessings, which were associated with headhunting. An example was the Bird Festival in the Saribas/Skrang region and Proper Festival in the Baleh region, both required for men of the tribes to become effective warriors. During the Japanese occupation during the Second World War, headhunting was revived among the natives. The Sukarno-led Indonesian forces fought against the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. Forces of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak fought in addition, and headhunting was observed during the communist insurgency in Sarawak and what was then Malaya. The Iban were noted for headhunting, and were later recognised as good rangers and trackers during military operations, during which they were awarded fourteen medals of valour and honour. Since 1997 serious inter-ethnic violence has erupted on the island of Kalimantan, involving the indigenous Dayak peoples and immigrants from the island of Madura. Events have included the Sambas riots and Sampit conflict. In 2001, during the Sampit conflict in the Central Kalimantan town of Sampit, at least 500 Madurese were killed and up to 100,000 Madurese were forced to flee. Some Madurese bodies were decapitated in a ritual reminiscent of the Dayak headhunting tradition. The Moluccans, an ethnic group of mixed Austronesian-Papuan origin living in the Moluccas, were fierce headhunters until the Dutch colonial rule in Indonesia suppressed the practice. New Zealand In what is now known as New Zealand, the Māori preserved the heads of enemies in a form known as mokomokai. They removed the brain and eyes, and smoked the head. The heads were sold to European collectors in the late 1800s, in some instances having been commissioned and "made to order". Currently the Māori are attempting to reclaim the heads of their own ancestors held in museums outside New Zealand. Twenty heads were returned to them by French authorities in January 2012, repatriated from museums. China During the Spring and Autumn period and Warring States period, Qin soldiers frequently collected their defeated enemies' heads as a means to accumulate merits. After Shang Yang's reforms, the Qin armies adopted a meritocracy system that awards the average soldiers, most of whom were conscripted serfs and were not paid, an opportunity to earn promotions and rewards from their superiors by collecting the heads of enemies, a type of body count. In this area, authorities also displayed heads of executed criminals in public spaces up to the early 20th century. Japan Tom O'Neill wrote: Samurai also sought glory by headhunting. When a battle ended, the warrior, true to his mercenary origins, would ceremoniously present trophy heads to a general, who would variously reward him with promotions in rank, gold or silver, or land from the defeated clan. Generals displayed the heads of defeated rivals in public squares. Taiwan Headhunting was a common practice among Taiwanese aborigines. All tribes practised headhunting except the Yami people, who were previously isolated on Orchid Island, and the Ivatan people. It was associated with the peoples of the Philippines. Taiwanese Plains Aborigines, Han Taiwanese and Japanese settlers were choice victims of headhunting raids by Taiwanese Mountain Aborigines. The latter two groups were considered invaders, liars, and enemies. A headhunting raid would often strike at workers in the fields, or set a dwelling on fire and then kill and behead those who fled from the burning structure. The practice continued during the Japanese occupation of Taiwan, but ended in the 1930s due to brutal suppression by the Japanese colonial government. The Taiwanese Aboriginal tribes, who were allied with the Dutch against the Chinese during the Guo Huaiyi Rebellion in 1652, turned against the Dutch in turn during the Siege of Fort Zeelandia. They defected to Koxinga's Chinese forces. The Aboriginals (Formosans) of Sincan defected to Koxinga after he offered them amnesty. The Sincan Aboriginals fought for the Chinese and beheaded Dutch people in executions. The frontier aboriginals in the mountains and plains also surrendered and defected to the Chinese on May 17, 1661, celebrating their freedom from compulsory education under Dutch rule. They hunted down Dutch people, beheading them and trashing their Christian school textbooks. At the Battle of Tamsui in the Keelung Campaign during the Sino-French War on 8 October 1884, the Chinese took prisoners and beheaded 11 French marines who were injured, in addition to La Galissonnière's captain Fontaine. The heads were mounted on bamboo poles and displayed to incite anti-French feelings. In China, pictures of the beheading of the Frenchmen were published in the Tien-shih-tsai Pictorial Journal in Shanghai. Han and Taiwanese Aboriginals revolted against the Japanese in the Beipu Uprising in 1907 and Tapani Incident in 1915. The Seediq aboriginals revolted against the Japanese in the 1930 Wushe Incident and resurrected the practice of headhunting, beheading Japanese during the revolt. Indian subcontinent including Western South-East Asia (NE India) Headhunting has been a practice among the Mizo, the Garo and the Naga tribes of India, Bangladesh and Myanmar till the 19th century. Other indigenous ethnic groups of NE India, Bangladesh and Myanmar like the Khasi, Pnar, Keot(Kaibarta), Tiwa and various other native ethnicities of Assam etc practiced human sacrifice at some point of time as per aboriginal beliefs. The practice may have been common up to the 20th century but has now ceased to exist. Americas Amazon Several tribes of the Jivaroan group, including the Shuar in Eastern Ecuador and Northern Peru, along the rivers Chinchipe, Bobonaza, Morona, Upano, and Pastaza, main tributaries of the Amazon, practised headhunting for trophies. The heads were shrunk, and were known locally as Tzan-Tzas. The people believed that the head housed the soul of the person killed. In the 21st century, the Shuar produce Tzan-tza replicas. They use their traditional process on heads of monkeys and sloths, selling the items to tourists. It is believed that splinter groups in the local tribes continue with these practises when there is a tribal feud over territory or as revenge for a crime of passion. The Quechua Lamista in Peru used to be headhunters. Mesoamerican civilizations A tzompantli is a type of wooden rack or palisade documented in several Mesoamerican civilizations. It was used for the public display of human skulls, typically those of war captives or other sacrificial victims. A tzompantli-type structure has been excavated at the La Coyotera, Oaxaca, site. It is dated to the Proto-Classic Zapotec civilization, which flourished from c. 2nd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. Tzompantli are also noted in other Mesoamerican pre-Columbian cultures, such as the Toltec and Mixtec. Based on numbers given by the conquistador Andrés de Tapia and Fray Diego Durán, Bernard Ortiz de Montellano has calculated in the late 20th century that there were at most 60,000 skulls on the Hueyi Tzompantli (great Skullrack) of Tenochtitlan. There were at least five more skullracks in Tenochtitlan, but, by all accounts, they were much smaller. Other examples are indicated from Maya civilization sites. A particularly fine and intact inscription example survives at the extensive Chichen Itza site. Europe Celts The Celts of Europe practised headhunting as the head was believed to house a person's soul. Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of nailing heads of personal enemies to walls or dangling them from the necks of horses. Headhunting was still practised for a great deal longer by the Celtic Gaels. In the Ulster Cycle, Cúchulainn is described as beheading the three sons of Nechtan and mounting their heads on his chariot. This is believed to have been a traditional warrior, rather than religious, practice. The practice continued approximately to the end of the Middle Ages in Ireland and the Anglo-Scottish marches. The religious reasons for collecting heads were likely lost after the Celts' conversion to Christianity. Heads were also taken among the Germanic tribes and among Iberians, but the purpose is unknown. Scythians The Scythians were excellent horsemen. Ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that some of their tribes practised human sacrifice, drinking the blood of victims, scalping their enemies, and drinking wine from the enemies' skulls. Montenegrins The Montenegrins are an ethnic group in Southeastern Europe who are centered around the Dinaric mountains. They practiced headhunting until 1876, allegedly carrying the head from a lock of hair grown specifically for that purpose. In the 1830s, Montenegrin ruler Petar II Petrović-Njegoš started building a tower called "Tablja" above Cetinje Monastery. The tower was never finished, and Montenegrins used it to display Turkish heads taken in battle, as they were in frequent conflict with the Ottoman Empire. In 1876 King Nicholas I of Montenegro ordered that the practice should end. He knew that European diplomats considered it to be barbaric. The Tablja was demolished in 1937. Modern times Lynching in the United States In the United States, many African-Americans who were executed in lynchings had their body parts collected and sold as souvenirs. Notable examples include the lynchings of Jesse Washington and Sam Hose. Second Sino-Japanese War Nanjing massacre Many Chinese soldiers and civilians were beheaded by some Japanese soldiers, who even made contests to see who would kill more people (see contest to kill 100 people using a sword), and took photos with the piles of heads as souvenirs. World War II During World War II, Allied (specifically including American) troops occasionally collected the skulls of dead Japanese as personal trophies, as souvenirs for friends and family at home, and for sale to others. (The practice was unique to the Pacific theater; United States forces did not take skulls of German and Italian soldiers.) In September 1942, the Commander in Chief of the Pacific Fleet mandated strong disciplinary action against any soldier who took enemy body parts as souvenirs. But such trophy-hunting persisted: Life published a photograph in its issue of May 22, 1944, of a young woman posing with the autographed skull sent to her by her Navy boyfriend. There was public outrage in the US in response. Historians have suggested that the practice related to Americans viewing the Japanese as lesser people, and in response to mutilation and torture of American war dead. In Borneo, retaliation by natives against the Japanese was based on atrocities having been committed by the Imperial Japanese Army in that area. Following their ill treatment by the Japanese, the Dayak of Borneo formed a force to help the Allies. Australian and British special operatives of Z Special Unit developed some of the inland Dayak tribesmen into a thousand-strong headhunting army. This army of tribesmen killed or captured some 1,500 Japanese soldiers. Vietnam War During the Vietnam War, some American soldiers engaged in the practise of taking "trophy skulls". Gallery See also Shrunken head Decapitation Tribal warfare Human sacrifice Trophy Laulasi Island Beheading in Islam Headless Horseman References Citations Sources Davidson, James Wheeler, The island of Formosa, past and present: History, people, resources, and commercial prospects. Tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions (London, 1903) Davidson, James Wheeler, The Island of Formosa: Historical View from 1430 to 1900 (London, 1903) The title means Sons of the killing father. Stories about demons and headhunting, recorded in New Guinea. James J. Weingartner (1992) "Trophies of War: U.S. Troops and the Mutilation of Japanese War Dead, 1941 – 1945" Pacific Historical Review Further reading Head-Hunting Roman Cavalry - article about single combat and the taking of heads and scalps as trophies by Roman warriors Les Romains, chasseurs de têtes - paper by Jean-Louis Voisin about the Roman practice of head hunting External links Encyclopædia Britannica entry, 1996 Headhunting and headshrinking among the Shuar Anthropology Human trophy collecting	[ 0.4777613878250122, 0.06437229365110397, -0.3709012567996979, 0.15833021700382233, -0.2697480022907257, 0.27017372846603394, 0.8847716450691223, 0.37589186429977417, -0.12494510412216187, 0.0363769605755806, -0.5429090857505798, 0.5730473399162292, -0.19338829815387726, -0.12387612462043762, -0.839236319065094, 0.35539573431015015, 0.5510278940200806, 0.37963739037513733, 0.015171902254223824, -0.2733304798603058, -0.3963392376899719, -0.3370112478733063, -0.08834104239940643, 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237501	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni%20Pisano	Giovanni Pisano	Giovanni Pisano (c. 1250 – c. 1315) was an Italian sculptor, painter and architect, who worked in the cities of Pisa, Siena and Pistoia. He is best known for his sculpture which shows the influence of both the French Gothic and the Ancient Roman art. Henry Moore, referring to his statues for the facade of Siena Cathedral, called him "the first modern sculptor". History Born in Pisa, Giovanni Pisano was the son of the famous sculptor Nicola Pisano. He received his training in the workshop of his father and in 1265–1268 he worked with his father on the pulpit in Siena Cathedral. His next major work with his father was the fountain Fontana Maggiore in Perugia (completed 1278). Nicola Pisano is thought to have died either around 1278 or in 1284 when Giovanni took up residence in Siena. These first works were made in Nicola's style and it is difficult to separate the contributions of the two artists. However the Madonna with Child can be attributed with certainty to Giovanni, showing a new style with a certain familiarity between Mother and Child. Giovanni's next work was at Pisa Cathedral, sculpting the statues in the two rows of traceried gables at the exterior of the Baptistry (1277–1284). The vivacity of these statues is a new confirmation that he had left the serene style of his father behind. Between 1287 and 1296 he was appointed chief architect of Siena Cathedral. The architectural design and elegant sculptures for the facade of the cathedral in Siena show his tendencies to blend Gothic art with reminders of Roman art. The work was continued after his death, with still greater Gothic elaboration, by Memmo di Filippuccio. In 1296 he returned to Pisa to begin work on the Church of San Giovanni. In 1301 he continued his work on the Pulpit of Sant' Andrea, Pistoia which he had already started in 1297. The pulpit has five reliefs: the Annunciation and Nativity; the Adoration, the Dream of the Magi and the Angel warning Joseph; the Massacre of the Innocents; the Crucifixion; and the Last Judgement. Giovanni's work between 1302 and 1310 at the new pulpit for the Cathedral of Pisa shows his distinct preference for animation in his characters, and moved even further away his father's style. This pulpit with its dramatic scenes has become his masterwork. It shows nine scenes from the New Testament, carved in white marble with a chiaroscuro effect. It contains even a bold, naturalistic depiction of a naked Hercules. His figure Prudence in the pulpit may have been an inspiration for the Eve in the painting The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden by Masaccio. After the fire of 1595 it was packed away during the redecoration and was not rediscovered and re-erected until 1926. The church of San Nicola in Pisa was enlarged between 1297 and 1313 by the Augustinians, perhaps by the design of Giovanni Pisano. He was also responsible of the façade of San Paolo a Ripa d'Arno. His last major work dates probably from 1313 when he made a monument in memory of Margaret of Brabant (who died in 1311) at the request of her husband emperor Henry VII. Legacy One of his pupils was Giovanni di Balduccio, who also became a famous sculptor, and the architect and sculptor Agostino da Siena. He also had an influence on the painter Pietro Lorenzetti. Giorgio Vasari included a biography of Pisano in his book Le vite dei più eccellenti pittori, scultori, e architetti The asteroid 7313 Pisano was named to honour Nicola and Giovanni Pisano. Gallery See also Giovanni di Cecco Duccio Arnolfo di Cambio References Clario Di Fabio, Gianluca Ameri, Francesca Girelli, Giovanni Pisano, Art e Dossier, 376, Firenze-Milano, Giunti Editore 2020 1250 births 1315 deaths 13th-century Italian architects 14th-century Italian architects 13th-century Italian sculptors Italian male sculptors 14th-century Italian sculptors Sculptors from Tuscany Gothic sculptors People from Pisa	[ -0.3089415729045868, 0.0037155996542423964, -0.34773311018943787, -0.07168727368116379, -0.6054433584213257, 0.6991158723831177, 0.2576792240142822, 0.8567759394645691, -1.2397359609603882, -0.8149923086166382, 0.43974557518959045, -0.2879020571708679, -0.0005263658240437508, 0.5497432947158813, -0.1727403849363327, -0.10484100133180618, 0.6592700481414795, 0.046478431671857834, 0.2047644406557083, -0.2742619216442108, 0.5349863767623901, -0.2656940519809723, -0.43136975169181824, -0.4645839333534241, -0.5330180525779724, 0.05874210596084595, -0.2603300213813782, 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237504	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal%20name	Personal name	A personal name, or full name, in onomastic terminology also known as prosoponym (from Ancient Greek πρόσωπον / prósōpon - person, and ὄνομα / onoma - name), is the set of names by which an individual person is known, and that can be recited as a word-group, with the understanding that, taken together, they all relate to that one individual. In many cultures, the term is synonymous with the birth name or legal name of the individual. In linguistic classification, personal names are studied within a specific onomastic discipline, called anthroponymy. In Western culture, nearly all individuals possess at least one given name (also known as a first name, forename, or Christian name), together with a surname (also known as a last name or family name). In the name "Abraham Lincoln", for example, Abraham is the first name and Lincoln is the surname. Surnames in the West generally indicate that the individual belongs to a family, a tribe, or a clan, although the exact relationships vary: they may be given at birth, taken upon adoption, changed upon marriage, and so on. Where there are two or more given names, typically only one (in English-speaking cultures usually the first) is used in normal speech. Another naming convention that is used mainly in the Arabic culture and in different other areas across Africa and Asia is connecting the person's given name with a chain of names, starting with the name of the person's father and then the father's father and so on, usually ending with the family name (tribe or clan name). However, the legal full name of a person usually contains the first three names (given name, father's name, father's father's name) and the family name at the end, to limit the name in government-issued ID. Men's names and women's names are constructed using the same convention, and a person's name is not altered if they are married. Some cultures, including Western ones, also add (or once added) patronymics or matronymics. For instance, as a middle name as with Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (whose father's given name was Ilya), or as a last name as with Björk Guðmundsdóttir (whose father is named Guðmundur) or Heiðar Helguson (whose mother was named Helga). Similar concepts are present in Eastern cultures. However, in some areas of the world, many people are known by a single name, and so are said to be mononymous. Still other cultures lack the concept of specific, fixed names designating people, either individually or collectively. Certain isolated tribes, such as the Machiguenga of the Amazon, do not use personal names. A person's full name usually identifies that person for legal and administrative purposes, although it may not be the name by which the person is commonly known; some people use only a portion of their full name, or are known by titles, nicknames, pseudonyms or other formal or informal designations. It is nearly universal for people to have names; the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child declares that a child has the right to a name from birth. Structure Common components of names given at birth include: Personal name: The given name (or acquired name in some cultures) can precede a family name (as in some European cultures), or it can come after the family name (as in some East Asian cultures), or be used without a family name. Patronymic: A surname based on the given name of the father. Matronymic: A surname based on the given name of the mother. Family name: A name used by all members of a family. In China, surnames gradually came into common use beginning in the 3rd century BC (having been common only among the nobility before that). In some areas of East Asia (e.g. Vietnam and Korea), surnames developed in the next several centuries, while in other areas (like Japan), surnames did not become prevalent until the 19th century. In Europe, after the loss of the Roman system, the common use of family names started quite early in some areas (France in the 13th century, and Germany in the 16th century), but it often did not happen until much later in areas that used a patronymic naming custom, such as the Scandinavian countries, Wales, and some areas of Germany, as well as Russia and Ukraine. The compulsory use of surnames varied greatly. France required a priest to write surnames in baptismal records in 1539 (but did not require surnames for Jews, who usually used patronymics, until 1808). On the other hand, surnames were not compulsory in the Scandinavian countries until the 19th or 20th century (1923 in Norway), and Iceland still does not use surnames for its native inhabitants. In most of the cultures of the Middle East and South Asia, surnames were not generally used until European influence took hold in the 19th century. In Spain and most Latin American countries, two surnames are used, one being the father's family name and the other being the mother's family name. In Spain, though, the second surname is frequently used if the first one is too common to allow an easy identification. For example, Former Spanish Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero is often called Zapatero. In Argentina, only the father's last name is used, in most cases. In Portugal, Brazil and most other Portuguese-speaking countries, at least two surnames are used, often three or four, typically some or none inherited from the mother and some or all inherited from the father, in that order. Co-parental siblings most often share an identical string of surnames. For collation, shortening, and formal addressing, the last of these surnames is typically preferred. A Portuguese man named António de Oliveira Guterres would⁶ therefore be known commonly as António Guterres. In Russia, the first name and family name conform to the usual Western practice, but the middle name is patronymic. Thus, all the children of Ivan Volkov would be named "[first name] Ivanovich Volkov" if male, or "[first name] Ivanovna Volkova" if female (-ovich meaning "son of", -ovna meaning "daughter of", and -a usually being appended to the surnames of girls). However, in formal Russian name order, the surname comes first, followed by the given name and patronymic, such as "Raskolnikov Rodion Romanovich". In many families, single or multiple middle names are simply alternative names, names honoring an ancestor or relative, or, for married women, sometimes their maiden names. In some traditions, however, the roles of the first and middle given names are reversed, with the first given name being used to honor a family member and the middle name being used as the usual method to address someone informally. Many Catholic families choose a saint's name as their child's middle name or this can be left until the child's confirmation when they choose a saint's name for themselves. Cultures that use patronymics or matronymics will often give middle names to distinguish between two similarly named people: e.g., Einar Karl Stefánsson and Einar Guðmundur Stefánsson. This is especially done in Iceland (as shown in example) where people are known and referred to almost exclusively by their given name/s. Some people (called anonyms) choose to be anonymous, that is, to hide their true names, for fear of governmental prosecution or social ridicule of their works or actions. Another method to disguise one's identity is to employ a pseudonym. For some people, their name is a single word, known as a mononym. This can be true from birth, or occur later in life. For example, Teller, of the magician duo Penn and Teller, was named Raymond Joseph Teller at birth, but changed his name both legally and socially to be simply "Teller". In some official government documents, such as his driver's license, his given name is listed as NFN, an initialism for "no first name". The Inuit believe that the souls of the namesakes are one, so they traditionally refer to the junior namesakes, not just by the names (atiq), but also by kinship title, which applies across gender and generation without implications of disrespect or seniority. In Judaism, someone's name is considered intimately connected with their fate, and adding a name (e.g. on the sickbed) may avert a particular danger. Among Ashkenazi Jews it is also considered bad luck to take the name of a living ancestor, as the Angel of Death may mistake the younger person for their namesake (although there is no such custom among Sephardi Jews). Jews may also have a Jewish name for intra-community use and use a different name when engaging with the Gentile world. Chinese children are called diminutive or pejorative names to make them appear worthless to evil spirits. They receive a definitive name as they grow up. Chinese and Japanese emperors receive posthumous names. In some Polynesian cultures, the name of a deceased chief becomes taboo. If he is named after a common object or concept, a different word has to be used for it. Depending on national convention, additional given names (and sometimes titles) are considered part of the name. Feudal names The royalty, nobility, and gentry of Europe traditionally have many names, including phrases for the lands that they own. The French developed the method of putting the term by which the person is referred in small capital letters. It is this habit which transferred to names of Eastern Asia, as seen below. An example is that of Marie-Joseph-Paul-Yves-Roch Gilbert du Motier, who is known as the Marquis de Lafayette. Note that he possessed both the lands of Motier and Lafayette. The bare place name was used formerly to refer to the person who owned it, rather than the land itself (the word "Gloucester" in "What will Gloucester do?" meant the Duke of Gloucester). As a development, the bare name of a ship in the Royal Navy meant its captain (e.g., "Cressy didn't learn from Aboukir") while the name with an article referred to the ship (e.g., "The Cressy is foundering"). Naming conventions A personal naming system, or anthroponymic system, is a system describing the choice of personal name in a certain society. Personal names consists of one or more parts, such as given name, surname and patronymic. Personal naming systems are studied within the field of anthroponymy. In contemporary Western societies (except for Iceland, Hungary, and sometimes Flanders, depending on the occasion), the most common naming convention is that a person must have a given name, which is usually gender-specific, followed by the parents' family name. In onomastic terminology, given names of male persons are called andronyms (from Ancient Greek ἀνήρ / man, and ὄνομα / name), while given names of female persons are called gynonyms (from Ancient Greek γυνή / woman, and ὄνομα / name). Some given names are bespoke, but most are repeated from earlier generations in the same culture. Many are drawn from mythology, some of which span multiple language areas. This has resulted in related names in different languages (e.g. George, Georg, Jorge), which might be translated or might be maintained as immutable proper nouns. In earlier times, Scandinavian countries followed patronymic naming, with people effectively called "X's son/daughter"; this is now the case only in Iceland and was recently re-introduced as an option in the Faroe Islands. It is legally possible in Finland as people of Icelandic ethnic naming are specifically named in the name law. When people of this name convert to standards of other cultures, the phrase is often condensed into one word, creating last names like Jacobsen (Jacob's Son). In Kafirstan (now part of Afghanistan) "Children are named as soon as born. The infant is given to the mother to suckle, while a wise woman rapidly recites the family ancestral names; the name pronounced at the instant the baby begins to feed is that by which it is thereafter known." There is a range of personal naming systems: Binomial systems: apart from their given name, people are described by their surnames, which they obtain from one of their parents. Most modern European personal naming systems are of this type. Patronymic systems: apart from their given name, people are described by their patronymics, that is given names (not surnames) of parents or other ancestors. Such systems were in wide use throughout Europe in the first millennium CE, but were replaced by binomial systems. The Icelandic system is still patronymic. More complex systems like Arabic system, consisting of paedonymic (son's name), given name, patronymic and one or two bynames. Different cultures have different conventions for personal names. This is a list of articles about particular cultures' naming conventions. Name order Western name order The order given name, family name is commonly known as the Western name order and is usually used in most European countries and in countries that have cultures predominantly influenced by Western Europe (e.g. North and South America, North, East, Central and West India, Thailand, Laos, Australia, New Zealand and the Philippines). Within alphabetic lists and catalogs, however, the family name is generally put first, with the given name(s) following, separated from it by a comma (e.g. Smith, John), representing the "lexical name order". This convention is followed by most Western libraries, as well as on many administrative forms. In some countries, such as France and the former Soviet Union, the comma may be dropped and the swapped form of the name be uttered as such, perceived as a mark of bureaucratic formality. Eastern name order The order family name, given name is commonly known as the Eastern name order and is primarily used in East Asian cultural sphere (China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam), as well as in Cambodia, and southern and northeastern parts of India. It is also used in Central Europe by Hungarians. When East Asian names are transliterated into the Latin alphabet, some people prefer to convert them to the Western order, while others leave them in the Eastern order but write the family name in capital letters. To avoid confusion, there is a convention in some language communities, e.g. French, to write the family name in all capitals when engaging in formal correspondence or writing for an international audience. In Hungarian, the Eastern order of Japanese names is officially kept and Hungarian transliteration is used (e.g. :hu:Mijazaki Hajao), but Western name order is also sometimes used with English transliteration (e.g. Hayao Miyazaki). From 2020, the Government of Japan has changed the order of names in official documents to order to write family name first in capital letters, also recommended the same format to the general Japanese public. Chinese people, except for those traveling or living outside of China and areas influenced by China, rarely reverse their Chinese language names to the Western naming order (given name, then family name), but some may have non-Chinese given names which may use a different order. Western publications usually preserve the Chinese naming order, with the family name first, followed by the given name. In regard to Japanese names, most foreign publications reverse the names of modern individuals, and most Japanese reverse their own names when creating materials for foreign consumption. In popular journalism publications, western order is used for Japanese names. Japanese names of contemporary people and Hungarian names are usually "switched" when people who have such names are mentioned in media in Western countries; for example, Koizumi Jun'ichirō is known as Junichiro Koizumi in English, and Puskás Ferenc is known as Ferenc Puskás. But Chinese, Korean and Vietnamese names are usually left in East Asian order; for instance, in English, Máo Zédōng is known as Mao Zedong or Mao Tse-tung. Names of Japanese or Chinese sportspeople generally follow the above conventions. For Japanese examples, see Ichiro Suzuki instead of Suzuki Ichirō (although he is widely known simply as "Ichiro" in both Japan and North America), or Hidetoshi Nakata instead of Nakata Hidetoshi. As for Chinese sportspeople, Yáo Míng is Yao Ming and Liú Xiáng is Liu Xiang in the West. Names of Korean sportspeople may be rendered in East Asian or Western order in Western countries, apparently depending on the sport. For example, names of Korean footballers and most athletes are usually left in East Asian order (e.g. Ahn Jung-hwan, Hong Myung-bo, Park Ji-Sung, Sohn Kee-chung, Hwang Young-cho). Baseball, billiards, golf, and ice hockey players' names are usually changed to Western order (for example: baseball player Park Chan-Ho is referred to in the West as Chan-ho Park, and the female golfer Pak Se-ri is known in the West as Se-Ri Pak). Confusion can be avoided by noticing that in all the above cases, the words linked by a hyphen are the given name. Mordvins use two names - a Mordvin name and a Russian name. The Mordvin name is written in the Eastern name order. Usually, the Mordvin surname is the same as the Russian surname, for example Sharonon Sandra (Russian: Alexander Sharonov), but it can be different at times, for example Yovlan Olo (Russian: Vladimir Romashkin). Mongolians use the Eastern naming order (patronymic followed by given name), which is also used there when rendering the names of other East Asians and Hungarians. Russian and other Western names, however, are still written in Western order. Telugu people from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana traditionally use family name, given name order. The family name first format is different from North India where family name typically appears last or other parts of South India where patronymic names are widely used instead of family names. Hong Kong In Hong Kong, Cantonese names of Hong Kong people are usually written in the Eastern order with or without a comma (eg. Wong Yat Sum or Wong, Yat Sum). Outside Hong Kong, they are usually written in Western order. Unlike other East Asian countries, the syllables or logograms of given names are not hyphenated or compounded but instead separated by a space (eg. Yat Sum). People outside Hong Kong often confuse the second syllables with middle names regardless of name order. Some computer systems could not handle given name inputs with space characters. Hong Kong people usually have an anglicised given name, always written in the Western order. The English and transliterated Cantonese full names can be written in various orders. A hybrid order is preferred in official documents including the Hong Kong's legislative records. The hybrid order goes in the form of “Tony Leung Chiu-wai”, with family names (in the example, Leung) shared in the middle. The anglicised names are written in the Western order and the Cantonese names are written in the Eastern order. Non-human personal names Apart from the Linnaean taxonomy, some humans give individual non-human animals and plants names, usually of endearment. In onomastic classification, names of individual animals are called zoonyms, while names of individual plants are called phytonyms. Names of pets The practice of naming pets dates back at least to the 23rd century BC; an Egyptian inscription from that period mentions a dog named Abuwtiyuw. Many pet owners give human names to their pets. This has been shown to reflect the owner having a human-like relationship with the pet. The name given to a pet may refer to its appearance or personality, or be chosen for endearment, or in honor of a favorite celebrity. Pet names often reflect the owner's view of the animal, and the expectations they may have for it. It has been argued that the giving of names to their pets allows researchers to view their pets as ontologically different from unnamed laboratory animals with which they work. Dolphin names for each other A study published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences claims that humans are not the only animals that use personal names. Researchers from the University of North Carolina Wilmington studying bottlenose dolphins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, found that the dolphins had names for each other. A dolphin chooses its name as an infant. See also Notes References Sources Further reading Matthews, Elaine; Hornblower, Simon; Fraser, Peter Marshall, Greek Personal Names: Their Value as Evidence, Proceedings of the British Academy (104), Oxford University Press, 2000. External links Varying use of first and family names in different countries and cultures Falsehoods Programmers Believe About Names Lexicon of Greek Personal Names, contains over 35,000 published Greek names. 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237505	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coracoid%20process	Coracoid process	The coracoid process (from Greek κόραξ, raven) is a small hook-like structure on the lateral edge of the superior anterior portion of the scapula (hence: coracoid, or "like a raven's beak"). Pointing laterally forward, it, together with the acromion, serves to stabilize the shoulder joint. It is palpable in the deltopectoral groove between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles. Structure The coracoid process is a thick curved process attached by a broad base to the upper part of the neck of the scapula; it runs at first upward and medialward; then, becoming smaller, it changes its direction, and projects forward and lateralward. The ascending portion, flattened from the frontal aspect backward, presents in front a smooth concave surface, across which the subscapularis passes. The horizontal portion appears flattened when viewed from above looking downward; its upper surface is convex and irregular, and gives attachment to the pectoralis minor; its under surface is smooth; its medial and lateral borders are rough; the former gives attachment to the pectoralis minor and the latter to the coracoacromial ligament; the apex is embraced by the Conjoint tendon of origin of the coracobrachialis and short head of the biceps brachii and gives attachment to the coracoclavicular fascia. On the medial part of the root of the coracoid process is a rough impression for the attachment of the conoid ligament; and running from it obliquely forward and lateralward, on to the upper surface of the horizontal portion, is an elevated ridge for the attachment of the trapezoid ligament. Function It is the site of attachment for several structures: The pectoralis minor muscle – to 3rd, 4th, 5th and on some rare occasions, 6th rib. The short head of biceps brachii muscle – to radial tuberosity. The coracobrachialis muscle – to medial humerus. The coracoclavicular ligament – to the clavicle. (The ligament is formed by the conoid ligament and trapezoid ligament.) The coracoacromial ligament – to the acromion The coracohumeral ligament – to the humerus The superior transverse scapular ligament – from the base of the coracoid to the medial portion of the suprascapular notch Clinical significance The coracoid process is palpable just below the lateral end of the clavicle (collar bone). It is otherwise known as the "Surgeon's Lighthouse" because it serves as a landmark to avoid neurovascular damage. Major neurovascular structures enter the upper limb medial to the coracoid process, so that surgical approaches to the shoulder region should always take place laterally to the coracoid process. Other animals In monotremes, the coracoid is a separate bone. Reptiles, birds, and frogs (but not salamanders) also possess a bone by this name, but is not homologous with the coracoid process of mammals. Analyses of the size and shape of the coracoid process in Australopithecus africanus (STS 7) have shown that in this species it displayed a prominent dorsolateral tubercle placed more laterally than in modern humans. This reflect, according to one interpretation, a scapula positioned high on a funnel-shaped thorax and a clavicle positioned obliquely as in extant great apes. Additional images References External links Coracoid Process - BlueLink Anatomy, University of Michigan Medical School Scapula	[ -0.08438711613416672, -0.38465407490730286, -0.3373573422431946, 0.2383350282907486, -0.03229423984885216, 1.1148028373718262, 0.003059710841625929, 0.35231834650039673, -0.06451044231653214, -0.7358185052871704, 0.34049877524375916, 0.7029740810394287, 0.02375113219022751, -0.20705388486385345, -0.4489302933216095, 0.03975195437669754, 0.01751624420285225, 0.04413604736328125, -0.07639536261558533, -0.524294912815094, -0.18109214305877686, -0.1927773505449295, 0.4535643458366394, -0.45242804288864136, 0.5238000154495239, 0.14090734720230103, -0.20534637570381165, 0.2296959012746811, 0.4431922137737274, -0.014889663085341454, -0.3626195788383484, 0.4766775369644165, 0.2045227736234665, -0.7735159993171692, -0.6843563914299011, -0.5549866557121277, 0.308170884847641, -0.7554620504379272, -0.3700127899646759, -0.8056701421737671, -0.47800472378730774, 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237508	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aulus	Aulus	Aulus (abbreviated A.) is one of the small group of common forenames found in the culture of ancient Rome. The name was traditionally connected with Latin aula, olla, "palace", but this is most likely a false etymology. Aulus in fact probably derives from Etruscan Aule, Avle, Avile, of unknown meaning. Aulus may refer to: Aulus Agerius or Numerius Negidius (a name for the plaintiff in a lawsuit) Aulus Atilius Calatinus Aulus Avilius Flaccus Aulus Ofilius Aulus Caecina Alienus Aulus Caecina Severus (suffect consul 1 BC) Aulus Caecina Severus (writer) Aulus Cornelius Celsus Aulus Cornelius Cossus Aulus Cremutius Cordus Aulus Didius Gallus Aulus Didius Gallus Fabricius Veiento Aulus Gabinius Aulus Gellius Aulus Hirtius - consul after Caesar Aulus Licinius Archias Aulus Licinius Nerva Silianus Aulus Metellus or Aule Metele Aulus Paulinus - fictional governor of Britain in Chelmsford 123 Aulus Persius Flaccus Aulus Platorius Nepos Aulus Plautius Aulus Terentius Varro Murena Aulus Vitellius	[ -0.09093183279037476, 0.39188623428344727, -0.6525569558143616, -0.0687621533870697, -0.4263998866081238, 0.5457291007041931, 0.5839430689811707, 0.3288656175136566, -0.25491461157798767, -0.4751938283443451, -0.5327126979827881, 0.11616961658000946, -0.47749778628349304, 0.4061872661113739, 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237515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appius%20Claudius%20Caecus	Appius Claudius Caecus	Appius Claudius Caecus ( 312–279 BC) was a statesman and writer from the Roman Republic. The first Roman public figure whose life can be traced with some historical certainty, Caecus was responsible for the building of Rome's first road (the Appian Way) and first aqueduct (the Aqua Appia), as well as instigating controversial popular-minded reforms. He is also credited with the authorship of a juristic treatise, a collection of moral essays, and several poems, making him one of Rome's earliest literary figures. A patrician of illustrious lineage, Caecus first came to prominence with his election to the position of censor in 312 BC, which he held for five years. During Caecus's time in office, aside from his building projects, he introduced several controversial but poorly-understood constitutional reforms: he increased the voting power of the poor and landless in the legislative assemblies, and admitted lower-class citizens to the Roman Senate, though these measures were partially undone by the resentful nobility. In addition, Caecus was the first censor to draw up a formal list of senators. These reforms massively increased the prestige of the censorship, which had previously only been a minor magistracy. As consul (296 BC) and then praetor (295 BC), Caecus led military campaigns against the Etruscans and Samnites. Later in life, having become blind (, whence the surname) from old age, he delivered a speech to the Senate successfully opposing peace with the Epirote king Pyrrhus. His reforms did trigger some outrage, as he broke a number of established traditions. Appius embroiled himself in several bitter political feuds, especially with the Fabii (a powerful Roman family). Fabius Pictor, who was the earliest Roman historian and a member of the Fabian family, may have been the source for a significant amount of smear against Caecus, accusing him of being a corrupted, immoral demagogue, and an inept general. Owing to the wide divergence in the sources, modern scholars have had very different interpretations of Caecus' deeds: he has been described as a revolutionary, a reactionary, a would-be tyrant, or a great reformer, comparable to Athenian figures like Clisthenes and Pericles. Family background Caecus, who was originally called Appius Claudius Crassus, was born into the patrician clan of the Claudii, one of the most important Roman families of the time, whose members had held executive offices of state since the beginning of the Republic. The family were widely described in Roman sources as haughty aristocrats with arch-conservative views, though this stereotype was likely only created long after Caecus's death. Caecus's father was called Gaius Claudius Inregillensis, known only for being appointed dictator in 337 BC and immediately resigning after the augurs had found a religious fault in his appointment. His mother is not known, but he had a much younger brother, Appius Claudius Caudex, who became consul in 264, four years after Caecus' elder son. Since Caecus' sons became consuls over a period of 28 years and long after his own time, he probably married at least twice, even though none of his wives is known. Early career The only information known about Caecus' early career before his censorship is from his eulogy, formerly displayed on the Roman Forum. This summary of his career lists all the responsibilities he held, including some junior offices, while literary sources only record upper magistracies (censor, consul, and praetor); however it does not provide any date and the offices are not ordered chronologically. The eulogy tells that he was the military tribune three times, the quaestor one time, and curule aedile two times. These junior magistracies were standard and found in the career of every Roman politician, but the number of times he held these positions is much more unusual. Endre Ferenczy thought Caecus held them all before his censorship because of his family's decline, which forced him to repeat them to build his popularity (especially as aedile, because this magistrate organised games), therefore explaining his early censorship. However, his thesis has been criticised, notably by Stephen Oakley, who notes that there is not enough evidence to know whether iterations of the military tribuneship and aedileship were really exceptional for this period, during which most careers are unknown. It is nonetheless certain that Caecus was military tribune before his censorship, because it was a requirement for being elected consul, which he became immediately after his censorship. As military tribune, he certainly served during the Second Samnite War (326–304 BC), the main conflict in Italy at the time. Censorship (312–308 BC) Appius Claudius Caecus was a Roman censor from 312 BC to 308 BC, He was not a consul beforehand which later became a prerequisite for the office. During his time as censor he sought support from the lower classes, by allowing sons of freedmen to serve in the Senate, and extending voting privileges to men in the rural tribes who did not own land. During the Second Samnite War, he advocated the founding of Roman colonies (colonia) throughout Latium and Campania to serve as fortifications against the Samnites and Etruscans. Appius is best known for two construction undertakings as censor: the Appian Way (), the first major Roman road, running between Rome and Beneventum to the south; and the first aqueduct in Rome, the Aqua Appia. Legal Contributions Appius major legal contribution came from him starting the publication of legis actiones (“methods of legal practice”). This publication served as a guide for Roman Legal procedure. The publication also included a list of days that court was to be held on. Later career (307–280 BC) During this time period he served as consul twice; in 307 BC and 296 BC, he was also appointed Dictator in 285 BC . Appius gave a famous speech in this period against Cineas, an envoy of Pyrrhus of Epirus, declaring that Rome would never surrender. This is the earliest known political speech in Latin, and is the source of the saying "every man is the architect of his own fortune" (Latin: quisque faber suae fortunae). In 279 BC Appius went blind due to a curse, according to Livy. Literary output Appius wrote several books over his life. He wrote a book called Sententiae, which was based upon a verse of Greek model. It was "the first Roman book of literary character". Appius also wrote treatise, De Usurpationibus ("Concerning Usurpations"), which is lost and the content is unknown. In addition Appius was one of the earliest known Roman prose and verse authors whose name is still known today. He was also concerned with literature and rhetoric, and instituted reforms in Latin orthography, allegedly ending the use of the letter Z. Notable quotes Every man is the architect of his own fortune. —Appius Claudius Caecus Descendants His four sons were Appius Claudius Russus (consul in 268), Publius Claudius Pulcher (consul in 249), Gaius Claudius Centho (consul in 240), and Tiberius Claudius Nero (grandfather of the consul of 202). Appius Claudius Caecus is used in Cicero's Pro Caelio as a stern and disapproving ancestor to Clodia. Cicero assumes the voice of Caecus in a scathing prosopopoeia, where Caecus is incensed at Clodia for associating with Caelius, a member of the middle equestrian class instead of the upper patrician class. Caecus's achievements, such as the building of the Appian Way and the Aqua Appia, are mentioned as being defiled by Clodia's actions. Family tree of Appius Caecus References Bibliography Ancient sources Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. Fasti Capitolini, Fasti Triumphales. Livy, Ab Urbe Condita (English translation by Rev. Canon Roberts on Wikisource), Periochae (English translation by Jona Lendering on Livius.org). Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (English translation by Samuel Speed on EEBO). Modern sources John Briscoe, Valerius Maximus, Facta et dicta memorabilia, Book 8 Text, Introduction, and Commentary, Berlin/Boston, De Gruyter, 2019. T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association, 1951–1952. German Hafner, "Römische und italische Porträts des 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr.", Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung, n°77, 1970, p. 59–66. Friedrich Münzer, Roman Aristocratic Parties and Families, translated by Thérèse Ridley, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999 (originally published in 1920). Lily Ross Taylor and T. Robert S. Broughton, "The Order of the Two Consuls' Names in the Yearly Lists", Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, 19 (1949), pp. 3–14. The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, "Appius Claudius Caecus", Encyclopædia Britannica, 1998 Humm, M. (n.d.). Les sources littéraires sur Appius Claudius Caecus. Appius Claudius Caecus, 35–97. doi:10.4000/books.efr.1609 Overview Appius Claudius Caecus (fl. 312 - 279), Oxford Reference Ratcliffe, S. (n.d.). Oxford Essential Quotations, 2012-01-01. Loud, G. A. (2010). The crusade of Frederick Barbarossa: The history of the expedition of the emperor Frederick and related texts. 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237521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seti%20I	Seti I	Menmaatre Seti I (or Sethos I in Greek) was the second pharaoh of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt during the New Kingdom period, ruling c.1294 or 1290 BC to 1279 BC. He was the son of Ramesses I and Sitre, and the father of Ramesses II. The name 'Seti' means "of Set", which indicates that he was consecrated to the god Set (also termed "Sutekh" or "Seth"). As with most pharaohs, Seti had several names. Upon his ascension, he took the prenomen "mn-m3‘t-r‘ ", usually vocalized as Menmaatre, in Egyptian, which means "Established is the Justice of Re." His better known nomen, or birth name, is transliterated as "sty mry-n-ptḥ" or Sety Merenptah, meaning "Man of Set, beloved of Ptah". Manetho incorrectly considered him to be the founder of the 19th Dynasty, and gave him a reign length of 55 years, though no evidence has ever been found for so long a reign. Reign After the enormous social upheavals generated by Akhenaten's religious reform, Horemheb, Ramesses I and Seti I's main priority was to re-establish order in the kingdom and to reaffirm Egypt's sovereignty over Canaan and Syria, which had been compromised by the increasing external pressures from the Hittite state. Seti, with energy and determination, confronted the Hittites several times in battle. Without succeeding in destroying the Hittites as a potential danger to Egypt, he reconquered most of the disputed territories for Egypt and generally concluded his military campaigns with victories. The memory of Seti I's military successes was recorded in some large scenes placed on the front of the temple of Amun, situated in Karnak. A funerary temple for Seti was constructed in what is now known as Qurna (Mortuary Temple of Seti I), on the west bank of the Nile at Thebes while a magnificent temple made of white limestone at Abydos featuring exquisite relief scenes was started by Seti, and later completed by his son. His capital was at Memphis. He was considered a great king by his peers, but his fame has been overshadowed since ancient times by that of his son, Ramesses II. Duration of reign Seti I's reign length was either 11 or 15 full years. Egyptologist Kenneth Kitchen has estimated that it was 15 years, but there are no dates recorded for Seti I after his Year 11 Gebel Barkal stela. As he is otherwise quite well documented in historical records, other scholars suggest that a continuous break in the record for his last four years is unlikely, although it is technically possible simply that no records have been yet discovered. Peter J. Brand noted that the king personally opened new rock quarries at Aswan to build obelisks and colossal statues in his Year 9. This event is commemorated on two rock stelas in Aswan. However, most of Seti's obelisks and statues such as the Flaminian and Luxor obelisks were only partly finished or decorated by the time of his death, since they were completed early under his son's reign based on epigraphic evidence (they bore the early form of Ramesses II's royal prenomen "Usermaatre"). Ramesses II used the prenomen Usermaatre to refer to himself in his first year and did not adopt the final form of his royal title "Usermaatre Setepenre" until late into his second year. Brand aptly notes that this evidence calls into question the idea of a 15 Year reign for Seti I and suggests that "Seti died after a ten to eleven year reign" because only two years would have passed between the opening of the Rock Quarries and the partial completion and decoration of these monuments. This explanation conforms better with the evidence of the unfinished state of Seti I's monuments and the fact that Ramesses II had to complete the decorations on "many of his father's unfinished monuments, including the southern half of the Great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak and portions of his father's temples at Gurnah and Abydos" during the very first Year of his own reign. Critically, Brand notes that the larger of the two Aswan rock stelas states that Seti I "has ordered the commissioning of multitudinous works for the making of very great obelisks and great and wondrous statues (i.e. colossi) in the name of His Majesty, L.P.H. He made great barges for transporting them, and ships crews to match them for ferrying them from the quarry." (KRI 74:12-14) However, despite this promise, Brand stresses that The German Egyptologist Jürgen von Beckerath also accepts that Seti I's reign lasted only 11 Years. Seti's highest known date is Year 11, IV Shemu day 12 or 13 on a sandstone stela from Gebel Barkal but he would have briefly survived for 2 to 3 days into his Year 12 before dying based on the date of Ramesses II's rise to power. Seti I's accession date has been determined by Wolfgang Helck to be III Shemu day 24, which is very close to Ramesses II's known accession date of III Shemu day 27. In 2011, Jacobus van Dijk questioned the "Year 11" stated on the Gebel Barkal stela. This monument is quite badly preserved but still depicts Seti I in erect posture, which is the only case occurring since his Year 4 when he started to be depicted in a stooping posture on his stelae. Furthermore, the glyphs "I ∩" representing the 11 are damaged in the upper part and may just as well be "I I I" instead. Subsequently, Van Dijk proposed that the Gebel Barkal stela is dated to Year 3 of Seti I, and that Seti's highest date more likely is Year 9 as suggested by the wine jars found in his tomb. In a 2012 paper, David Aston analyzed the wine jars and came to the same conclusion since no wine labels higher than his 8th regnal year were found in his tomb. Seti's military campaigns Seti I fought a series of wars in western Asia, Libya and Nubia in the first decade of his reign. The main source for Seti’s military activities are his battle scenes on the north exterior wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall, along with several royal stelas with inscriptions mentioning battles in Canaan and Nubia. In his first regnal year, he led his armies along the "Horus Military road," the coastal road that led from the Egyptian city of Tjaru (Zarw/Sile) in the northeast corner of the Egyptian Nile Delta along the northern coast of the Sinai peninsula ending in the town of "Canaan" in the modern Gaza strip. The Ways of Horus consisted of a series of military forts, each with a well, that are depicted in detail in the king’s war scenes on the north wall of the Karnak Hypostyle Hall. While crossing the Sinai, the king’s army fought local Bedouins called the Shasu. In Canaan, he received the tribute of some of the city states he visited. Others, including Beth-Shan and Yenoam, had to be captured but were easily defeated. A stele in Beth-Shan testifies to that reconquest; according to Grdsseloff, Rowe, Albrecht et Albright, Sethy defeated Asian nomads in war against the Apirus (Hebrews). Dussaud commented Albright’s article: “The interest of Professor Albright’s note is mainly due to the fact that he no longer objects to the identification of “Apiru” with “Ibri” (ie the Hebrews) provided that we grant him that the vocal change has been driven by a popular etymology that brought the term “eber” (formerly ‘ibr), that is to say the man from beyond the river.” It seems that Egypt extends beyond the river. The attack on Yenoam is illustrated in his war scenes, while other battles, such as the defeat of Beth-Shan, were not shown because the king himself did not participate, sending a division of his army instead. The year one campaign continued into Lebanon where the king received the submission of its chiefs who were compelled to cut down valuable cedar wood themselves as tribute. At some unknown point in his reign, Seti I defeated Libyan tribesmen who had invaded Egypt's western border. Although defeated, the Libyans would pose an ever-increasing threat to Egypt during the reigns of Merenptah and Ramesses III. The Egyptian army also put down a minor "rebellion" in Nubia in the 8th year of Seti I. Seti himself did not participate in it although his crown prince, the future Ramesses II, may have. Capture of Kadesh The greatest achievement of Seti I's foreign policy was the capture of the Syrian town of Kadesh and neighboring territory of Amurru from the Hittite Empire. Egypt had not held Kadesh since the time of Akhenaten. Tutankhamun and Horemheb had failed to recapture the city from the Hittites. Seti I was successful in defeating a Hittite army that tried to defend the town. He entered the city in triumph together with his son Ramesses II and erected a victory stela at the site. Kadesh, however, soon reverted to Hittite control because the Egyptians did not or could not maintain a permanent military occupation of Kadesh and Amurru which were close to the Hittite homelands. It is unlikely that Seti I made a peace treaty with the Hittites or voluntarily returned Kadesh and Amurru to them but he may have reached an informal understanding with the Hittite king Muwatalli on the precise boundaries of the Egyptian and Hittite Empires. Five years after Seti I's death, however, his son Ramesses II resumed hostilities and made a failed attempt to recapture Kadesh. Kadesh was henceforth effectively held by the Hittites even though Ramesses temporarily occupied the city in his 8th year. The traditional view of Seti I's wars was that he restored the Egyptian empire after it had been lost in the time of Akhenaten. This was based on the chaotic picture of Egyptian-controlled Syria and Palestine seen in the Amarna letters, a cache of diplomatic correspondence from the time of Akhenaten found at Akhenaten’s capital at el-Amarna in Middle Egypt. Recent scholarship, however, indicates that the empire was not lost at this time, except for its northern border provinces of Kadesh and Amurru in Syria and Lebanon. While evidence for the military activities of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun and Horemheb is fragmentary or ambiguous, Seti I has left us an impressive war monument that glorifies his achievement, along with a number of texts, all of which tend to magnify his personal achievements on the battlefield. Burial Seti's well preserved tomb (KV17) was found in 1817 by Giovanni Battista Belzoni, in the Valley of the Kings; it proved to be the longest at 446 feet (136 meters) and deepest of all the New Kingdom royal tombs. It was also the first tomb to feature decorations (including the Book of the Heavenly Cow) on every passageway and chamber with highly refined bas-reliefs and colorful paintings – fragments of which, including a large column depicting Seti I with the goddess Hathor, can be seen in the National Archaeological Museum, Florence. This decorative style set a precedent which was followed in full or in part in the tombs of later New Kingdom kings. Seti's mummy itself was discovered by Émil Brugsch on June 6, 1881 in the mummy cache (tomb DB320) at Deir el-Bahri, and has since been kept at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. His huge sarcophagus, carved in one piece and intricately decorated on every surface (including the goddess Nut on the interior base), is in Sir John Soane's Museum. Soane bought it for exhibition in his open collection in 1824, when the British Museum refused to pay the £2,000 demanded. On its arrival at the museum, the alabaster was pure white and inlaid with blue copper sulphate. Years of the London climate and pollution have darkened the alabaster to a buff colour and absorbed moisture has caused the hygroscopic inlay material to fall out and disappear completely. A small watercolour nearby records the appearance, as it was. The tomb also had an entrance to a secret tunnel hidden behind the sarcophagus, which Belzoni's team estimated to be 100 meters (328 feet) long. However, the tunnel was not truly excavated until 1961, when a team led by Sheikh Ali Abdel-Rasoul began digging in hopes of discovering a secret burial chamber containing hidden treasures. The team failed to follow the original passage in their excavations, and had to call a halt due to instabilities in the tunnel; further issues with permits and finances eventually ended Sheikh Ali's dreams of treasure, though they were at least able to establish that the passage was over 30 meters (98 feet) longer than the original estimate. In June 2010, a team from Egypt's Ministry of Antiquities led by Dr. Zahi Hawass completed excavation of the tunnel, which had begun again after the discovery in 2007 of a downward-sloping passage beginning approximately 136 meters (446 feet) into the previously excavated tunnel. After uncovering two separate staircases, they found that the tunnel ran for 174 meters (571 feet) in total; unfortunately, the last step seemed to have been abandoned prior to completion and no secret burial chamber was found. Mummy From an examination of Seti's extremely well-preserved mummy, Seti I appears to have been less than forty years old when he died unexpectedly. This is in stark contrast to the situation with Horemheb, Ramesses I and Ramesses II who all lived to an advanced age. The reasons for his relatively early death are uncertain, but there is no evidence of violence on his mummy. His mummy was found decapitated, but this was likely caused after his death by tomb robbers. The Amun priest carefully reattached his head to his body with the use of linen cloths. It has been suggested that he died from a disease which had affected him for years, possibly related to his heart. The latter was found placed in the right part of the body, while the usual practice of the day was to place it in the left part during the mummification process. Opinions vary whether this was a mistake or an attempt to have Seti's heart work better in his afterlife. Seti I's mummy is about 1.7 metres (5 ft 7 in) tall. In April 2021 his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade. Alleged co-regency with Ramesses II Around Year 9 of his reign, Seti appointed his son Ramesses II as the crown prince and his chosen successor, but the evidence for a coregency between the two kings is likely illusory. Peter J. Brand stresses in his thesis that relief decorations at various temple sites at Karnak, Qurna and Abydos, which associate Ramesses II with Seti I, were actually carved after Seti's death by Ramesses II himself and, hence, cannot be used as source material to support a co-regency between the two monarchs. In addition, the late William Murnane, who first endorsed the theory of a co-regency between Seti I and Ramesses II, later revised his view of the proposed co-regency and rejected the idea that Ramesses II had begun to count his own regnal years while Seti I was still alive. Finally, Kenneth Kitchen rejects the term co-regency to describe the relationship between Seti I and Ramesses II; he describes the earliest phase of Ramesses II's career as a "prince regency" where the young Ramesses enjoyed all the trappings of royalty including the use of a royal titulary and harem but did not count his regnal years until after his father's death. This is due to the fact that the evidence for a co-regency between the two kings is vague and highly ambiguous. Two important inscriptions from the first decade of Ramesses' reign, namely the Abydos Dedicatory Inscription and the Kuban Stela of Ramesses II, consistently give the latter titles associated with those of a crown prince only, namely the "king's eldest son and hereditary prince" or "child-heir" to the throne "along with some military titles." Hence, no clear evidence supports the hypothesis that Ramesses II was a co-regent under his father. Brand stresses that: In popular culture Seti I was portrayed as the father of Rameses II and adopted uncle of Moses by actor Sir Cedric Hardwicke in the 1956 film The Ten Commandments. In the film, Seti I banishes Moses from Egypt, putting Moses on the path that eventually leads to his return to Egypt and liberation of the slaves after Rameses II ascends the throne. The film establishes the Biblical figure of Bithia (adopted mother of Moses) as Seti's sister. Seti I was portrayed by actor Aharon Ipalé in the films The Mummy and its sequel The Mummy Returns as a pharaoh who is murdered by his high priest Imhotep and his mistress Anck-su-namun. In 2006, Ipalé reprised the role in The Ten Commandments: The Musical. The Mummy also mentions him as the richest of all pharaohs. In The Mummy Returns, Seti is revealed to be Nefertiri's father. In the 1998 Dreamworks Hand-drawn animated musical film The Prince of Egypt, Seti (voiced by Patrick Stewart) is Moses' adoptive father and is depicted as having been the pharaoh who in the Biblical Book of Exodus ordered the massacre of the Hebrew boys, in order to prevent a feared rebellion. He is also the overarching antagonist of the film due to his negative influence on his son, Rameses II. Seti I is portrayed by actor John Turturro in the 2014 film Exodus: Gods and Kings. Seti was produced in Germany as a board game with that title in 1979 by the game company Bütehorn Spiele and won an award for the most attractive game of that year. It was republished in 1986 by the German publisher Hexagames, this time with rules also in French and English. Though an abstract game, its backstory included the playing of Seti in ancient Egypt; the rules for the 20th century version have been surmised. "Seti I" is the title of the first track on the Banco de Gaia album Igizeh; portions of the album were recorded at the Mortuary Temple of Seti I. See also Dorothy Eady List of colossal sculpture in situ Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt family tree References Bibliography Brand, Peter J. The Monuments of Seti I: Epigraphic, Historical, and Art-Historical Analysis. E. J. Brill, Leiden 2000, . Epigraphic Survey, The Battle Reliefs of King Sety I. Reliefs and Inscriptions at Karnak vol. 4. (Chicago, 1985). Caverley, Amice "The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos", (London, Chicago, 1933–58), 4 volumes. Gaballa, Gaballa A. Narrative in Egyptian Art. (Mainz, 1976) Hasel, Michael G., Domination & Resistance: Egyptian Military Activity in the Southern Levant, 1300-1185 BC, (Leiden, 1998). Kitchen, Kenneth, Pharaoh Triumphant: The Life and Times of Ramesses II (Warminster, 1982). Liverani, Mario Three Amarna Essays, Monographs on the Ancient Near East 1/5 (Malibu, 1979). Murnane, William J. (1990) The Road to Kadesh, Chicago. Schulman, Alan R. "Hittites, Helmets & Amarna: Akhenaten’s First Hittite War," Akhenaten Temple Project volume II, (Toronto, 1988), 53-79. Spalinger, Anthony J. "The Northern Wars of Seti I: An Integrative Study." Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 16 (1979). 29–46. Spalinger, Anthony J. "Egyptian-Hittite Relations at the Close of the Amarna Age and Some Notes on Hittite Military Strategy in North Syria," Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 1 (1979):55-89. External links Seti I - Archaeowiki.org The Karnak Hypostyle Hall Project website The Monuments of Seti I and their Historical Significance: Epigraphic, Art and Historical Analysis (PDF) 1998 by Peter Brand The complete titulary of Seti I 360° full-screen photospheric visit of Seti I tomb 13th-century BC Pharaohs Pharaohs of the Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ancient Egyptian mummies Year of birth unknown 1279 BC deaths Ramesses I	[ 0.004199121613055468, -0.011781870387494564, -0.7428970336914062, -0.1241963654756546, -0.5891863107681274, 0.7619902491569519, 0.5059782266616821, 0.056273240596055984, -0.4556734561920166, -0.5373812913894653, -0.12273711711168289, -0.06123432517051697, -0.8117523193359375, -0.10619223117828369, 0.17476823925971985, 0.11259462684392929, 0.180571511387825, -0.26106077432632446, -0.695581316947937, -0.2439166158437729, 0.14913876354694366, -0.044980745762586594, 0.1684357225894928, 0.11713972687721252, 0.07786405086517334, -0.06474656611680984, 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237523	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocahontas	Pocahontas	Pocahontas (, ; born Amonute, known as Matoaka, 1596 – March 1617) was a Native American woman, belonging to the Powhatan people, notable for her association with the colonial settlement at Jamestown, Virginia. She was the daughter of Powhatan, the paramount chief of a network of tributary tribes in the Tsenacommacah, encompassing the Tidewater region of Virginia. Pocahontas was captured and held for ransom by English Colonists during hostilities in 1613. During her captivity, she was encouraged to convert to Christianity and was baptized under the name Rebecca. She married tobacco planter John Rolfe in April 1614 at the age of about 17 or 18, and she bore their son Thomas Rolfe in January 1615. In 1616, the Rolfes travelled to London where Pocahontas was presented to English society as an example of the "civilized savage" in hopes of stimulating investment in the Jamestown settlement. On this trip she may have met Squanto, a Patuxet Indian from New England. She became something of a celebrity, was elegantly fêted, and attended a masque at Whitehall Palace. In 1617, the Rolfes set sail for Virginia; Pocahontas died at Gravesend of unknown causes, aged 20 or 21. She was buried in St George's Church, Gravesend, in England; her grave's exact location is unknown because the church was rebuilt after a fire destroyed it. Numerous places, landmarks, and products in the United States have been named after Pocahontas. Her story has been romanticized over the years, with some aspects which are probably fictional. Many of the stories told about her by John Smith have been contested by her documented descendants. She is a subject of art, literature, and film, and many famous people have claimed to be among her descendants through her son, including members of the First Families of Virginia, First Lady Edith Wilson, American Western actor Glenn Strange, and astronomer Percival Lowell. Early life Pocahontas's birth year is unknown, but some historians estimate it to have been around 1596. In A True Relation of Virginia (1608), Smith described meeting Pocahontas in the spring of 1608 when she was "a child of ten years old." In a 1616 letter, he again described her as she was in 1608, but this time as "a child of twelve or thirteen years of age." Pocahontas was the daughter of Chief Powhatan, paramount chief of Tsenacommacah, an alliance of about 30 Algonquian-speaking groups and petty chiefdoms in Tidewater, Virginia. Her mother's name and origin are unknown, but she was probably of lowly status. Henry Spelman of Jamestown had lived among the Powhatan as an interpreter, and he noted that, when one of the paramount chief's many wives gave birth, she was returned to her place of origin and supported there by the paramount chief until she found another husband. However, little is known about Pocahontas's mother, and it has been theorized that she died in childbirth. The Mattaponi Reservation people are descendants of the Powhatans, and their oral tradition claims that Pocahontas's mother was the first wife of Powhatan, and that Pocahontas was named after her. Names According to colonist William Strachey, "Pocahontas" was a childhood nickname meaning "little wanton"; some interpret the meaning as "playful one." In his account, Strachey describes her as a child visiting the fort at Jamestown and playing with the young boys; she would "get the boys forth with her into the marketplace and make them wheel, falling on their hands, turning up their heels upwards, whom she would follow and wheel so herself, naked as she was, all the fort over." Historian William Stith claimed that "her real name, it seems, was originally Matoax, which the Indians carefully concealed from the English and changed it to Pocahontas, out of a superstitious fear, lest they, by the knowledge of her true name, should be enabled to do her some hurt." According to anthropologist Helen C. Rountree, Pocahontas revealed her secret name to the colonists "only after she had taken another religious—baptismal—name" of Rebecca. Title and status Pocahontas is frequently viewed as a princess in popular culture. In 1841, William Watson Waldron of Trinity College, Dublin published Pocahontas, American Princess: and Other Poems, calling her "the beloved and only surviving daughter of the king." She was her father's "delight and darling", according to colonist Captain Ralph Hamor but she was not in line to inherit a position as a weroance, sub-chief, or mamanatowick (paramount chief). Instead, Powhatan's brothers and sisters and his sisters' children all stood in line to succeed him. In his A Map of Virginia, John Smith explained how matrilineal inheritance worked among the Powhatans: Interactions with the colonists John Smith Pocahontas is most famously linked to colonist Captain John Smith, who arrived in Virginia with 100 other settlers in April 1607 where they built a fort on a marshy peninsula on the James River. The colonists had numerous encounters over the next several months with the people of Tsenacommacah—some of them friendly, some hostile. A hunting party led by Powhatan's close relative Opechancanough then captured Smith in December 1607 while he was exploring on the Chickahominy River and brought him to Powhatan's capital at Werowocomoco. In his 1608 account, Smith describes a great feast followed by a long talk with Powhatan. He does not mention Pocahontas in relation to his capture, and claims that they first met some months later. Margaret Huber suggests that Powhatan was attempting to bring Smith and the other colonists under his own authority. He offered Smith rule of the town of Capahosic, which was close to his capital at Werowocomoco, as he hoped to keep Smith and his men "nearby and better under control". In 1616, Smith wrote a letter to Queen Anne of Denmark in anticipation of Pocahontas's visit to England. In this new account, his capture included the threat of his own death: "at the minute of my execution, she hazarded the beating out of her own brains to save mine; and not only that but so prevailed with her father, that I was safely conducted to Jamestown." He expanded on this in his 1624 , published long after the death of Pocahontas. He explained that he was captured and taken to the paramount chief where "two great stones were brought before Powhatan: then as many as could layd hands on him [Smith], dragged him to them, and thereon laid his head, and being ready with their clubs, to beate out his braines, Pocahontas the Kings dearest daughter, when no intreaty could prevaile, got his head in her armes, and laid her owne upon his to save him from death." Karen Ordahl Kupperman suggests that Smith used such details to embroider his first account, thus producing a more dramatic second account of his encounter with Pocahontas as a heroine worthy of Queen Anne's audience. She argues that its later revision and publication was Smith's attempt to raise his own stock and reputation, as he had fallen from favor with the London Company which had funded the Jamestown enterprise. Anthropologist Frederic W. Gleach suggests that Smith's second account was substantially accurate but represents his misunderstanding of a three-stage ritual intended to adopt him into the confederacy, but not all writers are convinced, some suggesting the absence of certain corroborating evidence. Early histories did establish that Pocahontas befriended Smith and the Jamestown colony. She often went to the settlement and played games with the boys there. When the colonists were starving, "every once in four or five days, Pocahontas with her attendants brought him [Smith] so much provision that saved many of their lives that else for all this had starved with hunger." As the colonists expanded their settlement, the Powhatans felt that their lands were threatened, and conflicts arose again. In late 1609, an injury from a gunpowder explosion forced Smith to return to England for medical care, and the colonists told the Powhatans that he was dead. Pocahontas believed that account and stopped visiting Jamestown, but she learned that he was living in England when she traveled there with her husband John Rolfe. Capture Pocahontas's capture occurred in the context of the First Anglo-Powhatan War, a conflict between the Jamestown settlers and the Indians which began late in the summer of 1609. In the first years of war, the colonists took control of the James River, both at its mouth and at the falls. Captain Samuel Argall, in the meantime, pursued contacts with Indian tribes in the northern portion of Powhatan's paramount chiefdom. The Patawomecks lived on the Potomac River and were not always loyal to Powhatan, and living with them was a young English interpreter named Henry Spelman. In March 1613, Argall learned that Pocahontas was visiting the Patawomeck village of Passapatanzy and living under the protection of the Weroance Iopassus (also known as Japazaws). With Spelman's help translating, Argall pressured Iopassus to assist in Pocahontas's capture by promising an alliance with the colonists against the Powhatans. They tricked Pocahontas into boarding Argall's ship and held her for ransom, demanding the release of colonial prisoners held by her father and the return of various stolen weapons and tools. Powhatan returned the prisoners but failed to satisfy the colonists with the number of weapons and tools that he returned. A long standoff ensued, during which the colonists kept Pocahontas captive. During the year-long wait, she was held at Henricus in Chesterfield County, Virginia. Little is known about her life there, although colonist Ralph Hamor wrote that she received "extraordinary courteous usage". Linwood "Little Bear" Custalow refers to an oral tradition which claims that Pocahontas was raped; Helen Rountree counters that "other historians have disputed that such oral tradition survived and instead argue that any mistreatment of Pocahontas would have gone against the interests of the English in their negotiations with Powhatan. A truce had been called, the Indians still far outnumbered the English, and the colonists feared retaliation." At this time, Henricus minister Alexander Whitaker taught Pocahontas about Christianity and helped her improve her English. Upon her baptism, she took the Christian name "Rebecca". In March 1614, the stand-off escalated to a violent confrontation between hundreds of colonists and Powhatan men on the Pamunkey River, and the colonists encountered a group of senior Indian leaders at Powhatan's capital of Matchcot. The colonists allowed Pocahontas to talk to her tribe when Powhatan arrived, and she reportedly rebuked him for valuing her "less than old swords, pieces, or axes". She said that she preferred to live with the colonists "who loved her". Possible first marriage Mattaponi tradition holds that Pocahontas's first husband was Kocoum, brother of the Patawomeck weroance Japazaws, and that Kocoum was killed by the colonists after his wife's capture in 1613. Today's Patawomecks believe that Pocahontas and Kocoum had a daughter named Ka-Okee who was raised by the Patawomecks after her father's death and her mother's abduction. Kocoum's identity, location, and very existence have been widely debated among scholars for centuries; the only mention of a "Kocoum" in any English document is a brief statement written about 1616 by William Strachey in England that Pocahontas had been living married to a "private captaine called Kocoum" for two years. She married John Rolfe in 1614, and no other records even hint at any previous husband, so some have suggested that Strachey was mistakenly referring to Rolfe himself, with the reference being later misunderstood as one of Powhatan's officers. Marriage to John Rolfe During her stay in Henricus, Pocahontas met John Rolfe. Rolfe's English-born wife Sarah Hacker and child Bermuda had died on the way to Virginia after the wreck of the ship Sea Venture on the Summer Isles, also known as Bermuda. Rolfe established the Virginia plantation Varina Farms where he cultivated a new strain of tobacco. He was a pious man and agonized over the potential moral repercussions of marrying a heathen, though in fact Pocahontas had accepted the Christian faith and taken the baptismal name Rebecca. In a long letter to the governor requesting permission to wed her, he expressed his love for Pocahontas and his belief that he would be saving her soul. He wrote that he was The couple were married on April 5, 1614, by chaplain Richard Buck, probably at Jamestown. For two years, they lived at Varina Farms across the James River from Henricus. Their son Thomas was born in January 1615. Their marriage created a climate of peace between the Jamestown colonists and Powhatan's tribes; it endured for eight years as the "Peace of Pocahontas". In 1615, Ralph Hamor wrote, "Since the wedding we have had friendly commerce and trade not only with Powhatan but also with his subjects round about us." The marriage was controversial in the British court at the time because "a commoner" had "the audacity" to marry a "princess". England One goal of the Virginia Company of London was to convert Native Americans to Christianity, and the company saw an opportunity to promote further investment with the conversion of Pocahontas and her marriage to Rolfe, all of which also helped end the First Anglo-Powhatan War. The company decided to bring Pocahontas to England as a symbol of the tamed New World "savage" and the success of the Virginia colony, and the Rolfes arrived at the port of Plymouth on June 12, 1616. They journeyed to London by coach, accompanied by 11 other Powhatans including a holy man named Tomocomo. John Smith was living in London at the time while Pocahontas was in Plymouth, and she learned that he was still alive. Smith did not meet Pocahontas, but he wrote to Queen Anne of Denmark, the wife of King James, urging that Pocahontas be treated with respect as a royal visitor. He suggested that, if she were treated badly, her "present love to us and Christianity might turn to... scorn and fury", and England might lose the chance to "rightly have a Kingdom by her means". Pocahontas was entertained at various social gatherings. On January 5, 1617, she and Tomocomo were brought before the king at the old Banqueting House in the Palace of Whitehall at a performance of Ben Jonson's masque The Vision of Delight. According to Smith, King James was so unprepossessing that neither Pocahontas nor Tomocomo realized whom they had met until it was explained to them afterward. Pocahontas was not a princess in Powhatan culture, but the Virginia Company presented her as one to the English public because she was the daughter of an important chief. The inscription on a 1616 engraving of Pocahontas reads "MATOAKA ALS REBECCA FILIA POTENTISS : PRINC : POWHATANI IMP:VIRGINIÆ", meaning "Matoaka, alias Rebecca, daughter of the most powerful prince of the Powhatan Empire of Virginia". Many English at this time recognized Powhatan as the ruler of an empire, and presumably accorded to his daughter what they considered appropriate status. Smith's letter to Queen Anne refers to "Powhatan their chief King". Cleric and travel writer Samuel Purchas recalled meeting Pocahontas in London, noting that she impressed those whom she met because she "carried her selfe as the daughter of a king". When he met her again in London, Smith referred to her deferentially as a "King's daughter". Pocahontas was apparently treated well in London. At the masque, her seats were described as "well placed" and, according to Purchas, London's Bishop John King "entertained her with festival state and pomp beyond what I have seen in his greate hospitalitie afforded to other ladies". Not all the English were so impressed, however. Helen C. Rountree claims that there is no contemporaneous evidence to suggest that Pocahontas was regarded in England "as anything like royalty", despite the writings of John Smith. Rather, she was considered to be something of a curiosity, according to Rountree, who suggests that she was merely "the Virginian woman" to most Englishmen. Pocahontas and Rolfe lived in the suburb of Brentford, Middlesex for some time, as well as at Rolfe's family home at Heacham, Norfolk. In early 1617, Smith met the couple at a social gathering and wrote that, when Pocahontas saw him, "without any words, she turned about, obscured her face, as not seeming well contented", and was left alone for two or three hours. Later, they spoke more; Smith's record of what she said to him is fragmentary and enigmatic. She reminded him of the "courtesies she had done", saying, "you did promise Powhatan what was yours would be his, and he the like to you". She then discomfited him by calling him "father", explaining that Smith had called Powhatan "father" when he was a stranger in Virginia, "and by the same reason so must I do you". Smith did not accept this form of address because, he wrote, Pocahontas outranked him as "a King's daughter". Pocahontas then said, "with a well-set countenance": Finally, Pocahontas told Smith that she and her tribe had thought him dead, but her father had told Tomocomo to seek him "because your countrymen will lie much". Death In March 1617, Rolfe and Pocahontas boarded a ship to return to Virginia, but they sailed only as far as Gravesend on the river Thames when Pocahontas became gravely ill. She was taken ashore, where she died from unknown causes, aged approximately 21 and "much lamented". According to Rolfe, she declared that "all must die"; for her, it was enough that her child lived. Speculated causes of her death include pneumonia, smallpox, tuberculosis, hemorrhagic dysentery ("the Bloody flux") and poisoning. Pocahontas's funeral took place on March 21, 1617, in the parish of St George's Church, Gravesend. Her grave is thought to be underneath the church's chancel, though that church was destroyed in a fire in 1727 and its exact site is unknown. She is commemorated by a life-sized bronze statue in St. George's Churchyard, by the American sculptor William Ordway Partridge. Legacy Pocahontas and John Rolfe had a son, Thomas Rolfe, born in January 1615. Thomas Rolfe and his wife, Jane Poythress, had a daughter, Jane Rolfe, who was born in Varina, Henrico County, Virginia on October 10, 1650. Jane Rolfe married Robert Bolling of Prince George County, Virginia. Their son, John Bolling, was born in 1676. John Bolling married Mary Kennon and had six surviving children, each of whom married and had surviving children. In 1907, Pocahontas was the first Native American to be honored on a US stamp. She was a member of the inaugural class of Virginia Women in History in 2000. In July 2015, the Pamunkey Indian tribe became the first federally recognized tribe in the state of Virginia; they are descendants of the Powhatan chiefdom of which Pocahontas was a member. In 1995, Disney released an animated adaptation of Pocahontas. After box office success, Disney partnered with Burger King to provide Pocahontas themed collectibles with children meals. Advertisements featured the phrase, "every kid wants to be like John Smith." Scholars Ono and Buescher argue that the advertisement pushes a positive image of John Smith unto another generation and continues to view Native women as objects to be played with, and Native men as victors to emulate. Also, the marketing that went along with the toys pushed the idea of a White man having an exotic Native woman with much of the ideas that went along with the Pocahontas toy focusing on her adventurous and foreign nature. Considering the influence that Disney holds on children, scholars believe that the company should be held accountable for the way it shapes the identity of youth. Media studies professor Debra Merskin argues that commercial use of Native imagery should be removed not only for respect but to "decolonize the landscape" of our current society. Cultural representations After her death, increasingly fanciful and romanticized representations were produced about Pocahontas, in which she and Smith are frequently portrayed as romantically involved. Contemporaneous sources, however, substantiate claims of their friendship but not romance. The first claim of their romantic involvement was in John Davis' Travels in the United States of America (1803). Frequently used in advertisements and media, Pocahontas often exemplifies the Pocahontas Perplex. Introduced by historian Rayna Green, "The Pocahontas Perplex" touches on an exotic unattainable queen image of a Native woman and a self sacrificial and attainable princess image. Also, Dr. Pewewardy supports Green's idea of the Indian princess with Pocahontas being presented as more human than her Native peers. "In Pocahontas, Indian characters such as Grandmother Willow, Meeko, and Flit belong to the Disney tradition of familiar animals. In so doing, they are rendered as cartoons, certainly less realistic than Pocahontas and John Smith; In this way, Indians remain marginal and invisible, thereby ironically being 'strangers in their own lands' - the shadow Indians. They fight desperately on the silver screen in defense of their asserted rights, but die trying to kill the white hero or save the Indian woman.’" Pocahontas Perplex Pocahontas is frequently depicted in popular culture in a manner that exemplifies the Pocahontas Perplex which was introduced by historian Rayna Green. Green discusses the similar fetishization that Native and Asian women experience. Both groups are viewed as "exotic" and "submissive" which aids the dehumanization of their image. Also, Green touches on how Native women had to either "keep their exotic distance or die" which is associated with the widespread image of Pocahontas trying to sacrifice her life for John Smith. Stage The first dramatization of the Pocahontas story is James Nelson Barker's The Indian Princess; or, La Belle Sauvage (1808) Pocahontas; or, The Settlers of Virginia by George Washington Parke Custis (1830) In 1855, John Brougham produced the burlesque Po-ca-hon-tas, or The Gentle Savage Miss Pocahontas (Broadway musical), Lyric Theatre, New York City, October 28, 1907 Pocahontas ballet by Elliot Carter, Jr., Martin Beck Theatre, New York City, May 24, 1939 Pocahontas musical by Kermit Goell, Lyric Theatre, West End, London, November 14, 1963 Commemorations The Jamestown Exposition was held in Norfolk from April 26 to December 1, 1907, to celebrate the 300th anniversary of the Jamestown settlement, and three commemorative postage stamps were issued in conjunction with it. The five cent stamp portrays Pocahontas, modelled from Simon van de Passe's 1616 engraving. About 8 million were issued. Film Films about Pocahontas include: Pocahontas (1910), a Thanhouser Company silent short drama Pocahontas and John Smith (1924), a silent film directed by Bryan Foy Captain John Smith and Pocahontas (1953), directed by Lew Landers and starring Jody Lawrance as Pocahontas Pocahontas (1994), a Japanese animated production from Jetlag Productions directed by Toshiyuki Hiruma Takashi Pocahontas: The Legend (1995), a Canadian film based on her life Pocahontas (1995), a Walt Disney Company animated feature, and the most well known adaptation of the Pocahontas story. The film presents a fictional romantic affair between Pocahontas and John Smith, in which Pocahontas teaches Smith respect for nature. Irene Bedard voiced and provided the physical model for the title character. Pocahontas II: Journey to a New World (1998), a Disney sequel depicting Pocahantas falling in love with John Rolfe and traveling to England The New World (2005), film directed by Terrence Malick and starring Q'orianka Kilcher as Pocahontas Pocahontas: Dove of Peace (2016), a docudrama produced by Christian Broadcasting Network Literature Art Simon van de Passe's engraving of 1616 The abduction of Pocahontas (1619), a narrative engraving by Johann Theodor de Bry William Ordway Partridge's bronze statue (1922) of Pocahontas in Jamestown, Virginia; a replica (1958) stands in the grounds of St George's Church, Gravesend Baptism of Pocahontas (1840), a painting by John Gadsby Chapman which hangs in the rotunda of the United States Capitol Building Others Lake Matoaka, an 18th-century mill pond on the campus of the College of William & Mary renamed for Pocahontas's Powhatan name in the 1920s. - name of three vessels including one Virginia Ferry Corporation completed in 1940 for Little Creek-Cape Charles Ferry, sold to Cape May–Lewes Ferry in 1963 and renamed as SS Delaware operating from 1964 to 1974 Pocahontas - a passenger train of the Norfolk and Western Railway, running from Norfolk, Virginia to Cincinnati, Ohio Minor planet 4487 Pocahontas is named in her honor. See also La Malinche – a Nahua woman from the Mexican Gulf Coast, who played a major role in the Spanish-Aztec War, acting as an interpreter for the Spanish conquistador, Hernán Cortés. Mary Kittamaquund – daughter of a Piscataway chief in Colonial Maryland Sedgeford Hall Portrait – once thought to represent Pocahontas and Thomas Rolfe but now believed to depict the wife (Pe-o-ka) and son of Seminole Chief Osceola References Bibliography Argall, Samuel. Letter to Nicholas Hawes. June 1613. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Bulla, Clyde Robert. 'Little Nantaquas'. In "Pocahontas and The Strangers", ed Scholastic inc., 730 Broadway, New York, NY 10003. 1971. Custalow, Linwood "Little Bear" and Daniel, Angela L. "Silver Star". The True Story of Pocahontas, Fulcrum Publishing, Golden, Colorado 2007, . Dale, Thomas. Letter to 'D.M.' 1614. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Dale, Thomas. Letter to Sir Ralph Winwood. June 3, 1616. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Fausz, J. Frederick. "An 'Abundance of Blood Shed on Both Sides': England's First Indian War, 1609–1614". The Virginia Magazine of History and Biography 98:1 (January 1990), pp. 3–56. Gleach, Frederic W. Powhatan's World and Colonial Virginia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1997. Hamor, Ralph. A True Discourse of the Present Estate of Virginia. 1615. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Herford, C.H. and Percy Simpson, eds. Ben Jonson (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925–1952). Huber, Margaret Williamson (January 12, 2011). "Powhatan (d. 1618)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011. Kupperman, Karen Ordahl. Indians and English: Facing Off in Early America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2000. Lemay, J.A. Leo. Did Pocahontas Save Captain John Smith? Athens, Georgia: The University of Georgia Press, 1992 Price, David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown. New York: Vintage, 2003. Purchas, Samuel. Hakluytus Posthumus or Purchas His Pilgrimes. 1625. Repr. Glasgow: James MacLehose, 1905–1907. vol. 19 Rolfe, John. Letter to Thomas Dale. 1614. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998 Rolfe, John. Letter to Edwin Sandys. June 8, 1617. Repr. in The Records of the Virginia Company of London, ed. Susan Myra Kingsbuy. Washington: US Government Printing Office, 1906–1935. Vol. 3 Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). "Divorce in Early Virginia Indian Society". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011. Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). "Early Virginia Indian Education". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 27, 2011. Rountree, Helen C. (November 3, 2010). "Uses of Personal Names by Early Virginia Indians". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011. Rountree, Helen C. (December 8, 2010). "Pocahontas (d. 1617)". Encyclopedia Virginia. Retrieved February 18, 2011. Smith, John. A True Relation of such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as hath Hapned in Virginia, 1608. Repr. in The Complete Works of John Smith (1580–1631). Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University Press of Virginia, 1983. Vol. 1 Smith, John. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050404050733/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/jamestown-browse?id=J1008 A Map of Virginia], 1612. Repr. in The Complete Works of John Smith (1580–1631), Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University Press of Virginia, 1983. Vol. 1 Smith, John. Letter to Queen Anne. 1616. Repr. as 'John Smith's Letter to Queen Anne regarding Pocahontas'. Caleb Johnson's Mayflower Web Pages 1997, Accessed April 23, 2006. Smith, John. The Generall Historie of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles. 1624. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Spelman, Henry. A Relation of Virginia. 1609. Repr. in Jamestown Narratives, ed. Edward Wright Haile. Champlain, VA: Roundhouse, 1998. Strachey, William. The Historie of Travaile into Virginia Brittania. c. 1612. Repr. London: Hakluyt Society, 1849. Symonds, William. The Proceedings of the English Colonie in Virginia. 1612. Repr. in The Complete Works of Captain John Smith. Ed. Philip L. Barbour. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Vol. 1 Waldron, William Watson. Pocahontas, American Princess: and Other Poems. New York: Dean and Trevett, 1841 Warner, Charles Dudley. Captain John Smith, 1881. Repr. in Captain John Smith Project Gutenberg Text, accessed July 4, 2006 Woodward, Grace Steele. Pocahontas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969. Further reading Barbour, Philip L. Pocahontas and Her World. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970. Neill, Rev. Edward D. Pocahontas and Her Companions. Albany: Joel Munsell, 1869. Price, David A. Love and Hate in Jamestown. Alfred A. Knopf, 2003 Rountree, Helen C. Pocahontas's People: The Powhatan Indians of Virginia Through Four Centuries. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1990. Strong, Pauline Turner. Animated Indians: Critique and Contradiction in Commodified Children's Culture. Cultural Anthology, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Aug. 1996), pp. 405–424 Sandall, Roger. 2001 The Culture Cult: Designer Tribalism and Other Essays Townsend, Camilla. Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma. New York: Hill and Wang, 2004. Warner, Charles Dudley, Captain John Smith, 1881. Repr. in Captain John Smith Project Gutenberg Text, accessed July 4, 2006 Warner, Charles Dudley, The Story of Pocahontas, 1881. Repr. in The Story of Pocahontas Project Gutenberg Text, accessed July 4, 2006 Woodward, Grace Steele. Pocahontas. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1969. or This article is mostly about Pocahontas. Pocahontas, Alias Matoaka, and Her Descendants Through Her Marriage at Jamestown, Virginia, in April 1614, with John Rolfe, Gentleman, Wyndham Robertson, Printed by J. W. Randolph & English, Richmond, Va., 1887 External links "Contact and Conflict". The Story of Virginia: An American Experience. Virginia Historical Society. "The Anglo-Powhatan Wars". The Story of Virginia: An American Experience. Virginia Historical Society. Virtual Jamestown. Includes text of many original accounts "The Pocahontas Archive", a comprehensive bibliography of texts about Pocahontas On this day in history: Pocahontas marries John Rolfe, History.com Michals, Debra. "Pocahontas". National Women's History Museum. 2015. 1590s births 1617 deaths 16th-century Native Americans 17th-century Native Americans 16th-century Native American women 17th-century Native American women Native American Christians American folklore Bolling family of Virginia Converts to Protestantism from pagan religions History of Gravesend, Kent Pamunkey people People of the Powhatan Confederacy Rolfe family of Virginia Virginia colonial people American emigrants to England People from Jamestown, Virginia Immigrants to the Kingdom of England	[ -0.7235792875289917, 0.06910427659749985, -0.5615442991256714, 0.11254462599754333, 0.74211585521698, 1.0215091705322266, 0.8248336911201477, 0.45071935653686523, -0.7618612051010132, -0.22189933061599731, -0.13163019716739655, 0.25677016377449036, 0.09721682220697403, 0.16431190073490143, -1.03935968875885, -0.34331080317497253, 0.4956340193748474, 0.10727471858263016, 0.07091455161571503, -0.18934184312820435, -0.26784947514533997, 0.15660470724105835, 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237524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acilia%20gens	Acilia gens	The gens Acilia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome, that flourished from the middle of the third century BC until at least the fifth century AD, a period of seven hundred years. The first of the gens to achieve prominence was Gaius Acilius, who was quaestor in 203 and tribune of the plebs in 197 BC. Praenomina The Acilii were particularly fond of the praenomen Manius, which they used more than any other. They also used the names Gaius, Lucius, Caeso, and Marcus. Branches and cognomina The three main branches of the Acilii bore the cognomina Aviola, Balbus, and Glabrio. The Glabriones were the first family to appear in history, and they continued the longest. Members of this family have been identified from the third century BC into the fifth century AD, a span of time that no other Roman family can be proved to have bridged. According to Millar, "[t]he one indubitable case of continuity from the republic to the fourth century is the Acilii Glabriones." They were certainly plebeian, as many of them were tribunes of the plebs. They also had a garden, the , on the Pincian Hill in the 2nd century. A tomb of the Acilii Glabriones was found in Rome in 1888. The surname Glabrio is derived from the adjective , "smooth", and probably referred to someone who was bald. Dondin-Payre suggests that, interpreted as "hairless" or "depilated", Glabrio had the further connotation of "effeminate". The Acilii Balbi, like the Glabriones, were definitely plebeian. The surname Balbus was quite common at Rome, and originally given to one who stammered. A coin of this family depicts the head of Pallas within a laurel wreath on the obverse, and on the reverse, a quadriga bearing Jupiter and Victoria. The Acilii Aviolae appear at the very end of the Republic, or under the early emperors. There is some confusion between them and the Glabriones, with the consul of 33 BC being identified as Marcus Acilius Glabrio in some writers, and Manius Acilius Aviola in others. Given the antiquity of the Glabriones, it seems likely that one of them was the ancestor of the Aviolae, and might have used both surnames at various points in time. As for the name Aviola, it seems to be a diminutive, presumably of , "grandmother". Members Acilii Glabriones Lucius Acilius, grandfather of the consul of 191 BC. Gaius Acilius L. f., father of the consul of 191 BC. Manius Acilius C. f. L. n. Glabrio, consul in 191 BC, carried on the War against Antiochus with considerable success, earning a triumph. He was a candidate for the censorship in 189, but the opposition of the Roman aristocracy and rumours that he had appropriated the spoils of war compelled him to retire. Manius Acilius M'. f. C. n. Glabrio, as a young man in 181 BC, dedicated the temple of Pietas that has been vowed by his father during the War against Antiochus. He was curule aedile in 166, and celebrated the Megalensian Games. In 154, Glabrio was elected consul suffectus in the place of Lucius Postumius Albinus, who had died. Manius Acilius M'. f. Glabrio, tribune of the plebs in 122 BC, and author of the lex Acilia de Repetundis. Manius Acilius M'. f. M'. n. Glabrio, presided over the impeachment of Verres while praetor urbanus circa 70 BC. He was consul in 67 BC, and subsequently had the conduct of the Third Mithridatic War, where his inaction and missteps greatly strengthened Mithridates' position, and was replaced by Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Marcus Acilius M'. f. Glabrio, consul suffectus ex Kal. Jul. in 33 BC. Marcus Acilius Memmius Glabrio, a Roman senator during the time of Tiberius, served as curator of the banks and channels of the Tiber. He possibly could be the son or grandson of Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul in 33 BC; or perhaps the natural son of one of the Memmii who was adopted into the Acilii Glabriones. Acilius Glabrio, consul suffectus during the reign of Nero, was the father of Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul in AD 91. Manius Acilius Glabrio, consul in AD 91, with the future emperor Trajan. Glabrio endeavoured to gain the favour of Domitian through feats of courage, but was instead banished, and subsequently put to death by the emperor. Manius Acilius M'. f. Glabrio, consul in AD 124. Manius Acilius M'. f. M'. n. Glabrio Gnaeus Cornelius Severus, consul in AD 152. He had been a military tribune with the fifteenth legion, legate of Crete and Cyrenaica, legate of Africa, quaestor, and praetor. Manius Acilius M'. f. M'. n. Glabrio, son of M'. Acilius Glabrio Gnaeus Cornelius Severus, consul suffectus around AD 173, and consul ordinarius in 186. Marcus Acilius M'. f. M'. n. Faustinus, consul in AD 210. Acilia M'. f. M'. n. Maniola, daughter of the consul of 210. Marcus Acilius Glabrio, consul in AD 256. (Claudius) Acilius Ti. f. Cleobulus, of Syria Palestina from AD 276 to 282, was a great-grandson of Manius Acilius Glabrio, the consul of 186. Acilia Gavinia Frestana, daughter of Cleobulus, and granddaughter of Manius Acilius Faustinus, the consul of AD 210. Acilius Glabrio, a grammarian at Burdigala during the third century. Acilius Glabrio, named in a list of senators who contributed 400,000 sesterces for the construction of a building, c. 291 AD. Acilius Glabrio Sibidius signo Spedius, legate in the province of Achaia, governor of Campania, and vicar of Gaul. Father of Glabrio Faustus. Anicius Acilius Glabrio Faustus, thrice praefectus urbi of Rome, consul in AD 438, and praetorian prefect of Italy in 442. Rufius Achilius Maecius Placidus, a grandson of Anicius Glabrio Faustus, was consul in AD 481. Anicius Acilius Aginantius Faustus, another grandson of Anicius Faustus, was consul in AD 483. Rufius Achilius Sividius, another grandson of Anicius Faustus, was consul in AD 488. Acilii Balbi Manius Acilius L. f. K. n. Balbus, consul in 150 BC. Manius Acilius M. f. L. n. Balbus, consul in 114 BC. Acilii Aviolae Acilius Aviola, legate in Gallia Lugdunensis under Tiberius in AD 21, he quashed a rebellion of the Andecavi and Turonii. He might be the same person as Gaius Calpurnius Aviola, consul suffectus in AD 24, and the same Aviola whose tragic death is related by Pliny the Elder and Valerius Maximus. Manius Acilius C. f. Aviola, consul in AD 54, and proconsul of Asia from 65 to 66. Manius Acilius Aviola, consul suffectus in AD 82. Manius Acilius Aviola, consul in AD 122. Manius Acilius Aviola, consul in AD 239. Manius Acillius Aviola, child at the meeting of the Arval Brethren Others Gaius Acilius, quaestor in 203 and tribune of the plebs in 197 BC. He proposed the establishment of five colonies to repopulate coastal areas that had been deserted during the Second Punic War. As an old man in 155, he served as interpreter to a delegation of Greek envoys, and he wrote a history of Rome, which is now lost. Marcus Acilius Caninus, one of Caesar's lieutenants during the Civil War, and proconsul of Sicily during the African War. He is probably the Acilius whom Cicero on two occasions defended. Acilius Buta, a man of praetorian rank, who lived during the time of Tiberius, is said by Seneca the Younger to have squandered a vast inheritance. Acilius Sthenelus, a freedman who became famous for his skill with viniculture. Acilia Lucana, the wife of Marcus Annaeus Mela, and mother of the poet Lucan. Acilius Lucanus, a notable lawyer at Corduba in the province of Hispania Baetica. Lucius Acilius Strabo, consul suffectus in AD 80. Publius Acilius, the uncle of Publius Minicius Acilianus. Marcus Acilius Priscus Egrilius Plarianus, served in uncertain years as curator of the roads, military tribune in the fifth legion, quaestor, plebeian aedile, proconsular legate of Sicily and Asia, proconsul of Gallia Narbonensis, and legate of the eighth legion. Manius Acilius Rufus, consul suffectus ex Kal. Jul. in AD 102. Lucius Acilius L. f. Rufus, a native of Thermis Himeraeis, served as tribune of the plebs, praetor, and was consul suffectus in AD 107. Lucius Acilius Strabo Clodius Nummus, governor of Numidia from AD 114 to 116. Publius Acilius Attianus, guardian of the young Hadrian, under whom he later served as praetorian prefect. Gaius Acilius Priscus, consul in AD 132. Marcus Acilius Vibius Faustinus, one of the Salii Palatini, who left the priestly college in AD 170. Acilius Severus, one of the sons of the senators chosen to serve the Arvales in AD 183. Quintus Acilius C. f. Fuscus, a native of Thibursicum Bure in Africa Proconsularis, held a number of minor posts at Rome at the time of the emperor Geta and thereafter. Acilius Severus, consul in AD 323, and prefect of Rome in 325–326. Footnotes See also List of Roman gentes References Bibliography Polybius, Historiae (The Histories). Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus, Cato Maior de Senectute, De Officiis, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Verrem, Philippicae, Pro Lege Manilia. Pseudo-Asconius, Commentarius in Oratorio Ciceronis in Verrem (Commentary on Cicero's In Verrem), ed. Orelli. Gaius Sallustius Crispus (Sallust), Historiae (The Histories). Gaius Julius Caesar, Commentarii de Bello Civili (Commentaries on the Civil War). Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities). Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings). Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger), Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Moral Letters to Lucilius). Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Naturalis Historia (Natural History). Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (Pliny the Younger), Epistulae (Letters). Sextus Julius Frontinus, Strategemata (Stratagems). Decimus Junius Juvenalis, Satirae (Satires). Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales. Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De Vita Caesarum (Lives of the Caesars, or The Twelve Caesars). Lucius Annaeus Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC (Epitome of Livy: All the Wars of Seven Hundred Years). Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bella Mithridatica (The Mithridatic Wars), Syriaca (The Syrian Wars). Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights). Herodianus, History of the Empire from the Death of Marcus. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus (Cassius Dio), Roman History. Aelius Lampridius, Aelius Spartianus, Flavius Vopiscus, Julius Capitolinus, Trebellius Pollio, and Vulcatius Gallicanus, Historia Augusta (Augustan History). Julius Obsequens, Liber de Prodigiis (The Book of Prodigies). Eutropius, Breviarium Historiae Romanae (Abridgement of the History of Rome). Sextus Aurelius Victor, De Viris Illustribus (On Famous Men). Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, Saturnalia. Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849). Theodor Mommsen et alii, Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (The Body of Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated CIL), Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (1853–present). Paul von Rohden, Elimar Klebs, & Hermann Dessau, Prosopographia Imperii Romani (The Prosopography of the Roman Empire, abbreviated PIR), Berlin (1898). Hermann Dessau, Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae (Select Latin Inscriptions, abbreviated ILS), Berlin (1892–1916). August Pauly, Georg Wissowa, et alii, Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft, J. B. Metzler, Stuttgart (1894–1980). T. Robert S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, American Philological Association (1952). Fergus Millar, The Emperor in the Roman World, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York (1977). Paul Gallivan, "Who Was Acilius?", in Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, vol. 27, p. 622 (1978). Werner Eck, "Jahres- und Provinzialfasten der senatorischen Statthalter von 69/70 bis 138/139", in Chiron, vol. 12, pp. 357–359 (1982), "Zu lateinischen Inschriften aus Caesarea in Iudaea/Syria Palaestina", in Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 113, pp. 129–143 (1996). Hagith Sivan, "A Late Gallic Branch of the Acilii Glabriones? Notes on Ausonius' 'Professores' 24 (Peiper)", in Mnemosyne, Fourth Series, vol. 44, pp. 435–439 (1991). Olli Salomies, Adoptive and Polyonymous Nomenclature in the Roman Empire, Societas Scientiarum Fennica, Helsinki, vol. 97, pp. 149 ff (1992). Monique Dondin-Payre, Exercise du Pouvoir et Continuité Gentilice: les Acilii Glabriones, Rome: École Française de Rome (1993). John C. Traupman, The New College Latin & English Dictionary, Bantam Books, New York (1995). Alan Cameron, "Anician Myths", in Journal of Roman Studies, vol. 102 (2012). Further reading Monique Dondin-Payre, Exercise du Pouvoir et Continuité Gentilice: les Acilii Glabriones, Rome: École Française de Rome (1993). 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237526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satori	Satori	is a Japanese Buddhist term for awakening, "comprehension; understanding". It is derived from the Japanese verb satoru. In the Zen Buddhist tradition, satori refers to a deep experience of kenshō, "seeing into one's true nature". Ken means "seeing," shō means "nature" or "essence". Satori and kenshō are commonly translated as enlightenment, a word that is also used to translate bodhi, prajñā and Buddhahood. Definition Satori means the experience of awakening ("enlightenment") or apprehension of the true nature of reality. It is often considered an experience which cannot be expressed in words. While the term satori is derived from the Japanese verb "to know" (satoru), it is distinct from the philosophical concept of knowledge as it represents a transcendence of the distinction between one that knows and knowledge. D. T. Suzuki, a Japanese author of books and essays on Buddhism, Zen and Shin that were influential in the West, described "... looking into one's nature or the opening of satori"; and said "This acquiring of a new point of view in our dealings with life and the world is popularly called by Japanese Zen students 'satori' (wu in Chinese). It is really another name for Enlightenment (anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi)". Satori and kenshō Satori is often used interchangeably with kenshō. Kenshō refers to the perception of the Buddha-nature or emptiness. While the terms have the same meaning, customarily satori is used to refer to full, deep experience of enlightenment (such as of the Buddha), while kenshō is used to refer to a first experience of enlightenment that can still be expanded. Distinct from this first insight, daigo-tettei is used to refer to a "deep" or lasting realization of the nature of existence. Importance According to D. T. Suzuki, This view is typical of Rinzai, which emphasizes satori. The Sōtō school rejects this emphasis, and instead emphasizes "silent illumination" through the practice of zazen. Realizing satori Satori is considered a "first step" or embarkation toward Buddhahood: The student's mind must be prepared by rigorous study, with the use of koans, and the practice of meditation to concentrate the mind, under the guidance of a teacher. Koans are short anecdotes of verbal exchanges between teachers and students, typically of the Song dynasty, dealing with Buddhist teachings. The Rinzai-school utilizes classic collections of koans such as The Gateless Barrier. The Gateless Barrier was assembled by the early 13th-century Chinese Zen master Wumen Huikai. Wumen struggled for six years with koan "Zhaozhou's dog", assigned to him by Yuelin Shiguan (月林師觀; Japanese: Gatsurin Shikan) (1143–1217), before attaining kenshō. After his understanding had been confirmed by Yuelin, Wumen wrote the following enlightenment poem: See also Bodhi Catharsis Enlightenment Epiphany Peak experience Satori generation Shiken haramitsu daikoumyo Sotāpanna or Stream Entry Gnosis Grok Ten Bulls Wu, a similar concept in Chinese Buddhism Kensho Samadhi Notes References Sources Zen Buddhist philosophical concepts	[ -0.20871318876743317, -0.682357668876648, -0.30114609003067017, -0.16721391677856445, -0.47745323181152344, 0.6083564758300781, 0.767961323261261, 0.13554395735263824, 0.1286628246307373, 0.15482111275196075, -0.16649216413497925, 0.22787274420261383, 0.012433800846338272, -0.07026774436235428, -0.41862672567367554, -0.0863354504108429, 1.0103448629379272, -0.07501313835382462, -0.18230512738227844, 0.01565520651638508, -0.28386378288269043, -0.16687260568141937, -0.20286677777767181, -0.11395730078220367, 0.6401715278625488, -0.13191357254981995, -0.035485781729221344, 0.526835560798645, -0.24203944206237793, 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237528	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20ibis	White ibis	White ibis may refer to several birds: American white ibis, Eudocimus albus Australian white ibis, Threskiornis molucca Solomons white ibis or Solomon Islands white ibis, Threskiornis (molucca) pygmaeus Asiatic white ibis, an alternative name for the black-headed ibis, Threskiornis melanocephala See also Ibis (disambiguation) Bird common names	[ 0.4010653793811798, 0.14982616901397705, -1.2260340452194214, -0.6751308441162109, 0.07476495951414108, 0.4899313449859619, 0.37285518646240234, 0.3534981906414032, -0.3422171473503113, -0.2888716757297516, -0.6036776900291443, -0.028542283922433853, -1.1073609590530396, 0.008232521824538708, -0.4986654818058014, 0.9607958197593689, 0.7231582999229431, 0.38104236125946045, 0.14439165592193604, -0.05080961436033249, -0.06854668259620667, -0.36158567667007446, 0.011390602216124535, -0.32371848821640015, 0.2489207684993744, -0.013896418735384941, 0.4979977607727051, 0.2879159450531006, 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