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240602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taunton	Taunton	Taunton () is the county town of Somerset, England, with a 2011 population of 69,570. Its thousand-year history includes a 10th-century monastic foundation, Taunton Castle, which later became a priory. The Normans built a castle owned by the Bishops of Winchester. Parts of the inner ward house were turned into the Museum of Somerset and Somerset Military Museum. For the Second Cornish uprising of 1497, Perkin Warbeck brought an army of 6,000; most surrendered to Henry VII on 4 October 1497. On 20 June 1685 the Duke of Monmouth crowned himself King of England here in a rebellion defeated at the Battle of Sedgemoor. Judge Jeffreys led the Bloody Assizes in the Castle's Great Hall. The Grand Western Canal reached Taunton in 1839 and the Bristol and Exeter Railway in 1842. Today it hosts Musgrove Park Hospital, Somerset County Cricket Club and the base of 40 Commando, Royal Marines. Taunton flower show has been held in Vivary Park since 1866. The United Kingdom Hydrographic Office is in Admiralty Way. History The town name derives from "Town on the River Tone or Tone Town. Cambria Farm, which now hosts a park and ride close to the M5 motorway Junction 25, was the site of Bronze and Iron Age settlement and a Roman farm. There was a Romano-British village near the suburb of Holway. Taunton was important in Anglo-Saxon times as a burh with a mint. King Ine of Wessex threw up an earthen castle about 700, but it was levelled in 722 by his queen, Æthelburg of Wessex, to prevent seizure by rebels. A monastery was founded before 904. The bishops of Winchester owned the manor, and obtained the first charter for their "men of Taunton" from King Edward in 904, freeing them from all royal and county tribute. Some time before Domesday, Taunton became a borough with privileges and a population of some 1,500, including 64 burgesses governed by a portreeve appointed by the bishops. Somerton took over from Ilchester as county town in the late 13th century, but declined; the county-town status passed to Taunton about 1366. Between 1209 and 1311 the Bishop of Winchester's manor of Taunton expanded two-and-a-half times. The parishes of Staplegrove, Wilton and Taunton were part of Taunton Deane hundred. In 1451, during the Wars of the Roses, Taunton saw a skirmish between the Earl of Devon, and Baron Bonville. Queen Margaret and her troops passed through in 1471 to defeat at the Battle of Tewkesbury. In the Second Cornish uprising of 1497 most Cornish gentry supported Perkin Warbeck's cause and on 17 September a Cornish army some 6,000 strong entered Exeter before advancing on Taunton. Henry VII sent his chief general, Giles, Lord Daubeney, to attack the Cornish. When Warbeck heard that the King's scouts were at Glastonbury he panicked and deserted his army. On 4 October 1497, Henry VII reached Taunton, where he received the surrender of the remaining Cornish army. Ringleaders were executed and others fined a total of £13,000. Taunton Castle changed hands several times in the Civil War of 1642–1645, as did the town. During the Siege of Taunton it was defended by Robert Blake from July 1644 to July 1645, and suffered destruction of many medieval and Tudor buildings. On 20 June 1685, the Duke of Monmouth crowned himself King of England at Taunton during the Monmouth Rebellion. In the autumn of that year Judge Jeffreys lived in the town during the Bloody Assizes that followed the Battle of Sedgemoor. The town lacked a charter of incorporation until 1627. This was renewed in 1677, but lapsed in 1792 due to vacancies in the corporate body, and was not reincorporated until 1877. The medieval fairs and markets (a weekly market remains) were celebrated for the sale of woollen cloth called "Tauntons" made in the town. On the decline of the woollen industry in the west of England, silk-weaving was introduced at the end of the 18th century. In 1839 the Grand Western Canal reached Taunton, aiding southward trade, which was enhanced by the arrival of the railway in 1842. A permanent military presence came to Jellalabad Barracks in 1881. In the Second World War, the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal formed part of the Taunton Stop Line, set to curb any advance of a German invasion. Pillboxes can still be seen along its length. A fire aboard a to London sleeping car train approaching Taunton in 1978 killed 12 passengers and injured 15 others. Regeneration Taunton was rated "strategically important" in the government's Regional Spatial Strategy, allowing Somerset County Council to receive funding for large-scale regeneration projects. In 2006, the council revealed plans dubbed "Project Taunton". This would see regeneration of the areas of Firepool, Tangier, the retail town centre, the cultural quarter, and the River Tone, to sustain Taunton as business hub in the South West. The Firepool area, just north of the town centre by the main railway station, includes vacant or undeveloped land. The Council is promoting sustainable, high-quality, employment-led mixed-use development to attract 3,000 new jobs and 500 new homes. In Tangier, a brownfield area between Somerset College of Arts and Technology and the bus station, the project proposes to build small offices and more riverside housing. The "Cultural Quarter" is the area along the river between Firepool and Tangier. The plans are to extend riverside retail and attract smaller, boutique businesses such as those found at Riverside. Plans for the town centre include more pedestrianisation and greater sizes and numbers of retail units. Several sites along the River Tone are set for renovation. Firepool Weir lock, long silted up, was to be dredged in 2011 to allow boats to pass from the navigable section of the Tone through Taunton to the Bridgwater and Taunton Canal. Goodland Gardens received a makeover and a new café, The Shed, opened. Projects to develop Somerset Square (a paved area next to the Brewhouse Theatre) and Longrun Meadow (a country park near SCAT) have been put forward. Traffic congestion was identified as an obstacle to further economic growth. Part of the strategy was a new road infrastructure consisting of a £7.5 million link road to ease traffic in the town centre (Taunton's "Third Way"), completed in 2011, and a Northern Inner Distributor Road linking Staplegrove Road, the station and Priory Avenue at a planned cost of £21 million, opened in 2017. Governance Taunton includes Holway, once a village in its own right as one of the Five Hundreds of Taunton Dean, the Infaring division or district of three districts that made up Taunton Dean. Staplegrove lies in the northern suburbs. The parish, largely built by Monsell Youell Construction Ltd in the 1970s, has a population of 1,889. Borough Council Taunton was the main settlement and centre of the local government district of Taunton Deane. The district, formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972, by merging the municipal borough of Taunton, Wellington urban district, Taunton Rural District, and Wellington Rural District, was granted borough status in 1975, perpetuating the mayoralty of Taunton. The district was named as an alternate form of the Taunton hundred. Taunton Deane Council, once based at the Municipal Buildings in Corporation Street, moved to modern facilities at Deane House on Belvedere Road in spring 1987. Taunton Deane merged with West Somerset to form Somerset West and Taunton in 2019. County Council Somerset County Council, based at County Hall in Taunton, consists of 58 councillors. The town has in six electoral divisions, each with a single county councillor: Taunton East; Taunton Fairwater; Taunton North; Taunton South; Taunton West and Taunton and Trull (which includes rural areas). Five are Liberal Democrats and one a Conservative. Parliament Taunton Deane is a county constituency of the House of Commons. It is based on the town, but extends to Wellington and small villages and parts of Exmoor. The current MP is Rebecca Pow of the Conservative Party. Geography Taunton lies on the River Tone between the Quantock, Blackdown and Brendon hills. The area is known as the Vale of Taunton. It is surrounded by many other large towns and cities seen on this directional compass: Taunton is 38 miles (61 km) south-west of Bristol, 28 miles (45 km) north-east of Exeter, 63 miles (102 km) north-east of Plymouth and 40 miles (64 km) north-west of Weymouth. Geology The Taunton area has Permian red sandstones and breccia outcrop 295–250 million years old. Rocks of Triassic age (248–204 million years ago) underlie much of Somerset's moors and levels. Nature reserves The several local nature reserves in and around Taunton are protected under Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949. South Taunton Streams is an urban wetland. The northern suburbs include the Children's Wood riverside reserve, a movement corridor for animals such as otters along the banks of the Tone. Birds include the kingfisher, dipper, grey wagtail, mute swan, grey heron and reed warbler and butterflies the small and large skipper, marbled white, small heath and small copper, along with dragonflies and damselflies. Weirfield Riverside, a nature reserve along the River Tone, has alder and willow woodland, bramble, scrub and rough grassland. The wetter, flood-prone areas include hemlock water-dropwort, and yellow flag. Silk Mills Park and Ride offer landscaping and ponds in three areas by the Tone. The woodland and grassland support aquatic and marginal vegetation, with various birds, bats, reptiles and invertebrates. Frieze Hill Community Orchard has turned from allotments to rough grassland and orchard. Among the apples grown are Kingston Black and Yarlington Mill. Climate Like most of South West England, Taunton has a temperate climate, wetter and milder than the rest of the country. The annual mean temperature is about . Seasonal temperature variation is less extreme because of the adjacent sea. The summer months of July and August have mean daily maxima of about . In winter, mean minimum temperatures of or are common. In the summer the Azores high pressure affects the south-west of England, but convective cloud sometimes forms inland, reducing the sunshine hours. Annual sunshine rates are slightly under the regional average of 1,600 hours. Most of the rainfall in the south-west is caused by Atlantic depressions or by convection – in autumn and winter by the former, which are then at their most active. In summer, much rainfall results from the sun heating the ground, leading to convection, showers and thunderstorms. Average rainfall is about . Some 8–15 days of snowfall are typical. November to March have the highest mean winds and June to August the lightest. The prevailing wind direction is from the south-west. Demography The town of Taunton (which for population estimates includes the unparished area or former municipal borough plus the neighbouring parishes of Bishop's Hull, Comeytrowe, Norton Fitzwarren, Staplegrove, Trull and West Monkton) had an estimated population of 61,400 in 2001. It is the largest town in the Somerset shire county. Taunton forms part of the larger borough of Taunton Deane, which includes the town of Wellington and surrounding villages. This had an estimated population of 109,883 in 2010. The figures here are for the Taunton Deane area. In 2011, Taunton built-up area had a population of 60,479 and the surrounding borough of Taunton Deane one of 110,187. Of Taunton's residents 91.6 per cent were White British in 2011, compared with 93.4 per cent for Taunton Deane. Taunton's ethnic mix resembles that of South West England – 91.8 per cent White British in the same year. It is also matches other major regional centres like Poole and Plymouth. The larger urban area, extending to Monkton Heathfield, Norton Fitzwarren and Bathpool, had a 2011 population of 64,621. Economy Taunton Deane had low unemployment of 4.1 per cent compared with a national average of 5.0 per cent in 2005. Taunton is home to the United Kingdom Hydrographic Office (UKHO), a Ministry of Defence body responsible for providing navigational and other hydrographic information for national, civil and defence requirements. The UKHO is located on Admiralty Way and has a workforce of about 1100. At the start of the Second World War, chart printing moved to Taunton, but the main office did not follow until 1968. Taunton holds the head offices of Debenhams, Western Provident Association, Viridor and CANDAC. Other professional services are based at Blackbrook near the motorway junction. The first store of the multinational New Look clothing retailer opened in Taunton in 1969. Taunton is also famed for cider. Landmarks Gray's Almshouses in East Street, founded by Robert Gray in 1615 for poor single women, are red brick buildings bearing the arms of Robert Gray, dated 1635, and another arms of the Merchant Tailors. A small room used as a chapel has original benches and a painted ceiling. It has been classed by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building. St Margaret's Almshouses was founded as a leper colony in the 12th century. Glastonbury Abbey acquired patronage of it in the late 13th century and rebuilt it as almshouses in the early 16th. From 1612 to 1938 the building continued as such, cared for by a local parish. In the late 1930s it was converted into a hall of offices for the Rural Community Council and accommodation for the Somerset Guild of Craftsmen. It later fell into disrepair. The Somerset Buildings Preservation Trust with Falcon Rural Housing purchased and restored it for use as four units of social housing. It is a Grade II* listed building. The grounds of Taunton Castle include the Somerset County Museum and The Castle Hotel, which incorporates the Castle Bow archway. With the municipal buildings they form a three-sided group just beyond the Castle Bow archway from Fore Street. The centre of the square is a car park, and a plain brick Mecca Bingo hall fills the west side of it. The frontage of the Fore Street Tudor Tavern, now a Caffè Nero branch, dates from 1578, but the rest is thought to be from the 14th century. The riverside area north of the centre is edged by Morrisons supermarket, retirement housing and the Brewhouse Theatre. Towards the centre are the Zinc Nightclub, Bridge Street and Goodlands Gardens. A current regeneration programme north of Bridge Street will include redeveloping the County Cricket Ground, which hosted open-air concerts for Elton John in 2006 and 2012 and for Rod Stewart in 2014. Shopping Hankridge Farm, a retail park close to the M5 motorway, has stores that include Currys PC World, Oak Furniture Land, Hobbycraft, Halfords, B&Q, The Range and the town's second Sainsbury's. There is a Venue in the park with restaurants, an Odeon cinema and a Hollywood Bowl bowling alley. It is now known as Riverside Retail Park. Taunton has three other such parks. Belvedere is near the town centre. St Johns is just off Toneway, towards the motorway, and consists of two units, occupied by DFS, joined by Go Outdoors in April 2014. Taunton's second largest retail park is Priory Fields in Priory Avenue, with eight units and an anchor store, Wickes. It was redeveloped in 2003 to modernise a rather worn-out retail park and increase retail floor space. The Old Market was a farmers' market in the Parade in front of Market House, but then moved to the Firepool area, although cattle trading on the site ceased only in 2008. A large indoor shopping centre to the east of the Parade covers a site that was once a pig market. Although its official name is now Orchard, and before that the Old Market Centre, locals still call it the Pig Market; one existed there from 1614 to 1882. County Walk is a small indoor shopping arcade in the town centre with an anchor supermarket, Sainsbury's, and several other large national retailers such as Subway, Costa Coffee, Savers and The Entertainer. Public parks Taunton's public parks include Vivary Park, Goodlands Park and Victoria Park. The most notable is Vivary, on land that was once a medieval fish farm or vivarium for Taunton Priory and Taunton Castle. Fronted by a pair of cast iron gates from the Saracen Foundry of Glasgow, it contains the Sherford Stream, a Tone tributary that flows through the park, which is near the town centre. It has two main open spaces and a war memorial dating from 1922, a miniature golf course, tennis courts, two children's playgrounds, a model railway track added in 1979, and an 18-hole, 4620-yard, par-63 golf course. The park includes trees, rose beds and herbaceous borders, with some 56,000 spring and summer bedding plants used each year. The rose garden includes the Royal National Rose Society Provincial Trial Ground. Taunton Flower Show held annually in the park since the 19th century. It has been described as "The Chelsea of the West", and draws some 24,000 visitors over two days. Goodlands Gardens, in the centre of the town, is behind the Debenhams department store and The Castle Hotel. Pride Rainbow Path The Pride Rainbow Path in Goodland Gardens, Taunton town centre, runs alongside the River Tone. Designed by Jenny Keogh and Liz Hutchin of GoCreate, it opened on 28 June 2021 to mark the anniversary of the Stonewall riots, which served as a catalyst for the gay rights movement. It is believed to be the first such path in the UK. The opening coincided with the first Taunton Pride in July 2021 and the Pride inspired Art Trail. While using the traditional LGBTQ+ colours, the far end of the 62-metre path includes a chevron of the progress colours: black, brown, light blue, pink, and white stripes to reflect ethnic diversity. The path has been designed not to require maintenance for 15 years. It was funded by Taunton's Emergency Town Centre Recovery Fund and is intended to reflect Taunton's commitment to inclusivity and diversity. Transport Rail Taunton railway station is on the Bristol to Exeter line, the Reading to Taunton line, and the Cross Country Route. It is served and operated by Great Western Railway and served by CrossCountry, with services to Manchester Piccadilly, , , , London Paddington, , and . There is generally a fast and a slow train each hour to Bristol Temple Meads and Exeter St Davids and a train an hour to London Paddington. The old rail route to is now a heritage West Somerset Railway with services between and Minehead. The Buses of Somerset route 28 links the stations at Taunton and Bishops Lydeard. In 2009, Project Taunton, the authority responsible for Taunton's regeneration project, revealed proposals for Taunton metro rail, under a transport sustainability plan. They were not implemented. Road Taunton has road links with the M5 motorway junctions 25 (Taunton) and 26 (Wellington) close to the town, and other major roads such as the A38 and A358. The Taunton bypass section of the M5, between the two junctions, opened in April 1974 and relieved the town of heavy holiday traffic on the A38. Taunton Deane services use that motorway section. A strong economy increases traffic; in 2011 the County Council foresaw a sharp rise from 2001 levels. Two major roads opened: the Third Way (A3807) linking Bridge Street and Castle Street in 2011, and the Northern Inner Distributor Road (A3087) between Staplegrove Road and Priory Avenue in July 2017. 2011 M5 crash On the evening of 4 November 2011, 34 vehicles met with an accident near junction 25 of the M5 motorway northbound, on the north-eastern edge of the town at West Monkton. Seven people were killed and a further 51 injured. Buses and coaches Many local services are provided by The Buses of Somerset: town services and routes to Minehead, Bridgwater, Weston-Super-Mare and elsewhere. Other services are provided by Hatch Green Coaches. Services were also operated by Webberbus until the firm closed on 12 May 2016. Taunton bus station was in Tower Street from 1953 until 2020. Most services now terminate at stops on The Parade or Castle Way. A park-and-ride service is run by The Buses of Somerset between the Taunton gateway near the M5 Motorway and Silk Mills on the north-west side of town. Berrys Coaches, based in Taunton, operates several "Superfast Services" to London. National Express Coaches runs long-distance coach services to many destinations. Air The nearest airports are Exeter and Bristol, both within of Taunton. Trams Taunton Tramway opened on 21 August 1901. Six double-decker cars operated on a gauge line between the railway station and the depot at East Reach. In 1905 the service was withdrawn for two months while the track was improved; the cars were replaced by six single-decker cars and the old double deckers sold to Leamington Spa. A short extension beyond the station to Rowbarton opened in 1909, making the line long. However, the price of its electricity was due to rise in 1928 to a level the firm refused to pay, and it offered to sell out, but this was not accepted. The electricity was cut off on 28 May 1921 and the system closed. Canal The Bridgwater and Taunton Canal is a navigable waterway that links Taunton with Bridgwater, opened in 1827. Having been closed to navigation in 1907, it re-opened after restoration in 1994. Education State secondary schools in Taunton include The Castle School, Heathfield Community School, Bishop Fox's School and The Taunton Academy. Further education is offered by Richard Huish College, The Taunton Academy (sponsored by Richard Huish College) and Bridgwater and Taunton College. Heathfield Community School has a post-16 further education college specialising in performing arts and technical theatre called The SPACE (The Somerset Performing Arts Centre for Education). Heathfield Community School is also a teaching school and the base of Taunton Teaching Alliance. The Taunton campus of Bridgwater and Taunton College is a partner of Plymouth University and includes University Centre Taunton. There are three co-educational independent schools: Queen's College, King's College and Taunton School. In March 2009, it was found that Jim Knight, Minister of State for Schools and Families, had approved the closure of Ladymead Community School and the nearby St Augustine of Canterbury RC/CoE School in the Priorswood area of Taunton. They gave way in September 2010 to the Taunton Academy. Young people with special educational needs are provided for by two special schools and one complex Pupil Referral Unit (PRU). Sky College caters for boys aged 10–18 who have social, emotional and mental-health difficulties. Selworthy School has pupils of 4–19 who have complex and multiple learning difficulties, while the Taunton Deane Partnership College is a complex PRU for children in Key Stages 2, 3 and 4, with a Medical Tuition Service, Outreach & Advisory Service and an Area Access Team. Health services Taunton is within Somerset Primary Care Trust and home to Musgrove Park Hospital, within Somerset NHS Foundation Trust. This is one of two district hospitals in Somerset, alongside Yeovil District Hospital. A Nuffield Hospital also lies in the town, run privately by Nuffield Health. The town has several medical surgeries and a family planning clinic, an occupational health centre and a chiropractic clinic. Religious sites The parish church of St Mary Magdalene, built of sandstone more in the South Somerset style, retains an attractive painted interior, but its prime feature is a 15th and 16th-century tower rebuilt in the mid-19th century. It is one of the country's best examples and a landmark 158 feet (48 m) high. It was termed by Simon Jenkins, "the finest in England. It makes its peace with the sky not just with a coronet but with the entire crown jewels cast in red-brown stone." It holds 12 bells and 3 bells "hung dead" for the clock. Close by is the parish church of St James near the centre of Taunton close. The oldest parts are early 14th century; there are fragments of 15th-century glass in the west end. Like St Mary's, it has a sandstone tower, but built to a less impressive design. It too was rebuilt in the 19th century, in this case due to building defects in the original. It backs onto the County Ground. The church of St John the Evangelist was built in 1858 to serve the poor of the town. The church of St Andrew, built 1878, serves the area of Rowbarton. In the later 17th century, Taunton had two Dissenting places of worship: "Paul's Meeting" and the Baptist Meeting. The former was built at the top of Paul Street soon after 1672 on a bowling green behind the Three Cups Inn, now The County Hotel, and rapidly became one of the largest congregations in the county. After Mayor Timewell sacked both Paul's Meeting and the Baptist Meeting in 1683, the dissenters were driven to worship in private houses on the outskirts of Taunton, where their assemblies were regularly raided by the Justices of the Peace. Paul's Meeting survived attempts to turn it into a workhouse, and with the coming of William III and Mary II, followed by the Toleration Act 1688, it reopened. Hugh Willoughby, 15th Baron Willoughby of Parham, was educated in early life at Taunton Dissenters' Academy. The Baptist Meeting became the Baptist New Meeting, registered in 1691 and rebuilt in 1721 as Mary Street Chapel. Taunton Unitarian Chapel, dating from 1721, stands in Mary Street. Samuel Taylor Coleridge, while living at Nether Stowey away, came to the chapel to preach several times. Dr Malachi Blake, who founded the Taunton and Somerset Hospital in East Reach, Taunton, was also a preacher there, attending in 1809 a celebration of the 50th year of George the Third's reign. The chapel retains its original interior, including Flemish oak pillars in Corinthian style. The pews and pulpit are also in oak. There is an early 18th-century candelabra. St George's, the town's Roman Catholic church, dates from the mid-19th century. It was the second Catholic church built in Taunton since the Reformation, replacing a smaller St George's Chapel. The main building is designated by English Heritage as a Grade II* listed building, while the clergy house is Grade II listed. Culture Taunton town centre has the Brewhouse Theatre. It closed in February 2013 due to financial difficulties, but reopened in April 2014 under the Taunton Theatre Association (TTA), which was granted the 61-year lease that Taunton Deane Borough Council had bought on the site and its contents from the administrator. Tacchi-Morris Arts Centre is a professional theatre based at Heathfield Community School, hosting touring theatre, dance and comedy, and productions by South West schools and colleges. Tacchi-Morris Arts Centre also runs community classes. The Creative Innovation Centre CIC has an arts and culture venue in the town centre. Several concerts a year are held at Taunton's largest church, St Mary Magdalene. In recent years The Sixteen, The Tallis Scholars and Gabrieli Consort have all performed to full audiences. Taunton also has several choirs and orchestras that perform in the town's churches and school chapels. Many music and drama groups are members of the Taunton Association of Performing Arts (TAPA), which produces a diary and calendar of performances in and about the town. Taunton has three radio stations: BBC Somerset, Tone FM and Apple FM. Since 2001 Taunton has been the base of a domestic violence charity, the ManKind Initiative, to help male victims of domestic abuse. Cultural references Taunton is mentioned in The Remains of the Day by Kazuo Ishiguro, Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy by John le Carré, and Evelyn Waugh's Scoop. It was given the fictitious name "Toneborough" by Thomas Hardy. It also appears in So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish by Douglas Adams, part of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series. Comedian Bill Bailey mentions the town in his stand-up DVD Part Troll, claiming to have taken part in a teleportation experiment sponsored by Taunton Cider. Sport Taunton Rugby Football Club, based in Taunton, currently plays in National League 2 South, having achieved back-to-back promotions in 2009 and 2010. It played at Priory Park Sports Ground from 1935 to 2001, before moving to the Commsplus Stadium. The County Ground was originally home to Taunton Cricket Club, formed in 1829. It played at the County Ground until 1977, before moving to Moorfields, Taunton, in conjunction with Taunton Vale Hockey Club, since when the County Ground has been solely used by Somerset County Cricket Club. Somerset CCC was formed in 1875, but did not achieve first-class status until 1891. The County Ground has a capacity of 8,500; the ends are called the River End and the Marcus Trescothick Pavilion End. It is the current home of the England women's cricket team. The Somerset Cricket Museum is nearby. Taunton Cricket Club has since 2002 been located at the new Taunton Vale Sports Club Ground in Staplegrove, which features two cricket fields. The Taunton Vale ground is also a regular home venue for Somerset's Second XI. Taunton Deane Cricket Club has a ground adjacent to Vivary Park, while Taunton St Andrews Cricket Club is based at the nearby Wyvern Sports and Social Club. All three clubs play in the West of England Premier League or one of its feeder leagues. Taunton Town FC, a football club, plays at Wordsworth Drive. It was formed in 1947 by local businessmen as Taunton FC, changing to the current name in 1968, and played its first friendly fixture in 1948. For most of its history, Taunton belonged to the Western League. It spent a six-season spell in the Southern League from 1977, and after a further period in the Western League, returned to the Southern League in 2002, after winning the FA Vase in 2001. The club currently plays in the Southern Premier Division, after winning the Division One South and West league title, finishing first in the 2017/2018 season. Taunton Town FC narrowly missed out on promotion to the National League South in 2018–2019, after a playoff defeat to Poole Town. An earlier Taunton Town FC played at Priory Park in the 1930s. Somerset Vikings is a rugby league club formed in 2003 as part of the Rugby Football League's plans to develop the game beyond its traditional north-of-England areas. Initially the side was made up of a mixture of Royal Marines based in Taunton and Exeter with local rugby union players keen to try the 13-man code. It plays at Hyde Park, also home to Taunton RFC. The Taunton Tigers is a semi-professional basketball team competing in the English Basketball League Men's Division 1. The team plays its home games at Wellsprings Leisure Centre, which seats 500. Taunton Racecourse is close to the Blackdown Hills, about from the centre of Taunton. Although racing had been held in the area before, the first race at thi site was held on 21 September 1927. The Orchard Stand and Paddock Stand provide catering facilities and are used for meetings and conferences on days when racing is not taking place. Greyhound racing was held at the Priory Park Sports Ground and County Cricket ground in the past. Notable residents The following were born or have lived in Taunton: Colin Addison (born 1940), professional footballer and manager born in Taunton Jenny Agutter (born 1952), actress born in Taunton Joseph Alleine (1634–1668), Nonconformist pastor and author William Larkins Bernard (1843–1922), architect born in Taunton Pattie Boyd (born 1944), actress and model; former wife of George Harrison, then Eric Clapton Jos Buttler (born 1990), England cricketer Matt Colton (born 1975), mastering engineer, studied in Taunton Deborah Criddle MBE (born 1966), a Taunton-born para-equestrian winner of three golds at the Athens 2004 Summer Paralympics and three medals at the London 2012 Summer Paralympics in London. She currently lives in nearby Trull. John Crockford (c. 1823–1865), publisher William Crotch (1775–1847), composer and Principal of the Royal Academy of Music, is buried at Bishops Hull Church, Taunton. Stephen Daldry (born 1960), three times Academy Award nominee and Tony Award-winning stage and film director and producer Charles George Gordon (1833–1885), UK army general known as Gordon of Khartoum, attended the former Fullands School. Sir Benjamin Hammet (c. 1736–1800), businessman, banker and Taunton native, served as its MP in 1782-1800, and as High Sheriff of London. He was elected Lord Mayor of London in 1797 but declined to serve. Antony Hewish (1924-2021), astronomer and Nobel Prize for Physics winner Rebecca Huxtable (born 1981), Taunton-born radio personality and producer, formerly co-producing The Scott Mills Show on BBC Radio 1 Alexander William Kinglake (1809–1891), barrister, travel writer and historian, was born at Wilton House near Taunton. Scott Laird (born 1988), footballer with Scunthorpe United Jack Leach (born 1991), Somerset County Cricket Club and England cricketer Lee Martin (born 1987), Taunton-born footballer with Millwall F.C. Deborah Meaden (born 1959), Taunton-born business mogul, philanthropist and star of the TV series Dragons Den William Ellis Metford (1824–1899), Taunton-born engineer known for the Metford rifling in the .303 Lee-Metford service rifle of the late 19th century Ciara Michel (born 1985), member of Team GB Olympic volleyball squad, the first to play in the Olympic Games John Mole (born 1941), poet and jazz musician born in Taunton Frank Montague Moore (1877–1967), Taunton-born painter and first director of the Honolulu Museum of Art Alfred B. Mullett (1834–1890), architect to Abraham Lincoln, born in Taunton James Northcote (born 1987), actor and film producer, was a pupil of King's College, Taunton. Justin Pipe (born 1971), professional darts player James Purefoy (born 1964), Taunton-born actor, starred in the joint HBO/BBC series Rome''. Viv Richards (born 1952), Antiguan-born West Indies cricketer resident in Taunton while playing for Somerset, 1974–1986 Gary Rhodes (1960–2019), celebrated head chef at the Castle Hotel, Taunton, 1986–1990 Andy Robinson (born 1964), Taunton-born England rugby union international and head coach, now head coach of Scotland Ivor Salter (1925-1991), actor, born in Taunton Miranda Shearer (born 1982), author born in Taunton, since resident in Spaxton, Over Stowey and Taunton Hugh Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard (1873–1956), Taunton-born military officer involved in grounding the Royal Air Force Marcus Trescothick (born 1975), England cricketer, recipient of the Taunton Deane Citizenship Award in 2005 Sir Charles Trevelyan, 1st Baronet (1807–1886), Governor of Madras, born in Taunton Phil Vickery (born 1961), celebrity chef Frederick Porter Wensley (1865–1949), chief constable of Scotland Yard CID, born in Taunton David Henry Wilson (born 1937), writer known for children's stories such as the Jeremy James series Jeremy Wright (born 1972), born in Taunton and attending Taunton School, became Attorney General for England and Wales and a Conservative MP Twinning Taunton is twinned with Lisieux in France, Königslutter in Germany, and Taunton, Massachusetts in the US. References External links Social, economic and political data on Taunton from the Vision of Britain website Taunton regeneration Towns in Taunton Deane County towns in England Market towns in Somerset Unparished areas in Somerset	[ -0.3656957149505615, -0.15357427299022675, -0.15914760529994965, -0.588417112827301, -0.17435763776302338, 0.887568473815918, 0.6934068202972412, 0.02598193660378456, -0.2141665667295456, -0.4863058924674988, 0.0589815117418766, 0.17166273295879364, 0.14751219749450684, 0.7384434938430786, -0.010564170777797699, 0.5415740013122559, 0.5314660668373108, 0.11554664373397827, 0.6028944849967957, -0.002902999287471175, -0.012481601908802986, 0.1813282072544098, -0.05667660012841225, 0.24389907717704773, 0.0029686647467315197, -0.19474750757217407, 0.3026072382926941, -0.32713741064071655, -0.21290278434753418, -0.2185433804988861, -0.07533152401447296, 0.7465278506278992, -0.25516313314437866, -0.6121262907981873, 0.3065667152404785, -0.7102282643318176, 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240606	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen%20M%C3%B6llemann	Jürgen Möllemann	Jürgen Wilhelm Möllemann (15 July 1945 – 5 June 2003) was a German politician of the Free Democratic Party. He served as the minister of State at the Foreign Office (1982–1987), as the minister of Education and Research (1987–1991), as the minister of Economics (1991–1993) and as the vice-chancellor of Germany (1992–1993) in the government of Chancellor Helmut Kohl. Early life and career Born in Augsburg, he took his Abitur in 1965, served his military service as a paratrooper in the Bundeswehr, and subsequently studied to become a teacher of German, sports and history at the Pädagogische Hochschule (teachers' college) in Münster from 1966 to 1969. Möllemann was president of the Deutsch-Arabische Gesellschaft (German-Arabic Society) from 1981 to 1991 and from 1993 to 2003, until his death. Möllemann was initially a member of the CDU from 1962 to 1969, but later on became a member of the liberal FDP in 1970. He was a member of the Bundestag from 1972 to 2000 and again from 2002 to 2003. Möllemann was President of the FDP in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) from 1983 to 1994 and again from 1996 to 2002, and also was the chairman of the FDP fraction in the state parliament of North Rhine-Westphalia from June 2000 to October 2002. He left the cabinet in 1993 after facing criticism for using an official letterhead for advertising a relative's business idea (the so-called Briefbogen-Affäre). In the 2002 national election, he produced a flyer criticizing Ariel Sharon's actions against Palestinians and Michel Friedman's endorsement of those actions; the flyer was regarded as "antisemitic" by some, and the debate surrounding these events led to Möllemann leaving the FDP in March 2003 and resigning his position as NRW party leader; however, he kept his seat in the Bundestag without party affiliation, despite promises to resign from it. Death Möllemann, a passionate and experienced skydiver, died on 5 June 2003 in a parachuting incident at Marl-Loemühle. His death was investigated by the Essen district attorney's office, which published a final report on 9 July 2003. While outside interference was ruled out, no definite verdict was reached on whether Möllemann committed suicide or had an accident. Shortly before his death, Möllemann had been confronted with allegations he had been involved in illegal arms deals and evaded taxes on millions of euros he allegedly earned from those activities. To enable a full investigation on these charges, the Bundestag lifted his parliamentary immunity on 5 June 2003 at 12:28, 22 minutes before his death. The tax evasion charges were dropped after his death, while other investigations are ongoing. Personal life Möllemann was married to Carola Möllemann-Appelhoff, with whom he had two daughters. See also List of unsolved deaths References External links Biography from rasscass.com (German) Biography from the Bundestag (German) German-Arabic Society 1945 births 2003 suicides Economy ministers of Germany Education ministers of Germany German politicians who committed suicide Knights Commander of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Members of the Bundestag 1972–1976 Members of the Bundestag 1976–1980 Members of the Bundestag 1980–1983 Members of the Bundestag 1983–1987 Members of the Bundestag 1987–1990 Members of the Bundestag 1990–1994 Members of the Bundestag 1994–1998 Members of the Bundestag 1998–2002 Members of the Bundestag 2002–2005 Members of the Bundestag for North Rhine-Westphalia Members of the Bundestag for the Free Democratic Party (Germany) Members of the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia Suicides by jumping in Germany Parachuting deaths Politicians from Augsburg Vice-Chancellors of Germany Unsolved deaths 2003 deaths	[ -0.4556668996810913, 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240607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20model	Black model	The Black model (sometimes known as the Black-76 model) is a variant of the Black–Scholes option pricing model. Its primary applications are for pricing options on future contracts, bond options, interest rate cap and floors, and swaptions. It was first presented in a paper written by Fischer Black in 1976. Black's model can be generalized into a class of models known as log-normal forward models, also referred to as LIBOR market model. The Black formula The Black formula is similar to the Black–Scholes formula for valuing stock options except that the spot price of the underlying is replaced by a discounted futures price F. Suppose there is constant risk-free interest rate r and the futures price F(t) of a particular underlying is log-normal with constant volatility σ. Then the Black formula states the price for a European call option of maturity T on a futures contract with strike price K and delivery date T (with ) is The corresponding put price is where and N(.) is the cumulative normal distribution function. Note that T' doesn't appear in the formulae even though it could be greater than T. This is because futures contracts are marked to market and so the payoff is realized when the option is exercised. If we consider an option on a forward contract expiring at time T' > T, the payoff doesn't occur until T' . Thus the discount factor is replaced by since one must take into account the time value of money. The difference in the two cases is clear from the derivation below. Derivation and assumptions The Black formula is easily derived from the use of Margrabe's formula, which in turn is a simple, but clever, application of the Black–Scholes formula. The payoff of the call option on the futures contract is max (0, F(T) - K). We can consider this an exchange (Margrabe) option by considering the first asset to be and the second asset to be the riskless bond paying off $1 at time T. Then the call option is exercised at time T when the first asset is worth more than K riskless bonds. The assumptions of Margrabe's formula are satisfied with these assets. The only remaining thing to check is that the first asset is indeed an asset. This can be seen by considering a portfolio formed at time 0 by going long a forward contract with delivery date T and long F(0) riskless bonds (note that under the deterministic interest rate, the forward and futures prices are equal so there is no ambiguity here). Then at any time t you can unwind your obligation for the forward contract by shorting another forward with the same delivery date to get the difference in forward prices, but discounted to present value: . Liquidating the F(0) riskless bonds, each of which is worth , results in a net payoff of . See also Financial mathematics Black–Scholes Description of applications Bond option #Valuation Futures contract #Options on futures Interest rate cap and floor #Black model Swaption #Valuation References Black, Fischer (1976). The pricing of commodity contracts, Journal of Financial Economics, 3, 167-179. Garman, Mark B. and Steven W. Kohlhagen (1983). Foreign currency option values, Journal of International Money and Finance, 2, 231-237. Miltersen, K., Sandmann, K. et Sondermann, D., (1997): "Closed Form Solutions for Term Structure Derivates with Log-Normal Interest Rates", Journal of Finance, 52(1), 409-430. External linksDiscussion Bond Options, Caps and the Black Model Dr. Milica Cudina, University of Texas at AustinOnline tools' Caplet And Floorlet Calculator Dr. Shing Hing Man, Thomson-Reuters' Risk Management Options (finance) Financial models	[ 0.16341491043567657, -0.1779453456401825, 0.05448968708515167, -0.1284339874982834, 0.48538851737976074, 0.144303560256958, -0.37649601697921753, -0.03251117467880249, -0.15920163691043854, -0.40443891286849976, -0.16471365094184875, 0.9730809330940247, -0.19479523599147797, 0.3336087465286255, -0.1848783940076828, 0.4319577217102051, 0.6224715709686279, 0.0826311782002449, -0.39532408118247986, -0.6501418948173523, -0.25790584087371826, 0.17650078237056732, 0.31331372261047363, -0.6928293704986572, -0.27495384216308594, -0.1311357170343399, 0.4494442939758301, -0.11944310367107391, 0.1415741890668869, 0.5919930934906006, 0.22532251477241516, 0.6907766461372375, 0.09463098645210266, 0.09150676429271698, 0.20269176363945007, 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240609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willi%20Ritschard	Willi Ritschard	Willi Ritschard (sometimes Willy Ritschard; 28 September 1918 – 16 October 1983) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1974–1983). He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 5 December 1973 and died in office on 16 October 1983. He was affiliated with the Social Democratic Party. During his time in office he held the following departments: Department of Transport, Communications and Energy (1974–1979) Federal Department of Finance (1980–1983) He was President of the Confederation in 1978. References External links 1918 births 1983 deaths People from the canton of Solothurn Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians Social Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Finance ministers of Switzerland Members of the National Council (Switzerland) 20th-century Swiss politicians	[ -0.261086106300354, -0.1688721626996994, -0.28330111503601074, 0.09046710282564163, -0.2748504877090454, 1.047422170639038, 0.6675525307655334, -0.3219400942325592, 0.10957256704568863, -0.552119255065918, 0.2946000397205353, -0.004763581790030003, -0.1625874638557434, -0.2855220139026642, -0.12158075720071793, -0.11830233782529831, 0.20267674326896667, 0.11170858144760132, -0.8056349754333496, -0.4238024950027466, 0.16895818710327148, -0.2720595598220825, 0.12998393177986145, 0.14893609285354614, -0.039654430001974106, -0.005280306562781334, 0.15119309723377228, 0.47521889209747314, 0.17849200963974, 0.007136248517781496, -0.053163398057222366, 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240611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jason%20Newsted	Jason Newsted	Jason Curtis Newsted (born March 4, 1963) is an American musician who was the bassist of American heavy metal band Metallica from 1986 to 2001. After playing with the thrash metal band Flotsam and Jetsam from 1981 to 1986, Newsted joined Metallica following the death of their previous bassist, Cliff Burton. He performed on four Metallica albums, more than any other bassist: ...And Justice for All (1988), Metallica (1991), Load (1996) and Reload (1997). Newsted left Metallica to work with the metal bands Echobrain and Voivod (under the psuedonym Jasonic) and toured with Ozzy Osbourne. He also fronted the heavy metal band Newsted from 2012 to 2014. Newsted was inducted to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Metallica in 2009. Early life Jason Curtis Newsted was born in Battle Creek, Michigan. He has two older brothers and a younger sister. He grew up on a farm and at the age of six was given the responsibility of looking after animals. He was tasked with looking after hundreds of chickens and rabbits. He told author Paul Stenning, "It's where I learned about life – seeing a baby cow born right in front of your eyes when you're eight years old is pretty intense…I was from a very strong family and I was raised to be a strong, pure Americana farm boy." Newsted's mother taught piano and one of his brothers plays trumpet. He was exposed to music as a child, listening to the record collections of his older brothers. His first instrument was a guitar, which he started to play at 9 years old, but he moved to bass at 14, after listening to Gene Simmons of Kiss. Newsted cites Geezer Butler of Black Sabbath as his major influence. He lists Lemmy Kilmister of Motörhead, Steve Harris of Iron Maiden, Peter Baltes of Accept, Geddy Lee of Rush, Rob Grange of Ted Nugent and Bill Church of Montrose as other significant influences. Career Flotsam and Jetsam The early part of Newsted's music career had him performing bass for Flotsam and Jetsam on their 1986 album Doomsday for the Deceiver. Newsted wrote the majority of lyrics for the album. Metallica On September 27, 1986, during the European leg of the Damage, Inc. Tour, Metallica's bassist Cliff Burton died when the band's tour bus crashed. Following Burton's death, the group began a search for a new bassist. They considered and auditioned over 50 musicians, including Greg Christian of Testament, Gene Gilfen of Blind Illusion, Mel Sanchez of Abbatoir, Mike Jastremski of Heathen, Troy Gregory, Les Claypool, David Ellefson of Megadeth and various others. Newsted was the last in line and ended up winning the part. He said in a 2015 interview that he learned about Metallica's plan to open for Ozzy Osbourne's tour at the time. To his advantage, Newsted strategically procured the band's setlist, studied it, and presented it to drummer Lars Ulrich saying he knew all these songs, much to Ulrich's surprise. Two days later, Metallica invited Newsted back and announced to him that he had been chosen to fill the bassist position. The band involved both of Burton's parents in the decision to choose Newsted. Burton's parents were present during the announcement. After the band broke the news to Newsted, Burton's mother hugged him tightly and said, "You are the one. Please, be safe." Newsted's first live performance with Metallica was at the Country Club in Reseda, California, November 8, 1986. His studio debut with Metallica was on The $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited in 1987. This was followed by his first studio album with the band, ...And Justice for All (1988), which was criticised for its murky bass sound. Newsted claims this was deliberate on the part of Lars Ulrich and James Hetfield, although both Ulrich and Hetfield claim they were also disappointed with the production of the album. They claim that most or all of Newsted's bass lines closely followed the rhythm guitar lines to the point of being indiscernible from each other. However, Steve Thompson, who mixed the album, claims that Ulrich was to blame for the inaudible bass and unusual drums. Thompson wanted to be relieved of his mixing duties when Ulrich presented his ideas on the production, but Thompson was not allowed to leave and received the majority of the criticism for the poor sound quality of the record. Nonetheless, the album peaked at number 6 on the Billboard 200 and projected the band to higher success. Newsted also performed on the self-titled album Metallica (1991), which is the best-selling Metallica album to date, as well as on Load (1996), ReLoad (1997), and Garage Inc (1998). The live concert releases Live Shit: Binge & Purge and Cunning Stunts, produced in 1993 and 1997 respectively, also featured Newsted, as did the live album S&M in 1999. Newsted also played bass on the song "I Disappear" in 2000, his last studio appearance. During his time in Metallica, Newsted also sang backing vocals on a number of Metallica songs. During tours, beginning in 1989, he would often sing parts of "Creeping Death", "Whiplash" and "Seek & Destroy", and he performed lead in most songs for three shows at the Summer Sanitarium Tour where Hetfield was recovering from injury. He is known for his bass solo which included parts of "My Friend of Misery" (which Newsted had originally written as an instrumental) and bass parts from his former band, Flotsam and Jetsam. He has co-written three Metallica songs and is credited for two bass solos on live releases: "Blackened" (...And Justice for All) (James Hetfield, Jason Newsted, Lars Ulrich) "My Friend of Misery" (Metallica) (Hetfield, Newsted, Ulrich) "Bass/Guitar Solo" (Live Shit: Binge and Purge) (Kirk Hammett, Newsted) "Where the Wild Things Are" (ReLoad) (Hetfield, Newsted, Ulrich) "Bass/Guitar Doodle" (Cunning Stunts) (Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett, Newsted) ("Bass/Guitar Doodle", a medley of My Friend of Misery and Welcome Home (Sanitarium) features an extended version of My Friend of Misery that was originally planned as an instrumental on "Metallica" (1991) before the band decided against an instrumental on the album) He performed his last live show as Metallica's bassist on November 30, 2000, at the My VH1 Music Awards. Departure from Metallica During a meeting between the members of Metallica in January 2001, Newsted proposed that the band should take a year-long hiatus, and he would use that time to focus on his side-project Echobrain. When the other band members (specifically James Hetfield) rejected Newsted's proposals, he chose to quit the band. On January 17, as plans were being made for the band to enter the recording studio to record its eighth studio album, Newsted announced his departure. Newsted's statement revealed his departure was based on "private and personal reasons and the physical damage I have done to myself over the years while playing the music that I love." During a Playboy interview with Metallica, Newsted revealed that he wanted to release an album with Echobrain. Hetfield was against the idea and said, "When someone does a side project, it takes away from the strength of Metallica." Newsted countered his statement by citing Hetfield's contributions to other musical outlets. Hetfield replied, "My name isn't on those records, and I'm not out trying to sell them," and pondered questions such as "Where would it end? Does he start touring with it? Does he sell shirts? Is it his band?" Newsted's departure from Metallica, along with Hetfield's decision to go to rehab a few months later, almost led to a breakup of the band. After Hetfield rejoined Metallica, the band finished recording St. Anger, with record producer Bob Rock filling the bass slot. Robert Trujillo became the band's new bassist in 2003. Newsted has stated that he has never regretted leaving the band. In a 2009 interview, he said "I tell you very honestly, one billion percent, I have never regretted leaving Metallica. It was the right thing for everyone. It was the right thing to do for the camp. That's it. I've never told anyone that I wanted to go back or anything like that—not once. I made up my mind. It was not an easy thing to do, but it was something I had to do. I thought about it very much before I pulled the trigger and because of that, I have never looked back. The past is where it's supposed to be." It was mentioned in the film Metallica: Some Kind of Monster that there was a rumor that Newsted would possibly rejoin the band, but to date it has not happened. Despite his departure from Metallica, Newsted remains close with the other band members. On April 4, 2009, Newsted joined Metallica for its induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in Cleveland, Ohio. He also performed three songs at the event—"Master of Puppets", "Enter Sandman", and "Train Kept A-Rollin'"—with Hetfield, Ulrich, Hammett, and Robert Trujillo, and Jeff Beck, Jimmy Page, Joe Perry, Ron Wood, and Flea. On December 5, 7, 9 and 10, 2011, Newsted reunited with Metallica during all four of their 30th anniversary shows and performed several songs with the band, Trujillo and, in some cases, other guest musicians. Hetfield noted how the fans "lit up" as Newsted walked on stage, smiling and waving to the crowd. On December 16, 2013, Newsted expanded upon previous statements regarding his departure from Metallica and cited that his project with Echobrain was being discouraged by James Hetfield because Metallica's management at Q Prime wanted to go ahead with promoting Echobrain but was forced to drop it by Hetfield's demands with the quote "other arrangements can be made". Newsted was sure that Echobrain would not affect Metallica, explaining "And so they had told me, pretty convincingly, 'This is a great record, we've been playing it around the office, that's all I've been hearing, it's fantastic, this kid has a great voice. Let's do something with this.' That's what they told me, and then James Hetfield heard about it and was not happy. He was, I think, pretty much out to put the kibosh on the whole thing because it would somehow affect Metallica in his eyes, because now the managers were interested in something I was doing that had nothing to do with him". Newsted sums up the situation as follows: "I have no idea what [Hetfield] was thinking, other than just protecting what he valued, just like he does; that's his thing. He protects what he loves, squeezes it too hard, like he said himself. Squeeze it too hard, protecting it too much. That's where I was coming from. The people that I had counted on for 15 years to help me with my career, help Metallica, take care of my money, do all of those things, told me, 'Your new project is fantastic, we'd like to help you with it.' James heard about it, the manager calls me back a couple of days later – 'Sorry we're not going to be able to help you with that Echobrain thing'." Ulrich admitted that Newsted's departure made a huge dent on Metallica, saying that his presence was overlooked. Hetfield once revealed that the initial writing sessions without Newsted were unsatisfying and that "the music was not all it could have been." Ozzy Osbourne Newsted joined Canadian thrash metal band Voivod in 2002. Coincidentally, he was also Trujillo's replacement in Osbourne's band during Ozzfest 2003, which included Voivod as a Second Stage act. During an MTV interview, both Osbourne and Newsted showed enthusiasm in writing an album together, with Osbourne comparing Newsted to "a young Geezer Butler". However, this would not come to fruition as Newsted left Osbourne upon finishing tour duties in late 2003. He would soon be replaced by Rob Zombie bassist Rob "Blasko" Nicholson. Newsted focused on Voivod. They recorded two albums before Newsted's participation in Rock Star Supernova, a supergroup created through reality television series Rock Star: Supernova in 2006. Voivod The fourth incarnation of Voivod featured three of the four founding members: Denis Bélanger (vocals), Denis D'Amour (guitar), and Michel Langevin (drums), with Newsted on bass guitar. D'Amour died at the age of 45 on August 26, 2005, due to complications from colon cancer. The record Katorz (a phonetic spelling of quatorze, the French word for fourteen), released in July 2006, was based around riffs found on D'Amour's laptop. A December 2008 update on Voivod's website noted that Newsted played "all the bass tracks" on their latest album Infini, which was released on June 23, 2009. Since then, Voivod reunited with their original bass player, Jean-Yves Thériault (Blacky), for a short period of time before he would leave the band permanently. Rock Star Supernova Supernova formed the basis of the second season of the CBS television program Rock Star in the quest to find a lead singer. The show began online on the Rock Star website on MSN on Monday, July 3, 2006 with an Internet exclusive weekly episode, and premiered on CBS on that Wednesday, July 5. Votes were cast via the website. On September 13, 2006, Lukas Rossi was crowned the winner. Shoulder injury On October 23, 2006, Newsted was injured while attempting to catch a falling bass amp head (which, according to him, was the bass amp that was used to record Metallica, Load, and Reload). The accident resulted in a torn anterior labrum in his left shoulder and a rotator cuff and biceps tear in the right. He was scheduled for immediate surgery, and underwent a lengthy rehab process. During this time he was unable to play, and began to express himself through painting. On January 4, 2007, he was back playing his bass again. Newsted later reported that he had been addicted to painkillers, having taken such medication from his time in Metallica to cope with neck problems but without understanding the risks. After his shoulder injury the painkiller use became a problem, but Newsted said he had not used since about 2010. Art career While recovering from his shoulder injury, Newsted found solace through painting. Newsted has turned out a number of large original works of art over the last half a decade. Newsted says that he went "from making crazy and colorful music to making crazy and colorful paintings." His first gallery show opened on May 4, 2010, at Micaëla Gallery in San Francisco. Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction On April 4, 2009, Newsted was present with his former Metallica bandmates James Hetfield, Lars Ulrich and Kirk Hammett, as well as Ray Burton, the father of late Metallica bassist Cliff Burton. He performed with the band alongside current bassist Robert Trujillo at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame induction ceremony in Cleveland, Ohio. It was his first performance with the band in nearly a decade, their last performance together having taken place during the VH-1 Awards at the Shrine Auditorium in November 2000. Both Newsted and Trujillo performed onstage at the same time, which was a first for the band. WhoCares In October 2010 it was announced that Newsted would be joining a supergroup with singer Ian Gillan and former keyboardist Jon Lord from Deep Purple, guitarist Tony Iommi from Black Sabbath, second guitarist Mikko Lindström from HIM and drummer Nicko McBrain from Iron Maiden. The band, called WhoCares, recorded a charity single titled "Out of My Mind". The charity single also features a track titled "Holy Water" and is available as digital download or CD format as of May 6, 2011. Newsted In December 2012, Newsted announced that he had formed his own band called Newsted with drummer Jesus Mendez Jr. and guitarist Jessie Farnsworth, with Staind guitarist Mike Mushok joining later in March 2013. The band released a four-song EP, titled Metal, on January 8, 2013. Newsted released its debut album entitled Heavy Metal Music on August 6, 2013. In September 2014, the band appeared inactive as its website contained only a brief message that as of September 15, 2014, Jason Newsted was no longer on any social networking sites. As of 2018, the Newsted official website has been deactivated. He ceased touring with Newsted due to other musical interests as well as the band being unprofitable. He says "It cost me an awful lot of money – hundreds of thousands of dollars to take the Newsted band around to the 22 countries we played." Jason Newsted and the Chophouse Band In August 2016, after being out of the public eye for two years, Newsted announced he had formed a new acoustic group named Jason Newsted and the Chophouse Band, and had scheduled several performing dates throughout the fall. A fan-made video showed the band (with Newsted on acoustic guitar and lead vocals) playing the Woody Guthrie classic "This Land Is Your Land." Equipment and bass rig According to the Jason Newsted Bass Rig he has used the following over the years. Auditioning for Metallica (1986) After the death of Cliff Burton, Newsted auditioned early October 1986. Upon doing so he was using: Warmoth DIY Precision Jazz Bass BC Rich Eagle Deluxe (as a backup) Damage Inc. tour (1986–1987) In Newsted's first shows with Metallica he was spotted using a bass made by ESP. ESP Surveyor (Precision Jazz model in grey) This bass was also seen on the cover of the Garage Days Re-Revisited EP (released 1987). On the promotion tour for this EP, Newsted was seen using ESP Horizon 5 string (in red) Recording ...And Justice For All (1988) Recording engineer Flemming Rasmussen commented in an issue of Sound on Sound that Newsted used a 5 string Wal bass on the album. Wal Mk2 5 string This bass was also seen in the video "One". Damaged Justice tour The Damage Justice tour saw Newsted using a combination of 4 and 5 string Wals and the ESP 5 string Horizon. These basses remained in his rig until August 1989, where on the "Binge and Purge" DVD Seattle show he was using Alembic basses. Custom Alembic basses The Alembic basses were played live between 1989 and 1992 spanning the length of the Black Album's Wherever We May Roam tour. The following models were used through this period Persuader Spoiler Elan 5 string with Jazz Precision Jazz configuration Europa 4, 5 and 6 string versions According to Alembic he had at least 13 basses constructed with custom options, ranging from different wood types & electronics to changes in the contour of the body. Recording the Black Album (1991) Newsted has played up to 25 basses in all, including 6, 10 and 12-string bass which were used for specific parts. Primarily he used a 1981 Spector NS-2. There is evidence supporting his use of: MusicMan Stingray Gibson Thunderbird Wherever We May Roam tour (1991–1995) During this period, Newsted was using Stuart Spector designed basses. Custom Stuart Spector JN model (SSD JN4 and JN5) 4 and 5 string Spector NS-2 These basses featured black oil finish, piezo pickup option, fiber optic side markers and carved body contours. Recording of Load and Reload (1996) Recording of Load and Reload began in 1996 and 1997 respectively and in an interview with Bass Player Magazine in 1996, Newsted again stated he used the NS-2 and a few other instruments to record. Spector NS-2 1958 Fender Precision Dingwall Prima Poor Touring Me tour (1997) Newsted began a very lucrative relationship with luthier Roger Sadowsky (of Sadowsky Guitars Ltd.) in which he made at least 20 custom basses. Many of which are seen in the 1997 live show Cunning Stunts. The full list of Sadowsky basses are as follows; 24-fret 5-string (fitted with EMG pickups #1) 24-fret 5-string (fitted with EMG pickups #2) 24-fret 5-String with Sadowsky Jazz pickups 59′ Burst 4-string 59′ Burst 4-string Vintage Jazz All Black 4-string Vintage Jazz All Black 5-string Vintage Jazz Black/White 4-String Vintage Jazz Black/White 5-String Vintage Jazz #1 Black/White 5-String Vintage Jazz #2 Cherry Red 4-string Vintage Jazz Cherryburst 4-string Cherryburst 5-string Vintage Jazz Lake Placid Blue 4-String Vintage Jazz #1 Lake Placid Blue 4-String Vintage Jazz #2 Lake Placid Blue 5-String Vintage Jazz Natural Ash 4-String Standard Jazz Sea Foam Green 4-String Vintage Jazz Sonic Blue 4-String Vintage Jazz Sonic Blue 5-String Vintage Jazz The Sadowsky basses are either a 4 or 5 string PJ or JJ pickup configuration. Garage Inc. and S&M (1998–1999) The Sadowsky basses were used to record Garage Inc. in 1998 and played on the Symphony and Metallica show in 1999. Amplifiers From the Damage Inc. tour until the Black album (1986–1990), Newsted used an original 1974 Ampeg SVT head (300 watts). This was plugged into a 1×15" Ampeg speaker and 4×12" Mesa Boogie cabinet. Post Black Album (1991–2000) From the Black Album onwards he used SVT II heads (x4) SVT 8x10" cabinets (x2) Accompanying this was two off stage racks containing the following; Amplifiers used for recording in Metallica Recording the Black Album Newsted used a mixture of three or four amplifiers and bass pickups for the Black Album. An 18″ SWR (for the low end) Marshall guitar cabinet (for mid/high) Trace Elliot (for mid/high) Ampeg SVT (for the main sound) He has also used this equipment in the past recordings Ampeg SVT Vintage Ampeg Heritage SVT-CL* (also known as the SVT-AV) Ampeg VB4 Philanthropy In 2004, Newsted signed on as an official supporter of Little Kids Rock, a non-profit organization that provides free musical instruments and instruction to children in underserved public schools throughout the United States. Personal life Thanks to Lars Ulrich's interest in collecting art, Newsted became interested in the work of artists such as Jean Fautrier, Pablo Picasso and Jean-Michel Basquiat. After leaving Metallica, Newsted took up painting as a hobby. He is a proficient artist and has displayed art around the United States. Newsted was married before but divorced during the recordings of the Black Album. He is currently married to Nicole Leigh Smith, whom he wed in October 2012. She was his girlfriend of 11 years, to whom he refers as the "love of my life". While still his girlfriend, it was Nicole, an artist herself, who suggested he try painting. She now encourages Newsted to "move forward with his art". Discography Echobrain Echobrain (2002) Strange Enjoyment (2002) (EP) Glean (2004) (writing credit on one song, producer) Flotsam and Jetsam Doomsday for the Deceiver (1986) No Place for Disgrace (1988) (writing credits on three songs) Ugly Noise (2012) (credited for songwriting, but does not perform) Gov't Mule The Deep End, Volume 2 (2002) IR8/Sexoturica IR8 vs. Sexoturica (2002) Metallica The $5.98 E.P. - Garage Days Re-Revisited (EP) (1987) ...And Justice for All (1988) Metallica (1991) Live Shit: Binge & Purge (1993) Load (1996) Reload (1997) Garage Inc. (1998) Cunning Stunts (1998) S&M (1999) "I Disappear" (2000) Six Feet Down Under (2010) Moss Brothers Electricitation (2001) Newsted Metal (EP) (2013) Heavy Metal Music (2013) Papa Wheelie Unipsycho (2002) Live Lycanthropy (2003) Rock Star Supernova Rock Star Supernova (2006) Sepultura Against (1998) (track 14, "Hatred Aside") Speedealer Second Sight (2002) (producer) Tina Turner & Elisa Toffoli Teach Me Again (2006) (Single) Unkle Psyence Fiction (1998) Voivod Voivod (2003) Katorz (2006) Infini (2009) WhoCares Out of My Mind / Holy Water (2011) References External links Music Legends Interview with Jason Newsted 1963 births 20th-century American guitarists 20th-century American singers 21st-century American singers American heavy metal bass guitarists American heavy metal guitarists American heavy metal singers American male bass guitarists American male guitarists American multi-instrumentalists Guitarists from Michigan Living people Metallica members Participants in American reality 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240612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saratoga%20campaign	Saratoga campaign	The Saratoga campaign in 1777 was an attempt by the British high command for North America to gain military control of the strategically important Hudson River valley during the American Revolutionary War. It ended in the surrender of the British army, which historian Edmund Morgan argues, "was a great turning point of the war, because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory." The primary thrust of the campaign was planned and initiated by General John Burgoyne. Commanding a main force of some 8,000 men, he moved south in June from Quebec, boated south on Lake Champlain to Fort Ticonderoga and from there boated south on Lake George, then marched down the Hudson Valley to Saratoga. He initially skirmished there with the Patriot defenders with mixed results. The turning point of the campaign happened in August at the Battle of Bennington when militia forces from Vermont, New Hampshire, and Massachusetts defeated, killed, and captured around 1,000 Brunswicker and Hessian troops from Burgoyne's army. Then, after losses in the Battles of Saratoga in September and October, his deteriorating position and the ever-increasing size of the American army forced him to surrender his forces to the American general Horatio Gates on October 17. In this critical British loss on the field of battle, the coordinated movements that had been drawn up in far away London did not materialize. Colonel Barry St. Leger had been assigned to move east through the Mohawk River valley on Albany, New York, but was forced to retreat during the Siege of Fort Stanwix after losing his Indian allies. The major expedition planned from the south was not launched due to miscommunication with London when General William Howe sent his army to take Philadelphia rather than sending it up the Hudson River to link up with Burgoyne. A last-minute effort to reinforce Burgoyne from New York City was made in early October, but it was too little, too late. The American victory was an enormous morale boost to the fledgling nation. More important, it convinced France to enter the war in alliance with the United States, openly providing money, soldiers, and munitions, as well as fighting a naval war worldwide against Britain. British strategy Toward the end of 1776 it was apparent to many in England that pacification of New England was very difficult due to the high concentration of Patriots. London decided to isolate New England and concentrate on the central and southern regions where Loyalists supposedly could be rallied. In December 1776, General John Burgoyne met with Lord Germain, the British Secretary of State for the Colonies and the government official responsible for managing the war, to set strategy for 1777. There were two main armies in North America to work with: General Guy Carleton's army in Quebec and General William Howe's army, which had driven George Washington's army from New York City in the New York campaign. Howe's plan to attack Philadelphia On November 30, 1776, Howe—the British commander-in-chief in North America—wrote to Germain, outlining an ambitious plan for the 1777 campaign. Howe said that if Germain sent him substantial reinforcements, he could launch multiple offensives, including sending 10,000 men up the Hudson River to take Albany, New York. Then, in the autumn, Howe could move south and capture the U.S. capital of Philadelphia. Howe soon changed his mind after writing this letter: the reinforcements might not arrive, and the retreat of the Continental Army over the winter of 1776–77 made Philadelphia an increasingly vulnerable target. Therefore, Howe decided that he would make the capture of Philadelphia the primary object of the 1777 campaign. Howe sent Germain this revised plan, which Germain received on February 23, 1777. Burgoyne's plan to capture Albany Burgoyne, seeking to command a major force, proposed to isolate New England by an invasion from Quebec into New York. This had already been attempted by General Carleton in 1776, although he had stopped short of a full-scale invasion due to the lateness of the season. Carleton was heavily criticized in London for not taking advantage of the American retreat from Quebec, and he was also intensely disliked by Germain. This, combined with rival Henry Clinton's failed attempt to capture Charleston, South Carolina, placed Burgoyne in a good position to get command of the 1777 northern campaign. Burgoyne presented a written plan to Lord Germain on February 28, 1777; Germain approved it and gave Burgoyne command of the main expedition. Burgoyne's invasion plan from Quebec had two components: he would lead the main force of about 8,000 men south from Montreal along Lake Champlain and the Hudson River Valley while a second column of about 2,000 men (which Barry St. Leger was chosen to lead), would move from Lake Ontario east down the Mohawk River valley in a strategic diversion. Both expeditions would converge upon Albany, where they would link up with troops from Howe's army, proceeding up the Hudson. Control of the Lake Champlain–Lake George–Hudson River route from Canada to New York City would cut off New England from the rest of the American colonies. The last part of Burgoyne's proposal, the advance by Howe up the Hudson from New York City, proved to be the most controversial part of the campaign. Germain approved Burgoyne's plan after having received Howe's letter detailing his proposed offensive against Philadelphia. Whether Germain told Burgoyne, who was still in London at that time, about Howe's revised plans is unclear: while some sources claim he did, others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway. Historian Robert Ketchum believes that Burgoyne would probably have been aware of the problems that lay ahead had he been notified of the Philadelphia plan. Whether Germain, Howe, and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear. What is clear is that Germain either left his generals with too much latitude, or without a clearly defined overall strategy. In March 1777 Germain had approved of Howe's Philadelphia expedition and did not include any express orders for Howe to go to Albany. Yet Germain also sent Howe a copy of his instructions to Carleton which plainly stated that the northern army was to make a junction with Howe's army at Albany. In a letter from Germain to Howe dated May 18, 1777, he made clear that the Philadelphia expedition should "be executed in time for you to co-operate with the army ordered to proceed from Canada and put itself under your command." This last letter, however, was not received by Howe until after he had departed New York for the Chesapeake. To attack Philadelphia Howe could either have moved overland through New Jersey or by sea via the Delaware Bay, both options would have kept him a position to aid Burgoyne if necessary. The final route he took, through the Chesapeake Bay, was immensely time-consuming and left him wholly unable to assist Burgoyne as Germain had envisioned. The decision was so difficult to understand that Howe's more hostile critics accused him of deliberate treachery. Burgoyne returned to Quebec on May 6, 1777, bearing a letter from Lord Germain which introduced the plan but lacked some details. This produced another of the conflicts of command that plagued the British throughout the war. Lieutenant General Burgoyne technically outranked Major General Carleton, but Carleton was still the governor of Quebec. Germain's instructions to Burgoyne and Carleton had specifically limited Carleton's role to operations in Quebec. This slight against Carleton, combined with Carleton's failure to get command of the expedition, led to his resignation later in 1777, and to his refusal to supply troops from the Quebec regiments to garrison the forts at Crown Point and Ticonderoga after they were captured. American strategy George Washington, whose army was encamped at Morristown, New Jersey, and the American military command did not have a good picture of British plans for 1777. The principal question on the minds of Washington and his generals Horatio Gates and Philip Schuyler —who both were at turns responsible for the Continental Army's Northern Department and its defense of the Hudson River— was of the movements of Howe's army in New York. They had no significant knowledge of what was being planned for the British forces in Quebec, in spite of Burgoyne's complaints that everyone in Montreal knew what he was planning. The three generals disagreed on what Burgoyne's most likely movement was, and Congress also rendered the opinion that Burgoyne's army was likely to move to New York by sea. Partly as a result of this indecision, and the fact that it would be isolated from its supply lines if Howe moved north, the garrisons at Fort Ticonderoga and elsewhere in the Mohawk and Hudson valleys were not significantly increased. Schuyler took the measure in April 1777 of sending a large regiment under Colonel Peter Gansevoort to rehabilitate Fort Stanwix in the upper Mohawk valley as a step in defending against British movements in that area. Washington also ordered four regiments to be held at Peekskill, New York that could be directed either to the north or the south in response to British movements. American troops were allocated throughout New York theater in June 1777. About 1,500 troops (including those of Colonel Gansevoort) were in outposts along the Mohawk River, about 3,000 troops were in the Hudson River highlands under the command of General Israel Putnam, and Schuyler commanded about 4,000 troops (inclusive of local militia and the troops at Ticonderoga under St. Clair). International interest Ever since the Seven Years' War, France's foreign ministers, beginning with Choiseul, had followed the general idea that the independence of Britain's North American colonies would be good for France and bad for Britain, and furthermore that French attempts to recover parts of New France would be detrimental to that cause. When war broke out in 1775, the Comte de Vergennes, then the Foreign Minister, outlined a series of proposals that led to secret French and also Spanish support of Congress, and some preparations for the possibility of war, including expansion of their navies. Vergennes did not think open participation in the war was diplomatically or politically feasible until Washington's army demonstrated its strength and ability to gain military victories without significant assistance. To further the aim of French participation in the war, Vergennes closely monitored news from North America and London, and worked to remove impediments to Spanish participation in the war. Vergennes went so far as to propose war to King Louis XVI in August 1776, but news of Howe's capture of New York City scuttled that plan. Campaign begins Most of Burgoyne's army had arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1776, and participated in the routing of Continental Army troops from the province. In addition to British regulars, the troops in Quebec included several regiments from the German principalities of Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Hanau (from whose name the common reference of Hessian comes) and Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel under the command of Baron Friedrich Adolph Riedesel. Of these regular forces, 200 British regulars and 300 to 400 Germans were assigned to St. Leger's Mohawk valley expedition, and about 3,500 men remained in Quebec to protect the province. The remaining forces were assigned to Burgoyne for the campaign to Albany. The regular forces were supposed to be augmented by as many as 2,000 militia raised in Quebec; by June, Carleton had managed to raise only three small companies. Burgoyne had also expected as many as 1,000 Indians to support the expedition. About 500 joined between Montreal and Crown Point. Burgoyne's army was beset by transport difficulties before it left Quebec, something that apparently neither Burgoyne nor Carleton anticipated. As the expedition expected to travel mainly over water, there were few wagons, horses, and other draft animals available to move the large amount of equipment and supplies on the land portions of the route. Only in early June did Carleton issue orders to procure carts sufficient to move the army. Consequently, the carts were poorly constructed of green wood, and the teams were driven by civilians who were at a higher risk of desertion. On June 13, 1777, Burgoyne and Carleton reviewed the assembled forces at St. John's on the Richelieu River, just north of Lake Champlain, and Burgoyne was ceremonially given command. In addition to five sailing ships built the previous year, a sixth had been built and three had been captured after the Battle of Valcour Island. These provided some transport as well as military cover for the large fleet of transport boats that moved the army south on the lake. The army that Burgoyne launched the next day had about 7,000 regulars and over 130 artillery pieces ranging from light mortars to 24 pound (11 kg) pieces. His regulars were organized into an advance force under Brigadier General Simon Fraser, and two divisions. Major General William Phillips led the 3,900 British regulars on the right, while Baron Riedesel's 3,100 Brunswickers and Hanauers held the left. His regular troops started out in good condition but some, notably some of the German dragoons, were poorly equipped for wilderness fighting. Colonel St. Leger's expedition was also assembled by mid-June. His force, a mixed company of British regulars, Loyalists, Hessians, and rangers from the Indian department, numbering about 750 men left Lachine, near Montreal, on June 23. Ticonderoga falls Burgoyne's army traveled up the lake and occupied the undefended Fort Crown Point by June 30. The screening activities of Burgoyne's Indian support were highly effective at keeping the Americans from learning the details of his movements. General Arthur St. Clair, who had been left in command of Fort Ticonderoga and its surrounding defenses with a garrison of about 3,000 regulars and militia, had no idea on July 1 of the full strength of Burgoyne's army, large elements of which were then just away. St. Clair had been ordered by General Schuyler to hold out as long as possible, and had planned two avenues of retreat. Open skirmishing began on the outer defense works of Ticonderoga on July 2. By July 4, most of the American garrison was either at Fort Ticonderoga or nearby Mount Independence, the extensive fortifications on the Vermont side of the lake. Unknown to the Americans, their withdrawal from an outer defensive position cleared a way for the British to place artillery on the hilltop known then as Sugar Loaf (now Mount Defiance), whose heights commanded the fort. St. Clair withdrew the night after spotting British cannon on Sugar Loaf on July 5, and Burgoyne's men occupied the main fortification and the positions on Mount Independence on July 6. The uncontested surrender of the supposedly impregnable fort caused a public and political uproar. Although a later investigation cleared both Schuyler and St. Clair of any wrongdoing in the withdrawal, it caused the Continental Congress to replace Schuyler with General Horatio Gates as commander of the Northern Department of the Continental Army in August. Burgoyne sent forces out from his main body to pursue the retreating army, which St. Clair had sent south via two different routes. The British caught up with elements of the retreating Americans at least three times. General Fraser and elements of Baron Riedesel's troops faced determined resistance in Battle of Hubbardton on July 7, and that same day the vanguard of the main army met Pierse Long's retreating companies in a skirmish at Skenesboro (now Whitehall). These were followed by another standoff in the Battle of Fort Anne on July 8, in which a forward company of the British army was nearly decimated. These actions cost the Americans about 50% more casualties than those incurred by the British, and they demonstrated to the British officers present that the Americans were capable of putting up stiff resistance. Burgoyne's army was reduced by about 1,500 men as a result of the Ticonderoga actions. He left 400 men to garrison the magazine at Crown Point and another 900 to defend Ticonderoga, and the battles that followed resulted in about 200 casualties. The bulk of St. Clair's army retreated through the New Hampshire Grants (present-day Vermont). St. Clair issued appeals to the states for militia support, and also arranged to have as much of the area's livestock and supplies delivered to Fort Edward on the Hudson River, where the American armies would regroup. St. Clair reached Fort Edward on July 12 after five days of grueling marches. Some of the remnants that had been scattered at Hubbardton rejoined the army, but Seth Warner and the remains of his regiment were stationed at Manchester in the Grants. Reaction and delay Burgoyne settled into the house of Loyalist Philip Skene at Skenesboro while the pieces of his army regrouped and he considered his next steps. He penned letters describing the British victory, intended for public consumption. When this news reached the capitals of Europe, King George was happy, and the Comte de Vergennes was not, as the news effectively scuttled an early proposal for French entry into the war. British diplomats increased pressure on the French and Spanish, demanding that they close their ports to American shipping. While this demand was refused, it markedly increased the tensions between the powers. The news was also harshly received by Congress and the American public, including slanders that St. Clair and Schuyler had been bribed. On July 10 Burgoyne issued orders for the next series of movements. Most of the army was to take the rough road from Skenesboro to Fort Edward via Fort Anne, while the heavy artillery was to be transported down Lake George to Fort William Henry, and then over land to Ft. Edward. Riedesel's troops were sent back up the road toward Castleton, primarily as a diversion intended to suggest that he might be aiming for the Connecticut River. Burgoyne's decision to move the army overland via Fort Anne was a curious one, for it contradicted his own earlier commentaries on planning the expedition, in which he presciently observed that defenders could easily block the route. His decision appears to have been motivated by two factors; the first being the perception that moving the army over water via Lake George would require a retrograde movement that could be perceived as a retreat, and the second being the influence of Philip Skene, whose property would benefit by the improved road Burgoyne would have to build. General Schuyler, at Albany when he received word of Ticonderoga's fall, immediately rode to Fort Edward, where there was a garrison of about 700 regulars and 1,400 militia. He decided to make Burgoyne's passage as difficult as possible, using the axe as a weapon; as it was much easier to fell large trees in the enemy's path than to remove them after they were down, this brought Burgoyne's advance to a crawl, tiring his troops and forcing them to use up supplies. On July 11 Burgoyne wrote to Lord Germain, complaining that the Americans were systematically felling trees, destroying bridges, and damming streams along the road to Fort Edward. Schuyler also employed scorched earth tactics to deny the British access to local provisions. In spite of Burgoyne's lack of movement, his scouts were active; some of Schuyler's work crews were attacked. Schuyler's tactics required Burgoyne to build a road through the wilderness for his guns and troops, a task that took about two weeks. They moved out of Skenesboro on July 24, and reached Fort Edward on July 29, finding that Schuyler had already abandoned it, in a retreat that ended at Stillwater, New York. Before he left Skenesboro, Burgoyne was joined by about 500 Indians (mostly Ottawas, but also Fox, Mississauga, Chippewa, and Ojibwe, as well as members of the Iroquois) from the Great Lakes region under the leadership of St. Luc de la Corne and Charles Michel de Langlade. St. Leger's expedition Lieutenant Colonel St. Leger sailed up the St. Lawrence and crossed Lake Ontario to arrive at Oswego without incident. He had about 300 regulars, supported by 650 Canadian and Loyalist militia, and they were joined by 1,000 Indians led by John Butler and the Iroquois war chiefs Joseph Brant, Sayenqueraghta and Cornplanter. Joseph Brant killed and tortured Indians who did not support the Crown. Leaving Oswego on July 25, they marched to Fort Stanwix on the Mohawk River, and began besieging it on August 2. About 800 members of the Tryon County militia and their Indian allies marched to relieve the siege, but some of St. Leger's British and Indians ambushed them on August 6 at the bloody Battle of Oriskany. While the Americans held the field of battle, they retreated because of the heavy casualties they suffered, including the mortal wounding of their leader, General Nicholas Herkimer. Warriors from Iroquois nations fought on both sides of the battle, marking the beginning of a civil war within the Six Nations. During the Oriskany action, the besieged Americans staged a sortie from Fort Stanwix and raided the nearly empty Indian camp. Combined with the significant Indian casualties at Oriskany, this was a significant blow to Indian morale. On August 10, Benedict Arnold left Stillwater, New York for Fort Stanwix with 800 men of the Continental Army from Schuyler's Northern Department. He expected to recruit members of the Tryon County militia when he arrived at Fort Dayton on August 21. Arnold could only raise about 100 militia, as most of the militia men that had been at Oriskany were not interested in joining, so he instead resorted to subterfuge. He staged the escape of a Loyalist captive, who convinced St. Leger that Arnold was coming with a much larger force than he actually had. On this news, Joseph Brant and the rest of St. Leger's Indians withdrew. They took most of his remaining supplies with them, and St. Leger was forced to raise the siege and head back through Oswego to Quebec. Arnold sent a detachment a short way after them, and turned the rest of his force east to rejoin the American forces at Saratoga. St. Leger's remaining men eventually arrived at Fort Ticonderoga on September 27. Their arrival was too late to effectively support Burgoyne, whose army was already being hemmed in by the growing American forces around him. Mounting difficulties The advance of Burgoyne's army to Fort Edward was, as with the approach to Ticonderoga, preceded by a wave of Indians, which chased away the small contingent of troops left there by Schuyler. These allies became impatient and began indiscriminate raids on frontier families and settlements, which had the effect of increasing rather than reducing local support to the American rebels. In particular, the death at Indian hands of the attractive young Loyalist settler Jane McCrea was widely publicized and served as a catalyst for rebel support, as Burgoyne's decision to not punish the perpetrators was seen as unwillingness or inability to keep the Indians under control. Even though the bulk of his army made the trip from Skenesboro to Fort Edward in just five days, the army's lack of adequate transport served to delay the army again, as the supply train, hampered by a lack of draft animals and carts and wagons that were capable of dealing with the rough tracks through the wilderness, took time to follow. On August 3, messengers from General Howe finally succeeded in making their way through the American lines to Burgoyne's camp at Fort Edward. (Numerous attempts by the British generals to communicate were frustrated by the capture and hanging of their messengers by the Americans.) The messengers did not bring good news. On July 17 Howe wrote that he was preparing to depart by sea with his army to capture Philadelphia, and that General Clinton, responsible for New York City's defense, would "act as occurrences may direct". Burgoyne refused to divulge the contents of this dispatch to his staff. Realizing that he now had a serious supply problem, Burgoyne decided to act on a suggestion that Baron Riedesel had made to him in July. Riedesel, whose forces Burgoyne had stationed at Castleton for a time while he was at Skenesboro, had observed that the area was rich in draft animals and horses, which might be seized for the army's benefit (including the mounting of Riedesel's currently unmounted dragoons). Pursuing this idea, Burgoyne sent Colonel Friedrich Baum's regiment to obtain supplies from the armory in Bennington, Vermont on August 9, along with some Brunswick dragoons. Most of Baum's detachment never returned from the August 16 Battle of Bennington, and the reinforcements he had sent after them came back after they were ravaged in the same battle, which deprived Burgoyne of nearly 1,000 men and the much-needed supplies. What Burgoyne had been unaware of was that St. Clair's calls for militia support following the withdrawal from Ticonderoga had been answered, and General John Stark had placed 2,000 men at Bennington. Stark's force enveloped Baum's at Bennington, killing him and capturing much of his detachment. The death of Jane McCrea and the Battle of Bennington, besides acting as rallying cries for the Americans, had another important effect. Burgoyne blamed his Indian and Canadian allies for McCrea's death, and, even after the Indians had lost 80 of their number at Bennington, Burgoyne showed them no gratitude. As a result, Langlade, La Corne, and most of the Indians left the British camp, leaving Burgoyne with fewer than 100 Indian scouts. Burgoyne was left with no protection in the woods against the American rangers. Burgoyne would later blame La Corne for deserting him, while La Corne countered that Burgoyne never respected the Indians. In the British Parliament, Lord Germain sided with La Corne. American change of fortune While the tactic of delay worked well in the field, the result in the Continental Congress was a different matter. General Horatio Gates was in Philadelphia when Congress discussed its shock at the fall of Ticonderoga, and Gates was more than willing to help assign the blame to reluctant generals. Some in the Congress had already been impatient with General George Washington, wanting a large, direct confrontation that might eliminate occupation forces but which Washington feared would probably lose the war. John Adams, the head of the War Committee, praised Gates and remarked that "we shall never hold a post until we shoot a general." Over the objections of the New York delegation, Congress sent Gates to take command of the Northern Department on August 10. It also ordered states from Pennsylvania to Massachusetts to call out their militias. On August 19, Gates arrived at Albany to take charge. He was cold and arrogant in manner, and pointedly excluded Schuyler from his first war council. Schuyler left for Philadelphia shortly after, depriving Gates of his intimate knowledge of the area. Throughout the month of August, and continuing into September, militia companies arrived at the Continental Army camps on the Hudson. These were augmented by troops Washington ordered north from the Hudson Highlands as part of General Arnold's operation to relieve Stanwix. Those troops arrived at the end of August and included the crack sharpshooters of Daniel Morgan's rifle corps, which he sent north from his own army. News of the American successes at Bennington and Fort Stanwix, combined with outrage over the death of Jane McCrea, rallied support, swelling Gates' army to over 6,000 rank and file. This number did not include Stark's small army at Bennington, which was reduced in size by disease and the departure of some of its companies, but was also augmented by several hundred troops raised by General Benjamin Lincoln, who was assigned to make attacks against Burgoyne's supply and communications. Saratoga The "Battle of Saratoga" is often depicted as a single event, but it was actually a month-long series of maneuvers punctuated by two battles. At the beginning of September 1777, Burgoyne's army, now just over 7,000 strong, was located on the east bank of the Hudson. He had learned of St. Leger's failure at Stanwix on August 28, and even earlier that Howe would not be giving him substantial support from New York City. Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters, which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany, he decided on the latter. Subsequent to this decision, he made two further crucial decisions. He decided to deliberately cut communications to the north, so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga, and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position. He therefore ordered Riedesel, whose forces were in the rear, to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south, and ordered the army to cross the river just north of Saratoga, (now Schuylerville), which it did between September 13 and 15. Moving cautiously, since the departure of his Indian support had deprived him of reliable scouting, Burgoyne advanced to the south. On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga, about from the American defensive line, and skirmishes occurred between the leading elements of the armies. When Gates took over Schuyler's army, much of it was located near the mouth of the Mohawk River, south of Stillwater. On September 8 he ordered the army, then about 10,000 men (of whom about 8,500 were effective combat troops), to Stillwater with the idea of setting up defenses there. The Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko found the area inadequate for proper defensive works, so a new location was found about three miles further north (and about south of Saratoga). At this location Kosciusko laid out defensive lines stretching from the river to the bluffs called Bemis Heights. The right side of these defenses was nominally given to General Lincoln, but as he was leading troops intended for a diversion against Ticonderoga, Gates assumed command of that portion of the line himself. Gates put General Arnold, with whom he had previously had a good relationship, in command of the army's left, the western defenses on Bemis Heights. The relationship between the two soured when Arnold chose to staff his command with friends of Schuyler, whom Gates hated. Combined with the prickly natures of both Gates and Arnold, this eventually brought internal power squabbles to a boil. Freeman's Farm Both Generals Burgoyne and Arnold recognized the importance of the American left flank. Burgoyne recognized that the American position could be flanked, and divided his forces, sending a large detachment to the west on September 19. Arnold, also recognizing that a British attack on the left was likely, asked Gates for permission to move his forces out to Freeman's Farm to anticipate that maneuver. Gates refused to carry out a general movement, since he wanted to wait behind his defenses for the expected frontal attack; but he did permit Arnold to send Daniel Morgan's riflemen and some light infantry out for a reconnaissance in force. These forces precipitated the Battle of Freeman's Farm when they made contact with Burgoyne's right flank. In the ensuing battle, the British gained control of Freeman's Farm, but at the cost of 600 casualties, ten percent of their forces. After the battle the feud between Gates and Arnold erupted. Not only did Gates not mention Arnold at all in the official account of the battle he sent to Congress, but he also transferred Morgan's company (which had been technically independent but operated under Arnold's command in the battle) to his direct command. Arnold and Gates had a noisy argument in Gates' quarters, in which Gates said that General Lincoln would be replacing him. Following the argument Arnold drafted a letter to Gates outlining his grievances and requesting a transfer to Washington's command. Gates gave Arnold a pass to leave, and continued to inflict petty indignities on Arnold. A commonly referenced reason why Arnold chose to remain is that a petition signed by all of the line officers except Gates and Lincoln convinced him to stay. While proposals for such a document were considered, there is no contemporary evidence of one actually being drafted and signed. Burgoyne considered renewing the attack the next day, but called it off when Fraser noted that many men were fatigued from the previous day's exertions. He therefore dug his army in, and waited for news that he would receive some assistance from the south, as a letter he received from General Clinton in New York on September 21 suggested that a movement up the Hudson would draw off some of Gates' army. Although he was aware of the persistent desertions that were reducing the size of his army and that the army was running short of food and other critical supplies, he did not know that the American army was also daily growing in size, or that Gates had intelligence on how dire the situation was in his camp. Attack on Ticonderoga Unknown to either side at Saratoga until after the battle, General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga. Lincoln had collected 2,000 men at Bennington by early September. After marching north to Pawlet, they received word that the guard at Ticonderoga might be susceptible to surprise. Lincoln sent three detachments of 500 men each to "annoy, divide, and distract the enemy." One went to Skenesboro, which was found to be abandoned by the British. The second went to capture Mount Independence on the east side of Lake Champlain, while the third, led by John Brown, made the approach to Ticonderoga. On the morning of September 18, Brown surprised the British defenders at the southern end of the portage trail connecting Lake George to Lake Champlain. Rapidly moving up the trail his men continued to surprise British defenders and capture artillery pieces until they reached the height of land just before Ticonderoga, where they occupied the "old French lines" (so named because it was there that a French defense improbably held against a much larger British army in the 1758 Battle of Carillon). On the way he rescued 100 American prisoners (thus increasing the size of his force) and captured nearly 300 British. His demand for the fort's surrender was refused, and for the next four days Brown's men and the fort exchanged cannon fire, to little effect. Since he had insufficient manpower to actually assault the fort, Brown then withdrew to Lake George, where he made an unsuccessful attempt to capture a storage depot on an island in the lake. General Gates wrote to Lincoln on the day of Freeman's Farm, ordering his force back to Saratoga and that "not one moment should be lost". Lincoln reached Bemis Heights on September 22, but the last of his troops did not arrive until the 29th. Sir Henry Clinton attempts a diversion General Howe, when he left New York for Philadelphia, had put General Sir Henry Clinton in charge of New York's defense, with instructions to assist Burgoyne if opportunities arose. Clinton wrote to Burgoyne on September 12 that he would "make a push at [Fort] Montgomery in about ten days" if "you think 2000 men can assist you effectually." When Burgoyne received the letter he immediately replied, appealing to Clinton for instruction on whether he should attempt to advance or retreat, based on the likelihood of Clinton's arrival at Albany for support. Burgoyne indicated that if he did not receive a response by October 12 he would be forced to retreat. On October 3 Clinton sailed up the Hudson River with 3,000 men and on October 6, one day after receiving Burgoyne's appeal, captured the highland forts named Clinton and Montgomery. Burgoyne never received Clinton's dispatches following this victory, as all three messengers were captured. Clinton followed up the victory by dismantling the chain across the Hudson and sending a raiding force up the river that reached as far north as Livingston Manor on October 16 before turning back. General Schuyler found a spot alongside the Hudson River to build a garrison house where the Indians had a few settlements. This housing area resulted in the Indians losing this fishing ground. Word of Clinton's movements only reached Gates after the Battle of Bemis Heights. Bemis Heights In addition to Lincoln's 2,000 men, militia units poured into the American camp, swelling the American army to over 15,000 men. Burgoyne, who had put his army on short rations on October 3, called a council the next day. The decision of this meeting was to launch a reconnaissance in force of about 1,700 men toward the American left flank. Burgoyne and Fraser led this detachment out early on the afternoon of October 7. Their movements were spotted, and Gates wanted to order only Daniel Morgan's men out in opposition. Arnold said that this was clearly insufficient, and that a large force had to be sent. Gates, put off one last time by Arnold's tone, dismissed him, saying, "You have no business here." However, Gates did accede to similar advice given by Lincoln. In addition to sending Morgan's company around the British right, he also sent Enoch Poor's brigade against Burgoyne's left. When Poor's men made contact, the Battle of Bemis Heights was underway. The initial American attack was highly effective, and Burgoyne attempted to order a withdrawal, but his aide was shot down before the order could be broadcast. In intense fighting, the flanks of Burgoyne's force were exposed, while the Brunswickers at the center held against Learned's determined attack. General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle. While frequently claimed to be the work of Timothy Murphy, one of Morgan's men, the story appears to be a 19th-century fabrication. After Fraser's fall and the arrival of additional American troops, Burgoyne ordered what was left of the force to retreat behind their entrenched lines. General Arnold, frustrated by the sound of fighting he was not involved in, rode off from the American headquarters to join the fray. Arnold, who some claimed was in a drunken fury, took the battle to the British position. The right side of the British line consisted of two earthen redoubts that had been erected on Freeman's Farm, and were manned by Brunswickers under Heinrich Breymann and light infantry under Lord Balcarres. Arnold first rallied troops to attack Balcarres' redoubt, without success. He then boldly rode through the gap between the two redoubts, a space guarded by a small company of Canadian irregulars. Learned's men followed, and made an assault on the open rear of Breymann's redoubt. Arnold's horse was shot out from under him, pinning him and breaking his leg. Breymann was killed in the fierce action, and his position was taken. However, night was falling, and the battle came to an end. The battle was a bloodbath for Burgoyne's troops: nearly 900 men were killed, wounded, or captured, compared to about 150 for the Americans. Surrender Simon Fraser died of his wounds early the next day, but it was not until nearly sunset that he was buried. Burgoyne then ordered the army, whose entrenchments had been subjected to persistent harassment by the Americans, to retreat. (One consequence of the skirmishing was that General Lincoln was also wounded. Combined with Arnold's wounds, this deprived Gates of his top two field commanders.) It took the army nearly two days to reach Saratoga, in which heavy rain and American probes against the column slowed the army's pace. Burgoyne was aided by logistical problems in the American camp, where the army's ability to move forward was hampered by delays in bringing forward and issuing rations. However, Gates did order detachments to take positions on the east side of the Hudson to oppose any attempted crossings. By the morning of October 13 Burgoyne's army was completely surrounded, so his council voted to open negotiations. Terms were agreed on October 16 that Burgoyne insisted on calling a "convention" rather than a capitulation. Baroness Riedesel, wife of the commander of the German troops, vividly describes in her journal the confusion and besetting starvation of the retreating British army. Her account of the tribulation and death of officers and men, and of the terrified women who had taken shelter in the cellar of what later became known as the Marshall House dramatizes the desperation of the besieged army. On October 17, Burgoyne's army surrendered with full honours of war. Burgoyne gave his sword to Gates, who immediately returned it as a sign of respect. Burgoyne's army, about 6,000 strong, marched past to stack arms as the American and British bands played "Yankee Doodle" and "The British Grenadiers". Aftermath British troops withdrew from Ticonderoga and Crown Point in November, and Lake Champlain was free of British troops by early December. American troops, on the other hand, still had work to do. Alerted to General Clinton's raids on the Hudson, most of the army marched south toward Albany on October 18, while other detachments accompanied the "Convention Army" east. Burgoyne and Riedesel became guests of General Schuyler, who had come north from Albany to witness the surrender. Burgoyne was allowed to return to England on parole in May 1778, where he spent the next two years defending his actions in Parliament and the press. He was eventually exchanged for more than 1,000 American prisoners. In response to Burgoyne's surrender, Congress declared December 18, 1777 as a national day "for solemn Thanksgiving and praise" in recognition of the military success at Saratoga; it was the nation's first official observance of a holiday with that name. Convention Army Under the terms of the convention Burgoyne's army was to march to Boston, where British ships would transport it back to England, on condition that its members not participate in the conflict until they were formally exchanged. Congress demanded that Burgoyne provide a list of troops in the army so that the terms of the agreement concerning future combat could be enforced. When he refused, Congress decided not to honor the terms of the convention, and the army remained in captivity. The army was kept for some time in sparse camps throughout New England. Although individual officers were exchanged, much of the "Convention Army" was eventually marched south to Virginia, where it remained prisoner for several years. Throughout its captivity, a large number of men (more than 1,300 in the first year alone) escaped and effectively deserted, settling in the United States. Consequences On December 4, 1777, word reached Benjamin Franklin at Versailles that Philadelphia had fallen and that Burgoyne had surrendered. Two days later, King Louis XVI assented to negotiations for an alliance. The treaty was signed on February 6, 1778, and France declared war on Britain one month later, with hostilities beginning with naval skirmishes off Ushant in June. Spain did not enter into the war until 1779, when it entered the war as an ally of France pursuant to the secret Treaty of Aranjuez. Vergennes' diplomatic moves following the French entry into the war also had material impact on the later entry of the Dutch Republic into the war, and declarations of neutrality on the part of other important geopolitical players like Russia. The British government of Lord North came under sharp criticism when the news of Burgoyne's surrender reached London. Of Lord Germain it was said that "the secretary is incapable of conducting a war", and Horace Walpole opined (incorrectly, as it turned out) that "we are ... very near the end of the American war." Lord North issued a proposal for peace terms in Parliament that did not include independence; when these were finally delivered to Congress by the Carlisle Peace Commission they were rejected. Remembrances Most of the battlefields of the campaign have been preserved in some way, usually as state or national parks, but also as historic sites under state or federal control. Some monuments erected to mark the battles are listed as National Historic Landmarks and some are separately listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Many of the battles are regularly reenacted, and the Battle of Bennington (although it was actually fought in present-day Walloomsac, New York) is marked in the state of Vermont by Bennington Battle Day. The commemorations of Benedict Arnold's contributions to the American success of the campaign are particularly noteworthy. The obelisk at Saratoga National Historical Park has, on three of its four sides, alcoves bearing statues of three generals instrumental in the success at Saratoga: Gates, Schuyler, and Morgan. The fourth alcove, representing Arnold, is empty. The park also contains the Boot Monument which, though again without identifying Arnold by name, clearly honors his contribution in the second Saratoga battle. The World War II era aircraft carriers USS Saratoga (CV-3) and USS Bennington (CV-20) were named after the battles of the Saratoga campaign. See also List of American Revolutionary War battles American Revolutionary War#American strategy American Revolutionary War#British strategy Notes References Further reading Clark, Jane. "Responsibility for the Failure of the Burgoyne Campaign." American Historical Review (1930): 542-559 online. Corbett, Theodore. No Turning Point: The Saratoga Campaign in Perspective (University of Oklahoma Press; 2012) 436 pages; detailed history; argues it was not a decisive turning point in the war (paperback). (1992 paperback) Primary sources External links Fort Ticonderoga web site Hubbardton Battlefield State Historic Site National Park Service web site for Fort Stanwix Oriskany Battlefield State Historic Site Bennington Battlefield State Historic Site National Park Service web site for Saratoga National Historical Park Fort Montgomery State Historic Site The Marshall House, Schuylerville, New York The Saratoga Campaign, Revolutionary War Animated New York (state) in the American Revolution Vermont in the American Revolution 1777 in military history Conflicts in 1777 1777 in New York (state) Battles involving the Iroquois Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War Campaigns of the American Revolutionary War	[ -0.6059802770614624, -0.290326863527298, -0.7093466520309448, 0.048365212976932526, 0.07985016703605652, -0.03285500034689903, 0.6116272807121277, 0.3402239978313446, 0.06306259334087372, -0.1246730163693428, -0.007593198213726282, 0.5072529911994934, -0.0706937164068222, 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240614	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grazing%20antelope	Grazing antelope	A grazing antelope is any of the species of antelope that make up the subfamily Hippotraginae or tribe Hippotragini of the family Bovidae. As grazers, rather than browsers, the "Hippo" in Hippotraginae refers to the slightly horse-like characteristics of body size and proportions: long legs and a solid body with a relatively thick muscular neck. Tribe Hippotragini Genus Hippotragus Roan antelope, Hippotragus equinus Sable antelope, Hippotragus niger Giant sable antelope Hippotragus niger varani Bluebuck, Hippotragus leucophaeus (extinct) Genus Oryx East African oryx, Oryx beisa Common beisa oryx, Oryx beisa beisa Fringe-eared oryx, Oryx beisa callotis Scimitar oryx, Oryx dammah Gemsbok, Oryx gazella Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx Genus Addax Addax, Addax nasomaculatus References Bovidae Taxa named by Victor Brooke	[ 0.3897966742515564, 0.11521884799003601, -0.9136148691177368, 0.05923701450228691, -0.019094282761216164, 0.5319496393203735, 0.21236056089401245, 0.23642794787883759, -0.09882792085409164, -0.822078287601471, -0.15186841785907745, 0.7856231927871704, -0.6319727897644043, -0.1863679140806198, -0.17346172034740448, 0.7539722919464111, 0.8508486747741699, 0.44107988476753235, 0.1128457710146904, -0.6114286184310913, -0.2862410843372345, -0.6112017035484314, -0.35590842366218567, -0.3749889135360718, 0.26597437262535095, 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240616	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20cucumber	Sea cucumber	Sea cucumbers are echinoderms from the class Holothuroidea (). They are marine animals with a leathery skin and an elongated body containing a single, branched gonad. Sea cucumbers are found on the sea floor worldwide. The number of holothurian () species worldwide is about 1,717, with the greatest number being in the Asia-Pacific region. Many of these are gathered for human consumption and some species are cultivated in aquaculture systems. The harvested product is variously referred to as trepang, namako, bêche-de-mer, or balate. Sea cucumbers serve a useful role in the marine ecosystem as they help recycle nutrients, breaking down detritus and other organic matter, after which bacteria can continue the decomposition process. Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers have an endoskeleton just below the skin, calcified structures that are usually reduced to isolated microscopic ossicles (or sclerietes) joined by connective tissue. In some species these can sometimes be enlarged to flattened plates, forming an armour. In pelagic species such as Pelagothuria natatrix (order Elasipodida, family Pelagothuriidae), the skeleton is absent and there is no calcareous ring. Sea cucumbers are named for their resemblance to the fruit of the cucumber plant. Overview Most sea cucumbers, as their name suggests, have a soft and cylindrical body, more or less lengthened, rounded off and occasionally fat in the extremities, and generally without solid appendages. Their shape ranges from almost spherical for "sea apples" (genus Pseudocolochirus) to serpent-like for Apodida or the classic sausage-shape, while others resemble caterpillars. The mouth is surrounded by tentacles, which can be pulled back inside the animal. Holothurians measure generally between 10 and 30 centimetres long, with extremes of some millimetres for Rhabdomolgus ruber and up to more than 3 metres for Synapta maculata. The largest American species, Holothuria floridana, which abounds just below low-water mark on the Florida reefs, has a volume of well over , and long. Most possess five rows of tube feet (called "podia"), but Apodida lacks these and moves by crawling; the podia can be of smooth aspect or provided with fleshy appendages (like Thelenota ananas). The podia on the dorsal surface generally have no locomotive role, and are transformed into papillae. At one of the extremities opens a rounded mouth, generally surrounded with a crown of tentacles which can be very complex in some species (they are in fact modified podia); the anus is postero-dorsal. Holothurians do not look like other echinoderms at first glance, because of their tubular body, without visible skeleton nor hard appendixes. Furthermore, the fivefold symmetry, classical for echinoderms, although preserved structurally, is doubled here by a bilateral symmetry which makes them look like chordates. However, a central symmetry is still visible in some species through five 'radii', which extend from the mouth to the anus (just like for sea urchins), on which the tube feet are attached. There is thus no "oral" or "aboral" face as for sea stars and other echinoderms, but the animal stands on one of its sides, and this face is called trivium (with three rows of tube feet), while the dorsal face is named bivium. A remarkable feature of these animals is the "catch" collagen that forms their body wall. This can be loosened and tightened at will, and if the animal wants to squeeze through a small gap, it can essentially liquefy its body and pour into the space. To keep itself safe in these crevices and cracks, the sea cucumber will hook up all its collagen fibers to make its body firm again. The most common way to separate the subclasses is by looking at their oral tentacles. Order Apodida have a slender and elongate body lacking tube feet, with up to 25 simple or pinnate oral tentacles. Aspidochirotida are the most common sea cucumbers encountered, with a strong body and 10–30 leaflike or shield-like oral tentacles. Dendrochirotida are filter-feeders, with plump bodies and 8–30 branched oral tentacles (which can be extremely long and complex). Anatomy Sea cucumbers are typically in length, although the smallest known species are just long, and the largest can reach . The body ranges from almost spherical to worm-like, and lacks the arms found in many other echinoderms, such as starfish. The anterior end of the animal, containing the mouth, corresponds to the oral pole of other echinoderms (which, in most cases, is the underside), while the posterior end, containing the anus, corresponds to the aboral pole. Thus, compared with other echinoderms, sea cucumbers can be said to be lying on their side. Body plan The body of a holothurian is roughly cylindrical. It is radially symmetrical along its longitudinal axis, and has weak bilateral symmetry transversely with a dorsal and a ventral surface. As in other Echinozoans, there are five ambulacra separated by five ambulacral grooves, the interambulacra. The ambulacral grooves bear four rows of tube feet but these are diminished in size or absent in some holothurians, especially on the dorsal surface. The two dorsal ambulacra make up the bivium while the three ventral ones are known as the trivium. At the anterior end, the mouth is surrounded by a ring of tentacles which are usually retractable into the mouth. These are modified tube feet and may be simple, branched or arborescent. They are known as the introvert and posterior to them there is an internal ring of large calcareous ossicles. Attached to this are five bands of muscle running internally longitudinally along the ambulacra. There are also circular muscles, contraction of which cause the animal to elongate and the introvert to extend. Anterior to the ossicles lie further muscles, contraction of which cause the introvert to retract. The body wall consists of an epidermis and a dermis and contains smaller calcareous ossicles, the types of which are characteristics which help to identify different species. Inside the body wall is the coelom which is divided by three longitudinal mesenteries which surround and support the internal organs. Digestive system A pharynx lies behind the mouth and is surrounded by a ring of ten calcareous plates. In most sea cucumbers, this is the only substantial part of the skeleton, and it forms the point of attachment for muscles that can retract the tentacles into the body for safety as for the main muscles of the body wall. Many species possess an oesophagus and stomach, but in some the pharynx opens directly into the intestine. The intestine is typically long and coiled, and loops through the body three times before terminating in a cloacal chamber, or directly as the anus. Nervous system Sea cucumbers have no true brain. A ring of neural tissue surrounds the oral cavity, and sends nerves to the tentacles and the pharynx. The animal is, however, quite capable of functioning and moving about if the nerve ring is surgically removed, demonstrating that it does not have a central role in nervous coordination. In addition, five major nerves run from the nerve ring down the length of the body beneath each of the ambulacral areas. Most sea cucumbers have no distinct sensory organs, although there are various nerve endings scattered through the skin, giving the animal a sense of touch and a sensitivity to the presence of light. There are, however, a few exceptions: members of the Apodida order are known to possess statocysts, while some species possess small eye-spots near the bases of their tentacles. Respiratory system Sea cucumbers extract oxygen from water in a pair of "respiratory trees" that branch in the cloaca just inside the anus, so that they "breathe" by drawing water in through the anus and then expelling it. The trees consist of a series of narrow tubules branching from a common duct, and lie on either side of the digestive tract. Gas exchange occurs across the thin walls of the tubules, to and from the fluid of the main body cavity. Together with the intestine, the respiratory trees also act as excretory organs, with nitrogenous waste diffusing across the tubule walls in the form of ammonia and phagocytic coelomocytes depositing particulate waste. Circulatory systems Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess both a water vascular system that provides hydraulic pressure to the tentacles and tube feet, allowing them to move, and a haemal system. The latter is more complex than that in other echinoderms, and consists of well-developed vessels as well as open sinuses. A central haemal ring surrounds the pharynx next to the ring canal of the water vascular system, and sends off additional vessels along the radial canals beneath the ambulacral areas. In the larger species, additional vessels run above and below the intestine and are connected by over a hundred small muscular ampullae, acting as miniature hearts to pump blood around the haemal system. Additional vessels surround the respiratory trees, although they contact them only indirectly, via the coelomic fluid. Indeed, the blood itself is essentially identical with the coelomic fluid that bathes the organs directly, and also fills the water vascular system. Phagocytic coelomocytes, somewhat similar in function to the white blood cells of vertebrates, are formed within the haemal vessels, and travel throughout the body cavity as well as both circulatory systems. An additional form of coelomocyte, not found in other echinoderms, has a flattened discoid shape, and contains hemoglobin. As a result, in many (though not all) species, both the blood and the coelomic fluid are red in colour. Vanadium has been reported in high concentrations in holothurian blood, however researchers have been unable to reproduce these results. Locomotive organs Like all echinoderms, sea cucumbers possess pentaradial symmetry, with their bodies divided into five nearly identical parts around a central axis. However, because of their posture, they have secondarily evolved a degree of bilateral symmetry. For example, because one side of the body is typically pressed against the substratum, and the other is not, there is usually some difference between the two surfaces (except for Apodida). Like sea urchins, most sea cucumbers have five strip-like ambulacral areas running along the length of the body from the mouth to the anus. The three on the lower surface have numerous tube feet, often with suckers, that allow the animal to crawl along; they are called trivium. The two on the upper surface have under-developed or vestigial tube feet, and some species lack tube feet altogether; this face is called bivium. In some species, the ambulacral areas can no longer be distinguished, with tube feet spread over a much wider area of the body. Those of the order Apodida have no tube feet or ambulacral areas at all, and burrow through sediment with muscular contractions of their body similar to that of worms, however five radial lines are generally still obvious along their body. Even in those sea cucumbers that lack regular tube feet, those that are immediately around the mouth are always present. These are highly modified into retractile tentacles, much larger than the locomotive tube feet. Depending on the species, sea cucumbers have between ten and thirty such tentacles and these can have a wide variety of shapes depending on the diet of the animal and other conditions. Many sea cucumbers have papillae, conical fleshy projections of the body wall with sensory tube feet at their apices. These can even evolve into long antennae-like structures, especially on the abyssal genus Scotoplanes. Endoskeleton Echinoderms typically possess an internal skeleton composed of plates of calcium carbonate. In most sea cucumbers, however, these have become reduced to microscopic ossicles embedded beneath the skin. A few genera, such as Sphaerothuria, retain relatively large plates, giving them a scaly armour. Life history and behaviour Habitat Sea cucumbers can be found in great numbers on the deep seafloor, where they often make up the majority of the animal biomass. At depths deeper than , sea cucumbers comprise 90% of the total mass of the macrofauna. Sea cucumbers form large herds that move across the bathygraphic features of the ocean, hunting food. The body of some deep water holothurians, such as Enypniastes eximia, Peniagone leander and Paelopatides confundens, is made of a tough gelatinous tissue with unique properties that makes the animals able to control their own buoyancy, making it possible for them to either live on the ocean floor or to actively swim or float over it in order to move to new locations, in a manner similar to how the group Torquaratoridae floats through water. Holothurians appear to be the echinoderms best adapted to extreme depths, and are still very diversified beyond 5,000 m deep: several species from the family Elpidiidae ("sea pigs") can be found deeper than 9,500 m, and the record seems to be some species of the genus Myriotrochus (in particular Myriotrochus bruuni), identified down to 10,687 meters deep. In more shallow waters, sea cucumbers can form dense populations. The strawberry sea cucumber (Squamocnus brevidentis) of New Zealand lives on rocky walls around the southern coast of the South Island where populations sometimes reach densities of 1,000 animals per square meter (93 /sq ft). For this reason, one such area in Fiordland is called the strawberry fields. Locomotion Some abyssal species in the abyssal order Elasipodida have evolved to a "benthopelagic" behaviour: their body is nearly the same density as the water around them, so they can make long jumps (up to high), before falling slowly back to the ocean floor. Most of them have specific swimming appendages, such as some kind of umbrella (like Enypniastes), or a long lobe on top of the body (Psychropotes). Only one species is known as a true completely pelagic species, that never comes close to the bottom: Pelagothuria natatrix. Diet Holothuroidea are generally scavengers, feeding on debris in the benthic zone of the ocean. Exceptions include some pelagic cucumbers and the species Rynkatorpa pawsoni, which has a commensal relationship with deep-sea anglerfish. The diet of most cucumbers consists of plankton and decaying organic matter found in the sea. Some sea cucumbers position themselves in currents and catch food that flows by with their open tentacles. They also sift through the bottom sediments using their tentacles. Other species can dig into bottom silt or sand until they are completely buried. They then extrude their feeding tentacles, ready to withdraw at any hint of danger. In the South Pacific sea cucumbers may be found in densities of 40 individuals per square meter (33 /sq yd). These populations can process 19 kilograms of sediment per square meter (34 lb /sq yd) per year. The shape of the tentacles is generally adapted to the diet, and to the size of the particles to be ingested: the filter-feeding species mostly have complex arborescent tentacles, intended to maximize the surface area available for filtering, while the species feeding on the substratum will more often need digitate tentacles to sort out the nutritional material; the detritivore species living on fine sand or mud more often need shorter "peltate" tentacles, shaped like shovels. A single specimen can swallow more than 45 kg of sediment a year, and their excellent digestive capacities allow them to reject a finer, purer and homogeneous sediment. Therefore, sea cucumbers play a major role in the biological processing of the sea bed (bioturbation, purge, homogenization of the substratum etc.). Communication and sociability Reproduction Most sea cucumbers reproduce by releasing sperm and ova into the ocean water. Depending on conditions, one organism can produce thousands of gametes. Sea cucumbers are typically dioecious, with separate male and female individuals, but some species are protandric. The reproductive system consists of a single gonad, consisting of a cluster of tubules emptying into a single duct that opens on the upper surface of the animal, close to the tentacles. At least 30 species, including the red-chested sea cucumber (Pseudocnella insolens), fertilize their eggs internally and then pick up the fertilized zygote with one of their feeding tentacles. The egg is then inserted into a pouch on the adult's body, where it develops and eventually hatches from the pouch as a juvenile sea cucumber. A few species are known to brood their young inside the body cavity, giving birth through a small rupture in the body wall close to the anus. Development In all other species, the egg develops into a free-swimming larva, typically after around three days of development. The first stage of larval development is known as an auricularia, and is only around in length. This larva swims by means of a long band of cilia wrapped around its body, and somewhat resembles the bipinnaria larva of starfish. As the larva grows it transforms into the doliolaria, with a barrel-shaped body and three to five separate rings of cilia. The pentacularia is the third larval stage of sea cucumber, where the tentacles appear. The tentacles are usually the first adult features to appear, before the regular tube feet. Symbiosis and commensalism Numerous small animals can live in symbiosis or commensalism with sea cucumbers, as well as some parasites. Some cleaner shrimps can live on the tegument of holothurians, in particular several species of the genus Periclimenes (genus which is specialized in echinoderms), in particular Periclimenes imperator. A variety of fish, most commonly pearl fish, have evolved a commensalistic symbiotic relationship with sea cucumbers in which the pearl fish will live in sea cucumber's cloaca using it for protection from predation, a source of food (the nutrients passing in and out of the anus from the water), and to develop into their adult stage of life. Many polychaete worms (family Polynoidae) and crabs (like Lissocarcinus orbicularis) have also specialized to use the mouth or the cloacal respiratory trees for protection by living inside the sea cucumber. Nevertheless, holothurians species of the genus Actinopyga have anal teeth that prevent visitors from penetrating their anus. Sea cucumbers can also shelter bivalvia as endocommensals, such as Entovalva sp. Predators and defensive systems Sea cucumbers are often ignored by most of the marine predators because of the toxins they contain (in particular holothurin) and because of their often spectacular defensive systems. However, they remain a prey for some highly specialized predators which are not affected by their toxins, such as the big mollusks Tonna galea and Tonna perdix, which paralyzes them using powerful poison before swallowing them completely. Some other less specialized and opportunist predators can also prey on sea cucumbers sometimes when they cannot find any better food, such as certain species of fish (triggerfish, pufferfish) and crustaceans (crabs, lobsters, hermit crabs). Some species of coral-reef sea cucumbers within the order Aspidochirotida can defend themselves by expelling their sticky cuvierian tubules (enlargements of the respiratory tree that float freely in the coelom) to entangle potential predators. When startled, these cucumbers may expel some of them through a tear in the wall of the cloaca in an autotomic process known as evisceration. Replacement tubules grow back in one and a half to five weeks, depending on the species. The release of these tubules can also be accompanied by the discharge of a toxic chemical known as holothurin, which has similar properties to soap. This chemical can kill animals in the vicinity and is one more method by which these sedentary animals can defend themselves. Estivation If the water temperature becomes too high, some species of sea cucumber from temperate seas can aestivate. While they are in this state of dormancy they stop feeding, their gut atrophies, their metabolism slows down and they lose weight. The body returns to its normal state when conditions improve. Phylogeny and classification Holothuroidea (sea cucumbers) are one of five extant classes that make up the phylum Echinodermata. This is one of the most distinctive and diverse phyla, ranging from starfish to urchins to sea cucumbers and many other organisms. The echinoderms are mainly distinguished from other phyla by their body plan and organization. While the organisms in this phylum may not all look the same from the outside, their make-up is another story. The earlliest sea cucumbers are known from the middle Ordovician, over 450 million years ago. All echinoderms share three main characteristics. When mature, echinoderms have a pentamerous radial symmetry. While this can easily be seen in a sea star or brittle star, in the sea cucumber it is less distinct and seen in their five primary tentacles. The pentamerous radial symmetry can also be seen in their five ambulacral canals. The ambulacral canals are used in their water vascular system which is another characteristic that binds this phylum together. The water vascular system develops from their middle coelom or hydrocoel. Echinoderms use this system for many things including movement by pushing water in and out of their podia or "tube feet". Echinoderms tube feet (including sea cucumbers) can be seen aligned along the side of their axes. While echinoderms are invertebrates, meaning they do not have a spine, they do all have an endoskeleton that is secreted by the mesenchyme. This endoskeleton is composed of plates called ossicles. They are always internal but may only be covered by a thin epidermal layer like in sea urchin's spines. In the sea cucumber the ossicles are only found in the dermis, making them a very supple organism. For most echinoderms, their ossicles are found in units making up a three dimensional structure. However, in sea cucumbers the ossicles are found in a two-dimensional network. All echinoderms also possess anatomical feature(s) called mutable collagenous tissues, or MCTs. Such tissues can rapidly change their passive mechanical properties from soft to stiff under the control of the nervous system and coordinated with muscle activity. Different echinoderm classes use MCTs in different ways. The asteroids, sea stars, can detach limbs for self-defense and then regenerate them. The Crinoidea, sea fans, can go from stiff to limp depending on the current for optimal filter feeding. The Echinoidea, sand dollars, use MCTs to grow and replace their rows of teeth when they need new ones. The Holothuroidea, sea cucumbers, use MCTs to eviscerate their gut as a self-defense response. MCTs can be used in many ways but are all similar at the cellular level and in mechanics of function. A common trend in the uses of MCTs is that they are generally used for self-defense mechanisms and in regeneration. Holothurian classification is complex and their paleontological phylogeny relies on a limited number of well-preserved specimens. The modern taxonomy is based first of all on the presence or the shape of certain soft parts (podia, lungs, tentacles, peripharingal crown) to determine the main orders, and secondarily on the microscopic examination of ossicles to determine the genus and the species. Contemporary genetic methods have been helpful in clarifying their classification. Taxonomic classification according to World Register of Marine Species: subclass Actinopoda Ludwig, 1891 order Dendrochirotida Grube, 1840 family Cucumariidae Ludwig, 1894 family Cucumellidae Thandar & Arumugam, 2011 family Heterothyonidae Pawson, 1970 family †Monilipsolidae Smith & Gallemí, 1991 family Paracucumidae Pawson & Fell, 1965 family Phyllophoridae Östergren, 1907 family Placothuriidae Pawson & Fell, 1965 family Psolidae Burmeister, 1837 family Rhopalodinidae Théel, 1886 family Sclerodactylidae Panning, 1949 family Vaneyellidae Pawson & Fell, 1965 family Ypsilothuriidae Heding, 1942 order Elasipodida Théel, 1882 family Elpidiidae Théel, 1882 family Laetmogonidae Ekman, 1926 family †Palaeolaetmogonidae Reich, 2012 family Pelagothuriidae Ludwig, 1893 family Psychropotidae Théel, 1882 order Holothuriida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 family Holothuriidae Burmeister, 1837 family Mesothuriidae Smirnov, 2012 order Molpadida Haeckel, 1896 family Caudinidae Heding, 1931 family Eupyrgidae Semper, 1867 family Gephyrothuriidae Koehler & Vaney, 1905 family Molpadiidae Müller, 1850 order Persiculida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 family Gephyrothuriidae Koehler & Vaney, 1905 family Molpadiodemidae Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 family Pseudostichopodidae Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 order Synallactida Miller, Kerr, Paulay, Reich, Wilson, Carvajal & Rouse, 2017 family Deimatidae Théel, 1882 family Stichopodidae Haeckel, 1896 family Synallactidae Ludwig, 1894 subclass †ArthrochirotaceaSmirnov, 2012 order †Arthrochirotida Brandt, 1835 family †Palaeocucumariidae Frizzell & Exline, 1966 subclass Paractinopoda Ludwig, 1891 order Apodida Brandt, 1835Small text family Chiridotidae Östergren, 1898 family Myriotrochidae Théel, 1877 family Synaptidae Burmeister, 1837 Relation to humans Food To supply the markets of Southern China, Makassar trepangers traded with the Indigenous Australians of Arnhem Land from at least the 18th century and probably earlier. This is the first recorded example of trade between the inhabitants of the Australian continent and their Asian neighbours. There are many commercially important species of sea cucumber that are harvested and dried for export for use in Chinese cuisine as hoisam. Some of the more commonly found species in markets include: Holothuria nobilis Thelenota ananas Actinopyga echinites Actinopyga palauensis Holothuria scabra Holothuria fuscogilva Actinopyga mauritiana Stichius japonicus Apostichopus californicus Acaudina molpadioides Isostichopus fuscus Medicine According to the American Cancer Society, although it has been used in traditional Asian folk medicine for a variety of ailments, "there is little reliable scientific evidence to support claims that sea cucumber is effective in treating cancer, arthritis, and other diseases" but research is examining "whether some compounds made by sea cucumbers may be helpful against cancer". Various pharmaceutical companies emphasize gamat, the traditional medicinal usage of this animal. Extracts are prepared and made into oil, cream or cosmetics. Some products are intended to be taken internally. A review article found that chondroitin sulfate and related compounds found in sea cucumbers can help in treating joint-pain, and that dried sea cucumber is "medicinally effective in suppressing arthralgia". Another study suggested that sea cucumbers contain all the fatty acids necessary to play a potentially active role in tissue repair. Sea cucumbers are under investigation for use in treating ailments including colorectal cancer. Surgical probes made of nanocomposite material based on the sea cucumber have been shown to reduce brain scarring. One study found that a lectin from Cucumaria echinata impaired the development of the malaria parasite when produced by transgenic mosquitoes. Procurement Sea cucumbers are harvested from the environment, both legally and illegally, and are increasingly farmed via aquaculture. The harvested animals are normally dried for resale. In 2016, prices on Alibaba ranged up to $1,000/kg. Commercial harvest In recent years, the sea cucumber industry in Alaska has increased due to increased demand for the skins and muscles to China. Wild sea cucumbers are caught by divers. Wild Alaskan sea cucumbers have higher nutritional value and are larger than farmed Chinese sea cucumbers. Larger size and higher nutritional value has allowed the Alaskan fisheries to continue to compete for market share. One of Australia's oldest fisheries is the collection of sea cucumber, harvested by divers from throughout the Coral Sea in far North Queensland, Torres Straits and Western Australia. In the late 1800s as many as 400 divers operated from Cook Town, Queensland. Overfishing of sea cucumbers in the Great Barrier Reef is threatening their population. Their popularity as luxury seafood in East Asian countries poses a serious threat. Black market As of 2013 a thriving black market was driven by demand in China where at its peak might have sold for the equivalent of US$300 and a single sea cucumber for about US$160. A crackdown by governments both in and out of China reduced both prices and consumption, particularly among government officials who had been known to eat (and were able to afford purchasing) the most expensive and rare species. In the Caribbean Sea off the shores of the Yucatán Peninsula near fishing ports such as Dzilam de Bravo, illegal harvesting had devastated the population and resulted in conflict as rival gangs struggled to control the harvest. Aquaculture Overexploitation of sea cucumber stocks in many parts of the world provided motivation for the development of sea cucumber aquaculture in the early 1980s. The Chinese and Japanese were the first to develop successful hatchery technology on Apostichopus japonicus, prized for its high meat content and success in commercial hatcheries. Using techniques pioneered by the Chinese and Japanese, a second species, Holothuria scabra, was cultured for the first time in India in 1988. In recent years Australia, Indonesia, New Caledonia, Maldives, Solomon Islands and Vietnam have successfully cultured H. scabra using the same technology, and now culture other species. Conservation In 2020, the Indian government created the world's first sea cucumber conservation area, the Dr KK Mohammed Koya Sea Cucumber Conservation Reserve, to protect the sea cucumber species. In India, the commercial harvesting and transportation of sea cucumbers is banned. In popular culture Edgar Allan Poe's only novel, The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket (1838), includes in its 20th chapter a long, detailed description of sea cucumbers, which the narrator calls biche de mer. In Kir Bulychov's science-fiction novella, "Half a Life", a human being kidnapped by alien machines described her fellow alien prisoners as "trepangs". The first movement of French composer Erik Satie's Embryons desséchés is titled "D'Holothournie". It is said to emulate the "purring" of the Holothourian. Sea cucumbers have inspired thousands of haiku in Japan, where they are called namako (海鼠), written with characters that can be translated as "sea mice" (an example of gikun). In English translations of these haiku, they are usually called "sea slugs». According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English term "sea slug" was originally applied to holothurians during the 18th century. The term is now applied to several groups of sea snails, marine gastropod mollusks that have no shell or only a very reduced shell, including the nudibranchs. Almost 1,000 Japanese holothurian haiku translated into English appear in the book Rise, Ye Sea Slugs! by Robin D. Gill. Nobel laureate poet Wisława Szymborska wrote a poem which mentions holothurians, titled "Autotomy". In the book John Dies at the End, the character Amy Sullivan was nicknamed "Cucumber" by the narrator/author when the two were children. This is assumed by other characters to have a sexual connotation but is actually a reference to her frequent nausea. The name is in reference to a sea cucumber's use of vomiting as a method of self-defense. A descriptive passage in American novelist Cormac McCarthy's 1985 anti-Western Blood Meridian likens cactus embers to holothurians: "In the thorn forest through which they'd passed the little desert wolves yapped and on the dry plain before them others answered and the wind fanned the coals that he watched. The bones of cholla that glowed there in their incandescent basketry pulsed like burning holothurians in the phosphorous dark of the sea's deeps." 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240617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswestry	Oswestry	Oswestry ( ) () is a market town, civil parish and historic railway town in Shropshire, England, close to the Welsh border. It is at the junction of the A5, A483 and A495 roads. The town was the administrative headquarters of the Borough of Oswestry until that was abolished under local government reorganisation with effect from 1 April 2009. Oswestry is the third-largest town in Shropshire, following Telford and Shrewsbury. The 2011 Census recorded the population of the civil parish as 17,105 (up almost 10% from 15,613 in 2001) and the urban area as 16,660. The town is five miles (8 km) from the Welsh border and has a mixed English and Welsh heritage. Oswestry is the largest settlement within the Oswestry Uplands, a designated natural area and national character area. Etymology The name Oswestry is first attested in 1191, as Oswaldestroe. This Middle English name transparently derives from the Old English personal name Ōswald and the word trēow ('tree'). Thus the name seems once to have meant 'tree of a man called Ōswald'. However, the traditional Welsh name for the town, (first attested in 1254), means 'Oswald's cross', and 'cross' is a possible meaning of Old English trēow. Thus the town's name may have meant 'Oswald's cross' in both English and Welsh. The Oswald mentioned is widely imagined to have been Oswald of Northumbria, who died at the Battle of Maserfield in 641/642. The location of the battle is debated among scholars, but for much of the twentieth century was assumed to be at Oswestry. However, A. D. Mills's Dictionary of English Place Names concluded that 'the traditional connection with St Oswald, 7th-century king of Northumbria, is uncertain'. The name and the association with King Oswald have attracted more fanciful interpretations. According to legend, one of the dismembered Oswald's arms was carried to an ash tree by a raven. Miracles were subsequently attributed to the tree, and the legend has it that this was "Oswald's Tree", and gave its name to the town. A spring called 'Oswald's Well' is supposed to have originated where the bird dropped the arm from the tree, though one historian has suggested that it was likely to have had sacred associations long before Oswald's time. The water from the well was believed to have healing properties, particularly for curing eye trouble. Offa's Dyke runs near the well, to the west. There is an alternative view that Oswestry was named after Oswy, Oswald's brother, who fought a battle here against King Penda in 655 AD. Oswy became King of Northumbria after Oswald's death in 642 AD. The battle of 655 AD was fought near to a river called the Winwead, which it is believed, was the nearby River Vyrnwy. Welsh folklore has it that this battle was called the battle of Pengwern and in it their leader Cynddylan was also killed. History Prehistory The earliest known human settlement in Oswestry is Old Oswestry, one of the best-preserved Iron Age hill forts in Britain, with evidence of construction and occupation between 800BC and 43AD. The site is known in Welsh as Caer Ogyrfan, meaning 'City of Gogyrfan', referring to the father of Guinevere in Arthurian legend. Saxon times The Battle of Maserfield is widely thought to have been fought at Oswestry in 641 or 642, between the Anglo-Saxon kings Penda of Mercia and Oswald of Northumbria. However, the location of the battle is debated among scholars. The Conquest The Domesday Book (1086) records the castle being built by Rainald, a Norman Sheriff of Shropshire: (). Alan fitz Flaad (died c.1120), a Breton knight, was granted the feudal barony of Oswestry by King Henry I who, soon after his accession, invited Alan to England with other Breton friends, and gave him forfeited lands in Norfolk and Shropshire, including some which had previously belonged to Ernulf de Hesdin (killed at Antioch while on crusade) and Robert of Bellême. Alan's duties to the Crown included supervision of the Welsh border. He also founded Sporle Priory in Norfolk. He married Ada or Adeline, daughter of Ernulf de Hesdin. Their eldest son William FitzAlan was made High Sheriff of Shropshire by King Stephen in 1137. He married a niece of Robert of Gloucester. Alan's younger son, Walter, travelled to Scotland in the train of King David I, Walter becoming the first hereditary Steward of Scotland and ancestor of the Stewart Royal family. Border town The town changed hands between the English and the Welsh a number of times during the Middle Ages and still retains some Welsh-language street and place names. In 1972, ITV broadcast a television report asking residents if they thought the town should be English or Welsh, with mixed responses. In 1149 the castle was captured by Madog ap Maredudd during 'The Anarchy', and it remained in Welsh hands until 1157. Occasionally in the 13th century it is referred to in official records as Blancmuster (1233) or Blancmostre (1272), meaning "White Minster". Later, Oswestry was attacked by the forces of Welsh rebel leader Owain Glyndŵr during the early years of his rebellion against the English King Henry IV in 1400; it became known as Pentrepoeth or "hot village" as it was burned and nearly totally destroyed by the Welsh. The castle was reduced to a pile of rocks during the English Civil War. The town is now the home of the Shropshire libraries' Welsh Collection. Market town In 1190 the town was granted the right to hold a market each Wednesday. The town built walls for protection, but these were torn down in the English Civil War by the Parliamentarians after they took the town from the Royalists after a brief siege on 22 June 1644, leaving only the Newgate Pillar visible today. After the foot and mouth outbreak in the late 1960s the animal market was moved out of the town centre. In the 1990s, a statue of a shepherd and sheep was installed in the market square as a memorial to the history of the market site. Military Park Hall, a mile east of the town, was taken over by the Army during World War I in 1915 and used as a training camp and military hospital. On 26 December 1918 it burnt to the ground following an electrical fault. The ruined hall and camp remained derelict between the wars, the camp hospital, however, was still in use; the Baschurch Convalescent and Surgical Home moved there in February 1921 and it became known as the Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital. One of the main uses of the land from the 1920s was for motorcycle racing and it became quite a well-known circuit. The camp was reactivated in July 1939 for Royal Artillery training and the Plotting Officers' School. Following World War II, Oswestry was a prominent military centre for Canadian troops, then for the British Royal Artillery, and finally a training centre for 15 to 17-year-old Infantry Junior Leaders. The camp closed in 1975. During the 1970s some local licensed wildfowlers discharged their shotguns at some passing ducks and were shot themselves by a young military guard, who had mistaken them for an attacking IRA force. The area previously occupied by the Park Hall military camp is now mainly residential and agricultural land, with a small number of light industrial units. Park Hall Farm became a visitor attraction in 1998, it is home to the Museum of the Welsh Guards. The Park Hall Football Stadium (home of The New Saints FC) and The Venue is now closed . Landmarks Old Oswestry, situated on the northern edge of the town, dominates the northern and eastern approaches. The 3,000-year-old settlement is one of the most spectacular and best preserved Iron Age hill forts in Britain, with evidence of construction and occupation between 800 BC and AD 43. Other attractions in and around Oswestry include: Park, Shelf Bank, Wilfred Owen Green, Saint Oswald's Well at Maserfield, Oswestry Castle, and the Cambrian Railway Museum located near the former railway station. Oswestry Guildhall, the meeting place of Oswestry Town Council, was completed in 1893. A story incorporating the names of all of the many pubs once open in Oswestry can be found hanging on a wall inside The Oak Inn on Church Street. There is a tapestry of 40 Oswestry pub signs on display in Oswestry Guildhall on the Bailey Head. The Stonehouse Brewery was opened in 2007, on the site of the former Weston Wharf railway station at Weston, in nearby Oswestry Rural; Stonehouse Brewery supplies many of the pubs with real ale. Brogyntyn Hall, which belonged until recently to the Lords Harlech, lies just outside the town. Brogyntyn Park is five and a half acres of parkland occupying the southern slope of the Grade II listed Brogyntyn Estate. It was gifted to Oswestry Town Council by the fourth Lord Harlech, William Ormsby-Gore, on 11 August 1952. Culture There is a range of arts related activities in the town. The Qube Oswestry Visitor & Exhibition Centre Willow Gallery The Oswestry Town Museum Cambrian Railways Museum Attfield Theatre Fusion Arts organises arts and music activities for young people. Kinokulture, a cinema Hermon Chapel Arts Centre Oswestry Choral Society, the Oswestry Recorded Music Society, and the Oswestry Ladies Choir has developed. OsRocks Choir Wilfred Owen Green Borderlines Film Festival The Oswestry Food and Drink Festival Oswestry Balloon Festival The Whittington International Chamber Music Festival Religion In the 2011 Census, 68.7% of the population of Shropshire stated that their religion was 'Christian'. The second largest group (22.8%) stated that they had 'no religion'. There are a number of places of worship in Oswestry. Oswestry is divided into two Church of England parishes, which are part of the Diocese of Lichfield: Holy Trinity, which ecompasses Oswestry East and eastern part of Oswestry Rural; and St. Oswald, which ecompasses Oswestry South, Oswestry West and the western part of Oswestry Rural. Each parish has its own parish church. St Oswald's Church was first mentioned in the 1085 Domesday book and a tithe document in Shrewsbury the same year. St Oswald's Church is Grade II* listed, having a tower dating from late 12th or early 13th century and later additions particularly in the 17th and 19th centuries. There is a new window in the east nave, designed by stained glass artist Jane Grey in 2004. The town of Oswestry and surrounding villages fall into the parish of Our Lady Help of Christians and St Oswald, in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. The single Catholic church is Our Lady and St Oswald's Catholic Church. There is an associated primary school. There are two Methodist churches: the Horeb Church on Victoria Road and the Oswestry Methodist Church. Cornerstone Baptist Church is on the corner of Lower Brook Street and Roft Street in a modern 1970s building. Other Nonconformist churches include the Albert Road Evangelical Church, Hope Church (formerly Church, ), founded in 1964, and the Cabin Lane Church, established by members of the Hope Church in 1991 following the eastern expansion of Oswestry. Christ Church, formerly Congregationalist but now shared by the United Reformed Church and the Presbyterian Church of Wales, was the home church of the composer Walford Davies, who sang in the choir. There is a Welsh-speaking church, the Church, and the Holy Anglican Church, a Western Rite Anglican establishment. Coney Green has a Jehovah's Witness Kingdom Hall. The Religious Society of Friends also holds meetings in Oswestry. The Grade II* star Hermon Chapel, by chapel architect Thomas Thomas, was a Welsh-speaking Congregational church and is now an arts and community centre. A small Muslim community exists in the town. A plan to transform a 19th-century former Presbyterian church on Oswald Road into a permanent base for meetings and prayer services fell through in March 2013 due to the cost. New plans were submitted to Shropshire Council for approval in 2019, to convert the former Salvation Army citadel in King Street into an Islamic Prayer Centre. These plans were eventually approved by Shropshire Council. There is a small Orthodox Christian community in Oswestry, which has increased in size over years due to the town's growing Bulgarian community. There is no Orthodox church in Oswestry, however, so congregants have to travel to the Greek Orthodox Community of the Holy Fathers of Nicaea, Shrewsbury, to worship. There used to be an Orthodox outreach at Holy Trinity Church for a few years, but a disagreement over the church layout brought this service to an end. Congregants also used to benefit from a Greek Orthodox priest at Weston Rhyn, who left the area in the 1990s. Healthcare The Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic Hospital NHS Trust in Oswestry provides elective orthopaedic surgery and musculoskeletal medical services. The hospital is located towards Gobowen. There is a Health Centre on Thomas Savin Road, next to Shelf Bank and opposite the bus station. Within the Health Centre is the Oswestry Minor Injuries Unit, Cambrian Medical Centre and a range of services run by Shropshire Community Health NHS Trust. There are three other GP surgeries situated within the town, and numerous opticians, pharmacists and dentists. Education Oswestry is home to the second oldest 'free' (which in this context means not linked to any ecclesiastical foundation) school in the country, Oswestry School, which was founded in 1407. (The oldest, Winchester College, was founded in 1382.) Oswestry School's 15th century site, adjacent to St Oswald's Parish Church, is now a heritage centre, housing the Tourist Information Centre, Shropshire Poacher Coffee Shop, and exhibitions. There are four state primary schools in Oswestry: The Meadows Primary School, Cabin Lane; Woodside Primary School, Gittin Street; Holy Trinity C.E. Primary Academy & Nursery, Beech Grove and Middleton Road; and Our Lady & St. Oswald's Catholic Primary School, Upper Brook Street. There is also an independent co-educational preparatory school in Church Street, Bellan House, which is run by Oswestry School. Secondary education is provided by both Oswestry School and the state secondary school with academy status: The Marches School, Morda Road. Further education is provided by The Marches School's Sixth Form and the North Shropshire College which is situated in the town at Shrewsbury Road and at the Walford Campus near Baschurch. Transport Oswestry is at the junction of the A5 with the A483 and A495. The A5 continues from Shrewsbury to the north, passing the town, before turning west near Chirk and entering Wales. Bus services are operated by Arriva Midlands and local independents Tanat Valley Coaches, Lakeside Coaches and Owen's Travelmaster. The town has regular bus routes that link nearby villages and towns including Wrexham and Shrewsbury. Gobowen railway station is 2 miles from the northern edge of Oswestry. It has direct services to Birmingham, Cardiff, Chester and North Wales. The original station name board 'Gobowen for Oswestry' is permanently displayed on the station platform. Canals The Llangollen Branch of the Shropshire Union Canal runs from Ellesmere to Llangollen, running east of the town at Hindford and on through Chirk, north. A navigable section of the partially restored Montgomery Canal, runs from Frankton Junction (connecting to the Llangollen Branch of the Shropshire Union Canal) to Newtown. Historic railways The railway station, once on the main line of the Cambrian Railways, was closed in 1966 as a consequence of the Beeching cuts. Opened in 1840, the section from Whitchurch to Welshpool (Buttington Junction), via Ellesmere, Whittington, Oswestry and Llanymynech, closed on 18 January 1965, leaving only a short branch line from to continue to serve Oswestry – but only until 7 November 1966. This former Great Western Railway (GWR) branch had once run into a separate GWR Oswestry terminus, but this has long since disappeared and the land redeveloped as a bus station and supermarket. Trains were re-routed into the main Cambrian station from 7 July 1924. The main building of the Cambrian station is still a prominent landmark in the town centre: it once housed the headquarters of the Cambrian Railways company. After restoration, this building was reopened as the Cambrian Visitor Centre in June 2006 but closed on 11 January 2008. It later reopened, and has since evolved into the headquarters of the Cambrian Heritage Railways (CHR) and a small catering establishment known as "Buffers"; other parts of the building have been converted into retail and office units to contribute to the upkeep of the building. A single railway track still runs through the station, once overgrown and rusting, it has been cleared and repaired and is the subject of an ambitious plan to reopen the line as a steam heritage railway between Oswestry and Llanyblodwel and Pant (to link with the restored Montgomery Canal – see above), and as a sustainable community transport rail link from Oswestry to the National Rail railway station at Gobowen. By 2013, the main "up" platform at Oswestry station had been reconstructed and some new semaphore signalling installed. The branch-line track-bed from south of Gobowen to Llanyblodwel is now owned by Shropshire Council, who lease the land to CHR, a registered charity. Work is advancing in securing the transfer of the existing Transport & Works Act Order (TWAO) from Network Rail to CHR. The aim was for this transfer to be completed by 2014, and for the railway line between Gobowen and Oswestry to be fully re-instated and operational by 2017; however the legal process of the TWAO Unit administering a form of written debate between the proposer and objectors with a guided number of exchanges, was still ongoing in mid 2016. CHR purchase of the final section of the Oswestry to Gobowen railway branch line was completed in April 2016; nevertheless, other hurdles to becoming operational, such as permissions and finances to reinstate the level crossings on the main A5/A483 Trunk Roads, will also need to be overcome. Immediately to the south of Oswestry Railway Station is the Cambrian Railways Museum; while a short distance to the north are the "listed" Works Bridge and the former Cambrian Railways works, which are now occupied by a variety of local commerce concerns and Oswestry's Community Health Centre and ambulance facility. Sport Since 2013, the town has been represented in football by F.C. Oswestry Town, who are currently members of the North West Counties Football League Division One South. The former local football club, Oswestry Town F.C., was one of the few English teams to compete in the League of Wales. It also won the Welsh Cup in 1884, 1901 and 1907. The club folded due to financial difficulties in 2003 and merged with Total Network Solutions F.C. of Llansantffraid, a village eight miles (13 km) away on the Welsh side of the border. Following the takeover of the club's sponsor in 2006, the club was renamed as The New Saints. They moved to the redeveloped Park Hall Stadium on the outskirts of the town in September 2007. The New Saints or TNS is a full-time-professional football club that play in the Welsh Premier League, which they have won a record twelve times. Oswestry Lions F.C. of the Shropshire County League also play at the ground. Recreation and leisure From the 1700s to 1848, there was a popular racecourse outside the town. Known as (), the site was chosen on this high hilltop because of its location between the Kingdom of England and the Principality of Wales, and the aim was to bring together the local landowners and gentry of Wales and England. Remnants of the old grandstand and figure-of-eight racetrack can still be seen. Nowadays, Oswestry Race Course is common land, registered under the Commons Act 1899 and the Countryside and Rights of Way Act 2000, with a number of rights of way on the South Common including Offa's Dyke Path and Bridleway. Also designated as a publicly accessible open space and a Wildlife Site in the 1999 Local Plan, it is an area reserved for: quiet, informal leisure activities and recreation; the biological diversity of the matrix of heathland, sparse woodland, ponds and ditches; and the sustainable management and conservation of nature and wildlife. The site provides extensive views across the surrounding landscape of England and Wales. The to Chirk Mill section of the Offa's Dyke Path National Trail crosses the common. Twin towns Oswestry is twinned with: Notable people Arts and media Guto'r Glyn (c1412-c1493) Welsh bard, resident of the town as appears from poem, In Praise of Oswestry. Shirley Brooks (1816–1874) journalist, novelist and editor of Punch, lived there when training as a solicitor 1832–38 William Archibald Spooner (1844–1930) Oxford don, originator of the Spoonerism, educated at Oswestry School Sir Henry Walford Davies KCVO OBE (1869 in Oswestry – 1941) composer, Master of the Queen's Music 1934 / 1941 Wilfred Owen MC (1893 in Oswestry – 1918) poet and soldier in the first World War Ivor Roberts-Jones RA (1913 in Oswestry – 1996) sculptor, sculpted Sir Winston Churchill in Parliament Square Barbara Pym (1913 in Oswestry – 1980) novelist, Booker Prize nominee 1977 Michael Croft OBE (1922 in Hengoed – 1986) actor, schoolteacher and writer. Frank Bough (1933-2020) former television presenter, went to school in Oswestry Ian Hunter (born 1939 in Oswestry) lead singer of the English rock band Mott the Hoople 1969 / 1974 Philip Llewellin (1940 in Oswestry – 2005) journalist and writer, went to Oswestry School Paul Jerricho (born 1948 in Oswestry) actor, educated at Oswestry School Peter Edwards (born 1955) BP Portrait Award-winning artist, went to Oswestry school Jesse Armstrong (born in Oswestry c. 1972) comedy writer, best known for the Channel 4 sitcom Peep Show and the BBC political satire The Thick of It. Public service Roger Palmer, 1st Earl of Castlemaine (1634–1705) courtier and diplomat Owen Owen (1850–1920) teacher, headmaster and school inspector in Wales Harold Whitfield (1886–1956) Victoria Cross recipient Francis Humphrys (1879–1971) cricketer, colonial administrator and diplomat John Lloyd Williams MC (1894-unknown), World War I flying ace, Chief Constable of Cardiganshire Trevor Rees-Jones (1968-) bodyguard of Diana, Princess of Wales Religion and politics William FitzAlan, Lord of Oswestry (1105–1160) nobleman of Breton ancestry, major landowner and a Marcher lord John FitzAlan, Lord of Oswestry, Clun and Arundel (1223–1267) Marcher Lord with lands in the Welsh Marches. David Holbache (c.1355 – c.1422) Welsh politician, MP for Shropshire, founded Oswestry School in 1407. Robert Ussher, (1592–1642) Provost of Trinity College, Dublin and Bishop of Kildare, buried at Doddleston Chapel, near Oswestry Thomas Bray (c.1657–1730) clergyman and abolitionist, went to Oswestry School Stanley Leighton (1837 – 1901) barrister, landowner, artist, antiquarian and Conservative MP for Oswestry 1885 / 1901 Francis Jayne (1845-1921), former Bishop of Chester, died in retirement at Oswestry. George Ormsby-Gore, 3rd Baron Harlech (1855–1938) British soldier and Conservative MP for Oswestry 1901 / 1904 William Griffith Thomas (1861 in Oswestry – 1924) Anglican cleric and scholar William Bridgeman, 1st Viscount Bridgeman (1864–1935) Home Secretary 1922 / 1924 and Conservative MP for Oswestry 1906 / 1929 Kate Williams Evans (1866-1961) suffragette, died in Oswestry Bertie Leighton (1875–1952) Army officer, landowner and Conservative MP for Oswestry 1929 / 1945 David Ormsby-Gore, 5th Baron Harlech (1918–1985) diplomat and Conservative MP for Oswestry 1950 / 1961 John Biffen (1930–2007) respectfully regarded Conservative MP for Oswestry 1961 / 1997 George Foulkes, Baron Foulkes of Cumnock (born 1942 in Oswestry) former Scottish Labour Co-operative MP, now life peer Science, medicine and business Thomas Mainwaring Penson (1818 in Oswestry – 1864) surveyor and architect, educated at Oswestry School Thomas Savin (1826 in Llwynymaen – 1889 in Oswestry) railway engineer, buried Oswestry Cemetery Edward Weston (1850 in Oswestry – 1936) chemist, developed electroplating and the Weston cell in the USA Northcote W. Thomas (1868 in Oswestry - 1936) British anthropologist and psychical researcher Katharine Lloyd-Williams CBE (1896 in Oswestry – 1973) anaesthetist, general practitioner and medical educator Gordon Jackson Rees (1918 in Oswestry – 2001) anesthesiologist and a pioneer in pediatric anesthesia Dame Steve Shirley CH DBE FREng FBCS (born 1933) information technology pioneer, businesswoman and philanthropist, Kindertransport child refugee, lived at Oswestry for six years and attended Oswestry Girls' High School. Sir Malcolm Walker CBE (born 1946 in Yorkshire) Founded the supermarket chain Iceland in the town in 1970 Per Lindstrand (born 1948) Swedish aeronautical engineer and pilot, founded Lindstrand Balloons in Oswestry Ian Robertson CMG (born 1958 in Oswestry) automotive executive, MD of Land Rover, now on the Board of BMW Group Sports Alfred Payne (1849 in Oswestry – 1927) cricketer for the Marylebone Cricket Club Di Jones (1867 in Trefonen – 1902) Welsh international footballer, 340 club caps for Bolton Wanderers F.C. and Manchester City F.C. Charlie Morris (1880 in Oswestry – 1952) footballer, 277 club caps for Derby County F.C. George Wynn (1886 in Treflach – 1966) Welsh professional footballer Herbie Roberts (1905 in Oswestry – 1944) footballer, 297 club caps for Arsenal F.C. Harry Cooke (1919 in Oswestry - 1992) footballer, 228 club caps for Luton Town Harry Weetman (1920 in Oswestry - 1972) golfer Fred Morris (1929 in Oswestry – 1998) footballer, 350 club caps, mainly for Walsall F.C. Andy Lloyd (1956 in Oswestry) England test cricketer and captain of Warwickshire CCC Ian Woosnam OBE (born 1958 in Oswestry) Welsh professional golfer Carl Griffiths (born 1971 in Oswestry) retired footballer, 334 club caps beginning at Shrewsbury Town F.C. Darren Ryan (born 1972 in Oswestry) former footballer, over 300 club caps; now trains youngsters at Wolves Paul Evans (born 1974 in Oswestry) retired footballer, 475 club caps beginning at Shrewsbury Town F.C. Boaz Myhill (born 1982) football goalkeeper, over 350 club caps, mostly for Hull City F.C. Amy Hughes (born 1987) marathon runner, a sports therapist in Oswestry Matt Done (born 1988 in Oswestry) professional footballer, over 350 club caps, plays for Rochdale See also Listed buildings in Oswestry Battle of Oswestry - Civil War References External links Oswestry Town Council Holy wells in England Market towns in Shropshire Towns of the Welsh Marches Towns in Shropshire Railway towns in England Civil parishes in Shropshire	[ -0.33374452590942383, 0.36537641286849976, 0.4934280812740326, -1.0635147094726562, 0.36561119556427, 0.466413676738739, 0.1318180412054062, 0.5039811730384827, -0.09958060830831528, -0.2880948781967163, -0.44355517625808716, 0.08821912854909897, -0.14644819498062134, 0.2692110538482666, -0.6173758506774902, 0.3536275029182434, 0.31234094500541687, 0.4625883400440216, -0.06852734833955765, -0.643146812915802, 0.11883611977100372, -0.27283746004104614, -0.4968024492263794, 0.41063711047172546, -0.08457790315151215, -0.3413500189781189, 0.39417484402656555, 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240633	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegukga	Aegukga	"Aegukga" (; ; "Patriotic Song"), often translated as "The Patriotic Song", is the national anthem of Republic of Korea. It was adopted in 1948, the year the country was founded. Its music was composed in the 1930s and arranged most recently in 2018; its lyrics date back to the 1890s. The lyrics of "Aegukga" were originally set to the music of the Scottish song "Auld Lang Syne" before Ahn Eak-tai composed a unique melody specifically for it in 1936. Before the founding of South Korea, the song's lyrics, set to the music of "Auld Lang Syne", was sung, as well as during Korea under Japanese rule by dissidents. The version set to the melody composed by Ahn Eak-tai was adopted as the national anthem of the Korean exile government, which existed during Korea's occupation by Japan from the early 1910s to the mid-1940s. "Aegukga" has four verses, but on most occasions only the first one, followed by the chorus, is sung when performed publicly at events such as baseball games and football matches. Etymology Aegukga literally means 'Patriotic song'.The Encyclopedia of Korean Culture defines "Aegukga" as "the song to wake up the mind to love the country". "Aegukga" in itself is differentiated from a national anthem. While a national anthem or gukga () is an official symbol of the state, aegukga refers to any song, official or unofficial, that contains patriotic fervor towards its country, such as Hungary's "Szózat" or the U.S. "The Stars and Stripes Forever". However, the nationally designated "Aegukga" plays the role of symbolizing the country. In general shorthand, the term aegukga refers to the national anthem of South Korea. Nevertheless, there are still more than ten other extant "Aegukgas" in South Korea. History Origins In the 1890s, the previously established Joseon dynasty began to contact other countries for the first time, including the United States, United Kingdom, and Russia. The meeting with foreign countries ultimately gave rise to nationalism and patriotism, which then created several "Aegugkas.” For instance, works in 1896 includes "Aegukga" created by Na Pil-gun, Han Myung-one, and Lee Yong-mu. On November 21, 1896, scholars from the Pai Chai school sang a version of "Aegukga" at the Independence Gate cornerstone-laying ceremony. However, this song differs from the song sung by the Military Academy in 1898 and from the songs sung on the birthday of the former emperor. However, a book from the Korean Empire era in 1900 has a record of a national anthem. It was called the "Korean Empire Aegukga,” or literally the "Anthem of the Greater Korean Empire.” That composition is commonly believed to have been written by Franz Eckert, who also arranged the Japanese national anthem. Some people contend that records documenting Franz Eckert's actions show that it was physically impossible for him to write the anthem. It is guessed that the song sung by the Paejae school was the Scottish song "Auld Lang Syne" and that the song sung by the Military Academy is a version of the British song "God Save the Queen.” The song attributed to Eckert was established by the military in 1902. A version of Eckert's song with different lyrics began to be officially implemented in the schools in 1904. All the schools were forced to sing the version of the song. The policy is thought of as a by-product of the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905 and the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1907. There are many theories concerning the writer of the currently official lyrics of "Aegukga.” It is most commonly believed that the lyrics were written for the cornerstone-laying ceremony of the Independence Gate in Seoul in 1896 by Yun Chi-ho, a Korean politician. Later, Kim Gu during the Korean government-in-exile era, said to his comrades: "In the March 1st Movement, we had the Taegeukgi and the Aegukga. Why should who wrote it be an issue?" He wrote: "The lyrics and the anthem's spirit are more important than the nature of the lyricist." Other theories name the lyricist as An Chang-ho, Choi Byung-hun, Kim In-sik, Min Yeong-hwan, or some combination of the aforementioned writers. A committee was established in 1955 by the government to determine authorship of the lyrics, on the request of the United States, but it concluded that there was not enough evidence to favor anyone. Initially, "Aegukga" was sung to the tune of the Scottish folk song "Auld Lang Syne,” which was introduced to Korea by western missionaries. The Provisional Korean Government (1919–1945) in Shanghai, China, adopted it as their national anthem. At a ceremony celebrating the founding of South Korea on 15 August 1948, the Scottish tune was finally replaced by the Finale of "Korea Fantasia", which Ahn Eak-tai had composed in 1936, though its usage with it had been done unofficially for a few years before then. The new "Aegukga" was later adopted by the Presidential Decree of 1948 by the then South Korean President Syngman Rhee. During official ceremonies until 1987, "Aegukga" was preceded by four ruffles and flourishes, similar to the Taiwanese practice; today the anthem is played following the playing of the presidential honours music. Copyright Since the composer Ahn Eak-tai died in 1965, the copyright for the music was to not expire until at least 2036. Two South Korean professional football clubs were sued by a copyright holders' group for playing this song in December 2003. However, on March 16, 2005, the composer's widow—Lolita Ahn—and her family relinquished all rights to "Aegukga" to the South Korean government. "Aegukga" has since become a public domain song. Criticism The South Korean national anthem's lyrics have been criticised by professor of international studies Brian Reynolds Myers as being too focused on ethnic nationalism instead of civic republicanism. Myers believes that it fosters ethnic nationalist affinity towards a "Korean race" rather than patriotism towards the South Korean state itself. Myers claims that a side effect of this is increased sympathy among South Koreans for the North Korean regime under the guise of pan-ethnic nationalism, which could possibly endanger South Korea's national security in the face of a North Korean military threat. Lyrics Notes References External links Streaming audio, lyrics and info Republic of Korea National Anthem nationalanthems.info 아이러브 KBS 맹세문 애국가 다운로드 \| 경상남도교육청 업무 안내> 장차관직속기관> 의정관> 국가상징> 국민의례 "Aegugka" sung to the tune of "Auld Lang Syne" Asian anthems National symbols of South Korea South Korean songs Korean-language songs National anthems National anthem compositions in A major	[ -0.04410799592733383, 0.34783878922462463, 0.22324365377426147, -0.37537822127342224, -0.6433671116828918, 0.20773597061634064, 0.4475024342536926, 0.5622608661651611, -0.34213152527809143, -0.3311035633087158, -0.6440960764884949, 0.30312973260879517, -0.27800455689430237, 0.05193578451871872, -0.454131156206131, 0.5007333755493164, 0.41457119584083557, 0.6466403007507324, 0.11047979444265366, -0.5543302893638611, -0.35755056142807007, -0.05922773852944374, 0.5310589075088501, -0.3615092635154724, 1.047253131866455, -0.10868508368730545, 0.6750527024269104, 0.4183116853237152, 0.09854013472795486, 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240638	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth%20Metzler	Ruth Metzler	Ruth Metzler (born Arnold, 23 May 1964) is a Swiss politician who served as a Member of the Swiss Federal Council from 1999 to 2003. A member of the Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC), she headed the Federal Department of Justice and Police. Biography Political career Educated at the University of Fribourg, Metzler served as the cantonal executive in charge of finance in Appenzell Innerrhoden from 1996 to 1999. She was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 11 March 1999, as a member of the Christian Democratic People's Party. Metzler took office at the Federal Department of Justice and Police the following 1 May, succeeding Arnold Koller; she won 14 referendums during her time in office. On 1 January 2003, she assumed the vice presidency of the Swiss Confederation. On 10 December 2003, she became the third Federal Councillor not to be reelected in the history of the Swiss Federal State. In the 2003 Federal Assembly election, her party lost many voters and the Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC) became the largest party of Switzerland. The Swiss People's Party then requested another seat in the Federal Council. In the elections for the Federal Council on 10 December, the Federal Assembly did not reelect Metzler and elected Christoph Blocher instead, by 121 votes to 116 on the third round of voting. She challenged her CVP colleague Joseph Deiss for his seat, but lost by 138 to 96. Metzler kept her seat until the end of the year and Christoph Blocher succeeded her on 1 January 2004. After politics She published the memories of those years under the title "Grissini & Alpenbitter", 2004, . She taught between February and July 2004 at the University of St. Gallen a class called "Gestaltungsmöglichkeiten in der Politik" which can be translated as "scope for design in politics". Since April 2005 she has been working for the Swiss pharmaceutical company Novartis. References External links www.ruthmetzler.ch – personal website launched for the sale of her book \|- \|- 1964 births People from Sursee District Living people Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians University of Fribourg alumni Swiss lawyers Swiss Roman Catholics Swiss women lawyers Women members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) 20th-century women rulers 20th-century Swiss women politicians 21st-century Swiss women politicians 21st-century Swiss politicians 20th-century Swiss lawyers 21st-century Swiss lawyers 20th-century women lawyers 21st-century women lawyers	[ -0.41354823112487793, 0.03458552062511444, -0.18288564682006836, -0.4151408076286316, -0.15504297614097595, 0.9860340356826782, 0.5971704721450806, -0.1772276610136032, -0.6145845651626587, -0.04045513644814491, 0.019860535860061646, 0.33230555057525635, -0.12823405861854553, -0.038358189165592194, -0.19691182672977448, -0.0475795604288578, 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240643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular%20Democratic%20Party	Popular Democratic Party	Popular Democratic Party may refer to: Popular Democratic Party (Dominican Republic) Popular Democratic Party (France) Popular Democratic Party (Lebanon) Popular Democratic Party of Moldova Popular Democratic Party (Puerto Rico) Popular Democratic Party (Ukraine)	[ 0.23486053943634033, -0.3742154538631439, 0.38800859451293945, 0.545454204082489, -0.5462346076965332, 0.2468307465314865, -0.3792526125907898, 0.3839646577835083, -1.0254132747650146, 0.00993905309587717, 0.009541190229356289, 0.06978023797273636, -0.4377187490463257, 0.35358962416648865, -0.33962127566337585, 0.6450817584991455, 0.4409220814704895, 0.7442965507507324, -0.20198144018650055, -0.3257836401462555, -0.3029886782169342, 0.5054829120635986, 0.3888036012649536, -0.26977506279945374, -0.5079271793365479, 0.4475928843021393, 0.5451084971427917, 0.4179632365703583, -0.13985580205917358, -0.21076466143131256, -0.36380535364151, 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240644	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old%20Oswestry	Old Oswestry	Old Oswestry is a large early Iron Age hill fort in the Welsh Marches near Oswestry in north west Shropshire, England. The earthworks, which remain one of the best preserved hill forts in the UK, have been described as "The Stonehenge of the Iron Age Period". After the hill fort was abandoned, it was incorporated into Wat's Dyke by the Mercians during the Early Medieval period. The hill fort was designated as a scheduled monument in 1934. The site is now managed by English Heritage. The accessible hill fort gives panoramic views across North and Mid Wales, Cheshire and Shropshire. History The earliest occupation of the site began in the 8th century BC and continued up until the Roman conquest of Britain. Its inhabitants were either from the tribes of the Cornovii or Ordovices. The complexity of defences suggests there have been several phases of development. In the earliest period, a few round huts were sited on the undefended hillock. Subsequently these were enclosed by a double bank and ditch that enclosed . Entrances were placed at the east and west ends of the earthworks where the inner bank was pulled inwards to create large gateways. Later a third bank was added on all sides except the south east where the hill's steep incline made it unnecessary. The western entrance was re-modeled with unusual rectangular hollows separated by ridges dug out and defended by outworks. The eastern entrance was also strengthened with two further external circuits of banks and ditches. Despite the size of its fortifications, there is no evidence that the Roman Legions attacked Old Oswestry during their conquest of the region in the 50 CEs. In the Early Medieval period, it became associated as the birthplace of the ancient Brythonic queen "Ganhumara"; Guinevere of Arthurian legend. During the First World War, the Canadian Expeditionary Force stationed at nearby Park Hall camp used the earthworks for training purposes. Many large pits, trenches and craters from explosives irreparably damaged the interior site during these military activities. The war poet Wilfred Owen, who was born in Oswestry, completed his army training at the Park Hall camp which used the hill fort for trench warfare training. Preservation In 1939, Yorkshire geologist and amateur archaeologist William J Varley conducted the most extensive examination of the site. His work, which was not published until the 1990s, remains the most authoritative work on the site. His excavations showed that the complex defensive ramparts that surround the hill fort were not built at the same time and that there were four distinct phases in their development. The hill fort is now managed by English Heritage. Access is free. Since 2015, housing developers have been trying to get planning permission for new homes near the slopes of the ancient monument. However, an ongoing campaign (backed by local residents and archaeologists) has stalled these proposals. References External links Ancient Britain – Old Oswestry www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Old Oswestry and surrounding area today History and research into Old Oswestry: English Heritage Reconstruction drawing of what the hillfort might have looked like: Historic England Hill forts in Shropshire English Heritage sites in Shropshire Oswestry	[ -0.36015093326568604, 0.406690776348114, 0.09887944161891937, -1.2334957122802734, 0.3715018928050995, 0.5026299953460693, 0.1939774453639984, 0.4058939218521118, -0.15323688089847565, -0.08968491852283478, -0.25203844904899597, 0.1618855893611908, 0.03557860478758812, 0.22014150023460388, -0.7006553411483765, 0.685806930065155, 0.25543665885925293, 0.4253019094467163, 0.00327142421156168, -0.31029629707336426, 0.230682373046875, -0.4218675196170807, -0.5706487894058228, 0.2974529564380646, 0.35200828313827515, -0.318439245223999, 0.6656814217567444, -0.47854602336883545, 0.03738962113857269, -0.42693987488746643, 0.2005700170993805, 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240648	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guan%20Yu	Guan Yu	Guan Yu (; died January or February 220), courtesy name Yunchang, was a Chinese military general serving under the warlord Liu Bei during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. Along with Zhang Fei, he shared a brotherly relationship with Liu Bei and accompanied him on most of his early exploits. Guan Yu played a significant role in the events leading up to the end of the Han dynasty and the establishment of Liu Bei's state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period. While he is remembered for his loyalty towards Liu Bei, he is also known for repaying Cao Cao's kindness by slaying Yan Liang, a general under Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao, at the Battle of Boma. After Liu Bei gained control of Yi Province in 214, Guan Yu remained in Jing Province to govern and defend the area for about seven years. In 219, while he was away fighting Cao Cao's forces at the Battle of Fancheng, Liu Bei's ally Sun Quan broke the Sun–Liu alliance and sent his general Lü Meng to conquer Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. By the time Guan Yu found out about the loss of Jing Province after his defeat at Fancheng, it was too late. He was subsequently captured in an ambush by Sun Quan's forces and executed. Guan Yu's life was lionised and his achievements glorified to such an extent after his death that he was deified during the Sui dynasty. Through generations of storytelling, culminating in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, his deeds and moral qualities have been given immense emphasis, making Guan Yu one of East Asia's most popular paradigms of loyalty and righteousness. He is still worshipped by many Chinese people today. In religious devotion he is reverentially called the "Emperor Guan" (Guān Dì) or "Lord Guan" (Guān Gōng). He is a deity worshipped in Chinese folk religion, popular Confucianism, Taoism, and Chinese Buddhism, and small shrines to him are almost ubiquitous in traditional Chinese shops and restaurants. Historical sources The authoritative historical source on Guan Yu's life is the Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) written by Chen Shou in the third century. During the fifth century, Pei Songzhi annotated the Sanguozhi by incorporating information from other sources to Chen Shou's original work and adding his personal comments. Some alternative texts used in the annotations to Guan Yu's biography include: Shu Ji (Records of Shu), by Wang Yin; Wei Shu (Book of Wei), by Wang Chen, Xun Yi and Ruan Ji; Jiang Biao Zhuan, by Yu Pu; Fu Zi, by Fu Xuan; Dianlue, by Yu Huan; Wu Li (History of Wu), by Hu Chong; and Chronicles of Huayang, by Chang Qu. Physical appearance No explicit descriptions of Guan Yu's physical appearance exist in historical records, however the Sanguozhi recorded that Zhuge Liang once referred to Guan Yu as having a "peerless beard". Traditionally, Guan Yu is portrayed as a red-faced warrior with a long, lush beard. The idea of his red face may have been derived from a description of him in Chapter 1 of the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, where the following passage appears: Alternatively, the idea of his red face could have been borrowed from opera representation, where red faces represented loyalty and righteousness. In illustrations of Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Guan Yu is traditionally depicted wearing a green robe over his body armour. Supposedly, Guan Yu's weapon was a guan dao named Green Dragon Crescent Blade, which resembled a podao, glaive, or naginata and was said to weigh 82 catties (about 49.2 kg or 108.4674 lbs). Early life and career Guan Yu was from Xie County (), Hedong Commandery, which is present-day Yuncheng, Shanxi. His original courtesy name was Changsheng (). He was very studious, and was interested in the ancient history book Zuo zhuan and could fluently recite lines from it.” He fled from his hometown for unknown reasons and went to Zhuo Commandery. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in the 180s, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei joined a volunteer militia formed by Liu Bei, and they assisted a colonel Zou Jing in suppressing the revolt. When Liu Bei was appointed as the Minister () of Pingyuan, Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were appointed as Majors of Separate Command (), each commanding detachments of soldiers under Liu Bei. The three of them were as close as brothers and they shared the same room. Zhang Fei and Guan Yu also stood guard beside Liu Bei when he sat down at meetings. They followed him on his exploits and protected him from danger, and for their military prowess were appraised as "enemy of ten-thousand".” Guan Yu was noted for his kindness towards his soldiers and fealty to Liu Bei akin to family, but had no respect for the gentry and treated them without courtesy. Short service under Cao Cao Background Liu Bei and his men followed Cao Cao back to the imperial capital Xu after their victory over Lü Bu at the Battle of Xiapi in 198. About a year later, Liu Bei and his followers escaped from Xu under the pretext of helping Cao Cao lead an army to attack Yuan Shu. Liu Bei went to Xu Province, killed the provincial inspector Che Zhou (), and seized control of the province. He moved to Xiaopei and left Guan Yu in charge of the provincial capital Xiapi. In 200, Cao Cao led his forces to attack Liu Bei, defeated him and retook Xu Province. Liu Bei fled to northern China and found refuge under Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao, while Guan Yu was captured by Cao Cao's forces and brought back to Xu. Cao Cao treated Guan Yu respectfully and asked Emperor Xian to appoint Guan Yu as a Lieutenant-General (). Battle of Boma Later that year, Yuan Shao sent his general Yan Liang to lead an army to attack Cao Cao's garrison at Boma (; near present-day Hua County, Henan), which was defended by Liu Yan (). Cao Cao sent Zhang Liao and Guan Yu to lead the vanguard to engage the enemy. In the midst of battle, Guan Yu recognised Yan Liang's parasol so he charged towards Yan Liang, decapitated him and returned with his head. Yan Liang's men could not stop him. With Yan Liang's death, the siege on Boma was lifted. On Cao Cao's recommendation, Emperor Xian awarded Guan Yu the peerage of "Marquis of Hanshou Village" (). Leaving Cao Cao Although Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character, he also sensed that Guan Yu had no intention of serving under him for long. He told Zhang Liao, "Why don't you make use of your friendship with Guan Yu to find out what he wants?" When Zhang Liao asked him, Guan Yu replied, "I am aware that Lord Cao treats me very generously. However, I have also received many favours from General Liu and I have sworn to follow him until I die. I cannot break my oath. I will leave eventually, so maybe you can help me convey my message to Lord Cao." Zhang Liao did so, and Cao Cao was even more impressed with Guan Yu. The Fu Zi gave a slightly different account of this incident. It recorded that Zhang Liao faced a dilemma of whether or not to convey Guan Yu's message to Cao Cao: if he did, Cao Cao might execute Guan Yu; if he did not, he would be failing in his service to Cao Cao. He sighed, "Lord Cao is my superior and he is like a father to me, while Guan Yu is like a brother to me." He eventually decided to tell Cao Cao. Cao Cao said, "A subject who serves his lord but doesn't forget his origins is truly a man of righteousness. When do you think he will leave?" Zhang Liao replied, "Guan Yu has received favours from Your Excellency. He will most probably leave after he has repaid your kindness." After Guan Yu slew Yan Liang and lifted the siege on Baima, Cao Cao knew that he would leave soon so he gave Guan Yu greater rewards. Guan Yu sealed up all the gifts he received from Cao Cao, wrote a farewell letter, and headed towards Yuan Shao's territory to find Liu Bei. Cao Cao's subordinates wanted to pursue Guan Yu, but Cao Cao stopped them and said, "He's just doing his duty to his lord. There's no need to pursue him." Pei Songzhi commented on this as follows: "Cao Cao admired Guan Yu's character even though he knew that Guan Yu would not remain under him. He did not send his men to pursue Guan Yu when Guan Yu left, so as to allow Guan Yu to fulfil his allegiance (to Liu Bei). If he was not as magnanimous as a great warlord should be, how would he allow this to happen? This was an example of Cao Cao's goodness." Returning to Liu Bei When Cao Cao and Yuan Shao clashed at the Battle of Guandu in 200, Yuan sent Liu Bei to contact Liu Pi (), a Yellow Turban rebel chief in Runan (), and assist Liu Pi in attacking the imperial capital Xu while Cao Cao was away at Guandu. Guan Yu reunited with Liu Bei around this time. Liu Bei and Liu Pi were defeated by Cao Cao's general Cao Ren, after which Liu Bei returned to Yuan Shao. Liu Bei secretly planned to leave Yuan Shao, so he pretended to persuade Yuan Shao to form an alliance with Liu Biao, the Governor of Jing Province. Yuan Shao sent Liu Bei to contact another rebel leader, Gong Du (), in Runan, where they gathered a few thousand soldiers. Cao Cao turned back and attacked Runan after scoring a decisive victory over Yuan Shao at Guandu, and he defeated Liu Bei in Runan. Liu Bei fled south and found shelter under Liu Biao, who put him in charge of Xinye at the northern border of Jing Province. Guan Yu followed Liu Bei to Xinye. Battle of Red Cliffs and aftermath Liu Biao died in 208 and was succeeded by his younger son, Liu Cong, who surrendered Jing Province to Cao Cao when the latter started a campaign that year with the aim of wiping out opposing forces in southern China. Liu Bei evacuated Xinye together with his followers and they headed towards Xiakou, which was guarded by Liu Biao's elder son Liu Qi and independent of Cao Cao's control. Along the journey, Liu Bei divided his party into two groups – one led by Guan Yu which would sail along the river towards Jiangling; another led by Liu Bei which would travel on land. Cao Cao sent 5,000 elite cavalry to pursue Liu Bei's group and they caught up with them at Changban, where the Battle of Changban broke out. Liu Bei and his remaining followers managed to escape from Cao Cao's forces and reach Han Ford (), where Guan Yu's group picked them up and they sailed to Xiakou together. In 208, Liu Bei allied with Sun Quan and they defeated Cao Cao at the decisive Battle of Red Cliffs. Cao Cao retreated north after his defeat and left Cao Ren behind to defend Jing Province. During the Battle of Jiangling, Guan Yu was stationed at the northern routes to block Cao Ren's supply lines via infiltration. Li Tong engaged Guan Yu, attempting to support Cao Ren's forces, but died from illness during the campaign. Xu Huang and Man Chong also engaged with Guan Yu in Hanjin() in order support Cao Ren against Zhou Yu. Finally, Yue Jin, stationed in Xiangyang, defeated Guan Yu and Su Fei () and drove them away. After seizing and pacifying the various commanderies in southern Jing Province, Liu Bei appointed Guan Yu as the Administrator () of Xiangyang and General Who Defeats Bandits (), and ordered him to station at the north of the Yangtze River. Guarding Jing Province Between 212 and 214, Liu Bei started a campaign to seize control of Yi Province from the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Most of Liu Bei's subordinates participated in the campaign, while Guan Yu remained behind to guard and oversee Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province. Sun-Liu territorial dispute During the mid 210s, a territorial dispute broke out between Liu Bei and Sun Quan in southern Jing Province. According to an earlier arrangement, Liu Bei "borrowed" southern Jing Province from Sun Quan to serve as a temporary base; he would have to return the territories to Sun Quan once he found another base. After Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province, Sun Quan asked him to return three commanderies but Liu Bei refused. Sun Quan then sent his general Lü Meng to lead his forces to seize the three commanderies. In response, Liu Bei ordered Guan Yu to lead troops to stop Lü Meng. Gan Ning, one of Lü Meng's subordinates, managed to deter Guan Yu from crossing the shallows near Yiyang. The shallows were thus named 'Guan Yu's Shallows' (). Lu Su (the overall commander of Sun Quan's forces in Jing Province) later invited Guan Yu to attend a meeting to settle the territorial dispute. Around 215, after Cao Cao seized control of Hanzhong Commandery, Liu Bei saw that as a strategic threat to his position in Yi Province so he decided to make peace with Sun Quan and agreed to divide southern Jing Province between his and Sun Quan's domains along the Xiang River. Both sides then withdrew their forces. Battle of Fancheng In 219, Liu Bei emerged victorious in the Hanzhong Campaign against Cao Cao, after which he declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (). He appointed Guan Yu as General of the Vanguard () and bestowed upon him a ceremonial axe. In the same year, Guan Yu led his forces to attack Cao Ren at Fancheng and besiege the fortress. Cao Cao sent Yu Jin to lead reinforcements to help Cao Ren. It was in autumn and there were heavy showers so the Han River overflowed. The flood destroyed Yu Jin's seven armies. Guan Yu had prepared his navy to advance during the flood, and Yu Jin surrendered to Guan Yu while his subordinate Pang De refused and was executed by Guan Yu. Various local officials such as Administrator of Nanxiang Fu Fang and Inspector Jing Province Hu Xiu defected to Guan Yu. Angered by Cao Cao's forced labor put upon them, rebel peasants and bandits in Liang(), Jia() and Luhun() also submitted to Guan Yu and received official seals to work as his raiders. Guan Yu's fame spread throughout China. The Shu Ji recorded that before Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he dreamt about a boar biting his foot. He told his son Guan Ping, "I am growing weaker this year. I might not even return alive." Belittling Sun Quan With Liu Bei gaining Hanzhong as well as the northwest commanderies of Jing: Fangling, Shangyong and Xicheng; and now after Yu Jin's defeat, Cao Cao contemplated relocating the imperial capital from Xu further north into Hebei to avoid Guan Yu, but Sima Yi and Jiang Ji told him that Sun Quan would become restless when he heard of Guan Yu's victory. They suggested to Cao Cao to ally with Sun Quan and get him to help them hinder Guan Yu's advances; in return, Cao Cao would recognise the legitimacy of Sun Quan's claim over the territories in Jiangdong. In this way, the siege on Fancheng would automatically be lifted. Cao Cao heeded their suggestion. Previously, Sun Quan had sent a messenger to meet Guan Yu and propose a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter. However, Guan Yu not only rejected the proposal, but also scolded and humiliated the messenger. Sun Quan was enraged. Encounter with Xu Huang Cao Cao later sent Xu Huang to lead another army to reinforce Cao Ren at Fancheng. Xu Huang broke through Guan Yu's encirclement and routed Guan Yu's forces on the battlefield, thus lifting the siege on Fancheng. Guan Yu withdrew his forces after seeing that he could not capture Fancheng. The Shu Ji recorded an incident about Xu Huang encountering Guan Yu on the battlefield. Xu Huang was previously a close friend of Guan Yu. They often chatted about other things apart from military affairs. When they met again at Fancheng, Xu Huang gave an order to his men: "Whoever takes Guan Yu's head will be rewarded with 1,000 jin of gold." A shocked Guan Yu asked Xu Huang, "Brother, what are you talking about?" Xu Huang replied, "This is an affair of the state." Losing Jing Province Although Guan Yu defeated and captured Yu Jin at Fancheng, his army found itself lacking food supplies, so he seized grain from one of Sun Quan's granaries at Xiang Pass (). By then, Sun Quan had secretly agreed to an alliance with Cao Cao and sent Lü Meng and others to invade Jing Province while he followed behind with reinforcements. At Xunyang (), Lü Meng ordered his troops to hide in vessels disguised as civilian and merchant ships and sail towards Jing Province. Along the way, Lü Meng infiltrated and disabled the watchtowers set up by Guan Yu along the river, so Guan Yu was totally unaware of the invasion. When Guan Yu embarked on the Fancheng campaign, he left Mi Fang and Shi Ren behind to defend his key bases in Jing Province – Nan Commandery and Gong'an. Guan Yu had constantly treated them with contempt. During the campaign, after Mi Fang and Shi Ren sent insufficient supplies to Guan Yu's army at the frontline, an annoyed Guan Yu said, "I will deal with them when I return." Mi Fang and Shi Ren felt uneasy about this. When Sun Quan invaded Jing Province, Lü Meng showed understanding towards Mi Fang and successfully induced him into surrendering while Yu Fan also persuaded Shi Ren to give up resistance. With the exceptions of the northwest, Liu Bei's territories in Jing Province fell under Sun Quan's control after the surrenders of Mi Fang and Shi Ren. Dubious account from the Dianlue The Dianlue recorded: Pei Songzhi commented on the Dianlue account as follows: Death By the time Guan Yu retreated from Fancheng, Sun Quan's forces had occupied Jiangling and captured the families of Guan Yu's soldiers. Lü Meng ordered his troops to treat the civilians well and ensure that they were not harmed. Most of Guan Yu's soldiers lost their fighting spirit and deserted and went back to Jing Province to reunite with their families. Guan Yu knew that he had been isolated so he withdrew to Maicheng (; in present-day Dangyang, Hubei) and headed west to Zhang District (), where his remaining men deserted him and surrendered to the enemy. Sun Quan sent Zhu Ran and Pan Zhang to block Guan Yu's retreat route. Guan Yu, along with his son Guan Ping and subordinate Zhao Lei (), were captured alive by Pan Zhang's deputy Ma Zhong () in an ambush. Guan Yu and Guan Ping were later executed by Sun Quan's forces in Linju (; in present-day Nanzhang County, Hubei). Alternate account from the Shu Ji The Shu Ji mentioned that Sun Quan initially wanted to keep Guan Yu alive in the hope of using Guan Yu to help him counter Liu Bei and Cao Cao. However, his followers advised him against doing so by saying, "A wolf shouldn't be kept as a pet as it'll bring harm to the keeper. Cao Cao made a mistake when he refused to kill Guan Yu and landed himself in deep trouble. He even had to consider relocating the imperial capital elsewhere. How can Guan Yu be allowed to live?" Sun Quan then ordered Guan Yu's execution. Pei Songzhi disputed this account as follows: Posthumous honours Sun Quan sent Guan Yu's head to Cao Cao, who arranged a noble's funeral for Guan Yu and had his head properly buried with full honours. In October or November 260, Liu Shan granted Guan Yu the posthumous title "Marquis Zhuangmou" (). According to posthumous naming rules in the Yi Zhou Shu, "mou" was meant for a person who failed to live up to his reputation. Anecdotes Request to take Qin Yilu's wife During the Battle of Xiapi in late 198, when the allied forces of Cao Cao and Liu Bei fought against Lü Bu, Guan Yu sought permission from Cao Cao to marry Qin Yilu's wife Lady Du () after they won the battle. After Cao Cao agreed, Guan Yu still repeatedly reminded Cao Cao about his promise before the battle ended. After Lü Bu's defeat and death, Cao Cao was so curious about why Guan Yu wanted Lady Du so badly and he guessed that she must be very beautiful, so he had her brought to him. Cao Cao ultimately broke his promise as he took Lady Du as his concubine and adopted her son Qin Lang (whom she had with Qin Yilu). Advice to Liu Bei The Shu Ji recorded an incident as follows: Pei Songzhi commented on the Shu Ji account as follows: Asking Zhuge Liang about Ma Chao In 214, Ma Chao defected from Zhang Lu's side to Liu Bei's forces, and he assisted Liu Bei in pressuring Liu Zhang to surrender and yield Yi Province to Liu Bei. When Guan Yu received news that Ma Chao (whom he was unfamiliar with) had recently joined them, he wrote to Zhuge Liang in Yi Province and asked him who was comparable to Ma Chao. Zhuge Liang knew that Guan Yu was defending the border (so he should not displease Guan Yu). He replied: "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but he is not as good as the peerless beard." Guan Yu was very pleased when he received Zhuge Liang's reply and he welcomed Ma Chao. Arm injury Guan Yu was once injured in the left arm by a stray arrow which pierced through his arm. Although the wound healed, he still experienced pain in the bone whenever there was a heavy downpour. A physician told him, "The arrowhead had poison on it and the poison had seeped into the bone. The way to get rid of this problem is to cut open your arm and scrape away the poison in your bone." Guan Yu then stretched out his arm and asked the physician to heal him. He then invited his subordinates to dine with him while the surgery was being performed. Blood flowed from his arm into a container below. Throughout the operation, Guan Yu feasted, consumed alcohol and chatted with his men as though nothing had happened. Family Guan Yu had two known sons – Guan Ping and Guan Xing. Guan Xing inherited his father's title "Marquis of Hanshou Village" () and served in the state of Shu during the Three Kingdoms period. Guan Yu also had a daughter. Sun Quan once proposed a marriage between his son and Guan Yu's daughter, but Guan Yu rejected the proposal. Her name was not recorded in history, but she was known as "Guan Yinping" () or "Guan Feng" () in folktales and Chinese opera. Guan Yu allegedly had a third son, Guan Suo, who is not mentioned in historical texts and appears only in folklore and the historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. Guan Xing's son, Guan Tong (), married a princess (one of Liu Shan's daughters) and served as a General of the Household () among the imperial guards. Guan Tong had no son when he died, so he was succeeded by his younger half-brother Guan Yi (). According to the Shu Ji, after the fall of Shu in 263, Pang Hui (Pang De's son) massacred Guan Yu's family and descendants to avenge his father, who was executed by Guan Yu after the Battle of Fancheng in 219. In 1719, the Kangxi Emperor of the Qing dynasty awarded the hereditary title "Wujing Boshi" (; "Professor of the Five Classics") to Guan Yu's descendants living in Luoyang. The bearer of the title is entitled to an honorary position in the Hanlin Academy. Appraisal Chen Shou, who wrote Guan Yu's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on the latter as such: "Guan Yu and Zhang Fei were praised as mighty warriors capable of fighting thousands of enemies. They were like tigers among (Liu Bei's) subjects. Guan Yu and Zhang Fei both had the style of a guoshi Guan Yu repaid Cao Cao's kindness while Zhang Fei released Yan Yan out of righteousness. However, Guan Yu was unrelenting and conceited while Zhang Fei was brutal and heartless. These shortcomings resulted in their downfalls. This was not something uncommon." Both Guan Yu and Zhang Fei had a prominent reputation during their lifetimes as great warriors. To the point that eminent officials from other kingdoms such as Cheng Yu, Guo Jia and Zhou Yu directly referred to them as warriors who are a match for ten thousand men (萬人敵) and generals with the might of bears and tigers. Such was the extent of their fames. The Australian sinologist Rafe de Crespigny commented: "There are anecdotes describing Zhang Fei as a man of literary tastes who composed verse in the midst of battle, but he is more generally known as arrogant, impetuous and brutal. While Guan Yu was said to be harsh towards men of the gentry but treated his soldiers well, Zhang Fei was courteous towards his betters but cruel to his rank and file. The two men were nonetheless regarded as the finest fighting men of their lifetime." In Romance of the Three Kingdoms The 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms glorifies Guan Yu by portraying him as a righteous and loyal warrior. Guan Yu is one of the most altered and aggrandised characters in the novel, which accounts for his popular image in Chinese society. See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Guan Yu: Oath of the Peach Garden Battle of Hulao Pass List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu's three conditions List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Yan Liang and Wen Chou List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu crosses five passes and slays six generals List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu slays Cai Yang at Gucheng List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Guan Yu releases Cao Cao at Huarong Trail Sun–Liu territorial dispute#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Hua Tuo heals Guan Yu's arm Lü Meng#In Romance of the Three Kingdoms List of fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms#Events after Guan Yu's death Worship of Guan Yu Guan Yu was deified as early as the Sui dynasty (581–618), and is still worshipped today as a bodhisattva in Buddhist tradition and as a guardian deity in Chinese folk religion and Taoism. He is also held in high esteem in Confucianism. In Chinese religion In Chinese folk religion, Guan Yu is widely referred to as "Emperor Guan" (; dì implies deified status) and "Lord Guan" (), while his Taoist title is "Holy Emperor Lord Guan" (). Martial temples and shrines dedicated exclusively to Guan Yu can be found across mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan, and other places with Chinese influence such as Vietnam, South Korea and Japan. Some of these temples, such as the Guandi Temple in Xiezhou (), Shanxi, were built exactly in the layout of an imperial residence, befitting his status as a "ruler". The apotheosis of Guan Yu occurred in stages, as he was given ever higher posthumous titles. Liu Shan, the second emperor of Shu, gave Guan Yu the posthumous title of "Marquis Zhuangmou" () four decades after his death. During the Song dynasty, Emperor Huizong bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Duke Zhonghui" (), and later the title of a prince. In 1187, Emperor Xiaozong honoured Guan Yu as "Prince Zhuangmou Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (). During the Yuan dynasty, Emperor Wenzong changed Guan Yu's title to "Prince of Xianling Yiyong Wu'an Yingji" (). In 1614, the Wanli Emperor bestowed on Guan Yu the title "Holy Emperor Guan, the Great God Who Subdues Demons in the Three Worlds and Whose Awe Spreads Far and Moves Heaven" (). During the Qing dynasty, the Shunzhi Emperor gave Guan Yu the title of "Guan, the Loyal and Righteous God of War, the Holy Great Deity" () in 1644. This title was expanded to "Guan the Holy Great Deity; God of War Manifesting Benevolence, Bravery and Prestige; Protector of the Country and Defender of the People; Proud and Honest Supporter of Peace and Reconciliation; Promoter of Morality, Loyalty and Righteousness" (), a total of 24 Chinese characters, by the mid-19th century. It is often shortened to "Saint of War" (), which is of the same rank as Confucius, who is honoured the "Saint of Culture" (). The Qing dynasty promoted the worship of Guan Yu among the Mongol tribes, making him one of their most revered religious figures, second only to their lamas. Throughout history, Guan Yu has also been credited with many military successes. In the 14th century, his spirit was said to have aided Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming dynasty, at the Battle of Lake Poyang. In 1402, when Zhu Di launched a coup d'état and successfully deposed his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, Zhu Di claimed that he was blessed by the spirit of Guan Yu. During the last decade of the 16th century, Guan Yu was also credited with the repulse of Japanese invasion of Korea by Toyotomi Hideyoshi. The Manchu imperial clan of the Qing dynasty was also associated with Guan Yu's martial qualities. During the 20th century, Guan Yu was worshipped by the warlord Yuan Shikai, president and later a short-lived emperor of China. Guan Yu’s messages were received by mediums through spirit writing, later called Fuji (planchette writing) (), since the late 17th century. “By the mid-Qianlong period (1736–96) the number of ‘sacred edicts’ issued by Guandi ordering people to do good and help those in need became increasingly frequent.” In the 19th century, Guandi’s messages received through spirit writing assumed a millennialist character. Dates were announced for the end of the world, followed by messages indicating that Guandi had “prevented the apocalypse” and was indeed “the savior of endtimes.” In 1866, the Ten Completions Society (Shiquanhui 十全會) was established to propagate the messages of Guandi and promote the charitable work his spirit had ordered to perform. The tradition of Guandi spirit writing continued in Chinese folk Religion well into the 20th century. Today, Guan Yu is still widely worshipped by the Chinese; he may be worshipped in Martial temples and Wen Wu temples, and small shrines devoted to him are also found in homes, businesses and fraternal organisations. In Hong Kong, a shrine to Guan Yu can be found in every police station. Though by no means mandatory, Chinese police officers worship and pay respect to him. Although seemingly ironic, members of the triads and Heaven and Earth Society worship Guan Yu as well. Statues used by triads tend to hold the halberd in the left hand, and statues in police stations tend to hold the halberd in the right hand. This signifies which side Guan Yu is worshipped, by the righteous people or vice versa. The appearance of Guan Yu's face for the triads is usually more stern and threatening than the usual statue. In Hong Kong, Guan Yu is often referred to as "Yi Gor" (; Cantonese for "second elder brother") for he was second to Liu Bei in their fictional sworn brotherhood. Guan Yu is also worshipped by Chinese businessmen in Shanxi, Hong Kong, Macau and Southeast Asia as an alternative wealth god, since he is perceived to bless the upright and protect them from the wicked. Another reason is related to the release of Cao Cao during the Huarong Trail incident, in which he let Cao and his men pass through safely. For that, he was perceived to be able to extend the lifespan of people in need. Among the Cantonese people who emigrated to California during the mid-19th century, the worship of Guan Yu was an important element. Statues and tapestry images of the god can be found in a number of historical California joss houses (a local term for Chinese folk religion temples), where his name may be given with various Anglicised spellings, including: Kwan Dai, Kwan Tai or Kuan Ti for Guandi (Emperor Guan); Kuan Kung for Guan Gong (Lord Guan), Wu Ti or Mo Dai for Wu Di (War Deity), Kuan Yu, Kwan Yu, or Quan Yu for Guan Yu. The Mendocino Joss House, a historical landmark also known as Mo Dai Miu (Wudimiao, i.e. the Temple of the Deity of War), or Temple of Kwan Tai, built in 1852, is a typical example of the small shrines erected to Guan Yu in the United States. Guan Yu is also worshipped as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples, with portraits of him being pasted on doors to ward off evil spirits, usually in pairings with Zhang Fei, Guan Ping, Guan Sheng or Zhou Cang. Apart from general worship, Guan Yu is also commemorated in China with colossal statues such as the 1,320-tonne sculpture in Jingzhou City, Hubei Province, standing at 58 metres. In Taoism Guan Yu is revered as "Holy Ruler Deity Guan" () and a leading subduer of demons in Taoism. Taoist worship of Guan Yu began during the Song dynasty. Legend has it that during the second decade of the 12th century, the saltwater lake in Xiezhou gradually ceased to yield salt. Emperor Huizong then summoned Zhang Jixian (), a 30th-generation descendant of Zhang Daoling, to investigate the cause. The emperor was told that the disruption was the work of Chi You, a deity of war. Zhang Jixian then recruited the help of Guan Yu, who battled Chi You over the lake and triumphed, whereupon the lake resumed salt production. Emperor Huizong then bestowed upon Guan Yu the title "Immortal of Chongning" (), formally introducing the latter as a deity into Taoism. In the early Ming dynasty, the 42nd Celestial Master, Zhang Zhengchang (), recorded the incident in his book Lineage of the Han Celestial Masters (), the first Taoist classic to affirm the legend. Today, Taoist practices are predominant in Guan Yu worship. Many temples dedicated to Guan Yu, including the Emperor Guan Temple in Xiezhou County, show heavy Taoist influence. Every year, on the 24th day of the sixth month on the lunar calendar (Guan Yu's birthday in legend), a street parade in Guan Yu's honour would also be held. In Buddhism In Chinese Buddhism, Guan Yu is revered by most Chinese Mahayana Buddhists as Sangharama Bodhisattva () a heavenly protector of the Buddhist dharma. Sangharama in Sanskrit means 'community garden' (sangha, community + arama, garden) and thus 'monastery'. The term Sangharama also refer to the dharmapala class of devas and spirits assigned to guard the Buddhist monastery, the dharma, and the faith itself. Over time and as an act of syncreticism, Guan Yu was seen as the representative guardian of the temple and the garden in which it stands. His statue traditionally is situated in the far left of the main altar, opposite his counterpart Skanda. According to Buddhist legends, in 592, Guan Yu manifested himself one night before the Chan master Zhiyi, the founder of the Tiantai school of Buddhism, along with a retinue of spiritual beings. Zhiyi was then in deep meditation on Yuquan Hill () when he was distracted by Guan Yu's presence. Guan Yu then requested the master to teach him about the dharma. After receiving Buddhist teachings from the master, Guan Yu took refuge in the triple gems and also requested the Five Precepts. Henceforth, it is said that Guan Yu made a vow to become a guardian of temples and the dharma. Legends also claim that Guan Yu assisted Zhiyi in the construction of the Yuquan Temple, which still stands today. Notable Guandi temples worldwide (outside mainland China) Dongmyo (東關王廟) in Seoul, South Korea (built in 1601) State Temple of the Martial God (祀典武廟) in Tainan, Taiwan (built in 1663) Kuan Tai Temple (Sam Kai Vui Kun) in Macau (built in 1750) Gong Wu Shrine, in Bangkok, Thailand Kwan Sing Bio Temple (Klenteng Kwan Sing Bio) in Tuban, Indonesia (built in 1773) Temple of Kwan Tai in California, United States (built in 1854) Guandi Temple in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (built in 1887) Sam Sing Kung Temple in Sabah, Malaysia (built in 1887) Sze Yup Kwan Ti Temple in New South Wales, Australia (built in 1898) Yuqing Temple in Miaoli, Taiwan (built in 1906) Chinese Temple of Dili in East Timor (built in 1928) Xingtian Temple in Taipei, Taiwan (built in 1967) Kwan Kung Pavilion in Cheung Chau Island, Hong Kong (built in 1973) In popular culture Chinese opera Guan Yu appears in Chinese operas such as Huarong Trail, Red Cliffs, and other excerpts from Romance of the Three Kingdoms. His costume is a green military opera uniform with armour covering his right arm and the knees of his pants. The actor's face is painted red with a few black lines, to represent honour and courage. He also wears a long three-section black beard made of yak hair and carries the Green Dragon Crescent Blade. Traditionally, after the show ends, the actor has to wash his face, burn joss paper, light incense, and pray to Chinese deities. Film and television Notable actors who have portrayed Guan Yu in film and television include: Lu Shuming in Romance of the Three Kingdoms (1994); Wang Yingquan in The Legend of Guan Gong (2004); Ti Lung in Three Kingdoms: Resurrection of the Dragon (2008); Ba Sen in Red Cliff (2008–2009); Yu Rongguang in Three Kingdoms (2010); Donnie Yen in The Lost Bladesman (2011); Han Geng in Dynasty Warriors (2019). Films which make references to Guan Yu include: Stephen Chow's comedy film From Beijing with Love (1994), which, in one scene, refers to the story of Hua Tuo performing surgery on Guan Yu's arm; Zhang Yimou's Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles (2005), in which the fictional story of Guan Yu slaying six generals and crossing five passes forms a major part of the narrative; the horror comedy film My Name Is Bruce (2007), where Guan Yu's vengeful spirit is accidentally set free by a group of teenagers and he begins to terrorise their town. The season 2 of Amazon Prime thriller web series, The Family Man, ended with a prelude to the season 3 which introduces us to Project Guan Yu, a potential attack on India from the North Eastern side. Manga Guan Yu is referenced in the manga Battle Vixens (as a schoolgirl Kan-u Unchou) and BB Senshi Sangokuden (as ZZ Gundam, who is portrayed as Guan Yu Gundam). Games Guan Yu appears as a playable character in many video games based on Romance of the Three Kingdoms which are produced by Koei, including: the strategy game series of the same title as the novel; the action game series Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi. Other non-Koei titles in which he also appears include: Total War: Three Kingdoms; Puzzle & Dragons; Sango Fighter; Destiny of an Emperor; and Atlantica Online. He is also referenced in Emperor: Rise of the Middle Kingdom, Titan Quest, and Koihime Musō. Guan Yu is referenced in the Portal Three Kingdoms of the card game Magic: The Gathering on a playable card. He also appears in the History Channel's Anachronism card game. The hero Jiang Jun that appears in an add-on for the game For Honor, developed by Ubisoft Montreal, is heavily based on Guan Yu. He is introduced in the 2018 DLC Marching Fire Expansion, along with the other characters from the Chinese Wulin faction. The Jiang Jun wields Guan Yu's signature Guandao weapon and is portrayed as a wise older general. Guan Yu is referenced in the 2020 game Hades by Supergiant Games. The final "aspect", or form, unlocked for the Eternal Spear weapon is the Aspect of Guan Yu, the Frost Fair Blade, which resembles an ornamented Guandao. The Eternal Spear is said to be the same spear wielded by Guan Yu in the future, taking this form. Guan Yu appears as a playable character in the 2014 game Smite by Hi-Rez Studios with his iconic guandao. See also En Zhu Gong (恩主公) Martial temple & Wen Wu temple Kwan Tai temples in Hong Kong Hip Tin temples in Hong Kong Holy Emperor Guan's True Scripture to Awaken the World Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Statue of Guan Yu (Jingzhou) Notes References Citations from volume 36 of the Sanguozhi Citations from elsewhere in the Sanguozhi Citations from the Sanguozhi zhu Other citations Bibliography (Author unknown) (4th century BC). Yi Zhou Shu. Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu). Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian''. External links 220 deaths 3rd-century executions Chinese warriors Deified Chinese people Executed Han dynasty people Executed people from Shanxi Fortune gods Generals under Cao Cao Generals under Liu Bei Han dynasty generals from Shanxi Liu Biao and associates People executed by the Han dynasty by decapitation People from Yuncheng Political office-holders in Hubei Tutelary deities War gods Year of birth unknown Chinese deities Chinese gods Deities in Taoism	[ -0.48141419887542725, 0.03176295384764671, -0.8369907736778259, 0.025322305038571358, -0.31062254309654236, 0.9950536489486694, 0.29959431290626526, 0.4280778467655182, -0.2416040450334549, -0.42701295018196106, -0.1520453840494156, -0.10841454565525055, -0.30118292570114136, -0.06143677234649658, -0.3758290112018585, 0.1985643059015274, 0.2061402052640915, -0.36507585644721985, -0.39917048811912537, -0.043964069336652756, -0.18422645330429077, -0.22603869438171387, -0.21701793372631073, 0.15951402485370636, 0.17689260840415955, 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240653	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiahou%20Dun	Xiahou Dun	Xiahou Dun () (died 13 June 220), courtesy name Yuanrang, was a Chinese military general and politician serving under the warlord Cao Cao during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He served for a few months under Cao Cao's successor, Cao Pi, before his death. As one of Cao Cao's most trusted generals, Xiahou Dun aided the warlord in his campaigns against Lü Bu, Liu Bei, Sun Quan and others. Xiahou Dun lost his left eye when he was a hit by a stray arrow during a battle against Lü Bu in the late 190s, and subsequently became known among the rank and file as "One-eyed Xiahou". His image as a one-eyed warrior was popularised by the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, in which he yanked the arrow out of his eye and devoured his eyeball. Early life Xiahou Dun was from Qiao County (), Pei State (), which is on present-day Bozhou, Anhui. He was a descendant of Xiahou Ying, who served under the Han dynasty's founding emperor, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao). He was notorious for his fiery personality as he once killed a man who insulted his teacher when he was just 13 years old. In 190, when Cao Cao was raising an army to participate in the campaign against Dong Zhuo, Xiahou Dun became an officer under Cao and fought in many battles. When Cao Cao was appointed as acting General of Uplifting Martial Might () by the Han imperial court, Xiahou Dun was commissioned as a Major () and was ordered to garrison at Boma (白馬; near present-day Hua County, Henan). He was later promoted to Colonel Who Breaks and Charges () and was appointed as the Administrator () of Dong Commandery (東郡; the areas around present-day Puyang, Henan and Liaocheng, Shandong). Defence of Yan Province In 193, Cao Cao left his base in Yan Province on a campaign against Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province, whom he held responsible for the murder of his father Cao Song. Xiahou Dun was left behind to defend Puyang, one of Cao Cao's key strongholds in Yan Province. While Cao Cao was away in Xu Province, his subordinates Zhang Miao and Chen Gong rebelled in Yan Province and defected to another warlord Lü Bu. At that time, Cao Cao's family members were in Juancheng County, so Xiahou Dun led a lightly armed force towards Juancheng to fetch them. He encountered Lü Bu's army on the way and engaged the enemy in battle. Lü Bu withdrew his forces and took advantage of Xiahou Dun's absence to conquer Puyang and capture much of Xiahou's supplies and equipment. Lü Bu later sent his men to pretend to surrender to Xiahou Dun, who fell for the ruse and was taken hostage by the enemy in his own camp. Lü Bu's men demanded a heavy ransom. Xiahou Dun's troops became fearful and confused when they heard that their commander had been taken hostage. Xiahou Dun's subordinate, Han Hao, led his men to outside Xiahou's camp, where he gave orders for the other officers to remain in their respective camps and not make any moves. The situation in the other camps became stable. He then headed towards Xiahou Dun's tent and shouted at the hostage-takers, "You murderous traitors, how dare you take the commander hostage! Do you still expect to live? I've received orders to attack the enemy, so I won't let you have your way just for the sake of one officer." With tears in his eyes, he told Xiahou Dun, "This is the law. I've to follow it." Han Hao then ordered his men to attack the hostage-takers, who were shocked by his response and immediately gave up. The hostage-takers kowtowed and begged for their lives, "We only want to obtain some money for our use and we'll leave after that." Han Hao reprimanded them sternly and had them all executed. Xiahou Dun was saved. When Cao Cao learnt of the rebellion, he withdrew his army from Xu Province and returned to Yan Province to attack Lü Bu. Xiahou Dun participated in the battles against Lü Bu, and was hit in the left eye by a stray arrow during a skirmish. After the loss of his left eye, he was given the nickname "One-eyed Xiahou" () in Cao Cao's army. Xiahou Dun hated this nickname and he would throw a mirror to the ground whenever he saw his own reflection. Lü Bu was besieged by Cao Cao in Puyang for over 100 days and he eventually abandoned the city when a famine broke out. Cao Cao seized back his territories in Yan Province previously lost to Lü Bu. Mid-career Xiahou Dun was appointed as the Administrator () of Chenliu (陳留; around present-day Kaifeng, Henan) and Jiyin (濟陰; near present-day Dingtao County, Shandong) commanderies, and held the rank of General Who Builds Martial Might (). He was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Gao'an District (). While he was in office, a drought broke out and there was a locust infestation in the region. To counter these problems, Xiahou Dun spearheaded an agricultural programme, in which he instructed workers to dam up the Taishou River (太壽水; a tributary of the Huai River) to create a large pond. He personally participated in the construction works and also encouraged the people to grow crops in the inundated land. This programme greatly aided the people during those years of severe famine. He was later reassigned to be the Intendant of Henan (). Xiahou Dun did not participate in Cao Cao's campaigns in northern China against Yuan Shao, Yuan's sons and their allies throughout the 200s CE. Instead, he remained behind to defend Cao Cao's territories in central China. In 202, Cao Cao's rival Liu Bei, who had sought refuge under Jing Province's governor Liu Biao, received an order from Liu Biao to take advantage of Cao Cao's absence to attack Cao's base in the imperial capital, Xu (許; present-day Xuchang, Henan). In response, Cao Cao sent Xiahou Dun, Yu Jin and Li Dian to lead an army to resist Liu Bei and both sides clashed at the Battle of Bowang. Liu Bei burnt his camps and feigned retreat to lure the enemy into an ambush. Xiahou Dun and his men fell for the trick and were defeated in the ambush. Li Dian, who suspected an ambush and did not join in the pursuit, led reinforcements to help Xiahou Dun and Yu Jin. Liu Bei withdrew his forces after seeing Li Dian's approach. After the Battle of Ye in 204, Xiahou Dun was promoted to General Who Calms the Waves () but retained his appointment as the Intendant of Henan. He was able to administer and oversee affairs smoothly without being hampered by layers of bureaucracy. In 207, Xiahou Dun was granted an additional 1,800 taxable households in his marquisate in recognition of his contributions, bringing the total number of households to 2,500. Later life and death In 216, after a campaign against Cao Cao's rival Sun Quan, Xiahou Dun was ordered to station at Juchao (居巢; in present-day Chaohu, Anhui) and was placed in command of 26 juns (). As a reward for his contributions in battle, he received a number of performing courtesans to entertain him. The imperial order that came with the reward read: "When Wei Jiang (魏絳) pacified the Rong people, he was only rewarded with gold and riches. Don't you, General, deserve more than him?" In 219, when Cao Cao was on a journey back from Mobei (摩陂; southeast of present-day Jia County, Henan), he treated Xiahou Dun like a close aide by letting Xiahou ride in the same carriage as him and allowing Xiahou to enter his private quarters. At the time, Emperor Xian had made Cao Cao a vassal king under the title "King of Wei" () and granted him permission to set up an independent vassal kingdom, which was still nominally under Han imperial control. While many of Cao Cao's subordinates had been appointed to positions in his vassal kingdom, Xiahou Dun still held appointments under the Han central government. Xiahou Dun requested to serve in Cao Cao's vassal kingdom to show his loyalty, but Cao Cao told him, "I heard that the best rulers learn from their subjects while the second best befriend their subjects. Officials are noble men of virtue. Why lower yourself to serve such a small kingdom like Wei?" Xiahou Dun insisted, so Cao Cao appointed him as General of the Vanguard (). Xiahou Dun then led his men to Shouchun () and later garrisoned at Zhaoling (). Around late 219, Xiahou Dun, along with Chen Qun, Huan Jie and others, urged Cao Cao to take the throne from Emperor Xian. Xiahou Dun said, "Everyone in the Empire knows that the Han dynasty's lifespan has come to an end and that there are many contenders seeking to replace it. Since ancient times, whoever succeeds in eliminating the people's troubles will win the hearts of the people and become their ruler. As of now, Your Highness has been fighting battles for over 30 years, you've made outstanding achievements and the hearts of the people are with you. You should follow the will of Heaven and the people. What's there to hesitate about?" Cao Cao replied, "'These qualities are displayed in government. This then also constitutes the exercise of government.' If the Mandate of Heaven does belong to me, I'll be like King Wen of Zhou." Cao Cao died in early 220 and passed on his vassal king title to his son, Cao Pi, who was still a nominal subject of Emperor Xian. Xiahou Dun was promoted to General-in-Chief (). He died some months later. The Cao Man Zhuan () and the Shiyu () mentioned that Xiahou Dun once suggested to Cao Cao to eliminate Liu Bei first in order to force Sun Quan to surrender of his own accord, and then follow in the footsteps of the mythological rulers Shun and Yu by making Emperor Xian voluntarily abdicate the throne to him. Cao Cao accepted his proposal. After Cao Cao's death, Xiahou Dun regretted his words and fell sick and died. The historian Sun Sheng dismissed the Shiyu account as nonsense, saying that it did not match what was recorded in the main text of Xiahou Dun's biography in the Sanguozhi – Xiahou Dun felt ashamed of serving under the Han imperial court so he requested to serve in Cao Cao's vassal kingdom. Family In late 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian to abdicate the throne in his favour and established the state of Cao Wei, marking the end of the Han dynasty and the start of the Three Kingdoms period. Cao Pi granted Xiahou Dun the posthumous title "Marquis Zhong" (), which literally means "loyal marquis". Xiahou Dun's original marquis title, "Marquis of Gao'an District" (), was inherited by his son, Xiahou Chong (). Later, in recognition of Xiahou Dun's past contributions, Cao Pi added 1,000 taxable households to Xiahou Chong's marquisate and made each of Xiahou Dun's seven sons and two grandsons a Secondary Marquis (). Xiahou Dun's younger brother, Xiahou Lian (), was also enfeoffed as a marquis. Xiahou Dun's second son, Xiahou Mao, married one of Cao Cao's daughters, Princess Qinghe (), and held high-ranking positions in the Wei imperial court. Xiahou Dun also had two other sons—Xiahou Zizang () and Xiahou Zijiang (). When Xiahou Chong died, his marquis title was inherited by his son, Xiahou Yu (). Xiahou Yu, in turn, was succeeded by his son Xiahou Shao (). According to the Jin Yang Qiu (), Xiahou Dun did not have any successor after his grandson, Xiahou Zuo (), died in 266. Appraisal Although Xiahou Dun was a soldier for most of his life, he was receptive to scholarly arts and even invited notable scholars to his camp to tutor him. He led a frugal and simple lifestyle and used his excess wealth to help the needy. He took from official treasuries (instead of directly from the common people) when he did not have enough money. He also did not own much property. In Romance of the Three Kingdoms Xiahou Dun is featured as a character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. See the following for some fictitious stories in Romance of the Three Kingdoms involving Xiahou Dun: Battle of Xiapi#Xiahou Dun losing his left eye Battle of Bowang#In fiction In popular culture Xiahou Dun is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors. He also appears in all instalments of Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series. There is a card based on Xiahou Dun, called "Xiahou Dun, the One-Eyed", in the Portal Three Kingdoms set of the Magic: The Gathering collectible card game. The anime Battle Vixens, Koihime Musō, and Yuyushiki also make references to Xiahou Dun, in which he is known by his Japanese name "Kakōton". Xiahou Dun also appears as a playable character in Total War: Three Kingdoms, and is prominently featured in the game as a general in the service of Cao Cao. See also Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms Notes References Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi). Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi). Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu). 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240654	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%20Escher	Josef Escher	Josef Escher (17 September 1885, in Simplon – 9 December 1954) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1950–1954). He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 14 September 1950 resigned on 26 November 1954 and died on 9 December 1954. He was affiliated to the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland. During his office time he held the Department of Posts and Railways. External links 1885 births 1954 deaths People from Brig District Swiss Roman Catholics Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Members of the National Council (Switzerland) Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland) University of Bern alumni	[ -0.19467435777187347, 0.3131052553653717, -0.35341677069664, 0.19404730200767517, -0.2827332019805908, 1.3637324571609497, 1.0754941701889038, -0.1166931539773941, -0.3182413876056671, -0.9655330777168274, 0.022581815719604492, -0.12737423181533813, -0.04590956121683121, 0.20308762788772583, -0.26368409395217896, 0.13880209624767303, 0.10485997796058655, -0.03332839906215668, -0.7984214425086975, -0.28835946321487427, 0.00958324782550335, -0.24333518743515015, 0.08485740423202515, 0.27850452065467834, -0.34002378582954407, -0.11135774105787277, -0.09118741750717163, 0.34974321722984314, 0.39397889375686646, 0.08293388783931732, 0.06321627646684647, 0.9487699866294861, 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240655	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Futures	Futures	Futures may mean: Finance Futures contract, a tradable financial derivatives contract. Futures exchange, a financial market where futures contracts are traded. Futures (magazine), an American finance magazine. Music Futures (album), a 2004 album released by Jimmy Eat World. Futures (song), a single from the above album. Futures (band), a London-based rock band. Social sciences Futures studies, multidisciplinary studies of patterns to determine the likelihood of future trends. Futures (journal), an academic journal covering futures studies. Sports Futures Tour, in golf. Futures tennis tournaments. Other Futures and promises, high-level synchronization mechanisms (programming objects that act as proxies for results not yet determined). Futures of American Studies, a summer institute in American Studies at Dartmouth College. Futures, a flash fiction feature in the journal Nature. See also Future (disambiguation).	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240661	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%20Anton%20Schobinger	Josef Anton Schobinger	Josef Anton Schobinger (30 January 1849, in Lucerne – 27 November 1911) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1908–1911). He was elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland on 17 June 1908, and died in office on 27 November 1911. He was affiliated with the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland. While in office he held positions in the following departments: Department of Justice and Police (1908) Department of Trade, Industry and Agriculture (1909) Department of Finance (1910) Department of Home Affairs (1911) References External links 1849 births 1911 deaths People from Lucerne Swiss Roman Catholics Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Finance ministers of Switzerland Members of the National Council (Switzerland) Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland) ETH Zurich alumni	[ -0.17639479041099548, 0.3342748284339905, -0.2819061577320099, 0.08112836629152298, -0.396843284368515, 0.9226058125495911, 0.908303439617157, -0.06701438128948212, -0.519963800907135, -0.9020774364471436, 0.043728139251470566, -0.18378876149654388, 0.01643916219472885, 0.43448910117149353, -0.1548587679862976, 0.12907235324382782, 0.31835833191871643, 0.022380100563168526, -0.6924745440483093, -0.23421801626682281, 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240663	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parental%20supervision	Parental supervision	Parental supervision (also adult supervision) is a parenting technique that involves looking after, or monitoring a child's activities. Young children are generally incapable of looking after themselves, and incompetent in making informed decisions for their own well-being. For this reason, they require supervision, or at least some guidance or advice by their parents or another adult in loco parentis. Physical supervision The most basic form of parental supervision is required to keep children from hurting themselves or others; to keep them away from dangerous objects and situations. Very small children require continual supervision and care; lack of this constitutes neglect. Some parents are not aware of the need to supervise children, from 1-18. Guidance is needed until the child is aged 25 when the judgment centers have matured. Judgment is needed in making decisions that affect life-and-death decisions. The legality of the latchkey children's "alone time" varies with country, state and local area. In most of the United States, state and local laws typically do not specify any particular age under 18 when a child can be legally left without supervision. However, some states do have specific age restrictions, for example: children under age of 8 yr/old cannot be left at home alone - in Georgia, Maryland, North Carolina; 9 yr/old - in North Dakota; 10 yr/old - in Oregon, Tennessee, Washington; 11 yr/old - in Michigan; 12 yr/old - in Colorado, Delaware, Kansas; 14 yr/old - in Illinois. Media supervision In addition, many people believe that children should be protected from violent or pornographic imagery. Some believe that children should be protected from information that challenges the value system that their local culture instills in them. Some jurisdictions enforce these restrictions with legislation. Where the acceptable boundaries lie in this area is very much a matter of opinion, and a matter of great controversy. The arrival of the Internet has made uncensored access to information available to the home in a way that was previously impossible; for this reason, many parents choose to supervise the time that their children spend accessing the Internet. Others choose to use content-control software. Some others regard it as their duty to educate their children in how to use the Internet responsibly, without the need for censorship. Parenting Time Supervision Based on issues of protection and safety, a judge may decide that in order for a child to have contact with a parent, a neutral third person must be present during any visitation. This type of third-person visitation arrangement is called Parenting Time Supervision. Supervised visitation allows parents in high conflict or high risk situations access to their children in a safe and supervised environment. The noncustodial parent has access to the child only when supervised by another adult. Supervised visitation is used to protect children from potentially dangerous situations while allowing parental access and providing support for the parent child relationship. In most of the US states there is a law required that court-ordered parenting plans must set forth the minimum amount of parenting time and type of access (i.e. supervised/unsupervised) a non-custodial parent is entitled to have. According to the state laws and court guidelines, the Custody Supervisor cannot change the court order to make major modifications to the amount of parenting time and access, only the minor changes or clarification of parenting time/access schedules or conditions including vacation, holidays, and temporary variation from the existing parenting plan are allowed. See also Latchkey kid Parental coordinator Parenting Parental alienation Shared parenting Children in Focus [[Supervised Contact Service Children in Focus] Notes Parenting	[ 0.18696463108062744, 0.2921781837940216, -0.24930983781814575, 0.2395598292350769, 0.25711026787757874, -0.04010617360472679, 0.3734808564186096, -0.03343288227915764, -0.07722629606723785, -0.5256410241127014, -0.5183121562004089, 0.45593947172164917, -0.2156493067741394, 0.04094841703772545, -1.0559335947036743, 0.574904203414917, 0.6378592252731323, 0.8112161755561829, -0.3477419912815094, -0.5162545442581177, -0.643585741519928, -0.5902934074401855, 0.054938193410634995, -0.17409475147724152, 0.009650352410972118, 0.2741009294986725, 0.6554620265960693, 0.03286907449364662, -0.0015677140327170491, -0.40425029397010803, 0.23970025777816772, 0.1386130005121231, 0.3300201892852783, -0.14164024591445923, -0.1251450926065445, 0.4195031225681305, -0.044906120747327805, -0.07850006967782974, -0.22568514943122864, 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240665	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violent%20%28song%29	Violent (song)	Violent is New Zealand band Stellar*'s fourth single, and their third single from their debut album Mix. This song won the "Single of the Year" award at the 2000 New Zealand "Tui" Music Awards. The song was featured on the Nature's Best 2 compilation of what were voted the top 100 New Zealand songs from 1926 until 2001 by APRA to celebrate their 75th anniversary. Judging by the track list, Violent was placed at #46 in this list. The single spent six weeks within the top 20 in the RIANZ singles charts, peaking at #11. The music video to the song was directed by Jonathan King, and depicts the band playing within a small room, amongst other scenes such as one which Runga plays the role of a nurse in surgery. Track listing Charts Year-end charts References Stellar (New Zealand band) songs 1999 singles Songs written by Boh Runga 1999 songs Sony BMG singles	[ 0.5196800827980042, -0.22008134424686432, 0.41139182448387146, 0.022167226299643517, -0.8540861010551453, 0.5356347560882568, 1.1617121696472168, -0.16803526878356934, -0.45616984367370605, 0.07130245119333267, -0.028396641835570335, 0.29176172614097595, -0.7463890314102173, 0.3384033739566803, 0.12211696058511734, 0.7143712639808655, -0.12217139452695847, 0.4079989790916443, -0.11955093592405319, -0.6812757253646851, 0.0953361764550209, -0.21719926595687866, 0.49450257420539856, 0.13672491908073425, -0.2394973635673523, 0.7642572522163391, 0.04007900133728981, 0.5692915916442871, -0.28679171204566956, -0.06824561953544617, 0.19309549033641815, 0.7762585878372192, -0.23856808245182037, 0.28599563241004944, 0.4360852837562561, 0.5060451030731201, -0.2154470533132553, -0.2530655860900879, -0.29064202308654785, -0.3078366816043854, 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240666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate%20branding	Corporate branding	Corporate branding refers to the practice of promoting the brand name of a corporate entity, as opposed to specific products or services. The activities and thinking that go into corporate branding are different from product and service branding because the scope of a corporate brand is typically much broader. Although corporate branding is a distinct activity from product or service branding, these different forms of branding can, and often do, take place side-by-side within a given corporation. The ways in which corporate brands and other brands interact is known as the corporate brand architecture. Corporate branding affects multiple stakeholders (e.g., employees, investors) and impacts many aspects of companies such as the evaluation of their product and services, corporate identity and culture, sponsorship, employment applications, brand extensions (see study Fetscherin and Usunier, 2012). It therefore can result in significant economies of scope since one advertising campaign can be used for several products. It also facilitates new product acceptance because potential buyers are already familiar with the name. However, this strategy may hinder the creation of distinct brand images or identities for different products: an overarching corporate brand reduces the ability to position a brand with an individual identity, and may conceal different products' unique characteristics. Corporate branding is not limited to a specific mark or name. Branding can incorporate multiple touchpoints. These touchpoints include; logo, customer service, treatment and training of employees, packaging, advertising, stationery, and quality of products and services. Any means by which the general public comes into contact with a specific brand constitutes a touchpoint that can affect perceptions of the corporate brand. Corporate branding can also be viewed from several approaches, including critical perspectives. It has been argued that successful corporate branding often stems from a strong coherence between what the company's top management seek to accomplish (their strategic vision), what the company's employees know and believe (lodged in its organizational culture), and how its external stakeholders perceived the company (their image of it). Misalignments between these three factors, may indicate an underperforming corporate brand. This type of corporate brand analysis has been labeled the Vision-Culture-Image (VCI) Alignment Model. Changes in stakeholder expectations are causing an increasing number of corporations to integrate marketing, communications and corporate social responsibility into corporate branding. This trend is evident in campaigns such as IBM Smarter Planet, G.E. Ecomagination, The Coca-Cola Company Live Positively, and DOW Human Element. As never before, people care about the corporation behind the product. They do not separate their opinions about the company from their opinions of that company's products or services. This blending of corporate and product/service opinions is due to increasing corporate transparency, which gives stakeholders a deeper, clearer view into a corporation's actual behavior and actual performance. Transparency is, in part, a byproduct of the digital revolution, which has enabled stakeholders—employees, retirees, customers, business partners, supply chain partners, investors, neighbors—with the ability to share opinion about corporations via social media. Top 10 Most Valuable Brands According to Forbes, these are the world's highest ranking brands in 2021. Apple - $241.2 B Google - $207.5 B Microsoft - $162.9 B Amazon - $135.4 B Facebook - $70.3 B Coca-cola - $64.4 B Disney - $61.3 B Samsung - $50.4 B Louis Vuitton - $47.2 B McDonald's - $46.1 B See also Brand architecture Corporate Identity Corporate Image Corporate Social Responsibility Brand management Brand orientation Brand Employer branding Family branding Individual branding Marketing Trademark Umbrella brand References Further reading Balmer, John M. T. and Greyser, Stephen A. (eds.), Revealing the Corporation: Perspectives on identity, image, reputation, corporate branding, and corporate-level marketing, London: Routledge, 2003, . Schultz, Majken; Hatch, Mary J. and Larsen, Mogens H. (eds.), The Expressive Organization: Linking Identity, Reputation and the Corporate Brand, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000, . Pratihari, Suvendu K. and Uzma, Shigufta H. (2018), "CSR and corporate branding effect on brand loyalty: a study on Indian banking sector", Journal of Product and Brand Management, Vol. 27 Iss: 1, pp. 57-78, Pratihari, Suvendu K. and Uzma, Shigufta H. (2018), "Corporate Social Identity: An Analysis of the Indian Banking Sector”, International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol 36 Iss: 6, pp. 1248-1284, Pratihari, Suvendu K. and Uzma, Shigufta H. (2019), "A Survey on Bankers’ Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility in India”, Social Responsibility Journal, Ind, Nicholas, The Corporate Brand, London: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997, . Marc Fetscherin, Jean-Claude Usunier, (2012) "Corporate branding: an interdisciplinary literature review", European Journal of Marketing, Vol. 46 Iss: 5, pp. 733 - 753 Gregory, James R. and Wiechmann, Jack G., Leveraging the Corporate Brand, Chicago: NTC, 1997, . 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240667	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%20Zemp	Josef Zemp	Josef Zemp (2 September 1834, in Entlebuch – 8 December 1908) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1891–1908). On 17 December 1891, he was the first member of a conservative party to be elected to the Federal Council of Switzerland. He was affiliated to the Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland. He left office on 17 June 1908, only a few months prior to his death. During his time in office he held the following departments: Department of Posts and Railways (1892–1901) Political Department as President of the Confederation (1902) Department of Posts and Railways (1903–1908) He was President of the Confederation twice in 1895 and 1902. External links 1834 births 1908 deaths People from Entlebuch District Swiss Roman Catholics Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland politicians Foreign ministers of Switzerland Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Members of the Council of States (Switzerland) Members of the National Council (Switzerland) Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland) Heidelberg University alumni Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich alumni	[ -0.20483951270580292, 0.43344050645828247, -0.04009053856134415, 0.3215877115726471, -0.3431912362575531, 1.026857614517212, 1.0741316080093384, 0.059105727821588516, -0.4290417730808258, -1.0226478576660156, -0.03078499250113964, -0.0858093723654747, -0.12210465967655182, 0.24621400237083435, -0.3236767053604126, -0.18464051187038422, 0.22584034502506256, 0.18449784815311432, -0.6641958951950073, -0.12287626415491104, -0.04078966751694679, -0.4277326762676239, 0.2958593964576721, 0.5001927018165588, -0.45191508531570435, -0.2185577005147934, 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240668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanilla%20%28disambiguation%29	Vanilla (disambiguation)	Vanilla is a flavoring. Vanilla, in a botanical and biological meaning, may also refer to: Vanilla extract, a solution containing the flavor compound vanillin as the primary ingredient Vanilla (genus), a genus of orchids Vanilla planifolia, the species which is the primary source of natural vanilla flavoring Vanilla, in a derived meaning, may also refer to: Vanilla (color), a yellow color variation Vanilla Forums, a lightweight Internet forum package (Plain) vanilla, something standard or conventional Vanilla software, is a computer software which is not customized. The term comes from the traditional standard flavor of ice cream, vanilla flavor. Vanilla sex, sexual behavior which a culture regards as standard or conventional Vanilla, in art and media, may also refer to: Vanilla (band), a girl band from Barnet, London, England Vanilla (EP), an EP by Eiko Shimamiya "Vanilla" (Gackt song) "Vanilla", a 2020 song by English musician and recording artist Holly Humberstone "Vanilla" (Leah Dizon song) "Vanilla", a 2021 song by South Korean girl group Lightsum Vanilla the Rabbit, a Sonic the Hedgehog character Vanilla Series, a brand of pornographic anime Vanilla, an Asterix character Vanilla, in geography refers to: Vanilla, Pennsylvania, a community in the United States Vanilla, in software refers to: Vanilla software, software in its original non-customized form Vanilla, in business refers to: Vanilla Air nl:Vanille	[ 0.08541244268417358, 0.33893290162086487, -0.2790604829788208, 0.2623794376850128, -0.37728455662727356, -0.16047871112823486, 0.47574472427368164, 0.3886650502681732, -0.3047889173030853, -0.18755051493644714, 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240671	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich%20Frey-Heros%C3%A9	Friedrich Frey-Herosé	Friedrich Frey-Herosé (12 October 1801, in Lindau – 22 September 1873) was a Swiss politician. He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 16 November 1848 as one of the first seven members of the council. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his office time he held the following departments: Department of Trade and Customs (1848 - 1853) Political Department (1854) Military Department (1855 - 1859) Political Department (1860) Department of Trade and Customs (1861 - 1866) and was President of the Confederation twice in 1854 and 1860. He handed over office on 31 December 1866. External links 1801 births 1873 deaths People from Lindau Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians Foreign ministers of Switzerland Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Aargau politicians	[ -0.1172737255692482, 0.6855266690254211, -0.1569618284702301, 0.3341519832611084, -0.2573607265949249, 1.1277650594711304, 0.890506386756897, -0.37133052945137024, -0.38366904854774475, -0.8130015730857849, 0.06396245211362839, 0.040227197110652924, 0.21942521631717682, 0.5366441011428833, -0.22810395061969757, -0.020856596529483795, -0.11165347695350647, 0.16423770785331726, -0.5633983016014099, -0.5105217695236206, -0.559532642364502, -0.3702593147754669, 0.5858056545257568, -0.013113833963871002, -0.7242498993873596, -0.14907695353031158, 0.5053090453147888, 0.04780583828687668, 0.30521053075790405, 0.4098840057849884, 0.03196045011281967, 1.0437196493148804, 0.13356401026248932, -0.014675715938210487, -0.5715088248252869, 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240683	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caretaker%20government	Caretaker government	A caretaker government is a temporary ad hoc government that performs some governmental duties and functions in a country until a regular government is elected or formed. Depending on specific practice, it usually consists of either randomly selected or approved members of parliament or outgoing members until their dismissal. Caretaker governments in representative democracies are usually limited in their function, serving only to maintain the status quo, rather than truly govern and propose new legislation. Unlike the government it is meant to temporarily replace, a caretaker government does not have a legitimate mandate (electoral approval) to exercise aforementioned functions. Definition Caretaker governments may be put in place when a government in a parliamentary system is defeated in a motion of no confidence, or in the case when the house to which the government is responsible is dissolved, to be in place for an interim period until an election is held and a new government is formed. In this sense, in some countries which use a Westminster system of government, the caretaker government is simply the incumbent government, which continues to operate in the interim period between the normal dissolution of parliament for the purpose of holding an election and the formation of a new government after the election results are known. Unlike in ordinary times, the caretaker government's activities are limited by custom and convention. In systems where coalition governments are frequent a caretaker government may be installed temporarily while negotiations to form a new coalition take place. This usually occurs either immediately after an election in which there is no clear victor or if one coalition government collapses and a new one must be negotiated. Caretaker governments are expected to handle daily issues and prepare budgets for discussion, but are not expected to produce a government platform or introduce controversial bills. A caretaker government is often set up following a war until stable democratic rule can be restored, or installed, in which case it is often referred to as a provisional government. Caretaker governments associated with elections Many countries are administered by a caretaker government during election periods, such as: Caretaker government of Australia Caretaker government of Bangladesh Demissionary cabinet, a Dutch caretaker cabinet. Other countries that use similar mechanisms include Pakistan and New Zealand. Caretaker governments associated with wars or new regimes Iraq is governed by a caretaker government. Caretakers Heads of caretaker governments are often referred to as a "caretaker" head, for example "caretaker prime minister". Similarly, but chiefly in the United States, caretakers are individuals who fill seats in government temporarily without ambitions to continue to hold office on their own. This is particularly true with regard to United States senators who are appointed to office by the governor of their state following a vacancy created by the death or resignation of a sitting senator. Sometimes governors wish to run for the seat themselves in the next election but do not want to be accused of unfairness by arranging their own appointments in the interim. Also, sometimes they do not wish to be seen as taking sides within a group of party factions or prejudicing of a primary election by picking someone who is apt to become an active candidate for the position. At one time, widows of politicians were often selected as caretakers to succeed their late husbands; this custom is rarely exercised today, as it could be viewed by some as nepotism. In Canada and most other English-speaking countries, the more widely accepted term in this context is interim, as in interim leader. In Italy, this kind of premier is the President of Government of Experts. List of caretaker individuals The following is a list of individuals who have been considered caretaker (or provisional or interim) heads of state or heads of government: Heads of state Pehr Evind Svinhufvud, Regent of Finland in 1917–1918 Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim, Regent of Finland in 1918–1919 José Linhares (Brazil, October 1945 – January 1946) Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli (Brazil, August – September 1961) Win Maung (Burma/Myanmar, 1962) Varahagiri Venkatagiri (India) (only first term, May – July 1969) Mohammad Hidayatullah (India, July – August 1969) Alain Poher (France, especially second term, April – May 1974) Basappa Danappa Jatti (India, February – July 1977) Émile Jonassaint (Haiti, June 1993 – October 1994) Wasim Sajjad (Pakistan, December 1997 – January 1998) Eduardo Duhalde (Argentina, January 2002 – May 2003) Eduardo Rodríguez (Bolivia, June 2005 – January 2006) Muhammad Mian Soomro (Pakistan, August 2008 – September 2009) Kgalema Motlanthe (South Africa, September 2008 – May 2009) Bronisław Komorowski (Poland) (only first term, April – July 2010) Jens Böhrnsen (Germany, 31 Mai – June 2010) Horst Seehofer (Germany, February – March 2012) Alejandro Maldonado Aguirre (Guatemala, September 2015 – January 2016) Heads of government 19th century and earlier Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington (United Kingdom, second term, Nov-Dec 1834) 20th century Jorge B. Vargas (as Chairman of the Philippine Executive Commission, 1942-43) Winston Churchill (United Kingdom, May - July 1945) Vincent Auriol (France, Nov-Dec 1946) General Ne Win (Burma/Myanmar, 1962) Gulzarilal Nanda (India, 1964 and 1966) Walter Scheel (West Germany, May 1974) Malcolm Fraser (Australia, first term only, 1975) Mehdi Bazargan (Iran, 1979) Mohammad-Reza Mahdavi Kani (Iran, Sep-Oct 1981) Ghulam Mustafa Jatoi (Pakistan, Aug-Nov 1990) Waldemar Pawlak (Poland, first term, 1992) Moeenuddin Ahmad Qureshi (Pakistan, Jul-Oct 1993) Balakh Sher Mazari (Pakistan, Apr-May 1993) Jean Kambanda (Rwanda, April–July 1994) Jozef Moravčík (Slovakia, March-Dec 1994) Malik Meraj Khalid (Pakistan, Nov 1996 - Feb 1997) Hashim Thaçi (Kosovo, first term, 1999–2000) 21st century Muhammad Mian Soomro (Pakistan, Nov 2007-March 2008) Madhav Kumar Nepal (Nepal, 2009–2010) Yves Leterme (Belgium, 2009-11) Marin Raykov, Bulgaria (March–May 2013) Mir Hazar Khan Khoso (Pakistan, March-Jun 2013) Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou (Greece, Aug-Sep 2015) Caretaker Cabinet of Vassiliki Thanou-Christophilou Enda Kenny (Ireland, 2016) Mariano Rajoy (Spain, 2015-16) Emil Dimitriev (North Macedonia, 2016–17) Angela Merkel (Germany, third term, Oct 2017–March 2018) Nasirul Mulk (Pakistan, Jun-Aug 2018) Mahathir Mohamad (Malaysia, February 2020) Leo Varadkar (Ireland, 2020) Min Aung Hlaing (Myanmar, since February 2021) Stefan Löfven (Sweden, 2021) Stefan Yanev, Bulgaria (since May 2021) Muhyiddin Yassin (Malaysia, August 2021) Erna Solberg (Norway, Sep-Oct 2021) Angela Merkel (Germany, fourth term, Oct-Dec 2021) See also Acting (law), in law, a person acting in a position temporarily, not serving in the position on a permanent basis Caretaker ministry (disambiguation), in British politics Demissionary cabinet, in Dutch politics Lame duck (politics) Provisional government Rump cabinet, in Dutch politics References Government Political terminology Caretaker governments bn:তত্ত্বাবধায়ক সরকার	[ 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240687	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Saturday%20Night%20Live%20commercial%20parodies	List of Saturday Night Live commercial parodies	On the American late-night live television sketch comedy and variety show Saturday Night Live (SNL), a commercial advertisement parody is commonly shown after the host's opening monologue. Many of the parodies were produced by James Signorelli. The industries, products, and ad formats targeted by the parodies have been wide-ranging, including fast food, beer, feminine hygiene products, toys, clothes, medications (both prescription and over-the-counter), financial institutions, automobiles, electronics, appliances, public-service announcements, infomercials, and movie & TV shows (including SNL itself). Many of SNLs ad parodies have been featured in prime-time clip shows over the years, including an April 1991 special hosted by Kevin Nealon and Victoria Jackson, as well as an early 1999 follow-up hosted by Will Ferrell that features his attempts to audition for a feminine hygiene commercial. In late 2005 and in March 2009, the special was modernized, featuring commercials created since the airing of the original special. # 16 and Pregnant Spinoffs — A November 2010 ad finds MTV cashing in with spinoffs inspired by 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom (complete with an altered logo to "MTV: Maternity Television"). Promoted here are My Super Sweet 16 and Pregnant; America's Best Pregnant Dance Crew; Wild 'n Out with a Special Guest: A Baby; an all-baby-cribs edition of Cribs; and, in an odd case of satirical prophecy, I'm Snooki and Pregnant (Snooki Polizzi would reveal her pregnancy and engagement in March 2012). 1-800-Flowers — Kristen Wiig promotes the floral retailer as a way to show love for the mother (Kate McKinnon) who's always been there for her… even when Mom is at her most annoying. 5-hour Empathy — "For when you just don't get it," the makers of 5-hour Energy offer this liquid supplement that provides, as Kenan Thompson's voiceover notes, "5 full hours of complete, intimate understanding of years of systemic oppression and ever-present racism." But even after an initial desire to do so, ad subject Beck Bennett is hesitant to try it, going so far as to pantomime chugging it down ("The cap is still on," notes Thompson); insisting he's not racist ("I voted for Biden; what more do you want?!"); and offering it to wife Heidi Gardner, who also declines ("I don't need that, 'cause I'm a woman, so… it's the same"). 24-Hour Energy for Dating Actresses — Having an actress for a paramour, and dealing with their quirks, can leave a man exhausted and debilitated. Luckily, this once-daily supplement gives men the energy they need to handle their paramours' constant rehearsing, mastering of foreign accents, emotional swings over callbacks, etc. Also promoted is a female formula, "24-Hour Energy for Dating Comedians." 39 Cents — In a parody of international aid advertisements, Charles Daniels (portrayed by episode host Bill Hader) visits a poverty-stricken African village while gently asking the viewer to send just 39 cents to provide food, water, and medicine, saying it costs less than a small cup of coffee. However, the villagers (portrayed by Kenan Thompson, Jay Pharoah, Sasheer Zamata, and then-SNL writer Leslie Jones) begin confronting him over the fact that he is requesting such an insultingly low amount to save their lives, especially considering how expensive coffee is. Daniels continues to give increasingly weak answers to their questions, claiming the number was determined by "experts," until he finally admits he does not even know what country he is actually in. The skit ends with Jones' character taking Daniels guaranty and demanding $200 in cash to return him. A Abilify for Candidates — "Because not everyone can be President," this version of the atypical antipsychotic is specially formulated for candidates in the 2016 race for the presidency, among them Rick Santorum (Taran Killam) and Mike Huckabee (Bobby Moynihan). Academy of Better Careers — Spokesman Wendell Craig pitches a program for people to find jobs as stand-by operators. Action Cats — A parody of action-figure toys featuring plastic armor and weapons for live cats. Adobe – A car that is very affordable (sticker price: $179) but very unsafe, as it is made entirely of clay and "combines German engineering and Mexican know-how!" Adopt John Belushi for Christmas — Candice Bergen sells people on letting John Belushi stay at their place for the holidays. Airbnb — Natalie (Chloe Fineman) enjoys offering her home to guests through the lodging service… although she laments sharing it with European guest Oolie (also Fineman), whose one-night stay has been extended due to the COVID-19 pandemic quarantine, resulting in Natalie being subjected to Oolie's discourteous manners (e.g. washing dishes with a garden hose, doing yoga topless in the front yard). The Al Pacino Accused Murderer Biopic Series — Fresh off playing Phil Spector in a biopic for the network, and three years after he played Dr. Jack Kevorkian in another film, HBO calls again on Al Pacino (Bill Hader) to play several other famous figures accused of murder, including Ted Kaczynski, Amanda Knox, the Menendez brothers, the captain of the Costa Concordia, Oscar Pistorius, and Michael Jackson's doctor Conrad Murray. Al Sharpton's Casa De Sushi — Analogous to Donald Trump's House of Wings and Derek Jeter's Taco Hole, Sharpton (as himself) opens a Japanese restaurant… even though Sharpton himself hates the food and only admits to opening the restaurant so he can pay for his political campaign. Almost Pizza — It may look and smell like pizza, but it's not quite pizza, as proven by its molecular instability (it gets hotter when removed from the oven, shatters like glass, then regroups and crawls on the floor). AM Ale – An alcoholic beverage for the morning because "you can't wait 'til afternoon". Amazin' Lazer — A consumer grade laser gun used for cleaning up yard waste or (as onscreen superimpositions discourage) dangerous and potentially criminal acts. The Amazing Alexander – A 1986 ad promotes a Broadway theatre performance by a popular stage hypnotist (portrayed in performance still shots by Jon Lovitz). Audience members in the ad give the show unanimous praise—the same praise, in fact, delivered in a hypnotic trance ("I loved it. It was much better than CATS. I'm going to see it again and again."). Amazon — Husbands and kids can buy typical Mother's Day gifts (e.g. bed and bath items, a new washing machine) on the website… but moms use it to buy vibrating massagers (which one daughter mistakes for a microphone) or the best-selling novel Fifty Shades of Grey (in hard-copy or, so the husband doesn't have to know she's reading it, on Kindle). Amazon Echo Silver - A smart speaker device designed for elderly users: It speaks very loudly, responds to anything remotely resembling "Alexa," mutters "Uh-huh" during long, rambling stories, etc. AMC Theatres — The theater chain partners with Vin Diesel (Beck Bennett) to promote their showing of his upcoming F9 in this ad that closed out Season 46. Diesel, however, talks up the little minutae ("The tickets... the sticky floors... that hand-dryer in the bathroom that's louder than a choo-choo train") that makes going to "the mooovies" so great. American Cancer Society – This PSA from Season 6 has spokeswoman Gail Matthius promising to honestly and openly discuss breast cancer and perform a self-exam, a promise broken when she discusses the exam in euphemisms and her chest is covered by a censor bar. American Dope Growers Union – Laraine Newman (and several SNL castmembers and writers) support American-grown marijuana and the farmers who grow it. American Express — This 2015 parody of the credit card's celebrity-driven ad campaign features episode host Chris Hemsworth recalling how people said he was too tall, too blonde, and too muscular to make it in show business. But, as he concludes, "if a jacked Australian with a perfect face can make it, anyone can." American Taser – A series of people demonstrate the latest models of tasers by shocking each other. It begins a pitchman (Chris Parnell), followed by a police officer (Jason Sudeikis), a second pitchman (Darrell Hammond), a sexual predator (Seth Meyers), a feminist businesswoman (Amy Poehler), an angry wife (Rachel Dratch), the angry wife's husband (Will Forte), a black man (Kenan Thompson), a racist nightwatchman (Bill Hader), a militant black man (Finesse Mitchell), a Star Trek geek (Andy Samberg), and ends with the manufacturer's president (episode host Jason Lee) who shocks himself. America's Turning Gay – A parody of uplifting ad campaigns for 7 Up ("America's Turning 7-Up") and Dr. Pepper ("Be a Pepper") where small-town residents celebrate the sudden realization that they're homosexual. America's Worst Moments – Spokesman Chris Parnell pitches a commemorative plate collection featuring America's most shocking and embarrassing moments in politics and pop culture. …and More — Tina-Tina Chenuse (Jenny Slate) promotes her stores that stock personalized novelties. The skits have 3 elements: Tina-Tina introducing herself, "Hi-lo, I'm Tina-Tina Chenuse"; the store names always end with "and More" (e.g. "Car Horns and More"); and Tina-Tina exclaiming "Oh, my God" somewhere in the sketch. And So This Is Hanukkah – A promo for A celebrity-packed Hanukkah special featuring entertainers who know very little about the holiday. Angora Bouquet — A tranquilizer-laced facial cleanser that "washes your brain as well as your face". Angry Dog — Dog food with "synthetic testosterone and seven psychoactive drugs" (and a picture of Michael Vick on the package) that turns any dog ferocious. Annuale — Medicine that keeps women on a constant stream of hormones, allowing them only one period per year. And when that period comes, the user can become violent (Tina Fey wields an ax in the office), aggressive (Amy Poehler kicks her husband in the groin), hungry (Casey Wilson shovels an entire birthday cake down her mouth at a child's party), and sexually frustrated (Kristen Wiig French kisses her dog). The Apocalypse — "The people who brought you Valentine's Day and New Year's Eve" apply the same themes of those films (romantic comedy, holiday setting, all-star ensemble cast) to the world's end. This trailer's tagline: "It's love… at last sight." Aron's List — an online service that's similar to Angie's List but charges a lower fee, thanks to its roster of plumbers, carpenters, etc. who are on the "American Registry of Non-Violent Sex-Offenders" (what the site's "Aron" acronym stands for). Asian-American Doll — A Barbie advertisement parody featuring an Asian-American doll who has to be as bland as possible due to political correctness (until the announcer realizes that selling an Asian-American doll with a dog and a chef's hat touches on the stereotype of Asians eating dogs). Ass Angel Perfume Jeans — Women can both look and smell great in these jeans that mask "secret little lady scents" with aromas of lavender, rose, and industrial chemicals ("do not wear these jeans if you have kidney or liver problems… consult your doctor before purchasing"). Set in a 1980s music video style, this Season 46 ad features episode host Adele, returning SNL alum Maya Rudolph, and feather-haired rocker Beck Bennett (♪♫ "She's got the ass of an angel/I wanna smell it some more" ♪♫). Ass Don't Smell — personal hygiene spray intended to keep one's buttocks smelling fresh and clean; a parody of feminine hygiene deodorant sprays. Autoscent — just as air fresheners deodorize the home, this product does the same for an automobile's internal combustion system; just spray it into the carburetor every 800 miles, and your car's exhaust will smell like lilacs or pine forests. Autumn Fizz — "The Carbonated Douche" that "brings out the natural fragrance of femininity, with the effervescence of uncola." Autumn's Eve Pumpkin Spice Douche — from the makers of Summer's Eve comes a feminine hygiene product that has the bold, spicy scent of fall. Aw Nuts! Mom's a Ghost! — A promo for a new Disney Channel show centered on a family with a peculiar mom (episode host Kristen Wiig): After taking a lover on a business trip to South Korea, only to have him drown her to keep their affair a secret, she returns as a "Korean water ghost" to mother her two kids and terrorize the neighborhood, K-horror style. B Baba Wawa Talks to Herself — TV special promo where Baba Wawa (Gilda Radner) interviews herself. Baby Spanx — Ashamed of having a chubby baby? This elasticized shapewear can smooth out any infant's unsightly fat. As spokesman Jason Sudeikis states, "I would never spank a baby, but I sure as hell would SPANX one!" Bad Idea Jeans — a commercial featuring scenes of people discussing what can be considered "bad ideas" (for example, "Normally I wear protection, but then I thought, 'When am I gonna make it back to Haiti?'"). After each scene, white text on a black background reads "BAD IDEA". Each scene also zooms in on each person wearing said jeans. Bad Seed — a venomous, near-hysterical Nancy Reagan (Terry Sweeney) debunks rumors that her daughter Patti's novel, Home Front, is based on real-life, and pitches her own book that she co-wrote with Stephen King. Balz-Off — a medication that makes men more sensitive to women by killing off their testosterone levels. Banshee — NBC staff announcer Ed Herlihy pitches this collection of audio speakers that serve in your place when you can't (or don't want to) attend a funeral. The closing tag line: "First in Last Respects." Barkley's Bank — Former NBA player Charles Barkley has opened a bank in which he takes people's money and gambles with it in the hopes of either doubling their money or losing it all. Bartenson's Grocery Store — Kathy and Suzanna-Anne-Helen (Kate McKinnon and Aidy Bryant) promote the items shoppers in fear of the COVID-19 pandemic bypass in favor of traditional staple foods, including "fluoride bananas," "Mint Pringles," and a "Make Your Own BBQ Kit" (a 400-pound hog, sauce, and a knife). For those shopping online, the store's website also offers replacement suggestions such as salsa for pasta sauce and a DVD of Van Helsing for toilet paper. An ad airing as part of SNLs second-ever "at home" episode in April 2020. Bathroom Businessman — This advert starts off as a promo for a fully functional portable office (computer monitors and all) that businessman Kenan Thompson can set up in a public toilet, giving a dual meaning to "doing business." It takes a turn, however, when Thompson finds he can't "do business" because the desk setup has blocked his path to the toilet… and the ad becomes "a public service announcement for Decency," warning viewers to stop checking work texts and e-mails on the toilet ("Nothing's that important… and it's disgusting"). Bathroom Monkey — housewife Janeane Garofalo uses a disposable simian slave that keeps your bathroom clean. Be My Quaran-Tine — Nick (Alex Moffat) hasn't had time to find that special someone… until he self-isolates during the COVID-19 pandemic and finds someone who shares the same interests, thoughts, etc. as he does — that person being himself. This digital-exclusive movie trailer, promoting "the best coronavirus rom-com of all time," was filmed during SNLs "at home" period in Spring 2020. Berkeley Collection (Up Against The Wallpaper) — Jerry Rubin sells wallpaper with popular protest slogans from the 1960s and 1970s, from angry, anti-establishment protests to slogans of peace and love. The Best of T.T. and Mario — a CD collection featuring the raunchy song stylings of a 1970s-era Peaches-and-Herb-type singing duo (Maya Rudolph and Kenan Thompson). Beta Force — Testosterone supplements meant to give men vitality can at times work too well, turning them into overtly aggressive alpha males (especially in bed). Luckily, this supplement is a counter-agent that turns men into their paunchy, mild-mannered middle-aged selves once again. The Beygency — A 2014 film trailer in which episode host Andrew Garfield goes on the run from mysterious, Adjustment Bureau-style agents, all because he "turned against his country" and professed to not entirely being a fan of Beyoncé's music (in particular "Drunk in Love"). 24 alumns Kiefer Sutherland and Mary Lynn Rajskub have cameo appearances. Bierhoff House of German Coats — Two German entrepreneurs (Fred Armisen and episode host Ben Affleck) sell bright orange winter coats to German tourists vacationing in New York City. Big Brawn Feminine Napkins — Parodying Brawny paper towels (with a jingle set to the tune of "Big Bad John"), this ad shows giant lumberjack Will Ferrell turning pulp from wood into a super-absorbent (albeit rough-looking) menstruation pad. The ad is capped by Big Brawn literally tearing the roof from normal-sized Molly Shannon's house to deliver her the product. Big Red — Made by Bleego (a parody of Mego), this water sprinkler toy depicts a Viking figure (complete with stereotypical horned Viking helmet) that spins around and sprays red liquid from its horns — liquid that is revealed to be hazardous, as evidenced by the thick utility gloves included to clean up the resulting mess. Bio-Flex – a parody of exercise equipment commercials where Will Ferrell is attacked by a half-man/half-monkey creature, which is considered a workout. Bird Bible — "Your family will never be bored by scriptures again" thanks to this kid-oriented pictorial version of the Bible, promoted in a March 2014 ad, that substitutes human figures with images of birds (e.g. a haloed hatchling emerges from its egg to depict Jesus's birth). The Bitchslap Method – an infomercial promotes a self-help video course that teaches troubled married couples to bitch-slap their spouses into submission. Black Widow: Age of Me — Acknowledging criticism for giving female superhero characters the short shrift, Marvel Studios reciprocates with this Season 40 film trailer centered around Black Widow (episode host Scarlett Johansson, reprising her role from the MCU). But rather than a traditional superhero film, it's a romantic comedy that finds Black Widow in the big city, where she works for a fashion magazine, deals with a Miranda Priestly-like boss (played by Kate McKinnon), and falls quickly into romance with supervillan Ultron. Bladdivan — A prescription medication (combining powerful drugs, a powerful diuretic, and anti-anxiety medications) that treats cases of "shy bladder syndrome" in men; side effects include "peeing yourself… and not really caring that you peed yourself." Blaine Hotel — Part of an early running gag on Weekend Update, this ad bumper has Don Pardo announcing that guests of SNL stay at the Blaine Hotel, but is usually preceded by Update reports of serious incidents (e.g. murder, virus outbreak) taking place at the Blaine. Blue River Dog Food — The dog food is featured in two ads: The first, from 2014, finds Cindy and Pat (Cecily Strong and episode host Seth Rogen) offering a testimonial for Blue River, which takes an abrupt turn when Cindy lashes out at the lack of integrity of their previous brand (i.e. it had a chicken on its packaging but only offered "trace amounts of chicken"). The second, from 2022, finds Rebecca Anne and her partner (Strong and episode host John Mulaney) berating fellow shopper Heidi Gardner for buying a cheaper, lower-quality dog food instead of Blue River ("It's only 32 cents more a day"), then pleading with Gardner to buy Blue River if she ever wants to see her dog walk again (they're shown sitting in the child seat of Gardner's cart). Bok Bok's — A March 2019 ad for a chicken restaurant that insists that its "human-bird hybrid" mascot, Bok Bok (Kate McKinnon), is not "Momo" in a chicken suit and is "not tempting children with chicken to steal their souls" (alluding to the social media hoax). Boop-It — A Bop It-like memory game that's fun for kids of all ages — including divorced dad Beck Bennett, whose obsession of mastering the flashing toy's honks and turns takes the fun out of time with his children. Booty Bidness — Rapper Ludacris (as himself) pitches a new line of women's businesswear with racy phrases on them, such as "Porn Star", "Bi-Curious", "Tasty" (written on the rear end of a skirt), and "Nympho". Bosley – The hair transplant service offers a new procedure that borrows hair from the pubic region (or "mezzanine" as spokesman Jason Sudeikis refers to it); the result is a corse and curly patch of new locks on a head that had previously been bald or thin-haired. Brad Pitt — Taran Killam parodies Pitt's rambling 2012 pitch work for Chanel No. 5 with this quartet of ads including: A straight-up parody of the Chanel ad, with Killan's Pitt obliging the director's request to sound less coherent by making up words ("Splindiferous," "Pintalicious"). Taco Bell, and how their Doritos Taco Loco is "a great way to make a quick meal when you have between 8 and 20 children." Franklin's Dog Condoms ("Let your dog keep his balls") Jonathan Zizmor, referring to the tattoo removal specialist as "The Subway Doctor" for his ubiquitous advertising on New York City's subway system. Bravo — The reality-heavy TV network adds more unscripted drama, each having a tenuous cast connection with the show mentioned before it, among them The Moroccans of Mulholland Drive (centered on a Morocco-born dentist with a celebrity client list), A Coppola Coconuts (featuring two granddaughters of Francis Ford Coppola), and the self-explanatory The Real Houseplants of Beverly Hills. Brew Dude – a hat that dispenses beer for the college student who would rather party than study. Broadview Security – a parody of the actual Broadview Security commercials that infer that women living alone in large houses are the most likely to be victimized by any man she meets (including male family members, androgynous singer k.d. lang, and two kids using a trenchcoat posing as an adult). Broderick & Ganz — An ad for a team of personal injury lawyers, with happy clients praising the work of the skilled Broderick (Kate McKinnon) and one disgruntled client (episode host Aziz Ansari) disappointed over his representation by the incompetent Ganz (Bobby Moynihan). Brogaine — A version of Rogaine designed for male college students suffering from premature hair loss caused by the stress of college life caused by such factors as "nerds", "midterms", concern over your frat dog being an alcoholic, and chanting "the n-word" in a viral video ("because no one wants to be the bald guy in the frat"). Broken — CBS, seeking the award glory that comedy-dramas Transparent and Orange is the New Black have earned, premieres this show centered around a family of professors (portrayed by Vanessa Bayer, Cecily Strong, and episode host Tom Hanks) who are all diagnosed with depression on the same day. The show is clearly dour and dramatic, but since it's 30 minutes in length, CBS considers it a comedy and gives it the same light-hearted promotional approach as its sitcoms. Brutal Marriage Movie — This cut-for-time trailer from Season 47 promotes a movie documenting the overly dramatic struggles between a married couple played by "two [scene-chewing] actors who fully expect Oscars" (Heidi Gardner and episode host Rami Malek). The film comes from "the producer of Marriage Story" and "a director going through a divorce himself." The Bubble — This November 2016 ad promotes a proposed domed community (formerly the New York City borough of Brooklyn) with a diverse, progressive atmosphere (hybrid cars, coffee shops, used book stores, money bearing Bernie Sanders' portrait, etc.). The community is marketed toward millennials and liberals who are scared to live in America now that Donald Trump won the presidency, but would prefer not to leave the country. Buddweiser Light — a parody of the Bud Light "Bring Out Your Best" ad campaign, featuring hockey player Joe Piscopo mentally readying himself against faceoff opponent Robin Williams. Piscopo says of Williams in the voiceover, "I can't believe my wife ran away with him," which inspires Piscopo to instigate a fight as soon as the puck is dropped. The ad ends with Williams and Piscopo sitting on the ice bloodied, gap-toothed, and enjoying a couple of beers. Buffy the Vampire Slayer — a promo for The WB series announces that with Seinfeld leaving the air, Buffy Summers (episode host Sarah Michelle Gellar) would be moving to New York to become the "Elaine" to an un-dead Jerry, George, and Kramer, thus transforming Buffy into "A show about nothing… and vampires!" Bug-Off – Will Ferrell appears in this parody sketch of Roach Motels. Rather than simply killing a cockroach, this bug trap painfully tortures them and "gives them a lot to think about". The trap supposedly creates a signal that encourages the cockroach to enter, then adhesive glue holds the bug fast (much like a rat trap). Then, three tweezers stretch the legs in opposite directions til they snap off. Then a white-hot metal coil comes down and burns off the bug's reproductive glands of as well as making a sizable hole. Then the bug is beat senseless by its own dismembered legs. Finally, two pieces of cotton stuffed into the cockroach's orifices as food is dangled in front of it. Two kids are seen peering gleefully through a patented "viewing window". Buh-Weet Sings – All grown up, Buckwheat (Eddie Murphy) from the Our Gang/Little Rascals films has recorded a compilation of songs sung in his own and very personal style, such as "Fee Tines a Mady", "Una Panoonah Banka", "Wookin' Pa Nub" and, in a dedication to his friend Alfalfa, "Barbah ob Dabill". Bunny Business Soundtrack — Ahead of the release of an animated motion picture about "a couple of bunnies with a lot of ambition," its accompanying soundtrack is promoted in this Season 35 ad. The album features songs by the likes of Randy Newman (Fred Armisen), Natalie Merchant (Kristen Wiig), and Shakira (episode host Taylor Swift). Burger Master – a fast food restaurant where people can get their burgers done any way they want—no matter how weird or disgusting the request may be. Business Garden Inn & Suites & Hotel Room Inn — Whether you're staying for business travel, interventions, or "after-prom hand stuff," this budget hotel will provide "every amenity required by law" (e.g. tightly wrapped bars of soap, "curtains with sticks attached," continental breakfasts that have "cereal in gumball machines"). Take it from front desk clerks Kathreen and Kathlyn (Kate McKinnon and episode host Billie Eilish): "As we always say, 'We may not be the Ritz-Carlton.'" C C.E.O Dreamboats – a magazine with famous businessmen as objects of desire for teenyboppers. Calvin Klein Cream Pies – in a parody of Andie MacDowell-starred Calvin Klein Jeans commercials, Julia Louis-Dreyfus portrays MacDowell as an annoying model who gets hit in the face with a custard pie after one of her shallow, rambling stories. Calvin Klein Industrial Strength Jeans – A plus-sized Elizabeth Taylor (episode host Joan Rivers) models CK Jeans, rambles on about her movie career, and snacks on some nearby food in this Season 8 parody. Calvin Klein Underwear — CK spokesperson Justin Bieber (Kate McKinnon) appears in a trio of 2015 ads; though Justin says, "I'm a big boy now", he behaves immaturely, poses and preens for the camera, and leaves fellow model Lara Stone (Cecily Strong) unimpressed. Camel Tame — When placed "between your clothes and your business," this insert helps prevent the unsightly showing of a woman's camel toe… but resembles a male bulge as a result. Canis Cologne for Dogs — parody of a Calvin Klein fragrance ad. Caribbean Essence Bath Oil – foaming, scented bath enhancer that causes a West Indian man (Tracy Morgan) to pop up during the bath and carry his bathers across a beach. Carl Weathers for Governor – Following in the footsteps of his Predator co-stars Arnold Schwarzenegger and Jesse "The Body" Ventura, Carl Weathers promotes himself to be the next governor in any state that will take him. The Chad & Mrs. Douglas Show Holiday DVD — Chad and Victoria Douglas (Taran Killam and Vanessa Bayer) promote a Time Life DVD collection of Christmas musical performances from their 1970s TV variety series, which feature guest performers who were clearly imbibing on drug & drink vices of the era. Carter 'N Sons BBQ – A commercial for a barbecue pork restaurant produced in 2002 but airing in 2009, augmented with disclaimers stating that the restaurant's "Swine Fever" marketing tagline is in no way connected to the then-recent swine flu (H1N1 virus) pandemic. Cartier Fidget Spinner — A 14-carat-gold, diamond-encrusted fidget spinner for the woman who is glamorous yet easily distracted. Celtic Woman — It's "the cultural event your godmother described as perfection," as the Irish singing group (Aidy Bryant, Kate McKinnon, Cecily Strong, and episode host Anya Taylor-Joy) hits the road for a Summer 2021 tour of the U.S. Hear them sing deep-cut and loosely original songs, along with a random assortment of non-Gaelic tunes American audiences kinda want to hear (e.g. "Sweet Home Alabama"). Chalmers Reserve Event Wine — Trett and Leezan Chalmers (Kenan Thompson and Cecily Strong), former stars of the reality TV show The Nastiest Summer Renters of Sag Harbor, introduce their fine wine that's 72% grain alcohol and costs only $1 a bottle. Why the low price? An Italian couple (Kyle Mooney and episode host Emma Stone) who makes the wine reveals its ingredient list: Twigs, yellow corn, and moldy grapes that didn't make the cut for better wines ("We think it's for the dogs"). The Chameleon XLE – a luxury car on the inside, a dilapidated wreck on the outside — but all the better to deter the high risk of theft that accompanies luxury cars. The car features a simulated transmission fluid leak, mismatched hubcaps (and one exposed wheel painted school bus yellow), coat hanger antenna… and a supple leather-and-wood interior. Chantix — Two parodies for the prescription medication used to treat nicotine addiction and its advertising that uses "real people [with] real stories": The first, from 2012, lists mental side effects that are worse than nicotine addiction itself, which user Kristen Wiig slowly discovers she has, much to husband Bill Hader's consternation (e.g. "If you notice changes in behavior such as a powerful, overwhelming desire to kill the person you love most, call your doctor right away."). The second ad, from 2018, emphasizes that Chantix user Kelly (Cecily Strong) is not an actress… although she's quick to correct that she once was, and spends the rest of the ad less praising Chantix and more resurrecting her long-dormant acting skills. cheapkids.net – a website dedicated to the sale of shoddy items for babies and toddlers for irresponsible parents. Cheques — While sending money can be as routine as clicking on a smart phone app, a check provides a noir-flavored air when paying your daughter's boyfriend (so she'll never see him again), your maid (so she forgets about what she saw in the gazebo), or your poison supplier ("Just one sip, and I become head of the board"). Cherry Grove — Logo pairs its upcoming reality show Fire Island with this companion series focusing on a group of affluent lesbians who, unlike the hard-partying gay men of Fire Island one beach over, get no raunchier than sharing a fondness for dinner, wine, song, jigsaw puzzles, and water birth. Chess for Girls! – a parody of the marketing of children's toys based on gender, this chess set (unrelated to the chess game in general) features pieces with Barbie doll-style bodies and chess piece heads, an accompanying dollhouse, beachwear, minivan, bubble blower, and so on. The tag line: "A classic game of strategy and wits… and bubbles!" Chewable Pampers – A line of Pampers diapers which contain flavor crystals that, once the diaper is soiled, turns into an edible treat. Chia Head – a parody of both the Chia Pet and Minoxidil; men with bald or receding hairlines use this product to give them nice green hair just like a Chia Pet. ("Not to be used in salads!") Chicago Improv — A promo for the latest series in producer Dick Wolf's Chicago-based TV franchise, with the city's improv comedy scene and those who populate it depicted in the same gritty, unflinching way as its firefighting and law enforcement worlds. Chickham Apple Farm — Just in time for the apple-picking season, Debra Chickham (Aidy Bryant), her sister (Kate McKinnon), and Hank the farmhand (episode host Woody Harrelson), promote their orchard located in "the part of New York state that has Confederate flags." Visitors can have fun at the petting zoo, haunted hayride, and, yes, the apple orchard ("For $45, you can bring home $10 worth of apples"). Chonk — This clothing store offers fashions that let women be "gorgeous at any size"; much to the models' clear dismay, however, the store bears an uncomplimentary name. Also featured is "Lil' Chonk" for tween girls (Mom ushers her young model out of camera range), and the menswear store "Normal Clothes", where guys can make a quick trip to find clothes in their size. Chris Rock's White Person's Guide to Surviving The Apollo — Chris Rock, a veteran of Harlem's famed Apollo Theater, promotes his video that gives tips to aspiring white comedians and singers on how to win over Apollo's vociferously critical audiences. Siobhan Fallon and episode host Rob Morrow appear in before-and-after footage. Cialis for Threeways — Erectile dysfunction medication that's 50% stronger than regular Cialis "just in case that rare opportunity arises," and also includes anti-depressants ("to help you cope with the inevitable shame and regret") and Xanax (to help you make it through the argumentative fallout the next morning). Cialis Turnt — An ad for "the only pill that combats your erectile dysfunction while giving you that unbeatable hip-hop sensation of 'getting turnt.'" To demonstrate its effectiveness, Taran Killam and Aidy Bryant are shown dancing wildly to music similar to Lil Jon's song "Turn Down for What" that includes the exclamation "Everybody, get turnt!" Citizens for a Better America — Dr. Swen Gazzara (Gilbert Gottfried) proves the value of hard work in America by asking Ronald Reagan to personally give him a "humble job" (which he shortens to "hum job"). Clancy T. Bachleratt and Jackie Snad — A quartet of ads promote collaboration albums by "patriotic country musicians" Clancy (Will Forte) and Jackie (Kristen Wiig), on which they perform songs about the four things they know best: Spaceships, toddlers, Model-T cars, and jars of beer. Clear-Rite — Karen (Kristen Wiig) speaks the praises of an "invisible" teeth retainer. The twist is that the product isn't real (it's superglue), Karen isn't her real name (it's Beth), and the ad isn't an ad (Beth's just practicing her pitch work before the bathroom mirror). Clearasil — Appearing in SNL's recurring Sprockets skit, which parodied German pop culture, a young woman uses Clearasil (or, in a strong German accent, "Clärasil") to get rid of her pimples and impress her new boyfriend. The English word "pimples", however, is confused in the sketch with "pimplen", a strong German slang word with the same meaning as the English "fuck" (in the sexual sense). As a result, the commercial tagline ("mach das pimplen kaput") implies that Clearasil will destroy one's sex life. Cleveland Cavaliers — This cut-for-time team promo from Season 43 highlights "The Other Cavaliers," i.e. those who ride on the shoulders (literally) of go-to man LeBron James, including a Roomba at point guard, a golden retriever as starting center, and one player (episode host Donald Glover) who's good at rolling the ball up the court to save time on the clock. Closet Organizer – A man in a blue Spandex suit (Will Forte) is hired to organize anything in a closet that someone throws in. Clovin Hind Jeans – a parody of Calvin Klein Jeans commercials by Richard Avedon which featured numerous supermodels of the day. Cluckin' Chicken – a fast-food restaurant's animated mascot (voiced by Adam Sandler), when asked why he tastes so good, gleefully describes the process by which he is killed, decapitated, eviscerated, and flame-broiled… then, displaying a schematic chart, describes how he is consumed, digested, and eventually eliminated through defecation. CNN Pregnancy Test — just like its namesake network, this home pregnancy test delivers "relentless breaking news" alerts to a couple waiting (impatiently) to learn if they're expecting a baby. Coldcock Malt Liquor — Tim Meadows appears in this parody of Billy Dee Williams' pitchwork for Colt 45; with each sip from a tall can of this beverage, an animated fist arises from the can's label to whack the drinker upside the jaw. Ellen Cleghorne ("I ain't afraid of no can of beer!") and Chris Rock also appear. Colon Blow — In a parody of high-fiber cereal ads (notably Total and its "how many bowls" campaign), an off-screen voice tells cereal eater Phil Hartman he will need 30,000 bowls of his usual cereal to equal the fiber content in a single bowl of Colon Blow (2.5 million to equal Super Colon Blow, which is also promoted here). When the large numbers are quoted, a pyramid of the same number of bowls elevates Hartman into the ionosphere. Colonel Belmont's Old Fashioned Horse Glue – Will Ferrell appears as Langford T. Belmont, a man whose family has been in the horse glue business for generations. A parody of commercials that try to appeal to old-fashioned values and tradition. Commode & Commode — Attorneys Denzel & Latrice Commode (Kenan Thompson and episode host Regina King) promise financial compensation for those facing hardships from using Gorilla Glue in place of beauty product, as has happened to members of the Commode family who offer testimonials. A spoof of the "Gorilla Glue Girl" story that went viral the week of this Season 46 ad. Complicit — a perfume specifically tailored for First Daughter Ivanka Trump (episode host Scarlett Johansson), who the voiceover positions as a glamorous yet duplicitous part of her controversial father's (Alec Baldwin) presidency. The tagline: "The fragrance for the woman who could stop all of this, but won't." Compulsion – A "Calvin Kleen" disinfectant, parodying Calvin Klein's Obsession perfume and featuring an obsessive compulsive spokesmodel (played by Jan Hooks). Cookie Dough Sport – a parody of Gatorade sports drink for athletes who are having a hard time and eat cookie dough out of stress and depression. Corn Chip Nail Tips – Maya Rudolph and Tracy Morgan appear in this parody of "hip" potato chip commercials, promoting corn chips that double as false fingernails. Corn Syrup Producers of America — In this trade group ad, Kristen Wiig inquisitively asks Nasim Pedrad about why she serves her daughter juice with high-fructose corn syrup. Pedrad responds by saying she'd rather "trust scientists" who espouse favorable data (e.g. corn syrup is natural, it's okay in moderation) than "stay-at-home mom Sheila from down the street who's having wine at 10AM" (a catty dig aimed at a speechless Wiig). Count Chocula Silver – Count Chocula (Jimmy Fallon) promotes a newer version of his cereal that includes ingredients that help promote regularity and good heart health along with "kooky marshmallow bats! Bwa-ah-ah-ah-ah!" Cracklin' Oat Flakes (Now with Ecstasy) – Will Ferrell wakes up to find that he has run out of his regular Cracklin' Oat Flakes, but his wife offers this Ecastasy-laced version. After one bowl, Ferrell creeps out his coworkers, makes out with Chris Parnell, then runs half-naked through the streets until he's seen in bed with a pacifier in his mouth and playing with a glowstick. Creeley's Soup – Off-screen announcer Bill Murray tries to talk a child (Gilda Radner) into exchanging the soup she's eating for various items. When she becomes annoyed ("No! Leave me alone! I'm eating!"), the announcer successfully talks her into not only stuffing corn from the soup into her nose but pouring the rest onto her nose ("Because the Soupman says so"). The product's tagline: "Creeley's Soup – The Child Handler". The Crests and Troughs of Vernon Hawley, Jr. – This "special TV offer" promotes a 3-record compilation from "one of country's most enduring, yet erratic, superstars" (episode host John Larroquette), whose song repertoire deals with his battles with the bottle ("I hope you remember these ol' tunes.. 'cause I don't"). Cricket Wireless — On the week when FEMA and the FCC tested their wireless alert system (one the White House would use only in a national emergency), this ad makes it appear that Donald Trump will use these "Presidential Alerts" to express the same type of opinions he shares on Twitter. Luckily for those who use Cricket, they won't receive such endless alerts at all ("Now are you happy we have awful service?"). Cruz for Texas — Footage from a campaign rally makes up this ad for Texas Senator Ted Cruz's (Beck Bennett) 2018 re-election effort. Cruz is assisted by a "hype team" (Kenan Thompson and episode host Awkwafina), but while the pair is able to liven up the crowd, things fall apart (literally and figuratively) for Cruz after he takes the stage. Crystal Gravy – A parody of the clear consumer products fad of the mid-1990s, specifically Crystal Pepsi. Julia Sweeney enjoys a drumstick dipped in clear gravy straight from the jar, while Kevin Nealon gleefully splashes his face in the clear, gooey liquid. CVS Pharmacy — For the guys who forgot to get their girlfriends something for Valentine's Day, CVS is the perfect place to find it at the last minute, be it teddy bears in bee costumes ("Bee Mine"), valentine-themed Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles chocolates, or a Christmas stocking priced at an 80% markdown. D Dad Christmas - Aidy Bryant plays a travel agent who shows two children from a divorced family (played by Pete Davidson and episode host Claire Foy) all the amenities that come with traveling to Florida to celebrate "Dad Christmas": the lighting of an indoor cigarette, their father (played by Mikey Day) introducing them to an older woman named Dierdre (played by Kate McKinnon), their father getting into Jimmy Buffett music, the lack of any kind of rules and structure, and, when they're older, the opportunity to do drugs with him. ("Dad Christmas: The Sad Part About This Is That He Really Tried Hard"). Dallas: The Home Game – Charles Rocket pitches a home board game for dysfunctional families who can now act out their issues the same way the Ewings do on the prime time soap opera Dallas. Damn It, My Mom Is On Facebook — When college students learn their moms just added them as Facebook friends, they can apply this filter that bowdlerizes the wild photographs and rebellious opinions they want hidden from Mom. Darnette Disposable Toilet – the toilet that you throw away after only one use. It takes just as many steps to install and remove as a regular toilet and costs $169.95. Daveheart – A movie trailer for a Braveheart sequel focusing on William Wallace's brother and "Scotland's biggest coward," Dave Wallace (episode host Gerard Butler), one who'd rather retreat or surrender than fight with the British. The Day Beyoncé Turned Black — A movie trailer interpreting the reaction to the release of Beyoncé's "Formation", a song noted for its embracing of Black heritage, as an apocalyptic-style film. The trailer shows White Americans in mass hysteria over their realization that Beyoncé is Black — while Black Americans are apathetic. Deidra Wurtz, Downsizing Expert — If you need to break the news about staffing layoffs, divorces, or even pillaged Bosnian villages, let Deidra (Abby Elliott) deliver it in a sincere, caring, yet flighty way ("I feel really bad about it, but it is what it is") that will leave those on the receiving end appreciative and understanding. Dell Stator's 99-cent Toad Ranch – "Home of the World Famous Dell Stator Toad Pit and the Dell Stator Patented Broiling Method, where we can guarantee you the best 99-cent toad steak you'll ever eat!" Democratic National Committee — "The Dems are back!" So exclaim Nancy Pelosi (Kate McKinnon), Dianne Feinstein (Cecily Strong), a Spanish-speaking Tim Kaine (Mikey Day), and other long-prominent and "new faces" (e.g. Joe Biden, Hillary Clinton) of the Democratic Party who are celebrating their state-level victories in 2017 but now turn to progressive issues and attracting "window-lickers from Ohio [and] mouth breathers from Wisconsin" who might not lean Democratic at the polls come 2018. Democratic Party 2018 Campaign — Progressive-leaning voters express confidence in this ad that Democratic candidates will win in the 2018 midterm elections and put the administration of Donald Trump in check… despite being visibly worried (e.g. sweaty armpits, wavering enthusiasm in their voices, drinking heavily, sudden violent behavior around friends and family, and screaming so loud that glass shatters) over the possibility of a "blue wave" not materializing. The closing tag line: "Vote! Please?" Democrats for Ferguson — Unlike his opponent, Terry Ferguson (Will Ferrell) is not a Washington insider; does not have interns working for him; and, because he lost his testicles in a fire 23 years earlier, does not have sex with anyone. Ergo, he's the best choice for the U.S. Senate. Depend Legends — Incontinent yet ashamed to wear adult diapers? You don't have to be when Depend offers a line of diapers with images of classic stars of the past (e.g. Clark Gable, Jack Paar, Mickey Mantle). The tagline: "Make History. In your pants." Derek Jeter's Taco Hole – Derek Jeter pitches a taco restaurant in Nutley, New Jersey, with a jingle sung to the Beach Boys song "Kokomo". Dianne Feinstein — After she was seen dismissing a Green New Deal proposal to combat climate change in front of a classroom full of children, the California Senator (Cecily Strong) offers to "make things right" in this cut-for-time political ad from Season 44. However, just as before, she spends one outtake after another arguing with students, parents, and teachers (to one kid who calls her mean, she responds, "Well, your dad wishes you were bullied more; toughen you up a little bit"). Dillon/Edwards Investments – This 1999 ad promotes a financial firm that took a slow, cautious approach to providing services on the Internet; when they were ready to do so, they took the only domain name available: "www.clownpenis.fart". Disco Meltdown – A Season 6 ad promotes a hip, new dance club in the reactor core of a nuclear power plant. Discover Card — Card user Ego Nwodim is alerted to peculiar charges on her bill (e.g. giant scissors, red jumpsuits, hundreds of rabbits). When she calls Discover's service line, she is greeted by her raspy-voiced doppelgänger. A spoof of the credit card's "We treat you like you'd treat you" campaign by way of the horror film Us. Disney Channel Acting School — Miley Cyrus (as herself) and Raven-Symoné (Kenan Thompson) promote a school where students train to act "the Disney way," learning techniques such as "Disrespecting Authority," "Pause Then Dis," and "Reacting To Stinky Feet." Dissing Your Dog – Will Ferrell sells a dog training video for passive aggressive dog owners. Divided We Stand — This ad promotes an Off-Broadway musical that dives head-first into the contentious American political climate, though its book, songs, and cast leave a bad impression on both critics ("Time Out New York calls it 'Dangerously oversimplified'") and audiences ("I guess the worst part of the play was their confidence in it"). Dog Bones-n-Melodies — The 1990s hip-hop group Bone Thugs-N-Harmony (Ego Nwodim, Chris Redd, Kenan Thompson, and episode host Jonathan Majors) open a store that sells nothing but various types of bones for dogs (big bones, small bones, chicken bones, dinosaur bones, etc.). Make a purchase and the group will serenade you before you leave. Doggie Duty Soundtrack — A Season 37 ad analogous to the ones for the Bunny Business and Horse Play soundtracks that predate it. Here, Randy Newman (Fred Armisen), Florence Welch (episode host Katy Perry), and "the guy from Spin Doctors" (Andy Samberg) contribute tunes to a "heartwarming" animated movie about "12 puppies selected for jury duty." Donald Trump's House of Wings – Trump (as himself) promotes his own buffalo chicken wing restaurant that was once "a defunct Meineke muffler shop in Englewood, New Jersey." He's helped by endorser David Crosby (Horatio Sanz) and chicken-costumed employees (Seth Meyers, Kenan Thompson, Amy Poehler and Maya Rudolph) who sing a jingle set to "Jump (For My Love)". Don't Buy Stuff You Can't Afford – Pitchman Chris Parnell promotes a book about money management to a clueless couple (Amy Poehler and episode host Steve Martin). Don' You Go Rounin' Roun to Re Ro — A film trailer for "the toughest, grittiest, most British crime drama of the year," one that appears to be about a reformed criminal (Bill Hader) who's forced back into the business... that is, if the audience can comprehend the Cockney dialects and slang. Dopenhagen and Happy Daze – David Carradine plays a cowboy who likes to get high on marijuana he can chew instead of smoke. Parody of Copenhagen chewing tobacco. Downton Abbey — At first, it appears to be a trailer for the motion picture revival of the beloved British TV series, right down to the film's premise (Downton is readied for a visit by the King and Queen). But it's peppered with unflattering quotes from critics (e.g. "Were the stakes in the show always this low?" asks A. O. Scott). The stealthy reveal at the very end: It's actually a promo for Joker, admitting that that comic book film is not perfect, "but at least stuff happens." Dr. Deborah Birx Scarves — Dr. Birx (Chloe Fineman), White House response coordinator during the COVID-19 pandemic, finds it frustrating that all the public pays attention to during her briefings are the scarves adorning her outfit. But in this digital-exclusive ad from May 2020, she leans in by creating a line of scarves, including one that literally says "Screw you, I'm a doctor," another in bird patterns (because Birx loves birds), and others made from periodic tables and actual CDC statements ("If this is the only thing you're zeroing in on while I'm talking, let's make it count"). Dr. Porkenheimer's Boner Juice – A parody of erectile dysfunction treatments (particularly Levitra), complete with the warning "If you experience an erection lasting longer than twenty-four hours, call up your friends and brag about it." Levitra's slogan "strong and lasting" is replaced by "thick and sturdy". Dr. Uncle Jimmy's Smokehouse and Outpatient Surgical Facility – A shady clinic that offers semi-professional surgery and mediocre barbecue cuisine. The Drew Barrymore Show — The daytime talk show gets parodied in this Season 46 promo. "After seeing what went down with Ellen," the voiceover remarks (in reference to that show's allegedly toxic work environment), "we took a hard turn in the other direction,” as evidenced by Drew (Chloe Fineman) adoring her guests, her remote audience (or "VFFs — Virtual Friends Forever!"), and especially her crew ("they say she maintains eye contact too long and is too emotionally supportive"). Dropping the L.B.'s With Missy E – Missy Elliott (Tracy Morgan) pitches a workout video featuring her impossible-to-imitate dance moves. Duncan Hines Brownie Husband – a brownie treat shaped like a life-sized man, designed specifically for the single woman. Dunkin Donuts — An ad featuring "Actual Customers," all of whom are professional and telegenic for the camera… except for Donny (episode host Casey Affleck), who sports a thick Boston accent and a rude, uncouth disposition toward Dunkin's staff and customers. Duolingo for Talking to Children — Episode host Kristen Stewart uses this instructional app to have meaningful dialogues and other interactions with children. DynaCorp – An announcer (voice of Chris Parnell) confuses Jessica Simpson with food products similar to Chicken of the Sea-brand tuna. The ad parodies Simpson's remark on the MTV reality show Newlyweds: Nick and Jessica, where she asked Nick Lachey if Chicken of the Sea was tuna or chicken. Dysfunctional Family Christmas — From Silver Bell Records comes this compilation of songs suitable for the holiday season, "when families get together to reopen old feelings." Sing along to such tunes as “I’ve Got My Drinking Under Control For The Holidays,” “Can’t You Let It Drop, It’s Christmas,” and “Let’s Pretend We Like Each Other (This Christmas).” Dyson Toilet – Parody of Dyson vacuum cleaner ads. E E! — "Turn off your brain" with new additions to the cable channel's celebrity-driven reality schedule, including Kendall's Model House and Kendall's World, both featuring Kendall Jenner (episode host Gal Gadot), and I Hate That, with NeNe Leakes (Leslie Jones) offering withering fashion critiques. eBay — In this Season 46 ad, shoppers Heidi Gardner, Ego Nwodim, and Chris Redd use the e-commerce site to sell things they bought online while isolated during the COVID-19 pandemic but never bothered to use. Also promoted is a "PreBay" option that lets shoppers with second thoughts have their purchase intercepted before delivery. The Ed McMahon School of Laughing — For those who like to laugh, and who'd like to make money by doing so, this school trains students in the lucrative world of recording their giggles, guffaws, etc. to laugh tracks for TV sitcoms. Einstein Express — an express courier service that handles late-arriving packages by literally sending them back in time to the desired arrival date. The slogan: "When it absolutely, positively has to be there the day before yesterday". Elián, The Cuban Boy! — From the people who brought The Lion King and Aida to Broadway comes this new musical about Elián González, a 7-year-old boy who, at the time of this Season 25 promo, was at the center of an immigration and custody battle between the governments of Cuba and the United States. The cast features David Mack Wilson (Rachel Dratch) as Elián, episode host Christopher Walken as Cuban leader Fidel Castro, and a special appearance by U.S. Attorney General Janet Reno (Will Ferrell) as herself. El Shrinko — Arthur Perkins (Andy Samberg) and his friend Randy (episode host Jesse Eisenberg) promote "the first scientific pill that can shrink your weiner… because it's TOO BIG!" Empire – a promo parody of the FOX television series, now including a white man named Chip (played by episode host Chris Hemsworth) who would rather run the record company as a real business instead of getting involved in the drama. The Englehart Five — The German quintet's new album has Helga Englehart (episode host Eva Longoria) and her brothers Rolf, Fritz, and Juergen (played respectively by Fred Armisen, Bill Hader, and Seth Meyers) singing songs about their brother Klaus' (Will Forte) death in a hunting accident caused by Rolf. Enid & Astrid's Brawr Barn — From their lingerie store located at Avenue E and Jill Zarin Blvd, Enid and Astrid (Aidy Bryant and episode host Anya Taylor-Joy) offer such made-in-store bras as "The Fortress" ("goes so high, it's a turtleneck") and "The Load-Bearing Wall" (made with miniature 2x4s), as well as straight-talk recommendations to customers seeking a flattering bra. Epoxy-Dent — A 1978 ad for "the strongest denture cream permitted by law". To prove its strength, a user bites down on a wood bar, which is lifted by a helicopter ("The Epoxy-Dent Chopper Test!"). EPT Home Pregnancy Test — A parody of EPT's campaign that features real-life couples using the product to see if they're having a baby. Here, a man and woman (Seth Meyers and Amy Poehler) await the results of the test — and nervously so, as they're really two college students who had a one-night stand two weeks earlier. Estro-maxx — Going through a male-to-female sex change is easier with Estro-maxx, a once-a-day pill that gives you all the hormones you need. Caused minor controversy for its depictions of male-to-female transsexuals. Eterna-Rest — Casket mattresses that adjust as your loved one's skeletal remains decompose, assuring them a peaceful eternal rest. Eych! — "It's the only hairball remover that cats ask for by name." A spoof of Meow Mix, but instead the cats cough in an exceedingly funny manner. Excedrin RT — Episode host Queen Latifah plays a businesswoman who takes this pain reliever to combat "racial tension" headaches (the "RT" in the product name) brought on by interns asking questions about the stereotypical behavior of black people. Exclusive Connections — Episode host Paris Hilton promotes a sex chat line catering to nerds who are interested in science fiction and fantasy movies. EZ Date — Parody of eHarmony and other matchmaking websites. All of the matches are alluded to be between prostitute and client. F FX-70 Cheese Slicer – Candice Bergen pitches a Polaroid camera that dispenses cheese slices. Farrow & Ball — This ad starts out with Aidy Bryant telling her brother and his wife (Beck Bennett and episode host Kristen Stewart) how she used this premium paint, imported from Great Britain, to make her living room pop with vivid color (or "co-LOOUR" as Bryant pronounces the Oxford English Dictionary spelling). But it gradually turns into a raising of familial issues: How Bryant has been running through her share of the family's inheritance (buying paint at $110/gallon), who she's been hooking up with (some shirtless guy she found on Facebook Marketplace), and the parentage of Bennett and Stewart's baby. The Fault in Our Stars 2: The Ebola in Our Everything — A trailer for a sequel to the 2014 film about two teens with cancer who fall in love, only here Olive (episode host Sarah Silverman) has the Ebola virus, which severely tampers paramour Theodore's (Taran Killam) attraction to her. Fashion Coward — A clothing store tailored for women with a fragile self-image, offering items (e.g. brown sweaters, gray sweatshirts, no bathing suits) that suggest "the general idea of a person" (e.g. "ideal juror," "goes on cruises with parents"). Store features also help alleviate the trauma of clothes shopping, including faraway mirrors, quick-burning clothes (for those unsure about wearing it), and knock-out gas if a customer spends more than 30 seconds in the dressing room (a big, strong bodyguard will finish the shopping for the unconscious customer). Father-Son Podcasting Microphone - A dual microphone that helps fathers bond with their teenage sons as if they're doing a podcast together. Fear Factor, Jr. – A season 29 promo for a youth version of the NBC reality show, with Joe Rogan (Fred Armisen) coercing children to perform dangerous and disgusting stunts just as he does with adults on the regular Fear Factor. For example, one kid will have to watch his parents (including an early cameo by Season 30 cast member Rob Riggle) divorce if he can't eat a plate of maggot-ridden eggs Benedict. Federline – Kevin Federline (Ashton Kutcher) pitches his new line of underwear to extricate himself from the shadow of his wife Britney Spears; shot in black-and-white, similar in style to early Calvin Klein commercials. Felina Cat Food – In a parody of onsite supermarket taste-test commercials, a TV pitchman dupes a housewife into eating tuna casserole made from cat food. Firelight — A Season 35 movie trailer spoofing The Twilight Saga, only instead of a vampire, high schooler Stella Swan (episode host Taylor Swift) falls for a Frankenstein-type monster (Bill Hader). First CityWide Change Bank – Two ads promote a financial institution whose only service is providing change (e.g. "you come to us with 16 quarters, 8 dimes, and 4 nickels, we can give you a 5 dollar bill"). How does First CityWide make money doing this? As one service rep says it, "The answer is simple: Volume". Flaritin — "The fake Claritin for fake allergies" Flex – deodorant laced with steroids that provokes its users to behave like animals. Food Dudes - For lonely men who fear being judged unfavorably when they order too much food, this trio of animatronic mannequins serve as the "friends" who hang out and share the pizza, chicken wings, etc. Fresh Squeezed Baseball — Episode host Bob Uecker starts his day off right with juice freshly pureed (seams and all) from baseballs. Frozen II: Disney's DVD of the sequel to Frozen includes deleted storylines with shoehorned diversity, from Elsa (Kate McKinnon) coming out as a lesbian to a Black member of the palace guard (Kenan Thompson). Frozen Mexican Dinner – Musician Paul Brittain is not feeling well during his band's recording session, claiming constipation. Luckily, bandmate Fred Armisen offers this frozen food product with medicine designed to counter constipation ("you eat it, and ay ay ay!"). Also available in Indian and fish varieties. The Fruiting – a movie trailer spoof for a horror flick where citrus fruits attack a family living in a haunted mansion. G G.O.B. Tampons — Vanessa Bayer promotes "the one brand of tampon created by the people who know women's bodies best: the gentlemen of the Republican Party." The Game of Life: DACA Edition — from April 2018, this topical variation on the classic board game forces players who pull a "dreamer" card to take an alternative path where they must "work three jobs," dodge ICE agents, and face bureaucratic hoops. The simulation of, and references to, real-life clearly drains one player's (Melissa Villaseñor) enjoyment in the game. Gandhi and the Bandit – A movie trailer spoofing Smokey and the Bandit, with law enforcement chasing a speeding 18-wheeler driven by Mahatma Gandhi (Tim Kazurinsky). Gangsta Bitch Barbie – new Barbie doll perpetuates stereotypes of black people living in the ghetto (the doll comes with Jolly Ranchers, a pack of Newports, and a restraining order against her boyfriend, Tupac Ken). Parodies use of hip hop culture in advertisement. Galactic Prophylactic – Excited pitchman Eddie Murphy promotes Ron Popeil-produced male prophylactics constructed with a steel core for extra durability. Also promoted is the Dura-Fram Diaphragm for women. Gap — The clothing retailer, its celebrity-driven "This is Easy" campaign, and the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal are parodied in three separate ads from the 24th season premiere that feature three notable figures in the scandal rocking out while casually dressed: President Bill Clinton (Darrell Hammond) on sax ("This is so easy! It's just… it's easy!") First Lady Hillary Clinton (Ana Gasteyer) angrily thrashing on electric guitar ("This is not easy!") Independent counsel Ken Starr (Chris Parnell) on reams of papers and a boombox ("The American people have a right to know!") Gary Busey Motorcycle Helmet – following his near-fatal motorcycle crash (in which he wasn't wearing a helmet), this clip features Gary Busey (Phil Hartman) endorsing a new line of protective headgear. On top of the helmet is an enormous foam rubber "helmet protector" with a "helmet protector protector" also mentioned (but too large to be shown). Gary Hart for President Committee — this sensually-shot ad finds a scorned woman (Jan Hooks) fighting in vain to put Gary Hart behind her, but Hart is there to remind her (and voters) that "you can't get him out of your mind," no matter what he may have done (an allusion to the allegations of extramarital affairs that plagued the charismatic Hart's campaign for U.S. president in the late 1980s). Gas Right – Inventor Bruce Johnson (Fred Armisen) modifies his Breathe-Right nasal strips to a larger size that expands the buttocks and prevents nighttime flatulence noises. Gaystrogen – a parody of the Estroven hormone drug; for men over 45 suffering from "queer loss". GE Big Boy Appliances — In contrast to the 1950s, women are now considered the prize-winners of the house who go out and work while the men are more likely to stay home and care for the family. But stay-at-home husbands (like episode host Jason Momoa) can still keep the house clean with such appliances as a dishwasher with a 70-pound steel door, a washing machine 6 feet in height, and a 240-horsepower riding lawnmower-like vacuum cleaner with a stain remover that looks and acts like a jackhammer. GEICO — "Eric Butler (Andy Samberg) is a real GEICO customer, not a celebrity," so Whitney Houston (Maya Rudolph) is called on to help tell his accident claim story in this parody of the insurance company's celebrities-and-customers campaign from the mid-2000s. Geritech — "If you think I'm embarrassed endorsing the Geritech line of products, you just don't know me." So says straight-faced episode host Leslie Nielsen at the end of this ad where endorses: Blotch-Off, the liver spot remover that "works while you sleep." Dripmaster, an undergarment for those with bladder control problems ("In fact, I'm relieving myself [brief pause] right now!"). Bung-King, "the only hemmorhoidal cream and suppository with my face on it." Solidex, the diarrhea relief formula that's "always in my medicine cabient, and in my make-up kit." Gidget Goes to Shock Therapy — This ad features three grown women acting like little girls, the result of "Gidget's Disease," a condition psychiatrist Jane Curtin says makes them "terminally cute… too cute for their own good." The only cure is a form of "pointless root canal" in "The Dental Theater of Cruelty." Girls — From Season 39, this promo for the HBO comedy finds Hannah, Marnie, Jessa, and Shoshanna welcoming someone new to their circle of friendship — Blerta (episode host Tina Fey), an impoverished Albanian immigrant who doesn't entirely sympathize with the girls' issues. Girls Gone Wild: Katrina — Doug Stanhope (Jason Sudeikis) travels to a flooded post-Hurricane Katrina New Orleans and offers women fresh water and clothing in exchange for their flashing their breasts and "going wild" for the camera. Giuliani & Associates — Timely yet cut for time from an October 2019 episode, this ad finds Donald Trump's personal attorney, Rudolph Giuliani (Kate McKinnon), promoting his services for those in serious legal trouble (for serious crimes they committed) and promising to make things worse. Appearing in testimonials are two clients who claim they're American but have suspicious accents; "Yankees legend" Bernie Williams (Kenan Thompson), who bails from his endorsement after sensing something's up; and Giuliani associates Lev Parnas and Igor Fruman (Beck Bennett and episode host David Harbour, respectively), who, after their arrests that week, surfaced as notable figures in the Trump–Ukraine scandal. Give Us All Our Daughters Back — In this Season 38 film trailer, a kidnapping incident at a CIA daycare center forces several action film stars to assemble… and do nothing more than spend half the film making threatening phone calls and the other half shooting the breeze. Glitter Litter Automatic Litter Factory — This cut-for-time ad from 2018 promotes a cat litter box that turns Fluffy's droppings into stunning gold and silver jewelry. Googie Rene's — In two ads, Googie (Kenan Thompson) promotes his seasonal discount clothing shops where you can save big on clothes with obvious imperfections including: Googie Rene's Partially Damaged Halloween Costume Discount Basement, whose costumes are so stained and torn you need props to hide the imperfections (and everything carries suspicious odors). Googie Rene's Slightly Damaged Prom Wear Barn, featuring dresses with grass stains on the backside and tuxedos with meatball stains on the front (the previous wearer fell asleep in a plate of spaghetti). The Goombahs — Cashing in on the success of HBO's The Sopranos, Showtime creates its own show about a commonplace Italian-American family. The promo's tagline: "Television at its finest. And its most Italian." GoProbe — A trio of extreme athletes (Taran Killam, Kyle Mooney, and Beck Bennett) promote this special version of the GoPro camera designed for use by doctors in colonoscopy exams. Gossip Girl: Staten Island — "For those who like the intrigue of Gossip Girl but hate the sophistication of Manhattan," The CW promotes this offshoot centered around the salacious exploits of Chandelier Martini (episode host, and Gossip Girl castmember, Blake Lively) and other heavily accented denizens of Staten Island. Go-Techs Flex with ThumbPulse — An (intentionally) amateurish infomercial spoof promoting a home exercise machine with fingertip pulse monitors that make it hard to operate the device in the first place. Episode host Channing Tatum is the feather-haired pitchman pushing bubbly Winona (Kristin Wiig) to the max, despite her getting tangled in the monitor wires. GP Yass — Liven up your long trip by adding this mode to your GPS navigation device that uses a drag performer's voice (and attitude) to deliver directions. Grable and Lombard — A movie trailer spoof about the lesbian wedding of Betty Grable and Carole Lombard. Grady Wilson DVDs — Grady Wilson (Kenan Thompson) promotes two DVDs that teach married couples his best sexual moves, all bizarre yet humorously demonstrated by Grady and his assistants in what appears to be his garage. The DVDs include: Grady Wilson's Burning Up the Sheets, in which Grady and Amber (episode host Megan Fox) perform moves such as "The Striking 12" and "The Skydiver." Grady Wilson's Fifty & Freaky, with Grady and "Marta from Amsterdam" (episode host Sigourney Weaver) demonstrating "The Sun Is In My Eyes," "The Old TV" ("Any picture yet?"), and other techniques for couples over 50. Graffiti: Say No – New York City mayor Rudolph Giuliani cracks down on graffiti artists defacing the city by adding insults next to their handiwork. Grayson Moorhead Securities – Four ads, ten years apart, lampoon the tradition of competence and trustworthiness that brokerage companies commonly project. The first two, from 1995, feature vintage film of founder Arthur Grayson (Jim Downey) dictating his company's "basic principles," including keeping a list of clients in a safe, secure place; project an air of listening to clients (even if they're not paying attention to them); and investing only in white-owned business ("Not all of Arthur Grayson's principles are followed today," the announcer advises). The second pair, from 2005, feature a present-day Grayson talking about his company's knack for investing in companies that either go bankrupt or are revealed to be unscrupulous (the tagline: "Losing our clients’ money with dignity and pride since 1926"). Green & Fazio — Attorney Barry Green (Phil Hartman) and his firm specialize in personal injury cases including phantom whiplash, near-collision stress, trauma suffered by accident bystanders, and pain suffered while committing burglary, not to mention harassing defendants to settle. Grimaldi's Classic Creations — Nativity scene figurines including a Baby Jesus that, thanks to a sound microchip, screams 24 hours a day from Christmas Day to Three Kings Day (January 6), much to the consternation of mom Nancy Walls, dad David Koechner, and the family. Grouch — From DC Films and "the twisted minds at Sesame Workshop" comes this Joker-like origin story, directed by Todd Phillips and "brought to you by the letter 'R'," about how grouchy sanitation worker Oscar (episode host David Harbour) came to reside in a trash can on Sesame Street. It's not the sunny place from TV, however, as the street's memorable characters (Big Bird, The Count, Cookie Monster, Snuffy, Prairie Dawn, and Elmo) are depicted as sex workers, drug addicts, homeless beggars, or criminals. But as Oscar reasons to a social worker, "If everyone calls you trash, and everyone treats you like trash, why don't you just become trash?" Gun City – a Crazy Eddie-type pitchman (Joe Piscopo) offers firearms as Christmas presents. Guns — A public service announcement showing how much firearms are a part of American life, whether you're proposing to your fiancée, need protection when you're jogging alone in the woods, welcoming a baby into the world, or bonding with an older relative. The tagline: "Guns. We're here to stay." Guy Fieri's Full Throttle Christmas Special — Food Network host Fieri (Bobby Moynihan) presents a holiday special with his unique dishes and featuring appearances from "the human equivalent of the food he makes," like Kid Rock (Brooks Wheelan), Criss Angel (Kyle Mooney), Bret Michaels (Taran Killam), Kimbo Slice (Kenan Thompson), Mimi from The Drew Carey Show (Aidy Bryant), Verne Troyer (John Milhiser), Big Ang (Kate McKinnon), Dog the Bounty Hunter (John Goodman) and the cast of Pawn Stars (all played by Moynihan). H Hallmark Mother Collection — Mother's Day cards that "crazy weirdo" sons who enjoy dressing up and acting like their mothers can give themselves ("because you're not just a good son, you're also a wonderful mother"). Hallmark Channel Countdown to Christmas — A promo for the network's nearly round-the-clock block of wholesome holiday-themed films that was cut for time from a December 2017 episode. The ad checks off many of the tropes the films are famous for, including its use of familiar faces, Canadian locations, and similarly themed storylines ("It's quantity over quality, people"). The films promoted here include: Yes, Santa! starring Jessica Normal (Kate McKinnon) as a businesswoman who leaves the big city to care for her grandmother's Christmas tree farm and is wooed by an old classmate — who's really a young Santa Claus played by "Canadian handsome" actor Chris Bearstick (episode host James Franco) Christmas Kitchen Wish, in which a baker and single mom (Heidi Gardner) finds herself magically trapped inside a snowglobe and requesting extraction assistance from her “black co-worker with no backstory” (Kenan Thompson) Prince Santa, with "once-famous, now very Christian actress" Meredith Devoe-Ellis (Melissa Villaseñor) portraying a figure skater who, after getting amnesia, falls for her kingdom's handsome prince — played by Chris Bearstick, because Hallmark Channel got him to do "two of these for no pay" Hamburger Helper Antibacterial - Chris Parnell pitches this food item that includes the "powerful antibacterial agent" Tristanex to a grocery-shopping couple (Will Ferrell and Ana Gasteyer) unsure if the days-old hamburger meat in their refrigerator is safe to eat. Parnell's cooking demonstration reveals, despite the product's acrid smell, that the meat's "germ volume is almost cut in half" (by 37.99% to be precise). Also promoted is Chicken Helper with Chlorine Bleach. Hamm & Bublé — Episode host Jon Hamm and musical guest Michael Bublé (or "bubbly" as Hamm intentionally misprounces it) invite you to their high-class restaurant that specializes in pork dishes, sparkling champagne, and live entertainment by a visibly nervous Bublé. Handi-Off – a topical treatment used for removal of excess fingers. ("Also try new 'Toe-Riffic!'") Hands-Free Selfie Stick — A traditional selfie stick needs to be held with one hand. Not this version, whose long, a bendable arm reaches out over the user and is inserted (inconveniently) up to their buttocks. Episode host Amy Schumer ("It takes pictures?") makes an endorsement cameo. Happy Fun Ball – a seemingly simple children's toy with dozens of disclaimers for absurdly dangerous health hazards and life-threatening properties, notably among them "Do not taunt Happy Fun Ball" and "Happy Fun Ball may stick to certain types of skin." Harley's Bristol Cream – a parody of Harvey's Bristol Cream, in which Gilda Radner uses the phone to find dates and then calls out to people on the street via opening the window. Have a Nice Day – a trailer for a horror film where smiley faces haunt potential murder victims. HBO — With the mega-popular Game of Thrones about to enter its final season, the network promotes "prequels, sequels, and spinoffs," among them the Daria-inspired animated show Arya; Samwell Tarly and Gilly in the sitcom The King of Queens Landing; and the crossover Game of Thrones: Special Victims Unit, with Benson and Tutuola (Mariska Hargitay and Ice-T, in costumed cameos) investigating a gruesome murder in Westeros. Headz Up – An app that clues people into their surroundings and keeps them out of danger (e.g. "A truck is coming," "Your wife is speaking") while their eyes are glued to their mobile device. Hedley and Wyche — An ad for "the British toothpaste," one infused with "two teaspoons of pure cane sugar… for a smile that says, 'Yum, that was good.'" A spoof of the stereotype that the Brits, by and large, maintain poor dental hygiene. Heinz Relax — Near-empty bottles of ketchup, mayonnaise, and mustard tend to make flatulent noises, leaving the user embarrassed and the butt of familial jokes at the Thanksgiving dinner table. But these redesigned bottles, when used, make a relaxing sigh… and other noises associated with sexual intercourse. ("Must be 18 or over to buy.") Hey, You – Gilda Radner appears in this ad for a perfume for women in search of a one-night stand. Helmsley Spook House – Leona Helmsley (played by Nora Dunn) creates a haunted house with the same style, class, and obedient workers as her hotels. Herbal Essences for Men — Attorney Amy Poehler has already "got the urge," but opposing counsel Will Ferrell and other men in the courtroom get it too in this parody of Clairol's shampoo line and its playfully sensual ad campaign. Herman & Sons Sperm Bank — George Herman (episode host Seth Rogen) and Eugene Sons (Kenan Thompson) announce a going-out-of-the-business sale at "the oldest sperm bank in greater Lansing;" they're turning the space into a TCBY franchise, so they need to get rid of their sperm stock to assure "minimal sperm-to-yogurt crossover." Heroin AM — An over-the-counter form of heroin for those who want to take the drug yet remain productive parents, workers, etc. Though panned for painting the Opioid epidemic in the United States in a humorous tone, the 2016 ad was also lauded for highlighting the issue in the first place, including the drug's dangerous risks ("Side effects include… it's heroin, so all that stuff") and its impact on people from all walks of life. HiberNol – "From the makers of ComaDose" comes this NyQuil-like cold medicine that knocks a person out for the entire cold and flu season. Pitchman Phil Hartman ("You can't buy stronger medication… in this country") and Chris Farley appear in this Season 18 ad. Hillary Clinton — Wanting to lure some of the younger voters attracted to Bernie Sanders during the 2016 Democratic primaries, Clinton (Kate McKinnon) starts taking some of the same campaign stands, so much to the point that she slowly begins to mimic the Brooklyn-accented Vermont Senator ("I'm whoever you want me to be, and I approve this message. I'm trying, you guys."). Hire The Incompetent – This Season 3 ad for a temp agency that offers unskilled workers for hire marked the first appearance of Gilda Radner's recurring character Roseanne Roseannadanna. The Hobbit sequels — Director Peter Jackson stretches the film trilogy into a 19-part series, all filmed in "S#!T-Vision" and featuring such filler material as delaying a march to Smaug's lair (because something was left behind at The Shire); Gandalf trying to remember a name; splitting a dinner bill; and "The Elf Queen" (episode host Jennifer Lawrence) deciding on what outfit to wear. Holding Your Own B--bs Magazine – Episode host Sarah Michelle Gellar is topless in this ad promoting a magazine exclusively dedicated to photos of male and female celebrities cupping their breasts. The ad spoofs the numerous copycat magazine covers that re-created Janet Jackson's famous 1993 Rolling Stone cover. Home Security Decoy – mannequins posing as criminals already breaking into a house to trick real thieves into thinking it's already being robbed. Homocil – a special drug that helps reduce the stress of parents whose male children express homosexual tendencies. The tag line: "Because it's your problem, not theirs." Hoops — Gino's girlfriend (episode host Jennifer Lopez) and her cousin (Melissa Villaseñor) promote a store where they sell customized, 100%-metal hoop earrings ("So luxurious, they’ll turn your ears the color of money"). Horizon System 12 — After Zenith introduces its System 3 line of television sets, Horizon Corporation tops it with "a masterpiece" of a TV set, one that produces high-performance sound and pictures… but is revealed at the end to be a gigantic console with massive speakers and a relatively minuscule picture tube. Horse Play Soundtrack — From Season 36, the soundtrack to an upcoming animated film about horses who play baseball features "totally original" songs from Randy Newman (Fred Armisen), Alanis Morissette (episode host Anne Hathaway), and The Cranberries' Dolores O’Riordan (Kristen Wiig). Hot Sauce Carry Purse by Tabasco — In case the party you're attending doesn't have any hot sauce at the buffet table, bring your own sauce in this purse ("available at Wilsons Leather") that's "insulted and calibrated to keep your [various] sauces organized and fresh." Hoverboards — This December 2015 ad plays up on the popularity of self-balancing scooters and their propensity to catch fire (it's the gift that says "I hate walking, but I love fires"). How to Order Sushi Like a CEO – a pompous executive (episode host Matt Dillon) promotes his book (that he hired someone else to write) on how to order at sushi restaurants, all the while patronizing sushi restaurant waitress Maya Rudolph ("Anything else, Mr. Douche?"). HuckaPM — How does White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders (Aidy Bryant), sleep at night after a long day of making outlandish statements in defense of the Trump administration? With this sleep aid that combines Melatonin, extra strength quaaludes, and the "One and Dones" prescribed to Michael Jackson by his doctor. One tablet puts Sanders instantly to sleep. Huggies Thong – useless diapers shaped like thongs; parodies the increasing phenomenon of the sexualization of young children, and parents who allow their children to dress in risqué, revealing clothing more suited for adults. I Infiniti Toilets — Mike Myers in a toilet ad (same style as the Jonathan Pryce Infiniti J30 commercials). Interbank — A husband and wife (Will Ferrell and Molly Shannon) extol the aforementioned bank that sends black ops to find your stolen traveler's checks. I Know Why The Caged Bird Laughs — Promo for a new TV show featuring Maya Angelou (played by Maya Rudolph) pulling pranks on her circle of celebrity friends; the pranks include putting a pie on Morgan Freeman's (Jay Pharoah) chair, taking the bottom out of Dr. Cornel West's (Kenan Thompson) suitcase, and interrupting Stephen King's (Bill Hader) book signing to tell him that his car has been towed. iPhone — Fred Armisen plays a man who uses his iPhone to keep his relationship with his pregnant wife separate from his affair with a French-Canadian woman whom he loves more. (In the NBC rebroadcasts, this was replaced with another iPhone ad, this time with Jason Sudeikis as a man who uses his iPhone to elude the police.) ISIS — A controversial Season 40 parody of a Toyota Camry ad that featured a proud father driving his daughter to the airport, where she departs for U.S. Army training. Here, however, the daughter (episode host Dakota Johnson) is being picked up not by an Army representative but by Islamic State militants, as her father (Taran Killam) looks on with apprehension. The ad was both blasted for mining comedy out of ISIS' atrocious actions and applauded for daring to ridicule the terrorist group. i-sleepPRO — This ambient sleep aid that has settings for "white noise" and "black noise"; the latter includes thumping bass music, dialogue from Tyler Perry sitcoms and the movie Friday, domestic arguments, and an old woman complaining about her foot pain. Jay Pharoah provides voice work for the device. It Gets Better Project — A decade after its founding, the nonprofit organization providing positive advice to LGBT youth calls on four previous participants (played by Punkie Johnson, Kate Mckinnon, Bowen Yang, and episode host Dan Levy, all openly LGBT in real life) to advise the youth of today that it will indeed get better for them… but that they'll encounter the same types of problems (e.g. income taxes, rejection and harassment over not liking something, annoying family members, kids' pet iguanas) that Levy's character notes were "previously only available to straight people… and that is progress." I Was Not a Sucker for Saturday Night — Laraine Newman (as her recurring character Sherry) pitches a book about her risqué encounters with the male writers of Saturday Night Live. J J.J. Casuals – Jack Johnson (Andy Samberg) promotes shoes shaped like bare feet for those who are as casual as he is. Jack Flatts — The fast casual restaurant chain talks of its adjustment to providing curbside delivery due to COVID-related restrictions against indoor serving ("We know how much you miss coming in"). But 27 seconds into the ad, the transmission is interrupted by thrash metal music and what appears to be a group of militia members demanding that the state reopen Jack Flatts and lift mask-wearing mandates; if their demands aren't met… [low whisper] "We're gonna kidnap the governor." Jake's Non-Stick Underwear for Men — Made from the same durable ceramic coating found in cookware, this prescription-only underwear is built for men who want their undergarments as rough and tough as they are, and who'd rather not go through the embarrassment of double bagging and disposing of their old, soiled-beyond-salvation underwear. The JaMarcus Brothers: Now Is the Time for a Tickle Fight, He He! — An ad for a CD featuring slow jam songs from the JaMarcus Brothers: Marcus (Kenan Thompson), Darnell (Jay Pharoah) and "adopted white virgin" Englebert (episode host Christoph Waltz). Jamitol – A parody of Geritol in which a husband (Chevy Chase) extols the virtues of the multivitamin that has kept his wife (Michael O'Donoghue) working to the point of exhaustion. "My wife. I think I'll stuff her!" Jam Hawkers – Carrying the Smucker's slogan ("With a name like Smucker's, it has to be good!") to absurd extremes, this Season 1 skit finds SNL cast members outdoing each other in endorsing, in the following order, fruit preserves so good that the manufacturers dare to give them names that are more horrible and disturbing then the last: Jane Curtin – Fluckers: "It's got to be good!" Chevy Chase – Nose Hair: "You can imagine how good it must be… mm–mm!" Dan Aykroyd – Death Camp: "Just look for the barbed wire on the label!" John Belushi – Dog Vomit & Monkey Pus: "This stuff has got to be terrific!" Chevy Chase – Painful Rectal Itch: "The taste? [mimicing chef's kiss] MMM WAH!" Dan Aykroyd – Mangled Baby Ducks: "Great jam! Beautiful jam!" John Belushi – 10,000 Nuns and Orphans: (responding to Jane's "What's so bad about that?" inquiry) "They were all eaten by rats! Oh so good!" Garrett Morris, who mumbles the name of the jam he's brought in, one Jane assures the audience is "the brand so disgusting you can't say it on television." Jar Glove – A parody of commercials that use black-and-white dramatizations to show someone struggling to perform an everyday task without the use of the product being sold. Here, a housewife (Kristen Wiig) accidentally kills her husband (Jason Sudeikis), resists arrest, is sentenced, goes to prison, plots and executes an escape, and hides out from prison guards—all because she struggled with opening the lid on a jar without benefit of the Jar Glove. Javis Home Security System – a commercial that begins as a diaper ad featuring a man (Will Ferrell) reminiscing about the first time he changed his baby's diaper. The baby's mother (Ana Gasteyer) enters the room, yelling, "Who the hell are you?!" and the man makes a frantic escape out the window while the mother cries and holds her baby in fear. Jenson Mint – phony dollars and coins for rich people who want homeless panhandlers to leave them alone once and for all. Jewess Jeans – Gilda Radner is the model in this parody of Jordache jeans (and, to a lesser extent, Levy's rye bread). The Levy's-like tag line advises that "no one has to be Jewish" to wear Jewess ("but it wouldn't hurt", Radner adds). Jiffy Express – When you forgot your package had to be at its destination yesterday, Jiffy says "We'll take the package… AND the blame" by back-dating packages and simulating shipping delays. Jiffy Pop Air Bag – Eat popcorn while you're waiting for the ambulance to arrive. Jogger Motel – A parody of the commercials for Black Flag Roach Motel roach traps. Its tagline read, "Joggers jog in, but they don't jog out". Joe Caucasian, Joe Dude, Joe Hetero, and Joe Not-a-Rapist — Promos for Fox reality shows based on Joe Millionaire, where a bachelor tricks female contestants into thinking he (or in the case of Joe Dude, she) is white, a male, a heterosexual, or not a convicted serial rapist. Jon Hamm's John Ham – the actor promotes ham you can eat while sitting on the toilet, complete with a dispenser similar to that of toilet paper. K K-Put Price-Is-Rite Stamp Gun — a price-stamp gun that allows shoppers to freely alter the prices of various goods (particularly groceries) in their own favor. Kannon AE-1 — a camera "so simple, so advanced, even Stevie Wonder [as himself] can use it!" A spoof of Canon AE-1 SLR. Kate & Ali — a series of promos for a spoof of Kate & Allie—only instead of two divorced women, it's screen legend Katharine Hepburn (Martin Short) sharing a domicile with boxing great Muhammad Ali (Billy Crystal). KCF Shredders — Lampoons fast food industry's marketing to kids, in this case with lettuce. "Now with How Stella Got Her Groove Back action figures!" Kemper Pedic Bed — Stacey & Pete Kemper (Vanessa Bayer and episode host Jason Segel) promote their "me-time mattress" that allows one spouse to get a very restful night's sleep while the other then does whatever they desire. Koohl Toilet — Parroting the classic "1984" ad that introduced Apple's Macintosh computer, complete with a sledgehammer-wielding protagonist (episode host Benedict Cumberbatch), this ad promotes the latest toilet fixture from the Kohler Co. that allows one to sit “the cool way” on a toilet—backwards, with your arms casually draped over the back—as opposed to the forward-facing old toilets Big Brother dictates the proletariat to use. Kim's Fairytale Divorce — "Whoopsies, I got divorced!" So admits Kim Kardashian (Nasim Pedrad) in this promo for the latest E! special centered on the Kardashian family, this time making a glamorous event out of Kim's divorce from Chris Humphries (Andy Samberg). Kool-Aid — The same week Gillette launched its "The Best Men Can Be" campaign, which encouraged men to become better role models, this January 2019 PSA calls out out the Kool-Aid Man and paints his longtime propensity to crash through walls as a bad influence of masculine behavior on both boys (Colin Jost's son crashes through another kid's playset) and grown men (Alex Moffat crashes through a conference room door to interrupt Heidi Gardner's business presentation). Kotex Classic — a very large sanitary napkin, attached to a belt and clearly visible under a woman's clothing, very much like the sanitary napkins worn by women and girls of the 1950s. L Lady Business — "From the creators of Lipstick Jungle and Cashmere Mafia" comes this series that follows three beautiful, powerful New York businesswomen (Amy Poehler, Kristen Wiig, and Casey Wilson), and a fourth woman (Tina Fey) who removes dead animals from under houses. Lansford Brothers & Associates: Hangmen-At-Law — Businessman brothers (Will Forte and Bill Hader) offer professional Texas-style lynchings. The Laughing Buddha — Episode host Howard Hesseman promotes a health food store that sells novelty items people can use to play pranks on vegetarians, vegans, and those into the organic lifestyle. Law & Order: Parking Violations Unit — A promo for the latest addition to the Law & Order franchise, this one centered on the police who investigate parking crimes and the district attorneys who prosecute the ticket-challenging offenders. Leave Me Alurn — If women want to avoid small talk with men, they can use this "conversation prophylactic" in the shape of a funerary urn to make men think they want to be left alone while they spread their loved one's ashes. From the makers of Lower Back Spikes, a belt used for women who are sick of men touching them on the smalls of their backs when they walk past them. Leevi's Three-Legged Jeans — Various SNL cast members cavort about in these jeans that feature a redundant third leg in the middle. The Season 17 ad features a reggae-tinged jingle, various catchphrases (e.g. "Three at Last," "A leg and a leg and a leg"), and this ad-ending remark from Tim Meadows: "Hey, not any dumber than acid-washed." Lemon Glow — Ex-biker chick Molly Shannon wistfully recalls her drugs-and-sex days while cleaning the suburban home (and related family life) she's conned herself into, using this household cleaner "for the home you weren't sure you wanted." Leland-Meyers Home Headache Test (HHT) — Run a "moderate amount" of your blood in a centrifuge, place one drop on a test strip, and in two hours you'll learn whether or not you actually have a headache. A Season 20 parody of home pregnancy tests featuring Janeane Garofalo and Kevin Nealon. Lesbian Period Drama — "From the makers of Portrait of a Lady on Fire and The Favourite" comes this hauntingly-lensed film featuring a cold, seaside setting, c. 1840; two straight actresses (Heidi Gardner and episode host Carey Mulligan) in the lead roles; 12 lines of dialog in a 2-hour run time; and "a sex scene so graphic, you'll think, 'Oh, right, a man directed this.'" Levi's Wokes — sizeless (i.e. baggy), style-neutral (i.e. grayish brown), gender non-conforming denim jeans for a generation that defies labels. Lexon Paradox — Two automotive design teams produced two completely opposite cars (e.g., one was the most expensive car ever, the other the cheapest; one was the safest, the other designed to throw flaming victims hundreds of feet in a crash). In the end, the two were combined to create The Paradox. Lexus — The luxury car maker's "December to Remember" sales event is parodied in this 2020 ad that finds Beck Bennett surprising his wife and son (Heidi Gardner and episode host Timothée Chalamet) with a new Lexus sedan on Christmas morning, complete with a red bow on the roof. But Gardner is more horrified than surprised, considering Bennett has been out of a steady job for well over a year, thought the car cost only $3999 (that's just the down payment "due at signing"), and got neighbor Mikey Day to loan him the money. The closing tag line: "Give the gift of Lexus, and definitely talk it over first." Liberty Medical — Wilford Brimley (episode host John Goodman) begins his pitch for this medical supply delivery service by explaining how, with "dye-a-beetuss", he has to take extra care of his health, but continually qualifies, and admits to exaggerations, until by the end, he's described hiding a "food boner" over delivery of $200 worth of pork ribs to his house, never having moved fast enough to sweat, and the fact that he may not even have diabetes—his doctor "just thinks I look like the kinda guy who would have it". Lil' General Fireworks — A fireworks manufacturer promotes their product as a family-friendly way turn any boring weekend into the 4th of July. Lil' Poundcake — This Season 37 ad promotes a doll that's not only sweet enough for girls to play with, it gives them an FDA-approved HPV vaccination shot when they least expect it. Lincoln Financial — Three spoofs of the investment company's "Get to know the future you" campaign, specifically an ad in which an airline passenger meets the future version of himself. In Ad #1, a man (Jason Sudeikis) has oral sex with his future self; Ad #2 finds another man (Bill Hader) learning from his future self that he's going to gain weight, go bankrupt, fly to Hawaii, and kill himself (but not before making out with him) Ad #3 finds another man (episode host Ben Stiller) mistaking a female passenger (Abby Elliott) for his transgender future self. Lincoln MKC — Episode host Jim Carrey lampoons Matthew McConaughey's existential pitchwork for Lincoln's crossover utility vehicle in this trio of ads. McConaughey gets so lost in his deep thoughts that in the third ad, he drives right through an Allstate commercial parody, hitting Allstate pitchman Dennis Haysbert (Kenan Thompson) in the process. Carrey would later reprise this spoof in the Celebrity Jeopardy sketch in SNLs 40th Anniversary Special. Lite Beer — Bill Cosby (Eddie Murphy), much as he does with Jell-O, promotes the virtues of Lite to a table of children in this Season 6 ad, including telling them Fat Albert drinks it ("soon he won't be fat anymore, he'll just be Albert") and pouring it into their cupped hands (to demonstrate how "light" it is). Little Brothers — An ad similar in vein to Peyton Manning's "United Way" commercial; here, Manning's younger brother Eli is ambassador of a mentoring program for young boys who need a strong, male role model in their lives — and someone to beat up their mean older brothers (one of which, played by Andy Samberg, is locked in the trunk of a car and mistakenly referred to as "Peyton"). The commercial ends with the tag line "Little Brothers: Because the time of reckoning is now at hand", followed by Eli and his young charges laughing maniacally. Litter Critters — Cheri Oteri appears in this sketch about a kit that allows children to take their cat's fecal waste and mold it into fun figurines. "♪♫ When you hear a scratch, here comes a batch — It's time for Litter Critters! ♪♫" Little Chocolate Donuts — "decathlon champion John Belushi" promotes "The Donuts of Champions" in this parody of Bruce Jenner's pitch work for Wheaties. Lobotol — Fashion designer Nancy Walls talks about how it's hard to keep up with overachieving colleague Katie (Cheri Oteri). But once she sees Katie feeling stressed out, Nancy recommends to Katie this non-prescription "stress relief" medication ("No need to consult a physician before use" according to an on-screen graphic). Three weeks later, Nancy is the one with a pay raise, while Katie appears vacant and confused. Long White Beard — "Let 'em know you've been waiting" by donning this obviously fake beard whenever someone who's taking too long to arrive, return, etc. is quite tardy. The Looker — TNT's newest procedural drama stars Penny Marshall (Fred Armisen) as a police interrogator who gets suspects to sign confessions simply by staring at them for long periods of time. Loose Bear — a hallucinogenic laxative that makes you dream you're being chased in the woods by a hungry bear, thus "scaring the crap out of you". Lori Davis Hair Spray Exciting Hold — Listed in the SNL sketch records as "Focus on Beauty II", this infomercial spoof promotes an environmentally conscious hair spray with no alcohol in it, featuring episode host Christina Applegate as Cher, Chris Farley as Lori Davis, and Phil Hartman as "Brad in the Lab". Love Island — The British reality TV series (and inspiration for the summer guilty pleasure on CBS) comes to Hulu, complete with contestants with an exhibitionist streak, an aim to hook up with someone… and hard-to-comprehend regional dialects. The Love Toilet — Victoria Jackson & Kevin Nealon share the most intimate moment of them all… on a single-based toilet with two seats, placed so that the seated users can face each other. "Because when you're in love, even five minutes apart can seem like an eternity." The Lung Brush — used every night by heavy smoker Chris Farley to remove quarts of tar from his lungs before going to bed with wife Victoria Jackson ("Did you forget to brush?"). Former NFL quarterback Ken Stabler makes a celebrity endorsement cameo. Lux 420 SL — Cliff Robertson, in a deadpan cameo, promotes the car that caters to insane people; designed by such notables as Nostradamus, its features include an in-console sink for compulsive hand-washing and enough trunk space to hold copious vials of one's own urine. The tagline: "There's a radio in my fingernail… CAR!!" M Mack North — Even though he handily defeated opponent Fred Peete (Chris Parnell) in the 6th district election, North (Will Ferrell) continues his campaign against him with a trio of attack ads, all in an effort to rub his victory in Peete's face. Macy's — For its 2019 holiday sale, the department store promotes discounts on men's blazers; cashmere tops; and for kids, clothes they'll immediately loathe because they're itchy, too tight, will soil easily (due to not making it to the bathroom in time), and cause their parents to lose their temper while trying to keep them neat. The closing tag line: "The clothes they'll hate create the memories you'll love." Magic Mouth — a device which is inserted into the rectum and converts flatulence into "polished expressions" (e.g. "Did you see Charlie Rose last night?"). Man Park — It's like a dog park, but for men in relationships who stay at home alone and have nobody to chat or play with than their wives and girlfriends. Man Stain — A line of men's cosmetics (or "revolutionary skin ammo") marketed with manly names and dispensers (e.g. base foundation in a beer can, blush in a calking gun). A cut-for-time ad from Season 46. MartinSheen – a hair spray which consists of episode host Martin Sheen sipping water from a paper cup and spitting it on Jane Curtin's hair as she pitches the product, pausing occasionally to nod in agreement with her statements (e.g. "MartinSheen is eco-friendly. You wouldn't dream of hurting the environment, would you?"). Mary-Kate & Ashley Perfume – The perfume that fits your mood, whether you're an Ashley or a Mary-Kate. A female voice-over whispers "Ashley" to one activity and "Mary-Kate" to another in contrast. Mastercard — The credit card's "Priceless" campaign and the Clinton–Lewinsky scandal are parodied in this September 1998 ad ("Making Yasser Arafat wait while you and a friend masterbate: Priceless"). MasterClass Quarantine Edition — The online education platform, in two Spring 2020 ads, offers celebrity-hosted courses for those seeking new pursuits while in quarantine during the COVID-19 pandemic: The first ad, featuring Chloe Fineman in all roles, highlights hat-and-hoodie-heavy fashion tips from Timothée Chalamet, TikTok tutorials from JoJo Siwa, and bicycling tips from Tiger Kings Carole Baskin ("I didn't kill my husband"). The second ad includes tips on writing personal journals from Phoebe Waller-Bridge (Fineman), looking good in a suit from John Mulaney (Melissa Villaseñor), and "something" from Britney Spears (Fineman), who coos that "the thing that helps me most during quarantine is being rich." Match.com — This ad for the dating website features various female site members talking about the man they hope to find… and Martha Stewart (Kate McKinnon), who just wants "a successful man… for intercourse." Maya Angelou — David Alan Grier, in his 1997 turn as episode host, mimics the acclaimed poet and her flowery, emotional, hyperbolic prose in a trio of ads, including: Butterfinger candy ("Glad mantle of golden chocolaty hope upon my breast.") Froot Loops ("Fruity loops, Fruit Loopies, swimming in the churning, frothy mother sea of milk.") Pennzoil ("O! Magic shining ewer of liquid ball bearings.") Maybelline For Men – Finally, cosmetics for guys. McIntosh Jr. – A parody of early ads for Apple's Macintosh computer that promises elementary-school users "the power to crush the other kids!" McIntosh Post-It Notes — Apple follows up on its Macintosh PowerBook and Newton PDA with this palm-sized device that has "the practicality of a Post-it Note [versatility, convenience, sticky back] with the power of a McIntosh [handwriting-to-text, editing]." Mega Mart — In this 2010 ad, an amped-up Bobby Moynihan promotes the big-box retailer's "12-Minute Madness" sale on Black Friday. A "savings stampede" will be assured thanks to freshly waxed floors ("Slide into savings!"), no security guards, box cutters for every customer (to remove overstocked items from the back of the store), and an exclusive offer of a previously unreleased Harry Potter book. Me-Harmony.com – a 2005 parody of eHarmony promotes a matchmaking website for narcissists. Various SNL castmembers have dual roles as both the happy Me-Harmony client and, in drag, their perfect mate. The ad also promotes its sister service, the gay matchmaking site He-Harmony.com. Mellen — Men are staying at home more, but there's no daytime talk show that caters to them. So, "ABC thought about it for 10 seconds" and came up with "the male Ellen," hosted by a guy who posted a lot on 4chan (episode host Jason Sudeikis in an Ellen DeGeneres wig) and, in this promo from Season 47, presents his own Ellen-style yet male-oriented set of interviews, viral segments, and sneak-up pranks including Kyrie Irving (Chris Redd) getting a surprise COVID-19 vaccination. Mel's Char Palace – Mel (Dan Aykroyd), with help from a saw-wielding "Mrs. Mel" (Gilda Radner), promotes his steakhouse on "Route 17, Paramus" where diners select their own steer, cuts and portions ("You stun it, you cut it, you charbroil it"). Mercury Mistress – This spoof of luxury automobile ads promotes "a car so sexy, you'll just want to have sex with it" (because a rubber vagina is hidden behind its license plate). Metrocard – a customer-and-employee credit card testimonial starring Phil Hartman as a business traveler who needed to call Metrocard's customer service line, and episode host Roseanne Barr as the sassy representative that came to his assistance ("Yeah, like I've got nothing better to do than to sit around and listen to him bitch"). Michael Braslow's Santa Traps — If you're sick and tired of Santa Claus creeping around your house every December, writer/inventor Michael Braslow (episode host Martin Freeman) recommends his bear trap-style product designed to capture Santa, though it clearly traps more bears than jolly ol' elves. Braslow's sorrowful wife (Cecily Strong) also appears to explain why Santa is at risk: Michael hasn't been the same since being hit in the head by a hockey puck. A cut-for-time ad from 2014. Michael Bublé Christmas Duets - the singer, appearing as himself, follows up his solo holiday album with this collection of seasonal duets with celebrities who are the opposite of Bublé's elegant charm, among them a starstruck Taylor Swift (Kristen Wiig), a vamping Justin Bieber (episode host Jimmy Fallon), a wisecracking Russell Brand (also Fallon), and a gun-wielding M.I.A. (Nasim Pedrad). Michael Phelps Diet – The Olympic champion swimmer shows his "eat whatever you want, and as much as you want" diet, one that, by virtue of its high-calorie count (12,000, the actual number of calories Phelps was required to consume while training), is almost certainly fatal to anyone who's not an Olympic-caliber athlete. Subway pitchman Jared Fogle appears, stating "this diet sucks a foot long". Middle American Van Lines – A moving company that moves families instead of their belongings. The Midnight Coterie of Sinister Intruders — a trailer for a home invasion/slasher movie as directed by Wes Anderson, starring Owen Wilson (Edward Norton), Gwyneth Paltrow (Noël Wells), Danny Glover (Jay Pharoah), Tilda Swinton (Kate McKinnon), Anjelica Huston (Cecily Strong), Jason Schwartzman (Kyle Mooney), Adrien Brody (Mike O'Brien), a stop-motion mouse, and Alec Baldwin (appearing as himself) as the narrator. Mike's Marbleopolis and Mike's Fountainry — Mike (Fred Armisen) promotes his stores on Central Avenue in Lynbrook in these two ads: Mike's Marbleopolis, from Season 32, features Mike and daughter Lexie (episode host Scarlett Johansson) selling "mawble cawlums" that will make any home or room look like a castle. Mike's Fountainry, from Season 34, has Mike and Lexie telling how porcelain fountains will turn your home into a mansion, while Mike's visibly nervous son-in-law Nick (episode host Ryan Reynolds) reassures viewers that "I come to you" to handle installation and repairs. Milsford Spring Water – Tom Bodett narrates as a bottled water's unusually "rich history" is re-enacted: Rather than share a pure spring creek with neighboring Dunbee, the Massachusetts town of Milsford brutally destroys Dunbee and most of its residents — "over 107… days ago. You probably heard about it on the TV". Mom Celebrity Translator – A handheld electronic device that allows young'uns to decipher what well-known celebrity their not-very-hip mothers are trying to describe to them (e.g. "Kite Carbinaw" to Kim Kardashian). Mom Jeans — Inspired by writer Tina Fey purchasing high-waisted jeans by accident, these jeans feature 9-inch zippers, casual front pleats, and a generous, extra-rounded cut "to fit a mom's body." On sale exclusively at JCPenney (who'll throw in a "free Applique Mom Jeans Vest" with each purchase), these jeans say, "I'm not a woman anymore; I'm a mom." Morgan Stanley — This 2005 ad finds a man (Will Forte) scolding Ashley (Amy Poehler) with threats to empty out her college fund after she's caught smoking pot at school. The man enter's the car and has to also let in Ashley's boyfriend, portrayed by Andy Samburg, whom the man accuses of being Ashley's drug dealer. The man, however, is not Ashley's father but her family's "Morgan Stanley guy" (dad Fred Armisen meekly greets Ashley in the car). A parody of the investment bank's "One Client at a Time" campaign that dramatized the family-like bond between its agents and their clients. Mostly Garbage Dog Food – Dog lover Jason Sudeikis gets his priorities straight by serving bagged garbage to his canine pal as a money-saving measure because of current economic issues. Murdur Durdur — A promo for a spoof of Mare of Easttown, set in a Pennsylvania town where everyone knows each other and shares a very specific (and at times indecipherable) Pennsylvania accent, and whose police department features "grizzled lady detective" played by "an actress (Kate McKinnon, channeling Mares Kate Winslet) with a messy ponytail that says 'forget I'm actually British.'" My Drunk Boyfriend — For the woman who longs to care for their inebriated boyfriend, there's this life-sized animatronic doll that comes pre-programmed with slurring speech and inappropriate actions (e.g. urinating in the clothes hamper, bringing a burnt pizza to bed, crying over a dead, unknown relative, and passing up a glass of water to have one more beer). Also available is My Drunk Girlfriend, for men who want to care for their inebriated girlfriends. My Little Step Children — Dolls for children who like playing with dolls but would rather pretend-play being the uncaring stepparent than the loving mommy. A cut-for-time ad from 2018. N National Uvula Association — In this "public service dramatization," sister Laraine Newman and house-call doctor Chevy Chase advise Gilda Radner and the audience to take proper care of the uvula, without ever saying what the uvula actually is (a small piece of flesh hanging from the rear of the human mouth's soft palate that requires little, if any, maintenance). Navy Adventure (Port of Call: Bayonne, New Jersey) — A Season 4 spoof of the United States Navy's recruiting commercials. Instead of training and missions, here sailors perform such mundane things as mopping decks, cleaning toilets, doing laundry, and performing kitchen duty. The closing tag line: "It's not just a job [or an adventure], it's $96.78 a week!" NBC: Our Age Is Showing — A self-parody of NBC's "Our Pride Is Showing" campaign from the 1981-82 season, complete with a deteriorating "Proud N" logo. NCI — Spokesperson David Spade makes outlandish promises for this long-distance phone company's service, among them a guarantee that who you want to call will be at home to answer. Nebulzitol — An FDA-approved drug wives can give to their husbands when they've got March madness (its name literally means "no balls at all"). Ned's Roach-Away — Ned (episode host Charles Barkley) promotes his alternative to roach control products that contain harmful chemicals: Specially-trained roaches with miniature firearms, because "the only thing that can stop a bad roach is a good roach with a gun." Nelson's Baby Toupees — Baby-sized versions of adult-styled toupees that helps alleviate the stigma of "male infantile baldness" and fosters babies' social interaction skills. Nerf Crotch Bat — Chris Farley and Rob Schneider headline this ad for the latest addition to the Nerf line of toys, a bat cushioned in Nerf foam that kids and adults use to hit each other in the genital area. Also advertised is "Nerf Crotch Missile" and "Nerf Nerf", the latter a formless plasmatic blob of Nerf foam material. Nest-spresso — Urban farming is made easy with this Nespresso-like machine that incubates a fertilized chicken egg in minutes. Netflix — The streaming service announces their heavy spending on film and series development that will create an “endless scroll” of content in 2019, will take twelve human lifetimes to get through, and will cause the end of the world via The Singularity. Among the new offerings: Saved by the Crown, a Saved By the Bell knock-off which puts young Queen Elizabeth II (episode host Claire Foy, who played the young queen in The Crown) into a high school setting Officer Winslow, a gritty reboot of Family Matters where Carl Winslow (Kenan Thompson) is a gun-toting alcoholic who threatens to shoot Steve Urkel (Chris Redd) for once again hitting on his daughter, Laura (Ego Nwodim) Leslie Jones in a Van Buying Batteries, an unscripted comedy in which Jones' trip to "go get some Duracells" goes pear-shape when she runs over a cyclist with her van and flees an incoming police car's sirens Network Battle of the T's & A's — This promo for an NBC competition special similar to Battle of the Network Stars features gratuitous shots of female celebrity competitors "with the biggest T's, and the nicest A's!" A parody of the late 1970s trend of TV shows with well-endowed, suggestively-clad women in their cast. Neutrogena Coin Slot Moisturizer — Since new fashions increasingly leave your coin slot exposed to sun and wind, use this special moisturizer to keep it soft and supple. A 2006 parody of Neutrogena's specialized moisturizing products features Kristen Wiig and episode host Lindsay Lohan. New Balance — Shoes made for athletes to run in… and for "chubby white guys in their late 30s to early 40s" to stand around in ("Because your feet literally won't fit into any other shoe"). New Dad Insurance — SNLs very first commercial parody, promoting "a radically new concept in family insurance coverage": If the father of the house departs for any reason, a replacement dad will be there within seconds to care for your family's emotional and physical needs. New Shimmer — Gilda Radner and Dan Aykroyd play a couple having an argument over whether New Shimmer is a floor wax or a dessert topping ("It's a dessert topping, YOU COW!"); peacemaking Chevy Chase steps in and demonstrates to the couple (and the audience) that "New Shimmer is a floor wax and a dessert topping!" New York City PSA — Various New Yorkers show gratitude for the essential workers, healthcare providers, volunteers, and other fellow residents who've stayed resilient during the COVID-19 pandemic… but getting the most screen time is an older woman (Kate McKinnon) in Central Park seen dancing, lounging topless, and presenting a one-woman version of The Lion King while Broadway is shuttered. Nextdoor — A filmed ad for the hyperlocal social networking service finds an apartment-dwelling teen (episode host Billie Eilish) viewing a lonely elderly woman (Kate McKinnon) the next building over, and with her mother's permission invites her via handwritten messages for her family's Christmas dinner. Soon, however, the girl learns that the woman is a bigot ("Are there any black people over there? Jews?"), thinks dogs are a culinary delicacy, and is imposing her will on her ailing son, Gunther (Mikey Day). Nextdoor's closing tag line: "This holiday season, know thy neighbor before you love them." Next for Men — A new antiperspirant for famous men — such as a stand-up comedian (Kyle Mooney), a big-time Hollywood actor (Alex Moffat), or a Fortune 500 CEO (Will Ferrell) — whose careers are on the line due to sexual misconduct allegations. Nice Jail — After his own time in stir (where his vampire-style hair was the source of fellow inmates' jokes), Abby Westminster (episode host Willem Dafoe) converts a former Marriott hotel into a more-pleasant alternative for inmates who are (or in some cases, eventually will) do time… even though the criminal justice system doesn't recognize it as a jail (the ad's "it doesn't count" tagline admits this). A cut-for-time ad from Season 47. Nicotrel — a parody of smoking-cessation products featuring Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson as ex-Army soldier Nick Cotrell, who beats up a wimpy husband (played by Chris Parnell) to get him to quit smoking. At the end of the sketch, other wrestlers (including Mick Foley, Paul "Big Show" Wight, and Paul "Triple H" Levesque) join in the action. Night Murmurs — An ad for a phone sex hotline where three scantily-clad operators (Cecily Strong, Kate McKinnon, and episode host Cameron Diaz) can't wait to talk to you… but they need some assistance in return (Strong in scaring her grandmother, McKinnon in not taking silly bets, Diaz in picking up a dangerous package). Nike Air Force — features cast members Fred Armisen, Bill Hader, Will Forte, Kenan Thompson, Andy Samberg, and Jason Sudeikis playing basketball and messing up, which ends with Samberg getting injured. Sketch called Air Force One. Nike Pro-Chiller Leggings — women's athletic endurance pants that are perfect for whether you're actually exercising or, in the cases of two women (played by Kate McKinnon and Aidy Bryant), lounging around your couch on a lazy afternoon. Nikey Turkey — Chris Rock raps about the perfect solution to a small meal for a large Thanksgiving gathering: A turkey that can be inflated by pressing a built-in pump button ("Pump it up!"). No, Bruce! Let Me Finish! The Best of Celebrity Tirades — Following the real-life incident in which he mercilessly berated a movie-production crew member for simply moving a lighting rack, Christian Bale (episode host Bradley Cooper), in an attempt to take some heat off of himself, hawks a DVD of footage featuring other celebrities, such as George Foreman (Kenan Thompson), Joan Cusack (Abby Elliott), Nathan Lane (Bobby Moynihan), and Mad Moneys Jim Cramer (Darrell Hammond) screaming at crew members for their perceived incompetence. All proceeds from the DVD go to Bale's legal defense fund. Norman Bates School of Motel Management — Norman (episode host Anthony Perkins, reprising his role from Psycho) promotes home-study courses on the responsibilities of managing your own motel. North American Savings — How does this savings bank keep its customers' money safe? By ensuring that with extremely stringent requirements, "we make virtually no loans at all, rejecting 97% of loan applications." Now That's What I Call Music! — The series of compilation albums featuring music by various artists has been spoofed in three SNL ad parodies: Now That's What Actors Call Singing: From the season 27 episode hosted by Jack Black, this compilation includes covers by Kevin Bacon and his brother, Michael (played by Will Ferrell and episode host Jack Black), Keanu Reeves (played by Jimmy Fallon), Kevin Spacey (played by Jeff Richards), James Gandolfini (played by Darrell Hammond), and Russell Crowe (played by Seth Meyers). Now That's What I Call Christmas! — A holiday music album with Lorde (Kate McKinnon), DMX (Jay Pharoah), Harry Styles (episode host Jimmy Fallon) and others giving their own unique takes on famed carols. Now That's What I Call Theme Songs Sung by Stars of the Show! — Inspired by Nicole Kidman (Chloe Fineman) performing The Undoings theme, other actors add vocals (and blunt plot summaries) to their own shows' previously instrumental-only themes. The stars include Anya Taylor-Joy (Melissa Villaseñor) for The Queen's Gambit ("Chess and drugs, and drugs and chess"); narrator Julie Andrews (Cecily Strong) for Bridgerton ("Sex, lots of color-blind sex"); and episode host John Krasinski for The Office ("Scranton… that's where we all live and work"). Nugenix — A spoof of ads for the testosterone-boosting male enhancement supplement endorsed by athletes Frank Thomas (Kenan Thompson) and Doug Flutie (Kyle Mooney), who are joined here by episode host "Sir" Willem Dafoe in talking up Nugenix to a fellow golfer (Mikey Day) who denies having trouble "getting hard." NuvaBling — Vanessa Bayer, Kate McKinnon and Cecily Strong appear in this parody of ads for the NuvaRing birth control device. This version doubles as a customizable jewelry accessory (placed around the vaginal area) for women not trying to get pregnant while enjoying the night out. But as user testimonials attest, the device hurts as much as it works. O Olay Eye Black - Episode host JJ Watt promotes an under-eye cosmetic that smells like Jack Daniels, gasoline, and matcha extract (green tea) for football players (and men in general) who want to look tough and get rid of dark under-eye circles and bags that come with aging. Old Glory Insurance – a parody of older celebrities (such as Wilford Brimley and Alex Trebek) promoting insurance for senior citizens. Sam Waterston, in a deadpan performance as "Paid Spokesperson", touts the advantages of the only life insurance company to provide full coverage against the leading killer of the elderly: attacks from robots that feed on the medications the elderly often use. Once-A-Day Extra-Strength Nasaflu — Kristen Wiig has a hard time pitching this cold remedy due to constant interruptions from husband Gary's (Will Ferrell) over-the-top shout-like sneezes ("Just sneeze like a normal person!"). Only Bangkok – parody of Las Vegas's "What Happens in Vegas Stays in Vegas" commercials, shown in three parts: In part one, Ben Affleck (playing himself) sells his wife (played by Amy Poehler) to two burly mob members after losing a bet during a Russian Roulette match. In part two, a businessman (Seth Meyers) calls his friend for the number of a Dutch man who can help him remove a Thai hooker who ended up dead after he had sex with her. In the concluding part, Seth's businessman is on the phone with the Dutchman about the removal of a dead prostitute — but this time the prostitute is a male. Also joining the businessman is Affleck, wearing a pink robe, earrings, and makeup and asking the Dutchman (played by Darrell Hammond) if he's interested in buying panda meat, and a paranoid Kelly Ripa (in a cameo appearance) wielding a meat cleaver and exhorting the businessman to cut the prostitute up and put the remains in a bag. Oops I Crapped My Pants – This ad for adult diapers not only parodies Depends but also plays on the use of statements as product names (e.g. "I Can't Believe It's Not Butter!"). The Original Kings of Catchphrase Comedy Tour — A live standup comedy tour ("coming soon to bootleg DVD") featuring comics who liberally rely on familiar catchphrases or antics to stand out, including "Beef Jelly" Winfield (Kenan Thompson), Goran "Funky Boy" Bogdan (Paul Brittain), and "Airhorn" Schultz (episode host Zach Galifianakis). A second one on the season 37 episode hosted by Charlie Day has the same comedians, but replaces "Airhorn" Schultz with Charlie Day as Dirk "Jack Knife" Cane, a Dane Cook-esque stand-up comic known for a rude finger gesture known as "The Jack-Knife". A third one that only appeared in the dress rehearsal version of the season 37 finale with Mick Jagger as host and musical guest featured Jagger as Denny "A Bit Weird Innit" Cumberbatch, a flamboyant, Russell Brand-esque Cockney British comedian whose punchline is "A bit weird, innit?". Oxxon — The oil company blames the high production costs for their elaborately produced commercials as an excuse for high energy prices. A parody of Exxon's "Energy for a Strong America" campaign ("Energy for a gullible America" is the closing tagline). P Pan Am – thanks to good security and low fares, it's a good time to fly because of their best offer: Fly to Brussels, Rome or London, you get to keep the plane you flew on. Pandora charms — for the woman "who makes the holidays merry and bright," the man in her life can give her assorted bracelet charms that acknowledge her various traits and interests (e.g. if she drinks coffee, a coffee cup; if she works as a nurse, a nurse's hat). Paul Ryan for President — Speaker of the House Ryan (Taran Killam) makes this presidential campaign ad to insist he's not running for the presidency ("I did not approve this message")… although if he were to do so, he'd run on a platform of cutting taxes, creating jobs, etc. A parody cut for time from an April 2016 episode. Paxil—Second-Term Strength — An anti-depressant made especially for Barack Obama (Jay Pharoah) as he tries to deal with his second term as president and all of the scandals and failures (such as the Benghazi scandal, the IRS scandal, General Petraeus's sex scandal, and Obamacare). Also available in Republican Strength for John Boehner (Taran Killam) dealing with the stress of Tea Party members protesting against Obama's administration. Pelotaunt — Peloton's fitness equipment features streaming video classes with positive encouragement. But for exercise buffs desiring results through negative reinforcement, this fitness bike provides such "patented passive aggressive technology" as video instructors offering withering judgement instead of corny speeches; video screens with gaslighting statistics and camera views of your flabby butt; and comical music (specifically the theme from Curb Your Enthusiasm) rather than upbeat melodies. As one user (Beck Bennett) puts it, "I feel mentally broken down, but, hey, I can see my abs." Pep Boys Genderflect campaign — Mirroring Starbucks' "#RaceTogether" campaign, which encouraged conversations about race between its employees and customers, the auto parts chain promotes its own initiative to discuss LGBTQ and gender identity issues. The mechanics and parts people, however, voice opinions on the subject that can be considered politically incorrect, much to their customers' discomfort. Pepto-Bismol Ice – Nasim Pedrad appears in this sketch about the famous pink antacid in malt liquor form. Petchow Rat Poison – a parody of misleading labels, Hank Petchow's (Will Ferrell) brand of rat poison looks like dog food, is packaged in a 25 lb. bag with "PetChow" in large print, has a large photo of Petchow's dog, and the words "rat poison" in the very fine print. Philadelphia Action Figures – The acclaimed 1993 legal drama inspires this set of figures kids can use to create Masters of the Universe-style playtime adventures. Also featured is a Philadelphia video game from Sega Genesis (footage from Sega's port of Galaxy Force II is used as a stand-in). Phone Company – Lily Tomlin appears as her grouchy, apathetic operator character Ernestine, who relates the goings-on and imperfections of her employer. "We don't care. We don't have to. We're the Phone Company." The Player-With-Yourself Club – Telly Savalas (Phil Hartman) promotes a discount card for chronic masturbators. Pornhub — A parody of the "we're here for you" outreach ads businesses have produced during the COVID-19 pandemic, with various adults indulging on the pornography website's content while sheltering at home. PottyPM — Promoting a device that allows the user to use the bathroom in the middle of the night without getting out of bed, this ad takes a turn halfway through when episode host Jennifer Lopez asks whether it's also made for women, a question pitchman Kyle Mooney responds to with clear unfamiliarity of the female anatomy. Pre-Chewed Charlie's – a steakhouse for people with dentures, where the waiters come to your table and chew your food for you. Pregnant in Heels — A promo for a Bravo reality series that follows Rosie Pope (Abby Elliott), a maternity concierge who provides expectant mothers with anything they want, no matter how extreme. For example, expectant client Shoshanna Bunt (episode host Tina Fey) asks Rosie for a delivery room that's "total VIP" and a water birth that has Diet Coke instead of water. Preparation H – Jimmy Fallon and other skateboarding dudes plug the hemorrhoid treatment in urban slang ("I'm about ta drop an H-BOMB on dis rizzoid!"). President Barbie — The latest addition to the Barbie doll line, complete with sunglasses, smart phone, and a presidential seal-adorned podium. Much to Mattel's chagrin, however, girls feel ambivalent about it ("Feels like she's trying too hard," says one). A May 2016 commentary on, as HuffPost puts it, "a generation so progressive that the president's gender is irrelevant." Press Conference Play Set — For kids who find watching TV press conferences boring and wand to get in on the act (or need to if they must discuss broken windows or not finishing their dinner), there's this play set that features a podium, background curtain, microphone, and other things that make a press conference a press conference. Privolin — Angela (episode host Jennifer Aniston) constantly breaks the fourth wall at a business meeting (much to her colleagues' disgust) to tell viewers about this prescription medication that treats her genital herpes. Pug Wigs — Sonja and Damien Regulanté (Cecily Strong and episode host Jonah Hill) promote their specialty wig store where, with just the right kind of new hair style, any pug can look more refined and handsome. Also promoted is Dana Simpson's (Kenan Thompson) Boy Pug Beard & Goatee salon. Punk'd: Barely Legal — Ashton Kutcher (episode host Justin Timberlake) releases a DVD of his Punk'd pranks that were never shown on TV due to legal issues, such as Fred Durst (Jeff Richards) getting mugged, Christina Aguilera (Maya Rudolph) suffering from morning sickness after Kutcher steals her birth control pills, and 50 Cent (Finesse Mitchell) shooting Dax Shepard (Will Forte) dressed as a vampire (which, to Kutcher, is a "double punk" because Dax didn't know he was going to get shot and 50 Cent didn't know the vampire was Dax). Puppy Uppers and Doggie Downers – Gilda Radner complains to Laraine Newman that her dog Sparky has no energy, so Newman recommends Puppy Uppers. Later, when the dog is hyperactive (and quite a bit smaller), Radner complains that "Sparky's perked up a little too much", so Newman recommends dosing him with Doggie Downers. Q Quarry — Jane Curtin appears in this sketch about "the only [breakfast] cereal that's pure 100% rocks and pebbles", parodying the glut of "natural", earthy, and crunchy (deafeningly, in this case) granola-based cereals popular in the mid-1970s. The tag line: "Better tasting, 'cause it's mined". The Quotable Caddyshack — Episode host Bill Murray, with a cameo assist from fellow Caddyshack star Chevy Chase, promotes a leather-bound version of the frequently quoted film's script, suitable for reference in everyday life (e.g. job interviews, wedding vows). R Racists for Trump — Airing in March 2016 during the heat of the Republican Party presidential primaries, this campaign ad features a cross section of "real Americans" expressing why they support candidate Donald Trump, from his being "a winner" and "authentic" to being "the only [candidate] who's actually created jobs." Only later are these voters revealed, without subtlety, to be Islamophobes, white supremacists, book burners, and outright Klansmen and Nazi sympathizers. RAD 3000 — Pitchman Spencer Mason (Chris Parnell) and NYFD officer Peter Venelli (Fred Armisen) promote this fire detector that can potentially save your life and gets you moving to hit music of the 1980s. Also featured are Dr. Dre and Ed Lover (Kenan Thompson and Finesse Mitchell) promoting the Yo! Fire Alarm Raps ("If you hear this [opening beats of "Bust a Move" play], be sure to bust a move outta yo house!"). The Raunchiest Miss Rita — A promo for a spinoff of The Marvelous Mrs. Maisel finds Midge Maisel (episode host and Marvelous star Rachel Brosnahan) inspiring club housekeeper Rita Mae Johnson (Leslie Jones) to try standup comedy; Rita and her very-blue material become a spotlight-stealing hit. ReaganCo. — Charles Rocket demonstrates how you can show your patriotism by way of Ronald Reagan wallpaper, cosmetics, and bathroom tiles. The Real Housewives of Disney — Bravo promises "a whole new world… of drama!" in this promo for the latest addition to its reality TV franchise, this time focusing on the Disney Princesses and their lavish lifestyle. Rectrix — A "unique all-natural, fast-acting erectile dysfunction remedy" men can insert up their rectum. Red Flag Perfume — an ad promoting a Chanel fragrance for women whose behavior and life choices belie their elegant appearance. Jon Hamm is the narrator; Kristen Wiig portrays the woman who has, among other things, lived in Las Vegas for 11 years and previously dated a club promoter. The Regal Promenade Pavilion — A venue that "makes your wedding look like a wedding," featuring everything from exquisite decorations and elegant flatware to running-and-screaming 8-year-olds and stray balloons stuck in the air vent. Rick's Model Ts — A "promotional film" for the very first used car lot. Rick (Mike O'Brien) claims to be crazy for selling cars at such low prices, but wife Daisy (episode host Tina Fey) is clearly certifiably so ("I smashed a mirror 'cause I saw a woman in there who's crazy"). Roach-Ex Plus — Cockroaches don't stand a chance against this bug killer, especially in the hands of a jealous husband who uses it on a roach (episode host Don Cheadle) who had sex with his wife. Romano Tours — Joe Romano (episode host Adam Sandler) promises beautiful tours of Italy but can't promise the vacationer will improve personally ("If you're sad now, you might still feel sad there, okay?"). Ron and Donna Lacatza's Formal Emporium — Ron and Donna (Pete Davidson and Sarah Sherman) offer everything your daughter needs for her big winter formal, from elegant dresses to corsets "straight from the garden"... and, if parents are worried about their daughter engaging in after-party sexual intercourse, their dweeb son Donovan (Andrew Dismukes) as a date ("because Donovan wouldn't know when to start"). Rosé Zone — Analogous to NFL RedZone, this channel features only the trashiest moments from all of reality television, so you don't have to sit through the not-so-raunchy parts ("It's blood lust for women"). Rosetta Stone — Users praise the CALL service in this 2013 ad, among them men who've picked up such Thai language phrases as “How much?” “Is that for the whole night?” and “Oh my God, what have I done?” The obvious allusions to Thailand's prostitution trade prompted an attempt by the country's culture minister to have the spoof removed from YouTube. Royal Deluxe II — This 1977 car commercial parody demonstrates the smoothness of the car's ride by having a mohel perform a circumcision in the back seat while the car is driven at 40 MPH down a bumpy road. Rubik's Grenade — a parody of Rubik's Cube promotes what may be "the last puzzle you'll never solve". Russell & Tate Law Firm — This parody of ads for "ambulance-chasing" attorneys promote a law firm whose partners are two intimidating black men with extensive "resumés" who repeatedly pledge to "git yo' money". Russell Stover Black History Heart-Shaped Box — Valentine's Day coincides with Black History Month, making February the perfect time for white men to show their Black girlfriends that they both love them and honor their culture through this set of candies molded in the visages of noted black figures (and Bill Clinton). S Safelite — In this Season 43 parody of testimonials for the auto glass repair company, Safelite glass repair technician Ken (played by Beck Bennett) makes repeated visits to a mother and daughter (Aidy Bryant and Melissa Villaseñor, respectively) to repair their minivan windshield. But it's discovered that Ken's been smashing the windshield each time, an obsession that leaves Mom infuriated. It also raised the real-life ire of Safelite, who called out the ad for bad taste on Twitter the next day ("Our techs are our heroes. #notcool"). The ad aired on SNL only once, the episode of October 7, 2017. By the time the episode was rerun on NBC the next month, the ad was pulled completely, replaced in the full-length on-air and online episode replays by another filmed segment (a rap video featuring Bennett, Kyle Mooney, and episode host Gal Gadot called "The Last Fry") that had been "cut for time" from the original October 7 airing. (As of 2019, the Safelite cut was reversed on Hulu.) Salon — Features David Spade as a "flamboyant" beauty salon operator pitching a hairspray that is activated by saying "salon" repeatedly (in the exaggerated French manner, with a sibilant 'S' and the accent on the first syllable). He teaches Victoria Jackson how to say it "properly". Samuel Adams Jack-O Pumpkin Ale — "Real Bostonians" sample this autumnal version of the popular Boston-brewed beer. Most of them enjoy it… except for "Sean S." (episode host Bill Burr), who thinks it tastes disgusting but isn't above having more generous samples ("It's kinda sweet n' st, but, you know, if there's nothin' else to drink…"). Santi-Wrap — Rather than placing toilet tissue on Santa Claus' lap (as Laraine Newman initially does here), Dan Aykroyd recommends this "colorful, decorative and hygienic way to protect yourself" from germs part-time mall Santas carry, especially the jolly ol' elf in this setting (depicted by John Belushi as a liquor-swilling vagrant). Saturday Night Live compilation videos — Broadway Video's SNL compilations get the self-parody treatment in two ads from the 24th season's first two episodes: The Best of the First 20 Minutes of Saturday Night Live, which posits that the best moments of any 90-minute SNL episode come from its first 20, specifically those from the Cameron Diaz-hosted season premiere on which this ad aired. The Best of Horatio Sanz, which, since Sanz had joined the cast only a week earlier, is limited in content (e.g. walk-ons, goodnights) and has old skits from a Dan Aykroyd compilation as filler. Schmitt's Gay — in this spoof of beer companies' targeting of specific demographics, two housesitters (Chris Farley & Adam Sandler) are discouraged at the filthy condition of the backyard pool. When the water is turned on, however, it magically transforms into a sparkling clean pool filled with attractive, and presumably gay, men wearing bikini swim trunks, whom the housesitters merrily cavort with. Scrotox — A Botox-like male enhancement medication that is shot directly into the scrotum. As pitchman (and episode host) Alec Baldwin puts it, "Aren't you ready for your prunes to turn into plums?" Settl — As its name implies, this mobile dating app is aimed at women willing to settle for dates and relationships with, as one user puts it, "normal guys with characteristics I am now willing to overlook." She's Got a D!%k — A trailer for a romantic comedy film starring episode host Justin Timberlake as a man who falls for a woman (played by Nasim Pedrad) who just happens to have a little extra plumbing downstairs. Shirt in a Can — Tim Meadows spills something on his shirt, so he sprays on this product. Short & Curly — The shampoo men use to keep their pubic hairs clean and shiny. Also promoted is Short, Dark, Curly, and Lovely, "but that, my friends, is strictly for the brothers". Sleepy Boy 2000 — Tim Kazurinsky purchases this do-it-yourself kit that, when assembled, creates a weapon that detects and destroys cars whose alarms go off in the middle of the night, enabling him to get a good night's sleep. Sofa King — furniture store ad featuring a family of apparent Middle Eastern origins with thick accents. Everything in the ad is promoted with the adjective "Sofa King" (as in, "It's Sofa King comfortable!"), but the accents make it sound like "so fucking". The Sopranos Diaries — After adapting Sex and the City prequel The Carrie Diaries into a TV series, The CW does the same with The Sopranos, projecting Tony (Bobby Moynihan) and his "family" as high school students in the early 1980s, rad outfits and all. Space Mistakes — Promoted as being on par with other cinematic space epics as Gravity and The Martian, this film dramatically depicts what happens when astronauts makes rather innocuous mistakes in space (e.g. cracked helmets, unfastened seat belts at launch). Speed — Veteran SNL writer Anne Beatts makes a rare on-screen appearance as a housewife able to happily multi-task, thanks to a diet pill you don't have to be overweight to use. Obtainable from your doctor, your neighbor's doctor, your college roommate's doctor, etc. Spitzer and Associates — Following his resignation due to the sex scandal involving his money laundering and dalliances with high-priced call girls, Eliot Spitzer (Bill Hader) is now opening a private practice dealing with embarrassing sex-related issues. Sketch called "Spitzer Cold Open." Spotlightz Acting Camp for Serious Kids — Two ads from Season 39 promote a camp where still-very-bright-eyed child actors can hone their talents by recreating adult-oriented film and TV work (e.g. Training Day, Breaking Bad, The Wolf of Wall Street). Sproingo — This erectile dysfunction treatment works in concert with the male body by making "a sensuous, audible tone" (i.e. a cartoonish spring sound effect) at the onset of erection. Spud Beer — "Filled with the full, rich flavor of potatoes", this beer is "brewed for people who can't taste the difference", in this case an electroshock subject (writer Alan Zweibel). The end tagline: "Spud! The beer that made Boise famous!" Stanx — From the makers of Spanx comes this undergarment that, rather than let embarrassing flatulence pass out of the body (as normal underwear would do), traps it inside the lining—even though the gas buildup creates an abnormally big bulge around the buttocks. Starbucks Verismo Home Brewing System — This parody of Starbucks' single-serve coffee maker recreates the experience of ordering at Starbucks, including getting the "order" wrong (it brews tea when you wanted latte), misspelling the name on the mug ("Amorfa" instead of "Martha"), and leaving broken stir sticks and sugar packs on the counter. The January 2013 ad, in its spoofing of Starbucks' baristas, generated calls of racism and classism in depicting both Verismo and Verquonica, "a larger non-functioning machine" that only talks smack with Verismo about the user. Star Trek: Ego Quest — Paramount+ promotes an upcoming addition to the Star Trek franchise, a series that follows the voyages of the S.S. New Shepard; it's cowboy-hatted captain, Amazon founder Jeff Bezos (episode host Owen Wilson); and a "crew of random weirdos" making contact with the likes of Virgin Galactic's Richard Branson (Alex Moffat) and SpaceX's Elon Musk (Mikey Day). Star Wars: The Force Awakens Toys & Action Figures — Toys based on the film that are "great for everyone ages 6 and up — way up" (i.e. adult-age sci-fi geeks). Steve Martin's All-Natural Penis Beauty Cream (New Formula) — a parody of the celebrity infomercial boom. Stunt Performers Association of America — This PSA from Season 46 finds a pentet of motion picture stunt performers recreating action moves from the safety of home, while encouraging fans to also take precautions during the COVID-19 pandemic. The group includes a trio of action stunt artists (Mikey Day, Ego Nwodim, and Chris Redd), and two stunt performers (Aidy Bryant and Kate McKinnon) whose forte is slapstick comedy in children's movies. Sub Shack — a parody of the Subway ad campaign that featured Jared Fogle, with customers of the fast-food restaurant gaining weight rather than losing it. The Sunday National Enquirer — The supermarket tabloid markets to those who want to spend their Sundays reading celebrity gossip instead of highbrow journalism in this spoof of subscription offers for The New York Times Sunday editions. Super Bass-O-Matic '76 — This parody of Ronco ads features Dan Aykroyd pureeing raw fish in a blender, as well as Laraine Newman delivering the happy pitch line, "Wow, that's terrific bass." Super Feud — "When two of South America's biggest singing stars have a feud, you're the winner." So says announcer Don Pardo in introducing this "special TV offer" for a compilation album of music from Jorge Montenero (episode host Patrick Swayze) and Raul Valendez (Dana Carvey), who sing about their bitter rivalry (e.g. fan mail volume, plastic surgery claims) to the tune of "Guantanamera." Suppressex — an anti-arousal medicine taken to prevent erections from occurring at inopportune moments. Swiffer Sleepers — Mom Amy Poehler uses these blanket sleeper-sized cleaning cloths to pick up dust and dirt wherever her kids crawl, roll, or jump around their house ("Who says sweeping floors can't be fun?"). Swiftamine – a medication designed to fight bouts of vertigo caused by the realization that you enjoy Taylor Swift's music. Swill — Bill Murray extols the qualities of this putrid mineral water "dredged from Lake Erie", the packaging of which looks nearly identical to Perrier. A highlight is the slow pouring of Swill from the bottle, set to the refrain of Carly Simon's "Anticipation", a song used to promote another slow-pouring food item at the time, Heinz Ketchup. T Taco Town — a restaurant parody of Taco Bell, selling a new taco with layer after layer of the outer crust, finished with a Chicago-style pizza and blueberry pancake, and "deep-fried to perfection". "Pizza?" Andy Samberg says of the product, "Now that's what I call a taco!" Tampax Secrets — Cut for time from Phoebe Waller-Bridge's appearance as host in Season 45, this ad shows Waller-Bridge, Aidy Bryant, and Melissa Villaseñor using these tampons that are hidden in containers made to look like less embarrassing items (dog poop, a dead mouse, etc.), all the better to not let bystanders know they have to get up and care for their period. Target — Two ads for the department store chain that has everything you need for Thanksgiving: A November 2016 ad highlights an array of food, cookware, and home decor… as well as a nice, spacious parking lot where you can sit in your car and gather your bearings if you're meeting your family for the first time since that month's election. A November 2021 ad acknowledges that hosting your family "can be... a whole damn thing." For that, there are discounts on such items as Nate's Humane Tofurkey Loaf (to satisfy your sister's vegetarian boyfriend), Apple noise-cancelling earbuds ("for when Grandpa weighs in on social issues"), and various wines and beers (to get through conversations about cryptocurrency, relatives recently dying, etc.). Tasty Toaster Tarts — Teenager Jason (episode host Chance the Rapper) unloads a bevy of sugary treats from the kitchen cupboard for him and his friends to snack on after school. After Jason's friends inquire how his strict parents allowed him to stock up on so much sweet stuff, they notice suspicious signs (e.g. bloodstains, a fridge wrapped in duct tape) that Jason may have done something rash. All is good, however, when Jason produces this Pop Tarts-like product (its tagline: "Keeps Kids Happy"). Tech-Pack – At the airport, Jason Sudeikis shows harried fellow traveler Kristen Wiig a new wearable pouch system that can hold and activate one's electronic devices (mp3 players, PDAs, cellphones, etc.) with a joystick... but also tends to scare other passengers because of its uncanny resemblance to a suicide belt. The closing tag line: "You'll be blown away." Teddy Bear Holding a Heart – Will Forte gives sweetheart Amy Poehler this "perfect way to say 'our love is eternal.'" Even though it's literally a teddy bear holding a heart (it's still attached to the box it came in), and is available anywhere ("Book stores, Hallmark's, drug stores, Wal-Mart, 7-11, I'm guessing wherever you buy milk."), Poehler accepts it and shows it off as if it were expensive jewelry. An exquisitely-lensed spoof of ads for jewelers (e.g. De Beers) and retailers who heavily promote their wears as the perfect way to show true love on Valentine's Day. Testicules — Andy Samberg and his scent turn lots of heads in this cut-for-time parody of fragrance ads from Season 39, thanks to using this "cologne for 'down there.'" Texxon – An image ad shown during "network newsbreaks", including those following the Buckwheat assassination, ostensibly touting the philanthropic efforts of that petroleum company; they successively degenerate into thinly veiled threats of dire consequences if various legislation under consideration doesn't go the company's way, supposedly forcing it to scale back efforts to assist the needy: "Texxon. Do what we say, and nobody gets hurt." That's Not Yogurt! — A spoof of "I Can't Believe It's Not Butter!" ads and the TCBY frozen-yogurt chain. After eating the product, a couple (Victoria Jackson and Kevin Nealon) becomes very concerned about what the mysterious product actually is, but the coy announcer refuses to tell them. "From the makers of Those Aren't Olives!" Them Trumps — A promo for a show "from the producers of Empire" that ponders what would happen if Donald Trump and his family were black. Centering on President "Darius Trump" (Kenan Thompson), the tease finds Darius supremely confident in the face of criminal investigation and sexual scandal (“They can't lock me up!”), but quickly capitulating to the consequences when the feds storm in (“And even though I may be black—” “Freeze, Trump! You're under arrest!” “Yeah, that sounds about right.”). thirtysomething Cereal — "From the makers of Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles Cereal" comes to this breakfast food made for the baby boomer/yuppie generation. It has "no fat, no sugar, no salt," and is made in images of characters from the angst-laden ABC drama ("I got an oat bran Elliot"). This is U.S. — a promo for an NBC series that depicts life in the Trump administration as an emotional family drama, a la This Is Us, with characters including White House Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders (Aidy Bryant), presidential advisor Kellyanne Conway (Kate McKinnon) and HUD secretary Ben Carson (episode host, and This Is Us cast member, Sterling K. Brown). Thomas Peepers Insurance — An insurance company that keeps an eye on their clients' safety and well being — literally, as evidenced by agent Bill Hader peeping through the windows of one client's home (only to be caught by spotlights and police sirens). Tim and Meat's One-Stop Rocky Horror Shop – Tim Curry and Meat Loaf (both appearing as themselves) are proprietors of a store with props and costumes based on and to wear and use for midnight screenings of the 1975 cult film The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Timecrowave — In this infomercial spoof, inventor Gram Lampton (episode host Alec Baldwin) promotes a microwave oven that sends fully cooked food back in time to when you knew you were hungry — despite a self-evident risk of temporal paradoxes arising. Tinyballs — A trailer for a film "from the makers of Moneyball" about a Billy Beane-like GM (Taran Killam) who, instead of using sabermetrics to build a better baseball team, relies on a suspicious-looking man (episode host Ben Stiller) to inject strength — literally, through steroids — into his inept club, unhealthy side effects notwithstanding. Toilet Death Ejector — This ad posits that the greatest embarrassment of senior citizens is being found dead on the toilet. As pitched by episode host John Mulaney, this mechanized device helps alleviate those fears. If the user feels they're about to die, they can press a button on the toilet, which projects them through the air and onto their bed. Not only will it also automatically flush the toilet, but it'll also drop a book onto their person (to let those discovering their corpse believe they died wise). Tortumatic – the ultimate way to show others that you can take the pain. Charles Rocket demonstrates it, getting punched repeatedly by a number of boxing gloves, and slamming his hand with a mallet. Totino's Pizza Rolls — a series of commercials airing over three straight Super Bowl weekends in the mid-2010s focusing on a dutiful housewife (Vanessa Bayer) serving Pizza Rolls to "my hungry guys" watching the big game in the living room. The first ad, from 2015, promotes the "Totino's Super Bowl Activity Pack," featuring games and toys specifically made "for grown women ages 5 and up" (e.g. puzzles, play money, miniature top) that the wife can play to keep herself occupied in the kitchen while the hubby (episode host J. K. Simmons) and the guys watch the game. The second ad, from 2016, starts as a straight-up Super Bowl-themed Pizza Rolls ad, complete with the "hungry guys" reacting to the big game in unison. But the wife discovers that the TV isn't even on (it's just a blank screen), and when she fearfully grabs a pair of scissors for self-defense, the guys turn around all at once, revealing icy stares with solid black eyes. The end-of-ad twist: It's actually a promotion for the recently revived TV series The X-Files. The third ad, from 2017, gets really steamy: When a sister of one of the guys (played by episode host Kristen Stewart) comes into the kitchen to help, the wife finds herself attracted to the woman, and the two engage in torrid intercourse, using the Pizza Rolls on their bodies and speaking in French, thus giving real meaning when the husband asks if they're "making out" in the kitchen. Tourism Board of Africa — This Season 46 ad positions the continent as "the #1 [travel] destination for divorcees of a certain age." The live skit features background beach views of strapping, shirtless men; suggestive double entendres ("The mountains, the ranges… the rhythm, the pounding"); and testimonials/invitations from a trio of divorced women played by Kate McKinnon, Heidi Gardner, and episode host Adele (who breaks into giggles several times). Transportation Security Administration — Feeling lonely and wanting a little "human interaction" during the holiday season? How about going through a TSA airport security check, where you can receive a physical pat-down if you refuse full-body scanning ("It's our business to touch yours"). A Season 36 parody of suggestive ads for escort services. Tremfalta — A medication that treats irritable bowel syndrome by slowing the digestive process, which increases the intensity of bowel movements. This is evidenced by the literal stink left by a mother (episode host Carey Mulligan) in the restroom of her son's school music recital after taking Tremfalta, much to the disgust of janitor Kenan Thompson and principal Aidy Bryant. Tres Equis — Two Season 38 parodies of Dos Equis beer and its "Most Interesting Man in the World" campaign find "The Son of the Most Interesting Man in the World" (episode host Joseph Gordon-Levitt) living large ("He has multiple parody Twitter accounts"), impressing the ladies ("He can make a woman cringe, just by entering a room"), and enjoying beer that's "one equis better than my dad's beer, because he was never there for me." It leads to a father-son spat with The Most Interesting Man himself (played by Jason Sudeikis) in the second of the two ads. Tressant Suprème – Kelly Ripa spoofs the numerous hair coloring ads in which she has appeared. In this parody, Ripa prefers Tressant Suprème because it contains "just a little bit of crack cocaine", thus explaining her well-known "peppy" persona. Trilocaine – a scalp-itch medication with extremely disturbing side effects (e.g. "90% of users experience an instantaneous and horrifying sleep paralysis containing a bleak vision of mortality"). Triopenin — Airing during the first Weekend Update, this ad promotes an arthritis medication in a bottle that's virtually impossible to open. Triple-Trac Razor — When this ad was written for SNLs first episode, men's razors hadn't progressed past two blades. But this three-blade razor (the first two grab the whisker, the third actually makes the cut) promises to leave men's faces "as smooth as a billiard ball." The bet here is that "you'll believe anything" you see in razor ads. Trump Addicts of America — Supporters of Joe Biden in the 2020 presidential election express clear disdain for incumbent Donald Trump ("He's historically bad for the country," says one). But they're also concerned that if Biden wins, the next four years will feel different (i.e. less angrier) without an endless stream of bad news and worse actions from Trump and his administration. The closing tag line: "You know [Trump's] bad for you, but it's hard to imagine life without him." Turlington's Lower Back Tattoo Remover – a product that, "when applied once every hour for 72 straight hours", slowly burns away unwanted lower back tattoos. "That tingling means it's working!" Tagline: "Because it won't be cool forever". Turtle Shirt — Men's shirts that are made from the same materials as a turtle's shell, allowing the wearer to hide from unwanted or embarrassing situations. Twinings Extreme — "An English athlete needs an English sports drink," hence this line of tea designed to help assure peak athletic performance. Flavors include "English Breakfast XL" (to refuel), "Darjeeling Octane" (to replenish), and "Earl Grey RX" (to recover and "be at my best for 3 to 5 days of a cricket match"). Episode host Emma Thompson is featured in this cut-for-time ad from 2019. Tylenol B.M. – a laxative product shown to cause you to defecate while you sleep. U Uncle Jemima's Pure Mash Liquor — With references to Uncle Remus in Disney's Song of the South, this subtle barb at products that perpetuate racial stereotypes finds Aunt Jemima's husband (Tracy Morgan) promoting liquor that's "more fun than pancakes" thanks to its 95% alcohol content by volume ("That means you get f*ed up for less money!"). Under Underground Rock Festival – A series of commercials which poke fun at the crazy promotions at alternative concerts, crazy special guests, as well as the extremes people will go to defy conformity. Done in the style of Gathering of the Juggalos infomercials. United Way with Peyton Manning – Manning (as himself) appears in this 2007 spoof of self-serving philanthropic public-service ads by popular athletes. Documentary-style, Manning is shown "mentoring" children; what ensues is Manning physically and verbally abusing the kids during a football game (hitting kids in the back of the head with a football and sending one of them to sit in a Port-A-Let for messing up a play), and afterwards teaching his charges how to break into an SUV, exploiting a little girl to get a date with an attractive woman, showing kids a tabloid magazine featuring Angelina Jolie, drinking beer in front of them, and admitting that he would kill anyone who snitches on him. University of Westfield — An ad for an online college that teaches students how to avoid discussing going to an online college. As one student (portrayed by Nasim Pedrad) states, Westfield taught her "that going to an Internet college is not a thing that would make people want to hire me." Unstoppable — A trailer spoof of the 2010 motion picture starring Denzel Washington (Jay Pharoah) and Chris Pine (Taran Killam) is peppered with humorous put-downs by the train engineer leads and use of the Chrysler Building as a form of measurement by Rosario Dawson's (episode host Scarlett Johansson) yardmaster. UPS – starring Bill Hader as ad man/actor Andy Azula, making fun of the prevalence of Azula's ad campaign as well as his hairstyle. Urigro – parody of male enhancement medications; a pill that gives its male users an absurdly long and strong stream of urine. Urkel — Just as it will be giving The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air a dramatic reboot, Peacock promotes "the next 90s show about the Black experience to be given a serious, high-stakes remake" — Family Matters, with lovelorn genius Steve Urkel (Chris Redd) shown as coming from a broken home (deceased father, alcholic mother) and, after threatening another teen with a gun ("Should I do that?"), receiving reassurance from Chicago cop Carl Winslow (Kenan Thompson) that his own family can provide him a positive environment ("Family [expletive] matters"). V Valtrex – A husband repeatedly affirms his fidelity to his wife during a commercial for a pill that treats genital herpes. Veritas Ultrasound HD – Instead of a tiny monitor, the ultrasound is displayed on a widescreen HD television. It even has options to display a football helmet on the fetus (for dads-to-be missing a Sunday football because they're accompanying the wife to see the ultrasound). Verizon 4G LTE — Customer Fred Armisen is left confused by salesperson Bill Hader's bizarre explanations of how Verizon's high-speed data service will work on a very wide variety of smart devices. Voting PSA — In the same vein as the 2018 Democratic Party ad (see above), this "cut for time" PSA, posted online the weekend before the 2020 presidential election, finds various Americans communicating trust in the electoral process, contentment in voting early… and preparing for the worst, as evidenced by the likes of Kyle Mooney buying a crossbow; Beck Bennett adding a safe door to his pantry; Heidi Gardner unsuccessfully sneaking across the border into Canada; and Kate McKinnon stealing all the contraceptives from a pharmacy. There is no specific sponsor attached (the official title is "Democracy PSA"), but the ad's closing message is clear: "Vote. Like, soon." W Wade Blasingame — You wouldn't want a human being humping your leg or digging up your lawn, so why would you let a dog do the same? Luckily, Blasingame (Will Ferrell) — "the attorney, not the ballplayer" — specializes in taking dogs to court over their rambunctious behavior. Also featuring Chris Parnell as Wade's brother/associate and the human simulating bad canine behavior in the ad's dramatizations. Waterbed Warehouse — Owner Dom (episode host Martin Freeman) lets wife Janine (Aidy Bryant) be the prominent face and musical voice of "Upper South Dakota's premier waterbed distributor." Wells for Boys – For introspective little boys who simply long to be understood, this item from Fisher-Price's "Sensitive Boy" collection provides a private place for reflection, contemplation and the sharing of secrets; Dad (Bobby Moynihan) may not get it, but Mom (episode host Emma Stone) understands. We're Just Friends – Short shorts for men (Jason Sudeikis and Andy Samberg) whose close friendship is often mistaken for a gay relationship. Where You're Going — A Season 11 parody of beer and champagne ads marketed to the yuppie demographic. Here, Jon Lovitz, Randy Quaid, Damon Wayans, Anthony Michael Hall and others are shown enjoying the good life and their financial successes… until the ad becomes "a message from Almighty God" at the very end, when they're burning in Hell for living spiritually bankrupt, avaricious lives ("You're going to burn, no doubt about it"). White Christmas — A trailer for "the first Black holiday movie for a white audience," complete with a Madea-like character (episode host Paul Rudd). Wilson Trap Doors – office trap doors that effectively do away with unwanted guests, clients or employees. Wilson Countersink Flanges and Dorry Flanges – Spokesman Phil Hartman talks up these technically complex industrial supplies, with Rob Schneider and Chris Farley appearing as workmen. Woomba – a self-operating electronic feminine hygiene product that knows when women should use it, whether they want to or not; a parody of the Roomba automatic vacuum system. The Worst of Soul Train — Coughy Robinson (Bobby Moynihan) hosts this Time Life infomercial promoting this DVD collection of the least memorable acts to have performed on the long-running dance & music program Soul Train. Wrangler Open Fly Jeans — Finally, jeans with no-fly so that your parts are always camera-ready, as pitched by Brett Favre (played by Jason Sudeikis) Wrangler Peekaboos — Jeans designed for men to show a little bit of butt cleavage. Will Ferrell appears in this ad cut for time from his November 2019 episode as host. X Xanax for Gay Summer Weddings — A new version of the anxiolytic designed for heterosexuals suffering anxiety over attending elaborate gay weddings. Y Yard-a-Pult — A product created to launch unwanted trash/deceased pets/etc. over your fence rather than going to the time and expense of disposing of them properly. Your Hometown Board of Tourism — Why spend the holidays in someplace exotic like Hawai'i when this 2012 ad reminds you that your hometown is a much affordable destination. There's the "four-star accommodations of your childhood home," activities such as cleaning out your parents' garage, and exotic attractions such as your old high school. Your House — Looking to get away but can't go anywhere during the COVID-19 pandemic? This amped-up digital exclusive, filmed in Spring 2020, promotes your home as the perfect vacation destination. Visit exciting attractions such as your living room, enjoy convenient amenities including weak Wi-Fi, and dine on whatever expiried food is left in your refrigerator. You're a Rat Bastard, Charlie Brown — Seeking live holiday entertainment that's family-oriented yet also edgy? The New York Actor's Studio offers this gritty take on Peanuts that's "Charlie Brown by way of Brooklyn." The cast features Al Pacino (Bill Hader) as the title character, Larry David (episode host Martin Short) as Linus, and Edie Falco (Kate McKinnon) as a prescription-packing Lucy. Yum Bubble Genital Herpes Gum — A fruit-flavored bubble gum that controls genital herpes. Z Zillow — Wanna spice up "playtime"? Browsing listings on the real estate website can be your next sexual fantasy… which ends once you click on "Contact Agent" and a nasally-voiced RE/MAX rep (Cecily Strong) wants to schedule a tour. A sensually-filmed ad from Season 46. Z-Shirt — Its name sums up what the product is: A 1990s hip-hop-style neon shirt with a "Z" on the front. As shirt-wearer Tim Robinson exclaims, "This ain't no t-shirt, it's a Z-Shirt!" The comedy comes when his buddy (episode host Kevin Hart) goes through the alphabet and asks, "Oh! Wait! I'm confused! Is that an A-Shirt?" "Is it a B-Shirt?" etc. Notes References External links Saturday Night Live Archives TVScout.ca Fake SNL Commercials in Canada Commercials Commercials Television advertising Parodies of advertising	[ 0.6793127655982971, 0.9611703753471375, -0.2614278197288513, -0.12783828377723694, -0.22810527682304382, -0.24213281273841858, 0.09845228493213654, 0.7153985500335693, 0.046010080724954605, 0.042585860937833786, -0.04630189761519432, 0.35711386799812317, -0.2714153230190277, 0.4709073603153229, -0.32541897892951965, 0.2328828126192093, -0.06579659879207611, 0.8781317472457886, 0.2164992392063141, -0.588642954826355, -0.1940978616476059, 0.24168674647808075, 0.4528835117816925, -0.9844889044761658, -0.12278980761766434, 0.329822301864624, 0.5875112414360046, 0.08941514790058136, -0.7778368592262268, 0.26521968841552734, 0.6045684218406677, 1.2549687623977661, 0.1303698718547821, -0.04514344036579132, -0.16302230954170227, -0.4414287209510803, 0.4898855686187744, -0.3033217489719391, 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240689	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20Obrecht	Hermann Obrecht	Hermann Obrecht (26 March 1882 – 21 August 1940) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1935–1940). He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 4 April 1935 and handed over office on 31 July 1940. He was affiliated to the Radical Democratic Party. During his time in office he headed up the Federal Department of Economic Affairs. External links 1882 births 1940 deaths People from the canton of Solothurn Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Members of the National Council (Switzerland) World War II political leaders	[ -0.32505905628204346, 0.3782880902290344, -0.651004433631897, 0.13623180985450745, -0.23033912479877472, 1.0555533170700073, 1.3850470781326294, 0.104973703622818, -0.11791592836380005, -0.9269630908966064, 0.0810747817158699, 0.1523839682340622, -0.1395091563463211, 0.1468973457813263, 0.11534720659255981, 0.22100062668323517, 0.19021326303482056, 0.02813604474067688, -0.6725224256515503, -0.26542559266090393, -0.29131537675857544, -0.23994088172912598, 0.11223714798688889, 0.05357412248849869, -0.5578441023826599, -0.04056037589907646, 0.23436449468135834, 0.35014060139656067, 0.16279874742031097, 0.13833671808242798, 0.07469683885574341, 0.8350025415420532, 0.08527030050754547, -0.048595964908599854, 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240690	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Ware%20Theiss	William Ware Theiss	William Ware Theiss (; November 20, 1931 – December 15, 1992), was an American costume designer for television and film. His film credits as costume designer include Spartacus, Harold and Maude, Bound for Glory, Pete's Dragon (uncredited), Who'll Stop the Rain, Butch and Sundance: The Early Days, The Man with One Red Shoe, and Heart Like a Wheel. His television credits include Star Trek and Star Trek: The Next Generation, for which he won an Emmy Award for Best Costume Design. In the course of his career, Theiss was most famous for creating alluring female costuming that censors typically could not credibly forbid, employing what came to be called the "Theiss Titillation Theory": "The sexiness of an outfit is directly proportional to the perceived possibility that a vital piece of it might fall off." Early life Theiss was born in Medford, Massachusetts, the son of Harold Hetherington Theiss and Helen Theiss, and was named for his paternal great-grandfather, William Hodgson, and his paternal great-grandmother's family, Ellen (Ware) Hodgson. He attended Lowell High School in San Francisco. He attended Art Center College of Design at Stanford University, graduating with a Bachelor of Arts, minoring in sciences, biology and chemistry before a four-year stint in the United States Navy. He eventually moved to Los Angeles. His first Hollywood job was as a personal secretary to Cary Grant, whose ex-wife, actress Dyan Cannon, Theiss cited as having considerable influence on his career. Illness and death Theiss died of complications from AIDS on December 15, 1992, age 61. Career Following six months at Revue/Universal Studios as an apprentice artist in the Advertising Art Department, Theiss worked at CBS in the Wardrobe Department on two televised soap operas. The film The Pink Panther (1963) was his first as a designer, although he is credited as "wardrobe consultant". He returned to television as a wardrobe man for shows including Hollywood Palace, My Favorite Martian, and The Farmer's Daughter. In autumn 1964 he was costume designer for "The World of Ray Bradbury" on stage. In 1964, he was brought to the attention of Gene Roddenberry by his friend D. C. Fontana. Roddenberry then hired Theiss as costume designer for Star Trek. The "Theiss Titillation Theory"—which claims that "the degree to which a costume is considered sexy is directly proportional to how accident-prone it appears to be"—is named after him. A key example of this idea in practice is the female android costume in the Star Trek episode "What Are Little Girls Made Of?" in which the revealing top portion consists only of two crossing straps of material that connect in one piece to trousers, and—Theiss's personal favorite—the pink gown featured in the episode "Who Mourns for Adonais?": a backless dress in which the front of the dress was held up by the weight of the train which fell over the shoulder to the floor. In the 1970s and early 1980s, he designed costumes for at least a dozen TV movies, including Genesis II and The B.R.A.T. Patrol, as well as for over a dozen motion pictures, including three Academy Award for Best Costume Design nominations for 1976's Bound for Glory, 1979's Butch and Sundance: The Early Days, and 1983's Heart Like a Wheel. His final credit was as costume designer for Star Trek: The Next Generation, for which he won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Costume Design for a Series for the episode "The Big Goodbye". References External links A page with photographs of his designs 1931 births 1992 deaths American costume designers People from Medford, Massachusetts Primetime Emmy Award winners AIDS-related deaths in California	[ -0.041869740933179855, 0.10487166047096252, -0.9418983459472656, 0.13613176345825195, 0.6313238143920898, 0.8197284936904907, 0.3127894997596741, -0.1933559775352478, -0.39765486121177673, -0.30437368154525757, -0.29689210653305054, 0.42637622356414795, -0.07049928605556488, 0.25032100081443787, -0.7777476906776428, 0.020291436463594437, -0.07662280648946762, -0.15041887760162354, -0.25030529499053955, -0.01453186571598053, -0.624476432800293, -0.571445882320404, 0.2690504789352417, 0.09598813205957413, -0.505423903465271, 0.5187094211578369, -0.5177679061889648, -0.1395726501941681, 0.3470115065574646, 0.540529191493988, 0.20191416144371033, 0.08100663125514984, 0.041597284376621246, -0.40500709414482117, -0.6360917687416077, -0.10060887783765793, -0.434842973947525, 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240692	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simeon%20Bavier	Simeon Bavier	Simeon Bavier (16 September 1825 – 27 January 1896) was a Swiss politician, member of the Swiss Federal Council (1878-1883). He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 10 December 1878 and resigned on 5 January 1883. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his time in office he held the following departments: Department of Finance (1879) Department of Posts and Railways (1880 - 1881) Political Department (1882) as President of the Confederation He was President of the Confederation in 1882. References External links 1825 births 1896 deaths People from Chur Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians Foreign ministers of Switzerland Finance ministers of Switzerland Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland) Members of the National Council (Switzerland)	[ -0.21055951714515686, 0.47179335355758667, -0.47283443808555603, -0.16961504518985748, -0.16455742716789246, 0.9231089949607849, 0.8060566186904907, -0.2093549221754074, -0.5516934394836426, -0.9818620681762695, 0.3276148736476898, 0.3310886025428772, -0.07812736928462982, 0.47014477849006653, -0.14135605096817017, 0.32008737325668335, 0.558576226234436, -0.1986464560031891, -0.5086492300033569, -0.30385759472846985, -0.35701486468315125, -0.08060484379529953, 0.5304179787635803, 0.017738334834575653, -0.8799926042556763, 0.12591956555843353, 0.36029767990112305, 0.8632660508155823, 0.37444064021110535, 0.011646795086562634, -0.024647682905197144, 0.9439992308616638, 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240693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual%20microscope%20project	Virtual microscope project	The Virtual Microscope project is an initiative to make micromorphology and behavior of some small organisms available online. Images are from Antarctica and the Baltic Sea are available at no cost. Images are offered in higher magnification or lower resolution. Varieties of images offer can include scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, and are accompanied by related publications for research. The site interface is deliberately kept simple with tutorials offered in several areas. The editorial board consists of professors from several universities worldwide. Its global scope was added after its foundation, and it supervised by Rutgers University. References External links ecoSCOPE Microscopes	[ 0.20835034549236298, -0.0776873230934143, -0.16126017272472382, 0.3498038053512573, 0.2304852455854416, -0.09162063151597977, 0.14496582746505737, 0.2115362137556076, -0.48768943548202515, -0.5152384638786316, -0.2673811614513397, 0.2040082961320877, -0.004342657048255205, 0.4350999593734741, -0.16122590005397797, 0.4158839285373688, 0.681688129901886, 0.12640303373336792, -0.22438538074493408, -0.21062591671943665, -0.3677455484867096, -0.367351233959198, 0.3643840253353119, -0.5348159670829773, -0.9822001457214355, 0.08519581705331802, 0.5402457118034363, 0.5949538350105286, -0.018413808196783066, -0.26719701290130615, -0.05283176526427269, 0.6064141392707825, 0.08233724534511566, -0.4273258447647095, 0.022030143067240715, -0.24562032520771027, -0.40428459644317627, -0.302029550075531, 0.02783125452697277, -0.6264501214027405, 0.4680352210998535, 0.1007244884967804, -0.2039884775876999, 0.6029959321022034, -0.3775879144668579, 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240694	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Graham	Ronald Graham	Ronald Lewis Graham (October 31, 1935July 6, 2020) was an American mathematician credited by the American Mathematical Society as "one of the principal architects of the rapid development worldwide of discrete mathematics in recent years". He was president of both the American Mathematical Society and the Mathematical Association of America, and his honors included the Leroy P. Steele Prize for lifetime achievement and election to the National Academy of Sciences. After graduate study at the University of California, Berkeley, Graham worked for many years at Bell Labs and later at the University of California, San Diego. He did important work in scheduling theory, computational geometry, Ramsey theory, and quasi-randomness, and many topics in mathematics are named after him. He published six books and about 400 papers, and had nearly 200 co-authors, including many collaborative works with his wife Fan Chung and with Paul Erdős. Graham has been featured in Ripley's Believe It or Not! for being not only "one of the world's foremost mathematicians", but also an accomplished trampolinist and juggler. He served as president of the International Jugglers' Association. Biography Graham was born in Taft, California, on October 31, 1935; his father was an oil field worker and later merchant marine. Despite Graham's later interest in gymnastics, he was small and non-athletic. He grew up moving frequently between California and Georgia, skipping several grades of school in these moves, and never staying at any one school longer than a year. As a teenager, he moved to Florida with his then-divorced mother, where he went to but did not finish high school. Instead, at the age of 15 he won a Ford Foundation scholarship to the University of Chicago, where he learned gymnastics but took no mathematics courses. After three years, when his scholarship expired, he moved to the University of California, Berkeley, officially as a student of electrical engineering but also studying number theory under Derrick Henry Lehmer, and winning a title as California state trampoline champion. He enlisted in the United States Air Force in 1955, when he reached the age of eligibility, left Berkeley without a degree, and was stationed in Fairbanks, Alaska, where he finally completed a bachelor's degree in physics in 1959 at the University of Alaska Fairbanks. Returning to the University of California, Berkeley for graduate study, he received his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1962. His dissertation, supervised by Lehmer, was On Finite Sums of Rational Numbers. While a graduate student, he supported himself by performing on trampoline in a circus, and married Nancy Young, an undergraduate mathematics student at Berkeley; they had two children. After completing his doctorate, Graham went to work in 1962 at Bell Labs and later as Director of Information Sciences at AT&T Labs, both in New Jersey. In 1963, at a conference in Colorado, he met the prolific Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdős (1913–1996), who became a close friend and frequent research collaborator. Graham was chagrined to be beaten in ping-pong by Erdős, then already middle-aged; he returned to New Jersey determined to improve his game, and eventually became Bell Labs champion and won a state title in the game. Graham later popularized the concept of the Erdős number, a measure of distance from Erdős in the collaboration network of mathematicians; his many works with Erdős include two books of open problems and Erdős's final posthumous paper. Graham divorced in the 1970s; in 1983 he married his Bell Labs colleague and frequent coauthor Fan Chung. While at Bell Labs, Graham also took a position at Rutgers University as University Professor of Mathematical Sciences in 1986, and served a term as president of the American Mathematical Society from 1993 to 1994. He became Chief Scientist of the labs in 1995. He retired from AT&T in 1999 after 37 years of service there, and moved to the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), as the Irwin and Joan Jacobs Endowed Professor of Computer and Information Science. At UCSD, he also became chief scientist at the California Institute for Telecommunications and Information Technology. In 2003–04, he was president of the Mathematical Association of America. Graham died of bronchiectasis on July 6, 2020, aged 84, in La Jolla, California. Contributions Graham made important contributions in multiple areas of mathematics and theoretical computer science. He published about 400 papers, a quarter of those with Chung, and six books, including Concrete Mathematics with Donald Knuth and Oren Patashnik. The Erdős Number Project lists him as having nearly 200 coauthors. He was the doctoral advisor of nine students, one each at the City University of New York and Rutgers University while he was at Bell Labs, and seven at UC San Diego. Notable topics in mathematics named after Graham include the Erdős–Graham problem on Egyptian fractions, the Graham–Rothschild theorem in the Ramsey theory of parameter words and Graham's number derived from it, the Graham–Pollak theorem and Graham's pebbling conjecture in graph theory, the Coffman–Graham algorithm for approximate scheduling and graph drawing, and the Graham scan algorithm for convex hulls. He also began the study of primefree sequences, the Boolean Pythagorean triples problem, the biggest little polygon, and square packing in a square. Graham was one of the contributors to the publications of G. W. Peck, a pseudonymous mathematical collaboration named for the initials of its members, with Graham as the "G". Number theory Graham's doctoral dissertation was in number theory, on Egyptian fractions, as is the Erdős–Graham problem on whether every partition of the integers into finitely many classes has a class whose reciprocals sum to one. A proof was published by Ernie Croot in 2003. Another of Graham's papers on Egyptian fractions was published in 2015 with Steve Butler and (nearly 20 years posthumously) Erdős; it was the last of Erdős's papers to be published, making Butler his 512th coauthor. In a 1964 paper, Graham began the study of primefree sequences by observing that there exist sequences of numbers, defined by the same recurrence relation as the Fibonacci numbers, in which none of the sequence elements is prime. The challenge of constructing more such sequences was later taken up by Donald Knuth and others. Graham's 1980 book with Erdős, Old and new results in combinatorial number theory, provides a collection of open problems from a broad range of subareas within number theory. Ramsey theory The Graham–Rothschild theorem in Ramsey theory was published by Graham and Bruce Rothschild in 1971, and applies Ramsey theory to combinatorial cubes in combinatorics on words. Graham gave a large number as an upper bound for an instance of this theorem, now known as Graham's number, which was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the largest number ever used in a mathematical proof, although it has since then been surpassed by even larger numbers such as TREE(3). Graham offered a monetary prize for solving the Boolean Pythagorean triples problem, another problem in Ramsey theory; the prize was claimed in 2016. Graham also published two books on Ramsey theory. Graph theory The Graham–Pollak theorem, which Graham published with Henry O. Pollak in two papers in 1971 and 1972, states that if the edges of an -vertex complete graph are partitioned into complete bipartite subgraphs, then at least subgraphs are needed. Graham and Pollak provided a simple proof using linear algebra; despite the combinatorial nature of the statement and multiple publications of alternative proofs since their work, all known proofs require linear algebra. Soon after research in quasi-random graphs began with the work of Andrew Thomason, Graham published in 1989 a result with Chung and R. M. Wilson that has been called the "fundamental theorem of quasi-random graphs", stating that many different definitions of these graphs are equivalent. Graham's pebbling conjecture, appearing in a 1989 paper by Chung, concerns the pebbling number of Cartesian products of graphs. , it remains unsolved. Packing, scheduling, and approximation algorithms Graham's early work on job shop scheduling introduced the worst-case approximation ratio into the study of approximation algorithms, and laid the foundations for the later development of competitive analysis of online algorithms. This work was later recognized to be important also for the theory of bin packing, an area that Graham later worked in more explicitly. The Coffman–Graham algorithm, which Graham published with Edward G. Coffman Jr. in 1972, provides an optimal algorithm for two-machine scheduling, and a guaranteed approximation algorithm for larger numbers of machines. It has also been applied in layered graph drawing. In a survey article on scheduling articles published in 1979, Graham and his coauthors introduced a three-symbol notation for classifying theoretical scheduling problems according to the system of machines they are to run on, the characteristics of the tasks and resources such as requirements for synchronization or non-interruption, and the performance measure to be optimized. This classification has sometimes been called "Graham notation" or "Graham's notation". Discrete and computational geometry Graham scan is a widely used and practical algorithm for convex hulls of two-dimensional point sets, based on sorting the points and then inserting them into the hull in sorted order. Graham published the algorithm in 1972. The biggest little polygon problem asks for the polygon of largest area for a given diameter. Surprisingly, as Graham observed, the answer is not always a regular polygon. Graham's 1975 conjecture on the shape of these polygons was finally proven in 2007. In another 1975 publication, Graham and Erdős observed that for packing unit squares into a larger square with non-integer side lengths, one can use tilted squares to leave an uncovered area that is sublinear in the side length of the larger square, unlike the obvious packing with axis-aligned squares. Klaus Roth and Bob Vaughan proved that uncovered area at least proportional to the square root of the side length may sometimes be needed; proving a tight bound on the uncovered area remains an open problem. Probability and statistics In nonparametric statistics, a 1977 paper by Persi Diaconis and Graham studied the statistical properties of Pearson's footrule, a measure of rank correlation that compares two permutations by summing, over each item, the distance between the positions of the item in the two permutations. They compared this measure to other rank correlation methods, resulting in the "Diaconis–Graham inequalities" where is Pearson's footrule, is the number of inversions between the two permutations (a non-normalized version of the Kendall rank correlation coefficient), and is the minimum number of two-element swaps needed to obtain one permutation from the other. The Chung–Diaconis–Graham random process is a random walk on the integers modulo an odd integer , in which at each step one doubles the previous number and then randomly adds zero, , or (modulo ). In a 1987 paper, Chung, Diaconis, and Graham studied the mixing time of this process, motivated by the study of pseudorandom number generators. Juggling Graham became a capable juggler beginning at age 15, and was practiced in juggling up to six balls. (Although a published photo shows him juggling twelve balls, it is a manipulated image.) He taught Steve Mills, a repeat winner of the International Jugglers' Association championships, how to juggle, and his work with Mills helped inspire Mills to develop the Mills' Mess juggling pattern. As well, Graham made significant contributions to the theory of juggling, including a sequence of publications on siteswaps. In 1972 he was elected president of the International Jugglers' Association. Awards and honors In 2003, Graham won the American Mathematical Society's annual Leroy P. Steele Prize for Lifetime Achievement. The prize cited his contributions to discrete mathematics, his popularization of mathematics through his talks and writing, his leadership at Bell Labs, and his service as president of the society. He was one of five inaugural winners of the George Pólya Prize of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, sharing it with fellow Ramsey theorists Klaus Leeb, Bruce Rothschild, Alfred Hales, and Robert I. Jewett. He was also one of two inaugural winners of the Euler Medal of the Institute of Combinatorics and its Applications, the other being Claude Berge. Graham was elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1985. In 1999 he was inducted as an ACM Fellow "for seminal contributions to the analysis of algorithms, in particular the worst-case analysis of heuristics, the theory of scheduling, and computational geometry". He became a Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics in 2009; the fellow award cited his "contributions to discrete mathematics and its applications". In 2012 he became a fellow of the American Mathematical Society. Graham was an invited speaker at the 1982 International Congress of Mathematicians (held 1983 in Warsaw), speaking on "Recent developments in Ramsey theory". He was twice Josiah Willard Gibbs Lecturer, in 2001 and 2015. The Mathematical Association of America awarded him both the Carl Allendoerfer Prize for his paper "Steiner Trees on a Checkerboard" with Chung and Martin Gardner in Mathematics Magazine (1989), and the Lester R. Ford Award for his paper "A whirlwind tour of computational geometry" with Frances Yao in the American Mathematical Monthly (1990). His book Magical Mathematics with Persi Diaconis won the Euler Book Prize. The proceedings of the Integers 2005 conference was published as a festschrift for Ron Graham's 70th birthday. Another festschrift, stemming from a conference held in 2015 in honor of Graham's 80th birthday, was published in 2018 as the book Connections in discrete mathematics: a celebration of the work of Ron Graham. Selected publications Books Edited volumes Articles References External links Graham's UCSD Faculty Research Profile Papers of Ron Graham a comprehensive archive of the papers written by Ron Graham About Ron Graham a page summarizing some aspects of Graham's life and mathematics part of Fan Chung's website – Extended video interview. "Three Mathematicians We Lost in 2020: John Conway, Ronald Graham, and Freeman Dyson all explored the world with their minds" Rockmore, Dan. (December 31, 2020) The New Yorker. 1935 births 2020 deaths 20th-century American mathematicians 21st-century American mathematicians Fellows of the American Mathematical Society Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery Fellows of the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics Graph theorists Mathematicians from California Mathematics popularizers Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences People from Taft, California Presidents of the American Mathematical Society Presidents of the Mathematical Association of America Researchers in geometric algorithms Scientists at Bell Labs University of Alaska Fairbanks alumni University of California, Berkeley alumni Rutgers University faculty University of California, San Diego faculty Deaths from lung disease	[ -0.28564319014549255, 0.46436724066734314, -0.08204802125692368, 0.08372334390878677, -0.09042243659496307, 0.5450693964958191, -0.035611264407634735, -0.04427730664610863, -0.45802226662635803, 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240698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return%20to%20Zork	Return to Zork	Return to Zork is a 1993 graphic adventure game in the Zork series. It was developed by Activision and was the final Zork game to be published under the Infocom label. Gameplay Unlike the previous games in the Zork franchise, which were text adventures, Return to Zork takes place from a first-person perspective and makes use of video-captured actors as well as detailed graphics; a point-and-click interface replaced the text parser for the first time in a Zork game. The overall gameplay style was somewhat similar to Myst, although Return to Zork predated Myst by a few months. Unlike Myst, which had no extraspatial dimensions of functionality, Return to Zork features multiple ways of interacting with each object in the game world, as well as with several non-player characters also present in the world via a menu which appears on the left side of the screen. It also offers multiple ways to "complete" the game. It is possible to kill several of the game's civilian non-player characters, whereas in every other Infocom or Zork game, such actions are either impossible to accomplish or immediately punished by death. Killing causes a masked vigilante who is also the "Guardian" to come and remove all the player's items, with the intention of rendering the game unwinnable. As in the Zork text-adventure games, there are several ways to make the game unwinnable by using or altering an object or item in an unintended manner. Game bugs make some of the puzzles harder, or more specifically, stop the game from providing hints. A patch was released that fixed these bugs. However the patch also introduced a new bug that made an inventory item disappear, rendering an endgame challenge unsolvable by its intended solution, though alternate solutions exist. Development Return to Zork was a key part of Activision's attempt to revive the company, overseen by new president Bobby Kotick. Purchasing the company with his business associates, Kotick "fired all 200 employees and implemented a bankruptcy reorganization plan", according to Jeff Sengstack of NewMedia. The goal was to capitalize on Activision's lucrative back catalog of licenses, chief among them Zork. Kotick noted in 1996 that "Zork on a brick would sell 100,000 copies". Among the actors who appear in the game were a number of recognizable character actors as well as a number of well-known younger actors: Robyn Lively of Twin Peaks as "The Fairy", Jason Hervey of The Wonder Years as "The Troll King", Sam J. Jones from the 1980 film Flash Gordon as "The Blind Bowman", and A.J. Langer of My So-Called Life as fellow Zork explorer Rebecca Snoot. Game designer Doug Barnett worked independently with Activision and wrote several "choose your own adventure" style books. Art designer Mark Long (co-founder/owner of Zombie Studios) had several goals in mind to "make the game realistic" and "avoid things like mazes in text adventure games," and "multiple ways to solve puzzles, and to finish the game." In an interview in 1999, he stated these concepts: All of the puzzles in the game reference real, albeit esoteric, references to various cultures and archeological history and studies. A common example would be the exploration of the pyramids in Egypt along with the mythology that surrounds them, but uncommonly known examples were chosen over better-known ones. Mark's overseas duties in the U.S. Army (retired Major) combined with a year of historical research enhanced the puzzles that must be solved to finish the game. Navigation is "always correct; if you move north then south, you are always in the same place. Solving mazes was overdone, dull, and annoying." There are multiple ("at least three") ways to solve puzzles, as well "as a half-dozen ways to complete the game." His reasoning: "I didn't like games that you had to follow a single, specific, obfuscated path for each puzzle, and just one way the game could be finished." This was contrary to text-based adventure games and the widely popular Myst series. It also "gave the player a reason to play the game more than once, trying to discover new ways to solve puzzles and to finish the game. Serious gamers said they had worked out dozens of combinations to complete the game." Feelies As a tribute to the original Infocom, Return to Zork included these feelies: A sweepstakes letter; some packages also included a sweepstakes letter written in French and/or German The envelope for the sweepstakes letter The 966 GUE edition of the Encyclopedia Frobozzica, which was combined with the game manual and assisted in the game's copy protection scheme. Plot Return to Zork is set in the year 1647 GUE, later than any other game in the fictitious history of Zork, including those made after it. Even the relevant backstory postdates all other games, beginning with the Great Diffusion in 1247 GUE. The events of earlier games and even the Great Diffusion, to a degree, have come to be regarded as archaeology or even mythology by this time. The player's character is a sweepstakes winner who wins an all expenses paid holiday to the Valley of the Sparrows, in Zork. Upon arrival, however, the player quickly learns that the entire area has fallen under some dark and sinister influence, becoming decayed and dysfunctional. Whole buildings have mysteriously vanished, murderous vultures infest the land, people have frequent and disturbing nightmares featuring some dark being which refers to itself as Morphius, and many of those who have survived have become reclusive and paranoid. The player must survive countless perils whilst exploring the valley, investigating the causes of the powers that have gripped the land and ultimately putting a stop to them. Release Roughly half a year before Return to Zorks original release on PC, Activision announced that the game would also be released for the 3DO Interactive Multiplayer. This version was later cancelled. Two months later after release, it was announced that Activision was working on a conversion of Return to Zork for the Atari Jaguar after they were signed by Atari Corporation to be a third-party developer for the system. The port was then announced in video game magazines in 1994 as one of the first upcoming titles for the Atari Jaguar CD add-on. It was kept being advertised as in development on magazines in 1995, however, it was never released for unknown reasons. Reception Return to Zork was made on a budget of $1.5 million, and became a commercial hit. In its first sixth months, the game achieved global sales of 300,000 units. By September 1994, it had earned $2.4 million and sold 600,000 copies—"more than half from bundled systems", according to Fortunes Stephanie Losee. The game shipped roughly 1 million units by October 1995. According to Jeff Sengstack of NewMedia, its success helped to revitalize Activision, which had recently been purchased by Bobby Kotick. Charles Ardai of Computer Gaming World wrote in a November 1993 preview of Return to Zork that modernizing the Zork series was "treading on sacred ground. It's a little bit like daring to remake Casablanca". The magazine's Scorpia in January 1994 criticized inconsistencies with previous Zork games and other flaws, but stated that "Considered as a game without the Zork label, however, it's not too bad", citing the "pretty" graphics. She suggested that Activision should have published it as a standalone game instead of "trying to recycle the magic of the past", concluding "A new direction is needed here, and if Activision can find it, they may yet produce adventures worthy of the Infocom label". In April 1994 the magazine said that despite some poor acting, the game's "marvelous visual and sound presentation" and "many plot twists and engaging characters will keep most players engrossed". Return to Zork was named the best adventure game of 1993 by Computer Games Strategy Plus. It was also a runner-up for Computer Gaming Worlds 1993 "Adventure Game of the Year" award, which ultimately went to Gabriel Knight: Sins of the Fathers and Day of the Tentacle (tie). The editors wrote that it uses "Hollywood talent and sophisticated techniques to up the ante of production values." In 1994, PC Gamer US named Return to Zork as the 26th best computer game ever. The editors wrote that it "masterfully ... balances the traditions of a classic gaming series with cutting-edge graphics and CD-ROM technology." References External links Return to Zork at GameFAQs Return to Zork at Home of the Underdogs Disaster Labs' satirical review of Return to Zork 1993 video games Activision games Cancelled 3DO Interactive Multiplayer games Cancelled Atari Jaguar games DOS games Adventure games First-person adventure games Point-and-click adventure games FM Towns games Games commercially released with DOSBox Infocom games Sega Saturn games Classic Mac OS games PC-FX games PlayStation (console) games ScummVM-supported games Video games developed in the United States Zork	[ -1.0485416650772095, 0.25834161043167114, 0.36967039108276367, 0.1502169668674469, -0.25596436858177185, -0.24613583087921143, 0.1262010931968689, -0.18035173416137695, -0.020096663385629654, -0.11492563039064407, -0.7998084425926208, 0.4637135863304138, -0.27964648604393005, 0.5189026594161987, 0.6274857521057129, -0.2867636978626251, 0.10010533779859543, 0.25616583228111267, -0.7490118741989136, -0.3916775584220886, 0.3773088753223419, 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240706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom	Music of the United Kingdom	Throughout its history, the United Kingdom has been a major producer and source of musical creation, drawing its early artistic basis from church music and the ancient and traditional folk music and instrumentation of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales. Each of the four countries of the United Kingdom has its own diverse and distinctive folk music forms, which flourished until the era of industrialisation when it began to be replaced by new forms of popular music, including music hall and brass bands. Many British musicians have influenced modern music on a global scale, and the United Kingdom has one of the world's largest music industries. Global music widely developed by British acts include pop, rock, as well as subgenres of the genre; avant-funk, new wave, acid jazz, neo soul, trip hop, dubstep and industrial. In the 20th century, influences from the music of the United States, including blues, jazz, and rock and roll, became entrenched in the United Kingdom. The "British Invasion"—spearheaded by Liverpool band the Beatles, often regarded as the most influential band of all time—saw British rock bands become highly influential around the world in the 1960s and 1970s. Pop music, a term which originated in Britain in the mid-1950s as a description for "rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced", was developed by British artists like the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, whom among other British musicians led rock and roll's transition into rock music. Subgenres of rock developed or invented by British acts include progressive rock, raga rock, psychedelic rock, art rock, hard rock, space rock, heavy metal, glam rock, gothic rock, and ska punk. Background and classical music Music in the British Isles, from the earliest recorded times until the Baroque and the rise of recognisably modern classical music, was a diverse and rich culture, including sacred and secular music and ranging from the popular to the elite. Each of the major nations of England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales retained unique forms of music and of instrumentation, but British music was highly influenced by continental developments, while British composers made an important contribution to many of the major movements in early music in Europe, including the polyphony of the Ars Nova and laid some of the foundations of later national and international classical music. Musicians from the British Isles also developed some distinctive forms of music, including Celtic chant, the Contenance Angloise, the rota, polyphonic votive antiphons and the carol in the medieval era. Church music and religious music were profoundly affected by the Protestant Reformation which affected Britain from the 16th century, which curtailed events associated with British music and forced the development of distinctive national music, worship and belief. English madrigals, lute ayres and masques in the Renaissance era led particularly to English language opera developed in the early Baroque period of the later seventeenth century. In contrast, court music of the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland, although having unique elements remained much more integrated into wider European culture. The Baroque era in music, between the early music of the Medieval and Renaissance periods and the development of fully fledged and formalised orchestral classical music in the second half of the eighteenth century, was characterised by more elaborate musical ornamentation, changes in musical notation, new instrumental playing techniques and the rise of new genres such as opera. Although the term Baroque is conventionally used for European music from about 1600, its full effects were not felt in Britain until after 1660, delayed by native trends and developments in music, religious and cultural differences from many European countries and the disruption to court music caused by the Wars of the Three Kingdoms and Interregnum. Under the restored Stuart monarchy the court became once again a centre of musical patronage, but royal interest in music tended to be less significant as the seventeenth century progressed, to be revived again under the House of Hanover. British chamber and orchestral music drew inspiration from continental Europe as it developed into modern classical music. The Baroque era in British music can be seen as one of an interaction of national and international trends, sometimes absorbing continental fashions and practices and sometimes attempting, as in the creation of ballad opera, to produce an indigenous tradition. However, arguably the most significant British composer of the era, George Frideric Handel, was a naturalised German, who helped integrate British and continental music and define the future of the classical music of the United Kingdom that would be officially formed in 1801. 2006 Musical composition, performance and training in the United Kingdom inherited European classical traditions of the eighteenth century (above all, in Britain, from the example of Handel) and saw a great expansion during the nineteenth century. Romantic nationalism encouraged clear national identities and sensibilities within the countries of the United Kingdom towards the end of the nineteenth century, producing many composers and musicians of note and drawing on the folk tradition. These traditions, including the cultural strands drawn from the United Kingdom's constituent nations and provinces, continued to evolve in distinctive ways through the work of such composers as Arthur Sullivan, Gustav Holst, Edward Elgar, Hubert Parry, Ralph Vaughan Williams, Benjamin Britten, Michael Tippett and Peter Maxwell Davies. Notable living English classical composers include Harrison Birtwistle, Michael Nyman, James MacMillan, Jeremy Peyton Jones, Gavin Bryars, Andrew Poppy, Judith Weir, Sally Beamish and Anna Meredith. Timeline of British classical music, and its preceding forms Folk music Each of the four countries of the United Kingdom has its own diverse and distinctive folk music forms. Folk music flourished until the era of industrialisation when it began to be replaced by new forms of popular music, including music hall and brass bands. Realisation of this led to three folk revivals, one in the late-19th century, one in the mid-20th century and one at the start of the 21st century which keeps folk music as an important sub-culture within society. English folk music England has a long and diverse history of folk music dating back at least to the medieval period and including many forms of music, song and dance. Through three periods of revival from the late nineteenth century much of the tradition has been preserved and continues to be practiced. It led to the creation of a number of fusions with other forms of music that produced subgenres such as British folk rock, folk punk and folk metal and continues to thrive nationally and in regional scenes, particularly in areas such as Northumbria and Cornwall. Gaels folk music Northern Irish folk music Ireland, including Northern Ireland, has vibrant folk traditions. The popularity of traditional instruments such as fiddles has remained throughout the centuries even as analogues in Great Britain died out. Perhaps the most famous modern musician from Northern Ireland influenced by folk tradition is Van Morrison. Scottish folk music Scottish folk music includes many kinds of songs, including ballads and laments, sung by a single singer with accompaniment by bagpipes, fiddles or harps. Traditional dances include waltzes, reels, strathspeys and jigs. Alongside the other areas of the United Kingdom, Scotland underwent a roots revival in the 1960s. Cathy-Ann McPhee and Jeannie Robertson were the heroes of this revival, which inspired some revolutions in band formats by groups like The Clutha, The Whistlebinkies, The Boys of the Lough and the Incredible String Band. Welsh folk music Wales is a Celtic country that features folk music played at twmpathau (communal dances) and gwyl werin (music festivals). Welsh music also includes male voice choirs and songs accompanied by a harp. Having long been subordinate to English culture, Welsh musicians in the late 20th century had to reconstruct traditional music when a roots revival began. This revival began in the late 1970s and achieved some mainstream success in the UK in the 1980s with performers like Robin Huw Bowen, Moniars and Gwerinos. Early British popular music In the sense of commercial music enjoyed by the people, British popular music can be seen to originate in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries with the arrival of the broadside ballad, which were sold cheaply and in great numbers until the nineteenth century. Further technological, economic and social changes led to new forms of music in the 20th century, including the brass band, which produced a popular and communal form of classical music.<ref name=Herbert2000>T. Herbert, The British Brass Band: a Musical and Social History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 4-5.</ref> Similarly, the music hall sprang up to cater for the entertainment of new urban societies, adapting existing forms of music to produce popular songs and acts. In the 1930s, the influence of American Jazz led to the creation of British dance bands, who provided a social and popular music that began to dominate social occasions and the radio airwaves. Modern British popular music Pioneering and developments Britain has influenced popular music disproportionately to its size, due to its linguistic and cultural links with many countries, particularly the United States and many of its former colonies like Australia, South Africa, and Canada, and its capacity for invention, innovation and fusion, which has led to the development of, or participation in, many of the major trends in popular music. Forms of popular music, including folk music, jazz, rapping/hip hop, pop and rock music, have particularly flourished in Britain since the twentieth century. In the early-20th century, influences from the United States became most dominant in popular music, with young performers producing their own versions of American music, including rock n' roll from the late 1950s and developing a parallel music scene. During the early 1960s, the British Invasion, led by The Beatles, further entrenched British performers as major drivers of the development of pop and rock music. According to the website of The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, the term "pop music" "originated in Britain in the mid-1950s as a description for rock and roll and the new youth music styles that it influenced". The Oxford Dictionary of Music states that while pop's "earlier meaning meant concerts appealing to a wide audience [...] since the late 1950s, however, pop has had the special meaning of non-classical mus[ic], usually in the form of songs, performed by such artists as The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, ABBA [a Swedish act], etc." Since then, rock music and popular music contributed to a British-American collaboration, with trans-Atlantic genres being exchanged and exported to one another, where they tended to be adapted and turned into new movements. Britain's most significant contribution to popular music during the 20th century was towards the expansion of rock music. Progressive rock was predicated on the "progressive" pop groups from the 1960s who combined rock and roll with various other music styles such as Indian ragas, oriental melodies and Gregorian chants, like the Beatles and the Yardbirds. According to AllMusic, the emergence of psychedelic rock in the mid-1960s resulted from British bands who made up the British Invasion of the US market. Many of the top British bands during the 1960s experienced art school during their youth, and espoused an approach based on art and originality—which came to create art rock. As a diverging act to the popular pop rock of the early 1960s, the Rolling Stones pioneered the gritty, heavier-driven sound that came to define hard rock. Heavy metal was created by British musicians, including acts like Black Sabbath and Deep Purple. Glam rock, which was developed in the United Kingdom in the early 1970s, was performed by musicians who wore outrageous costumes, makeup, and hairstyles, particularly platform shoes and glitter—this is widely associated with David Bowie. Rolling Stone argued that the Sex Pistols, a prominent punk rock band, came to spark and personify one of the few truly critical moments in pop culture—the rise of punk during the 1970s. Music historian Vernon Joynson claimed that new wave emerged in the UK in late 1976, when many bands began disassociating themselves from punk. Gothic rock emerged from post-punk in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s by bands including Siouxsie and the Banshees, Joy Division, Bauhaus, and the Cure. Other subgenres of rock invented by or radically changed by British acts include blues rock, ska, British folk rock, folk punk, shoegaze, and Britpop. Post-rock era In addition to advancing the scope of rock music, British acts developed avant-funk and neo soul and created acid jazz. Whilst disco is an American form of music, British pop group Bee Gees were the most prominent performers of the disco music era in the mid-to-late 1970s, and came be to known as the "Kings of Disco" by media outlets. The Second British Invasion, which derived from the British Invasion of the US in the 1960s, consisted of music acts from the United Kingdom that became popular in the United States during the early-to-mid 1980s primarily due to the cable music channel MTV. These synthpop and new wave associated acts often featured on the American pop charts, and according to Rolling Stone, brought "revolution in sound and style". New Pop became an umbrella term used by the music industry to describe young, mostly British, androgynous, and technologically oriented artists such as Culture Club and Eurythmics. Additionally, Boy George of Culture Club was a leading figure in the new romantic movement which became a major part in the Second British Invasion of the US. British rock bands, most notably Def Leppard and Iron Maiden, also became part of the renewed popularity of British music. Newsweek magazine ran an issue which featured Scottish singer Annie Lennox of Eurythmics and Boy George on the cover of its issue with the caption Britain Rocks America – Again, while Rolling Stone would release an "England Swings: Great Britain invades America's music and style. Again." issue in November 1983. Pop-star George Michael was one of the most popular acts of the MTV Generation, cementing this position with his hugely successful Faith album in 1987. During most of the 1990s, Cool Britannia—a period of increased pride in the culture of the United Kingdom, inspired by the 1960s Swinging Sixties—was coined due to the success of the girl band Spice Girls and Britpop acts Blur and Oasis, which led to a renewed feeling of optimism in the United Kingdom following the pessimistic tone of the 1970s and 1980s. The electronic subgenres trip hop, dubstep, and industrial originated in Britain during the 1990s. During the 21st century, blue-eyed soul came to be dominated by British singers, including Amy Winehouse, Duffy and most notably Adele, who has broken several sales and chart records. Adele has won more Grammy Awards than any other woman who was born outside the US. This wave of popular British soul singers led to a consideration of whether a third British Invasion was taking place—this time a soul invasion—(in contrast to the 1960s rock and pop, and 1980s new wave and synthpop invasions). English singer Ed Sheeran was the foremost folk-orientated artist of the 2010s; the Official Charts Company named him artist of the decade, with the most combined success in the UK album and singles charts in the 2010s. Globally, Spotify named Sheeran the second most streamed artist of the decade. London formed English-Irish pop boy band One Direction were one of the biggest teen idols of the 2010s. Little Mix, a pop girl group and the winner of the eight series of the British version of The X Factor, established themselves as the UK's biggest girl group and one of the best-selling girl groups in the world. Cher Lloyd was popular in the early 2010s. Another British pop singer is Rita Ora. Immigration musical impact Highlighting the influence of immigrants in the United Kingdom during the 21st century, British African-Caribbean people created grime, Afrobeats, and afroswing. Grime has been described as the "most significant musical development within the UK for decades." In addition, British Asians have popularised Bhangra within the South Asian diaspora. See also Culture of the United Kingdom List of music festivals in the United Kingdom Notes References Mthembu-Salter, Gregory and Peter Dalton. "Lovers and Poets -- Babylon Sounds". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific, pp 457–462. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Ritu, DJ. "One Way Ticket to British Asia". 2000. In Broughton, Simon and Ellingham, Mark with McConnachie, James and Duane, Orla (Ed.), World Music, Vol. 1: Africa, Europe and the Middle East, pp 83–90. Rough Guides Ltd, Penguin Books. Liudmila Kovnatskaya. English music in the 20th century. Sources and periods of development''. Moscow: Sovietsky Kompozitor, 1986. 216 pp. External links Audio clips: Traditional music of the United Kingdom. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010. 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240708	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20of%20England	Joan of England	Joan of England may refer to: Joan of England, Queen of Sicily (1165–1199), daughter of Henry II of England, married William II of Sicily Joan, Lady of Wales (1191-1237), illegitimate daughter of John of England, married Llywelyn the Great of Gwynedd Joan of England, Queen Consort of Scotland (1210–1238), daughter of John of England, married Alexander II of Scotland Joan of England, Countess of Gloucester (1272–1307), known as Joan of Acre, daughter of Edward I of England Joan of The Tower (1321–1362), daughter of Edward II of England, married David II of Scotland Joan of England (1335–1348), daughter of Edward III of England Joan of Kent (1326/7-1385), "Fair Maid of Kent", mother of Richard II of England Joan of England (born 1351), youngest daughter of Edward III of England	[ -0.37284332513809204, -0.40636059641838074, 0.06878114491701126, 0.008526043966412544, -0.4502430260181427, 0.9361065030097961, 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240709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nato.0%2B55%2B3d	Nato.0+55+3d	NATO.0+55+3d was an application software for realtime video and graphics, released by 0f0003 Maschinenkunst and the Netochka Nezvanova collective in 1999 for the classic Mac OS operating system. Being one of the earliest applications to allow realtime video manipulation and display, it was used by artists for a large variety of purposes, prominently for live performance, VJing and interactive installation. Design Running in the framework of Max (a visual programming interface for rapid prototyping and developing of audio software), NATO.0+55+3d extended Max by allowing to access and manipulate all the media types that QuickTime supports (films, images, 3D models, QuickTime VR, etc.). The functionalities included image generation, image processing, control over MIDI and numerical data, integration with Internet, 3D, text and sound. History At the time of its release (the summer of 1999), NATO.0+55+3d was in demand as it appeared several years before other similar infrastructures such as GEM and Jitter (released by the makers of Max/MSP in October 2002). Earlier software such as Image/ine developed in 1997 at STEIM was drawing in a similar direction, but the fact that NATO.0+55+3d was operating inside the Max/MSP framework, using its "visual programming" protocol, provided at the same time greater ease of use and more flexibility, allowing the user to create his own applications and tools. It gained popularity among video artists and performers, who were using it for a large variety of purposes, prominently for live performance and interactive installation. The last version of NATO.0+55+3d modular was released in November 2000, while additional NATO objects were developed until June 2001. Version history Applications Artists used the software to "manipulate video for live performance and installations" (Mieszkowski 2002). The flexibility of the interface provided artists with "a uniquely suitable environment for the creation of new synesthesiac applications and experiences" (Meta 2001) and "opened up tremendous possibillities for working with realtime video" (Gilje 2005). As NATO was distributed with a software development kit, several artists and programmers created third party extensions (e.g. the PeRColate and Auvi object libraries), or developed entire applications based on NATO. NATO.0+55 pilots Some of the most prominent users of NATO.0+55: 242.pilots (Kurt Ralske, HC Gilje, Lukasz Lysakowski) – live video improvisation ensemble, winners of the Transmediale award 2003 in the category "Image" for their video performance DVD Live In Bruxelles, released on the Carpark imprint in November 2002. Farmers Manual – the Austrian collective was among the first artists to integrate NATO visuals into their performances. Their twelve-hour performance "Help Us Stay Alive", which was presented and awarded at FCMM festival in Montreal, October 1999, was using the NATO software. The group held a max/nato/pd workshop at Avanto festival in 2001. fiftyfifty.org – media art collective based in Barcelona. Its members Pedro Soler and Mia Makela (aka SOLU) were very active promoters of NATO, organizing numerous workshops and using the software in live performance. Johnny Dekam – founder of VIDVOX. Used NATO to create 'Revision History', an artistic software that autonomously downloads and transforms images from the Library of Congress' Database. His commercial VJing software VDMX (released in 2001) was originally based on NATO.0+55. The Builders Association – American multimedia theater company. Used NATO for their piece Xtravaganza, performed in 2000 at the Whitney Museum of American Art and the New York Guggenheim Museum. During the piece, "live actors [were] keyed into old movie footage". – Japanese audiovisual duo (Jun Horikiri and Taeji Sawai). Made extensive use of NATO.0+55 in their video installations and live shows, at locations including ISEA, sónar and ICC Tokyo. Gave a NATO workshop at Kyushu Institute of Design in 2001. N3krozoft Ltd – This multimedia art collective was using NATO.0+55 in live performances and video installations up to 2004. Fork Unstable Media – German design team. Did an installation using NATO at Sónar 2000 (Barcelona Museum of Modern Art). Created shprootC3ll, a freeware videomixer built with NATO, in 1999. John Dekron – developed the first version of his commercial VJing software ES_5 (now ES_X) with NATO. Meta – produced numerous videos and internet applications built with NATO. Rene Beekman – used NATO.0+55 in a number of collaborative performance projects, including Route (premiered December 2000 at the opening night of the Amsterdam World Wide Video Festival) with Bruce Gremo, and with Xavier van Wersch at Dot Nu (September 2001, Amsterdam and Rotterdam, The Netherlands) and at the International Media Art Festival, Kiev, Ukraine (2002). Workshops Significant workshops centered on the use of NATO.0+55+3d were held from 2000 through 2002 at many art institutions and festivals: Workshops held in 2000 Bergen (BEK, August 2000) Paris (IRCAM, October 2000) Rotterdam (DEAF_00 festival, November 2000) Workshops held in 2001 Sheffield (Lovebytes festival, March 2001) New York (Harvestworks, April 2001) Leipzig (HGB, Mai 2001) Amsterdam (STEIM, Mai and December 2001) Barcelona (Hangar, June 2001), Stralsund (Garage, August 2001) Paris (Betaville, August 2001) Helsinki (Avanto, November 2001) Fukuoka/Japan (Kyushu Institute of Design, November 2001) Workshops held in 2002 Stuttgart (XML, January 2002) Amsterdam (STEIM, April 2002) Paris (Villette Numérique, September 2002) Berlin (Underscan, September 2002) Newcastle/Australia (Electrofringe, October 2002) References Bibliography Nezvanova, Netochka (1999). "NATO.0+55: An Internet, Audio, Video, VR, 2-D, and 3-D Graphics Environment for the IRCAM/Opcode Max Programming Language". 0f0003 Arkiv 247:1-8. External links - author's web site. - first public announcement of NATO.0+55 on the PD-ot mailing-list, June 21, 1999. - archive of IRCAM's NATO distribution page, Mai 2001. Video of a NATO.0+55 workshop held at the end of 2000 - workshop leader: Johnny Dekam. 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240712	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisa%27s%20Rival	Lisa's Rival	"Lisa's Rival" is the second episode of the sixth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 11, 1994. Winona Ryder guest stars as Allison Taylor, a new student at Springfield Elementary School. Lisa Simpson begins to feel threatened by Allison because she is smarter, younger, and a better saxophone player. The episode's subplot sees Homer steal a large pile of sugar from a crashed truck and sell it door-to-door. The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Mark Kirkland. "Lisa's Rival" was the first episode written by Scully. The episode was originally pitched by former writer Conan O'Brien, while the subplot was suggested by George Meyer. It features references to films such as The Fugitive and Scarface. Production of the episode was affected by the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Plot Lisa feels her status as top student in her class is threatened when a new and exceptionally intelligent student named Allison arrives at Springfield Elementary. Lisa tries to befriend her since they share many traits, but she soon sees that Allison's gifts far exceed hers and begins to doubt herself. At a band audition, the two girls stage a saxophone duel that results in Lisa passing out from overexertion. Allison wins the audition, much to Lisa's horror. Even the kids who used to tease Lisa for being smart start to taunt Allison instead. Wanting to be better friends with Allison, Lisa visits her house but is dismayed at her vast number of awards. She plays a word game with Allison and her father that makes her seem dim-witted. Their rivalry comes to a head during Springfield Elementary's annual diorama competition. Allison constructs a scene from "The Tell-Tale Heart" by Edgar Allan Poe. Lisa exerts great effort to build a better diorama — a scene from Oliver Twist — but an electric fan blows it from her bedroom window and destroys it. Bart offers to help Lisa sabotage Allison's entry so she can win the contest. He distracts the teachers and other students to allow Lisa to switch Allison's diorama with one featuring a cow's heart. When Principal Skinner discovers the cow's heart diorama, he humiliates Allison in front of the students and faculty. Overcome by guilt, Lisa retrieves Allison's real diorama from its hiding place under the floor. However, Skinner, unimpressed by both Allison and Lisa's entries, declares Ralph's collection of Star Wars figurines the winner. Lisa apologizes to Allison for sabotaging the contest. They become friends, picking up Ralph after he accidentally trips and breaks his action figures. In the subplot, Homer steals hundreds of pounds of sugar he finds at the site of Moleman's truck accident. Homer hatches a scheme to get rich by selling the sugar door-to-door. He keeps the sugar piled in his back yard, where he obsessively guards it from thieves. Marge grows annoyed by this and tells him to get rid of the sugar pile at once, pointing out he can't defend it all the time. He refuses and accuses her of trying to sabotage his chances of wealth. Marge fires back that Homer needs to give up the sugar pile because it's not only affecting his sleep, but also their marriage. Soon the sugar attracts bees from a local apiary. The beekeepers track the swarm to Homer's yard and offer to buy the bees back for $2,000. Before the transaction is completed, the weather changes and start to rain, dissolving the sugar. The bees fly away, leaving Homer with no money and sugarless. Production Production of the episode was disrupted by the 1994 Northridge earthquake, which also affected the previous episode "Bart of Darkness". The Film Roman building used by the staff was so badly damaged it had to be condemned. They were relocated to a new building for a year, and much of the animation for the episode was done by people at their own homes. The day after the earthquake, the only staff members who turned up for work were Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein. Overall production of The Simpsons was disrupted for six months, with a month of production time being lost. Although written by Mike Scully, the episode's original concept was pitched by Conan O'Brien before he left the show. O'Brien suggested having an episode about a rival for Lisa, but the rest of the episode's storyline was written by Scully and other staff members. It was the first episode Scully wrote for the show, and he would later become showrunner. Winona Ryder guest starred as Allison Taylor. She was a fan of the show and was popular amongst the staff. David Mirkin recalled that more writers came to her recording session than any other. Her character's name was derived from the names of two of Scully's daughters, Allison and Taylor. The subplot was pitched by George Meyer. Homer's sugar diatribe was pitched by Meyer off the top of his head and animated by David Silverman, who specifically asked to animate the scene after listening to Dan Castellaneta's performance. Cultural references Marge is seen reading "Love in the time of Scurvy", which is likely a reference to the romance novel, Love in the Time of Cholera. Milhouse's sub-story is a reference to the 1993 film The Fugitive. The film is principally parodied in the scene where Milhouse is at the end of a dam drainpipe and dives into a waterfall when being held at gunpoint by an FBI agent resembling Tommy Lee Jones, who uses the film's famous line "I don't care". Homer's "In America" speech while guarding his sugar pile is a direct reference to one of Tony Montana's lines in Scarface, and his line "Oh what a world!" when the sugar melts is the same line used by the Wicked Witch of the West in The Wizard of Oz, when she melts. Ralph's diorama contest entry is just original Star Wars action figures: his collection includes Luke Skywalker, Obi-Wan Kenobi, and Chewbacca. Lisa's hiding of The Tell-Tale Heart diorama under the gym floorboards is a parody of Edgar Allan Poe's "The Tell-Tale Heart" The speech patterns of the beekeeper voiced by Hank Azaria are based on Adam West's portrayal of Batman. Lisa's imagination features her playing in a band with famous musicians Art Garfunkel, John Oates, and Jim Messina as backup. Reception Critical reception In a 2008 article, Entertainment Weekly named Winona Ryder's role as Allison Taylor as one of the sixteen best The Simpsons guest stars, while IGN placed her sixth on their list of the "Top 25 Simpsons Guest Stars". They also highlighted Ralph's "classic" lines: "I bent my Wookiee", and "My cat's breath smells like cat food". Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, stated: "Despite being a Lisa show, it is poor Ralph Wiggum who steals the show with three great irrelevant replies, especially those concerning his cat's breath." They also highlighted "great scenes between the Simpson siblings, especially Bart's idea to conquer Allison using a hose pipe". Ratings In its original American broadcast, "Lisa's Rival" finished tied for 23rd place (with Dateline NBC) in the weekly ratings for the week of September 5 to September 11, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 9.9. It was the second highest rated show on the Fox Network that week. 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240714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copperhead	Copperhead	Copperhead may refer to: Snakes Agkistrodon contortrix, or copperhead, a venomous pit viper species found in parts of North America Austrelaps, or Australian copperhead, a genus of venomous elapids found in southern Australia and Tasmania Coelognathus radiata, or the copperhead rat snake, a non-venomous species found in southern Asia Deinagkistrodon acutus, or the Chinese copperhead, a venomous pit viper species found in Southeast Asia Politics Copperhead (politics), Northern Peace Democrats who opposed the American Civil War Art, entertainment, and media Comics Copperhead (Image Comics) an ongoing space western from Image Comics Fictional entities Copperhead (DC Comics), DC Comics supervillain and member of the Secret Society of Super-Villains Copperhead (G.I. Joe), villain in the G.I. Joe universe, member of Cobra Copperhead (Marvel Comics), several characters "Copperhead", codename of Vernita Green in the movie Kill Bill The Copperhead, the masked hero of the 1940 Republic serial Mysterious Doctor Satan, played by Robert Wilcox Films Copperhead (2008 film), a 2008 horror film Copperhead (2013 film), a 2013 American Civil War film The Copperhead, a 1920 silent film historical drama Literature Copperhead, the second volume in the U.S. Civil War series The Starbuck Chronicles by Bernard Cornwell Music Copperhead (band), a San Francisco area band of the early 1970s featuring John Cipollina Software CopperheadOS, a security-focused mobile operating system based on the Android mobile platform Other uses Copperhead (climbing), a small metal nut used in rock climbing Dodge Copperhead, a more affordable, less-powerful model of the Dodge Viper, not produced M712 Copperhead, a U.S. guided artillery shell Copperhead, a gaming mouse by Razer USA Operation Copperhead, WWII deception operation Southwest Florida Copperheads, a rugby league team in the United States See also Agkistrodon piscivorus, or the cottonmouth Animal common name disambiguation pages	[ 0.5118566155433655, 0.3931797742843628, -0.9917340874671936, 0.4484156370162964, -0.3437269330024719, 0.563862681388855, 0.600741982460022, 0.7844337224960327, -0.5079737901687622, -0.06821461766958237, -0.25611382722854614, -0.09933030605316162, -0.747823178768158, 0.6305556893348694, -0.10576577484607697, 0.9334190487861633, 0.10101529210805893, 0.8924424648284912, -0.6601205468177795, 0.39413055777549744, -0.3179379999637604, -0.5799075365066528, 0.7943152785301208, -0.313141405582428, 0.16431061923503876, 0.1251179426908493, 0.24873051047325134, 0.4393126368522644, -0.24603481590747833, 0.26864373683929443, -0.12416666746139526, 0.9556740522384644, -0.09788306802511215, -0.1846102625131607, -0.5504459738731384, 0.02949044480919838, -0.6202224493026733, -0.06728722900152206, -0.05241363123059273, 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240716	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netochka%20Nezvanova%20%28author%29	Netochka Nezvanova (author)	Netochka Nezvanova is the pseudonym used by the author(s) of nato.0+55+3d, a real-time, modular, video and multi-media processing environment. Alternate aliases include "=cw4t7abs", "punktprotokol", "0f0003", "maschinenkunst" (preferably spelled "m2zk!n3nkunzt"), "integer", and "antiorp". The name itself is adopted from the main character of Fyodor Dostoyevsky's first novel Netochka Nezvanova (1849) and translates as "nameless nobody." Identity Netochka Nezvanova has been described by cultural critics as "an elusive online identity" and "a collective international project". In 2020, art critic Amber Husain describes NN as an "avatar of avant-garde internet performance" that "became as known for her abstract and usable software artworks as she did for aggressive displays of anonymous cyber-domination". In 2001, Netochka Nezvanova was named as one of the Top 25 Women on the Web by a San Francisco non-profit group. In her article published March 2002 for online magazine Salon, Katharine Mieszkowki dubbed NN the "most feared woman on the Internet", and speculated on her real identity – "A female New Zealander artist, a male Icelander musician or an Eastern European collective conspiracy?". Florian Cramer stated that NN "was a collective international project" that "presented itself as a sectarian cult, with its software as the object of worship". Cramer describes how the origin of NN's messages was obscured by "a web of servers and domain registrations spanning New Zealand, Denmark and Italy", while Mieszkowki observes that "e-mail from Netochka's various aliases has also been sent from ISPs in Chicago, New Zealand, Australia and Amsterdam". In 2006, the Austrian Institut für Medienarchäologie (IMA) released a 20-minute documentary film, directed by Elisabeth Schimana, titled Rebekah Wilson aka Netochka Nezvanova. In this video documentary, Rebekah Wilson discusses her central role in the NN collective, disclosing how she legally changed her name to Netochka Nezvanova in 1999, before changing it back to her birth name in 2005. Software works Besides the numerous software projects, her CD entitled "KROP3ROM\|\|A9FF" was released by Decibel Records in 1997. A second CD entitled sin(x) was released by 0f0003 in 2000. Other software created by NN 0f0003 propaganda (1998) - this program algorithmically generates animated graphics and synthetic sounds. b1257+12 (1998) - a software for sound deconstruction and composition. The intricate operator interface allows for radical manipulation of soundloops in realtime, offering a large amount of control parameters which, every now and then, take a life of their own. The name of the software refers to a rapidly rotating neutron star. @¶31®�≠ Ÿ (1998) - this software extracts random samples from a CD and creates a stochastical remix, accompanied by futuristic-looking graphics (according to the reference documents, it is intended for use with the krop3rom\|\|a9ff release). m9ndfukc.0+99 and k!berzveta.0+2 (1999) - two programs written in Java interpreting network data, very likely preliminary versions of nebula.m81. kinematek.0+2 (1999) - another Java application that performs "animated image generation from internet www data", incorporating parts of nebula.m81. nebula.m81 (1999) - an experimental web browser written in Java, rendering HTML code into abstract sounds and graphics. Awarded at the International Music Software Competition in Bourges 1999 and at Transmediale 2001 (first prize in the category "Artistic Software"). Described by jury member Florian Cramer as "an experimental web browser that turned browsing into something resembling measurement data evaluation". !=z2c!ja.0+38 (1999) - an application that generates a dense visual texture based on the user's keyboard input. It (ab)uses Mac OS' QuickDraw capability and can therefore be seen as a preliminary step towards nato.0+55. Musical Works "krop3ropm\|\|a9ff", audio CD, Decibel Records, 1997 (re-released by 0f0003 in 1998, with additional material by The Hafler Trio). "A9FF" (1997), a piece for tape by Rebekah Wilson, performed at Victoria University of Wellington in February 1998. "8'\|sin.x(2^n)", hybrid CD containing audio and mp2 data tracks (1999, self-produced). Trilogy of theatre pieces in collaboration with vocalist Ayelet Harpaz, based on haikus by the Japanese poet Masaoka Shiki ("Two Autumns", "I Keep Asking How Deep The Snow's Gotten"; "Spring: Still Unfurled"; presented in Utrecht, Amsterdam and Moscow, 2001–2002). "Poztgenom!knuklearporekomplekz", included on the CD Strewth! An Abstract Electronic Compilation, published in 2002 by the Australian record label Synaesthesia. "La lumière, la lumière .. c'est la seule .." (2002), for viola, piano, percussion and electronics. Commissioned by Ensemble Intégrales, performed in Ireland, Belgium, Switzerland, Austria and Germany (2003–2005). "A History of Mapmaking" or "Aerial Photography and 31 Variations on a Cartographer's Theme", for amplified cello and light controller, composed and performed by Rebekah Wilson. Performances in Auckland (Transacoustic Festival 2005), Ljubljana (City of Women 2006 Festival), Berlin (Transmediale 2007), Linz (Ars Electronica 2007). See also Decoder (film) Notes References Neue Kraft, Neues Werk (Transcodeur Express), a documentary film by Ninon Liotet, Olivier Schulbaum and Platoniq, shown on ARTE on April 25, 2002, features an interview with NN. http://www.platoniq.net/nknw/ IMA fiction: portrait #2 06, a video portrait of Rebekah Wilson, directed by Elisabeth Schimana and produced by The Austrian Institute for Media Archeology. Presented at the Transmediale festival on January 31, 2007. http://www.ima.or.at External links Salon.com Technology: The most feared woman on the Internet, by Katharine Mieszkowski (March 1, 2002). A portrait of Netochka Nezvanova, artistic software by Adrian Ward. Classic version (2001) / Mac OS X version (2003) A conversation between Netochka Nezvanova and Frederic Madre (March 22, 2000) for the Walker's Art Entertainment Network Living in Limnos, Betwixt and Between: A Trans-Reality Balkan Odyssey, by Gheorghe Dan - "The Strange Adventures of Netochka Nezvanova in the Lands Without" - "Dramatical NN", seminar/lecture script by Amanda Steggell, June 11, 2002 Net.artists Internet celebrities Anonymity pseudonyms Living people Digital artists Women digital artists New media artists 21st-century women artists Year of birth missing (living people)	[ 0.1822880357503891, 0.5041532516479492, -0.6475812196731567, -0.43165430426597595, -0.2818761467933655, 0.20944784581661224, 0.2567311227321625, 0.024297917261719704, -0.5586740970611572, 0.2325570434331894, 0.006347542628645897, -0.05825355648994446, -0.20450656116008759, 0.46223369240760803, -0.4086170494556427, 0.3719627261161804, 0.001772954361513257, 0.9258350729942322, -0.2449338436126709, 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240717	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangerine	Tangerine	The tangerine is a type of orange. Its scientific name varies. It has been treated as a separate species under the name Citrus tangerina or Citrus x tangerina, or treated as a variety of Citrus reticulata, the mandarine orange. Citrus tangerina is also treated as a synonym of Citrus deliciosa. It is a group of orange-coloured citrus fruit consisting of hybrids of mandarin orange varieties, with some pomelo contribution. The name was first used for fruit coming from Tangier, Morocco, Tanjiro described as a mandarin variety. Under the Tanaka classification system, Citrus tangerina is considered a separate species. Under the Swingle system, tangerines are considered a group of mandarin (C. reticulata) varieties. Some differ only in disease resistance. The term is also currently applied to any reddish-orange mandarin (and, in some jurisdictions, mandarin-like hybrids, including some tangors). Tangerines are smaller and less rounded than common oranges. The taste is considered less sour, as well as sweeter and stronger, than that of an orange. A ripe tangerine is firm to slightly soft, and pebbly-skinned with no deep grooves, as well as orange in color. The peel is thin, with little bitter white mesocarp. All of these traits are shared by mandarins generally. Peak tangerine season lasts from autumn to spring. Tangerines are most commonly peeled and eaten by hand. The fresh fruit is also used in salads, desserts and main dishes. The peel is used fresh or dried as a spice or zest for baking and drinks. Fresh tangerine juice and frozen juice concentrate are commonly available in the United States. Etymology According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), the word "tangerine" was originally an adjective meaning "Of or pertaining to, or native of Tangier, a seaport in Morocco, on the Strait of Gibraltar" and "a native of Tangier." The OED cites this usage from Addison's The Tatler in 1710 with similar uses from the 1800s. The adjective was applied to the fruit, once known scientifically as "Citrus nobilis var. tangeriana" which grew in the region of Tangiers. This usage appears in the 1800s. Production Nomenclature and varieties Tangerines were first grown and cultivated as a distinct crop in the Americas by a Major Atway in Palatka, Florida. Atway was said to have imported them from Morocco (more specifically its third-largest city Tangier), which was the origin of the name. Major Atway sold his groves to N. H. Moragne in 1843, giving the Moragne tangerine the other part of its name. The Moragne tangerine produced a seedling which became one of the oldest and most popular American varieties, the Dancy tangerine (zipper-skin tangerine, kid-glove orange). Genetic analysis has shown the parents of the Dancy to have been two mandarin orange hybrids each with a small pomelo contribution, a Ponkan mandarin orange and a second unidentified mandarin. The Dancy is no longer widely commercially grown; it is too delicate to handle and ship well, it is susceptible to Alternaria fungus, and it bears more heavily in alternate years. Dancys are still grown for personal consumption, and many hybrids of the Dancy are grown commercially. Until the 1970s, the Dancy was the most widely grown tangerine in the US; the popularity of the fruit led to the term "tangerine" being broadly applied as a marketing name. Florida classifies tangerine-like hybrid fruits as tangerines for the purposes of sale and regulation; this classification is widely used but regarded as technically inaccurate in the industry. Among the most important tangerine hybrids of Florida are murcotts, a late-fruiting type of tangor marketed as "honey tangerine" and Sunbursts (an early-fruiting complex tangerine-orange-grapefruit hybrid). The fallglo, also a three-way hybrid (5/8 tangerine, 1/4 orange and 1/8 grapefruit), is also grown. Nutrition Tangerines contain 85% water, 13% carbohydrates, and negligible amounts of fat and protein (table). Among micronutrients, only vitamin C is in significant content (32% of the Daily Value) in a reference serving, with all other nutrients in low amounts. 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240718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obstruction%20of%20justice	Obstruction of justice	Obstruction of justice, in United States jurisdictions, is a crime consisting of obstructing prosecutors, investigators, or other government officials. Common law jurisdictions other than the United States tend to use the wider offense of perverting the course of justice. Obstruction is a broad crime that may include acts such as perjury, making false statements to officials, witness tampering, jury tampering, destruction of evidence, and many others. Obstruction also applies to overt coercion of court or government officials via the means of threats or actual physical harm, and also applying to deliberate sedition against a court official to undermine the appearance of legitimate authority. Legal overview Obstruction of justice is an umbrella term covering a variety of specific crimes. Black's Law Dictionary defines it as any "interference with the orderly administration of law and justice". Obstruction has been categorized by various sources as a process crime, a public-order crime, or a white-collar crime. Obstruction can include crimes committed by judges, prosecutors, attorneys general, and elected officials in general. Federal law In federal law, crimes constituting obstruction of justice are defined primarily in Chapter 73 of Title 18 of the United States Code. This chapter contains provisions covering various specific crimes such as witness tampering and retaliation, jury tampering, destruction of evidence, assault on a process server, and theft of court records. It also includes more general sections covering obstruction of proceedings in federal courts, Congress, and federal executive agencies. One of the broadest provisions in the chapter, known as the Omnibus Clause, states that anyone who "corruptly... endeavors to influence, obstruct, or impede, the due administration of justice" in connection with a pending court proceeding is subject to punishment. Statistics regarding the frequency of obstruction of justice prosecutions are unclear. In 2004, federal agencies arrested 446 people for obstruction, representing 0.3 percent of all federal arrests. This does not include, however, people who were charged with obstruction in addition to a more serious underlying crime. Sentencing enhancement Under the Federal Sentencing Guidelines, a defendant convicted of any crime is subject to a more severe sentence if they are found to have obstructed justice by impeding the investigation or prosecution of their crimes. While a separate conviction for the crime of obstruction would require proof beyond a reasonable doubt, a finding of obstruction for sentencing purposes only needs to meet the looser standard of "a preponderance of the evidence" (unless the enhanced sentence would exceed the statutory maximum sentence for the underlying crime). An obstruction finding adds two levels to the offender's sentence, which can result in as much as an additional 68 months of prison. In 2017, the obstruction enhancement was applied in 1,319 cases, representing 2.1 percent of all sentences issued in federal courts. State law State laws regarding obstruction of justice vary widely. A 2004 survey found that 24 states and the District of Columbia had a general statute criminalizing obstruction of justice or obstruction of government functions in broad terms, similar to those found in federal law. All states have laws prohibiting some specific types of obstruction, such as witness tampering, jury tampering, or destruction of evidence. History From the creation of the federal courts by the Judiciary Act of 1789, judges had the power to summarily punish those who obstructed justice by holding them in contempt of court. A scandal in 1830 led to reform of the contempt law and the creation of obstruction of justice as a separate offense. Federal judge James H. Peck imprisoned a lawyer for contempt for publishing a letter criticizing one of Peck's opinions. In an effort to prevent such abuses, Congress passed a law in 1831 limiting the application of the summary contempt procedures to offenses committed in or near the court. A new section, which survives today as the Omnibus Clause, was added to punish contempts committed outside of the court, but only after indictment and trial by jury. In 1982, in response to concerns that the obstruction law did not provide adequate protection to crime victims and other witnesses, Congress broadened the law against witness tampering and criminalized retaliation against witnesses, as part of the Victim and Witness Protection Act. The Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002 strengthened the obstruction laws regarding destruction of evidence before an investigation or proceeding has begun, in response to accounting firm Arthur Andersen's widely reported shredding of documents related to the Enron scandal. Notable examples The impeachment proceedings against Richard Nixon in 1974 included charges of obstruction of justice for impeding the investigation of the Watergate burglary. Nixon's acts of obstruction, as alleged by the House Judiciary Committee, included lying to investigators and withholding evidence, influencing witnesses (including through payments of hush money), and making false statements to the public about the investigation. Nixon resigned before impeachment could be considered by the full House of Representatives, and he was preemptively pardoned by Gerald Ford before any criminal investigation could occur. In the wake of the Iran–Contra affair, several members of the Reagan Administration were charged with obstruction of justice for alleged actions including lying to the Congressional committees investigating the matter and concealing evidence. The impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998 included allegations that Clinton obstructed justice by trying to influence the testimony of witnesses, including Monica Lewinsky, in the sexual harassment lawsuit filed against him by Paula Jones, and by encouraging Lewinsky to conceal evidence. Clinton was acquitted of all charges by the Senate. Accounting firm Arthur Andersen was charged with obstruction of justice in 2002 for allegedly destroying and altering documents in anticipation of an investigation of the Enron scandal. The company was convicted and effectively destroyed, though the conviction was later overturned. Martha Stewart was convicted of obstruction of justice in 2004 for lying to investigators in the ImClone stock trading case about the reasons for a stock sale that was being investigated as potential insider trading. In United States v. Binion, malingering (feigning illness) during a competency evaluation was held to be obstruction of justice and led to an enhanced sentence. Scooter Libby, advisor to Vice President Dick Cheney, was charged with obstruction of justice in 2007 for allegedly lying to a grand jury investigating the Plame affair about conversations that he had with reporters about Valerie Plame's identity as a CIA agent. Libby was convicted of obstruction and related crimes, but his 30-month prison sentence was commuted by George W. Bush, and he was pardoned by Donald Trump in 2018 after a key witness recanted her testimony. Conrad Black was convicted of obstruction of justice in July 2007 for removing 13 boxes containing financial records from his office in Toronto after they had been sealed by a court order, returning the boxes a few days later. Black was pardoned by Donald Trump in May 2019. Barry Bonds was charged with obstruction of justice in 2011 for allegedly lying to a grand jury investigating the BALCO steroid scandal about whether his personal trainer had given him steroids. Bonds was convicted and served 30 days of house arrest, but the conviction was later overturned on appeal. Efforts to impeach Donald Trump have involved allegations that he obstructed justice by impeding the investigation of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election and the investigation of the Trump–Ukraine scandal. The Mueller report described ten alleged instances of potential obstruction, including Trump's dismissal of FBI director James Comey, attempts to influence witnesses, attempts to influence the Justice Department's oversight of Special Counsel Robert Mueller, and an attempt to have Mueller fired. The House Judiciary Committee opened an investigation of the allegations. Many of the participants that took part in the January 6 attack on the United States Capital were charged with Obstruction of Justice/Congress. See also Obstructing an official proceeding Accessory (legal term) False evidence Jury tampering Perverting the course of justice, a similar concept in the Commonwealth of Nations Spoliation of evidence Witness tampering Footnotes Crimes Deception Criminal procedure Abuse of the legal system	[ -0.015900427475571632, 0.25362926721572876, -0.5651041865348816, 0.255559504032135, 0.2880138158798218, 0.07516634464263916, 0.45336076617240906, 0.2564885914325714, -0.570074737071991, -0.26491862535476685, -0.11024986952543259, 0.29839009046554565, -0.5293776392936707, 0.2699556052684784, -0.18340320885181427, 0.4839804470539093, 0.7499680519104004, 0.5620046854019165, 0.19641640782356262, -0.20796425640583038, -0.12046708166599274, 0.14570185542106628, -0.1234121173620224, -0.8438637256622314, 0.5661245584487915, -0.18923112750053406, -0.44946980476379395, -0.045497093349695206, -0.6501821875572205, 0.09676428884267807, 0.28369370102882385, 0.2412511706352234, 0.21358856558799744, 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240719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethel%20College	Bethel College	Bethel College can refer to: Bethel College (Kansas) Bethel College (Kentucky) Bethel University (Indiana), called Bethel College until 2019 Bethel University (Minnesota), called Bethel College until 2004 Bethel University (Tennessee), called Bethel College until 2009 See also Beth-El College of Nursing, Colorado	[ 0.2044074833393097, 0.3377939760684967, 0.1594582051038742, 0.1721247434616089, 0.21569420397281647, 0.4730331003665924, 0.44731658697128296, 0.6107226014137268, -0.2880743145942688, -0.4868732690811157, 0.14817452430725098, -0.11709301173686981, 0.12732838094234467, 0.5944464802742004, -0.3495151400566101, 0.34360307455062866, 0.5007455348968506, 0.43204355239868164, -0.3953471779823303, -0.5898774862289429, -0.36329397559165955, -0.015092696063220501, 0.6894121766090393, 0.29367563128471375, -0.3659861385822296, 0.9686633348464966, 0.31621894240379333, 0.12004106491804123, 0.17922289669513702, 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240722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20exchange%20%28disambiguation%29	Foreign exchange (disambiguation)	Foreign exchange may refer to: Finance Foreign exchange market, where money in one currency is exchanged for another Foreign exchange company, a broker that offers currency exchange and international payments Retail foreign exchange platform, speculative trading of foreign exchange by individuals using electronic trading platforms Bureau de change, a business whose customers exchange one currency for another Currency pair, the quotation of the relative value of a currency unit against the unit of another currency in the foreign exchange market Exchange rate, the price for which one currency is exchanged for another Foreign-exchange reserves, holdings of other countries' currencies International trade, the exchange of goods and services across national boundaries Media Foreign Exchange (1970 film), a British television film Foreign Exchange (2008 film), a 2008 film starring Jennifer Coolidge Foreign Exchange (Australian/Irish TV series), a 2004 Australian television series that aired on Nine Network Foreign Exchange (CNBC World TV program), an American television business news program that has aired on CNBC World since 2005 Foreign Exchange (PBS TV program), a 2005–2009 American weekly public television program, previously hosted by Fareed Zakaria, that aired on PBS The Foreign Exchange, a hip-hop duo Other uses Foreign exchange service (telecommunications), connection of a phone to a non-local office Foreign student exchange, a school program in which students study in another country for a time FC Forex Brașov, a Romanian professional football club from Braşov	[ 0.20385786890983582, 0.24779844284057617, 0.07348033040761948, 0.275360107421875, 0.32044488191604614, 0.19739790260791779, -0.4385489821434021, 0.3986223638057709, -0.44926461577415466, 0.0872553214430809, -0.23150549829006195, 0.43481943011283875, -0.29614919424057007, 0.6801593899726868, 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240724	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham%20%28district%29	Cham (district)	Cham () is a Landkreis (district) in Bavaria, Germany. It is bounded by (from the south and clockwise) the districts of Regen, Straubing-Bogen, Regensburg and Schwandorf and by the Czech Plzeň Region. History The first historical date in the regional history is the year 748, when the bishop of Regensburg ordered the foundation of a monastery in the sparsely populated region. About 100 years later, the royal castle of Cham was built and became a summer residence for the Holy Roman Emperors. The region was called Campriche or Mark Cham. In 1204, the Mark Cham became subject to Bavaria, in 1352 to the Electorate of the Palatinate and in the 17th century back to Bavaria. Nowadays, Cham still enjoys the laid-back lifestyle from the days of yore. Many projects have been initiated to give this area an impetus to grow, yet in spite of this, it is still one of the least-populated regions in Germany. Geography The district is located in the northern parts of the Bavarian Forest. It is situated within the borders of the Upper Bavarian Forest Nature Park. The highest mountain is the Großer Arber at 1439 m, located near the Germany–Czech Republic border. The Regen river enters the district in the southeast and leaves to the west; most of the settled places are situated along this river and its main tributary, the Chamb coming from the Czech border. Coat of arms The upper part of the arms is occupied by the blue and white checkered pattern of Bavaria. Below the church of Chammünster is displayed (today belonging to the town of Cham), which was built in 748 within a famous monastery. 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240726	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cham	Cham	Cham or CHAM may refer to: Ethnicities and languages Chams, people in Vietnam and Cambodia Cham language, the language of the Cham people Cham script Cham (Unicode block), a block of Unicode characters of the Cham script Cham Albanians, also spelled Çam, a people originating in northern Greece of Albanian descent Cham Albanian dialect People Cham (singer) (born 1979), Jamaica reggae singer known for the single "Ghetto Story" Cham., standard author abbreviation for botanist Adelbert von Chamisso (1781–1838) Chamillionaire (born 1979), American rapper Cham Prasidh (born 1951), Cambodian Minister of Trade Adongo Agada Cham (1959–2011), king of the Anuak people of Sudan and Ethiopia Jorge Cham (born 1976), comic-book artist Patrick Cham (born 1959), French basketball player Amédée de Noé (1818–1879), French artist whose pseudonym was "Cham" Ham (son of Noah), also spelt Cham Cham, a variant in Gambia of the surname Thiam Places Cham, Germany, town Cham (district), Germany Cham, Switzerland, a city in the Canton of Zug, Switzerland Cham, Iran (disambiguation) Chàm Islands, of Vietnam Children's Hospital at Montefiore Cham, a colloquial name for the French mountain town of Chamonix Al Cham, French spelling for Al Sham (comprises Israel, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan) Other uses Cham (novel), by British writer Jonathan Trigell set in Chamonix Mont Blanc Cham Bank, a Syrian bank Cham dance, a masked dance associated with some sects of Buddhism Cham Palaces and Hotels, a Syria hotel chain based in Syria CHAM (radio station), a radio station in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada Children's Hospital at Montefiore, in New York Cham Wings Airlines, a privately owned Syrian airline Cham, an archaic spelling of Khan Abbreviation of German botanist Adelbert von Chamisso (1781–1838) Cham or Kopi Cham, Malaysian beverage of coffee and tea See also Chamcham, or Chomchom, a traditional Bengali sweet Chameria, part of Albania inhabited by Cham Albanians Kham (disambiguation) Chamm, a 2017 Punjabi film Çam (disambiguation) Language and nationality disambiguation pages Senegalese surnames Gambian surnames	[ 0.2838068902492523, 0.5113939642906189, -0.5352846384048462, -0.5018250942230225, 0.041137196123600006, 0.8805335760116577, 0.3501431941986084, 0.7248780727386475, -0.8761591911315918, 0.024934453889727592, -0.5472525358200073, 0.30160799622535706, -0.1397525668144226, -0.16763544082641602, -0.3391430377960205, 0.3790196180343628, 0.5055696964263916, 0.23166459798812866, -0.6922825574874878, 0.0232196357101202, -0.4542398452758789, -0.19270628690719604, 0.44405895471572876, -0.30139514803886414, -0.05967745557427406, 0.448513001203537, 0.24977688491344452, 0.7093241214752197, 0.005766699556261301, -0.14343896508216858, -0.19104282557964325, 0.7582669258117676, 0.6672908663749695, 0.12887650728225708, 0.2034018635749817, 0.19705376029014587, -0.32157212495803833, 0.0763498917222023, -0.35402604937553406, -0.47770822048187256, 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240727	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sphere%20of%20influence	Sphere of influence	In the field of international relations, a sphere of influence (SOI) is a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. While there may be a formal alliance or other treaty obligations between the influenced and influencer, such formal arrangements are not necessary and the influence can often be more of an example of soft power. Similarly, a formal alliance does not necessarily mean that one country lies within another's sphere of influence. High levels of exclusivity have historically been associated with higher levels of conflict. In more extreme cases, a country within the "sphere of influence" of another may become a subsidiary of that state and serve in effect as a satellite state or de facto colony. This was the case with the Soviet Union and its Eastern Bloc after World War II. The system of spheres of influence by which powerful nations intervene in the affairs of others continues to the present. It is often analyzed in terms of superpowers, great powers, and/or middle powers. Sometimes portions of a single country can fall into two distinct spheres of influence. In the colonial era the buffer states of Iran and Thailand, lying between the empires of Britain/Russia and Britain/France respectively, were divided between the spheres of influence of the imperial powers. Likewise, after World War II, Germany was divided into four occupation zones, three of which later consolidated into West Germany and the remaining one became East Germany, the former a member of NATO and the latter a member of the Warsaw Pact. The term is also used to describe non-political situations, e.g., a shopping mall is said to have a 'sphere of influence' that designates the geographical area where it dominates the retail trade. Historical remnants Many powerful states in past centuries had subordinate tributary states, whose native dynasty acknowledged the suzerainty of the great power. Many areas of the world are joined by a cultural influence inherited from a previous sphere of influence, even if they are no longer under political control. Examples include Anglosphere, Arab World, Persosphere, Eurosphere, Francophonie, Françafrique, Germanosphere, Indosphere, Hispanidad, Latin Europe/Latin America, Lusophonie, Turkosphere, Sinosphere, Slavisphere, Malay world, Post-Soviet States and many others. Early United States (1820s) Alexander Hamilton, first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, aimed for the United States to establish a sphere of influence in North America. Hamilton, writing in the Federalist Papers, harboured ambitions for the US to rise to world power status and gain the strength to expel European powers from the Americas, taking on the mantle of regional dominance among American nations, although most of the New World were European colonies during that period. This doctrine, dubbed the 'Monroe Doctrine', was formalized under President James Monroe, who asserted that the New World was to be established as a Sphere of influence, removed from European encroachment. As the U.S. emerged as a world power, few nations dared to trespass on this sphere. (A notable exception occurred with the Soviet Union and the Cuban Missile Crisis.) As of 2018, Secretary of State Rex Tillerson continued to refer to the Monroe Doctrine to tout the United States as the region's preferred trade partner over other nations such as China. New Imperialism era (late 1800s–early 1900s) For Siam (Thailand), Britain and France signed an agreement in 1904 whereby the British recognised a French sphere of influence to the east of the River Menam's (Chao Phraya River) basin; in turn, the French recognised British influence over the territory to the west of the Menam basin and west of the Gulf of Thailand. Both parties disclaimed any idea of annexing Siamese territory. In the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907, Britain and Russia partitioned Persia (Iran) into spheres of influence, with the Russians gaining recognition for influence over most of northern Iran, and Britain establishing a zone in the Southeast. China In China in the late 19th and early 20th century, Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan had special powers over large swaths of territory based on securing "nonalienation commitments" for their "spheres of interest;" only the United States was unable to participate due to the Spanish–American War. These were taken by means of military attacks, or threats to force Chinese authorities to sign unequal treaties and very long term "leases." In early 1895, the French laid claim to a sphere in Southwest China. By December 1897, German Kaiser Wilhelm II declared his intent to seize territory in China, precipitating the scramble to demarcate zones of influence in China. The German government acquired, in Shandong province, exclusive control over developmental loans, mining, and railway ownership, while Russia gained a sphere over all territory north of the Great Wall, in addition to the previous tax exemption for trade in Mongolia and Xinjiang, economic powers similar to Germany's over Fengtian, Jilin, and Heilongjiang provinces. France gained a sphere over Yunnan, as well as most of Guangxi and Guangdong provinces; Japan over Fujian province; and the British Empire over the whole Yangtze River valley (defined as all provinces adjoining the Yangtze river as well as Henan and Zhejiang provinces), parts of Guangdong and Guangxi provinces, and part of Tibet. Only Italy's request for Zhejiang province was declined by the Chinese government. These do not include the lease and concession territories where the foreign powers had full authority. The Russian government militarily occupied their zone, imposed their law and schools, seized mining and logging privileges, settled their citizens, and even established their municipal administration on several cities, the latter without Chinese consent. The powers (and the United States) might have their own courts, post offices, commercial institutions, railroads, and gunboats in what was on paper Chinese territory. However, the foreign powers and their control in some cases could have been exaggerated; the local government persistently restricted further encroachment. The system ended after the Second World War. On September 6, 1899, U.S. Secretary of State John Hay sent notes to the major powers (France, Germany, Britain, Italy, Japan, and Russia), asking them to declare formally that they would uphold Chinese territorial and administrative integrity and would not interfere with the free use of the treaty ports within their spheres of influence in China, as the US felt threatened by other powers' much larger spheres of influence in China and worried that it might lose access to the Chinese market should the country be partitioned. Although treaties made after 1900 refer to this "Open Door Policy", competition among the various powers for special concessions within China for railroad rights, mining rights, loans, foreign trade ports, and so forth, continued unabated, with the US itself contradicting the policy by agreeing to recognise the Japanese sphere in the Lansing-Ishii Agreement. In 1910, the great powers, Britain, France, Germany, United States, and later, Russia and Japan, ignored the Open Door Policy to form a banking consortium, consisting of national banking groups backed by respective governments, through which all foreign loans to China were monopolised, granting the powers political influence over China and reducing economic competition between foreigners. This organisation controlled the majority of Chinese tax revenue in a "trust", and utilised a small portion to bolster the rule of Yuan Shikai, to great effect. The renewed consortium of UK, France, Japan and US in 1920 effectively vetoed all developmental loans to China, ruling over the Chinese government by aiming to control all rails, ports and highways in China. The Consortium helped to contain the political and financial conflict between parties and states over the loans, while imposing foreign control on China's finances during the period of revolutionary upheaval, which the Consortium also helped to precipitate. World War II (1939–45) Empire of Japan For another example, during the height of its existence in World War II, the Japanese Empire had quite a large sphere of influence. The Japanese government directly governed events in Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, and parts of Mainland China. The "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere" could thus be quite easily drawn on a map of the Pacific Ocean as a large "bubble" surrounding the islands of Japan and the Asian and Pacific nations it controlled. Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact According to a secret protocol attached to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 (revealed only after Germany's defeat in 1945), Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into Nazi and Soviet spheres of influence: In the north, Finland, Estonia, and Latvia were assigned to the Soviet sphere. Poland was to be partitioned in the event of its "political rearrangement"—the areas east of the Narev, Vistula, and San Rivers going to the Soviet Union, while Germany would occupy the west. Lithuania, adjacent to East Prussia, would be in the German sphere of influence, although a second secret protocol agreed in September 1939 assigned Lithuania to the USSR. Another clause of the treaty stipulated that Bessarabia, then part of Romania, would join the Moldovan ASSR and become the Moldovan SSR under the control of Moscow. The Soviet invasion of Bukovina on 28 June 1940 violated the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, as it went beyond the Soviet sphere of influence as agreed with the Axis. The USSR continued to deny the existence of the Pact's protocols until after the dissolution of the USSR when the Russian government fully acknowledged the existence and authenticity of the secret protocols. End of World War II From 1941 and the German attack on the Soviet Union, the Allied Coalition operated on the unwritten assumption that the Western Powers and the Soviet Union had each its own sphere of influence. The presumption of the US-British and Soviet unrestricted rights in their respective spheres began to cause difficulties as the Nazi-controlled territory shrank and the allied powers successively liberated other states. The wartime spheres lacked a practical definition and it had never been determined if a dominant allied power was entitled to unilateral decisions only in the area of military activity, or could also force its will regarding political, social and economic future of other states. This overly informal system backfired during the late stages of the war and afterward, when it turned out that the Soviets and the Western Allies had very different ideas concerning the administration and future development of the liberated regions and of Germany itself. Cold War (1947–91) During the Cold War, the Soviet sphere of influence was said to include: the Baltic states, Central Europe, some countries in Eastern Europe, Cuba, Laos, Vietnam, North Korea, and—until the Sino-Soviet split and Tito-Stalin split—the People's Republic of China and the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, among other countries at various times. Meanwhile, United States was considered to have a sphere of influence over Western Europe, Oceania, Japan, and South Korea, among other places. However, the level of control exerted in these spheres varied and was not absolute. For instance, France and the United Kingdom were able to act independently to invade (with Israel) the Suez Canal (they were later forced to withdraw by joint U.S. and Soviet pressure). Later, France was also able to withdraw from the military arm of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). Cuba, as another example, often took positions that put it at odds with its Soviet ally, including momentary alliances with China, economic reorganizations, and providing support for insurgencies in Africa and the Americas without prior approval from the Soviet Union. With the end of the Cold War, the Eastern Bloc fell apart, effectively ending the Soviet sphere of influence. Then in 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist, replaced by the Russian Federation and several other ex-Soviet Republics who became independent states. Contemporary Russia (1990s–present) After the fall of the Soviet Union, the countries of Eastern Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia that became independent were often portrayed as part of the Russian Federation's 'sphere of influence'. According to Ulrich Speck, writing for Carnegie Europe, "After the breakup of the Soviet Union, the West's focus was on Russia. Western nations implicitly treated the post-Soviet countries (besides the Baltic states) as Russia's sphere of influence." In 1997, NATO and Russia signed the Founding Act on Mutual Relations, Cooperation and Security, stating the "aim of creating in Europe a common space of security and stability, without dividing lines or spheres of influence limiting the sovereignty of any state." On August 31, 2008, Russian president Dmitri Medvedev stated five principles of foreign policy, including the claim of a privileged sphere of influence that comprised "the border region, but not only". In 2009, Russia asserted that the European Union desires a sphere of influence and that the Eastern Partnership is "an attempt to extend" it. In March that year, Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt stated that the "Eastern Partnership is not about spheres of influence. The difference is that these countries themselves opted to join." Following the 2008 Russo-Georgian War, Václav Havel and other former central and eastern European leaders signed an open letter stating that Russia had "violated the core principles of the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris ... all in the name of defending a sphere of influence on its borders." In April 2014, NATO stated that, contrary to the Founding Act,Russia now appears to be attempting to recreate a sphere of influence by seizing a part of Ukraine, maintaining large numbers of forces on its borders, and demanding, as Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov recently stated, that "Ukraine cannot be part of any bloc."Criticising Russia in November 2014, German Chancellor Angela Merkel said that "old thinking about spheres of influence, which runs roughshod over international law" put the "entire European peace order into question." In January 2017, British Prime Minister Theresa May said, "We should not jeopardise the freedoms that President Reagan and Mrs Thatcher brought to Eastern Europe by accepting President Putin's claim that it is now in his sphere of influence." Corporations In corporate terms, the sphere of influence of a business, organization, or group can show its power and influence in the decisions of other businesses/organizations/groups. The influence shows in several ways, such as in size, frequency of visits, etc. In most cases, a company described as "bigger" has a larger sphere of influence. For example, the software company Microsoft has a large sphere of influence in the market of operating systems; any entity wishing to sell a software product may weigh up compatibility with Microsoft's products as part of a marketing plan. In another example, retailers wishing to make the most profits must ensure they open their stores in the correct location. This is also true for shopping centers that, to reap the most profits, must be able to attract customers to their vicinity. There is no defined scale measuring such spheres of influence. However, one can evaluate the spheres of influence of two shopping centers by seeing how far people are prepared to travel to each shopping center, how much time they spend in its vicinity, how often they visit, the order of goods available, etc. Corporations have significant influence on the regulations and regulators that monitor them. During the Gilded Age in the United States, corruption was rampant as business leaders spent significant amounts of money ensuring that government did not regulate their activities. Wall Street spent a record $2 billion trying to influence the 2016 United States elections. List of spheres of influence Anglosphere — English-speaking world East Asian cultural sphere (aka Sinosphere) — historically Chinese-influenced cultures Eurosphere — area with European Union influence Francosphere — French-speaking world Germanosphere — German-speaking world Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere — imperial influence of the Japanese Empire Indosphere — area with Indian linguistic and cultural influence Islamosphere — the Muslim world Slavisphere — Slavic influence Soviet sphere of influence — imperial influence of the Soviet Union Other examples For historical and current examples of significant battles over spheres of influence see: The Great Game Geostrategy in Central Asia See also Cultural area Geopolitics National interest Balance of power in international relations Lateral pressure theory Sprachbund Unequal treaty Informal empire References Further reading Ferguson, Iain, and Susanna Hast. 2018. "Introduction: The Return of Spheres of Influence? [PDF]" Geopolitics 23(2):277-84. . Hast, Susanna. 2016. Spheres of Influence in International Relations: History, Theory and Politics. Milton Park, UK: Routledge. Icenhower, Brian. 2018. "SOI: Building a Real Estate Agent's Sphere of Influence." CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. White, Craig Howard. 1992. Sphere of Influence, Star of Empire: American Renaissance Cosmos, Vol. 1. Madison: University of Wisconsin-Madison. External links The CommonCensus Map Project – Calculates the spheres of influence for American cities based on voting Russia - a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. 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240729	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciprian%20Porumbescu	Ciprian Porumbescu	Ciprian Porumbescu (; born Cyprian Gołęmbiowski on 14 October 1853 – 6 June 1883) was a Romanian composer born in Șipotele Sucevei in Bukovina (now Shepit, Vyzhnytsia Raion, Ukraine). He was among the most celebrated Romanian composers of his time; his popular works include Crai nou, Song of the Tricolour, Song for Spring, Ballad for violin and piano, and Serenada. In addition, he composed the music for the Romanian patriotic "Song of Unity", also known as "Pe-al nostru steag e scris Unire" ("Unity is Written on our Flag"), which was Romania's anthem from 1975 to 1977 and is currently used for Albania's national anthem, "Himni i Flamurit". His work spreads over various forms and musical genres, but the majority of his work is choral and operetta. Biography Ciprian Porumbescu was born into the family of Iraclie Golumbiowski a Romanian Orthodox priest and Emilia Clodnițchi, Polish, daughter of the forest brigadier from Voievodeasa. Iraclie Golumbiowski called himself Iraclie Porumbescu from his youth, but he did not officially change his name until 1881, when Ciprian was at school in Suceava. He studied music in Suceava and Cernăuți, then continued at the Konservatorium für Musik und darstellende Kunst in Vienna from 1879 to 1881 under Anton Bruckner and Franz Krenn. His artistic career as a composer, conductor, violinist, and pianist started in Cernăuţi, and continued in Vienna, and later in Brașov where he taught vocal music at Romanian schools. Ciprian Porumbescu wrote poetry, lyrics and press articles, and actively participated in public cultural life. He helped the rise of the Romanian music school during an age of enthusiasm generated by Romania's independence. Some of the most remarkable musical pages of the composer were inspired by national heroes and great army leaders, such as Stephen III of Moldavia and Dragoș Vodă. The appreciation of his music came from the melodic nature of his compositions and their folklore inspiration. In 1877, Porumbescu was arrested by the Austrian authorities due to his political ideals of Bucovina independence manifested within the Arboroasa society; Arboroasa was an ultra nationalistic Romanian organisation in Cernowitz. during detention, he contracted tuberculosis. He was released later after being found not guilty, going on to become a founding member of Societatea Academică Junimea (Junimea Academic Society). He died at the age of 29 in Stupca, which was renamed Ciprian Porumbescu in his honor. Ciprian Porumbescu left a legacy of more than 250 works, bringing him fame and popularity through his short life. The composer saw his work Crai nou ("New Moon") performed in Brașov, while his vocal works Pe-al nostru steag ("On Our Flag"), Tricolorul ("The Tricolor", dedicated to Romania's national flag), Cântec de primăvară ("Spring Song"), Serenada, Cântecul gintei latine ("Latin Nation's Song"), La malurile Prutului ("On the Shores of the Prut River"), and Altarul mânăstirii Putna ("Putna Monastery's Altar") were already in the public conscience. Major works Crai Nou As a student at the Vienna Musical Conservatory, Porumbescu noted with great interest the success of operettas by Strauss, Suppé, Offenbach and others. His supreme goal was to replace the frivolity of subject-matter in the fashionable operettas with a plot that revived old Romanian traditions. Among them was Crai Nou (New Moon), in which the new-born moon will fulfill every lover's dreams of happiness (collected and published by Vasile Alecsandri), appeared the most appropriate for the dream-like environment of the local and earnest task he had in mind. The result was Romania's first operetta of the same name. Ballad for Violin and Orchestra Finished on 21 October 1880, the Ballad for Violin and Orchestra soon became the best known work by Ciprian Porumbescu, and a reference work in Romanian classical music of the 19th century. In seclusion at Stupca, the composer meditated, drafted and then finished the piece, full of poetry and bitter nostalgia, with light and shade, a mixture of "Doina", old dance and song, everything in the environment of serene melancholy. References External links Biography at compendium.ro Balada Ciprian Porumbescu's House – video Ciprian Porumbescu's House – Official site 1853 births 1883 deaths 19th-century classical composers 19th-century male musicians Male classical composers National anthem writers People from Putyla Raion Romanian Austro-Hungarians Romanian classical composers Romantic composers Romanian nationalists Romanian people of Polish descent University of Music and Performing Arts Vienna alumni	[ -0.1972256898880005, 0.6667956709861755, -0.015021081082522869, -0.13787004351615906, -0.17267809808254242, 0.519395112991333, -0.12157773971557617, -0.33714917302131653, -0.22282932698726654, -0.8411398530006409, -0.195444718003273, -0.28234612941741943, -0.6748278737068176, 0.7680483460426331, 0.0031787084881216288, 0.24642883241176605, 0.07067956030368805, 0.05201296508312225, -0.611526608467102, -0.30312949419021606, -0.2578325569629669, 0.17411965131759644, 0.24327336251735687, 0.18642552196979523, 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240731	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lita%20%28wrestler%29	Lita (wrestler)	Amy Christine Dumas (; born April 14, 1975), better known by her ring name Lita, is an American professional wrestler. She is currently signed with WWE. Often regarded as one of the greatest women's performers, she is also one of the most popular female superstars in World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and was inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 2014. Initially using the name of Angelica, Dumas started her wrestling career in Mexico with the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) in 1998, followed by briefly working on the US independent circuit in early 1999, and then working for 6 months in Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW). Dumas then signed with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF, later WWE) in August 1999, debuting in February 2000 as Lita. Originally, she was paired with Essa Rios, but she achieved her greatest push alongside Matt and Jeff Hardy as Team Xtreme, and in 2005–2006 was a heel wrestler, including as a manager to Edge. She is a four-time WWE Women's Champion. After her first retirement in 2006, she formed the punk rock band The Luchagors. The band released their self-titled debut album on September 11, 2007. Early life Amy Christine Dumas was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida to Christine and Michael Dumas on April 14, 1975. She attended many different schools around Florida throughout her childhood and adolescent years and managed to finish high school at Lassiter High School near Atlanta six months before graduation. She majored in education at Georgia State University, but dropped out in 1993 because she felt it was too much like high school. Later, in Washington, D.C., Dumas played bass guitar in several bands, and worked as a roadie for a band. Professional wrestling career Early career (1997–1999) Dumas first became interested in wrestling after watching Rey Mysterio Jr., a Mexican-American luchador, wrestle on an episode of World Championship Wrestling's (WCW) Monday Nitro. She traveled to Mexico in 1997 to learn more about the sport and how to wrestle. Dumas financed her training by dancing in a club under the pseudonym Misty. During her stay in Mexico, Dumas trained under numerous wrestlers, including El Dandy, Kevin Quinn and Ricky Santana. Following the completion of her training, Dumas made several appearances with the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre in 1998, under the ring name of Angelica. After returning to the United States, Dumas continued working as a valet on the independent circuit as Angelica. She made her wrestling debut in a match against indie wrestler Strawberry Fields on January 9, 1999, where she won the match. She worked in Maryland Championship Wrestling (MCW), at one point managing Christopher Daniels. She also made appearances in NWA Mid-Atlantic, where she first met Matt and Jeff Hardy, who offered to train with her. Extreme Championship Wrestling (1999) In April 1999, Dumas was approached by Paul Heyman, the owner and booker of Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW). Dumas debuted in ECW as Miss Congeniality, the on-screen girlfriend of Danny Doring. Dumas later began using the name Angelica once again and made her pay-per-view debut on July 18 at Heat Wave where Doring, as part of their storyline, proposed to her with a condom. Dumas was introduced to veteran wrestler Dory Funk, Jr. by ECW wrestler Rob Van Dam, and Funk invited her to attend his wrestling school, The Funkin' Conservatory. Dumas attended Funk's school alongside twenty-three men, graduated from the school in August 1999, and returned to ECW. Meanwhile, Funk and his wife compiled video footage of Dumas and sent it to the World Wrestling Federation. The Federation was sufficiently impressed, and on August 1, 1999, Dumas was signed to a WWF developmental deal. After six months with ECW, she made her final appearance on October 23, 1999, at Re-enter the Sandman. World Wrestling Federation/Entertainment Debut (1999–2000) Dumas debuted on the July 5, 1999, episode of Raw Is War as part of The Godfather's Ho-Train. After honing her skills at the Memphis Championship Wrestling developmental territory, Dumas was given the ring name Lita and paired with luchador Essa Rios. Lita and Rios made their WWF debut on the February 13, 2000, episode of Sunday Night Heat, where Rios was booked to win the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship from Gillberg (it was only by watching the episode that the two learned their new ring names, decided post-production). Lita mimicked his moves, notably the moonsault and hurricanrana, immediately after he had performed them on an opponent. Essa Rios and Lita had a feud with Eddie Guerrero and Chyna which led to a European title match between Ríos and then-champion Guerrero at Backlash. In May 2000, a storyline was developed in which Lita found Rios cavorting with The Godfather and his "hos", causing tension between them. Rios eventually turned on Lita by powerbombing her after she inadvertently cost him a match with the Hardy Boyz coming to her rescue. Team Xtreme (2000–2002) As a member of Team Xtreme, Lita developed a more "alternative" image, wearing baggy pants with a thong, which was hiked up high above her pants, clearly exposed- right after she joined Team Xtreme, her popularity skyrocketed. During her time with Team Xtreme, Lita became the only female to ever be physically involved in Tables, Ladders, and Chairs matches in the WWF, effectively interfering at TLC I at Summerslam and TLC II at WrestleMania X-Seven on the Hardy Boyz’ behalf- but her interference was often short lived as she was brutally Speared at ringside by Edge and 3-D’ed by the Dudley Boyz. In June 2000, Team Xtreme began a storyline with T & A (Test and Albert), with Lita engaging in a rivalry with their manager, Trish Stratus. The rivalry developed into an off and on long-term feud between the two women that lasted until Stratus retired in 2006. The storyline ended shortly after Fully Loaded, where Lita pinned Stratus in a six-person intergender tag team match. The two rivals were then part of the main event of the July 31, 2000, edition of Raw in Lita's hometown of Atlanta, which was a tag team match between Lita & The Rock vs Stratus & Triple H, which Lita and The Rock won. Subsequently, Lita began feuding with WWF Women's Champion Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley after winning the first-ever women's battle royal against the likes of Ivory, Jacqueline, Terri and The Kat. In the main event of the August 21, 2000, episode of Raw is War (her second main event in 3 weeks), Lita defeated Stephanie with a moonsault to win the Women's Championship for the first time, with The Rock as special guest referee. Lita held the Women's Championship for 73 days, which included retaining her title in a hardcore match against Jacqueline on October 9. In the course of her reign, Lita became embroiled in the storyline feud between the Hardy Boyz and Edge and Christian. In retaliation for her frequent interference in their matches, Edge and Christian cost Lita the Women's Championship by side-slamming her into the mat, helping Ivory to defeat her in a four-way match on the November 2 episode of SmackDown! Ivory was in a conservative-based stable named Right to Censor at that time, which targeted Lita for her attire and moves. Lita attempted to regain the title on several occasions, wrestling Ivory in a match at Survivor Series where Ivory cut Lita's lower forehead open with her boot heel and she bled heavily, and then another match at Rebellion but Lita was thwarted on each occasion by Stevie Richards, Ivory's mentor. She spent the remainder of the year in a storyline with would-be suitor Dean Malenko, on one occasion unsuccessfully challenging him for the WWF Light Heavyweight Championship. Even after repeated rejections from Lita followed by savage beatings by the Hardy Boyz, Malenko was undeterred in his quest to win Lita's affections. Lita continued to feud with Dean Malenko in early 2001, and she defeated him in a singles bout on the February 19 episode of Raw is War with the assistance of Matt Hardy. Following the match, Hardy kissed Lita, beginning their on-screen relationship and turning their real-life romance into a storyline. On the April 9 edition of Raw is War, she took part in another WWF main event as part of Team Xtreme against a tag team of Stephanie McMahon-Helmsley and the Two Man Power Trip (Stone Cold Steve Austin and Triple H). They won the match, but Lita took a brutal beating after the match, where she was Pedigreed by Triple H, and Austin hit her 4 times in the back with a steel-folding chair and finished her off with a Stunner; Austin had just turned heel and this was an attempt to generate even more heat towards the ultra-popular wrestler by beating up the most popular female wrestler in the WWF at the time. In July 2001, Lita and Trish Stratus joined forces to combat Stacy Keibler and Torrie Wilson, members of The Alliance: Extreme Championship Wrestling and World Championship Wrestling wrestlers who were invading the WWF as part of The Invasion storyline. At the Invasion pay-per-view on July 22, Lita and Stratus defeated Keibler and Wilson in the first ever tag team bra and panties match by stripping their opponents to their underwear. Throughout The Invasion, Lita, Stratus, and Jacqueline feuded with Alliance members Keibler, Wilson, Ivory, and Mighty Molly. The Invasion storyline ended on November 18 at Survivor Series, where Lita took part in a six-pack challenge for the WWF Women's Championship, which had been vacated by Chyna earlier that month; Stratus won the match and the title. In late 2001, the Hardy Boyz began a storyline in which they were feuding with one another. Lita refereed a match between them at Vengeance on December 9. Jeff won the match with a scripted finish that had Lita failing to notice that Matt had placed his leg on the rope during Jeff's successful pin attempt. Continuing the storyline on the following episode of Raw, Matt defeated Lita and Jeff in a handicap match, shortly after informing Lita that both their relationship and the Hardy Boyz were finished. On the December 17 episode of Raw, both Jeff and Lita were sidelined with storyline injuries following a hardcore title match between Jeff and WWF Hardcore Champion The Undertaker, when they were both tossed off the stage by The Undertaker. The injuring of both his brother and ex-girlfriend led to a reconciliation between the members of Team Xtreme, and on the December 20 episode of SmackDown!, Matt faced The Undertaker but was also injured. All three members of Team Xtreme were then removed from WWF television for several weeks. Team Xtreme returned at the Royal Rumble event in January, with the Hardys as participants and Lita accompanying them. The trio attacked The Undertaker, but were unsuccessful in eliminating him. Lita resumed her pursuit of the WWF Women's Championship and made her in-ring WrestleMania debut at WrestleMania X8 on March 17, facing Stratus and WWF Women's Champion Jazz in a match in which Jazz retained her title by pinning Lita. Neck injury and return (2002–2003) On April 6, Dumas suffered what appeared to be a stinger while filming a fight scene for a role in the season finale of the television program Dark Angel. The rehearsal required that she practice the hurricanrana that would be used in the episode, however, the stunt double Dumas was working with dropped her as she swung through the move, causing her to land on her neck and shoulders. After she underwent a CAT scan, it was revealed that she had suffered three cracks in her vertebrae, necessitating surgery. On April 30, Dumas underwent neck surgery under Dr. Lloyd Youngblood, during which he used a section of her hip to fuse her C5 and C6 vertebrae together. She spent the subsequent year rehabilitating, making appearances on Sunday Night Heat as a color commentator, beginning in October 2002. During her time recovering, Matt and Jeff split thus ending Team Xtreme; Jeff would leave the WWE the following year and Matt would move to Smackdown. On the April 21, 2003, episode of Raw, as part of a new storyline, she was fired from her position on commentary by general manager Eric Bischoff after she rejected his advances and his request that she follow in the footsteps of SmackDown!s Torrie Wilson and pose for Playboy. She returned to the ring after an absence of seventeen months on the September 15 episode of Raw, saving Trish Stratus from a beating at the hands of Molly Holly and Gail Kim. Co-general manager Stone Cold Steve Austin later explained to Eric Bischoff that he had rehired Lita. Lita and Stratus went on to defeat Holly and Kim in a tag team match on September 21 at Unforgiven. Lita feuded with Holly into late 2003, unsuccessfully challenging her for the Women's Championship on November 16 at Survivor Series. On the November 17 episode of Raw, Lita and Matt Hardy were reunited after Hardy was moved from SmackDown! to Raw. Continuing the storyline, Holly interrupted as Hardy was about to propose to Lita, challenging the duo to face her and Bischoff in an intergender tag team match later that evening. Bischoff later added the stipulation that Lita would earn a title shot if she won but would be fired if she lost. Hardy and Lita lost the match after Hardy refused to tag in, with Hardy berating Lita for "selfishly" returning to Raw instead of SmackDown!, claiming that this showed that she cared more about the Women's Championship than about him. Lita was rehired later that evening when Christian informed her that he had used his Survivor Series favor to get Bischoff to reinstate her. One week later, Lita lost to Victoria in the first ever women's steel cage match in WWE history, due to interference from Hardy. As Lita and Christian appeared to be developing an on-screen relationship, so did Stratus and Chris Jericho. Subsequently, Stratus and Lita participated in an intergender tag team match as partners on the December 1 episode of Raw. After the match, Stratus overheard Jericho talking to then-heel, Christian, about who could sleep with their respective woman first. One week later, Stratus and Lita confronted the men about their real intentions, leading to a feud between the two men and women which resulted in a "Battle of the Sexes" match at Armageddon, which the women lost. A rematch ended in a no contest the next night. On February 23, 2004, Lita was involved in a fatal-4-way elimination match for the Women's Championship which also included Molly Holly, Jazz, and Victoria, who won the match. Storyline with Kane and feuding with Trish Stratus (2004–2005) Lita competed in the women's division throughout early 2004, winning a battle royal to become the number one contender for the Women's Championship on the April 5 episode of Raw. Victoria defeated Lita to retain the Women's Championship at Backlash on April 18. The next night on Raw, Lita was reunited with Matt Hardy when Hardy attacked Kane in an attempt to prevent him from harming Lita, beginning a new storyline involving the trio. In the following weeks, Kane began repeatedly assaulting Hardy and attempting to seduce Lita. During the course of the storyline, he kidnapped Lita and held her tied up backstage, and he persuaded Eric Bischoff to give her a title shot at Bad Blood on June 13, where she was defeated by Trish Stratus in a Fatal Four Way match that also included Gail Kim and defending champion Victoria. The next night on Raw, Lita revealed that she was pregnant. One week later, it appeared that Hardy was going to propose to Lita, but he was interrupted by Kane, who claimed to be the father of Lita's child. Two months later, it was revealed that Kane was, in fact, the father. Hardy and Kane feuded for several months, culminating in a "Till Death Do Us Part" match on August 15 at SummerSlam, with the stipulation that Lita would be obliged to marry the winner of the match. Kane won the match, leading to he and a reluctant Lita marrying one another on the August 23 episode of Raw. Despite being married to Kane, Lita thwarted him during his matches, constantly aiding his opponents. On the September 13 episode of Raw, Lita miscarried after Gene Snitsky struck Kane with a chair, resulting in him falling on Lita. The miscarriage led to Lita and Kane joining forces in order to take revenge on Snitsky. With the pregnancy storyline over, Lita returned to the women's division in November 2004. She began a feud with Trish Stratus, who had constantly degraded her during her pregnancy storyline. When Stratus referred to her as "chubby" because of her weight gain, she retaliated by attacking Stratus backstage due to no longer carrying a child. Lita challenged Stratus to a Women's Championship match at Survivor Series, however, due to the months of humiliation and being verbally berated by Stratus, Lita was more concerned with doing as much damage as possible, and she broke Stratus's nose during the match and attacked her with a chair, leading to her disqualification. This intense and violent match involved levels of physicality that had not been seen before in the women's division. The feud continued, and on December 6, Lita defeated Stratus in the main event of Raw to win her second WWE Women's Championship. During the course of the match, Lita botched a suicide dive to the outside when she over rotated by a fraction, barely escaping serious injury. This move was later used in the buildup to the title rematch she was booked for at New Year's Revolution against Stratus, who claimed, "Lita had to practically kill herself, just to beat me". In the course of the match, Lita legitimately tore her left ACL after executing a Thesz press off the ring apron, which left her unable to properly continue the match and led to a rushed finish, in which Stratus reclaimed the title.Ian Hamilton. Wrestling's Sinking Ship: What Happens to an Industry Without Competition, 134. Lita returned to WWE television in March 2005, mentoring Christy Hemme, who was in the midst of a storyline with Stratus that featured a title match between them at WrestleMania 21. Despite Lita's coaching, Hemme was defeated by Stratus. Lita continued to feud with Stratus by proxy over the following weeks, with Kane defeating Stratus' companion, Viscera, at Backlash on May 1. Relationship with Edge and first retirement (2005–2006) The relationship between Lita and Kane lasted until the May 16 episode of Raw, when Lita turned on Kane, helping Edge defeat him in the finals of the Raw Gold Rush Tournament, turning heel. On the May 30 episode of Raw, Lita announced that she had filed for divorce, and said things such as Kane was like a 4th grader in the bedroom, that she would not have to deal with things such as his sweaty body, the "stupid little" laugh he does, and their wedding ring being flushed down a toilet. She then attempted to marry Edge on the June 20 episode of Raw, but the marriage ceremony was interrupted by a vengeful Kane, who emerged from beneath the ring, destroyed the ceremony, and as Edge and Lita escaped from the ring, Kane tombstoned their priest. The storyline with Kane ended shortly thereafter. Off-screen, at this time, Dumas had been involved with Matt Hardy romantically, but began an affair with Adam Copeland (Edge), who was one of Hardy's closest friends. WWE then began to use the real-life issues between the three as an on-screen storyline. In April, Hardy was released from WWE for revealing the entire incident on his blog, only to be rehired several months later under constant outcry from fans from shows and pay-per-views every week for months on end. Lita had been one of the most popular performers in the WWE since the beginning of her association with the Hardy Boyz in 2000 and after Hardy was fired in April, her popularity had taken a massive dive. Starting with a RAW event at Madison Square Garden where after hobbling to the ring on a crutch to do a segment with heel Trish Stratus, she was booed heavily and fans chanted "You screwed Matt!" and "We want Matt!"- and Lita was still a face at this time. The booing and jeering got so bad that Stratus, angered by the abuse went off script and berated the crowd- and after the segment Dumas was shaken by the experience. Hardy was rehired in July (by which time Lita had turned heel) and would engage in a three-month feud with Edge, while Lita, awkwardly watching and sometimes interfering in these matches from ringside continued to act as Edge's valet. On the October 3 episode of Raw, Edge, with the assistance of Lita, defeated Hardy in a ladder match, and Hardy was obligated to leave Raw as a stipulation of the match, ending their feud. Hardy went to Smackdown!, and Edge defeated John Cena to win the WWE Championship on January 8 at New Year's Revolution. In an interview conducted after the event, on WWE.com, Edge announced that he and Lita would have "hot, unbridled sex" in the middle of the ring on Raw the following night to celebrate his victory. On Raw that night in the family-friendly amusement park town of Hershey, Pennsylvania, Edge held up to that promise by engaging in foreplay with Lita in a bed inside the ring until they were interrupted by Ric Flair, who called Edge a disgrace and "that he was horrible in the sack." Flair, however, ended up on the receiving end of a con-chair-to on the announcers' table until Cena came out to Flair's aid and performed an FU on Lita. The "Live Sex Celebration" segment earned Raw a 5.2 rating, the highest Raw rating in over a year, leading Edge to call himself the "most watched champion ever". In 2021, Lita revealed that she was uncomfortable with the segment, but WWE threatened to fire her if she didn't do the segment. On the February 6 episode of Raw, Lita teamed with Edge in a loss to Cena and Maria. She continued to manage Edge into mid-2006, frequently interfering on his behalf during his feud with Mick Foley. In May 2006, Foley joined forces with Edge and Lita, with the trio defeating Foley's ECW rivals Terry Funk, Tommy Dreamer, and Beulah McGillicutty in an impromptu six-person tag team match at One Night Stand. On the August 14 episode of Raw, Lita won her third Women's Championship by defeating Mickie James. She lost the title to longtime rival, Trish Stratus, at Unforgiven in Stratus's retirement match. At Cyber Sunday, Lita defeated James again in the finals of a tournament for the vacant Women's Title in a lumberjill match. In the three editions of Raw after Cyber Sunday, Lita faced James in three non-title handicap matches, the first where James had one hand tied behind her back, the second where James had her feet tied together, and the third with James being blindfolded. Lita easily won the first (6 November) and third (20 November) of those matches, but on the November 13 episode of RAW James was able to defeat Lita after D-Generation X squirted mustard in Lita's face. At Survivor Series, Lita had her last match before her retirement, where she lost the title against Mickie James. She had become so fed up with the continued negative intrusion WWE fans had on her personal life and insults for 18 consecutive months. Return to the independent circuit (2007, 2017) Dumas made her debut for United Wrestling Federation (UWF) on April 21, 2007, where she served as a special guest referee for the match between Christy Hemme and April Hunter. The following day, Dumas made her in-ring debut teaming up with Jerry Lynn in a winning effort defeating Austin Starr and Christy Hemme. Dumas made her debut for Family Wrestling Entertainment on the April 28 episode of FWE Television, as a special guest referee for the match where Winter retained the FWE Women's Championship against Melina Perez. Lita made her in-ring return, for the first time in five years as part of an eight-person tag match for MCW Pro Wrestling in Joppa, Maryland on March 3, 2017, where she teamed with The Bruiser, and The Hell Cats to defeat MCW champion Sean Studd, Andy Vineberg, Rayo and Jeremiah. Return to World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE Sporadic appearances (2007–2012) Lita made a special appearance on December 10, 2007, on Raw's 15th Anniversary Special by teaming up with Trish Stratus to rid the ring of Jillian Hall. Later that night, she had a backstage reunion with Kane, her former on-screen husband. She appeared on the November 1, 2010, episode of Raw in a segment with Pee Wee Herman. On December 12, 2011, Lita presented a Slammy Award to Kelly Kelly for Divalicious Moment of the Year. Lita also appeared on the 1000th episode of Raw on July 23, 2012, defeating Heath Slater in an intergender no disqualification, no countout match with the help from the WWE legends who had defeated Slater during the past weeks, as well as the APA. WWE Hall of Fame and various roles (2014–2017) On February 10, 2014, it was announced that Lita would be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame class of 2014. At the ceremony, she was inducted by her best friend and fellow wrestler Trish Stratus. The next night at WrestleMania XXX, she appeared during transmission while she was introduced as part of the 2014 Hall of Fame class. Lita served as a trainer on the sixth season of Tough Enough, alongside Booker T and Billy Gunn. She appeared on the July 13, 2015, episode of Raw to introduce the Tough Enough contestants. From October 2015 to July 2016, Dumas was a creative writer and backstage producer for the WWE on a full-time basis. During the WrestleMania 32 pre-show on April 3, 2016, Lita unveiled the new WWE Women's Championship belt, in addition to announcing the retirement of the WWE Divas Championship. Charlotte defeated Becky Lynch and Sasha Banks in a triple threat match later that night to win the title, becoming the first Women's Champion of the modern era. She was working as one of the pre-show hosts for Raw, SmackDown and pay-per-view events. By December 2016, Lita was no longer with the company. Lita appeared during the WrestleMania 33 pre-show on April 2, 2017. She was a color commentator for the Mae Young Classic, alongside Jim Ross. Royal Rumble and WWE Evolution (2018) On January 28, 2018, at Royal Rumble, Lita made a surprise entrance at number 5 during the first women's Royal Rumble match, in which she eliminated Mandy Rose and Tamina before being eliminated by Becky Lynch. On September 3, WWE announced that Lita would make her in-ring return against Mickie James at WWE Evolution, the first ever all women's pay–per–view, however through October, James and her then ally Alexa Bliss started a feud with her and Trish Stratus (whom was scheduled to wrestle Bliss at the same event). This eventually led to the announcement of a tag team match between the two duos at Evolution. Just three days before the event, on October 25, it was announced that Bliss was pulled off the match due to a concussion she suffered beforehand and she was replaced by Alicia Fox, who along with James, got involved in a backstage brawl with Lita and Trish. At the event on October 28, Lita and Trish defeated James and Fox after Stratus pinned James. The next night on Raw, in a 10-women tag team match, Lita, Trish, Natalya, Sasha Banks and Bayley defeated James, Fox and the Riott Squad. Royal Rumble Return and Elimination Chamber (2022-present) Four years later on the January 7, 2022, episode of SmackDown, Lita was announced to compete in the women's Royal Rumble match, then appeared the January 14, episode of SmackDown after 20 years. She had a confrontation with Smackdown Women’s Champion Charlotte Flair. She entered the 2022 Royal Rumble match at the number 26 spot and eliminated former rival Mickie James. Lita lasted a just over 10 minutes before being eliminated by Flair. Two days later on the January 31 episode of Raw, Lita challenged Raw Women's Champion Becky Lynch to a match at Elimination Chamber, where she lost at the event. KAYfABE (2020) In March 2020, Dumas, along with Christy Hemme and Gail Kim, announced "KAYfABE", a new wrestling show which was inspired by true events and was to blend scripted drama with pro wrestling. The production launched a crowd-funding campaign on Kickstarter to raise money for the pilot episode, however they were only able to raise $62,919.96 of the $400,000 goal. Following the failure of the campaign, the team cited the financial impacts of the global COVID-19 pandemic as a reason for the campaign's difficulties and assured fans that the show would secure funding elsewhere at a later date. Legacy Lita is cited as inspiration for several women, such as: AJ Lee, Bayley, Deonna Purrazzo, Melina Perez, Taryn Terrell, Maria Kanellis, Paige, Emma, Mickie James, Maryse, Naomi, Becky Lynch, Zelina Vega, Liv Morgan and many more. Lita was involved in the first three Raw main events featuring women. She won all three matches- the first on July 31, 2000, in Atlanta being a mixed tag match pairing her and The Rock against Trish Stratus and Triple H, the second against Stephanie McMahon on August 21, 2000, with The Rock as the special guest referee in which she captured her first Women's Championship, and the third against Trish Stratus on December 6, 2004, where she won her second Women's Championship. This was the first time women had main evented Raw where no men were involved in any capacity. In November 2003, she faced Victoria in the first ever women's steel cage match in WWE. WWE mentions Lita as "A Diva who always kept the WWE Universe on their toes. Whether she was flying high with The Hardy Boyz or shocking censors alongside Edge, the four-time Women's Champion knew how to elicit a reaction around the world." Her Women's Championship match against Trish Stratus on Unforgiven 2006 was ranked No. 3 by WWE in 2015 on the "10 greatest Divas Matches of all time" list. This match is also cited as one of the most unforgettable Divas matches along with her match against Mickie James at Survivor Series, and against Victoria in a cage match on Raw. Music career Dumas formed the band The Luchagors in mid-2006, and they debuted in September 2006 at a rock n' wrestling event called Rock -N- Shock at The Masquerade in Atlanta. Dumas wore a top emblazoned with the symbol of the band during her final match in WWE. The band released their self-titled debut CD, The Luchagors, on September 11, 2007. Dumas contributed vocals to the song "From The Shadows" (appearing on the track alongside Dez Cadena of Black Flag/Misfits) from Recognise, the debut album from UK band JD & the FDCs, which was released in July 2012. A video for the song was released in March 2013. Other media Lita was featured in the June 2001 video and DVD release Lita: It Just Feels Right. The video featured discussions of Lita's career to that point and showcased several of her matches. Dumas' autobiography, written with Michael Krugman, Lita: A Less Traveled R.O.A.D. – The Reality of Amy Dumas was released on September 16, 2003. The book covered topics such as her family, childhood years, wrestling career, relationship with Matt Hardy, and her neck surgery and subsequent rehabilitation. Lita is considered to be a sex symbol. Dumas also appeared on a variety of television shows including Dark Angel, Fear Factor, and The Weakest Link's "WWF Superstars Edition" in 2002. In 2004, she appeared on an episode of Headbangers Ball. Lita began hosting a radio show called Amy's Discordia in 2013. She is a playable character in WWF No Mercy, WWF SmackDown! 2: Know Your Role, WWF SmackDown! Just Bring It, WWF Raw, WWE WrestleMania X8, WWE SmackDown! Shut Your Mouth, WWE Crush Hour, WWE WrestleMania XIX, WWE Raw 2, WWE SmackDown! Here Comes The Pain, WWE WrestleMania 21, WWE SmackDown! vs. Raw 2006, WWE SmackDown vs. Raw 2007, WWE '13, WWE SuperCard, WWE 2K14, WWE 2K16 (as downloadable content), WWE 2K17, WWE 2K18, WWE 2K19 and WWE 2K20. Lita was interviewed and profiled for the 2016 Nine Legends movie. On May 9, 2018, Dumas debuted as the host of a series for the ASY TV web platform titled The UFO Sho where she visits UFO themed locations and examines the culture around them. On November 18, 2020, Lita made an appearance on a TV show along with Tatiana Suarez of the UFC on The Bachelorette. Personal life Dumas had breast augmentation surgery in late 1999.Amy Dumas. Lita: A Less Traveled R.O.A.D – The Reality of Amy Dumas, 124. Dumas is a known animal lover. In 2003, she founded the animal charity Amy Dumas Operation Rescue and Education (A.D.O.R.E.). Dumas' hair is naturally brunette, although she has dyed it red throughout her WWF/E career. She has a wide variety of tattoos: a three eyed green gargoyle on her upper right bicep, the word "Punk" on the inside of her lower lip, and the word "rebel" () written in Russian Cyrillic letters on her lower back neck, all of which she got in the 1990s. In 2007, she acquired a sleeve on her left arm, featuring Mexican skulls, one of which has the band 7 Seconds' logo on its forehead. She previously had two piercings in her tongue and another two in her nose. In 1999, Dumas began dating Matt Hardy.Ian Hamilton. Wrestling's Sinking Ship: What Happens to an Industry Without Competition, 150. They first met in January 1999 at a NWA Mid-Atlantic show, and began dating a few months later. In February 2005, it was revealed that Dumas had been romantically involved with fellow wrestler Adam Copeland for several months while still in a relationship with Hardy, who had been at home recovering from a knee injury.Ian Hamilton. Wrestling's Sinking Ship: What Happens to an Industry Without Competition, 152. Following a public revelation of the affair, Matt Hardy was released by WWE. Hardy was rehired several months later and the real-life situation was translated into a storyline. Dumas dated fellow band member Shane Morton from 2006 to 2008. Dumas also dated CM Punk from 2009 to 2010, and then again from late 2012 to September 2013. After retiring from wrestling, in 2009 Dumas bought a house in Nicaragua and splits her time between her home in Atlanta and her house in Nicaragua, where she enjoys surfing. Dumas was arrested on December 9, 2011, in Columbia County, Georgia for speeding and driving with a suspended license. After one night in jail, Dumas was released on a bail bond posted at $2,200. Dumas is a vegan. Championships and accomplishments American Chronicles Female of the Year (2006) Pro Wrestling Illustrated Feud of the Year (2005) Woman of the Year (2001) Pro Wrestling Report Diva of the Year (2006) World Wrestling Federation/World Wrestling Entertainment/WWE WWE Women's Championship (4 times) WWE Women's Championship Tournament (2006) WWE Hall of Fame (Class of 2014) Wrestling Observer Newsletter''' Worst Feud of the Year (2004) In May 2013, Diva Dirt held a WWE Diva of the Decade tournament for voters to determine the best WWE Diva from 2003 to 2013. Lita was the winner of the competition bracket of 16 WWE Divas. In August 2020, Digital Spy'' held a World Cup tournament to discover the greatest female WWE wrestler of all time. Lita was declared the winner from a list of 32 female wrestlers. See also Women in WWE Women's professional wrestling References Bibliography External links 1975 births American women heavy metal singers American female judoka American female professional wrestlers American heavy metal singers American punk rock singers Women punk rock singers Georgia State University alumni Living people People from Sanford, North Carolina Professional wrestling announcers Professional wrestling managers and valets Sportspeople from Atlanta Sportspeople from Fort Lauderdale, Florida WWE Hall of Fame inductees WWF/WWE Women's Champions 21st-century American singers 21st-century American women singers	[ -0.2714616358280182, -0.643488347530365, -0.4553319215774536, -0.27957260608673096, -0.5906392931938171, 0.4864763915538788, 0.7932345271110535, -0.11917844414710999, -0.24130985140800476, 0.30085453391075134, 0.3249923288822174, -0.07725947350263596, 0.07181800156831741, 0.18948349356651306, -0.07945988327264786, 0.11521291732788086, -0.4082960784435272, 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240732	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike%20price	Strike price	In finance, the strike price (or exercise price) of an option is a fixed price at which the owner of the option can buy (in the case of a call), or sell (in the case of a put), the underlying security or commodity. The strike price may be set by reference to the spot price, which is the market price of the underlying security or commodity on the day an option is taken out. Alternatively, the strike price may be fixed at a discount or premium. The strike price is a key variable in a derivatives contract between two parties. Where the contract requires delivery of the underlying instrument, the trade will be at the strike price, regardless of the market price of the underlying instrument at that time. Moneyness Moneyness is the value of a financial contract if the contract settlement is financial. More specifically, it is the difference between the strike price of the option and the current trading price of its underlying security. In options trading, terms such as in-the-money, at-the-money and out-of-the-money describe the moneyness of options. A call option is in-the-money if the strike price is below the market price of the underlying stock. A put option is in-the-money if the strike price is above the market price of the underlying stock. A call or put option is at-the-money if the stock price and the exercise price are the same (or close). A call option is out-of-the-money if the strike price is above the market price of the underlying stock. A put option is out-of-the-money if the strike price is below the market price of the underlying stock. Mathematical formula A call option has positive monetary value at expiration when the underlying has a spot price (S) above the strike price (K). Since the option will not be exercised unless it is in-the-money, the payoff for a call option is also written as where A put option has positive monetary value at expiration when the underlying has a spot price below the strike price; it is "out-the-money" otherwise, and will not be exercised. The payoff is therefore: or For a digital option payoff is , where is the indicator function: See also Option time value Intrinsic value Option screener References Options (finance) Derivatives (finance) sv:Derivatinstrument#Terminologi inom derivathandel	[ 0.016426391899585724, -0.5366311073303223, 0.009572125039994717, -0.1248931810259819, 0.3286227285861969, 0.23690886795520782, -0.6359074115753174, 0.258801132440567, -0.035867854952812195, -0.3173154592514038, -0.4398941695690155, 1.314752221107483, -0.09697387367486954, 0.41506433486938477, -0.04909839853644371, 0.5932598114013672, 0.3739710748195648, -0.1622958928346634, -0.12246639281511307, -0.26336953043937683, -0.6605693697929382, 0.20730140805244446, 0.05303462594747543, -0.7386255264282227, 0.484445184469223, -0.3750053942203522, 0.09385523200035095, 0.26689592003822327, -0.3237450122833252, 0.5141404867172241, -0.07586262375116348, 0.5309803485870361, -0.29913559556007385, 0.19590316712856293, 0.1390533149242401, 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240733	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tic%20Tac	Tic Tac	Tic Tac (stylized as "tic tac") is a brand of small, hard mint manufactured by the Italian company Ferrero. They were first produced in 1969 and are now available in a variety of flavours in over 100 countries. Tic Tacs are usually sold in small transparent plastic boxes with a flip-action living hinge lid. Originally, Tic Tacs were dyed specific colours for different flavours, although in many countries the transparent plastic boxes are now coloured and the actual Tic Tacs are white. Tic Tac has featured advertising that emphasizes the low calorie count of the mints. Most flavours have approximately 1.9 calories per mint. History Tic Tac were first introduced by Ferrero in 1969, under the name "Refreshing Mints". In 1970, the name was changed to Tic Tac, after the distinctive clicking sound made by the pack being opened and closed. Besides the original mint and orange flavours, several new varieties were added, including aniseed, cinnamon (or "Winter Warmer"), an orange and lime mix (in 1976), spearmint, peppermint, Powermint, sour apple, mandarin, tangerine, berry, fresh orange, strawberry, wintergreen, pink grapefruit, orange and lime together (in 1978), cherry, passionfruit (in 2007), pomegranate (in 2010), mango, lime, and popcorn (2014). The grape flavour was eliminated in 1976 because of health concerns about the red dye amaranth (FD&C Red #2), a suspected carcinogen. Other offerings have included holiday gift packs for Christmas, Easter, St Patricks Day and Valentine's Day. Since 1980, the Tic Tac slogan has been "The 1½ Calorie Breath Mint." In the UK, France, Ireland, Italy and Australia Tic Tacs are noted as being less than two calories with the slogan "Two hours of Tic Tac freshness in less than two calories." In Canada, New Zealand and Australia, and used once in the United States, the Tic Tac slogan is "it's not just a mint, it's a tic tac." In India, the Tic Tac slogan is "Refreshment to be shared." During the 1990s, "double packs" were introduced, featuring a regular Tic Tac container with two flavours inside. Available combinations included Tangerine and Lime, Orange and Grape, and Berry and Cherry. In 2006, Tic Tac introduced a "Bold" edition with more intense flavours of Mint and Fruit. In 2008, Tic Tac introduced Tic Tac Chill, which is slightly larger than ordinary Tic Tacs and comes in a dual-opening packaging, using the traditional living hinge or a sliding opening on the front of the case. These come in three flavours: Exotic Cherry, Berry Blast, and Paradise Mint. Tic Tac Chill mints are also sugar-free, the Exotic Cherry ones instead being sweetened with xylitol. May 2010 Australia Trademark Registrar's office rejected Ferrero application to trademark their Tic Tac container as not being unique enough to distinguish its products from other manufacturers. Orange, Mint, Spearmint, Mintensity, Peach and Passion, Strawberry Mix, Cherry, Elaichi (cardamom) and Banana are available in India. Tic Tac sometimes provides limited editions to promote films, such as a banana and mandarin flavour for the 2015 movie Minions. Orange Tic Tacs featured prominently in the 2007 film Juno, in an orange box with white colour mints as sold in Canada and Brazil. Film promoters distributed boxes of the mints prior to the film's release. Manufacturing Forty-five percent of the world's Tic Tacs are manufactured at the Ferrero factory in Cork, Ireland. Tic Tacs are also manufactured in Australia, Canada, India and Ecuador. Nutrition facts For Fresh mint (Europe/US/Canada); Peppermint (Australia) Nutritional information Per 100 g – Energy 1663 kJ (391 kcal), Protein 0.1 g, Carbohydrate 97.5 g, Fat 0.4 g. Per Tic Tac – Energy 8 kJ (2 kcal), Protein 0 g, Carbohydrate 0.5 g, Fat 0 g. Ingredients Sugar, fructose, maltodextrin, peppermint essential oil, rice starch, gum arabic, filling agent (magnesium salts of fatty acids), glazing agent (carnauba wax). Each pack weighs and contains about 38 Tic Tacs. New packs in Australia and Canada weigh 24g and contain 50 Tic Tacs, and the Tic Tac "100 pack" weighs 49g and contains 100 Tic Tacs. The "Big Pack" weighs 29g and contains 60 Tic Tacs. The "Bottle Pack" weighs 98g and contains 200 Tic Tacs. In the United States, Tic Tac list the sugar content as 0g despite the mints being approximately 90% sugar (depending on the flavour). This stems from the fact that a serving size is one 0.49g mint, and the American Food and Drug Administration permits manufacturers to list sugar (or other nutritional components) as 0g if they contain less than 0.5g. In at least some jurisdictions, the 0g now features a footnote that clarifies "less than 0.5g". See also Smint Certs Mentos Altoids Ipso (candy) Breath Savers References External links Brand name confectionery Breath mints Ferrero SpA brands Italian brands Products introduced in 1969	[ 0.35798072814941406, 0.08656340837478638, 0.03837554156780243, 0.19416284561157227, 0.38162165880203247, 0.22312498092651367, -0.3542555272579193, 0.9421616196632385, 0.1879989206790924, 0.4835732877254486, -0.120092011988163, 0.4080200493335724, -0.146004781126976, 0.38419249653816223, -0.2507005035877228, -0.23671689629554749, 0.6936891674995422, 0.3888551592826843, 0.23899662494659424, -0.3407347798347473, 0.0880269929766655, -0.0850222036242485, 0.32387080788612366, -0.31263017654418945, 0.15812425315380096, 0.6104727983474731, 0.08652510493993759, 0.12270962446928024, -0.20113535225391388, 0.38848260045051575, 0.23147618770599365, 0.49876537919044495, 0.4892468750476837, -0.5727383494377136, -0.07782682031393051, 0.2631746828556061, -0.09206389635801315, 0.04211526736617088, 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240736	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald%20Graham%20%28disambiguation%29	Ronald Graham (disambiguation)	Ronald Graham (1935–2020) was an American mathematician. Ronald or Ron Graham may also refer to: Ronald William Graham (1870–1949), British diplomat Ronald Graham (RAF officer) (1896–1967), RAF Air Vice-Marshal Ronny Graham (1919–1999), American actor Ronald Graham (actor) (1911–1950), Scottish actor active in the United States Ron Graham (actor) (1926–2020), Australian actor Ron Graham (author), Canadian author and journalist See also Ranald Graham (1941–2010), Scottish writer Ron Grahame (born 1950), Canadian ice hockey player	[ -0.46795758605003357, 0.3745889663696289, -0.37264829874038696, 0.011953212320804596, -0.5111716985702515, 0.27949127554893494, 0.4296824634075165, -0.2568260431289673, -0.3032219707965851, 0.2369466871023178, 0.08771166205406189, -0.13241161406040192, -0.12936407327651978, 0.4912893772125244, 0.3080195486545563, 0.36450451612472534, -0.08672434091567993, -0.23229189217090607, -0.37503015995025635, -0.14394161105155945, 0.0040478212758898735, -0.285302072763443, -0.03429197892546654, -0.2316538691520691, 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240739	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riddick%20Bowe	Riddick Bowe	Riddick Lamont Bowe (born August 10, 1967) is an American former professional boxer who competed between 1989 and 2008. He reigned as the undisputed world heavyweight champion in 1992, and as an amateur he won a silver medal in the super heavyweight division at the 1988 Summer Olympics. After turning professional in 1989, Bowe went on to become a two-time world heavyweight champion. In 1992 he won the undisputed WBA, WBC and IBF titles by defeating then-unbeaten former undisputed heavyweight champion Evander Holyfield. That same year, Bowe was named Fighter of the Year by The Ring and the Boxing Writers' Association of America. Bowe vacated the WBC title later that year in protest, instead of defending the title against their number one contender, Lennox Lewis. This left the undisputed championship fragmented until 1999. In a rematch with Holyfield in 1993, Bowe narrowly lost the WBA and IBF titles in what would be his only professional defeat. He later regained a portion of the world heavyweight championship in 1995, defeating Herbie Hide for the WBO title. In doing so, Bowe became the first boxer in history to win the titles of all four major sanctioning bodies: the WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO. Later that year, Bowe vacated the WBO title in order to fight Holyfield for a third time, and won decisively by being the first boxer to defeat Holyfield by knockout. 1996 saw Bowe engage in two brutal slugfests with Andrew Golota, both of which ended controversially when Golota repeatedly hit him with low blows. Bowe retired from boxing after the Golota fights, making low-key comebacks in 2004 and 2008. In a 2010 article by BoxingScene, Bowe was ranked the 21st greatest heavyweight of all time. In 2015, he was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame. Early years Bowe was born on August 10, 1967, the twelfth of his mother Dorothy Bowe's thirteen children. Bowe was born and raised in the East New York section of Brooklyn, New York City. His brother Henry died of AIDS, and his sister Brenda was stabbed to death by a drug addict during an attempted robbery. Bowe was in the same elementary school sixth-grade class with Mike Tyson. "We went to school together the sixth grade in P.S. 396 (in Brownsville.) I really didn't know him," Bowe recalled. Amateur boxing career Bowe was training at the Bedford-Stuyvesant Boxing Association Gym or the "Bed-Stuy BA" for short. As an amateur, Bowe won the prestigious New York Golden Gloves Championship and other tournaments. In 1984, age 17, he knocked out opponent James Smith in just 4 seconds. In 1985, at the National Golden Gloves championships, he lost to Fort Worth heavyweight Donald Stephens. Apart of boxing he attended Kingsborough Community College, where he studied drama — in hopes of an acting career after boxing — also he took up a business administration study. His friends called him "Don King" because of his hairstyle. Bowe said he was emulating Mark Breland, "I got a majority of my experience with Mark, I'm inspired by what he's accomplished. It makes it possible for me to do the same," said Bowe in an interview. New York Golden Gloves Championships Bowe won four New York Golden Gloves Championships. He won two bouts as a 178-pounder in 1984 before failing to show for a third bout. He won the 1985 178 lb Novice Championship, 1986 178 lb Open Championship and the 1987 and 1988 Super Heavyweight Open Championship. Already in 1985 Bowe was ranked #1 light heavyweight in the United States. 1986 Goodwill Games He was a light heavyweight runner-up for the 1986 World Championships and 1986 Goodwill Games but for some reason didn't qualify. Meanwhile, during the year-and-a-half hiatus he gained well above thirty pounds and jumped from light heavyweight to super heavyweight, coming back for the 1987 United States Olympic Festival. 1987 Pan Am Prior to 1987 Pan American Games, Bowe said he had suffered a hairline fracture in his right hand during one of his two fights at the Olympic Festival in July 1987. The injury, he said, was revealed in X-rays he had taken at home. Roosevelt Sanders, the head coach, said he was aware that Bowe's hand was being treated, but had not known it was broken. Bowe said he kept those injuries secret from the U.S. team coaching staff for fear of being kept out of the tournament. Olympic qualifiers At first, Bowe was dismissed from the Olympic-year training camp, because U.S. Olympic boxing Coach Ken Adams didn't like him. U.S. Army superheavyweight Robert Salters, a Brooklyn-born 25-year-old artilleryman of Fort Bragg, NC, who took up boxing in 1986, and had less than twenty amateur fights in his 16-months-long record before they first met at the 1988 AAU National finals, where Salters floored Bowe twice before ref stopped the fight, became a real nemesis for Bowe during his amateur career, as they fought each other to nearly a draw in the 1988 Olympic Box-offs at Caesars Palace, after Bowe lost to Salters in the Olympic Trials (Bowe came in at 231 lbs, Salters at 247.). "He was talkin' trash about me, and that helped me mentally," Salters said. Bowe had been boxing reportedly with ligament damage on the middle knuckle of his right hand, which he got the day before the Box-offs, and with a damaged right ankle, eventually managed to win, for the judges had to pick up a winner despite the even 58–58 score. The fifth unidentified judge, who scored the bout 58–58, gave it to Bowe on unidentified subjective grounds. Despite giving Bowe a hard time on four occasions in a row, Salters never turned pro. 1988 Olympics Bowe won the silver medal in the 1988 Seoul Olympics, outpointing Soviet Alex Miroshnichenko in the semifinals, and losing a controversial match in the finals to future world heavyweight champion Lennox Lewis. Bowe had a dominant first round, landing 33 of 94 punches thrown (34%) while Lewis landed 14 of 67 (21%). In the first round the referee from East Germany gave Bowe two cautions for headbutts and deducted a point for a third headbutt, although replay clearly showed there was no headbutt. Commentator Ferdie Pacheco disagreed with the deduction, saying they did not hit heads. In the second round, Lewis landed several hard punches. The referee gave Bowe two standing eight counts and waved the fight off after the second one, even though Bowe seemed able to continue. Pacheco disagreed with the stoppage, calling it "very strange," but Marv Albert said Bowe took "a pounding." Highlights United States Junior Championships (middleweight), 1983: Lost to Adolpho Washington RSC 2 New York Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), New York City, February 1984: 1/16: Defeated Richard Newton RSC 1 1/8: Defeated Hezekiah Salone 1/4: Lost to ? by walkover New York Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), Elks Club, Queens, New York, and Madison Square Garden, New York City, February 1985: 1/4: Defeated Alonzo Knowles KO 1 1/2: Defeated Jose Guzman KO 3 Finals: Defeated Alfred Walcott KO 1 New York State Golden Gloves, novice division (light heavyweight), Madison Square Garden, New York City, March 1985: 1/2: Defeated Gil Walden KO 1 Finals: Defeated n/a National Golden Gloves (light heavyweight), Little Rock, Arkansas, March 1985: 1/16: Defeated Keith Sudduth KO 1/8: Defeated Odell Jones by decision 1/4: Defeated Cornell Harris RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Gregory Everett RSC 3 Finals: Lost to Donald Stephens by split decision, 2–3 Junior World box-offs (light heavyweight), El Paso Civic Center, El Paso, Texas, August 1985: Defeated Razz Chapin KO 1 Junior World Championships (light heavyweight), Bucharest, Romania, September 1985: 1/4: Defeated Mikhail Sadovsky (Soviet Union) RSC 1 1/2: Defeated Damian Vasile (Romania) RSC 1 Finals: Defeated Péter Hart (Hungary) RSC 1 World Cup (light heavyweight), Seoul, South Korea, November 1985: 1/4: Lost to Nurmagomed Shanavazov (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 0–5 U.S. Olympic Festival Eastern Qualifier (super heavyweight), Lake Placid, New York, May 1987: 1/4: Defeated Bryant Farris RSCH 1 1/2: Defeated Mark Anthony by walkover Finals: Defeated George Kilbert Pierce by unanimous decision, 5–0 U.S. Olympic Festival (super heavyweight), Raleigh, North Carolina, July 1987: 1/2: Defeated Nathaniel Fitch RSC 2 Finals: Defeated Kevin Ford RSC 3 Pan Am Box-offs (super heavyweight), International Center of the Broadmoor, Colorado Springs, Colorado, July 1987: Defeated Carlton Hollis Pan American Games (super heavyweight), Indianapolis, Indiana, August 1987: 1/2: Lost to Jorge Luis González (Cuba) by split decision, 2–3 USSR−USA Duals (super heavyweight), Moscow, Soviet Union, 1988: Lost to Alex Miroshnichenko (Soviet Union) by decision United States National Championships (heavyweight), Colorado Springs, Colorado, March–April 1988: 1/16: Defeated James Ernst RSCH 1 1/8: Defeated Tevin George RSCH 2 1/4: Defeated Kevin Ford 1/2: Lost to Robert Salters RSCH 2 Olympic Trials (super heavyweight), Concord Pavilion, Concord, California, July 1988: 1/4: Defeated Nathaniel Fitch by unanimous decision, 5–0 1/2: Defeated Louis Savarese DQ 2 Finals: Lost to Robert Salters by majority decision, 1–4 Olympic Box-offs (super heavyweight), Caesars Palace, Las Vegas, Nevada, July 1988: Day 1: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2 Day 2: Defeated Robert Salters by split decision, 3–2 Summer Olympics (super heavyweight), Seoul, South Korea, September–October 1988: 1/8: Defeated Biko Botowamungu (Austria) KO 2 1/4: Defeated Peter Hrivnák (Czechoslovakia) RSCH 1 1/2: Defeated Alex Miroshnichenko (Soviet Union) by unanimous decision, 5–0 Finals: Lost to Lennox Lewis (Canada) RSC 2 Bowe finished his amateur career with a record of 104 wins, 18 losses. Professional boxing career Bowe turned professional after his Olympic loss. Highly regarded trainer Eddie Futch took on the job of developing Bowe, as he saw the talent. Eddie would say that Bowe had more potential than any boxer he had ever trained. Bowe turned professional in March 1989 and knocked out Lionel Butler. His then manager, Rock Newman, kept Bowe active, fighting 13 times in 1989, beating journeymen — the most notable being Garing Lane, whom he beat twice. In September 1990, Bowe made his first step up in class, fighting faded ex-champion Pinklon Thomas, whom he dominated until Thomas gave up after eight rounds. The following month, Bowe knocked out Bert Cooper in two rounds, which added to his reputation and high ranking. In March 1991, Bowe knocked out 1984 Olympic Super Heavyweight Gold medalist Tyrell Biggs. In Bowe's next fight, ex-champion Tony Tubbs appeared to outbox and outsmart Bowe in a close bout, only to have the judges award Bowe a unanimous decision. In August 1991, Bowe knocked out future world heavyweight champion Bruce Seldon in one round. In July 1992, he knocked out South African Pierre Coetzer in the seventh round of a world title eliminator. Fights against Elijah Tillery Bowe fought two interesting bouts against Elijah Tillery in 1991. Their first fight was in Washington D.C. at the Washington Convention Center was known as the 'crazy fight' for its bizarre conclusion. Bowe dominated the first round and dropped Tillery. After the round ended, Tillery walked toward Bowe and taunted him, and Bowe responded by punching Tillery. Tillery then threw several low kicks at Bowe, who then unleashed a flurry of punches on Tillery as he lay on the ropes. Bowe's trainer Rock Newman grabbed Tillery from behind on the ring apron and pulled him over the ropes as Bowe continued to throw punches. Tillery somersaulted over the ropes, and was quickly detained by security. After order was restored and the fighters returned to the ring, Tillery and Bowe continued a war of words, and minor incidents continued until the ring was cleared. Tillery was controversially disqualified for kicking Bowe, with Bowe getting the win, much to the surprise of the television announcers. The referee, Karl Milligan, had stepped between the two fighters to separate them and stepped forward as he did so, inadvertently missing the action behind him after the bell between the combatants. The fighters fought a rematch two months later at Convention Hall in Atlantic City, with Bowe dominating and stopping Tillery in four rounds. World heavyweight champion In November 1992 he fought reigning champ Evander Holyfield for the undisputed heavyweight title. Bowe won a unanimous decision in an entertaining fight, flooring Holyfield in the 11th round. However, it was the tenth round most boxing fans will remember. The epic brutal back and forth exchanges helped make it Ring Magazine's "Round of the Year." Commentator Al Bernstein exclaimed, "That was one of the greatest rounds in heavyweight history. Period!" A couple of weeks earlier in London, Bowe's old Olympic rival, Lennox Lewis, knocked out Canadian Donovan "Razor" Ruddock in two rounds, establishing himself as the World Boxing Council's number one contender. The Bowe-Holyfield and Lewis-Ruddock fights were part of a mini-tournament, whereby all four fighters agreed the two winners would meet each other for the undisputed world heavyweight championship. Bowe's manager Rock Newman made a proposal: the $32 million purse HBO was offering should be split 90–10 in Bowe's favor, an 'absurd' offer which Lennox Lewis rejected. Lewis's manager, Kelley Maloney (known as Frank Maloney at the time), rejected another offer of two million for Lewis to fight on a Bowe undercard, citing his distrust of the Bowe camp after the aforementioned financial negotiations. Bowe responded by holding a press conference in which he dumped the WBC world heavyweight championship belt into a trash can and relinquished it in order to protest the actions of the WBC and WBC President José Sulaimán concerning the fight payoff. Bowe's first defense of his remaining titles came on February 6, 1993, when he fought 34-year-old former champion Michael Dokes at Madison Square Garden and knocked him out in the first round. In February 1993, Bowe met Pope John Paul II during the pope's general audience at the Vatican, a day after Bowe completed a goodwill mission to Somalia. In Bowe's next fight, May 22, 1993 at RFK Stadium in Washington, D.C., Bowe knocked out Jesse Ferguson in the second round to retain the title. This set up a rematch with Evander Holyfield. In the rematch with Holyfield, Bowe looked overweight. He had entered training camp at a 266 lbs and weighed in at 246 lbs, eleven pounds heavier than in the first fight with Holyfield. Bowe and Holyfield exchanged hard punches. Bowe ended up losing the belts to Holyfield by a majority decision. This fight was also known for a bizarre stunt in which parachutist James "Fan Man" Miller dropped into the open air arena, landing in the ropes by Bowe's corner. This surreal scene delayed the fight in the seventh round by nearly a half-hour. Bowe stated afterwards he thought the bout should have declared a 'technical draw' or a 'no contest' owing to the unfair delay. After title loss In August 1994, Bowe fought two comeback fights. He faced the much smaller Buster Mathis Jr and, after struggling to connect with his bobbing and weaving target, hit Mathis while he was down with what was ruled an accidental blow, and the bout was ruled a 'No Contest' by referee Arthur Mercante, Sr. In December 1994, Bowe punched Larry Donald at a prefight press conference, later beating him by 12 round unanimous decision for the WBC Continental Americas Heavyweight title, giving the 16-0 heavyweight contender Donald his first loss. WBO heavyweight champion and Holyfield rubber match In March 1995, Bowe won the WBO version of the world heavyweight championship by knocking down England's Herbie Hide six times en route to scoring a sixth-round knockout. In June 1995, after a heated build up, Bowe defended the WBO heavyweight title against his archrival in the amateurs, Jorge Luis González, At the MGM Grand in Las Vegas. The prefight hype contained bizarre trash talk, which included Gonzalez declaring a desire to eat Bowe's heart and likening himself to a lion while making Bowe out to be a hyena. Bowe won by sixth-round knockout over Gonzalez. He vacated the WBO championship soon after. After the Gonzales fight, Bowe fought a rubber match with Evander Holyfield, their third and final meeting. Holyfield knocked Bowe down during the fight, but Bowe maintained his composure, and persevered to score an eighth round stoppage victory. Bowe vs. Golota I and II After defeating Holyfield in the third bout of their trilogy, Bowe was matched against undefeated heavyweight contender Andrew Golota at the Madison Square Garden in an HBO Boxing event. Bowe's weight problem again resurfaced, as the favorite entered the ring at a career high of 252 lbs. Though ahead on points, Golota was penalized several times for low blows, and was finally disqualified in the seventh round after a volley of punches to Bowe's testicles. Seconds after Golota was disqualified, Bowe's entourage rushed the ring, attacked Golota with a two way radio (Golota traded punches with one of them, requiring 11 stitches to close the wound caused by the radio) and assaulted Golota's 74-year-old trainer Lou Duva, who collapsed in the ring and was taken out of The Garden on a stretcher. The entourage began rioting, fighting with spectators, staff and policemen alike, resulting in a number of injuries before they were forced out of the arena in what evolved into a lengthy televised ring spectacle. The fight made many sports shows, including SportsCenter, and there was a good amount of public interest in a rematch. The rematch was on Pay Per View. Golota, after dropping Bowe in the second round, and being dropped himself later, was leading on the scorecards, only to be disqualified in the ninth round, once again for repeated shots to the testicles. Despite not having another riot, this fight also proved to be controversial, with an unsuccessful protest filed by Golota's camp to try to overturn the fight's result. This fight was featured on HBO's documentary Legendary Nights: The Tale of Bowe-Golota. Return to boxing On September 25, 2004, after seven and a half years away from boxing, Bowe returned with a second-round knockout over Marcus Rhode. In a second comeback fight, in April 2005, an overweight Bowe narrowly defeated journeyman Billy Zumbrun by ten round split decision. Bowe declared bankruptcy in 2005. On December 13, 2008, with the help of new manager Bob Bain, Bowe, 41, returned to the ring for the first time in over three and a half years on the undercard of the Wladimir Klitschko versus Hasim Rahman world heavyweight title bout in Mannheim, Germany and won an eight-round unanimous decision over Gene Pukall. Legacy and reputation Riddick Bowe's boxing record stands at 43 wins and 1 loss, with 33 knockouts. In the autobiography of veteran former referee Mills Lane, Let's Get It On, who had officiated at some of Bowe's fights, he professed that Bowe could have been one of boxing's greatest boxers but foolishly squandered the opportunity through immaturity and lack of discipline. Bowe's fighting weight during his career ranged from . His prime fighting weight was . It was within this weight span that Bowe achieved all of his most notable victories. BoxRec ranks Bowe as the 32nd best heavyweight of all time. Noted for his in-fighting skills, jab and combination punching, Bowe's first fight with Evander Holyfield is considered one of the greatest world heavyweight title fights of all time. Following this victory, he met Nelson Mandela during a visit to South Africa. Bowe's trainer at the time, Eddie Futch, lamented that upon his return, Bowe failed to ever achieve the same physical condition for his subsequent fights. Yet, as late as 1995 and past his peak, Bowe was good enough to become the first man to stop Evander Holyfield, outclass former amateur standout and undefeated pro, Jorge Luis González, and bludgeon over-matched Herbie Hide to win the then lightly-regarded WBO version of the world heavyweight championship. In 2017, The Ring magazine ranked Bowe as the 19th best heavyweight of all time in a poll of a panel of 30 trainers, matchmakers and members of the boxing media. The consensus was that Bowe, described as both a "super talent" and a "super waste", only had one great fight, when winning the title from Holyfield, and ultimately disappointed in squandering his obvious natural ability due to laziness. Bowe's reputation suffered because of the weak challengers he faced as champion (Michael Dokes and Jesse Ferguson) before losing the title to Holyfield in their rematch. He is also widely criticized for relinquishing the WBC title rather than defending it against mandatory challenger Lennox Lewis, thus fracturing the undisputed championship until Lewis unified the titles in 1999.{cn} Bowe is the first boxer in any division to hold all four major versions of the world championship (WBA, WBC, IBF, and WBO) during his career, an accomplishment emulated in the heavyweight division only by Tyson Fury. This achievement has also been followed in other weight classes: Bernard Hopkins (middleweight), Jermain Taylor (middleweight), Winky Wright (light middleweight), Joe Calzaghe (super middleweight), Floyd Mayweather Jr. (welterweight), Terence Crawford (light welterweight), Cecilia Brækhus (welterweight), Katie Taylor (lightweight), Oleksandr Usyk (cruiserweight), Claressa Shields (middleweight, light middleweight) and Josh Taylor (light welterweight). Only Hopkins, Taylor, Crawford, Brækhus, Shields, Usyk, and Taylor held all four titles simultaneously. Bowe's sole loss, to Evander Holyfield in 1993, was avenged in 1995, meaning that he finished their trilogy 2-1 ahead. With the exception of a 1994 no-contest with Buster Mathis Jr., Bowe defeated every opponent he faced as a professional. Alongside Gene Tunney, Rocky Marciano, Sultan Ibragimov and Nikolai Valuev, Bowe is one of five former heavyweight champions to have never suffered a stoppage defeat during his career. Professional kickboxing career In March 2013, Bowe announced his Muay Thai debut, having trained under Kru Airr Phanthip and Kru Chan in Las Vegas. He faced Levgen Golovin for the WPMF Super Heavyweight World Title in Pattaya, Thailand. On June 14, 2013, Bowe was knocked down five times from kicks to his leg. The championship match was called to a stop halfway through the second round. Life outside of boxing Joining the Marine Corps After the Golota fights, Bowe retired from boxing and decided to join the United States Marine Corps Reserve. He said he made the decision both to make his mother proud and to rededicate himself to training, with the intention of returning to boxing shortly after. Bowe arrived at Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island on February 10, 1997. On his first day of recruit training, Bowe discussed leaving the Corps with Marine commanders, and quit after three days of heavy physical training with his platoon in Parris Island, South Carolina on February 21, 1997. Humanitarian Activities Shortly after winning his first title against Evander Holyfield, Bowe saw a news story on television that revealed a million dollars worth of medicines donated to the Somali refugees and orphans were not able to be transported to the war-torn region due to a lack of funds to pay for the charter aircraft needed. Bowe immediately had his representatives contact AmeriCares, the NGO leading the effort, and pledged the 100,000 dollars needed to fund the trip - on the condition he could go to the country with the goods, and make sure they got to their intended recipients. While in Somalia, he visited U.S. Marines and an orphanage on the Kenyan border. He was accompanied by several members of his management team, including manager Rock Newman and Head of International Sales Alexis Denny (CEO of an independent media distributor). Bowe also took action when he heard news of other tragedies. In 1995, when Alexis Denny was in Indonesia on other business, she read Asian news coverage of Rodolfo Yap, a young man in the Philippines who was electrocuted while positioning his antenna so his family could watch a Riddick Bowe fight. She relayed this news to Bowe, and explained to the media at the time 'The heavyweight champion was very moved by the story and having lost a brother and a sister earlier in life, decided to make a financial contribution to the family of Mr. Yap." Bowe authorized her to fly to the Philippines and try to locate the man's family, make a contribution to their expenses, and also provide funds to support the Philippine boxing Team training for the Olympics (in the name of the deceased). Prison Bowe was convicted of the February 1998 kidnapping of his estranged wife Judy, and their five children. Thinking it would reconcile his marriage, Bowe went to his wife's Cornelius, North Carolina home and threatened her with a knife, handcuffs, duct tape, and pepper spray. He forced her and their children into a vehicle and set out for his Fort Washington, Maryland home. During the kidnapping, Bowe stabbed his wife in the chest. Police captured Bowe in South Hill, Virginia, freeing his family. Bowe agreed to a plea bargain of guilty to "interstate domestic violence", and was sentenced to 18 to 24 months in prison. Despite the agreed sentence, on February 29, 2000, the judge sentenced Bowe to only 30 days, due to a claim of brain damage by Bowe's defense. This sentence, counter to the plea agreement, was later overturned. Bowe served 17 months in Federal prison. On February 8, 2001, Bowe was arrested in Long Island after a domestic dispute with his new wife. Bowe allegedly dragged his wife and left her with cuts on her knees and elbows. Attempted professional wrestling debut In 2013, Riddick Bowe announced his intentions to start training to be a professional wrestler. He was to make his debut for the UK-based Preston City Wrestling organisation on March 1, 2014. On December 14, 2013, Preston City Wrestling announced on their Facebook Page that Bowe would no longer be appearing due to a disagreement with Bowe's new agent. In popular culture In 1993, a video game entitled Riddick Bowe Boxing was released for various platforms. Also that year, Bowe appeared in an episode of The Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, entitled "You Bet Your Life", as a bully named "Bo". In 1997, Bowe appeared in the music video “Mo Money Mo Problems” by The Notorious B.I.G. Professional boxing record Muay Thai record \|- style="background:#fbb;" \| 2013-06-14 \|\| Loss \|\| align=left \| Yevgeniy Golovin \|\| WPMF Super Heavyweight Title \|\| Pattaya, Thailand \|\| TKO (right low kick) \|\| 2 \|\| N/A \|\| 0–1 \|- \| colspan=9 \| Legend: See also List of undisputed boxing champions List of heavyweight boxing champions List of WBA world champions List of WBC world champions List of IBF world champions List of WBO world champions Notes References External links CBZ Profile Boxing Hall of Fame Sports-Reference -- Olympics 1967 births Living people Sportspeople from Brooklyn African-American boxers Boxers from New York City American male kickboxers Heavyweight kickboxers Kickboxers from New York (state) International Boxing Federation champions World Boxing Association champions World Boxing Council champions World Boxing Organization champions World heavyweight boxing champions Pan American Games bronze medalists for the United States Olympic silver medalists for the United States in boxing Olympic boxers of the United States Boxers at the 1987 Pan American Games Boxers at the 1988 Summer Olympics American male boxers American sportspeople convicted of crimes American people convicted of kidnapping Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics Pan American Games medalists in boxing People from Brownsville, Brooklyn Medalists at the 1987 Pan American Games United States Marine Corps reservists 21st-century African-American people 20th-century African-American sportspeople	[ -0.34187090396881104, 0.019345931708812714, -0.6085690259933472, -0.15648603439331055, -0.07802689075469971, 0.3200139105319977, 0.7953153252601624, -0.1627565622329712, -0.4747716784477234, 0.14815285801887512, 0.4806317389011383, 0.4767243564128876, -0.43043792247772217, -0.2997644543647766, 0.3302287459373474, 0.051983512938022614, 0.09132730960845947, -0.23096585273742676, 0.3472117781639099, 0.24646596610546112, -0.06128145754337311, -0.4249185025691986, 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240740	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absurdist	Absurdist	Absurdist may refer to: Absurdism Absurdist fiction Absurdist humour, a synonym of surreal humour	[ 0.6872547268867493, 0.053761523216962814, -0.6895418167114258, 0.04233352094888687, -0.430836021900177, 0.13647955656051636, 0.3823866844177246, 0.6456087827682495, -0.5124038457870483, -0.3572230339050293, -0.5967165231704712, 0.5933412313461304, -0.5752886533737183, 0.4374254643917084, -0.12669654190540314, 0.5845741033554077, -0.10305312275886536, 0.13636821508407593, -0.11404561996459961, 0.21199817955493927, -0.4084085524082184, -0.06749367713928223, -0.20678135752677917, -0.7275890707969666, 0.054791003465652466, -0.27500614523887634, 0.291379451751709, 0.04777995124459267, -0.06390637904405594, -0.024875342845916748, 0.026123259216547012, 0.5911545157432556, 0.14900432527065277, -0.1682506799697876, -0.2110554724931717, -0.2705838084220886, -0.5716419816017151, -0.15107592940330505, -0.241448312997818, -0.4604249596595764, 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240741	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip%20%28disambiguation%29	Lip (disambiguation)	The lip is a soft, protruding organ at the mouth of many animals, including humans. Lip or lips may also refer to: In arts and entertainment Lips (New Zealand band) Lips (video game), a karaoke game for the Xbox 360 "Lips" (KAT-TUN song), a single by the Japanese band KAT-TUN Lip (album), a 2019 album by the Japanese band Sekai no Owari The Lips, a 2010 Argentine film "L.I.P. (Local Indigenous Personnel)", an episode of the television series MAS*H Lip Gallagher, a character on the television drama Shameless Lip, the main character of the Super Famicom video game Panel de Pon Lips, a muppet character from The Muppet Show, the trumpet player for Dr. Teeth and The Electric Mayhem Lips Manlis, a criminal in the Dick Tracy comic, portrayed in the film by Paul Sorvino Lip, a jazz term for glissando, a glide from one pitch to another in music Lip (magazine), an Australian interdisciplinary feminist art journal (1976–1984) Nickname or stage name Leo Durocher (1905–1991), American Hall-of-Fame Major League Baseball player, manager and coach nicknamed "Leo the Lip" Steve "Lips" Kudlow, singer in Canadian rock band Anvil Lipman Lip Pike (1845–1893), one of the first professional baseball players and first Jewish one Tony Lip (1930–2013), American actor born Frank Anthony Vallelonga Other uses Lips (surname) Lip (gastropod) Lip, a colloquial term for dipping tobacco, or dip Lips, a minor Greek god and one of the Anemoi, representing the southwest wind The labia of the vulva, also called the outer and inner lips LIP or LIPS Organizations Laboratory of Instrumentation and Experimental Particles Physics, a Portuguese physics scientific research organization London Institute of 'Pataphysics Lok Insaaf Party, a political party in Punjab, India In technology Language Interface Pack, a translated interface for Microsoft Windows or Microsoft Office products Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy Lithium-ion polymer battery, a rechargeable battery technology Linux Phone Standards Forum, dedicated to the creation of standards aimed at fostering the use of Linux on mobile devices Loop Initialization Primitive, a Fibre Channel protocol element CaPSL, a printer command language/page description language, also called LIPS or LIPS4 Other uses LIP (company), a troubled French manufacturer of watches and clocks Large igneous province, a massive volcanic formation resulting from flood basalt eruptions Lateral intraparietal cortex, a region in the parietal lobe of the brain of primates Late-inning pressure situation, a baseball statistic Life In Pictures, a defunct band from Arizona Litigant in person, someone who is engaged in litigation without legal representation Lymphocytic interstitial pneumonia, a clinical stage 3 HIV infection See also Flange Embouchure or lipping, the use of the lips, facial muscles, tongue, and teeth in playing a wind musical instrument Rim	[ -0.01292632706463337, 0.4772901237010956, -0.3275243043899536, -0.06396158784627914, -0.06435833871364594, 0.3261643648147583, 0.7477507591247559, 0.4115743637084961, -0.002745276317000389, -0.45577359199523926, -0.10310561209917068, 0.6677401661872864, 0.016556516289711, 0.031100496649742126, -0.29960447549819946, 0.0319799967110157, 0.32425740361213684, 0.6060073971748352, 0.2067173272371292, 0.26410260796546936, -0.13673648238182068, -0.20123940706253052, 0.3349921703338623, 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240742	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Wyon	William Wyon	William Wyon (Birmingham 1795 – 29 October 1851), was official chief engraver at the Royal Mint from 1828 until his death. Biography Wyon was born in Birmingham and, in 1809, was apprenticed to his father, Peter Wyon who was an engraver and die sinker. In 1816, he went to London. He studied the works of John Flaxman, attended the schools of the Royal Academy, and gained a gold medal from the Society of Arts for a copy of the head of Ceres, and a second for an original group. In 1816 he was appointed assistant engraver to the mint, and in 1828 chief engraver. In 1831 he was elected associate and in 1838 full member of the Royal Academy. He died in Brighton, United Kingdom. Wyon is buried under a simple rectangular York stone slab at West Norwood Cemetery. He was the father of engraver Leonard Charles Wyon. Designs Under the influence of Flaxman, a master of relief sculpture, Wyon was a highly visible proponent of the Neoclassicist vogue. In 1834 he modelled the head of Princess Victoria, who was 15 years of age at the time. This work was subsequently used for the City Medal struck in 1837 to celebrate Victoria's first visit to the City of London after her accession to the throne and another medal also issued in 1837 commemorating her visit to the Guildhall. The name of William Wyon is well known among coin and medal collectors because of his prodigious output and artistic skill. He designed the second and third effigies of George IV, the effigy of William IV in 1830, working from the bust by Sir Francis Chantrey, and "The Young Head", which graced Victoria's coinage from 1838 to 1860 on the pennies and the rest of the coinage until 1887. He also designed the Naval General Service Medal, of which 20,933 were issued. Notable among his medallic work are the obverse designs for the prize, juror and other medals for The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace in 1851, the year of his death in Birmingham. Wyon's City Medal was the model for the head on the line-engraved postage stamps of 1840–79, beginning with the Penny Black, the world's first adhesive postage stamp, the embossed stamps of 1847–54 and the postal stationery 1841–1901. The primary die used for the embossed issue was engraved by Wyon; the 1s and 10d stamps have the initials "ww" along with the die number at the base of the neck. His design also influenced the surface-printed stamps first printed in 1855. References Bibliography Nicholas Carlisle, A memoir of the life and works of William Wyon, privately printed (1837). On line. 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240743	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20Fraser	Simon Fraser	Simon Fraser may refer to: Universities Simon Fraser University, a university named for the Canadian explorer Simon Fraser Clan, the athletic program of Simon Fraser University People Lairds of Lovat Simon Fraser, 1st Laird of Lovat (died 1333) Lords Lovat Simon Fraser, 6th Lord Lovat (1572–1633), see Lord Lovat Simon Fraser, 11th Lord Lovat (1667–1747), Scottish Jacobite and Chief of Clan Fraser Simon Fraser, 13th Lord Lovat (1828–1887), Scottish peer Simon Fraser, 14th Lord Lovat (1871–1933), Roman Catholic aristocrat, soldier, politician and Chief of Clan Fraser Simon Fraser, 15th Lord Lovat (1911–1995), Chief of the Clan Fraser and British soldier Simon Fraser, 16th Lord Lovat (born 1977), Chief of Clan Fraser Other people Sir Simon Fraser (d. 1306), fought in the Wars of Scottish Independence Simon Fraser of Lovat (1726–1782), Jacobite leader and British general during the Seven Years' War and American Revolutionary War Simon Fraser of Balnain (1729–1777), British general during the American Revolutionary War Simon Fraser (1738–1813), British lieutenant-general, raised the 133rd (Highland) Regiment of Foot and a company for the 71st Simon Fraser, the younger of Lovat (1765–1803), commanded the Fraser Fencibles in Ireland and was M.P. for Inverness-shire Simon Fraser (explorer) (1776–1862), Canadian explorer Sir Simon Fraser (Australian politician) (1832–1919), member of the Australian Senate, father of the below Simon Fraser (Australian sportsman) (1886–1919), Australian rules footballer and Olympic rower, son of the above Sir Simon Fraser (diplomat) (born 1958), British Permanent Under-Secretary of the Foreign and Commonwealth Office Simon Fraser (comics), British comic artist Simon Fraser (American football) (born 1983), American football defensive end Simon Fraser, Master of Lovat (1939–1994) Simon Fraser (Queensland politician) (1824–1889), Queensland politician Simon Alexander Fraser 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240744	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perkins%20Bacon	Perkins Bacon	Messrs. Perkins, Bacon & Co was a printer of books, bank notes and postage stamps, most notable for printing the Penny Black, the world's first adhesive postage stamps, in 1840. Origins Jacob Perkins invented and sold "soft steel" plates for engraving that were hardened after being engraved. The plates were between one and three inches thick, and some weighed fifty pounds. He produced some currency in the US, and with engraver Gideon Fairman produced the first books to be engraved on steel in the USA. Several eight-page books Perkins and Fairman's Running Hand. They produced currency for Massachusetts, and had won the contract for the new USA National Bank's currency. They were from Boston, Massachusetts. Jacob Perkins was enticed to come to England by Charles Heath, because of all the world's currency, Perkins' notes were considered the best. He arrived with Gideon Fairman and Asa Spencer and set up shop as Perkins and Fairman in London, and worked exclusively for several months on the attempt to win the Bank of England project. After a few months, Perkins was indebted to the Heaths for a small sum. Perkins and Fairman added Charles Heath as a partner, and moved their shop to 69 Fleet Street. Charles Heath at times owned half the company. Jacob Perkins, Gideon Fairman, George Heath (financial contribution only), and Charles Heath formed "Perkins, Fairman, and Heath". They produced some books, stamps, one-pound notes for English banks, and currency. The stamps were the first stamps in the world to have adhesive. Jacob Perkins and Charles Heath also had other successful businesses going at the same time. Perkins and Charles Heath were not as successful with their finances. They did have good accounting of any debts to the company, and shares sold between themselves, and percentage ownership of every project. Brief Timeline 1808-1810 Jacob Perkins and Gideon Fairman produce the first known books in the US to use steel plates. ~1816 Jacob Perkins has "soft steel" plates to engrave on, and a method to harden the plates, and a process. 1818 (April 15), Heath discussed the American bank notes printed by Perkins at the Society of Arts Committee on Forgery. Bank of England was offering a £20,000 prize for unforgeable notes. 1819 (May 31) Perkins sets sail for England after communicating with Charles Heath. 1819 (June 29) Perkins arrives in Liverpool, England. 1819 (July) Sir Joseph Banks met with Perkins. 1819 (December 20) The Heaths join Perkins and Fairman forming Perkins, Fairman and Heath. 1819 George Heath provides some financial backing only. 1820 (Feb) Bank of England chooses another solution, but other business follows, including £1 notes and stamps. 1820 (Feb) Perkins among other ventures, goes into the book publishing business with the Heaths and Fairman. 1820 (summer) Perkins Fairman and Heath move to 69 Fleet Street, London. 1820 (September) Perkins had sold 1,000 plates he had intended to use on the Bank of England project. 1822 Perkins and Heath 1829 Perkins and Bacon. Joshua Butters Bacon ( Perkins' son in law), buys Heaths interest. 1834-1852 Perkins, Bacon & Petch (Henry Petch was an engraver, who was also made a partner). 1839 Perkins Bacon and Co are asked to make plates and dies for stamps (the Penny Black was their first stamp). There is an overlap of Perkins, Bacon & Petch and Perkins, Bacon and Co; not all business ventures included all partners and percentage ownership is detailed as changing as shares were bought and sold between partners, and money was loaned to partners from the company. Additionally, Charles Heath had many other individual business ventures, as did Perkins. Heath and Perkins had numerous talents and successes, however, they routinely had financial problems. Fortunately, the accounting was very good. Charles Heath had professional relationships with several people that spanned decades. History England was offering a prize of £20,000 for a note which was impossible to forge. Heath contacted Perkins and convinced him to come to England and Perkins arrived in Liverpool in 1819. They produced samples to Sir Joseph Banks, President of the Royal Commission on Forgery, and it appeared that they would win. They did not. Perkins started showing signs of financial distress and was in minor debt to the Heaths. They did manage to secure smaller contracts for smaller £1 notes, and later won more government contracts, but in the meantime they started publishing. George Heath, Charles Heath, Jacob Perkins and Gideon Fairman had multiple partnerships and individual projects going on at the same time. George Heath was a financial backer only. Charles Heath was an engraver, a book publisher. Jacob Perkins was an inventor who made steel book plates practical (but not cheaper). Fairman had produced a book with Perkins in the USA. Financial difficulties of one or the other partners had at least one of them in debt to the company at any moment in time, and the accounting records from these guys are confusing, but very businesslike. Their percentage of profits of any venture changed often. By 1822 it was known as "Perkins & Heath", then in 1829, after a complicated transaction in which Heath gave up his shares and Joshua Butters Bacon (Perkin's son in law) bought in, as "Perkins & Bacon". Henry Petch joined in 1835, and thus the firm printing the first stamps was actually known as "Perkins, Bacon & Petch". The Penny Black printing plates are currently on display at the British Library. When Petch died in 1852, the firm became just "Perkins, Bacon". In 1861 they (temporarily) lost the contract to print stamps as a punishment for giving copies of new issues away to friends of the management without permission from the governments involved. Although Heath had won another court battle which gave engravers the right to retain 8 impressions of any engraving, this right did not extend to currency or stamps. They completed their printing contract for the line-engraved stamps on 31 December 1879, losing subsequent business to competitor De La Rue. In addition to British stamps, Perkins, Bacon printed for a number of the colonies, including the first stamps of the Cape of Good Hope, which were printed in 1853. In 1935 the firm went out of business and its records were acquired by Charles and Harry Nissen and Thomas Allen. The records were subsequently acquired by the Royal Philatelic Society London where Percy de Worms organised them for publication and display. Further reading de Worms, Percy. Perkins Bacon Records, Royal Philatelic Society London, 1953. (Two volumes published posthumously. Ed. John Easton and Arnold Strange). Hunnisett, Basil. Engraved on Steel, Ashgate, 1998. References External links James Dunbar Heath overview of the company history, written 1913. "When Perkins Bacon Fell From Grace" by Michael O. 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240746	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform%20Penny%20Post	Uniform Penny Post	The Uniform Penny Post was a component of the comprehensive reform of the Royal Mail, the UK's official postal service, that took place in the 19th century. The reforms were a government initiative to eradicate the abuse and corruption of the existing service. Under the reforms, the postal service became a government monopoly, but it also became more accessible to the British population at large through setting a charge of one penny for carriage and delivery between any two places in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland irrespective of distance. Campaign for reform Richard Cobden and John Ramsey McCulloch, both advocates of free trade, attacked the Conservative government's policies of privilege and protection, including their archaic postal system. McCulloch, in 1833, advanced the view that "nothing contributes more to facilitate commerce than the safe, speedy and cheap conveyance of letters." The campaign for cheap postage was actually initiated by Robert Wallace, who in 1835 argued, before a governmental commission set up to investigate the problems, that greater use of the mailing system would lead to increased revenue for the government. Rowland Hill's reforms Sir Rowland Hill expounded his concept for the reformed service at a meeting of the commission on February 13, 1837, and published a famous pamphlet Post Office Reform: its Importance and Practicability late that year. In 1838 Hill made a proposal to parliament in which he suggested that "the postage on all letters received in a post-town, and delivered in the same, or any other post-town in the British Isles, shall be at the uniform rate of one penny per half ounce". However, Hill did not include a specific timetable for the introduction of a "penny post" in his proposal, nor did he suggest a plan for its implementation. Nonetheless, Hill's 1838 proposal paved the way for the 1840 Act which introduced the Uniform Penny Post. In his proposal, Hill also called for official pre-printed envelopes and adhesive postage stamps as alternative ways of getting the sender to pay for postage, at a time when prepayment was optional. Previously, postage had depended on distance and the number of sheets of paper; now, one penny would assure delivery of an envelope and the letter it enclosed anywhere in the country provided together they satisfied the weight condition. This was a lower rate than before, when the cost of postage was usually more than 4d (four pence). The reform did not settle the issue of who paid for the postage, as it still remained optional for a number of years in spite of Hill's efforts as Secretary to the Post Office to alter the situation. As of 2013 the value of one penny in 1840 ranges from 32p (GBP) to 4.89 (GBP); the latter based on mean income. It would appear that the cost to an established semi-skilled man of sending a letter in 1840 can be represented by approximately 1.00 (GBP) in 2013 values This however was a lower cost than previously and made postal communication more affordable to the increasing numbers of people capable of reading and writing as a consequence of public education. Financially, the penny post scheme initially was a disaster. However, Hill made the case that if letters were cheaper to send, people, including the poorer classes, would send more of them, thus eventually profits would go up. In 1840, the first year of Penny Post, the number of letters sent in the UK more than doubled. Within 10 years, it had doubled again. The BBC states, “Hill had shown that the fortune at the bottom of the pyramid was there to be mined.” The other benefits were the encouragement and support that the availability of cheap letterpost communication gave to the development of transport links, education, commerce and social cohesion. See also Uniform Fourpenny Post Penny Black Postage Act 1839 Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain Notes References Further reading Ashurst, W.A. Facts and reasons in support of Mr. Rowland Hill's plan for a universal penny postage. London: Henry Hooper, 1838 133p. Graveson, Samuel. Penny Postage Centenary: An account of Rowland Hill's great reform of 1840 and of the introduction of adhesive postage stamps with chapters on the birth of the postal service. London: The Postal History Society, 1940 144p. Grimwood-Taylor, James L. The British Postal Reforms of 1839 to 1840: A study of the origins, process and results of the reforms that led to uniform penny postage and the introduction of the postage stamp and postal stationery. Derby: Published for the author by Cavendish Philatelic Auctions Ltd., 1990 , 67p. Hill, Rowland. The state and prospects of penny postage, as developed in the evidence taken before the postage committee of 1843: with incidental remarks on the testimony of the post office authorities; and an appendix of correspondence. London: Charles Knight and Company, 1844 84p. Holyoake, Alan. Great Britain, The Development and Introduction of Uniform Penny Postage (1839-1840). Gerrards Cross: the author, 2006 15p. Walker, Steve. Uniform Penny Post: Handstruck Paid Postage Stamps of England and Wales 1840-1853. Sutton Coldfield: GBPS, 2013 , 32p. 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240749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEDLINE	MEDLINE	MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online, or MEDLARS Online) is a bibliographic database of life sciences and biomedical information. It includes bibliographic information for articles from academic journals covering medicine, nursing, pharmacy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, and health care. MEDLINE also covers much of the literature in biology and biochemistry, as well as fields such as molecular evolution. Compiled by the United States National Library of Medicine (NLM), MEDLINE is freely available on the Internet and searchable via PubMed and NLM's National Center for Biotechnology Information's Entrez system. History MEDLARS (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System) is a computerised biomedical bibliographic retrieval system. It was launched by the National Library of Medicine in 1964 and was the first large scale, computer based, retrospective search service available to the general public. Initial development of MEDLARS Since 1879, the National Library of Medicine had published Index Medicus, a monthly guide to medical articles in thousands of journals. The huge volume of bibliographic citations was manually compiled. In 1957 the staff of the NLM started to plan the mechanization of the Index Medicus, prompted by a desire for a better way to manipulate all this information, not only for Index Medicus but also to produce subsidiary products. By 1960 a detailed specification was prepared and by the spring of 1961 a request for proposals was sent out to 72 companies to develop the system. As a result, a contract was awarded to the General Electric Company. A Minneapolis-Honeywell 800 computer, which was to run MEDLARS, was delivered to the NLM in March 1963, and Frank Bradway Rogers (Director of the NLM 1949 to 1963) said at the time "..If all goes well, the January 1964 issue of Index Medicus will be ready to emerge from the system at the end of this year. It may be that this will mark the beginning of a new era in medical bibliography." MEDLARS cost $3 million to develop and at the time of its completion in 1964, no other publicly available, fully operational electronic storage and retrieval system of its magnitude existed. The original computer configuration operated from 1964 until its replacement by MEDLARS II in January 1975. MEDLARS Online In late 1971, an online version called MEDLINE ("MEDLARS Online") became available as a way to do online searching of MEDLARS from remote medical libraries. This early system covered 239 journals and boasted that it could support as many as 25 simultaneous online users (remotely logged-in from distant medical libraries) at one time. However, this system remained primarily in the hands of libraries, with researchers able to submit pre-programmed search tasks to librarians and obtain results on printouts, but rarely able to interact with the NLM computer output in real-time. This situation continued through the beginning of the 1990s and the rise of the World Wide Web. In 1996, soon after most home computers began automatically bundling efficient web browsers, a free public version of MEDLINE was instigated. This system, called PubMed, was offered to the general online user in June, 1997, when MEDLINE searches via the Web were demonstrated. Database The database contains more than 26 million records from 5,639 selected publications covering biomedicine and health from 1950 to the present. Originally, the database covered articles starting from 1965, but this has been enhanced, and records as far back as 1950/51 are now available within the main index. The database is freely accessible on the Internet via the PubMed interface and new citations are added Tuesday through Saturday. For citations added during 1995-2003: about 48% are for cited articles published in the U.S., about 88% are published in English, and about 76% have English abstracts written by authors of the articles. The most common topic in the database is Cancer with around 12% of all records between 1950-2016, which have risen from 6% in 1950 to 16% in 2016. Retrieval MEDLINE uses Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) for information retrieval. Engines designed to search MEDLINE (such as Entrez and PubMed) generally use a Boolean expression combining MeSH terms, words in abstract and title of the article, author names, date of publication, etc. Entrez and PubMed can also find articles similar to a given one based on a mathematical scoring system that takes into account the similarity of word content of the abstracts and titles of two articles. MEDLINE added a "publication type" term for “randomized controlled trial” in 1991 and a MESH subset “systematic review” in 2001. Importance MEDLINE functions as an important resource for biomedical researchers and journal clubs from all over the world. Along with the Cochrane Library and a number of other databases, MEDLINE facilitates evidence-based medicine. Most systematic review articles published presently build on extensive searches of MEDLINE to identify articles that might be useful in the review. MEDLINE influences researchers in their choice of journals in which to publish. Inclusion of journals More than 5,200 biomedical journals are indexed in MEDLINE. New journals are not included automatically or immediately. Several criteria for selection are applied. Selection is based on the recommendations of a panel, the Literature Selection Technical Review Committee, based on scientific scope and quality of a journal. The Journals Database (one of the Entrez databases) contains information, such as its name abbreviation and publisher, about all journals included in Entrez, including PubMed. Usage PubMed usage has been on the rise since 2008. In 2011, PubMed/MEDLINE was searched 1.8 billion times, up from 1.6 billion searches in the previous year. A service such as MEDLINE strives to balance usability with power and comprehensiveness. In keeping with the fact that MEDLINE's primary user community is professionals (medical scientists, health care providers), searching MEDLINE effectively is a learned skill; untrained users are sometimes frustrated with the large numbers of articles returned by simple searches. Counterintuitively, a search that returns thousands of articles is not guaranteed to be comprehensive. Unlike using a typical Internet search engine, PubMed searching of MEDLINE requires a little investment of time. Using the MeSH database to define the subject of interest is one of the most useful ways to improve the quality of a search. Using MeSH terms in conjunction with limits (such as publication date or publication type), qualifiers (such as adverse effects or prevention and control), and text-word searching is another. Finding one article on the subject and clicking on the "Related Articles" link to get a collection of similarly classified articles can expand a search that otherwise yields few results. For lay users who are trying to learn about health and medicine topics, the NIH offers MedlinePlus; thus, although such users are still free to search and read the medical literature themselves (via PubMed), they also have some help with curating it into something comprehensible and practically applicable for patients and family members. See also Altbib LILACS HubMed - an alternative interface to the PubMed medical literature database. Journalology eTBLAST - a natural language text similarity engine for MEDLINE and other text databases. Medscape Twease - an open-source biomedical search engine References External links Biological databases United States National Library of Medicine Bibliographic databases and indexes Medical databases Online databases Year of establishment missing Public domain databases	[ 0.2115105539560318, -0.16267481446266174, 0.27948352694511414, 0.3156738579273224, 0.3045625686645508, -0.13922426104545593, -0.27698877453804016, 0.023426366969943047, -0.30551716685295105, -0.5042025446891785, -0.4587674140930176, 0.2965172231197357, -0.1392492800951004, 0.12288661301136017, -0.03322335332632065, 0.14101248979568481, 0.4651828706264496, 0.2798413932323456, 0.06987693905830383, -0.24128808081150055, -0.5182858109474182, 0.02867536060512066, -0.043526921421289444, -0.5121229887008667, 0.41007789969444275, 0.08915871381759644, -0.4494829773902893, 0.14794813096523285, -0.6388726234436035, 0.027056563645601273, 0.12411536276340485, -0.028057094663381577, 0.1457558274269104, 0.26623573899269104, 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240755	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesop%27s%20Fables	Aesop's Fables	Aesop's Fables, or the Aesopica, is a collection of fables credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller believed to have lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BCE. Of diverse origins, the stories associated with his name have descended to modern times through a number of sources and continue to be reinterpreted in different verbal registers and in popular as well as artistic media. The fables originally belonged to the oral tradition and were not collected for some three centuries after Aesop's death. By that time, a variety of other stories, jokes and proverbs were being ascribed to him, although some of that material was from sources earlier than him or came from beyond the Greek cultural sphere. The process of inclusion has continued until the present, with some of the fables unrecorded before the Late Middle Ages and others arriving from outside Europe. The process is continuous and new stories are still being added to the Aesop corpus, even when they are demonstrably more recent work and sometimes from known authors. Manuscripts in Latin and Greek were important avenues of transmission, although poetical treatments in European vernaculars eventually formed another. On the arrival of printing, collections of Aesop's fables were among the earliest books in a variety of languages. Through the means of later collections, and translations or adaptations of them, Aesop's reputation as a fabulist was transmitted throughout the world. Initially the fables were addressed to adults and covered religious, social and political themes. They were also put to use as ethical guides and from the Renaissance onwards were particularly used for the education of children. Their ethical dimension was reinforced in the adult world through depiction in sculpture, painting and other illustrative means, as well as adaptation to drama and song. In addition, there have been reinterpretations of the meaning of fables and changes in emphasis over time. Fictions that point to the truth Fable as a genre Apollonius of Tyana, a 1st-century CE philosopher, is recorded as having said about Aesop: like those who dine well off the plainest dishes, he made use of humble incidents to teach great truths, and after serving up a story he adds to it the advice to do a thing or not to do it. Then, too, he was really more attached to truth than the poets are; for the latter do violence to their own stories in order to make them probable; but he by announcing a story which everyone knows not to be true, told the truth by the very fact that he did not claim to be relating real events. Earlier still, the Greek historian Herodotus mentioned in passing that "Aesop the fable writer" was a slave who lived in Ancient Greece during the 5th century BCE. Among references in other writers, Aristophanes, in his comedy The Wasps, represented the protagonist Philocleon as having learnt the "absurdities" of Aesop from conversation at banquets; Plato wrote in Phaedo that Socrates whiled away his time in prison turning some of Aesop's fables "which he knew" into verses. Nonetheless, for two main reasons – because numerous morals within Aesop's attributed fables contradict each other, and because ancient accounts of Aesop's life contradict each other – the modern view is that Aesop was not the originator of all those fables attributed to him. Instead, any fable tended to be ascribed to the name of Aesop if there was no known alternative literary source. In Classical times there were various theorists who tried to differentiate these fables from other kinds of narration. They had to be short and unaffected; in addition, they are fictitious, useful to life and true to nature. In them could be found talking animals and plants, although humans interacting only with humans figure in a few. Typically they might begin with a contextual introduction, followed by the story, often with the moral underlined at the end. Setting the context was often necessary as a guide to the story's interpretation, as in the case of the political meaning of The Frogs Who Desired a King and The Frogs and the Sun. Sometimes the titles given later to the fables have become proverbial, as in the case of killing the Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs or the Town Mouse and the Country Mouse. In fact some fables, such as The Young Man and the Swallow, appear to have been invented as illustrations of already existing proverbs. One theorist, indeed, went so far as to define fables as extended proverbs. In this they have an aetiological function, the explaining of origins such as, in another context, why the ant is a mean, thieving creature or how the tortoise got its shell. Other fables, also verging on this function, are outright jokes, as in the case of The Old Woman and the Doctor, aimed at greedy practitioners of medicine. Origins The contradictions between fables already mentioned and alternative versions of much the same fable – as in the case of The Woodcutter and the Trees, are best explained by the ascription to Aesop of all examples of the genre. Some are demonstrably of West Asian origin, others have analogues further to the East. Modern scholarship reveals fables and proverbs of Aesopic form existing in both ancient Sumer and Akkad, as early as the third millennium BCE. Aesop's fables and the Indian tradition, as represented by the Buddhist Jataka tales and the Hindu Panchatantra, share about a dozen tales in common, although often widely differing in detail. There is some debate over whether the Greeks learned these fables from Indian storytellers or the other way, or if the influences were mutual. Loeb editor Ben E. Perry took the extreme position in his book Babrius and Phaedrus (1965) that in the entire Greek tradition there is not, so far as I can see, a single fable that can be said to come either directly or indirectly from an Indian source; but many fables or fable-motifs that first appear in Greek or Near Eastern literature are found later in the Panchatantra and other Indian story-books, including the Buddhist Jatakas. Although Aesop and the Buddha were near contemporaries, the stories of neither were recorded in writing until some centuries after their death. Few disinterested scholars would now be prepared to make so absolute a stand as Perry about their origin in view of the conflicting and still emerging evidence. Translation and transmission Greek versions When and how the fables arrived in and travelled from ancient Greece remains uncertain. Some cannot be dated any earlier than Babrius and Phaedrus, several centuries after Aesop, and yet others even later. The earliest mentioned collection was by Demetrius of Phalerum, an Athenian orator and statesman of the 4th century BCE, who compiled the fables into a set of ten books for the use of orators. A follower of Aristotle, he simply catalogued all the fables that earlier Greek writers had used in isolation as exempla, putting them into prose. At least it was evidence of what was attributed to Aesop by others; but this may have included any ascription to him from the oral tradition in the way of animal fables, fictitious anecdotes, etiological or satirical myths, possibly even any proverb or joke, that these writers transmitted. It is more a proof of the power of Aesop's name to attract such stories to it than evidence of his actual authorship. In any case, although the work of Demetrius was mentioned frequently for the next twelve centuries, and was considered the official Aesop, no copy now survives. Present day collections evolved from the later Greek version of Babrius, of which there now exists an incomplete manuscript of some 160 fables in choliambic verse. Current opinion is that he lived in the 1st century CE. The version of 55 fables in choliambic tetrameters by the 9th century Ignatius the Deacon is also worth mentioning for its early inclusion of tales from Oriental sources. Further light is thrown on the entry of Oriental stories into the Aesopic canon by their appearance in Jewish sources such as the Talmud and in Midrashic literature. There is a comparative list of these on the Jewish Encyclopedia website of which twelve resemble those that are common to both Greek and Indian sources, six are parallel to those only in Indian sources, and six others in Greek only. Where similar fables exist in Greece, India, and in the Talmud, the Talmudic form approaches more nearly the Indian. Thus, the fable "The Wolf and the Crane" is told in India of a lion and another bird. When Joshua ben Hananiah told that fable to the Jews, to prevent their rebelling against Rome and once more putting their heads into the lion's jaws (Gen. R. lxiv.), he shows familiarity with some form derived from India. Latin versions The first extensive translation of Aesop into Latin iambic trimeters was performed by Phaedrus, a freedman of Augustus in the 1st century CE, although at least one fable had already been translated by the poet Ennius two centuries before, and others are referred to in the work of Horace. The rhetorician Aphthonius of Antioch wrote a technical treatise on, and converted into Latin prose, some forty of these fables in 315. It is notable as illustrating contemporary and later usage of fables in rhetorical practice. Teachers of philosophy and rhetoric often set the fables of Aesop as an exercise for their scholars, inviting them not only to discuss the moral of the tale, but also to practise style and the rules of grammar by making new versions of their own. A little later the poet Ausonius handed down some of these fables in verse, which the writer Julianus Titianus translated into prose, and in the early 5th century Avianus put 42 of these fables into Latin elegiacs. The largest, oldest known and most influential of the prose versions of Phaedrus bears the name of an otherwise unknown fabulist named Romulus. It contains 83 fables, dates from the 10th century and seems to have been based on an earlier prose version which, under the name of "Aesop" and addressed to one Rufus, may have been written in the Carolingian period or even earlier. The collection became the source from which, during the second half of the Middle Ages, almost all the collections of Latin fables in prose and verse were wholly or partially drawn. A version of the first three books of Romulus in elegiac verse, possibly made around the 12th century, was one of the most highly influential texts in medieval Europe. Referred to variously (among other titles) as the verse Romulus or elegiac Romulus, and ascribed to Gualterus Anglicus, it was a common Latin teaching text and was popular well into the Renaissance. Another version of Romulus in Latin elegiacs was made by Alexander Neckam, born at St Albans in 1157. Interpretive "translations" of the elegiac Romulus were very common in Europe in the Middle Ages. Among the earliest was one in the 11th century by Ademar of Chabannes, which includes some new material. This was followed by a prose collection of parables by the Cistercian preacher Odo of Cheriton around 1200 where the fables (many of which are not Aesopic) are given a strong medieval and clerical tinge. This interpretive tendency, and the inclusion of yet more non-Aesopic material, was to grow as versions in the various European vernaculars began to appear in the following centuries. With the revival of literary Latin during the Renaissance, authors began compiling collections of fables in which those traditionally by Aesop and those from other sources appeared side by side. One of the earliest was by Lorenzo Bevilaqua, also known as Laurentius Abstemius, who wrote 197 fables, the first hundred of which were published as Hecatomythium in 1495. Little by Aesop was included. At the most, some traditional fables are adapted and reinterpreted: The Lion and the Mouse is continued and given a new ending (fable 52); The Oak and the Reed becomes "The Elm and the Willow" (53); The Ant and the Grasshopper is adapted as "The Gnat and the Bee" (94) with the difference that the gnat offers to teach music to the bee's children. There are also Mediaeval tales such as The Mice in Council (195) and stories created to support popular proverbs such as 'Still Waters Run Deep' (5) and 'A woman, an ass and a walnut tree' (65), where the latter refers back to Aesop's fable of The Walnut Tree. Most of the fables in Hecatomythium were later translated in the second half of Roger L'Estrange's Fables of Aesop and other eminent mythologists (1692); some also appeared among the 102 in H. Clarke's Latin reader, Select fables of Aesop: with an English translation (1787), of which there were both English and American editions. There were later three notable collections of fables in verse, among which the most influential was Gabriele Faerno's Centum Fabulae (1564). The majority of the hundred fables there are Aesop's but there are also humorous tales such as The drowned woman and her husband (41) and The miller, his son and the donkey (100). In the same year that Faerno was published in Italy, Hieronymus Osius brought out a collection of 294 fables titled Fabulae Aesopi carmine elegiaco redditae in Germany. This too contained some from elsewhere, such as The Dog in the Manger (67). Then in 1604 the Austrian Pantaleon Weiss, known as Pantaleon Candidus, published Centum et Quinquaginta Fabulae. The 152 poems there were grouped by subject, with sometimes more than one devoted to the same fable, although presenting alternative versions of it, as in the case of The Hawk and the Nightingale (133–5). It also includes the earliest instance of The Lion, the Bear and the Fox (60) in a language other than Greek. Another voluminous collection of fables in Latin verse was Anthony Alsop's Fabularum Aesopicarum Delectus (Oxford 1698). The bulk of the 237 fables there are prefaced by the text in Greek, while there are also a handful in Hebrew and in Arabic; the final fables, only attested from Latin sources, are without other versions. For the most part the poems are confined to a lean telling of the fable without drawing a moral. Aesop in other languages Europe For many centuries the main transmission of Aesop's fables across Europe remained in Latin or else orally in various vernaculars, where they mixed with folk tales derived from other sources. This mixing is often apparent in early vernacular collections of fables in mediaeval times. Ysopet, an adaptation of some of the fables into Old French octosyllabic couplets, was written by Marie de France in the 12th century. The morals with which she closes each fable reflect the feudal situation of her time. In the 13th century the Jewish author Berechiah ha-Nakdan wrote Mishlei Shualim, a collection of 103 'Fox Fables' in Hebrew rhymed prose. This included many animal tales passing under the name of Aesop, as well as several more derived from Marie de France and others. Berechiah's work adds a layer of Biblical quotations and allusions to the tales, adapting them as a way to teach Jewish ethics. The first printed edition appeared in Mantua in 1557. Äsop, an adaptation into Middle Low German verse of 125 Romulus fables, was written by Gerhard von Minden around 1370. Chwedlau Odo ("Odo's Tales") is a 14th-century Welsh version of the animal fables in Odo of Cheriton's Parabolae, not all of which are of Aesopic origin. Many show sympathy for the poor and oppressed, with often sharp criticisms of high-ranking church officials. Eustache Deschamps included several of Aesop's fables among his moral ballades, written in Mediaeval French towards the end of the 14th century, in one of which there is mention of what 'Aesop tells in his book' (Ysoppe dit en son livre et raconte). In most, the telling of the fable precedes the drawing of a moral in terms of contemporary behaviour, but two comment on this with only contextual reference to fables not recounted in the text. Isopes Fabules was written in Middle English rhyme royal stanzas by the monk John Lydgate towards the start of the 15th century. Seven tales are included and heavy emphasis is laid on the moral lessons to be learned from them. The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian was written in Middle Scots iambic pentameters by Robert Henryson about 1480. In the accepted text it consists of thirteen versions of fables, seven modelled on stories from "Aesop" expanded from the Latin Romulus manuscripts. The main impetus behind the translation of large collections of fables attributed to Aesop and translated into European languages came from an early printed publication in Germany. There had been many small selections in various languages during the Middle Ages but the first attempt at an exhaustive edition was made by Heinrich Steinhőwel in his Esopus, published . This contained both Latin versions and German translations and also included a translation of Rinuccio da Castiglione (or d'Arezzo)'s version from the Greek of a life of Aesop (1448). Some 156 fables appear, collected from Romulus, Avianus and other sources, accompanied by a commentarial preface and moralising conclusion, and 205 woodcuts. Translations or versions based on Steinhöwel's book followed shortly in Italian (1479), French (1480), Czech (1480) and English (the Caxton edition of 1484) and were many times reprinted before the start of the 16th century. The Spanish version of 1489, La vida del Ysopet con sus fabulas hystoriadas was equally successful and often reprinted in both the Old and New World through three centuries. Some fables were later treated creatively in collections of their own by authors in such a way that they became associated with their names rather than Aesop's. The most celebrated were La Fontaine's Fables, published in French during the later 17th century. Inspired by the brevity and simplicity of Aesop's, those in the first six books were heavily dependent on traditional Aesopic material; fables in the next six were more diffuse and diverse in origin. At the start of the 19th century, some of the fables were adapted into Russian, and often reinterpreted, by the fabulist Ivan Krylov. In most cases, but not all, these were dependent on La Fontaine's versions. Asia and America Translations into Asian languages at a very early date derive originally from Greek sources. These include the so-called Fables of Syntipas, a compilation of Aesopic fables in Syriac, dating from the 9/11th centuries. Included there were several other tales of possibly West Asian origin. In Central Asia there was a 10th-century collection of the fables in Uighur. After the Middle Ages, fables largely deriving from Latin sources were passed on by Europeans as part of their colonial or missionary enterprises. 47 fables were translated into the Nahuatl language in the late 16th century under the title In zazanilli in Esopo. The work of a native translator, it adapted the stories to fit the Mexican environment, incorporating Aztec concepts and rituals and making them rhetorically more subtle than their Latin source. Portuguese missionaries arriving in Japan at the end of the 16th century introduced Japan to the fables when a Latin edition was translated into romanized Japanese. The title was Esopo no Fabulas and dates to 1593. It was soon followed by a fuller translation into a three-volume kanazōshi entitled . This was the sole Western work to survive in later publication after the expulsion of Westerners from Japan, since by that time the figure of Aesop had been acculturated and presented as if he were Japanese. Coloured woodblock editions of individual fables were made by Kawanabe Kyosai in the 19th century. The first translations of Aesop's Fables into the Chinese languages were made at the start of the 17th century, the first substantial collection being of 38 conveyed orally by a Jesuit missionary named Nicolas Trigault and written down by a Chinese academic named Zhang Geng (Chinese: 張賡; pinyin: Zhāng Gēng) in 1625. This was followed two centuries later by Yishi Yuyan 《意拾喻言》 (Esop's Fables: written in Chinese by the Learned Mun Mooy Seen-Shang, and compiled in their present form with a free and a literal translation) in 1840 by Robert Thom and apparently based on the version by Roger L'Estrange. This work was initially very popular until someone realised the fables were anti-authoritarian and the book was banned for a while. A little later, however, in the foreign concession in Shanghai, A.B. Cabaniss brought out a transliterated translation in Shanghai dialect, Yisuopu yu yan (伊娑菩喻言, 1856). There have also been 20th century translations by Zhou Zuoren and others. Translations into the languages of South Asia began at the very start of the 19th century. The Oriental Fabulist (1803) contained roman script versions in Bengali, Hindi and Urdu. Adaptations followed in Marathi (1806) and Bengali (1816), and then complete collections in Hindi (1837), Kannada (1840), Urdu (1850), Tamil (1853) and Sindhi (1854). In Burma, which had its own ethical folk tradition based on the Buddhist Jataka Tales, the joint Pali and Burmese language translation of Aesop's fables was published in 1880 from Rangoon by the American Missionary Press. Outside the British Raj, Jagat Sundar Malla's translation into the Newar language of Nepal was published in 1915. Further to the west, the Afghani academic Hafiz Sahar's translation of some 250 of Aesop's Fables into Persian was first published in 1972 under the name Luqman Hakim. Versions in regional languages Minority expression The 18th to 19th centuries saw a vast amount of fables in verse being written in all European languages. Regional languages and dialects in the Romance area made use of versions adapted particularly from La Fontaine's recreations of ancient material. One of the earliest publications in France was the anonymous Fables Causides en Bers Gascouns (Selected fables in Gascon verse, Bayonne, 1776), which contained 106. Also in the vanguard was :fr:Jean-Baptiste Foucaud's Quelques fables choisies de La Fontaine en patois limousin (109) in the Occitan Limousin dialect, originally with 39 fables, and Fables et contes en vers patois by :oc:August Tandon, also published in the first decade of the 19th century in the neighbouring dialect of Montpellier. The last of these were very free recreations, with the occasional appeal directly to the original Maistre Ézôpa. A later commentator noted that while the author could sometimes embroider his theme, at others he concentrated the sense to an Aesopean brevity. Many translations were made into languages contiguous to or within the French borders. Ipui onak (1805) was the first translation of 50 fables of Aesop by the writer Bizenta Mogel Elgezabal into the Basque language spoken on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees. It was followed in mid-century by two translations on the French side: 50 fables in J-B. Archu's Choix de Fables de La Fontaine, traduites en vers basques (1848) and 150 in Fableac edo aleguiac Lafontenetaric berechiz hartuac (Bayonne, 1852) by Abbé Martin Goyhetche (1791–1859). Versions in Breton were written by Pierre Désiré de Goësbriand (1784–1853) in 1836 and Yves Louis Marie Combeau (1799–1870) between 1836 and 1838. The turn of Provençal came in 1859 with Li Boutoun de guèto, poésies patoises by Antoine Bigot (1825–1897), followed by several other collections of fables in the Nîmes dialect between 1881 and 1891. Alsatian dialect versions of La Fontaine appeared in 1879 after the region was ceded away following the Franco-Prussian War. At the end of the following century, Brother Denis-Joseph Sibler (1920–2002) published a collection of adaptations (first recorded in 1983) that has gone through several impressions since 1995. The use of Corsican came later. Natale Rochicchioli (1911-2002) was particularly well known for his very free adaptations of La Fontaine, of which he made recordings as well as publishing his Favule di Natale in the 1970s. During the 19th century renaissance of Belgian dialect literature in Walloon, several authors adapted versions of the fables to the racy speech (and subject matter) of Liège. They included (in 1842); Joseph Lamaye (1845); and the team of and François Bailleux, who between them covered all of La Fontaine’s books I-VI, (Fåves da Lafontaine mettowes è ligeois, 1850–56). Adaptations into other regional dialects were made by Charles Letellier (Mons, 1842) and Charles Wérotte (Namur, 1844); much later, Léon Bernus published some hundred imitations of La Fontaine in the dialect of Charleroi (1872); he was followed during the 1880s by , writing in the Borinage dialect under the pen-name Bosquètia. In the 20th century there has been a selection of fifty fables in the Condroz dialect by Joseph Houziaux (1946), to mention only the most prolific in an ongoing surge of adaptation. The motive behind the later activity across these areas was to assert regional specificity against a growing centralism and the encroachment of the language of the capital on what had until then been predominantly monoglot areas. Surveying its literary manifestations, commentators have noted that the point of departure of the individual tales is not as important as what they become in the process. Even in the hands of less skilled dialect adaptations, La Fontaine's polished versions of the fables are returned to the folkloristic roots by which they often came to him in the first places. But many of the gifted regional authors were well aware of what they were doing in their work. In fitting the narration of the story to their local idiom, in appealing to the folk proverbs derived from such tales, and in adapting the story to local conditions and circumstances, the fables were so transposed as to go beyond bare equivalence, becoming independent works in their own right. Thus Emile Ruben claimed of the linguistic transmutations in Jean Foucaud's collection of fables that, "not content with translating, he has created a new work". In a similar way, the critic Maurice Piron described the Walloon versions of François Bailleux as "masterpieces of original imitation", and this is echoed in the claim that in Natale Rocchiccioli’s free Corsican versions too there is "more creation than adaptation". In the 20th century there were also translations into regional dialects of English. These include the few examples in Addison Hibbard's Aesop in Negro Dialect (American Speech, 1926) and the 26 in Robert Stephen's Fables of Aesop in Scots Verse (Peterhead, Scotland, 1987), translated into the Aberdeenshire dialect. Glasgow University has also been responsible for R.W. Smith's modernised dialect translation of Robert Henryson's The Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian (1999, see above). The University of Illinois likewise included dialect translations by Norman Shapiro in its Creole echoes: the francophone poetry of nineteenth-century Louisiana (2004, see below). Creole Caribbean creole also saw a flowering of such adaptations from the middle of the 19th century onwards – initially as part of the colonialist project but later as an assertion of love for and pride in the dialect. A version of La Fontaine's fables in the dialect of Martinique was made by François-Achille Marbot (1817–1866) in Les Bambous, Fables de la Fontaine travesties en patois (Port Royal, 1846) which had lasting success. As well as two later editions in Martinique, there were two more published in France in 1870 and 1885 and others in the 20th century. Later dialect fables by Paul Baudot (1801–1870) from neighbouring Guadeloupe owed nothing to La Fontaine, but in 1869 some translated examples did appear in a grammar of Trinidadian French creole written by John Jacob Thomas. Then the start of the new century saw the publication of Georges Sylvain's Cric? Crac! Fables de la Fontaine racontées par un montagnard haïtien et transcrites en vers créoles (La Fontaine's fables told by a Haiti highlander and written in creole verse, 1901). On the South American mainland, Alfred de Saint-Quentin published a selection of fables freely adapted from La Fontaine into Guyanese creole in 1872. This was among a collection of poems and stories (with facing translations) in a book that also included a short history of the territory and an essay on creole grammar. On the other side of the Caribbean, Jules Choppin (1830–1914) was adapting La Fontaine to the Louisiana slave creole at the end of the 19th century in versions that are still appreciated. The New Orleans author Edgar Grima (1847–1939) also adapted La Fontaine into both standard French and into dialect. Versions in the French creole of the islands in the Indian Ocean began somewhat earlier than in the Caribbean. (1801–1856) emigrated from Brittany to Réunion in 1820. Having become a schoolmaster, he adapted some of La Fontaine's fables into the local dialect in Fables créoles dédiées aux dames de l'île Bourbon (Creole fables for island women). This was published in 1829 and went through three editions. In addition 49 fables of La Fontaine were adapted to the Seychelles dialect around 1900 by Rodolphine Young (1860–1932) but these remained unpublished until 1983. Jean-Louis Robert's recent translation of Babrius into Réunion creole (2007) adds a further motive for such adaptation. Fables began as an expression of the slave culture and their background is in the simplicity of agrarian life. Creole transmits this experience with greater purity than the urbane language of the slave-owner. Slang Fables belong essentially to the oral tradition; they survive by being remembered and then retold in one's own words. When they are written down, particularly in the dominant language of instruction, they lose something of their essence. A strategy for reclaiming them is therefore to exploit the gap between the written and the spoken language. One of those who did this in English was Sir Roger L'Estrange, who translated the fables into the racy urban slang of his day and further underlined their purpose by including in his collection many of the subversive Latin fables of Laurentius Abstemius. In France the fable tradition had already been renewed in the 17th century by La Fontaine's influential reinterpretations of Aesop and others. In the centuries that followed there were further reinterpretations through the medium of regional languages, which to those at the centre were regarded as little better than slang. Eventually, however, the demotic tongue of the cities themselves began to be appreciated as a literary medium. One of the earliest examples of these urban slang translations was the series of individual fables contained in a single folded sheet, appearing under the title of Les Fables de Gibbs in 1929. Others written during the period were eventually anthologised as Fables de La Fontaine en argot (Étoile sur Rhône 1989). This followed the genre's growth in popularity after World War II. Two short selections of fables by Bernard Gelval about 1945 were succeeded by two selections of 15 fables each by 'Marcus' (Paris 1947, reprinted in 1958 and 2006), Api Condret's Recueil des fables en argot (Paris, 1951) and Géo Sandry (1897–1975) and Jean Kolb's Fables en argot (Paris 1950/60). The majority of such printings were privately produced leaflets and pamphlets, often sold by entertainers at their performances, and are difficult to date. Some of these poems then entered the repertoire of noted performers such as Boby Forest and Yves Deniaud, of which recordings were made. In the south of France, Georges Goudon published numerous folded sheets of fables in the post-war period. Described as monologues, they use Lyon slang and the Mediterranean Lingua Franca known as Sabir. Slang versions by others continue to be produced in various parts of France, both in printed and recorded form. Children The first printed version of Aesop's Fables in English was published on 26 March 1484, by William Caxton. Many others, in prose and verse, followed over the centuries. In the 20th century Ben E. Perry edited the Aesopic fables of Babrius and Phaedrus for the Loeb Classical Library and compiled a numbered index by type in 1952. Olivia and Robert Temple's Penguin edition is titled The Complete Fables by Aesop (1998) but in fact many from Babrius, Phaedrus and other major ancient sources have been omitted. More recently, in 2002 a translation by Laura Gibbs titled Aesop's Fables was published by Oxford World's Classics. This book includes 359 and has selections from all the major Greek and Latin sources. Until the 18th century the fables were largely put to adult use by teachers, preachers, speech-makers and moralists. It was the philosopher John Locke who first seems to have advocated targeting children as a special audience in Some Thoughts Concerning Education (1693). Aesop's fables, in his opinion are That young people are a special target for the fables was not a particularly new idea and a number of ingenious schemes for catering to that audience had already been put into practice in Europe. The Centum Fabulae of Gabriele Faerno was commissioned by Pope Pius IV in the 16th century 'so that children might learn, at the same time and from the same book, both moral and linguistic purity'. When King Louis XIV of France wanted to instruct his six-year-old son, he incorporated the series of hydraulic statues representing 38 chosen fables in the labyrinth of Versailles in the 1670s. In this he had been advised by Charles Perrault, who was later to translate Faerno's widely published Latin poems into French verse and so bring them to a wider audience. Then in the 1730s appeared the eight volumes of Nouvelles Poésies Spirituelles et Morales sur les plus beaux airs, the first six of which incorporated a section of fables specifically aimed at children. In this the fables of La Fontaine were rewritten to fit popular airs of the day and arranged for simple performance. The preface to this work comments that 'we consider ourselves happy if, in giving them an attraction to useful lessons which are suited to their age, we have given them an aversion to the profane songs which are often put into their mouths and which only serve to corrupt their innocence.' The work was popular and reprinted into the following century. In Great Britain various authors began to develop this new market in the 18th century, giving a brief outline of the story and what was usually a longer commentary on its moral and practical meaning. The first of such works is Reverend Samuel Croxall's Fables of Aesop and Others, newly done into English with an Application to each Fable. First published in 1722, with engravings for each fable by Elisha Kirkall, it was continually reprinted into the second half of the 19th century. Another popular collection was John Newbery's Fables in Verse for the Improvement of the Young and the Old, facetiously attributed to Abraham Aesop Esquire, which was to see ten editions after its first publication in 1757. Robert Dodsley's three-volume Select Fables of Esop and other Fabulists is distinguished for several reasons. First that it was printed in Birmingham by John Baskerville in 1761; second that it appealed to children by having the animals speak in character, the Lion in regal style, the Owl with 'pomp of phrase'; thirdly because it gathers into three sections fables from ancient sources, those that are more recent (including some borrowed from Jean de la Fontaine), and new stories of his own invention. Thomas Bewick's editions from Newcastle upon Tyne are equally distinguished for the quality of his woodcuts. The first of those under his name was the Select Fables in Three Parts published in 1784. This was followed in 1818 by The Fables of Aesop and Others. The work is divided into three sections: the first has some of Dodsley's fables prefaced by a short prose moral; the second has 'Fables with Reflections', in which each story is followed by a prose and a verse moral and then a lengthy prose reflection; the third, 'Fables in Verse', includes fables from other sources in poems by several unnamed authors; in these the moral is incorporated into the body of the poem. In the early 19th century authors turned to writing verse specifically for children and included fables in their output. One of the most popular was the writer of nonsense verse, Richard Scrafton Sharpe (died 1852), whose Old Friends in a New Dress: familiar fables in verse first appeared in 1807 and went through five steadily augmented editions until 1837. Jefferys Taylor's Aesop in Rhyme, with some originals, first published in 1820, was as popular and also went through several editions. The versions are lively but Taylor takes considerable liberties with the story line. Both authors were alive to the over serious nature of the 18th century collections and tried to remedy this. Sharpe in particular discussed the dilemma they presented and recommended a way round it, tilting at the same time at the format in Croxall's fable collection: Sharpe was also the originator of the limerick, but his versions of Aesop are in popular song measures and it was not until 1887 that the limerick form was ingeniously applied to the fables. This was in a magnificently hand-produced Arts and Crafts Movement edition, The Baby's Own Aesop: being the fables condensed in rhyme with portable morals pictorially pointed by Walter Crane. Some later prose editions were particularly notable for their illustrations. Among these was Aesop's fables: a new version, chiefly from original sources (1848) by Thomas James, 'with more than one hundred illustrations designed by John Tenniel'. Tenniel himself did not think highly of his work there and took the opportunity to redraw some in the revised edition of 1884, which also used pictures by Ernest Griset and Harrison Weir. Once the technology was in place for coloured reproductions, illustrations became ever more attractive. Notable early 20th century editions include V.S. Vernon Jones' new translation of the fables accompanied by the pictures of Arthur Rackham (London, 1912) and in the USA Aesop for Children (Chicago, 1919), illustrated by Milo Winter. The illustrations from Croxall's editions were an early inspiration for other artefacts aimed at children. In the 18th century they appear on tableware from the Chelsea, Wedgwood and Fenton potteries, for example. 19th century examples with a definitely educational aim include the fable series used on the alphabet plates issued in great numbers from the Brownhills Pottery in Staffordshire. Fables were used equally early in the design of tiles to surround the nursery fireplace. The latter were even more popular in the 19th century when there were specially designed series from Mintons, Minton-Hollins and Maw & Co. In France too, well-known illustrations of La Fontaine's fables were often used on china. Religious themes In Classical times there was an overlap between fable and myth, especially where they had an aetiological function. Among those are two which deal with the difference between humans and animals. According to the first, humans are distinguished by their rationality. But in those cases where they have a bestial mentality, the explanation is that at creation animals were found to outnumber humans and some were therefore modified in shape but retained their animal souls. Such early philosophical speculation was also extended to the ethical problems connected with divine justice. For example, it was perceived as disproportionate for an evil man to be punished by dying in a shipwreck when it involved many other innocent people. The god Hermes explained this to an objector by the human analogy of a man bitten by an ant and in consequence stamping on all those about his feet. Again, it was asked why the consequences of an evil deed did not follow immediately it was committed. Hermes was involved here too, since he records men's acts on potsherds and takes them to Zeus piled in a box. The god of justice, however, goes through them in reverse order and the penalty may therefore be delayed. However, where the fault is perceived as an act of defiance, as happens in the fable of Horkos, retribution arrives swiftly. Some fables may express open scepticism, as in the story of the man marketing a statue of Hermes who boasted of its effectiveness. Asked why he was disposing of such an asset, the huckster explains that the god takes his time in granting favours while he himself needs immediate cash. In another example, a farmer whose mattock has been stolen goes to a temple to see if the culprit can be found by divination. On his arrival he hears an announcement asking for information about a robbery at the temple and concludes that a god who cannot look after his own must be useless. But the contrary position, against reliance on religious ritual, was taken in fables like Hercules and the Wagoner that illustrate the proverb "god helps those who help themselves". The story was also to become a favourite centuries later in Protestant England, where one commentator took the extreme position that to neglect the necessity of self-help is "blasphemy" and that it is "a great sin for a man to fail in his trade or occupation by running often to prayers". As the fables moved out of the Greek-speaking world and were adapted to different times and religions, it is notable how radically some fables were reinterpreted. Thus one of the fables collected under the title of the Lion's share and originally directed against tyranny became in the hands of Rumi a parable of oneness with the God of Islam and obedience to divine authority. In the Jewish 'fox fables' of Berechiah ha-Nakdan, the humorous account of the hares and the frogs was made the occasion to recommend trust in God, while Christian reinterpretation of animal symbolism in Mediaeval times turned The Wolf and the Crane into a parable of the rescue of the sinner's soul from Hell. In Mediaeval times too, fables were collected for use in sermons, of which Odo of Cheriton's Parobolae is just one example. At the start of the Reformation, Martin Luther followed his example in the work now known as the Coburg Fables. Another source of Christianized fables was in the emblem books of the 16th–17th centuries. In Georgette de Montenay's Emblemes ou devises chrestiennes (1571), for example, the fable of The Oak and the Reed was depicted in the context of the lines from the Magnificat, "He hath put down the mighty from their seats and exalted them of low degree" (Luke 1.52, AV). Once the fables were perceived as primarily for the instruction of children, a new generation of Christian writers began putting their own construction on them, often at odds with their original interpretation. An extreme example occurs in a compilation called Christian Fables from the Victorian era, where The North Wind and the Sun is referred to Biblical passages in which religion is compared to a cloak. Therefore, says the author, one should beware of abandoning one's beliefs under the sun of prosperity. Demonstrably, the essence of fables is their adaptability. Beginning two and a half millennia ago with aetiological solutions to philosophical problems, fresh religious applications were continuing into the present. Dramatised fables The success of La Fontaine's fables in France started a European fashion for creating plays around them. The originator was Edmé Boursault, with his five-act verse drama Les Fables d'Esope (1690), later retitled Esope à la ville (Aesop in town). Such was its popularity that a rival theatre produced Eustache Le Noble's Arlaquin-Esope in the following year. Boursault then wrote a sequel, Esope à la cour (Aesop at court), a heroic comedy that was held up by the censors and not produced until after his death in 1701. Other 18th-century imitations included Jean-Antoine du Cerceau's Esope au collège (1715), where being put in charge of a school gives the fabulist ample opportunity to tell his stories, and Charles-Étienne Pesselier's Esope au Parnasse (1739), a one-act piece in verse. Esope à la ville was written in French alexandrine couplets and depicted a physically ugly Aesop acting as adviser to Learchus, governor of Cyzicus under King Croesus, and using his fables as satirical comments on those seeking his favour or to solve romantic problems. One of the problems is personal to Aesop, since he is betrothed to the governor's daughter, who detests him and has a young admirer with whom she is in love. There is very little action, the play serving as a platform for the recitation of free verse fables at frequent intervals. These include The Fox and the Weasel, The Fox and the Mask, The Belly and the Other Members, the Town Mouse and the Country Mouse, the Fox and the Crow, the Crab and her Daughter, The Frog and the Ox, the Cook and the Swan, The Wolf and the Lamb, The Mountain in Labour, and The Man with two Mistresses. Two others – The Nightingale, The Lark and the Butterfly – appear original to the author, while a third, The Doves and the Vulture, is in fact an adapted version of The Frogs and the Sun. Esope à la cour is more of a moral satire, most scenes being set pieces for the application of fables to moral problems, but to supply romantic interest Aesop's mistress Rhodope is introduced. Among the sixteen fables included, only four derive from La Fontaine – The Heron and the Fish, the Lion and the Mouse, the Dove and the Ant, the Sick Lion – while a fifth borrows a moral from another of his but alters the details, and a sixth has as apologue a maxim of Antoine de La Rochefoucauld. After a modest few performances, the piece later grew in popularity and remained in the repertory until 1817. Boursault's play was also influential in Italy and twice translated. It appeared from Bologna in 1719 under the title L'Esopo in Corte, translated by Antonio Zaniboni, and as Le Favole di Esopa alla Corte from Venice in 1747, translated by Gasparo Gozzi. The same translator was responsible for a version of Esope à la ville (Esopo in città, Venice, 1748); then in 1798 there was an anonymous Venetian three-act adaptation, Le Favole di Esopa, ossia Esopo in città. In England the play was adapted under the title Aesop by John Vanbrugh and first performed at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane in London in 1697, remaining popular for the next twenty years. In the 20th century individual fables by Aesop began to be adapted to animated cartoons, most notably in France and the United States. Cartoonist Paul Terry began his own series, called Aesop's Film Fables, in 1921 but by the time this was taken over by Van Beuren Studios in 1928 the story lines had little connection with any fable of Aesop's. In the early 1960s, animator Jay Ward created a television series of short cartoons called Aesop and Son which were first aired as part of The Rocky and Bullwinkle Show. Actual fables were spoofed to result in a pun based on the original moral. Two fables are also featured in the 1971 TV movie Aesop's Fables in the US. Here Aesop is a black story teller who relates two turtle fables, The Tortoise and the Eagle and the Tortoise and the Hare to a couple of children who wander into an enchanted grove. The fables themselves are shown as cartoons. Between 1989 and 1991, fifty Aesop-based fables were reinterpreted on French television as and later issued on DVD. These featured a cartoon in which the characters appeared as an assembly of animated geometric shapes, accompanied by Pierre Perret's slang versions of La Fontaine's original poem. In 1983 there was an extended manga version of the fables made in Japan, Isoppu monogatari, and there has also been a Chinese television series for children based on the stories. There have also been several dramatic productions for children based on elements of Aesop's life and including the telling of some fables, although most were written as purely local entertainments. Among these was Canadian writer Robertson Davies' A Masque of Aesop (1952), which was set at his trial in Delphi and allows the defendant to tell the fables The Belly and the Members, The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse and The Cock and the Jewel while challenging prevailing social attitudes. Musical treatments While musical settings of La Fontaine's Fables began appearing in France within a few decades of their publication, it was not until the 19th century that composers began to take their inspiration directly from Aesop. One of the earliest was Charles Valentin Alkan's Le festin d'Ésope ("Aesop's Feast", 1857), a set of piano variations in which each is said to depict a different animal or scene from Aesop's fables. In Victorian England there were several piano arrangements of fables versified (with no particular skill) by their composers. 1847 saw the anonymous Selection of Aesop's Fables Versified and Set to Music with Symphonies and Accompaniments for the Piano Forte, which contained 28 fables. It was followed in that same year by Olivia Buckley Dussek's selection, illustrated by Thomas Onwhyn. Twelve were also set by W. Langton Williams (c.1832-1896) in his Aesop’s Fables, versified & arranged for the piano forte (London, 1870s), the jocular wording of which was strongly deprecated by The Musical Times. More were to follow in the 20th century, with seven settings in Mabel Wood Hill's Aesop's Fables Interpreted Through Music (New York, 1920), with the fable's moral at the head of each piece. Many of these works were specifically aimed at young people. They also included Edward Hughes’ Songs from Aesop's fables for children's voices and piano (1965) and Arwel Hughes's similarly titled work for unison voices. More recently, the American composer Robert J. Bradshaw (b.1970) dedicated his 3rd Symphony (2005) to the fables with a programme note explaining that the work's purpose "is to excite young musicians and audiences to take an interest in art music". Five more fables set for choir are featured in Bob Chilcott's Aesop's Fables (2008). Werner Egk's early settings in Germany were aimed at children too. His Der Löwe und die Maus (The Lion and the Mouse 1931) was a singspiel drama for small orchestra and children's choir; aimed at 12- to 14-year-olds, it was built on an improvisation by the composer's own children. He followed this with Der Fuchs und der Rabe (The Fox and the Crow) in 1932. Hans Poser's Die Fabeln des Äsop (Op. 28, 1956) was set for accompanied men's chorus and uses Martin Luther's translation of six. Others who have set German texts for choir include Herbert Callhoff (1963) and Andre Asriel (1972). The commonest approach in building a musical bridge to children has involved using a narrator with musical backing. Following the example of Sergei Prokoviev in "Peter and the Wolf" (1936), Vincent Persichetti set six for narrator and orchestra in his Fables (Op. 23 1943). Richard Maltz also composed his Aesop's Fables (1993) to introduce the instruments of the orchestra to elementary students and to teach them about the elements of music, and Daniel Dorff's widely performed 3 Fun Fables (1996) has contrasting instruments interpreting characters: in "The Fox and the Crow" it is trumpet and contrabass; in "The Dog and Its Reflection" it is trombone and violin, harp and percussion; in "The Tortoise and the Hare" it is contrabassoon and clarinet. Others simply adapt the narrator's voice to a musical backing. They include Scott Watson's Aesop's Fables and Anthony Plog's set of five for narrator, horn and piano (1989). A different strategy is to adapt the telling to popular musical genres. Australian musician David P Shortland chose ten fables for his recording Aesop Go HipHop (2012), where the stories are given a hip hop narration and the moral is underlined in a lyrical chorus. The American William Russo's approach to popularising his Aesop's Fables (1971) was to make of it a rock opera. This incorporates nine, each only introduced by the narrator before the music and characters take over. Instead of following the wording of one of the more standard fable collections, as other composers do, the performer speaks in character. Thus in "The Crow and the Fox" the bird introduces himself with, "Ahm not as pretty as mah friends and I can’t sing so good, but, uh, I can steal food pretty goddam good!" Other composers who have created operas for children have been Martin Kalmanoff in Aesop the fabulous fabulist (1969), David Ahlstom in his one-act Aesop's Fables (1986), and David Edgar Walther with his set of four "short operatic dramas", some of which were performed in 2009 and 2010. There have also been local ballet treatments of the fables for children in the US by such companies as Berkshire Ballet and Nashville Ballet. Another musical, Aesop's Fables by British playwright Peter Terson, first produced in 1983, was lifted into another class by Mark Dornford-May's adaptation for the Isango Portobello company at the Fugard Theatre in Cape Town, South Africa, in 2010. The play tells the story of the black slave Aesop, who learns that freedom is earned and kept through being responsible. His teachers are the animal characters he meets on his journeys. The fables they suggest include the Tortoise and the Hare, the Lion and the Goat, the Wolf and the Crane, the Frogs Who Desired a King and three others, brought to life through a musical score featuring mostly marimbas, vocals and percussion. Another colourful treatment was Brian Seward's Aesop's Fabulous Fables (2009) in Singapore, which mixes a typical musical with Chinese dramatic techniques. Use of other languages elsewhere in the world have included a setting of four Latin texts in the Czech composer Ilja Hurník's Ezop for mixed choir and orchestra (1964) and the setting of two as a Greek opera by Giorgos Sioras (b. 1952) in 1998. And in 2010 Lefteris Kordis launched his 'Aesop Project', a setting of seven fables which mixed traditional East Mediterranean and Western Classical musical textures, combined with elements of jazz. After an English recitation by male narrator, a female singer's rendition of the Greek wording was accompanied by an octet. List of some fables by Aesop Titles A–F Aesop and the Ferryman The Ant and the Grasshopper The Ape and the Fox The Ass and his Masters The Ass and the Pig The Ass Carrying an Image The Ass in the Lion's Skin The Astrologer who Fell into a Well The Bald Man and the Fly The Bear and the Travelers The Beaver The Belly and the Other Members The Bird-catcher and the Blackbird The Bird in Borrowed Feathers The Boy Who Cried Wolf The Bulls and the Lion The Cat and the Mice The Crab and the Fox The Cock and the Jewel The Cock, the Dog and the Fox The Crow and the Pitcher The Crow and the Sheep The Crow and the Snake The Deer without a Heart The Dog and Its Reflection The Dog and the Sheep The Dog and the Wolf The dogs and the lion's skin The Dove and the Ant The Eagle and the Beetle The Eagle and the Fox The Eagle Wounded by an Arrow The Farmer and his Sons The Farmer and the Sea The Farmer and the Stork The Farmer and the Viper The Fir and the Bramble The Fisherman and his Flute The Fisherman and the Little Fish The Fly and the Ant The Fly in the Soup The Fowler and the Snake The Fox and the Crow The Fox and the Grapes The Fox and the Lion The Fox and the Mask The Fox and the Sick Lion The Fox and the Stork The Fox and the Weasel The Fox and the Woodman The Fox, the Flies and the Hedgehog The Frightened Hares The Frog and the Fox The Frog and the Mouse The Frog and the Ox The Frogs and the Sun The Frogs Who Desired a King Titles G–O The Goat and the Vine The Goose that Laid the Golden Eggs The Hare in flight Hercules and the Wagoner The Honest Woodcutter Horkos, the god of oaths The Horse and the Donkey The Horse that Lost its Liberty The Impertinent Insect The Jar of Blessings The Kite and the Doves The Lion and the Mouse The Lion Grown Old The Lion in Love The Lion's Share The Lion, the Bear and the Fox The lion, the boar and the vultures The Man and the Lion The Man with two Mistresses The Mischievous Dog The Miser and his Gold Momus criticizes the creations of the gods The Mountain in Labour The Mouse and the Oyster The North Wind and the Sun The Oak and the Reed The Old Man and Death The Old Man and his Sons The Old Man and the Ass The Old Woman and the Doctor The Old Woman and the Wine-jar The Oxen and the Creaking Cart Titles R–Z The Rivers and the Sea The Rose and the Amaranth The Satyr and the Traveller The Shipwrecked Man and the Sea The Sick Kite The Snake and the Crab The Snake and the Farmer The Snake in the Thorn Bush The Statue of Hermes The Swan and the Goose The Tortoise and the Birds The Tortoise and the Hare The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse The Travellers and the Plane Tree The Trees and the Bramble The Trumpeter Taken Captive The Two Pots Venus and the Cat The Walnut Tree War and his Bride Washing the Ethiopian white The Wolf and the Crane The Wolf and the Lamb The Wolf and the Shepherds The Woodcutter and the Trees The Young Man and the Swallow Zeus and the Tortoise Fables wrongly attributed to Aesop An ass eating thistles The Bear and the Bees The Bear and the Gardener Belling the cat (also known as The Mice in Council) The Blind Man and the Lame The Boy and the Filberts Chanticleer and the Fox The Dog in the Manger The drowned woman and her husband The Eel and the Snake The Elm and the Vine The Fox and the Cat The Gourd and the Palm-tree The Hawk and the Nightingale The Hare and many friends The Hedgehog and the Snake The Heron and the Fish Jumping from the frying pan into the fire The milkmaid and her pail The miller, his son and the donkey The Monkey and the Cat The Priest and the Wolf The Scorpion and the Frog The Shepherd and the Lion Still waters run deep The Vultures and the Pigeons The Wolf in Sheep's Clothing References Further reading Anthony, Mayvis, 2006. The Legendary Life and Fables of Aesop Caxton, William, 1484. The history and fables of Aesop, Westminster. Modern reprint edited by Robert T. Lenaghan (Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 1967) Clayton, Edward. "Aesop, Aristotle, and Animals: The Role of Fables in Human Life". Humanitas, Volume XXI, Nos. 1 and 2, 2008, pp. 179–200. Bowie, Maryland: National Humanities Institute. Gibbs, Laura (translator), 2002, reissued 2008. Aesop's Fables. Oxford University Press Gibbs, Laura, "Aesop Illustrations: Telling the Story in Images" Rev. Thomas James M.A., Aesop's Fables: A New Version, Chiefly from Original Sources, 1848. John Murray (includes many pictures by John Tenniel) – online version Perry, Ben Edwin (editor), 1952, 2nd edition 2007. Aesopica: A Series of Texts Relating to Aesop or Ascribed to Him. Urbana: University of Illinois Press Perry, Ben E. (editor), 1965. Babrius and Phaedrus, (Loeb Classical Library) Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1965. English translations of 143 Greek verse fables by Babrius, 126 Latin verse fables by Phaedrus, 328 Greek fables not extant in Babrius, and 128 Latin fables not extant in Phaedrus (including some medieval materials) for a total of 725 fables Ruben, Emile, Poésies en patois limousine, Paris 1866 Temple, Olivia; Temple, Robert (translators), 1998. Aesop, The Complete Fables, New York: Penguin Classics. () External links Aesopica: over 600 English fables, plus Caxton's Aesop, Latin and Greek texts, Content Index, and Site Search. Children's Library, a site with many reproductions of illustrated English editions of Aesop Fables of Aesop, English versions Carlson Fable Collection at Creighton University Includes online catalogue of fable-related objects Vita et Aesopus moralisatus [Aesop's Fables, Italian and Latin.] Naples: [Germani fidelissimi for] Francesco del Tuppo, 13 February 1485. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Esopus [Moralisatus]. Venice, Manfredus de Bonellis, de Monteferrato, 17 August 1493. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Fabulae. Naples, Cristannus Preller, . From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Esopo con la uita sua historiale euulgare. Milan, Guillermi Le Signerre fratres, 15 September 1498. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Fabule et vita Esopi, cum fabulis Auiani, Alfonsij, Pogij Florentini, et aliorum, cum optimo commento, bene diligenterque correcte et emendate. Antwerp, Gerardus Leeu, 26 September 1486. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Esopus constructus moralicatus Uenetijs, Impressum per B. Benalium, 1517. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Esopus cõnstructus moralizat. Taurini, B. Sylva, 1534 From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Aesopi Fabvlae cvm vvlgari interpretatione: Brixiae, Apud Loduicum Britannicum, 1537. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Aesop's fables. Latin. Esopi Appologi siue Mythologi cum quibusdam carminum et fabularum additionibus 1501. From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Aesop's fables. Spanish Libro del sabio [et] clarissimo fabulador Ysopu hystoriado et annotado. Sevilla, J. Cronberger, 1521 From the Rare Book and Special Collections Division at the Library of Congress Aesop's fables. German. Vita et Fabulae. Augsburg, Anton Sorg, {{circa\|1479. 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240756	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny%20Red	Penny Red	The Penny Red was a British postage stamp, issued in 1841. It succeeded the Penny Black and continued as the main type of postage stamp in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until 1879, with only minor changes to the design during that time. The colour was changed from black to red because of difficulty in seeing a cancellation mark on the Penny Black; a black cancellation mark was readily visible on a Penny Red. History Initially, the same plates used to print the Penny Black were used to print the Penny Red. About 21 billion Penny Reds were printed by Messrs. Perkins, Bacon & Co. The stamp had no perforations, and had to be cut from the sheet using scissors in the same manner as for the Penny Black and the early printings of the Two pence blue. Perforations (experimental gauge 16) first came into use in 1850 and were officially adopted in 1854 (in the same size as the experimental issue). The experimental perforated issue can be distinguished from the general issue as the later was applied to stamp which used a different alphabet type for the letters in the lower corners. Each stamp has unique corner letters AA, AB, AC ... AL etc., so its position on the plate can be identified. In January 1855, the perforation size was changed from 16 to 14 as it was found that the sheets were coming apart too easily. The reduced size allowed the sheets to remain intact until pressure was applied to force the separation. The stamps were printed in sheets of 240 (20 rows of 12 stamps), so one row cost 1 shilling and a complete sheet one pound. This 240 stamps per sheet configuration continued with all British postage stamps issued until 1971 when decimal currency was introduced and the sheet size was changed to 200, (20 rows of 10 stamps) making the lowest value denomination (half penny) one pound per sheet. Plate numbers On 1 April 1864, the stamp was issued with the plate number engraved in the design, in the left and right side lace work. At this time, the stars in the top corners were also replaced with the same check letters as used in the lower corners, but in reverse order. Because of wear, over 400 different plates were used to print the Penny Red. Two different basic watermarks were used for the paper, small crown, (on the early issues) and large crown, introduced on 15 May 1855. The first stamps printed on the large crown watermarked paper showed two small vertical lines in the central portion of the crown. Later printings showed a revised watermark on which these central lines are not present. Stamps from some of the individual plate numbers, such as plate 77, are very rare and in 2016, an example from this plate was auctioned for UK£495,000. Withdrawal The era of the Penny Red came to its close at the end of 1879, along with Perkins Bacon's contract. It was superseded by the Penny Venetian Red printed by De La Rue, which was in use for a little over a year before being succeeded in turn by the long-lived Penny Lilac. Since then, the stamp has become in demand amongst stamp collectors. Chronology 10 February 1841 - first issue: colour of 1d stamp changed from black to red-brown. 24 February 1854 - perforations 16 introduced. January 1855 - perforation size changed from 16 to 14. 15 May 1855 - watermark changed from small crown to large crown. 1858 - letters in all four corners, colour lake-red 1 April 1864 - letters on all four corners and plate number engraved on each stamp from plate 71 onwards. 27 October 1879 - last plate (225) put to press. 3 December 1879 - contract to print the Penny Red formally ended. See also Archer Roulette List of British postage stamps List of notable postage stamps Postage stamps and postal history of Great Britain References and sources Notes Sources Stanley Gibbons Ltd, Specialised Stamp Catalogue Volume 1: Queen Victoria J.B. Seymour & C. Gardiner-Hill The Postage Stamps of Great Britain Part 1 (Royal Philatelic Society London, 3rd. edition, 1967) W.R.D. Wiggins (Ed.) The Postage Stamps of Great Britain Part 2 (Royal Philatelic Society London, 2nd edition, 1962) External links Examples of Penny Reds from the Phillips Collection (via Wayback Machine) Penny Red Collector Plate 77 Article by Robert Murray, aimed at novices. 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240757	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humbucker	Humbucker	A humbucking pickup, humbucker, or double coil, is a type of guitar pickup that uses two wire coils to cancel out the noisy interference picked up by coil pickups. In addition to electric guitar pickups, humbucking coils are sometimes used in dynamic microphones to cancel electromagnetic hum. History The "humbucking coil" was invented in 1934 by Electro-Voice, an American professional audio company based in South Bend, Indiana that Al Kahn and Lou Burroughs incorporated in 1930 for the purpose of manufacturing portable public address equipment, including microphones and loudspeakers. The twin coiled guitar pickup invented by Arnold Lesti in 1935 is arranged as a humbucker, and the patent USRE20070 describes the noise cancelation and current summation principles of such a design. This "Electric Translating Device" employed the solenoid windings of the pickup to magnetize the steel strings by means of switching on a short D.C. charge before switching over to amplification. In 1938, A.F. Knoblaugh invented a pickup for stringed instruments involving two stacked coils . This pickup was to be used in pianos, since he was working for Baldwin Piano at the time. The 1939 April copy of Radio Craft Magazine shows how to construct a guitar pickup made with two identical coils wrapped around self-magnetized iron cores, where one is then flipped over to create a reverse-wound, reverse-polarity, humbucking orientation. The iron cores of these pickups were magnetized to have their north-south poles at the opposite ends of the core, rather than the now more common top-bottom orientation. To overcome the hum problem for guitars, a humbucking pickup was invented by Seth Lover of Gibson under instruction of then-president Ted McCarty. About the same time, Ray Butts developed a similar pickup that was taken up by Gretsch guitars. Although Gibson's patent was filed almost two years before Gretsch's, Gibson's patent was issued four weeks after Gretsch's. Both patents describe a reverse-wound and reverse-polarity pair of coils. A successful early humbucking pickup was the type which is nowadays known as the "PAF" (literally "Patent Applied For") invented by Seth Lover in 1955. Because of this, and because of its use on the Gibson Les Paul guitar, popularization of the humbucker is strongly associated with Gibson, although humbuckers had been used in many different guitar designs by many different manufacturers before. Rickenbacker offered dual coil pickups arranged in a humbucking pattern beginning in late 1953 but dropped the design in 1954 due to the perceived distorted sound, which had stronger mid-range presence. The Gibson Les Paul was the first guitar to use humbuckers in substantial production. Over the following decades, variants of practically every important type of electric guitar have also been factory-equipped with humbuckers, even the types which are traditionally most associated with single-coil pickups, like Fender Stratocasters and Telecasters. In particular, the replacement of the bridge pickup in a Stratocaster-type guitar with a humbucker, resulting in a pickup configuration noted as H-S-S (starting at bridge pickup: H for humbucker, S for single coil) has gained much popularity. Guitars in this configuration are sometimes referred to as "Fat Strats", because of the "fatter", "rounder" tone offered by the humbucking pickup, and are also closely related to the development of the "Superstrat" style of guitar. Function In any magnetic pickup, a vibrating guitar string, magnetized by a fixed magnet within the pickup, induces an alternating voltage across its coil. However, wire coils also make excellent antennae and are therefore sensitive to electromagnetic interference caused by alternating magnetic fields from mains wiring (mains hum) and electrical appliances like transformers, motors, and computer screens, especially older CRT monitors. Guitar pickups reproduce this noise, which can be quite audible, sounding like a constant hum or buzz. This is most noticeable when using distortion, fuzz, compressors, or other effects which reduce the signal-to-noise ratio and therefore amplify the unwanted interference relative to the signal from the strings. Humbuckers work by pairing a coil that has the north poles of its magnets oriented "up" (toward the strings) with another coil alongside it with the south pole of its magnets oriented up. By connecting the coils together out of phase, the interference is significantly reduced via phase cancellation: the string signals from both coils add up instead of canceling, because the magnets are placed in opposite polarity. This dramatically improves the signal-to-noise ratio. The technique has something in common with what electrical engineers call "common-mode rejection", and is also found in the balanced lines used in audio equipment. By convention, humbucker coils are both wound counterclockwise. The coils can be connected in series or in parallel in order to achieve this hum-cancellation effect, but humbucker pickups tend to be connected in series because that doubles the signal of the strings while keeping the hum reduced. Alternative designs Mini-humbuckers Many solid-body guitars feature cavities only for single-coil pickups. Installing full-sized humbuckers in this type of guitar requires additional routing of the woodwork, and/or cutting of the pickguard if the instrument has one. If the process is not carefully done, the instrument's body and pickguard may be damaged. In many situations, to maintain the guitars aesthetics and/or functionality the process would not be carried out, to prevent the associated risk. As a result, many pickup manufacturers now produce humbucking pickups compacted into the size of a single coil. Many different kinds of mini-humbuckers are available from numerous manufacturers, and they produce a wide range of different tones. The most common design is very similar to a traditional humbucker. Stacked coils As a concept Stacks are similar to side-by-side humbuckers since a stacked pickup uses anti-phase hum signals to cancel hum. The notion that Stacks offer the more subtle and delicate sound of a single-coil, while still retaining the hum-cancellation properties of a humbucker is not at all accurate. Firstly, when one of the stacked coils has no magnets there is a great imbalance of inductance and the offset hum voltage renders hum cancelation ineffective, and secondly, since the stacked coils are magnetically coupled string signal is present in both coils and is canceled along with the hum signal. Most Stacks have rod magnets extending through the cores of both coils, but while this improves hum cancelation it causes a huge additional degradation of the resultant sound because of common-mode signal cancelation. Thus people often refer to these type of pickups as Crude Stacks, meaning lacking sophisticated design. Seymour Duncan is the most notable purveyor of crude Stacks and he gave them the name Stack. Duncan Stacks, as well as Fender's Noiseless pickups, have Alnico rod magnets that extend through both upper and lower coils. All Fender's noiseless however have a significantly improved design which produces a better quality Fender sound. Although it is not 100% authentic since guitar players find the attack envelope to lack the rapid 'snap' of good sounding Fender non noiseless pickups. DiMarzio's HS-1, HS-2 and HS-3 are examples of vertical humbuckers aka Stacks that have magnets only in the top coil. The sound of Crude Stacks bears little resemblance to Fender sound. There are many other brands of crude Stacks including EMG and Fishman Fluence, however both of those have active electronic circuits build in to artificially re-constitute the signal generated by the coils to resemble the intended advertised sound. Rail humbuckers Another design known as the rail humbucker features a single magnetic component spanning across the entire string width of the instrument. These pickups look like a normal mini-humbucker, except without the typical dots corresponding to the magnetic pole-pieces. This is sometimes expanded into a normal-size "quadrail", or double humbucker, effectively combining 4 coils connected in series to produce an extremely high-output pickup. The Kent Armstrong "Motherbucker" is an example of such an overpowered pickup. The same type of rails can also be found in a normal-size humbucker, however. Heavy metal guitarist Dimebag Darrell made heavy use of this type of pickup wired in the bridge position. These tend to also sound fuller and have a higher output and bass response than the single coil-size version. DiMarzio has designed and sold many such pickups. Coil splitting and coil taps Some guitars which have humbucking pickups feature "coil splits", which allow the pickups to act as "pseudo-single" coils by either short-circuiting or bypassing one coil. The electrical circuit of the pickup is reduced to that of a true single coil so there is no hum canceling effect. Usually, this feature is activated using a miniature toggle switch or a DPDT push-pull switch mounted on a potentiometer. Some guitars (e.g., the Peavey T-60 and the Fender Classic Player Jaguar HH) make use of a variable coil split circuit that allows the guitarist to dial a variable amount of signal from the second coil, from purely single-coil to full humbucker and everything in-between. Another similar option is a series/parallel switch, which in one position causes the coils to be connected in parallel rather than in series. This retains the humbucker's noise-cancellation properties, and gives a sound closer to that of two single-coil pickups used together. Coil splitting is often wrongly referred to as a "coil tapping". Coil taps are most commonly found on single coil pickups, and involve an extra hook-up wire being included during the manufacture of the pickup so the guitarist can choose to have all the windings of the pickup included in the circuit, for a fatter, higher output sound with more midrange; or switch the output to "Tap" into the windings at a point that is less than the full coil for a brighter, lower output, cleaner sound. For example: a full pickup coil may be 10,000 turns of wire and the "Tap" may be at 8000 turns. Because of the confusion between coil splits and coil taps—and the rareness of coil taps in general—it is difficult to find tappable single coil pickups for sale. However, pickup manufacturer Seymour Duncan offers tapped versions of many of their Telecaster and Stratocaster pickups. Note the split single coil bears little resemblance to popular single coil pickups such as those made by Fender and the P-90 made by Gibson. However, after 6 years of development Kinman Guitar Electrix in 2021 released a fully hum canceling splitting humbucker that also produces highly convincing Fender and P-90 sounds without hum. Known as the Converge-3 it is a world first which incorporates Patented ground braking technology to achieve this hitherto elusive goal. Notable humbucker designs Gibson "PAF" - Seth Lover's humbucker design Gretsch Filter'Tron Prototype – Ray Butts' first humbucker design Fender Wide Range – Fender's first humbucker design, also by Seth Lover Epiphone (and later Gibson) mini-humbucker – a smaller humbucker design with adjustable pole pieces. A Gibson design which reduced their standard humbucker to fit in Epiphones routed for the 1950s Epi "New York" pickup, they were later used most famously in the Gibson Les Paul Deluxe. Gibson Firebird pickup – inspired by the Epiphone pickup, and shares its basic dimensions, but is different in terms of design, appearance, and tone, using single blade pole pieces. Q-tuner – neodymium magnet humbuckers EMG Pickups – active pickups since 1976 Seymour Duncan - by Seymour W. Duncan Converge-3 by Kinman Guitar Electrix Other noise-reducing pickup designs While the original humbucker remains the most common noise-reducing pickup design, inventors have tried many other approaches to reducing noise in guitar pickups. Combining two single-coil pickups Many instruments combine separate single coil pickups in a hum reducing configuration by reversing the electrical phase of one of the pickups. This arrangement is similar to that of a humbucking pickup and effectively reduces noise. Examples of this include the Fender Jazz Bass, introduced in 1960, which has used a pair of single coil pickups, one near the bridge and another one about halfway between the bridge and the neck—and many Stratocaster style guitars, which often have 3 pickups with the middle one reversed electrically and magnetically. The (usually) five-way selector switch provides two humbucking settings, using the reversed middle pickup in parallel with either the bridge or neck pickup. If the pickups are wired in series instead of parallel, the resulting sound is close to that of a normal humbucker. It is even closer to a humbucker-type sound if you put the coils closer together. Proprietary designs In 1957, Fender introduced a split pickup to its Precision Bass, where one coil is serving the E and A strings, and the other one the D and G strings. This configuration is often referred to as a "split coil" pickup, which should not be confused with the possibility of "coil-splitting" a regular humbucker as discussed above. Both coils see nearly identical extraneous electromagnetic disturbances, and since they are wired in humbucking fashion, can effectively cancel them. However the majority of the sound signal of any single note will mostly be generated just by one of the coils, so that output level and tonal qualities are much closer to a regular single-coil pickup. The resulting "P-Style" pickup is usually regarded as the main ingredient of the "P-Bass" sound, and many variants of the design are being offered by many manufacturers. The concept was later developed into G&L's "Z-coil" pickup, which is used for standard guitars such as their Comanche model. In 1985, Lace Music Products introduced the Lace Sensor pickup, which uses proprietary screened bobbins to reduce hum while preserving single-coil tone. In the early 1980s DiMarzio introduced replacement pickups for Stratocaster and Telecaster guitars. These were of the stacked humbucker design, where the lower pickup coil functions solely to cancel hum. The DiMarzio "Super Distortion" pickup, introduced in 1972, was the first after-market replacement guitar pickup. With its much increased output compared to the humbuckers that came installed in guitars of the time, it became an instant favourite of many hard-rock guitarists, and it remains a popular choice for a pickup upgrade decades later. The "Super Distortion" is noteworthy for its trademarked looks: two uncovered cream coloured bobbins. Other manufacturers were since limited to selling pickups with two black bobbins, or in the "zebra" look: with one bobbin black and one bobbin cream. (Of course they were still free to use wilder colours, but only in rare cases is such a choice regarded as befitting the look of any serious professional instrument.) 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240758	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20Daneel%20Olivaw	R. Daneel Olivaw	R. Daneel Olivaw is a fictional robot created by Isaac Asimov. The "R" initial in his name stands for "Robot," a naming convention in Asimov's future society during Earth's early period of space colonization. Daneel is introduced in The Caves of Steel, a serialized story published in Galaxy magazine vol. 7 #1-3 from October to December 1953. The full story was published by Doubleday as a hardcover book in 1954. In his introduction story, Daneel is said to be not only made in the likeness of one of his creators but is also the first robot physically indistinguishable from humans. Like other robots in Asimov's stories, his "positronic brain" is governed by the Three Laws of Robotics. Daneel's particular brain and system are more advanced than the average robot. He can convincingly mimic human behavior and reactions, is better able to adapt and evolve through increased knowledge and experience, and can perform "cerebroanalysis", an ability defined as an "interpretation of the electromagnetic fields of living brain cells" that provides "information of the temperamental and emotional makeup of an individual." Asimov's concept of cerebroanalysis in 1953 predicted magnetic resonance imaging (first demonstrated in 1973), and also its later (and currently) debated use to determine truthfulness or deceit. Daneel is one of the two main protagonists of Asimov's Robot series books The Caves of Steel, The Naked Sun, and The Robots of Dawn. In these books, as well as the short story "Mirror Image", he works with human detective Elijah Baley to solve unusual murders. Along with the murder mystery aspect, the stories focus on discussions regarding space exploration and human societal norms, and show an evolution in both the friendship developing between the two characters and Daneel's personal sense of morality. Daneel also appears in Robots and Empire, a book that acts as a bridge between Asimov's Robot series and his Foundation series, the latter of which takes place during and after the age of the galaxy's First Empire. In the prequels and sequels to the original Foundation trilogy, a character is revealed to be Daneel now living under a different identity, meaning he has survived for thousands of years, living through the entire era of the First Empire and beyond. By this point, he has replaced much of his body with new hardware, though his mind still operates under the Three Laws of Robotics. Character biography Daneel is a robot built by Roj Nemennuh Sarton and Han Fastolfe, who are Spacer roboticists from the planet Aurora, in the year 4920 AD. Although designed and built by Auroran roboticists, Daneel was constructed on Earth. He is the first humanoid, or "humaniform," robot ever constructed and is outwardly indistinguishable from a human being. This "undercover" attribute enables him to help earth-policeman Elijah Baley solve crimes. Daneel and Baley first meet while Baley is investigating the murder of Daneel's co-creator Sarton in Spacetown. Daneel is physically a perfect likeness of Dr. Sarton. Daneel has a broad, high-cheekboned face and short bronze hair lying flatly backward and without a parting. He wears clothes and, in The Caves of Steel, cannot be told apart from a human unless in a situation where he refuses to violate the Three Laws of Robotics, and even in this case is indistinguishable from a particularly altruistic person. In The Caves of Steel, Daneel reveals that he has the capability to perform cerebroanalysis enabling him to interpret the emotional makeup of human brain activity. In Robots and Empire, Daneel gains the ability to influence the mental state of other creatures, human or robot, and, presumably, animal. Daneel gains this ability as a result of voluntary acceptance of reprogramming instructions from R. Giskard Reventlov. Relationship with Elijah Baley Daneel is introduced in the book The Caves of Steel, where he is tasked to assist Elijah Baley in the investigation of the murder of his creator, Roj Nemennuh Sarton. The book shows Earth's prejudice against robots, explaining why a humanoid robot was assigned to the case. Initially Baley is suspicious of Daneel and constructs two separate theories in which the Robot is responsible for the murder. The first supposition is that Daneel is in fact Sarton pretending to be a robot; the second supposition is that Daneel lacks the Three Laws. After both theories are disproven, Baley begins to feel a friendship with Daneel. At the same time, watching Baley gives Daneel a more nuanced view of justice, coming to understand that it is better to convert evil to good than to simply destroy evil. Baley meets Daneel again in The Naked Sun, in which he is sent to the Spacer planet Solaria to investigate the murder of Rikaine Delmarre, the husband of Gladia Delmarre. The Solarians are not informed of Daneel's robotic nature, as a show of Aurora's superiority in the creation of robots. Daneel learns from Baley's methods of investigation in both books, which leads to him playing a larger role in The Naked Sun. Daneel also solves a case with Baley in Asimov's short story "Mirror Image". This story was written due to popular fan demand for another Baley/Daneel story. After it was written, Asimov was told by some fans that they enjoyed it but had hoped for another novel. Baley and Daneel's last case together takes place on Aurora in the novel The Robots of Dawn. The murder victim is a humanoid robot, R. Jander Panell, who belonged to Gladia Delmarr and is physically similar to Daneel. Unknown to the public, Gladia and Jander had a sexual relationship and she secretly regarded the humanoid robot as her husband. Baley's and Daneel's friendship grows with each novel, ultimately leading to Daneel being the first of only two robots to ever set foot on a Settler world when Elijah Baley specifically asks to see him on his deathbed (R. Giskard being the second robot, many years later). Baley sends Daneel away immediately before dying, as witnessing his death would harm Daneel due to the First Law of Robotics. Baley's words to reassure Daneel about his death—explaining to him that he is a "mere thread in the vast tapestry of humanity"—assist Daneel in solidifying the Zeroth Law of Robotics. Baley and the experiences Daneel had with him remain important to Daneel even thousands of years later. When asked about the now mythic figure of Baley (whose existence is now questioned), Daneel states that he was greater than any myth claimed him to be. Zeroth Law of Robotics In Robots and Empire, where Asimov links the Robot series with the Empire series, Giskard and Daneel often discuss the limitations of the Laws of Robotics, a process lengthened by the fact that their positronic pathways prevent thought along these lines, thus often leading to a temporary loss in the ability to talk or move. By the end of the book, when Daneel has formulated the Zeroth Law of Robotics ("A robot may not harm humanity, or through inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"), Giskard is the first robot to act according to this new law. However, the act of causing harm to a human being in violation of the First Law proves fatally destructive for Giskard, due to the uncertainty of whether or not his actions benefit humanity in the long run – he believes in the law but is unable to point a finger at "humanity" as he could at an individual human, to assess the benefit or harm done. Before deactivating completely, Giskard is able to transfer his powers of being able to read and influence minds to Daneel (by describing the necessary circuits to be rewired in Daneel's brain). It is implied that Daneel's closer tie to humanity allows him to slowly adapt to the new law with far less risk of destruction. The Foundation Series Together Daneel and Giskard imagine the science of "psychohistory" or laws of humanics, that would enable them to execute the "Zeroth Law" in a quantitative sense. Thousands of years later this would be developed into practical application by Hari Seldon. From that time onward, Daneel manipulates the galaxy with the help of his many robot allies. Hari Seldon's wife Dors Venabili is the only one of Daneel's humanoid robot allies to be shown in the books. He sets up both the Galactic Empire and Gaia in order to create a society that does not need robots. Under the guise of Eto Demerzel, he becomes the first minister to galactic Emperor Cleon I and Stannell VI. When Hari Seldon first comes to Trantor, Daneel, under the guise of reporter Chetter Hummin (a play on the words "cheater" and "human"), convinces Hari that the Galactic Empire is dying and that psychohistory must be developed into a practical science in order to save it. As Hummin, he convinces Seldon that Cleon's first minister Eto Demerzel is pursuing him and that it is imperative for Hari to escape and to try making psychohistory practical. He introduces Hari to Dors Venabili, who becomes Hari's friend, protector, and future wife. At the end of Seldon's "Flight" it is revealed that Hummin and Demerzel are actually the same person, and are both false identities of Daneel. Demerzel appears again in Forward the Foundation, first as the First Minister as he discusses with Seldon his progress and the Empire's future. Demerzel eventually steps down from his post and offers it to Seldon, and disappears. He later makes a brief appearance in the epilogue, which says he was one of the many in attendance at Hari Seldon's funeral. Daneel appears once more in Foundation and Earth, where Golan Trevize and Janov Pelorat from the Foundation eventually find the radioactive Earth and Daneel's base on the Moon and learn about his paternalistic manipulations, including the settlement of Alpha Centauri, the creation of Gaia, and psychohistory. Based on an independent timeline, Daneel was 19,230 years old during the events of Foundation and Earth. Daneel is the longest-living Asimov character, as well as the longest living humanoid robot in that universe (being the first humanoid robot created). He is theoretically immortal, because he is a robot. However, his parts need replacing, including his brain, and he eventually has to use a biological brain, as his own becomes more complex each time he replaces it. Daneel mentions that the more complex his brains become, the more fragile they are. At the end of the book, he intends fusing his brain with that of a Solarian, as it has reached the point where an upgrade is no longer possible. Daneel's original brain had lasted 10,000 years, approximately half his lifetime. In contrast, his final brain, which was thousands of times more advanced than his first, showed signs of shutting down after only 600 years. Appearances in other media In the 1964 British television adaptation of The Caves of Steel (an episode of the BBC2 series Story Parade), Daneel was played by John Carson. The script was adapted by Terry Nation. In the 1969 British television adaptation of The Naked Sun (an episode of the BBC2 series Out of the Unknown), Daneel was played by David Collings. In the 1978 Soviet adaptation, The Last Alternative, Daneel was played by Georgiy Vasilyev In the 1988 TV Movie Robots, Daneel was portrayed by Brent Barrett. In the 1989 BBC Radio 4 adaptation of The Caves of Steel, Daneel was played by Sam Dastor. In the 2021 Apple TV adaptation of Foundation, Eto Demerzel is played by Laura Birn. In an interview, show developer and executive producer David Goyer explained that the Apple TV adaptation's portrayal of Demerzel is a robot not bound by the Three Laws of Robotics, explaining multiple scenes where she kills or allows killing and torture to occur in her presence. 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240760	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosella%20aurantiaca	Pilosella aurantiaca	Pilosella aurantiaca (fox-and-cubs, orange hawk bit, devil's paintbrush, grim-the-collier) is a perennial flowering plant in the daisy family Asteraceae that is native to alpine regions of central and southern Europe, where it is protected in several regions. Description It is a low-growing plant with shallow fibrous roots and a basal rosette of elliptical to lanceolate leaves long and broad. All parts of the plant exude a milky juice. The flowering stem is usually leafless or with just one or two small leaves. The stem and leaves are covered with short stiff hairs (trichomes), usually blackish in color. The stems may reach a height of and have 2–25 capitula (flowerheads), each 1– cm diameter, bundled together at the end of short pedicels. The flowers are orange, almost red, which is virtually invisible to bees, yet they also reflect ultraviolet light, increasing their conspicuousness to pollinators. The flowers are visited by various insects, including many species of bees, butterflies, pollinating flies. The flowers themselves come in a range of colors from a deep rust-orange to a pure yellow and often show striking gradients of color. The plant propagates through its wind-dispersed seeds, and also vegetatively by stolons and shallow rhizomes. Cultivation and uses P. aurantiaca is widely grown as an ornamental plant in gardens for its very decorative flowers. It is often used in wildflower gardens because its bright orange flowers are highly attractive to a wide array of pollinators. Invasive weed Orange hawkweed is currently the only hawkweed considered regionally invasive in areas of British Columbia, Canada. It is considered invasive in the East Kootenay, Central Kootenay, Columbia-Shuswap, Thompson-Nicola, Bulkley Nechako, and Cariboo Regional Districts. Invasive hawkweed can replace native vegetation in open, undisturbed natural areas such as meadows, reducing forage and threatening biodiversity. In Victoria and NSW, Australia, hawkweed species are declared as "State Prohibited Weeds" and are controlled under The Bio Security Act 2015. Orange hawkweed is also considered an invasive species in some states in the United States of America, such as Wisconsin and Minnesota. Currently there are several eradication programs operating (often employing volunteers) to locate, prevent the spread of and eradicate any Pilosella or Hieracium plants. References aurantiaca Alpine flora Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus	[ -0.3002539575099945, 0.09349242597818375, -0.11425074934959412, -0.18798799812793732, -0.29522135853767395, 0.20806410908699036, 0.39497363567352295, 0.58510822057724, 0.0027839713729918003, -0.1801409274339676, -0.2159757912158966, 0.21862511336803436, -0.6459348201751709, -0.30911505222320557, 0.010869701392948627, 0.23125164210796356, 0.8496248126029968, 1.0887693166732788, -1.1226887702941895, -0.16898763179779053, 0.24042479693889618, -0.7133185863494873, 0.04562421143054962, -0.24286800622940063, 0.5452136993408203, 0.04049758240580559, 0.19297854602336884, -0.06649723649024963, 0.37105607986450195, 0.46680745482444763, -0.39958712458610535, 0.7507361769676208, 0.17396534979343414, -0.7872567176818848, -0.1405401974916458, 0.31204748153686523, 0.3914988338947296, -0.6215179562568665, -0.011368872597813606, -0.2636067271232605, 0.057915471494197845, 0.09455770999193192, 0.7308367490768433, 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240761	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music%20of%20Cuba	Music of Cuba	The music of Cuba, including its instruments, performance, and dance, comprises a large set of unique traditions influenced mostly by west African and European (especially Spanish) music. Due to the syncretic nature of most of its genres, Cuban music is often considered one of the richest and most influential regional music in the world. For instance, the son cubano merges an adapted Spanish guitar (tres), melody, harmony, and lyrical traditions with Afro-Cuban percussion and rhythms. Almost nothing remains of the original native traditions, since the native population was exterminated in the 16th century. Since the 19th-century Cuban music has been hugely popular and influential throughout the world. It has been perhaps the most popular form of regional music since the introduction of recording technology. Cuban music has contributed to the development of a wide variety of genres and musical styles around the globe, most notably in Latin America, the Caribbean, West Africa, and Europe. Examples include rhumba, Afro-Cuban jazz, salsa, soukous, many West African re-adaptations of Afro-Cuban music (Orchestra Baobab, Africando), Spanish fusion genres (notably with flamenco), and a wide variety of genres in Latin America. Overview Large numbers of enslaved Africans and European, mostly Spanish, immigrants came to Cuba and brought their own forms of music to the island. European dances and folk musics included zapateo, fandango, paso doble and retambico. Later, northern European forms like minuet, gavotte, mazurka, contradanza, and the waltz appeared among urban whites. There was also an immigration of Chinese indentured laborers later in the 19th century. Fernando Ortiz, the first great Cuban folklorist, described Cuba's musical innovations as arising from the interplay ('transculturation') between enslaved Africans settled on large sugar plantations and Spaniards from different regions such as Andalusia and Canary Islands. The enslaved Africans and their descendants made many percussion instruments and preserved rhythms they had known in their homeland. The most important instruments were the drums, of which, there were originally about fifty different types; today only the bongos, congas and batá drums are regularly seen (the timbales are descended from kettle drums in Spanish military bands). Also important are the claves, two short hardwood batons, and the cajón, a wooden box, originally made from crates. Claves are still used often, and wooden boxes (cajones) were widely used during periods when the drum was banned. In addition, there are other percussion instruments in use for African-origin religious ceremonies. Chinese immigrants contributed the corneta china (Chinese cornet), a Chinese reed instrument still played in the comparsas, or carnival groups, of Santiago de Cuba. The great instrumental contribution of the Spanish was their guitar, but even more important was the tradition of European musical notation and techniques of musical composition. Hernando de la Parra's archives give some of our earliest available information on Cuban music. He reported instruments including the clarinet, violin and vihuela. There were few professional musicians at the time, and fewer still of their songs survive. One of the earliest is Ma Teodora, supposed to be related to a freed slave, Teodora Ginés of Santiago de Cuba, who was famous for her compositions. The piece is said to be similar to 16th-, 17th- and 18th-century Spanish popular songs and dances. Cuban music has its principal roots in Spain and West Africa, but over time has been influenced by diverse genres from different countries. Important among these are France (and its colonies in the Americas), and the United States. Cuban music has been immensely influential in other countries. It contributed not only to the development of jazz and salsa, but also to the Argentine tango, Ghanaian high-life, West African Afrobeat, Dominican Bachata and Merengue, Colombian Cumbia and Spanish Nuevo flamenco and to the Arabo-Cuban music (Hanine Y Son Cubano) developed by Michel Elefteriades in the 1990s. The African beliefs and practices certainly influenced Cuba's music. Polyrhythmic percussion is an inherent part of African music, as the melody is part of European music. Also, in African tradition, percussion is always joined to song and dance, and a particular social setting. The result of the meeting of European and African cultures is that most Cuban popular music is creolized. This creolization of Cuban life has been happening for a long time, and by the 20th century, elements of African belief, music, and dance were well integrated into popular and folk forms. 18th and 19th centuries Among internationally heralded composers of the "serious" genre can be counted the Baroque composer Esteban Salas y Castro (1725–1803), who spent much of his life teaching and writing music for the Church. He was followed in the Cathedral of Santiago de Cuba by the priest Juan París (1759–1845). París was an exceptionally industrious man and an important composer. He encouraged continuous and diverse musical events.p181 Aside from rural music and Afro-Cuban folk music, the most popular kind of urban Creole dance music in the 19th century was the contradanza, which commenced as a local form of the English country dance and the derivative French contredanse and Spanish contradanza. While many contradanzas were written for dance, from the mid-century several were written as light-classical parlor pieces for piano. The first distinguished composer in this style was Manuel Saumell (1818–1870), who is sometimes accordingly hailed as the father of Cuban creole musical development. According to Helio Orovio, "After Saumell's visionary work, all that was left to do was to develop his innovations, all of which profoundly influenced the history of Cuban nationalist musical movements." In the hands of his successor, Ignacio Cervantes Kavanagh, the piano idiom related to the contradanza achieved even greater sophistication. Cervantes was called by Aaron Copland a "Cuban Chopin" because of his Chopinesque piano compositions. Cervantes' reputation today rests almost solely upon his famous forty-one Danzas Cubanas, which Carpentier said, "occupy the place that the Norwegian Dances of Grieg or the Slavic Dances of Dvořák occupy in the music of their respective countries". Cervantes' never-finished opera, Maledetto, is forgotten. In the 1840s, the habanera emerged as a languid vocal song using the contradanza rhythm. (Non-Cubans sometimes called Cuban contradanzas "habaneras.") The habanera went on to become popular in Spain and elsewhere. The Cuban contradanza/Danza was also an important influence on the Puerto Rican Danza, which went on to enjoy its own dynamic and distinctive career lasting through the 1930s. In Cuba, in the 1880s the contradanza/Danza gave birth to the danzón, which effectively superseded it in popularity. Laureano Fuentes (1825–1898) came from a family of musicians and wrote the first opera to be composed on the island, La Hija de Jefté (Jefte's daughter). This was later lengthened and staged under the title Seila. His numerous works spanned all genres. Gaspar Villate (1851–1891) produced abundant and wide-ranging work, all centered on opera.p239 José White (1836–1918), a mulatto of a Spanish father and an Afrocuban mother, was a composer and a violinist of international merit. He learned to play sixteen instruments, and lived, variously, in Cuba, Latin America, and Paris. His most famous work is La Bella Cubana, a habanera. During the middle years of the 19th century, a young American musician came to Havana: Louis Moreau Gottschalk (1829–1869), whose father was a Jewish businessman from London, and his mother a white creole of French Catholic background. Gottschalk was brought up mostly by his black grandmother and nurse Sally, both from Saint-Domingue. He was a piano prodigy who had listened to the music and seen the dancing in Congo Square, New Orleans from childhood. His period in Cuba lasted from 1853 to 1862, with visits to Puerto Rico and Martinique squeezed in. He composed many creolized pieces, such as the habanera Bamboula, Op. 2 (Danse de negres) (1845), the title referring to a bass Afro-Caribbean drum; El cocoye (1853), a version of a rhythmic melody already present in Cuba; the contradanza Ojos criollos (Danse cubaine) (1859) and a version of María de la O, which refers to a Cuban mulatto singer. These numbers made use of typical Cuban rhythmic patterns. At one of his farewell concerts he played his Adiós a Cuba to huge applause and shouts of 'bravo!' Unfortunately, his score for the work has not survived. In February 1860 Gottschalk produced a huge work La nuit des tropiques in Havana. The work used about 250 musicians and a choir of 200 singers plus a tumba francesa group from Santiago de Cuba. He produced another huge concert the following year, with new material. These shows probably dwarfed anything seen in the island before or since, and no doubt were unforgettable for those who attended.p147 20th-century classical and art music Between the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th a number of composers excel within the Cuban music panorama. They cultivated genres such as the popular song and the concert lied, dance music, the zarzuela and the vernacular theatre, as well as symphonic music. Among others, we should mention Hubert de Blanck (1856-1932); José Mauri (1856-1937); Manuel Mauri (1857-1939); José Marín Varona; Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes (1874-1944); Jorge Anckermann (1877-1941); Luis Casas Romero (1882-1950) and Mario Valdés Costa (1898-1930). The work of José Marín Varona links the Cuban musical activity from the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. In 1896, the composer included in his zarzuela "El Brujo" the first Cuban guajira which has been historically documented. About this piece, composer Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes said: "The honest critique of a not very far day will bestow the author of the immortal guajira of "El Brujo" the honor to which he is undoubtedly entitled at any time". Gonzalo Roig (1890–1970) was a major force in the first half of the century. A composer and orchestral director, he qualified in piano, violin and composition theory. In 1922 he was one of the founders of the National Symphony Orchestra, which he conducted. In 1927 he was appointed Director of the Havana School of Music. As a composer he specialized in the zarzuela, a musical theatre form, very popular up to World War II. In 1931 he co-founded a bufo company (comic theatre) at the Teatro Martí in Havana. He was the composer of the most well-known Cuban zarzuela, Cecilia Valdés, based on the famous 19th-century novel about a Cuban mulata. It was premiered in 1932. He founded various organizations and wrote frequently on musical topics. One of the greatest Cuban pianist/composers of the 20th century was Ernesto Lecuona (1895–1963). Lecuona composed over six hundred pieces, mostly in the Cuban vein, and was a pianist of exceptional quality. He was a prolific composer of songs and music for stage and film. His works consisted of zarzuela, Afro-Cuban and Cuban rhythms, suites and many songs that became Latin standards. They include Siboney, Malagueña and The Breeze And I (Andalucía). In 1942 his great hit Always in my heart (Siempre en mi Corazon) was nominated for an Oscar for Best Song; it lost out to White Christmas. The Ernesto Lecuona Symphonic Orchestra performed the premiere of Lecuona's Black Rhapsody in the Cuban Liberation Day Concert at Carnegie Hall on 10 October 1943. Although their music is rarely played today, "Amadeo Roldán (1900–1939) and Alejandro García Caturla (1906–1940) were Cuba's symphonic revolutionaries during the first half of the 20th Century. They both played a part in Afrocubanismo: the movement in black-themed Cuban culture with origins in the 1920s, and extensively analysed by Fernando Ortiz. Roldan, born in Paris to a Cuban mulatta and a Spanish father, came to Cuba in 1919 and became the concert-master (first-chair violin) of the new Orquesta Sinfónica de La Habana in 1922. There he met Caturla, at sixteen a second violin. Roldan's compositions included Overture on Cuban themes (1925), and two ballets: La Rebambaramba (1928) and El milagro de Anaquille (1929). There followed a series of Ritmicas and Poema negra (1930) and Tres toques (march, rites, dance) (1931). In Motivos de son (1934) he wrote eight pieces for voice and instruments based on the poet Nicolás Guillén's set of poems with the same title. His last composition was two Piezas infantiles for piano (1937). Roldan died young, at 38, of a disfiguring facial cancer (he had been an inveterate smoker). After his student days, Caturla lived all his life in the small central town of Remedios, where he became a lawyer to support his growing family. His Tres danzas cubanas for symphony orchestra was first performed in Spain in 1929. Bembe was premiered in Havana the same year. His Obertura cubana won first prize in a national contest in 1938. Caturla was murdered at 34 by a young gambler. Founded in 1942 under the guidance of José Ardévol (1911–1981), a Catalan composer established in Cuba since 1930, the "Grupo de Renovación Musical" served as a platform for a group of young composers to develop a proactive movement with the purpose of improving and literally renovating the quality of the Cuban musical environment. During its existence from 1942 to 1948, the group organized numerous concerts at the Havana Lyceum in order to present their avant-garde compositions to the general public and fostered within its members the development of many future conductors, art critics, performers and professors. They also started a process of investigation and reevaluation of the Cuban music in general, discovering the outstanding work of Carlo Borbolla and promoting the compositions of Saumell, Cervantes, Caturla and Roldán. The "Grupo de Renovación Musical" included the following composers: Hilario González, Harold Gramatges, Julián Orbón, Juan Antonio Cámara, Serafín Pro, Virginia Fleites, Gisela Hernández, Enrique Aparicio Bellver, Argeliers León, Dolores Torres and Edgardo Martín. Other contemporary Cuban composers that were little or no related at all to the "Groupo de Renovación Musical" were: Aurelio de la Vega, Joaquín Nin-Culmell, Alfredo Diez Nieto and Natalio Galán. Although, in Cuba, many composers have written both classical and popular creole types of music, the distinction became clearer after 1960, when (at least initially) the regime frowned on popular music and closed most of the night-club venues, whilst providing financial support for classical music rather than creole forms. From then on, most musicians have kept their careers on one side of the invisible line or the other. After the Cuban Revolution in 1959, a new crop of classical musicians came onto the scene. The most important of these is guitarist Leo Brouwer, who have made significant contributions to the technique and repertoire of the modern classical guitar, and has been the director of the National Symphony Orchestra of Cuba. His directorship in the early 1970s of the "Grupo de Experimentacion Sonora del ICAIC" was instrumental in the formation and consolidation of the Nueva trova movement. Other important composers from the early post-revolution period that began in 1959 were: Carlos Fariñas and Juan Blanco, a pioneer of "concrete" and "electroacoustic music" in Cuba. Closely following the early post-revolution generation, a group of young composers started to attract the attention of the public that attended classical music concerts. Most of them had obtained degrees in reputable Schools outside the country thanks to scholarships granted by the government, like Sergio Fernández Barroso (also known as Sergio Barroso), that received a post-graduate degree from the Superior Academy of Music in Prague, and Roberto Valera, who studied with Witold Rudziński and Andrzej Dobrowolski in Poland. Three other composers belong to this group: Calixto Alvarez, Carlos Malcolm and Héctor Angulo. In 1962, the North American composer Federico Smith arrives in Havana. He embraced the Cuban nation as his own country and became one of the most accomplished musicians living and working in Cuba at that time. He remained in Cuba until his death, and made an important contribution to the Cuban musical patrimony. During the early 1970s, a group of musicians and composers, most of them graduated from the National School of Arts and the Havana Conservatory, gathered around an organization recently created by the government as the junior section of UNEAC (National Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba), the "Brigada Hermanos Saíz. Some of its member were composers Juan Piñera (nephew of the renowned Cuban writer Virgilio Piñera), Flores Chaviano, Armando Rodriguez Ruidiaz, Danilo Avilés, Magaly Ruiz, Efraín Amador Piñero and José Loyola . Other contemporary composers less involved with the organization were José María Vitier, Julio Roloff, and Jorge López Marín. After the Cuban Revolution (1959), many future Cuban composers emigrated at a very young age and developed most of their careers outside the country. Within this group are the composers Tania León, Orlando Jacinto García, Armando Tranquilino, Odaline de la Martinez, José Raul Bernardo, Jorge Martín (composer) and Raul Murciano. 21st-century classical and art music During the last decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century a new generation of composers emerged into the Cuban classical music panorama. Most of them received a solid musical education provided by the official arts school system created by the Cuban government and graduated from the Instituto Superior de Arte (ISA). Some of those composers are Louis Franz Aguirre, Ileana Pérez Velázquez, Keila María Orozco, Viviana Ruiz, Fernando (Archi) Rodríguez Alpízar, Yalil Guerra, Eduardo Morales Caso, Ailem Carvajal Gómez., Irina Escalante Chernova. and Evelin Ramón. All of them have emigrated and currently live and work in other countries. Electroacoustic music in Cuba Juan Blanco was the first Cuban composer to create an electroacoustic piece in 1961. This first composition, titled "Musica Para Danza", was produced with just an oscillator and three common tape recorders. As a result of the enormous scarcity generated by the trade embargo placed on Cuba by the United States, access to the necessary technological resources to produce electroacoustic music was always very limited for anyone interested. For this reason, it was not until 1969 that another Cuban composer, Sergio Barroso, dedicated himself to the creation of electroacoustic musical compositions. In 1970, Juan Blanco began to work as a music advisor for the Department of Propaganda of ICAP (Insituto Cubano de Amistad con Los Pueblos). In this capacity, he created electroacoustic music for all the audiovisual materials produced by ICAP. After nine years working without restitution, Blanco finally obtained financing to set up an Electroacoustic Studio to be used for his work. He was appointed as Director of the Studio, but under the condition that he should be the only one to use the facility. After a few months, and without asking for permission, he opened the Electroacoustic Studio to all composers interested in working with electroacoustic technology, thus creating the ICAP Electroacoustsic Music Workshop (TIME), where he himself provided training to all participants. In 1990, the ICAP Workshop changed its name to Laboratorio Nacional de Música Electroacústica (LNME) and its main objective was to support and promote the work of Cuban electroaocustic composers and sound artists. Some years later, another electroacoustic music studio was created at the Instituto Superior de Arte (ISA). The Estudio de Música Electroacústica y por Computadoras (EMEC), currently named Estudio Carlos Fariñas de Arte Musical (Carlos Fariñas Studio of Musical Electroacoustic Art), is intended to provide electroacoustic music training to the composition students during the last years of their careers. After 1970, Cuban composers such as Leo Brouwer, Jesús Ortega, Carlos Fariñas and Sergio Vitier began also creating electroacoustic pieces; and in the 1980s a group of composers that included Edesio Alejandro, Fernando (Archi) Rodríguez Alpízar, Marietta Véulens, Mirtha de la Torre, Miguel Bonachea and Julio Roloff, started receiving instruction and working at the ICAP Electroacoustic Studio. A list of Cuban composers that have utilized elecotroacoustics technology include Argeliers León, Juan Piñera, Roberto Valera, José Loyola, Ileana Pérez Velázquez and José Angel Pérez Puentes. Most Cuban composers that established their residence outside Cuba have worked with electroacoustic technology. These include composers Aurelio de la Vega, Armando Tranquilino, Tania León, Orlando Jacinto García, Armando Rodriguez Ruidiaz, Ailem Carvajal Gómez and Irina Escalante Chernova. Classical guitar in Cuba From the 16th to the 19th century The guitar (as it is known today or in one of its historical versions) has been present in Cuba since the discovery of the island by Spain. As early as the 16th century, a musician named Juan Ortiz, from the village of Trinidad, is mentioned by famous chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo as "gran tañedor de vihuela y viola" ("a great performer of the vihuela and the guitar"). Another "vihuelista", Alonso Morón from Bayamo, is also mentioned in the Spanish conquest chronicles during the 16th century. A disciple of famous Spanish guitarist Dionisio Aguado, José Prudencio Mungol was the first Cuban guitarist trained in the Spanish guitar tradition. In 1893 he performed at a much acclaimed concert in Havana, after returning from Spain. Mungol actively participated in the musical life of Havana and was a professor at the Hubert de Blanck conservatory. 20th century and beyond Severino López was born in Matanzas. He studied guitar in Cuba with Juan Martín Sabio and Pascual Roch, and in Spain with renowned Catalan guitarist Miguel Llobet. Severino López is considered the initiator in Cuba of the guitar school founded by Francisco Tárrega in Spain. Clara Romero (1888-1951), founder of the modern Cuban School of Guitar, studied in Spain with Nicolás Prats and in Cuba with Félix Guerrero. She inaugurated the guitar department at the Havana Municipal Conservatory in 1931, where she also introduced the teachings of the Cuban folk guitar style. She created the Guitar Society of Cuba (Sociedad Guitarrística de Cuba) in 1940, and also the "Guitar" (Guitarra) magazine, with the purpose of promoting the Society's activities. She was the professor of many Cuban guitarists including her son Isaac Nicola and her daughter Clara (Cuqui) Nicola. After studying with his mother, Clara Romero, at the Havana Municipal Conservatory, Isaac Nicola (1916 – 1997) continued his training in Paris with Emilio Pujol, a disciple of Francisco Tárrega. He also studied the vihuela with Pujol and researched about the guitar's history and literature. Modern Cuban Guitar School After the Cuban revolution in 1959, Isaac Nicola and other professors such as Marta Cuervo, Clara (Cuqui) Nicola, Marianela Bonet and Leopoldina Núñez were integrated to the national music schools system, where a unified didactical method was implemented. This was a nucleus for the later development of a national Cuban Guitar School with which a new generation of guitarists and composers collaborated. Maybe the most important contribution to the modern Cuban guitar technique and repertoire comes from Leo Brouwer (born 1939). The grandson of Ernestina Lecuona, sister of Ernesto Lecuona, Brouwer began studying the guitar with his father and after some time continued with Isaac Nicola. He taught himself harmony, counterpoint, musical forms and orchestration before completing his studies at the Juilliard School and the University of Hartford. New generations Since the 1960s, several generations of guitar performers, professors and composers have been formed under the Cuban Guitar School at educational institutions such as the Havana Municipal Conservatory, the National School of Arts, and the Instituto Superior de Arte. Others, such as Manuel Barrueco, a concertist of international renown, developed their careers outside the country. Among many other guitarists related to the Cuban Guitar School are Carlos Molina, Sergio Vitier, Flores Chaviano, Efraín Amador Piñero, Armando Rodriguez Ruidiaz, Martín Pedreira, Lester Carrodeguas, Mario Daly, José Angel Pérez Puentes and Teresa Madiedo. A younger group includes guitarists Rey Guerra, Aldo Rodríguez Delgado, Pedro Cañas, Leyda Lombard, Ernesto Tamayo, Miguel Bonachea, Joaquín Clerch and Yalil Guerra. Classical piano in Cuba After its arrival in Cuba at the end of the 18th century, the pianoforte (commonly called piano) rapidly became one of the favorite instruments among the Cuban population. Along with the humble guitar, the piano accompanied the popular Cuban "guarachas" and "contradanzas" (derived from the European Country Dances) at salons and ballrooms in Havana and all over the country. As early as in 1804, a concert program in Havana announced a vocal concert "accompanied at the fortepiano by a distinguished foreigner recently arrived" and in 1832, Juan Federico Edelmann (1795-1848), a renowned pianist, son of a famous Alsatian composer and pianist, arrived in Havana and gave a very successful concert at the Teatro Principal. Encouraged by the warm welcome, Edelmann decided to stay in Havana, and he was very soon promoted to an important position within the Santa Cecilia Philharmonic Society. In 1836, he opened a music store and publishing company. One of the most prestigious Cuban musicians, Ernesto Lecuona (1895-1963), began studying piano with his sister Ernestina and continued with Peyrellade, Saavedra, Nin and Hubert de Blanck. A child prodigy, Lecuona gave a concert, at just five, at the Círculo Hispano. When he graduated from the National Conservatory, he was awarded the First Prize and the Gold Medal of his class by unanimous decision of the board. He is by far the Cuban composer of greatest international recognition and his contributions to the Cuban piano tradition are considered exceptional. Classical violin in Cuba From the 16th to the 18th century Bowed stringed instruments have been present in Cuba since the 16th century. Musician Juan Ortiz from the Ville of Trinidad is mentioned by chronicler Bernal Díaz del Castillo as a "great performer of "vihuela" and "viola". On In 1764, Esteban Salas y Castro, became the new chapel master of the Santiago de Cuba Cathedral, and to fulfill his musical duties he counted with a small vocal-instrumental group that included two violins. In 1793, numerous colonists fleeing from the slave revolt in Saint Domingue arrived in Santiago de Cuba, and an orchestra consisting of a flute, oboe, clarinet, trumpet, three horns, three violins, viola, two violoncellos, and percussion was founded. From the 18th to the 19th century During the transition from the 18th to the 19th centuries, the Havanese Ulpiano Estrada (1777–1847) offered violin lessons and conducted the Teatro Principal orchestra from 1817 to 1820. Apart from his activity as a violinist, Estrada kept a very active musical career as a conductor of numerous orchestras, bands and operas, and composing many contradanzas and other dance pieces, such as minuets and valses. José Vandergutch, Belgian violinist, arrived at Havana along with his father Juan and brother Francisco, also violinists. They returned at a later time to Belgium, but José established his permanent residence in Havana, where he acquired great recognition. Vandergutch offered numerous concerts as a soloist and accompanied by several orchestras, around the mid-19th century. He was a member of the Classical Music Association and also a Director of The "Asociación Musical de Socorro Mutuo de La Habana." Within the universe of the classical Cuban violin during the 19th century, there are two outstanding Masters that may be considered among the greatest violin virtuosos of all time; they are José White Lafitte y Claudio Brindis de Salas Garrido. After receiving his first musical instruction from his father, the virtuoso Cuban violinist José White Lafitte (1835–1918) offered his first concert in Matanzas on March 21, 1854. In that presentation he was accompanied by the famous American pianist and composer Louis Moreau Gottschalk, whom encouraged him to further his musical instruction in Paris, and also collected funds for that purpose. José White studied musical composition in the Conservatoire de Paris from 1855 to 1871. Just ten months after his arrival he won the first prize in the violin category on the Conservatorie's contest and was highly praised by Gioachino Rossini. At a later time he was a professor of the renowned violinists George Enescu and Jacques Thibaud. From 1877 to 1889, White was appointed as Director of the Imperial Conservatory in Rio de Janeiro, Brasil, where he also served as court musician of the Emperor Pedro II. At a later time he returned to Paris where he stayed until his death. The famous violin named "Swan's song" was his preferred instrument and his most famous composition is the Habanera "La bella cubana". White also composed many other pieces, including a concert for violin and orchestra. Claudio José Domingo Brindis de Salas y Garrido (1852–1911) was a renowned Cuban violinist, son of the also famous violinist, double-bassist and conductor Claudio Brindis de Salas (1800-1972), which conducted one of the most popular orchestras of Havana during the first half of the 19th century, named "La Concha de Oro" (The Golden Conch). Claudio José surpassed the fame and expertise of his father and came to acquire international recognition. Claudio Brindis de Salas Garrido began his musical studies with his father and continued with Maestros José Redondo and the Belgian José Vandergutch. He offered his first concert in Havana in 1863, in which Vandegutch participated as accompanist. The famous pianist and composer Ignacio Cervantes also participated in that event. According with the contemporary critique, Brindis de Salas was considered one of the most outstanding violinists of his time at an international level. Alejo Carpentier referred to him as: "The most outstanding black violinist from the 19th century... something without any precedent in the musical history of the continent". The French government named him member of the Légion d'Honneur, and gave him a nobility title of "Baron". In Buenos Aires he received a genuine Stradivarius, and while living in Berlin he married a German lady, was named Chamber Musician of the Emperor and received an honorary citizenship from that country. Brindis de Salas died poor and forgotten in 1911 from tuberculosis, in Buenos Aires, Argentina. In 1930 his remains were transferred to Havana with great honors. Another outstanding Cuban violinist from the 19th century was Rafael Díaz Albertini (1857–1928). He studied violin with José Vandergutch and Anselmo López (1841-1858), well known Havanese violinist that was dedicated also to music publishing. In 1870, Albertini travelled to Paris with the purpose of perfecting his technique with famous violinist Jean-Delphin Alard, and in 1875 received First prize in the Paris Contest, in which he subsequently participated as a Juror. He toured extensively through the world, accompanied some times by prestigious Masters such as Hugo Wolf and Camille Saint-Saëns. In 1894 he made presentations, along with Ignacion Cervantes, through the most important cities of Cuba. A list of prominent Cuban violinist from the second half of the 19th century and the first of the 20th may include: Manuel Muñoz Cedeño (b. 1813), José Domingo Bousquet (b. 1823), Carlos Anckermann (b. 1829), Antonio Figueroa (b. 1852), Ramón Figueroa (b. 1862), Juan Torroella (b.1874), Casimiro Zertucha (b. 1880), Joaquín Molina (b. 1884), Marta de La Torre (1888), Catalino Arjona (b. 1895) and Diego Bonilla (1898-). From the 20th to the 21st century During the first half of the 20th century the name of Amadeo Roldán stands out (1900–1939), because apart from an excellent violinist, professor and conductor, Roldán is considered one of the most important Cuban composers of all time. After his graduation at the Conservatoire de Paris in 1935 with just 16 years old, the renowned Cuban violinist Ángel Reyes (1919–1988) developed a very successful career as a soloist and also accompanied by prestigious orchestras of many countries. He established his residence in the United States at a very young age, obtained an award in the Ysaÿe Contest in Brussels and was a professor at the Michigan and Northwestern Universities, until his retirement in 1985. Eduardo Hernández Asiaín (1911-2010) was born in Havana, began his musical studies at a very early age and offered his first concert with just seven years old. When he was 14, he obtained the First Award at the Municipal Conservatory of Havana and was appointed as Concertino of the Havana Symphony Orchestra. In 1932, he travelled to Madrid to further his musical education with professors Enrique Fernández Arbós and Antonio Fernández Bordas. Since 1954, Hernández Asiaín performed as a soloist with the orchestras from the Pasdeloup Concert Society and the Radiodiffusion française in Paris, the "Orquesta Nacional de España", the "Orquesta Sinfónica de Bilbao", the "Orquesta de Cámara de Madrid" and the "Orquesta Sinfónica y de Cámara de San Sebastián", of which he is the founder. In 1968, he was appointed as First Violin of the "Cuarteto Clásico" of RTVE, participating with pianist Isabel Picaza González in the "Quinteto Clásico de RNE", with which he offered concerts and made numerous recordings in Spain and other countries. He also toured extensively through the US. Other prominent Cuban violinists from the first half of the 20th century are: Robero Valdés Arnau (1919-1974), Alberto Bolet and Virgilio Diago. After 1959, already in the post revolutionary period, stands out a Cuban violinist that has made a substantial contribution, not just to the development of the violin and the bowed string instruments, but also to the national musical culture in general. Evelio Tieles began to study music in Cuba with his father, Evelio Tieles Soler, when he was just seven years old, and continued at a later time with professor Joaquín Molina. Between 1952 and 1954, Tieles studied violin in Paris, France, with Jacques Thibaud and René Benedetti. In 1955 he returned to Paris and studied at the National Superior Music Conservatory in that city, and in 1958, he continued his musical training at Conservatorio Tchaikovsky in Moscú, where he was a disciple of renowned violinists David Oistrakh and Igor Oistrakh. Tieles graduated in 1963 and by recommendation of the Conservatory he pursued his master's degree from 1963 to 1966, with the same mentioned professors. Tieles received also professional training from the prestigious violinists Henryk Szeryng and Eduardo Hernández Asiaín. Evelio Tieles has offered numerous presentations as a concert performer, in a duo with his brother, pianist Cecilio Tieles, or accompanied by the Cuban National Symphony Orchestra and other symphonic and chamber ensembles. He has performed along with prestigious conductors such as Thomas Sanderling, Boris Brott, Enrique González Mántici y Manuel Duchesne Cuzán, among others. Tieles has established his residence in Spain since 1984, and he teaches violin in the Vila-Seca Conservatory, in the province of Tarragona, where he has been appointed as "Professor Emeritus". He has also served at the Superior Conservatory of the Barcelona Lyceum as Chief of the Chamber Music Department (1991–1998), Head of the Division of Bowed String Instruments (1986-2002) and Academic Director (2000–2002). Apart from his outstanding career as a concert performer and professor, during the Post-Revolutionary period, Tieles promoted and organized in Cuba the bowed string instruments training, fundamentally for the violin. Another prominent violinist is professor Alla Tarán (1941). She was formed as a violinist in her native Ukraine and worked as a professor of Chamber Ensemble Practice. Tarán established her residence in Cuba since 1969. Alfredo Muñoz (1949) began studying the violin at Conservatorio Orbon in Havana, Cuba, and subsequently continued at the National School of Arts and the Instituto Superior de Arte (ISA). He joined the National Symphony Orchestra as a violinist in 1972 and since then has been very active as a soloist and a member of the White Trio, in Cuba and abroad. He is currently a professor at the Instituto Superior de Artes (ISA). Other Cuban violinists that have developed their careers between the 20th and the 21st century are: Armando Toledo (1950), Julián Corrales (1954), Miguel del Castillo and Ricardo Jústiz. 21st century Already at the beginning of the 21st century the violinists Ilmar López-Gavilán, Mirelys Morgan Verdecia, Ivonne Rubio Padrón, Patricia Quintero and Rafael Machado are worthy of note. Opera in Cuba Opera has been present in Cuba since the latest part of the 18th century, when the first full-fledged theater, called Coliseo, was built. Since then to present times, the Cuban people have highly enjoyed opera, and many Cuban composers have cultivated the operatic genre, sometimes with great success at an international level. The best Cuban lyrical singer in the 20th century was the operatic tenor Francisco Fernandez Dominicis (Italian name: Francesco Dominici) (1885-1968). The best Cuban female lyrical singer in the 20th century was the mezzo-soprano Marta Perez (1924-2009). She sang at La Scala in Milan, Italy in 1955. The 19th century The first documented operatic event in Havana took place in 1776. That presentation was mentioned in a note published in the newspaper Diario de La Habana on December 19, 1815: "Today, Wednesday 19th of the current, if the weather allows, the new tragic opera of merit in three acts that contains 17 pieces of music, titled Dido Abandoned will be performed ... This is one of the premiere dramas from the French theater. In Italy, the one composed by renowned Metastasio deserved a singular applause, and was sung in this city on October 12, 1776." Cristóbal Martínez Corrés was the first Cuban opera composer, but his Works, such as El diablo contrabandista and Don papanero were never premiered and have not been preserved until the present time. Born in Havana, in 1822, composer and pianist Martínez Corrés established his residence together with his family in France when he was just nine years old; and at a later tame they went to Italy. Due to his premature death, a third opera named Safo, never surpassed an early creative stage. Martínez Corrés died in Genoa, in 1842. Gaspar Villate y Montes was born in Havana, in 1851 and since an early age he showed a great musical talent. As a child, he began to study piano with Nicolás Ruiz Espadero and in 1867, when he was just 16 years old, he composed his first opera on a drama by Victor Hugo, titled Angelo, tirano de Padua. A year later, at the beginning of the 1868 war, he travelled to the United States with his family and upon his return to Havana in 1871 he wrote another opera called Las primeras armas de Richelieu. Villate travelled to France with the purpose to continue his music studies in the Paris Conservatory, where he received classes from François Bazin, Victorien de Joncieres and Adolphe Danhauser. He composed numerous instrumental pieces such as contradanzas, habaneras, romances and waltzes, and in 1877 he premiered with great audience acclaim his opera Zilia in Paris, which was presented in Havana in 1881. Since then, Villate focused his efforts mainly in opera and composed pieces such as La Zarina and Baltazar, premiered at La Haya and Teatro Real de Madrid respectively. It is known that he worked on an opera with a Cuban theme called Cristóbal Colón, but its manuscript has been lost. Villate died in Paris in 1891, soon after starting to compose a lyrical drama called Lucifer, from which some fragments have been preserved. From 1901 to 1959 Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes was born in Havana, in 1874, within an artistic family; his father was a writer and his mother a pianist and singer. He began his musical studies at Conservatorio Hubert de Blanck and at a later time took classes from Carlos Anckermann. He received also a Law Degree in 1894. When Sánchez de Fuentes was just 18 years old, he composed the famous Habanera "Tú", which became an extraordinary international success. Alejo Carpentier said it was: "the most famous Habanera". On October 26, 1898, Sánchez de Fuentes premiered at the Albisu Theater in Havana his first opera called Yumuri, based on the Island's colonization theme. In it, an aborigine princess falls in love with a handsome Spanish conqueror, which abducts her at the wedding ceremony with another indigenous character. At the end, while escaping, both suffer a tragic death during an earthquake. Sánchez de Fuentes would go on to compose another five operas: El Náufrago (1901), Dolorosa (1910), Doreya (1918), El Caminante (1921) and Kabelia (1942). From 1960 to present time One of the most active and outstanding composers of his generation, Sergio Fernández Barroso (also known as Sergio Barroso) (1946), is the author of an opera called La forma del camino, which also possesses the complementary title of s-XIV-69 (which means Siglo XIV – 1969). With an approximate duration of 60 minutes, this piece utilizes as a script a story from the Popol Vuh (the sacred text of the Maya culture) about the mythic brothers Hunahpu and Ixbalanqué. The score includes soloists and a choir of nine mixed voices, accompanied by an instrumental group and an electro-acoustic quadraphonic system. The scene requires a stage elevated over the choir spatial position, which members wear dinner jackets, in opposition to the more casual attire of the soloists. All singers wear Indian masks. Most recently the work of two young Cuban composers stand out, Jorge Martín (composer) and Louis Franz Aguirre. Jorge Martín (1959) was born in Santiago de Cuba and established his residence in the US at a very young age. He studied musical composition at the Yale and Columbia Universities. He has composed three lyric pieces: Beast and Superbeast, a series of four operas in one act each, based on short stories by Saki; Tobermory, opera in one act that obtained first prize in the Fifth Biennial of the National Opera Association (USA), and has been presented in several cities of the United States; and Before Night Falls, an opera based on the famous autobiography of the Cuban novelist, playwright and poet Reinaldo Arenas, renowned dissident from the Fidel Castro government. Louis Franz Aguirre (1968) is currently one of the most prolific and renowned Cuban composers at an international level. His catalog includes four operatic works: Ebbó (1998), premiered on January 17, 1999, at the Brotfabrik Theater in Bonn, Germany; Ogguanilebbe (Liturgy of the divine word) (2005), premiered in the Salla dil Parlamento d'il Castello di Udine, Italy. Yo el Supremo (Comic play with Dictator in one Act), premiered on October 27, 2015 in the Teatro Galileo, Madrid, Spain and The way the dead love (Theogony: an operatic manifest), commissioned by the Lydenskab Ensemble and financed by KODA, Denmark. Premiered on February 24, 2017 in Godsbanen, Aarhus, Denmark, as part of the Århus European Capital of Culture 2017. Musicology in Cuba Throughout the years, the Cuban nation has developed a wealth of musicological material created by numerous investigators and experts on this subject. The work of some authors who provided information about the music in Cuba during the 19th century was usually included in chronicles covering a more general subject. The first investigations and studies specifically dedicated to the musical art and practice did not appear in Cuba until the beginning of the 20th century. A list of important personalities that have contributed to musicological studies in Cuba includes Fernando Ortiz, Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes, Emilio Grenet, Alejo Carpentier, Argeliers León, Maria Teresa Linares, Pablo Hernández Balaguer, Alberto Muguercia and Zoila Lapique. A second generation of musicologists formed after de Cuban revolution of 1959 include: Zoila Gómez, Victoria Elí, Alberto Alén Pérez, Rolando Antonio Pérez Fernández and Leonardo Acosta. Most recently, a group of young Cuban musicologists have earned a well deserved reputation within the international academic field, due to their solid investigative work. Some of the most prominent members of this group are: Miriam Escudero Suástegui, Liliana González Moreno, Iván César Morales Flores and Pablo Alejandro Suárez Marrero. Popular music Hispanic heritage It is obvious that the first popular music played in Cuba after the Spanish conquest was brought by the Spanish conquerors themselves, and was most likely borrowed from the Spanish popular music in vogue during the 16th century. From the 16th to the 18th century some danceable songs that emerged in Spain were associated with Hispanic America, or considered to have originated in America. Some of these songs with picturesque names such as Sarabande, Chaconne, Zambapalo, Retambico and Gurumbé, among others, shared a common trait, its characteristic rhythm called Hemiola or Sesquiáltera (in Spain). This rhythm has been described as the alternation or superposition of a duple meter and a triple meter (6/8 + 3/4), and its utilization was widespread in the Spanish territory since at least the 13th century, where it appears in one of the Cantigas de Santa María (Como poden per sas culpas). Hemiola or Sesquiáltera is also a typical rhythm within the African musical traditions, both from the North of the Continent as from the South. Therefore, it is quite probable that the original song-dances brought by the Spanish to America already included elements from the African culture with which the enslaved Africans that arrived to the Island were familiar; and they further utilized them in order to create new creole genres. The well known Son de la Ma Teodora, an ancient Cuban song, as well as the first Cuban autochthonous genres, Punto and Zapateo, show the Sesquiáltera rhythm on their accompaniment, which greatly associate those genres to the Spanish song-dances from the 16th to the 18th centuries. Música campesina (peasant music) It seems that Punto and Zapateo Cubano were the first autochthonous musical genres of the Cuban nation. Although the first printed sample of a Cuban Creole Zapateo (Zapateo Criollo) was not published until 1855 in the "Álbum Regio of Vicente Díaz de Comas", it is possible to find references about the existence of those genres since long time before. Its structural characteristics have survived almost unaltered through a period of more than two hundred years and they are usually considered the most typically Hispanic Cuban popular music genres. Cuban musicologists María Teresa Linares, Argeliers León and Rolando Antonio Pérez coincide in thinking that Punto and Zapateo are based on Spanish dance –songs (such as chacone and sarabande) that arrived first at the most important population centers such as Havana and Santiago de Cuba and then spread throughout the surrounding rural areas where they were adopted and modified by the peasant (campesino) population at a later time. Punto guajiro Punto guajiro or Punto Cubano, or simply Punto is a sung genre of Cuban music, an improvised poetic-music art that emerged in the western and central regions of Cuba during the 19th century. Although Punto appears to come from an Andalusian origin, it is a true Cuban genre because of its creole modifications. Punto is played by a group with various types of plucked string instruments: the tiple (a treble guitar currently in disuse), the Spanish guitar, the Cuban tres, and the laúd. The word punto refers to the use of a plucked technique (punteado), rather than strumming (rasgueado). Also some percussion instruments have been utilized such as the clave, the güiro and the guayo ( a metallic scraper). Singers gather themselves in contending teams, and improvise their lines. They sing fixed melodies called "tonadas" which are based on a meter of ten strophe verses called "décimas", with intervals between stanzas to give the singers some time to prepare the next verse. Early compositions were sometimes recorded and published, as were the names of some of the singers and composers. Beginning around 1935, Punto reached a peak of popularity on Cuban radio. Punto was one of the first Cuban genres recorded by American companies at the beginning of the 20th century, but at a later time the interest decayed and little effort was made to continue recording the live radio performances. A fan of this genre, stenographer Aida Bode, wrote down many verses as they were broadcast and finally, in 1997, her transcriptions were published in book form. Celina González and Albita Rodríguez both sang Punto at the beginning of their careers, proving that the genre is still alive. Celina had one of the greatest voices in popular music, and her supporting group Campo Alegre was outstanding. For aficionados, however, Indio Naborí (Sabio Jesús Orta Ruiz, b. 30 September 1922) is the greatest name in Punto for his "decima" poetry, which he wrote daily for the radio and newspapers. He is also a published author with several collections of his poetry, much of which has a political nueva trova edge. Zapateo Zapateo is a typical dance of the Cuban "campesino" or "guajiro," of Spanish origin. It is a dance of pairs, involving tapping of the feet, mostly performed by the male partner. Illustrations exist from previous centuries and today it survives cultivated by Folk Music Groups as a fossil genre. It was accompanied by tiple, guitar and güiro, in combined 6/8 and 3/4 rhythm (hemiola), accented on the first of every three quavers. Guajira A genre of Cuban song similar to the Punto cubano and the Criolla. It contains bucolic countryside lyrics, similar to décima poetry. Its music shows a mixture of 6/8 and 3/4 rhythms called Hemiola. According to Sánchez de Fuentes, its first section is usually presented in a minor key, and its second section in its direct major relative key. The term Guajira is now used mostly to describe a slow dance music in 4/4 time, a fusion of the Guajira (music) and the Son (called Guajira-Son). Singer and guitarist Guillermo Portabales was the most outstanding representative of this genre. Criolla Criolla is a genre of Cuban music which is closely related to the music of the Cuban Coros de Clave and a genre of Cuban popular music called Clave. The Clave became a very popular genre in the Cuban vernacular theater and was created by composer Jorge Anckermann based on the style of the Coros de Clave. The Clave served, in turn, as a model for the creation of a new genre called Criolla. According to musicologist Helio Orovio, "Carmela", the first Criolla, was composed by Luis Casas Romero in 1909, which also created one of the most famous Criollas of all time, "El Mambí". African heritage Origins of Cuban African groups Clearly, the origin of African groups in Cuba is due to the island's long history of slavery. Compared to the US, slavery started in Cuba much earlier and continued for decades afterwards. Cuba was the last country in the Americas to abolish the importation of slaves, and the second last to free the slaves. In 1807 the British Parliament outlawed slavery, and from then on the British Navy acted to intercept Portuguese and Spanish slave ships. By 1860 the trade with Cuba was almost extinguished; the last slave ship to Cuba was in 1873. The abolition of slavery was announced by the Spanish Crown in 1880, and put into effect in 1886. Two years later, Brazil abolished slavery. Subsequent organization The roots of most Afro-Cuban musical forms lie in the cabildos, self-organized social clubs for the African slaves, separate cabildos for separate cultures. The cabildos were formed mainly from four groups: the Yoruba (the Lucumi in Cuba); the Congolese (Palo in Cuba); Dahomey (the Fon or Arará). Other cultures were undoubtedly present, more even than listed above, but in smaller numbers, and they did not leave such a distinctive presence. Cabildos preserved African cultural traditions, even after the abolition of slavery in 1886. At the same time, African religions were transmitted from generation to generation throughout Cuba, Haiti, other islands and Brazil. These religions, which had a similar but not identical structure, were known as Lucumi or Regla de Ocha if they derived from the Yoruba, Palo from Central Africa, Vodú from Haiti, and so on. The term Santería was first introduced to account for the way African spirits were joined to Catholic saints, especially by people who were both baptized and initiated, and so were genuinely members of both groups. Outsiders picked up the word and have tended to use it somewhat indiscriminately. It has become a kind of catch-all word, rather like salsa in music.p171; p258 African sacred music in Cuba All these African cultures had musical traditions, which survive erratically to the present day, not always in detail, but in general style. The best preserved are the African polytheistic religions, where, in Cuba at least, the instruments, the language, the chants, the dances and their interpretations are quite well preserved. In what other American countries are the religious ceremonies conducted in the old language(s) of Africa? They certainly are in Lucumí ceremonies, though of course, back in Africa the language has moved on. What unifies all genuine forms of African music is the unity of polyrhythmic percussion, voice (call-and-response) and dance in well-defined social settings, and the absence of melodic instruments of an Arabic or European kind. Yoruba and Congolese rituals Religious traditions of African origin have survived in Cuba, and are the basis of ritual music, song and dance quite distinct from the secular music and dance. The religion of Yoruban origin is known as Lucumí or Regla de Ocha; the religion of Congolese origin is known as Palo, as in palos del monte. There are also, in the Oriente region, forms of Haitian ritual together with its own instruments, music etc. Clave The clave rhythmic pattern is used as a tool for temporal organization in Afro-Cuban music, such as rumba, conga de comparsa, son, mambo (music), salsa, Latin jazz, songo and timba. The five-stroke clave pattern (distributed in groups of 3 + 2 or 2 + 3 beats) represents the structural core of many Afro-Cuban rhythms. Just as a keystone holds an arch in place, the clave pattern holds the rhythm together in Afro-Cuban music. The clave pattern originated in sub-Saharan African music traditions, where it serves essentially the same function as it does in Cuba. The pattern is also found in the African diaspora musics of Haitian Vodou drumming and Afro-Brazilian music. The clave pattern is used in North American popular music as a rhythmic motif or ostinato, or simply a form of rhythmic decoration. Cuban Carnival In Cuba, the word comparsa refers to the "Cabildos de Nación" neighbourhood groups that took part in the carnival authorized by the Spanish government on the Three Kings Day (Día de Reyes) during the colonial period. Conga is of African origin, and derives from street celebrations of the African spirits. The distinction is blurred today, but in the past the congas have been prohibited from time to time. Carnival as a whole was banned by the revolutionary government for many years, and still does not take place with the regularity of old. Conga drums are played (along with other typical instruments) in comparsas of all kinds. Santiago de Cuba and Havana were the two main centers for street carnivals. Two types of dance music (at least) owe their origin to comparsa music: Conga: an adaptation of comparsa music and dance for social dances. Eliseo Grenet may be the person who first created this music,p408 but it was the Lecuona Cuban Boys who took it around the world. The conga became, and perhaps still is, the best-known Cuban music and dance style for non-latins. Mozambique is a comparsa-type dance music developed by Pello el Afrokan (Pedro Izquierdo) in 1963. It had a brief period of high popularity, peaked in 1965, and was soon forgotten. Apparently, to make it work properly, it needed 16 drums plus other percussion and dancers. Tumba francesa Immigrants from Haiti settled in Oriente and established their style of music, called Tumba Francesa, which uses its own type of drum, dance and song. It embodies one of the oldest and most tangible links to the Afro-Haitian heritage of Cuba's Oriente province and developed from an 18th-century fusion of music from Dahomey in West Africa and traditional French dances. This fossil genre survives to the present day in Santiago de Cuba and Haiti, performed by specialized folk ensembles. Contradanza The Contradanza is an important precursor of several later popular dances. It arrived in Cuba in the late 18th century from Europe where it had been developed first as the English country dance, and then as the French contradanse. The origin of the word is a corruption of the English term "country dance". Manuel Saumell wrote over fifty contradanzas (in 2/4 or 6/8 time), in which his rhythmic and melodic inventiveness was astonishing. The Contradanza is a communal sequence dance, with the dance figures conforming to a set pattern. The selection of figures for a particular dance was usually set by a master of ceremonies or dance leader. There were two parts of 16 bars each, danced in a line or square format. The tempo and style of the music was bright and fairly fast. The earliest Cuban creole composition of a Contradanza appeared published in Havana in 1803 and was named San Pascual bailón. This version shows for the first time the well known rhythm of "Tango" or "Habanera" which differentiates it from the European contradance. The Cubans developed a number of creolized version, such as the "paseo", "cadena", "sostenido" and "cedazo". This creolization is an early example of the influence of the African traditions in the Caribbean. Most of the musicians were black or mulatto (even early in the 19th century there were many freed slaves and mixed race persons living in Cuban towns). "The women of Havana have a furious taste for dancing; they spend entire nights elevated, agitated, crazy and pouring sweat until they fall spent." The contradanza supplanted the minuet as the most popular dance until from 1842 on, it gave way to the habanera, a quite different style. Danza This genere, the offspring of the contradanza, was also danced in lines or squares. It was also a brisk form of music and dance in double or triple time. A repeated 8-bar paseo was followed by two 16-bar sections called the primera and segunda. One famous composer of danzas was Ignacio Cervantes, whose forty-one danzas cubanas were a landmark in musical nationalism. This type of dance was eventually replaced by the danzón, which was, like the habanera, much slower and more sedate. Habanera The habanera developed out of the contradanza in the early 19th century. Its great novelty was that it was sung, as well as played and danced. Written in 2/4 meter, the Habanera is characterized by an expressive and languid melodious development and its characteristic rhythm called "Habanera Rhythm." The dance style of the habanera is slower and more stately than the danza. By the 1840s habaneras were written, sung, and danced in Mexico, Venezuela, Puerto Rico, and Spain. Since about 1900 the habanera has been a relic dance; but the music has a period charm, and there are some famous compositions, such as Tú from Eduardo Sánchez de Fuentes, which has been recorded in many versions. Versions of habanera-type compositions have appeared in the music of Ravel, Bizet, Saint-Saëns, Debussy, Fauré, Albeniz. The rhythm is similar to that of the tango, and some believe the habanera is the musical father of the tango. Danzón The European influence on Cuba's later musical development is represented by danzón, an elegant musical form that was once more popular than the Son in Cuba. It is a descendant of the creolized Cuban contradanza. The danzón marks the change from the communal sequence dance style of the late 18th century to the couple dances of later times. The stimulus for this was the success of the once-scandalous walz, where couples danced facing each other, independently from other couples and not as part of a pre-set structure. The danzón was the first Cuban dance to adopt such methods, though there is a difference between the two dances. The walz is a progressive ballroom dance where couples move round the floor in an anti-clockwise direction; the danzón is a 'pocket-handkerchief' dance where a couple stays within a small area of the floor. The danzón was developed by Miguel Faílde in Matanzas, the official date of origin being 1879. Failde's was an orquesta típica, a form derived from military bands, using brass, kettle-drums etc. The later development of the charanga was more suited to the indoor salon and is an orchestral format still popular today in Cuba and some other countries. The charanga uses double bass, cello, violins, flute, piano, paila criolla and güiro. This change in instrumental set-up is illustrated in Early Cuban bands. From time to time in its 'career', the danzón acquired African influences in its musical structure. It became more syncopated, especially in its third part. The credit for this is given to José Urfé, who worked elements of the son into the last part of the danzón in his composition El bombin de Barreto (1910). Both the danzón and the charanga line-up have been strongly influential in later developments. The danzón was exported to popular acclaim throughout Latin America, especially Mexico. It is now a relic, both in music and in dance, but its highly orchestrated descendants live on in charangas that Faílde and Urfé would likely not recognize. Juan Formell has had a huge influence through his reorganization of first Orquesta Revé, and later Los Van Van. Danzonete Early Danzons were purely instrumental. The first to introduce a vocal part in a Danzón was Aniceto Díaz (in 1927 in Matanzas), that was called Rompiendo la rutina, thereby creating a new genre called the Danzonete. Later, the black singer Barbarito Diez joined the charanga of Antonio María Romeu in 1935 and, over the years, recorded eleven albums of Danzonetes. All later forms of the Danzón have included vocals. Guaracha On January 20, 1801, Buenaventura Pascual Ferrer published a note in a newspaper called "El Regañón de La Habana," in which he refers to certain chants that "run outside there through vulgar voices". Between them he mentioned a "guaracha" named "La Guabina", about which he says: "in the voice of those that sings it, tastes like any thing dirty, indecent or disgusting that you can think about." At a later time, in an undetermined date, "La Guabina" appears published between the first musical scores printed in Havana at the beginning of the 19th century. According to the commentaries published in "El Regañón de La Habana", it can be concluded that those "guarachas" were very popular within the Havana population at that time, because in the same previously mentioned article the author says: "but most importantly, what bothers me most is the liberty with which a number of chants are sung throughout the streets and town homes, where innocence is insulted and morals offended ... by many individuals, not just of the lowest class, but also by some people that are supposed to be called well educated." Therefore, it can be said that those "guarachas" of a very audacious content, were apparently already sung within a wide social sector of the Havana population. According to Alejo Carpentier (quoting Buenaventura Pascual Ferrer), at the beginning of the 19th century there were held in Havana up to fifty dance parties every day, where the famous "guaracha" was sung and danced, among other popular pieces. The guaracha is a genre of rapid tempo and comic or picaresque lyrics. It originated at the end of the 18th century, and during the early 20th century was still often played in the brothels and other places in Havana. The lyrics were full of slang, and dwelt on events and people in the news. Rhythmically, guaracha exhibits a series of rhythm combinations, such as 6/8 with 2/4. Many of the early trovadores, such as Manuel Corona (who worked in a brothel area of Havana), composed and sang guarachas as a balance for the slower boleros and canciones. The satirical lyric content also fitted well with the son, and many bands played both genres. In the mid-20th century the style was taken up by the conjuntos and big bands as a type of up-tempo music. Today it seems no longer to exist as a distinct musical form; it has been absorbed into the vast maw of Salsa. Singers who can handle the fast lyrics and are good improvisors are called guaracheros or guaracheras. Musical theatre From the 18th century (at least) to modern times, popular theatrical formats used, and gave rise to, music and dance. Many famous composers and musicians had their careers launched in the theatres, and many famous compositions got their first airing on the stage. In addition to staging some European operas and operettas, Cuban composers gradually developed ideas that better suited their audience. Recorded music was to be the couduit for Cuban music to reach the world. The most recorded artist in Cuba up to 1925 was a singer at the Alhambra, Adolfo Colombo. Records show he recorded about 350 numbers between 1906 and 1917. The first theatre in Havana opened in 1776. The first Cuban-composed opera appeared in 1807. Theatrical music was hugely important in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century; its significance only began to wane with the change in political and social weather in the second part of the 20th century. Radio, which began in Cuba in 1922, helped the growth of popular music because it provided publicity and a new source of income for the artists. Zarzuela Zarzuela is a small-scale light operetta format. Starting off with imported Spanish content (List of zarzuela composers), it developed into a running commentary on Cuba's social and political events and problems. Zarzuela has the distinction of providing Cuba's first recordings: the soprano Chalía Herrera (1864–1968) made, outside Cuba, the first recordings by a Cuban artist. She recorded numbers from the zarzuela Cádiz in 1898 on unnumbered Bettini cylinders. Zarzuela reached its peak in the first half of the 20th century. A string of front-rank composers such as Gonzalo Roig, Eliseo Grenet, Ernesto Lecuona and Rodrigo Prats produced a series of hits for the Regina and Martí theatres in Havana. Great stars like the vedette Rita Montaner, who could sing, play the piano, dance and act, were the Cuban equivalents of Mistinguett and Josephine Baker in Paris. Some of the best known zarzuelas are La virgen morena (Grenet), La Niña Rita (Grenet and Lecuona), María la O, El batey, Rosa la China (all Lecuona); Gonzalo Roig with La Habana de noche; Rodrigo Prats with Amalia Batista and La perla del caribe; and above all, Cecilia Valdés (the musical of the most famous Cuban novel of the 19th century, with music by Roig and script by Prats and Agustín Rodríguez). Artists who were introduced to the public in the lyric theatre include Caridad Suarez, María de los Angeles Santana, Esther Borja and Ignacio Villa, who had such a round, black face that Rita Montaner called him Bola de Nieve ('Snowball'). Another famous singer was Maruja González Linares. Born from Spanish parents in the Mexican locality of Mérida, Yucatán in 1904, González travelled from Cuba to the US at a very young age. She studied vocal techniques in Cuba, where she made her debut in 1929 as a lyrical singer in the Company of Maestro Ernesto Lecuona. González performed in several theaters of Havana before going on a tour through the United States and, upon her return to Havana, she sang La Bayadere and The Merry Widow in the same city. At the beginning of the 1930s, she signed a number of contracts in Latin America and in Spain. She married Perico Suarez. The Cuban Revolution caught her abroad and she never returned to her country. She died in Miami in 1999. Bufo theatre Cuban bufo theatre is a form of comedy, ribald and satirical, with stock figures imitating types that might be found anywhere in the country. Bufo had its origin around 1800-15 as an older form, tonadilla, began to vanish from Havana. Francisco Covarrubias the 'caricaturist' (1775–1850) was its creator. Gradually, the comic types threw off their European models and became more and more creolized and Cuban. Alongside, the music followed. Argot from slave barracks and poor barrios found its way into lyrics that are those of the guaracha: Una mulata me ha muerto! Y no prenden a esa mulata? Como ha de quedar hombre vivo si no prenden a quien mata! La mulata es como el pan; se debe comer caliente, que en dejandola enfriar ni el diablo le mete el diente!p218 (A mulata's done for me! What's more, they don't arrest her! How can any man live If they don't take this killer? A mulatta is like fresh bread You gotta eat it while it's hot If you leave it till it's cool Even the devil can't get a bite!) The "guaracha" occupied a predominant place within the development of vernacular theater in Cuba, which appearance at the beginning of the 19th century coincides with the emergence of the first autochthonous Cuban musical genres, the "guaracha" and the"contradanza.". Since 1812, Francisco Covarrubias (considered as the father of the Bufo Theater) gradually substituted in his theatrical pieces the typical characters of the Spanish "tonadilla escénica" with creole characters such as "guajiros", "monteros", "carreteros" or "peones". Those structural transformations were also associated to certain changes in the musical background of the pieces. Thus, the Spanish genres such as "jácaras", "tiranas", "boleras" or "villancicos", were substituted by "guarachas", "décimas" and "canciones cubanas." Other theatrical forms Vernacular theatre of various types often includes music. Formats rather like the British Music Hall, or the American Vaudeville, still occur, where an audience is treated to a potpourri of singers, comedians, bands, sketches and speciality acts. Even in cinemas during the silent movies, singers and instrumentalists appeared in the interval, and a pianist played during the films. Bola de Nieve and María Teresa Vera played in cinemas in their early days. Burlesque was also common in Havana before 1960. The Black Curros (Negros Curros) In reference to the emergence of the Guaracha and, at a later time, also of the Urban Rumba in Havana and Matanzas, it is important to mention an important and picturesque social sector called Black Curros (Negros Curros). Composed of free blacks that had arrived from Seville on an undetermined date, this group was integrated to the population of free blacks and mulattos that lived in the marginal zones of the city of Havana. José Victoriano Betancourt a Cuban "costumbrista" writer from the 19th century described them as follows: "they [the curros] had a peculiar aspect, and was enough to look at them to recognize them as curros: their long hunks of kinky braids, falling over their face and neck like big millipedes, their teeth cut (sharp and pointed) to the carabalí style, their fine embroidered cloth shirts, their pants, almost always white, or with colored stripes, narrow at the waist and very wide in the legs; the canvas shoes, cut low with silver buckles, the short jacket with pointed tail, the exaggerated straw hat, with black hanging silk tassles, and the thick gold hoops that they wore in their ears, from which they hung harts and padlocks of the same metal, forming an ornament that only they wear; ... those were the curros of El Manglar (The mangrove neighborhood)." The curro was dedicated to laziness, theft and procuring, while his companion, the curra, also called "mulata de rumbo", exercised the prostitution in Cuba. According to Carlos Noreña, she was well known for the use of burato shawls of meticulous work and plaited fringes, for which they used to pay from nine to ten ounces of gold", as well as by the typical clacking (chancleteo) they produced with their wooden slippers. But the Curros also provided entertainment, including songs and dances to the thousands of Spanish men that came to the Island every year in the ships that followed the "Carrera de Indias", a route established by the Spanish Crown for their galleons in order to avoid attacks from pirates and privateers, and stayed for months until they returned to the Port of Seville. Being subject to the influence of both the Spanish and the African culture from birth, they are supposed to have played an important role in the creolization of the Spanish song-dances original proto-type (copla-estribillo) that originated the Cuban Guaracha. The Black curro and the Mulata de Rumbo (Black Curra) disappeared since the mid-19th century by integrating to the Havana general population, but their picturesque images survived in social prototypes manifested in the characters of the Bufo Theater. The famous "Mulatas de Rumbo" (mulatto characters) Juana Chambicú and María La O, as well as the black "cheches" (bullies) José Caliente "who rips in half those who oppose him," Candela, "negrito that flies and cuts with the knife," as well as the Black Curro Juán Cocuyo, were strongly linked to the characteristic image of the Black Curro and to the ambiance of the Guaracha and the Rumba. Rumba The word Rumba is an abstract term that has been applied with different purposes to a wide variety of subjects for a very long time. From a semantic point of view, the term rumba is included in a group of words with similar meaning such as conga, milonga, bomba, tumba, samba, bamba, mambo, tambo, tango, cumbé, cumbia and candombe. All of them denote a Congolese origin due to the utilization of sound combinations such as, mb, ng and nd, that are typical of the Niger-Congo linguistic complex. Maybe the most ancient and general of its meanings is that of a feast or "holgorio". As far as the second half of the 19th century, this word can be found used several times to represent a feast in a short story called "La mulata de rumbo", from the Cuban folklorist Francisco de Paula Gelabert: "I have more enjoyment and fun in a rumbita with those of my color and class", or "Leocadia was going to bed, as I was telling you, nothing less than at twelve noon, when one of his friends from the rumbas arrived, along with another young man that he wanted to introduce to her." According to Alejo Carpentier "it is significant that the word rumba have passed to the Cuban language as a synonym of holgorio, lewd dance, merrymaking with low class women (mujeres del rumbo)." As an example, In the case of the Yuka, Makuta and Changüí feasts in Cuba, as well as the Milonga and the Tango in Argentina, the word rumba was originally utilized to nominate a festive gathering; and after some time it was used to name the musical and dance genres that were played at those gatherings. Among many others, some ultizations of the term "rumba include a cover-all term for faster Cuban music which started in the early 1930s with The Peanut Vendor. This term was replaced during the 1970s by salsa, which is also a cover-all term for marketing the Cuban music and other Hispano-Caribbean genres to non-Cubans. In the international Latin-American dance syllabus rumba is a misnomer for the slow Cuban rhythm more accurately called bolero-son. Rumba and guaracha Some scholars have pointed out that in reference to the utilization of the terms rumba and guaracha, there is possibly a case of synonymy, or the use of two different words to denominate the same thing. According to María Teresa Linares: "during the first years of the 20th century, there were used at the end of the vernacular (Bufo) theater plays some musical fragments that the authors sang, and that were called closing rumba (rumba final)" and she continues explaining that those (rumbas) "were certainly guarachas." The musical pieces used to close those plays may have been indistinctly called rumbas or guarachas, because those terms didn't denote any generic or structural difference between them. Linares also said in reference to this subject: "Some recordings of guarachas and rumbas have been preserved that do not differentiate between them in the guitar parts – when it was a small group, duo or trio, or by the theater orchestra or a piano. The labels of the recordings stated: dialogue and rumba (diálogo y rumba)." Urban rumba Urban rumba (also called Rumba (de solar o de cajón)), is an amalgamation of several African drumming and dance traditions, combined with Spanish influences. According to Cuban musicologist Argeliers León: "In the feast that constituted a rumba concurred, therefore, determined African contributions, but also converged other elements from Hispanic roots, that were already incorporated to the expressions that appeared in the new population emerging in the Island." Rumba (de solar o de cajón) is a secular musical style from the docks and the less prosperous areas of Havana and Matanzas. A the beginning, rumba musicians used a trio of wooden boxes (cajones) to play, that were substituted at a later time by drums, similar in appearance to conga drums. The treble drum is called "quinto", the medium range drum is called "macho or tres-dos" (three-two), because its essential rhythm is based on the Cuban clave pattern, and the bass drum is called "hembra o salidor," because it usually began or "broke in" (rompía) the rumba. In the Rumba ensemble they also utilize two sticks or spoons to beat over a hollow piece of bamboo called "guagua" or "catá," as well as the Cuban Claves, the Güiro and some rattles from bantu origin called "nkembi". The vocal part of the rumba corresponds to a modified version of the ancient Spanish style of "copla-estribillo" (quatrain-refrain), including a "montuno" section that one may consider an expanded or developed "refrain" that constitute an independent section which include the call and response style, so typical of the African traditions. From the many rumba styles that began to appear during the end of the 19th century called "Spanish times" (Tiempo'españa), such as tahona, jiribilla, palatino and resedá, three basic Rumba forms have survived: the Columbia, the guaguancó and the yambú. The Columbia, played in 6/8 time, is often as a solo dance performed only by a male performer. It is fast and swift and also includes aggressive and acrobatic moves. The guaguancó is danced by a pair of one man and one woman. The dance simulates the man's pursuit of the woman. The yambú, now a relic, featured a burlesque imitation of an old man walking with a stick. All forms of rumba are accompanied by song or chants. Rumba (de solar o de cajón) is today a fossil genre usually seen in Cuba in performances of professional groups. There are also amateur groups based on Casas de Cultura (Culture Centers), and on work groups. Like all aspects of life in Cuba, dance and music are organised by the state through Ministries and their various committees. Coros de Clave Coros de Clave were popular choral groups that emerged at the beginning of the 20th century in Havana and other Cuban cities. The Cuban government only allowed black people, slaves or free, to cultivate their cultural traditions within the boundaries of certain mutual aid societies, which were founded during the 16th century. According to David H. Brown, those societies, called Cabildos, "provided in times of sickness and death, held masses for deceased members, collected funds to buy nation-brethren out of slavery, held regular dances and diversions on Sundays and feast days, and sponsored religious masses, processions and dancing carnival groups (now called comparsas) around the annual cycle of Catholic festival days." Within the Cabildos of certain neighborhoods from Havana, Matanzas, Sancti Spíritus and Trinidad, some choral groups were founded during the 19th century that organized competitive activities, and in some occasions were visited by local authorities and neighbors that gave them money and presents. Those choral societies were called Coros de Clave, probably after the instrument that used to accompany their performances, the Cuban Claves. The accompaniment of the choirs also included a guitar and the percussion was executed over the sound box of an American banjo from which the strings were removed, due to the fact that African drums performance was strictly forbidden in Cuban cities. The style of the Coros de Clave music, and particulally its rhythm, originated at a later time a popular song genre called Clave, which most probable served as the original prototype for the creation of the Criolla genre. Both genres, the Clave and the Criolla became very popular within the Cuban vernacular theater repertoire. Rural rumba In a similar way as the first Spanish song-dances spread from the cities to the countryside, also the characteristics of the Cuban Guaracha, that enjoyed great popularity in Havana, began to spread to the rural areas in an undetermined time during the 19th century. This process was not difficult at all if one considers how close one to the other were the urban and the rural areas in Cuba at that time. That was why the Cuban peasants (guajiros) began to include in their parties called "guateques" or "changüís", and in feasts such as the "fiestas patronales" (patron saint celebrations) and the "parrandas", some Rumbitas (little rumbas) that were very similar to the urban Guarachas, which binary meter contrasted with the ternary beat of their traditional "tonadas" and "zapateos". Those little rural rumbas have been called by renowned musicologist Danilo Orozco "proto-sones", "soncitos primigenios", "rumbitas", "nengones"or "marchitas," and some of them, such as: Caringa, Papalote, Doña Joaquina, Anda Pepe and the Tingotalango have been preserved until the present time. The Rumbitas were considered as Proto-sones (primeval Sones), because of the evident analogy that its structural components show with the Son, which emerged in Havana during the first decades of the 20th century. The Rumbitas may be considered as the original prototype of this popular genre. According to musicologist Virtudes Feliú, those Rumbitas appeared in cities and towns throughout the entire territory of the Island, such as: Ciego de Ávila, Sancti Espíritus, Cienfuegos, Camagüey, Puerta de Golpe in Pinar del Río and Bejucal in Havana, as well as Remedios in Villa Clara and Isla de Pinos (Pines Island). There are many references to the Cuban Independence Wars (1868-1898), related to the rural Rumbitas, in the Eastern region of the country as well as in the Western region and Isla de Pinos, which suggest that their emergence took place approximately during the second half of the 19th century. The rural Rumbitas included a greater number of African characteristics in comparison with the Cuban Guaracha, due to the gradual integration of free Afro-Cuban citizens to the rural environment. Since the 16th century, thanks to a government approved program called "manumisión", the black slaves were allowed to pay for their freedom with their own savings. Therefore, a larger number of free blacks were dedicated to the manual labors in the fields than in the cities and some of them were also able to become proprietaries of land and slaves. Characteristics of the rural rumba One of the most salient characteristics of the rural Rumbitas was its own form, very similar to the African typical song structure. In this case, the entire piece was based on a single musical fragment or phrase of short duration that was repeated, with some variations, time and time again; often alternating with a choir. This style was called "Montuno" (literally "from the countryside") due to its rural origin. Another characteristic of the new genre was the superposition of different rhythmic patterns simultaneously executed, similarly to the way it is utilized in the Urban Rumba, which is also a common trait of the African musical tradition. Those layers or "franjas de sonoridades" according to Argeliers León, were assigned to different instruments that were gradually incorporated to the group. Therefore, the ensemble grew from the traditional Tiple and Güiro, to a one that included: guitar, "bandurria", Cuban lute, claves, and other instruments such as the"tumbandera", the "marímbula", the "botija", the bongoes, the common "machete" (cutlass) and the accordion. Some important musical functions were assigned to the sonority layers, such as the: "Time Line" or Clave Rhythm performed by the claves, a "1-eighth note + 2-sixteenth notes" rhythm played by the güiro or the machete, the patterns of the "guajeo" by the Tres (instrument), the improvisation on the bongoes and the anticipated bass on the "tumbandera" or the "botija". Proto-son The origin of the Cuban son can be traced to the rural rumbas, called proto-sones (primeval sones) by musicologist Danilo Orozco. They show, in a partial or embryonic form, all the characteristics that at a later time were going to identify the Son style: The repetition of a phrase called montuno, the clave pattern, a rhythmic counterpoint between different layers of the musical texture, the guajeo from the Tres, the rhythms from the guitar, the bongoes and the double bass and the call and response style between soloist and choir. According to Radamés Giro: at a later time the refrain (estribillo) or montuno was tied to a quatrain (cuarteta – copla) called regina, which was how the peasants from the Eastern side of the country called the quatrain. In this way, the structure refrain–quatrain–refrain appears at a very early stage in the Son Oriental, like in one of the most ancient Sones called "Son de Máquina" (Machine Son) which comprises three reginas with its correspondent refrains. During an investigative project about the Valera-Miranda family (old Soneros) conducted by Danilo Orozco in the region of Guantánamo, he recorded a sample of Nengón, which is considered an ancestor of the Changüí. It shows the previously mentioned refrain–quatrain–refrain structure. In this case, the several repetitions of the refrain constitute a true "montuno." Refrain: Yo he nacido para ti nengón, yo he nacido para ti nengón, yo he nacido para ti Nengón... (I was born for you Nengón...) Nengón The "Nengón" is considered a Proto-Son, precursor of the Changüí and also of the Oriental Son. Its main characteristic is the alternance of improvised verses between a soloist and a choir. The Nengón is played with Tres, Guitar, Güiro and Tingotalango or Tumbandera. Changüí Changüí is a type of son from the eastern provinces (area of Santiago de Cuba and Guantánamo), formerly known as Oriente. It shares relevant characteristics with the Oriental Son in regard to rhythms, instruments and choral refrains; and at the same time it shows certain original elements. Changüí exists today in the form of dozens of small groups, mostly from Guantanamo province. The instrumentation is similar to that of the early Son groups who set up in Havana before 1920. These son groups, for example, the early Sexteto Boloña and Sexteto Habanero, used either marimbulas or botijas as bass instruments before they changed over to the double bass, musically a more flexible instrument. Changui is a genuinely distinctive music and culture practiced by residents of the Guantanamo province with its own distinctive social dance form (couple dance). Guantanameros engage in Changui in house parties (called Peñas), street parties, concerts at venues such as Casa de Changui, a weekly Monday night dance broadcast live on Radio Guantanamo, an annual Changui festival to celebrate the anniversary of Chito Latanble, and the bi-annual Festival de Changui. There is often a Changui function on most nights of the week at the Province. Some modern orchestras, such as Orquesta Revé, have claimed Changüí as their main influence. Whether this is accurate, or not, is unclear. Sucu-Sucu We can also find in Isla de Pinos, at the opposite Western side of the Island a primeval Proto-Son called Sucu-Sucu, which also shows the same structure of the Oriental Proto-Sones. According to Maria Teresa Linares, In the Sucu-Sucu the music is similar to a Son Montuno in its formal, melodic, instrumental and harmonic structure. A soloist alternates with a choir and improvises on a quatrain or a "décima." The instrumental section is introduced by the Tres, gradually joined by the other instruments. The introduction of eight measures is followed by the refrain by the choir that alternates with the soloist several times. An urban legend claims that the name "Sucu Sucu" came from the grandmother of one of the local musicians in la Isla de Juventud. The band was playing in the patio, and the dances were dancing while shuffling their feet on the sandy floor. The grandmother came out of the house to say "Please stop making noise with all that sucu sucu," referring to the sound of shuffling feet on a sandy floor. The legend claim that the name stuck, and the music the dancers were dancing too started to be named "Sucu Sucu". Trova In the 19th century, Santiago de Cuba became the focal point of a group of itinerant musicians, troubadors, who moved around earning their living by singing and playing the guitar. They were of great importance as composers, and their songs have been transcribed for all genres of Cuban music Pepe Sánchez, born José Sánchez (1856–1918), is known as the father of the trova style and the creator of the Cuban bolero. He had no formal training in music. With remarkable natural talent, he composed numbers in his head and never wrote them down. As a result, most of these numbers are now lost for ever, though some two dozen or so survive because friends and disciples transcribed them. His first bolero, Tristezas, is still remembered today. He also created advertisement jingles before radio was born. He was the model and teacher for the great trovadores who followed him. The first, and one of the longest-lived, was Sindo Garay (1867–1968). He was an outstanding composer of trova songs, and his best have been sung and recorded many times. Garay was also musically illiterate – in fact, he only taught himself the alphabet at 16 – but in his case not only were scores recorded by others, but there are recordings. Garay settled in Havana in 1906, and in 1926 joined Rita Montaner and others to visit Paris, spending three months there. He broadcast on radio, made recordings and survived into modern times. He used to say "Not many men have shaken hands with both José Martí and Fidel Castro!"p298 José 'Chicho' Ibáñez (1875–1981) was even longer-lived than Garay. Ibáñez was the first trovador to specialize in the son; he also sang guaguancós and pieces from the abakuá. The composer Rosendo Ruiz (1885–1983) was another long-lived trovador. He was the author of a well-known guitar manual. Alberto Villalón (1882–1955), and Manuel Corona (1880–1950) were of similar stature. Garay, Ruiz, Villalón and Corona are known as the four greats of the trova, though the following trovadores are also highly regarded. Patricio Ballagas (1879–1920); María Teresa Vera (1895–1965), Lorenzo Hierrezuelo (1907–1993), Ñico Saquito (Antonio Fernandez: 1901–1982), Carlos Puebla (1917–1989) and Compay Segundo (Máximo Francisco Repilado Muñoz: 1907–2003) were all great trova musicians. El Guayabero (Faustino Oramas: 1911–2007) was the last of the old trova. Trova musicians often worked in pairs and trios, some of them exclusively so (Compay Segundo). As the sexteto/septeto/conjunto genre grew many of them joined in the larger groups. And let's not forget the Trio Matamoros, who worked together for most of their lives. Matamoros was one of the greats. Bolero This is a song and dance form quite different from its Spanish namesake. It originated in the last quarter of the 19th century with the founder of the traditional trova, Pepe Sánchez. He wrote the first bolero, Tristezas, which is still sung today. The bolero has always been a staple part of the trova musician's repertoire. Originally, there were two sections of 16 bars in 2/4 time separated by an instrumental section on the Spanish guitar called the pasacalle. The bolero proved to be exceptionally adaptable, and led to many variants. Typical was the introduction of sychopation leading to the bolero-moruno, bolero-beguine, bolero-mambo, bolero-cha. The bolero-son became for several decades the most popular rhythm for dancing in Cuba, and it was this rhythm that the international dance community picked up and taught as the wrongly-named 'rumba'. The Cuban bolero was exported all over the world, and is still popular. Leading composers of the bolero were Sindo Garay, Rosendo Ruiz, Carlos Puebla, and Agustín Lara (Mexico). Canción Canción means 'song' in Spanish. It is a popular genre of Latin American music, particularly in Cuba, where many of the compositions originate. Its roots lie in Spanish, French and Italian popular song forms. Originally highly stylized, with "intricate melodies and dark, enigmatic and elaborate lyrics" The canción was democratized by the trova movement in the latter part of the 19th century, when it became a vehicle for the aspirations and feelings of the population. Canción gradually fused with other forms of Cuban music, such as the bolero. Tropical waltz The waltz (El vals) arrived in Cuba by 1814. It was the first dance in which couples were not linked by a communal sequence pattern. It was, and still is, danced in 3/4 time with the accent on the first beat. It was originally thought scandalous because couples faced each other, held each other in the 'closed' hold, and, so to speak, ignored the surrounding community. The waltz entered all countries in the Americas; its relative popularity in 19th-century Cuba is hard to estimate. Indigenous Cuban dances did not use the closed hold with couples dancing independently until the danzón later in the century, though the guaracha might be an earlier example. The waltz has another characteristic: it is a 'travelling' dance, with couples moving round the arena. In Latin dances, progressive movement of dancers is unusual, but does occur in the conga, the samba and the tango. The Tropical waltz was performed in a slower tempo and frequently included a sung melody with a text. Those texts usually referred to the beauties of the Cuban countryside, the longing of the Siboneyes (Cuban aboriginee) and other creole themes. With accents on its three beats, its melody was fluid and composed of equal value notes. It was similar to many other songs in which the melody was treated in a syllabic way, where the first beat was not stressed by a brief anacrusis but had a tendency to move toward the second beat like in the peasant (guajiro) song. Son Son cubano is a style of music and dance that originated in Cuba and gained worldwide popularity during the 1930s. Son combines the structure and traits of the Spanish canción with Afro-Cuban stylistic and percussion instruments elements. The Cuban Son is one of the most influential and widespread forms of Latin American music: its derivatives and fusions, especially salsa, have spread across the world. The Son, said Cristóbal Díaz, is the most important genre of Cuban music, and the least studied. It can fairly be said that son is to Cuba what the tango is to Argentina, or the samba to Brazil. In addition, it is perhaps the most flexible of all forms of Latin-American music. Its great strength is its fusion between European and African musical traditions. Its most characteristic instruments are the Cuban instrument known as the tres, and the well-known double-headed bongó; these are present from the start to the present day. Also typical are the claves, the Spanish guitar, the double bass (replacing the early botija or marímbula), early on the cornet or trumpet and finally the piano. In spite of a traditional tendency to attribute the origin of Cuban Son to the Eastern region of Cuba (Oriente), most recently, some musicologists have shown a more inclusive stance. Although Alejo Carpentier, Emilio Grenet and Cristóbal Díaz Ayala support the "Eastern origin" theory, Argeliers León doesn't mention anything about it in his pivotal work "Del Canto y el Tiempo", as well as María Teresa Linares in "The Music between Cuba and Spain." Ramadamés Giro states about this subject: "If Son was an artistic phenomenon that was developing since the second half of the 19th century – and not just in the old Oriente (Eastern) province -, it is logical to suppose, but not to affirm, that long before 1909 it was heard in the Capital City (Havana) because of the aforementioned reasons." It was in Havana where the encounter of the rural rumba and the urban rumba, that had been developing separately during the second half of the 19th century, took place. The guaracheros and rumberos that used to play with the Tiple and the Guiro finally met other Rumberos that sang and danced accompanied by the wooden box (cajón) and the Cuban Clave, and the result was the fusion of both styles in a new genre called Son. Around 1910 the Son most likely adopted the clave rhythm from the Havana-based rumba, which had been developed in the late 19th century in Havana and Matanzas. The mass popularization of Son music led to an increased valorization of Afro-Cuban street culture and of the artists who created it. It also opened the door for other music genres with Afro-Cuban roots to become popular in Cuba and throughout the world. Cuban jazz The history of jazz in Cuba was obscured for many years, but it has become clear that its history in Cuba is virtually as long as its history in the US. Much more is now known about early Cuban jazz bands, but a full assessment is plagued by the lack of recordings. Migrations and visits to and from the US and the mutual exchange of recordings and sheet music kept musicians in the two countries in touch. In the first part of the 20th century, there were close relations between musicians in Cuba and those in New Orleans. The orchestra leader in the famous Tropicana Club, Armando Romeu Jr, was a leading figure in the post-World War II development of Cuban jazz. The phenomenon of cubop and the jam sessions in Havana and New York organized by Cachao created genuine fusions that influence musicians today. A key historian of early Cuban jazz is Leonardo Acosta. Others have explored the history of jazz and Latin jazz more from the U.S. perspective. Early Cuban jazz bands The Jazz Band Sagua was founded in Sagua la Grande in 1914 by Pedro Stacholy (director & piano). Members: Hipólito Herrera (trumpet); Norberto Fabelo (cornet); Ernesto Ribalta (flute & sax); Humberto Domínguez (violin); Luciano Galindo (trombone); Antonio Temprano (tuba); Tomás Medina (drum kit); Marino Rojo (güiro). For fourteen years they played at the Teatro Principal de Sagua. Stacholy studied under Antonio Fabré in Sagua, and completed his studies in New York, where he stayed for three years. The Cuban Jazz Band was founded in 1922 by Jaime Prats in Havana. The personnel included his son Rodrigo Prats on violin, the great flautist Alberto Socarrás on flute and saxophone and Pucho Jiménez on slide trombone. The line-up would probably have included double bass, kit drum, banjo, cornet at least. Earlier works cited this as the first jazz band in Cuba, but evidently there were earlier groups. In 1924 Moisés Simons (piano) founded a group which played on the roof garden of the Plaza Hotel in Havana, and consisted of piano, violin, two saxes, banjo, double bass, drums and timbales. Its members included Virgilio Diago (violin); Alberto Soccarás (alto saz, flute); José Ramón Betancourt (tenor sax); Pablo O'Farrill (d. bass). In 1928, still at the same venue, Simons hired Julio Cueva, a famous trumpeter, and Enrique Santiesteban, a future media star, as vocalist and drummer. These were top instrumentalists, attracted by top fees of $8 a day.p28 During the 1930s, several bands played Jazz in Havana, such as those of Armando Romeu, Isidro Pérez, Chico O'Farrill and Germán Lebatard. Their most important contribution was its own instrumental format itself, which introduced the typical Jazz sonority to the Cuban audience. Another important element within this process were the arrangements of Cuban musicians such as Romeu, O'Farrill, Bebo Valdés, Peruchín Jústiz and Leopoldo "Pucho" Escalante. Afro-Cuban jazz Afro-Cuban jazz is the earliest form of Latin jazz and mixes Afro-Cuban clave-based rhythms with jazz harmonies and techniques of improvisation. Afro-Cuban jazz first emerged in the early 1940s, with the Cuban musicians Mario Bauza and Frank Grillo "Machito" in the band Machito and his Afro-Cubans, based in New York City. In 1947 the collaborations of bebop innovator Dizzy Gillespie with Cuban percussionist Chano Pozo brought Afro-Cuban rhythms and instruments, most notably the tumbadora and the bongo, into the East Coast jazz scene. Early combinations of jazz with Cuban music, such as Dizzy's and Pozo's "Manteca" and Charlie Parker's and Machito's "Mangó Mangüé", were commonly referred to as "Cubop", short for Cuban bebop. During its first decades, the Afro-Cuban jazz movement was stronger in the United States than in Cuba itself. In the early 1970s, the Orquesta Cubana de Música Moderna and later Irakere brought Afro-Cuban jazz into the Cuban music scene, influencing new styles such as songo. Diversification and popularization Cuban music enters the United States In 1930, Don Azpiazú had the first million-selling record of Cuban music: The Peanut Vendor (El Manisero), with Antonio Machín as the singer. This number had been orchestrated and included in N.Y. theatre by Azpiazú before recording, which no doubt helped with the publicity. The Lecuona Cuban Boys became the best-known Cuban touring ensemble: they were the ones who first used the conga drum in their conjunto, and popularized the conga as a dance. Xavier Cugat at the Waldorf Astoria was highly influential. In 1941 Desi Arnaz popularized the comparsa drum (similar to the conga) in the U.S with his performances of Babalú. There was a real 'rumba craze' at the time. Later, Mario Bauza and Machito set up in New York and Miguelito Valdés also arrived there. 1940s and '50s In the 1940s, Chano Pozo formed part of the bebop revolution in jazz, playing conga with Dizzy Gillespie and Machito in New York City. Cuban jazz had started much earlier, in Havana, in the period 1910–1930. Arsenio Rodríguez, one of Cuba's most famous tres players and conjunto leaders, emphasised the son African roots by adapting the guaguancó style, and by adding a cowbell and conga to the rhythm section. He also expanded the role of the tres as a solo instrument. In the late 1930s and 40s, the danzonera Arcaño y sus Maravillas incorporated more syncopation and added a montuno (as in son), transforming the music played by charanga orchestras. The big band era The big band era arrived in Cuba in the 1940s, and became a dominant format that survives. Two great arranger-bandleaders deserve special credit for this, Armando Romeu Jr. and Damaso Perez Prado. Armando Romeu Jr. led the Tropicana Cabaret orchestra for 25 years, starting in 1941. He had experience playing with visiting American jazz groups as well as a complete mastery of Cuban forms of music. In his hands the Tropicana presented not only Afrocuban and other popular Cuban music, but also Cuban jazz and American big band compositions. Later he conducted the Orquesta Cubana de Musica Moderna. Damaso Perez Prado had a number of hits, and sold more 78s than any other Latin music of the day. He took over the role of pianist/arranger for the Orquesta Casino de la Playa in 1944, and immediately began introducing new elements into its sound. The orchestra began to sound more Afrocuban, and at the same time Prado took influences from Stravinsky, Stan Kenton and elsewhere. By the time he left the orchestra in 1946 he had put together the elements of his big band mambo.: "Above all, we must point out the work of Perez Prado as an arranger, or better yet, composer and arranger, and his clear influence on most other Cuban arrangers from then on."p86 Benny Moré, considered by many as the greatest Cuban singer of all time, was in his heyday in the 1950s. He had an innate musicality and fluid tenor voice, which he colored and phrased with great expressivity. Although he could not read music, Moré was a master of all the genres, including son montuno, mambo, guaracha, guajira, cha cha cha, afro, canción, guaguancó, and bolero. His orchestra, the Banda Gigante, and his music, was a development – more flexible and fluid in style – of the Perez Prado orchestra, which he sang with in 1949–1950. Cuban music in the US Three great innovations based on Cuban music hit the US after World War II: the first was Cubop, the latest latin jazz fusion. In this, Mario Bauza and the Machito orchestra on the Cuban side and Dizzy Gillespie on the American side were prime movers. The rumbustious conguero Chano Pozo was also important, for he introduced jazz musicians to basic Cuban rhythms. Cuban jazz has continued to be a significant influence. The mambo first entered the United States around 1950, though ideas had been developing in Cuba and Mexico City for some time. The mambo as understood in the United States and Europe was considerably different from the danzón-mambo of Orestes "Cachao" Lopez, which was a danzon with extra syncopation in its final part. The mambo—which became internationally famous—was a big band product, the work of Perez Prado, who made some sensational recordings for RCA in their new recording studios in Mexico City in the late 1940s. About 27 of those recordings had Benny Moré as the singer, though the best sellers were mainly instrumentals. The big hits included "Que rico el mambo" (Mambo Jambo); "Mambo No. 5"; "Mambo #8"; "Cherry Pink (and Apple Blossom White)". The later (1955) hit "Patricia" was a mambo/rock fusion. Mambo of the Prado kind was more a descendant of the son and the guaracha than the danzón. In the U.S. the mambo craze lasted from about 1950 to 1956, but its influence on the bugaloo and salsa that followed it was considerable. Violinist Enrique Jorrín invented the chachachá in the early 1950s. This was developed from the danzón by increased syncopation. The chachachá became more popular outside Cuba when the big bands of Perez Prado and Tito Puente produced arrangements that attracted American and European audiences. Along with "Nuyoricans" Ray Barretto and Tito Puente and others, several waves of Cuban immigrants introduced their ideas into US music. Among these was Celia Cruz, a guaracha singer. Others were active in Latin jazz, such as percussionist Patato Valdés of the Cuban-oriented "Tipíca '73", linked to the Fania All-Stars. Several former members of Irakere have also become highly successful in the US, among them Paquito D'Rivera and Arturo Sandoval. Tata Güines, a famous conguero, moved to New York City in 1957, playing with jazz players such as Dizzy Gillespie, Maynard Ferguson, and Miles Davis at Birdland. As a percussionist, he performed with Josephine Baker and Frank Sinatra. He returned to Cuba in 1959 after Fidel Castro came to power in the Cuban Revolution, which he helped fund with contributions from his earnings as a musician. Mambo Mambo is a musical genre and dance style that developed originally in Cuba. The word "Mambo", similarly to other afroamerican musical denominations as conga, milonga, bomba, tumba, samba, bamba, bamboula, tambo, tango, cumbé, cumbia and candombe, denote an African origin, particularly from Congo, due to the presence of certain characteristic combinations of sounds, such as mb, ng and nd, which belong to the Niger-Congo linguistic complex. The earliest roots of the Cuban Mambo can be traced to the "Danzón de Nuevo Ritmo" (Danzón with a new rhythm) made popular by the orchestra "Arcaño y sus Maravillas" conducted by famous bandleader Antonio Arcaño. He was the first to denominate a section of the popular Cuban Danzón as a "Mambo." It was Arcaño's cellist, Orestes López, who created the first Danzón called "Mambo" (1938). In this piece, some syncopated motives, taken from the Son style, were combined with improvised flute passages. Pianist and arranger from Matanzas, Cuba, Dámaso Pérez Prado (1927) established his residence in Havana at the beginning of the 1940s and began to work at night clubs and orchestras, such as Paulina Alvarez's and Casino de La Playa. In 1949 he traveled to Mexico looking for job opportunities and achieved great success with a new style, to which he assigns a name that had been already utilized by Antonio Arcaño, the "Mambo." Perez Prado's style differed from the previous "Mambo" concept. The new style possessed a greater influence from the North-American Jazz band music, and an expanded instrumentation consisting of four or five trumpets, four of five saxophones, double bass, drum set, maracas, cowbell, congas and bongoes. The new "Mambo" included a catchy counterpoint between the trumpets and the saxophones, that impulsed the body to move along with the rhythm, stimulated at the end of each musical phrase by a characteristic deep throat sound expression. Prado's recordings were meant for the Latin American and U.S. Latino markets, but some of his most celebrated mambos, such as "Mambo No. 5" and "Que Rico el Mambo", quickly crossed over to the United States. Chachachá Chachachá is a genre of Cuban music. It has been a popular dance music which developed from the Danzón-mambo in the early 1950s, and became widely popular throughout the entire world. Chachachávis a Cuban music genre whose creation has been traditionally attributed to Cuban composer and violinist Enrique Jorrín, which began his career playing for the charanga band Orquesta América. According to the testimony of Enrique Jorrín, he composed some "Danzones" in which the musician of the orchestra had to sing short refrains, and this style was very successful. In the Danzón "Constancia" he introduced some montunos and the audience was motivated to join in singing the refrains. Jorrín also asked the members of the orchestra to sing in unison so the lyrics may be heard more clearly and achieve a greater impact in the audience. That way of singing also helped to mask the poor singing skills of the orchestra members. Since its inception, Chachachá music had a close relationship with the dancer's steps. The well-known name Chachachá came into being with the help of the dancers at the Silver Star Club in Havana. When the dance was coupled to the rhythm of the music, it became evident that the dancer's feet were making a peculiar sound as they grazed the floor on three successive beats. It was like an onomatopoeia that sounded as: Chachachá. From this peculiar sound, a music genre was born which motivated people from around the world to dance at its catchy rhythm. According to Olavo ALén: "During the 1950s, Chachachá maintained its popularity thanks to the efforts of many Cuban composers who were familiar with the technique of composing danzones and who unleashed their creativity on the Chachachá", such as Rosendo Ruiz, Jr. ("Los Marcianos" and "Rico Vacilón"), Félix Reina ("Dime Chinita," "Como Bailan Cha-cha-chá los Mexicanos"), Richard Egűes ("El Bodeguero" and "La Cantina") and Rafael Lay ("Cero Codazos, Cero Cabezazos"). The Chachachá was first presented to the public through the instrumental medium of the charanga, a typical Cuban dance band format made up of a flute, strings, piano, bass and percussion. The popularity of the Chachachá also revived the popularity of this kind of orchestra. Filin Filin was a Cuban fashion of the 1940s and 1950s, influenced by popular music in the US. The word is derived from feeling. It describes a style of post-microphone jazz-influenced romantic song (crooning). Its Cuban roots were in the bolero and the canción. Some Cuban quartets, such as Cuarteto d'Aida and Los Zafiros, modelled themselves on U.S. close-harmony groups. Others were singers who had heard Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan and Nat King Cole. A house in Havana, where the trovador Tirso Díaz lived, became a meeting-place for singers and musicians interested in filin such as: Luis Yañez, César Portillo de la Luz, José Antonio Méndez, Niño Rivera, José Antonio Ñico Rojas, Elena Burke, Froilán, Aida Diestro and Frank Emilio Flynn. Here lyricists and singers could meet arrangers, such as Bebo Valdés, El Niño Rivera (Andrés Hechavarria), Peruchín (Pedro Justiz), and get help to develop their work. Filin singers included César Portillo de la Luz, José Antonio Méndez, who spent a decade in Mexico from 1949 to 1959, Frank Domínguez, the blind pianist Frank Emilio Flynn, and the great singers of boleros Elena Burke and the still-performing Omara Portuondo, who both came from the Cuarteto d'Aida. The filin movement originally had a place every afternoon on Radio Mil Diez. Some of its most prominent singers, such as Pablo Milanés, took up the banner of the Nueva Trova at a later time. 1960s and 70s Modern Cuban music is known for its relentless mixing of genres. For example, the 1970s saw Los Irakere use batá in a big band setting; this became known as son-batá or batá-rock. Later artists created the mozambique, which mixed conga and mambo, and batá-rumba, which mixed rumba and batá drum music. Mixtures including elements of hip hop, jazz and rock and roll are also common, like in Habana Abierta's rockoson. Revolutionary Cuba and Cuban exiles The triumph of the Cuban Revolution in 1959 signalled the emigration of many musicians to Puerto Rico, Florida and New York, and in Cuba artists and their work came under the protection (and control) of the Socialist state, and the monopoly state-owned recording company EGREM. The Castro government abolished copyright laws in Cuba, closed many of the venues where popular music used to be played (e.g. night clubs), and so indirectly threw many musicians out of work.p202 This undoubtedly had deleterious effects on the evolution of popular music and dance. Many young musicians now studied classical music and not popular music. All musicians employed by the state were given academic courses in music. In Cuba, the Nueva Trova movement (including Pablo Milanés) reflected the new leftist ideals. The state took over the lucrative Tropicana Club, which continued as a popular attraction for foreign tourists until 1968, when it was closed along with many other music venues (and later reopened with the rebirth of tourism). p202 Tourism was almost non-existent for three decades. Traditional Cuban music could be found in local Casas de la Trova. Musicians, if in work, were full-time and paid by the state after graduating from a conservatory. The collapse of the USSR in 1991, and the loss of its support for Cuba changed the situation quite a bit. Tourism became respectable again, and so did popular music for their entertainment. Musicians were even allowed to tour abroad and earn a living outside the state-run system. Famous artists from the Cuban exile include Celia Cruz and the whole conjunto she sang with, the Sonora Matancera. 'Patato' (Carlos Valdes), Cachao, La Lupe, Arturo Sandoval, Willy Chirino, Hansel y Raul, La Palabra, Paquito D'Rivera, Bebo Valdés and Gloria Estefan are some others. Many of these musicians, especially Cruz, became closely associated with the anti-revolutionary movement, and as 'unpersons' have been omitted from the standard Cuban reference books, and their subsequent musical recordings are never on sale in Cuba. Salsa Salsa was the fourth innovation based on Cuban music to hit the US, and differed in that it was initially developed in the US, not in Cuba. Because Cuba has so many indigenous types of music there has always been a problem in marketing the 'product' abroad to people who did not understand the differences between rhythms that, to a Cuban, are quite distinct. So, twice in the 20th century, a kind of product label was developed to solve this problem. The first occasion was in the 1930s after "The Peanut Vendor" became an international success. It was called a 'rumba' even though it really had nothing to do with genuine rumba: the number was obviously a son pregon. The label 'rumba' was used outside Cuba for years as a catch-all for Cuban popular music. The second occasion happened during the period 1965–1975 in New York City, as musicians of Cuban and Puerto-Rican origin combined to produce the great music of the post Cha-cha-cha period. This music acquired the label of 'salsa'. No-one really knows how this happened, but everyone recognised what a benefit it was to have a common label for son, mambo, guaracha, guajira, guaguancó, etc. Cubans and non Cubans, such as Tito Puente, Rubén Blades and many experts of the Cuban music and salsa have always said "Salsa is just another name for Cuban, music. Tito Puentes once said, now they call it Salsa, later they may call it Stir Fry, but to me it will alway be Cuban Music"; but over time salsa bands worked in other influences. For example, in the late 1960s Willie Colón developed numbers that made use of Brazilian rhythms. New York radio programmes offered 'salsarengue' as a further combination. You look at a band of the 1940s playing Cuban music and you will see the same exact instruments in Salsa Music. Later still 'Salsa romantica' was the label for an especially sugary type of bolero. Even when, Benny Moré, Perez Prado the greatest Sonero that ever existed, was singing Boleros with a salsa cadence in the 1940s. It was not until the 1950s that Cuban music became popular for Puerto Rican bands. Plena, Bomba and other styles or music were popular at the time in Puerto Rico. Many famous Puerto Rican musicians went to learn the music styles of Cubans in the 1930s and 1940s, and it was not until the arrival of Castro in 1959 and the Cuban music stopped its exportation to the world, that Puerto Ricans in New York were able to be greatly noticed, but what is known as Salsa today, was brought to New York in the 1920s and 1930s by Dizzy Gillespie and Chano Pozo, this last one was discovered by Dizzy Gillespie as he was one of the greatest percussionist that ever lived. The question of whether or not salsa is anything more than Cuban music has been argued over for more than thirty years. Initially, not much difference could be seen. Later it became clear that not only was New York salsa different from popular music in Cuba, but salsa in Venezuela, Colombia and other countries could also be distinguished. It also seems clear that salsa has receded from the great position it achieved in the late 1970s. The reasons for this are also much disputed. Nueva Trova Paralleling nueva canción in Latin America is the Cuban Nueva trova, which dates from about 1967/68, after the Cuban Revolution. It differed from the traditional trova, not because the musicians were younger, but because the content was, in the widest sense, political. Nueva trova is defined by its connection with Castro's revolution, and by its lyrics, which attempt to escape the banalities of life by concentrating on socialism, injustice, sexism, colonialism, racism and similar issues. Silvio Rodríguez and Pablo Milanés became the most important exponents of this style. Carlos Puebla and Joseíto Fernández were long-time old trova singers who added their weight to the new regime, but of the two only Puebla wrote special pro-revolution songs. Nueva trova had its heyday in the 1970s, but was already declining before the fall of the Soviet Union. Examples of non-political styles in the nueva trova movement can be found, for example, Liuba María Hevia whose lyrics are focused on more traditional subjects such as love and solitude, sharing with the rest a highly poetical style. On the other side of the spectrum, Carlos Varela is famous in Cuba for his open criticism of some aspects of Castro's revolution. The nueva trova, initially so popular, suffered both inside Cuba, perhaps from a growing disenchantment with one-party rule, and externally, from the vivid contrast with the Buena Vista Social Club film and recordings. Audiences round the world have had their eyes opened to the extraordinary charm and musical quality of the older forms of Cuban music. By contrast, topical themes that seemed so relevant in the 1960s and 1970s now seem dry and passé. Even "Guantanamera" has been damaged by over-repetition in less skilled hands. All the same, those pieces of high musical and lyrical quality, among which Puebla's "Hasta siempre, Comandante" stands out, will probably last as long as Cuba lasts. 1980s to the present Son remains the basis of most popular forms of modern Cuban music. Son is represented by long-standing groups like Septeto Nacional, which was re-established in 1985, Orquesta Aragón, Orquesta Ritmo Oriental and Orquesta Original de Manzanillo. Sierra Maestra, is famous for having sparked a revival in traditional son in the 1980s. Nueva trova still has influence, but the overtly political themes of the 1960s are well out of fashion. Meanwhile, Irakere fused traditional Cuban music with jazz, and groups like NG La Banda, Orishas and Son 14 continued to add new elements to son, especially hip hop and funk, to form timba music; this process was aided by the acquisition of imported electronic equipment. There are still many practitioners of traditional son montuno, such as Eliades Ochoa, who have recorded and toured widely as a result of interest in the son montuno after the Buena Vista Social Club success. Europe-based Cuban female singer-songwriter Addys Mercedes merged her roots of Son and Filin with elements of urban, rock and pop-music, reaching mainstream airplay charts in Germany. In the 1990s, increased interest in world music coincided with the post-Soviet Union periodo especial in Cuba, during which the economy began opening up to tourism. Orquesta Aragón, Charanga Habanera and Cándido Fabré y su Banda have been long-time players in the charanga scene, and helped form the popular timba scene of the late 1990s. The biggest award in modern Cuban music is the Beny Moré Award. Timba Cubans have never been content to hear their music described as salsa, even though it is crystal clear that this was a label for their music. Since the early 1990s Timba has been used to describe popular dance music in Cuba, rivaled only lately by Reggaetón. Though derived from the same roots as salsa, Timba has its own characteristics, and is intimately tied to the life and culture of Cuba, and especially Havana. As opposed to salsa, whose roots are strictly from Son and the Cuban conjunto bands of the 1940s and 1950s, Timba represents a synthesis of many folkloric (rumba, guaguancó, batá drumming and the sacred songs of santería.), and popular sources (even taking inspiration from non Afro Cuban musical genres such as rock, jazz and funk). According to Vincenzo Perna, author of Timba: The Sound of the Cuban Crisis, timba needs to be spoken of because of its musical, cultural, social, and political reasons; its sheer popularity in Cuba, its novelty and originality as a musical style, the skill of its practitioners, its relationship with both local traditions and the culture of the black Diaspora, its meanings, and the way its style brings to light the tension points within society. In addition to timbales, timba drummers make use of the drum-set, further distinguishing the sound from that of mainland salsa. The use of synthesised keyboard is also common. Timba songs tend to sound more innovative, experimental and frequently more virtuosic than salsa pieces; horn parts are usually fast, at times even bebop influenced, and stretch to the extreme ranges of all instruments. Bass and percussion patterns are similarly unconventional. Improvisation is commonplace. Revival projects Several projects gained international attention in the 1990s due to their revival of traditional music styles such as the son cubano of the septeto and the conjunto era. Founded in 1976, Sierra Maestra (band) was one of the first revivalist groups in Cuba. In 1995, Juan de Marcos González, director and tres player of Sierra Maestra, was contacted by Nick Gold (head of World Circuit Records) to record a traditional Cuban album featuring African musicians. In the end, the African musicians could not make it to Havana, so the project became a 100% Cuban affair featuring veteran Cuban musicians such as Rubén González, Ibrahim Ferrer, Compay Segundo and Omara Portuondo. It spawned two bands, both of which involved American guitarist Ry Cooder: Afro-Cuban All Stars and Buena Vista Social Club. Both bands recorded their debut albums, A Toda Cuba le Gusta and Buena Vista Social Club, respectively, in March 1996. The release of the latter in September 1997 was a true watershed event. The album became a worldwide hit, selling millions of copies and turning established musicians into globally renowned figures. Buena Vista resulted in several follow-up recordings and spawned a film of the same name, as well as tremendous interest in other Cuban groups. In subsequent years, dozens of singers and conjuntos made recordings for foreign labels and toured internationally. The conclusion some have drawn is that the wholesale closure of popular music venues (after the revolution), which threw many musicians out of work, and subsequent control by state committees, damaged the development of Cuban popular music. Hip hop Hip hop grew steadily more popular in Cuba in the 1980s and 1990s through Cuba's Special Period. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Cuban economy went into decline. Poverty became more widespread and visible in Cuba. In the 1990s, some Cubans started to protest this situation by means of rap and hip-hop. During this period of economic crisis, which the country's poor and black populations especially hard, hip hop became a way for the country's Afro-descended population to embrace their blackness and articulate a demand for racial equality for black people in Cuba. The idea of blackness and black liberation was not always compatible with the goals of the Cuban government, which was still operating under the idea that a raceless society was the correct realization of the Cuban Revolution. When hip-hop emerged, the Cuban government opposed the vulgar image that rappers portrayed, but later accepted that it might be better to have hip-hop under the influence of the Ministry of Culture as an authentic expression of Cuban Culture. Rap music in Cuba is heavily influenced by the country's pre-existing musical traditions, such as salsa and rumba. In some ways, hip hop is tolerated by the government of Cuba and performers are provided with venues and equipment by the government. The Cuban rap and hip-hop scene sought out the involvement of the Ministry of Culture in the production and promotion of their music, which would otherwise have been impossible to accomplish. After the Cuban government provided lukewarm endorsement, the Cuban Rap Agency provided the Cuban rap scene, in 2002, with a state-sponsored record label, magazine, and Cuba's own hip-hop festival. The government gives rap and hip-hop groups time on mass media outlets in return for hip-hop artists limiting self-expression and presenting the government in a positive way. Rappers who explicitly speak about race or racism in Cuba are still under scrutiny by the government. The government recognizes that hip-hop is growing in Cuba, and would be difficult to eliminate. Cubatón Like Spanish reggae from Panama is a new genre for the Cubans but by 2012 was so massively popular that "the face of Cuban pop music" was considered to be Cuban reggae (cubatón) singer, Osmani García "La Voz". The advent of web software helped to distribute music unofficially. Both lyrics and dance movements have been criticised. Reggaeton musicians such as responded by making songs that defended their music. Despite their efforts, the Ministry of Culture has ruled that reggaeton is not to be used in teaching institutions, parties and at discos, and in 2011 restricted its airplay after massive popularity of García's "Chupi Chupi", which referred to oral sex. Other popular cubatón artists include Eddy K and Gente de Zona ("People from the 'Hood"). Rock music in Cuba The musical interaction between Cuba and the US is ancient. Already in the 18th century, during the Spanish rule of Louisiana (1763–1803), the Havanese orchestras and bands offered concerts in New Orleans and in the 19th century the Cuan contradanza was very popular in the US. At the beginning of the 20th century, the first jazz bands were created in Cuba, in the style of the American groups. The "Sagua" Jaz Band was founded in Sagua la Grande in 1914 by Pedro Stacholy (conductor and pianist). The group played during 14 years at the Teatro Principal de Sagua. The strong influence of the American music on the Cuban younger generations gave way to the beginning of the soloists and groups of rock and roll in Cuba during the 1950s. Many Cuban artists sang versions of American songs translated to Spanish, as it was also happening in Mexico. The launching of the group Los LLopis represented the entrance in a new stage for the Cuban music, that of the generation and amplification of the sound by electroacoustic devices; because in the sound composition of this group one can observe a novel element of great importance, the inclusion of an electric guitar. In 1961, other artists emerged such as Dany Puga, called the King of Twist, and bands such as Los Satélites, Los Diablos Melódicos and Los Enfermos del Rock, as well as Los Halcones and Los Huracanes from Marianao. The vocal quartet Los Zafiros was another successful group from the beginning of the sixties. Founded in 1961, it was influenced by the doo-wop style of The Platters, The Diamonds and other American groups, and counted on a repertoire consisting of ballads, calypsos and bossanovas, as well as songs with a slow rock ad bolero rhythms. At that time, the popular group Los Astros, led by the singer and guitarist Raúl Gómez, was threatened by pressures exerted by the Fidel Castro regime over the rock groups, which were considered as a form of "ideological diversionism" and actively opposed in all its manifesations. Its style, strongly influenced by the British Invasion groups, as the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, was labelled as "deviant" and consequently repressed without any hesitation. Since then, the Revolutionary government of Cuba began to implement an absolute control over all aspects of the Cuban society, including, of course, all cultural expressions. Around 1965, the Revolutionary government implemented a strategy to substitute the foreign products that the young people preferred, with others that better matched their official guidelines; and as a result of this strategy, a new radio program called Nocturno was broadcast in 1966, which initial musical theme was "La chica de la valija" (Girl with a suitcase) from the Italian sax player Fausto Papetti. The program presented modern songs, giving priority to the European repertoire in Spanish language of soloists and groups such as: Los Mustang, Los Bravos, Los Brincos, Juan y Junior, Rita Pavone, Massiel, Nino Bravo, Leonardo Fabio, Salvatore Adamo and Raphael, and some Cuban groups as Los Zafiros and Los Dan. The ban against rock music was lifted in 1966, but rock fans continued to be marginalized by the communist establishment, and watched over with suspicion as "counter-revolutionaries". Actually, rock music began to be heard in Havana during the seventies, in a radio program from Radio Marianao called Buenas Tardes Juventud. That program presented groups such as The Rolling Stones, The Beatles, Dave Clark Five, The Animals, Grand Funk, Rare Earth, Led Zeppelin, Jimi Hendrix, Elvis Presley, Neil Sedaka and Paul Anka. At the beginning of the eighties, that radio station joined Radio Ciudad de La Habana. In 1979, a three-day music festival called Havana Jam took place at the Karl Marx Theater, in Havana, Cuba, where a group of rock artists that included Billy Joel and Stephen Stills performed. In the 1980s, a heavy metal band called Venus was formed by Roberto Armada in Municipio Playa. They achieved much success and created a headbanger following among the Cuban youth. Punk rock was introduced in Cuba in the late 1980s and gained a cult-type following among a minority of the youth. During the nineties, rock and roll in Cuba was still an underground phenomenon. In Havana, the "Ciudad de La Habana" radio station presented several programs showing the most recent tendencies on that type of music around the world. Juan Camacho, an old musician and radio host had a morning program called Disco Ciudad. El Programa de Ramón was also a successful radio show. Some bands from that period were Gens, Zeus and Los Tarsons. In 2001, the Welsh group Manic Street Preachers was invited to perform in Cuba, and Fidel Castro attended its concert along with other government authorities. In 2004, Castro gave a speech honoring the Birthday of John Lennon, whose music, as a member of The Beatles and as a soloist, was banned in Cuba for a very long time. A bronze statue of Lennon was placed in a Havanese well known park, and it became a notoriety because of becoming a victim of constant vandalism from passers by that frequently stole its bronze spectacles. At the same time that the government was showing a more indulgent attitude toward the foreign rock groups, as part of an international campaign which purpose was to achieve an opening in the commercial transactions and investments of the US and Europe in Cuba, it continued to implement an inflexible repression against any form of internal dissidence. This was the case of the rocker Gorki Águila and his group Porno para Ricardo. In August 2008, Águila was arrested under charges of dangerousness, a law that allows the authorities to detain people whom they think are likely to commit crimes, even when they have not yet committed them. More recently, Rick Wakeman, Sepultura and Audioslave performed in Havana, and The Rolling Stones offered a historic concert that has become the most outstanding rock event since the beginning of the Revolutionary period in 1959. A new phenomenon occurred in 2013 when several Cuban metal bands begin to emigrate to the United States, creating a parallel scene with the bands Agonizer, Escape, Ancestor, Hipnosis, Suffering Tool and Chlover References Sources The works below are reliable sources for all aspects of traditional Cuban popular music. Spanish titles indicate those that have not been translated into English. Acosta, Leonardo 1987. From the drum to the synthesiser. Martí, Havana, Cuba. Articles written from 1976 to 1982. Acosta, Leonardo 2003. Cubano be, cubano bop: one hundred years of jazz in Cuba. Transl. Daniel S. Whitesell. Smithsonian, Washington, D.C. Outstanding review by former conjunto trumpeter. Betancur Alvarez, Fabio 1993. Sin clave y bongó no hay son: música afrocubano y confluencias musicales de Colombia y Cuba. Antioqia, Medellín, Colombia. Blanco, Jesús 1992. 80 años del son y soneros en el Caribe. Caracas. Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis Cabrera, Lydia 1958. La sociedád secreta Abakuá. Colección del Chicerekú, La Habana. Calderon, Jorge 1983. Maria Teresa Vera. La Habana. Calvo Ospina, Hernando 1995. Salsa! Havana heat, Bronx beat. Latin American Bureau. Cañizares, Dulcila 1995. La trova tradicional. 2nd ed, La Habana. Cañizares, Dulcila 1999. Gonzalo Roig, hombre y creador. Carpentier, Alejo 2001 [1945]. Music in Cuba. Minneapolis MN. A standard work on the history of Cuban music up to 1940. Chediak, Natalio 1998. Diccionario del jazz latino. Fundacion Author, Barcelona. Collazo, Bobby 1987. La ultima noche que pase contigo: 40 anos de fanandula Cubana. Cubanacan, Puerto Rico. Depestre Catony, Leonardo 1989. Homenaje a la musica cubana. Oriente, Santiago de Cuba. Biographies of Abelardo Barroso, Joseíto Fernández, Paulina Alvarez, Roberto Faz and Pacho Alonso. Depestre Catony, Leonardo 1990. Cuatro musicos de una villa. Letras Cubanas, La Habana. Biographies of four musicians from Guanabacoa: Ernesto Lecuona, Rita Montaner, Bola de Nieve and Juan Arrondo. Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal 1981. Música cubana del Areyto a la Nueva Trova. 2nd rev ed, Cubanacan, San Juan P.R. Excellent history up to the 1960s, with a chapter on Cuban music in the US. Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal 1988. Si te quieres por el pico divertir: historia del pregón musical latinoamericano. Cubanacan, San Juan P.R. Music based on street-sellers cries; title is taken from lyricof Peanut Vendor. Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal 1994. Cuba canta y baila: discografía de la música cubana 1898–1925. Fundación Musicalia, San Juan P.R. A vital research tool. Díaz Ayala, Cristóbal 1998. Cuando sali de la Habana 1898-1997: cien anos de musica cubana por el mundo. Cubanacan, San Juan P.R. Failde, Osvalde Castillo 1964. Miguel Faílde: créador musical del Danzón. Consejo Nacional de Cultura, La Habana. Fairley, Jan. 2000. Troubadours old and new, and ¡Que rico bailo yo! How well I dance. In S. Broughton and M. Ellingham, with J. McConnachie and O. Duane, (eds) World Music, Vol. 2: Latin & North America, Caribbean, India, Asia and Pacific p386-413. Rough Guides, Penguin. Fajardo, Ramon 1993. Rita Montaner. La Habana. Fajardo, Ramon 1997. Rita Montaner: testimonio de una epoca. La Habana. Fernandez Robaina, Tomas 1983. Recuerdos secretos de los mujeres publicas. La Habana. Galan, Natalio 1983. Cuba y sus sones. Pre-Textos, Valencia. Giro, Radamés (ed) 1993. El mambo. La Habana. Nine essays by Cuban musicians and musicologists. Giro, Radamés (ed) 1998. Panorama de la musica popular Cubana. Letras Cubanas, La Habana. Reprints some important essays on Cuban popular music. Giro, Radamés 2007. Diccionario enciclopédico de la música en Cuba. 4 vols, La Habana. An invaluable source. Grenet, Emilio 1939. Popular Cuban music. Havana. Leal, Rine 1986. Teatro del siglo XIX. La Habana. Leon, Carmela de 1990. Sindo Garay: memoria de un trovador. La Habana. Leon, Argeliers 1964. Musica folklorica cubana. Biblioteca Nacional José Martí, La Habana. Linares, María Teresa 1970. La música popular. La Habana, Cuba. Illustrated introduction. Linares, María Teresa 1981. La música y el pueblo. La Habana, Cuba. Lowinger, Rosa and Ofelia Fox 2005. Tropicana nights: the life and times of the legendary Cuban nightclub. Harcourt, Orlando FL. Fox (1924–2006) was the wife of the owner. Loyola Fernandez, Jose 1996. El ritmo en bolero: el bolero en la musica bailable cubana. Huracan, Rio Piedras. Manuel, Peter (ed) 1991. Essays on Cuban Music: North America and Cuban perspectives. Lanham MD. Manuel, Peter, with K. Bilby and M. Largey. 2006. Caribbean currents: Caribbean music from rumba to reggae 2nd ed. Temple University. Martinez, Orlando 1989. Ernesto Lecuona. La Habana, Cuba. Naser, Amín E. 1985. Benny Moré: perfil libre. La Habana, Cuba. Orovio, Helio 1995. El bolero latino. La Habana. Orovio, Helio 2004. Cuban music from A to Z. Revised by Sue Steward. A biographical dictionary of Cuban music, artists, composers, groups and terms. Duke University, Durham NC; Tumi, Bath. Ortiz, Fernando 1950. La Afrocania de la musica folklorica de Cuba. La Habana, revised ed 1965. Ortiz, Fernando 1951. Los bailes y el teatro de los negros en el folklore de Cuba. Letras Cubanas, La Habana. Continuation of the previous book; contains transcriptions of percussion innotation and lyrics of toques and cantos a los santos variously in Lucumi and Spanish. Ortiz, Fernando 1952. Los instrumentos de la musica Afrocubana. 5 volumes, La Habana. Padura Fuentes, Leonardo 2003. Faces of salsa: a spoken history of the music. Translated by Stephen J. Clark. Smithsonian, Washington, D.C. Interviews with top musicians, recorded in the 1989–1993 era. Peñalosa, David 2009. The clave matrix; Afro-Cuban rhythm: its principles and African origins. Redway, CA: Bembe Inc. . Pérez Sanjuro, Elena 1986. Historia de la música cubana. Miami. Perna, Vincenzo 2005. "Timba, the Sound of the Cuban Crisis". Ashgate, Aldershot, UK-Burlington, US Pichardo, Esteban 1835 (repr 1985). Diccionario provincial casi razionado de voces y frases cubanos. La Habana. Includes contemporary explanations of musical and dance names. Roberts, John Storm 1979. The Latin tinge: the impact of Latin American music on the United States. Oxford. One of the first on this theme; still excellent. Roberts, John Storm 1999. Latin jazz: the first of the fusions, 1880s to today. Schirmer, N.Y. Rodríguez Ruidíaz, Armando: El origen de la música cubana. Mitos y realidades. Academia.edu, 2015. Rodríguez Domíngues, Ezequiel. El Trio Matamoros: trienta y cinco anos de música popular. La Habana. Rondon, César Miguel 2008. The book of salsa: a chronicle of urban music from the Caribbean to New York City. University of North Carolina Press. Roy, Maya 2002. Cuban music: from son and rumba to the Buena Vista Social Club and timba cubana. Latin American Bureau/Wiener. Steward, Sue 1991. Salsa: musical heartbeat of Latin America. Thames & Hudson, London. Highly illustrated. Sublette, Ned 2004. Cuba and its music: from the first drums to the mambo. Chicago. First of two planned volumes, covers up to March 1952. Sweeney, Philip 2001. The Rough Guide to Cuban music: the history, the artists, the best CDs. Rough Guides, London. Small format. Thomas, Hugh 1971. Cuba, or the pursuit of freedom. Eyre & Spottiswoode, London. Revised and abridged edition 2001, Picador, London. The abridged edition, a slim-line 1151 pages, has shortened the section of Cuba's early history. The standard work in English. Thomas, Hugh 1997. The slave trade: the history of the Atlantic slave trade 1440-1870. Picador, London. 925 pages. Urfé, Odilio 1965. El danzón. La Habana. External links BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Santiago de Cuba and Son Music. Accessed November 25, 2010. BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Changai and Decimas Music. Accessed November 25, 2010. BBC Radio 3 Audio (60 minutes): Matanzas, birthplace of rumba and danzon. Accessed November 25, 2010. Audio clips: Traditional music of Cuba. Musée d'ethnographie de Genève. Accessed November 25, 2010. 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240763	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coruscant	Coruscant	Coruscant () is an ecumenopolis planet in the fictional Star Wars universe. It first appeared onscreen in the 1997 Special Edition of Return of the Jedi, but was first depicted and mentioned by name in Timothy Zahn's 1991 novel Heir to the Empire. Coruscant is a prominent location in both canon and Legends media that has been produced. Within the narrative of the films, Coruscant-based locations such as the Jedi Temple and Jedi Archives act as the home for the Jedi and in plot terms are frequently used for exposition or to drive other elements of the plot. Coruscant was historically referred to as Notron or Queen of the Core; was renamed Imperial Center during the reign of the Galactic Empire (as depicted in the original films) and Yuuzhan'tar during the Yuuzhan Vong invasion (as depicted in the New Jedi Order novel series). The planet's capital city was initially Galactic City (built at least in 100,000 BBY, partially destroyed in 27 and 44 ABY); under the Galactic Empire this was Imperial City, and was Republic City or the City of Spires under the Galactic Republic. The planet was code-named Triple Zero during the Clone Wars. The demonym and adjective form of the planet name is Coruscanti. Coruscant lies within the Coruscant Subsector of the Corusca Sector, located in the Core Worlds galactic quadrant region. Coruscant is the sixth planet out of 11 planets in the Coruscant System: Revisse (Venus type), Platoril (Mercury type), Vandor-1 (Mercury type), Vandor-2 (Mercury type), Vandor-3 (Earth type), Coruscant (Trantor type), Muscave (Jupiter type), Stentat (Jupiter type), Improcco (Pluto type), Nabatu (Eris type) and Ulabos (Pluto type). Coruscant has four moons; Centax-1, Centax-2, Centax-3, and Hesperidium. Beyond the system's planets was the OboRin Comet Cluster (Oort Cloud type), and in between Improcco and Nabatu was an asteroid belt (The Covey). The sun was called Coruscant Prime, which the Star Wars galaxy places as XYZ coordinates 0-0-0 (i.e. the "pole"; instead of the Galactic Center) and the Standard Galactic Grid coordinates were L-9 for all in-universe hyperspace navigation, mapping systems, and astronomical observations. Coruscant serves as the nexus of socio-economic, cultural, intellectual, political, military, and foreign policies activity within the Star Wars galaxy; at various times, it is the central administrative capital of these governing bodies: the Republic, the Galactic Empire, the New Republic, the Yuuzhan Vong Empire, the Galactic Federation of Free Alliances (Galactic Alliance), the Fel Empire, Darth Krayt's Galactic Empire, and the Galactic Federation Triumvate. The planet's strategic position relative to the galactic center, a population of approximately 2 trillion sentients, and control over the galaxy's main trade routes and hyperspace lanes — Perlemian Trade Route, Hydian Way, Corellian Run and Corellian Trade Spine — that must converge and pass through Coruscant space, cemented its status as the richest and most influential habitable world in the Star Wars galaxy. Etymology and naming Within the story, the planet derived its name from a rare and valuable gemstone, the corusca gem. The lights of the planet-wide city, seen from space, were said to resemble the glittering of the gems. In the real world, the word originates in the late 15th century from the Latin coruscant, "vibrating, glittering", from the verb coruscare. It is described in the Concise Oxford Dictionary as a poetic and literary adjective meaning 'glittering; sparkling'. The word "coruscant" is also a French adjective which means glittering, sparkling and, as a literary adjective, can be used to describe a decadent and overly complicated language, decorum or community. Early concepts The concept of a city planet in the Star Wars universe originated with the initial drafts of Star Wars, when author George Lucas included a planet called Alderaan which was a city-planet and the capital planet of the galaxy. In Lucas's 1975 draft, Adventures of the Starkiller as taken from the Journal of the Whills, Saga I: The Star Wars, the capital planet of Alderaan is described as a floating city in the clouds, "suspended in a sea of cirrus methane". This concept was illustrated in early sketches commissioned by Lucas from conceptual artist Ralph McQuarrie, and the design very closely resembles Cloud City, the floating city that featured in The Empire Strikes Back. In Lucas's third draft, the Imperial City of Alderaan has become the home world of the Sith Lords, and Darth Vader holds Princess Leia captive here. Lucas continued to hone his script, aided by screenwriters Willard Huyck and Gloria Katz; names of planets and characters were revised and the narrative was improved, and by the fourth draft, scenes on the Imperial capital planet had been moved to a space station called the Death Star and the name of Alderaan was now given to a peaceful world destroyed by the Empire. The Empire's homeworld, Had Abaddon, came up in early drafts of Return of the Jedi. The entire planet was to be a sprawling city. However, concluding that the realization of such a city was impossible at the time, the creators abandoned the idea. Later, in the graphic novel Legacy 29: Vector, Part 10 the name Had Abbadon was given to a lost mythic planet in the Had Abbadon System of the Deep Core, which was covered by dry fields, was linked to the birth of the Jedi, was the location of a planned assassination attempt by Cade Skywalker on Darth Krayt, and was home to an Imperial. The Empire's homeworld first appeared in the Expanded Universe and was called Coruscant for the first time in Timothy Zahn's Heir to the Empire. In various novels, characters aligned with the Empire refer to Coruscant as "Imperial Center". Within the stories, this is explained as an administrative renaming undertaken to emphasize the differences between the Old Republic and the Empire. Coruscant was in some early sources called "Jhantor" in homage to Isaac Asimov's Trantor. Design Production artwork produced by Ralph McQuarrie for Return of the Jedi had included some unrealised designs for the imperial capital, Had Abaddon. During production of The Phantom Menace, it was decided that scenes would be set on the capital planet, now called Coruscant, and artist Doug Chiang was tasked with designing the imperial city, and he turned to McQuarrie's original concept art. The appearance of the cityscape has been described as a "retro-futuristic metropolis", and the streams of floating vehicles travelling between soaring skyscrapers is thought to have been partly inspired by Fritz Lang's 1927 film, Metropolis. In Attack of the Clones, the depiction of Coruscant was expanded greatly. Chiang created a more urban, apocalyptic environment for the street level, taking inspiration from Ridley Scott's 1982 film Blade Runner. Appearances Episode VI: Return of the Jedi Coruscant is the location of a sequence added to the 1997 Special Edition release of Return of the Jedi, its first onscreen appearance. One of a few locations featured in a montage near the end, upon hearing of the death of Emperor Palpatine, citizens are seen celebrating with fireworks and by pulling down his statue. Episode I: The Phantom Menace Coruscant was prominently featured in Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace, in which it is the location of the Galactic Republic Senate building and the central Jedi Temple. Episode II: Attack of the Clones There is a speeder chase through the skies of Coruscant in Episode II: Attack of the Clones that eventually leads to a nightclub in the bowels of Coruscant's Uscru Entertainment District. Another area of Coruscant shown is Coco Town (short for "collective commerce"). Coco Town is the site of Dex's Diner in Attack of the Clones. Another notable area of Coruscant is 500 Republica, an area where the crème de la crème, such as politicians and diplomats, gather. Episode III: Revenge of the Sith In Episode III: Revenge of the Sith, Coruscant is featured in a battle (known as the Battle of Coruscant) during the opening scene. Separatist cyborg General Grievous has kidnapped Chancellor Palpatine and uses the Separatist fleet to help assault the capital and cover his escape. The planet's cityscape is then prominently featured throughout much of the movie, with Chancellor Palpatine's office as well as the Senate building being the primary two settings on Coruscant. A theatre in 500 Republica is where Palpatine holds a meeting with Anakin Skywalker, while watching an opera, and entices him into allying with the Dark Side by telling him of the supposed Sith ability of resuscitation. After a failed attempt by the Jedi to arrest Palpatine when he divulges to Skywalker his true identity as Darth Sidious, it is in the Republic Senate Building on Coruscant that Palpatine appoints himself Emperor of the first Galactic Empire. Rogue One: A Star Wars Story In Rogue One Coruscant makes a brief appearance when one of the central characters to the story, Jyn Erso has a flashback of her young self on Coruscant. Other works In the prologue of the comic series Dark Empire (1991), set after the original film trilogy, Coruscant is ravaged by battles between warring Imperial factions. Coruscant in seen in the X-Wing series of computer games. Concept art by Ralph McQuarrie served as the basis for the pyramidal Imperial Palace, depicted in The Illustrated Star Wars Universe (1995) by Kevin J. Anderson, which claims it is "the largest structure on Coruscant, perhaps on any planet". According to the Star Wars Encyclopedia (1998), it is located next to the Senate building. Although this version of the Imperial Palace appears in a variety of Expanded Universe works, in canon, the Imperial Palace is located at the site of the former Jedi Temple, where Palpatine resides. In The New Jedi Order series (1999–2003), Coruscant is the capital world of the New Republic until, in The New Jedi Order: Star by Star, the extragalactic Yuuzhan Vong overwhelm the New Republic defenses in three attack waves, led by Warmaster Tsavong Lah, and take over the planet, destroying the New Republic and creating the theocratic Yuuzhan Vong Empire. After surrendering, the Yuuzhan Vong agreed to help the Alliance rebuild Coruscant. The new Coruscant is a combination of technology and organic life, to represent the peace between the Galactic Federation of Free Alliances (Galactic Alliance) and the Yuuzhan Vong. James Luceno's novel Labyrinth of Evil (2005) introduces a deserted manufacturing area known as 'The Works' as the meeting place for Sith Lords Darth Sidious (Palpatine) and Darth Tyranus. With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company, most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non-canon to the franchise in April 2014. Notable metropolitan areas Senate District The Senate District was on the equator, and was home to the Ambassidorial Sector, (home to 500 Republica, the Senate Apartment Complex, Loijin Plaza, Nicandra Plaza and Nicandra Counterrevolutionary Signalmen's Memorial Building), Embassy Mall, Skysitter Restaurant, Bonadan Embassy, Colocaur Heights, Champalan Embassy, the Collunm Commons District, the Coruscant Opera House, the Galactic Museum, the Heorem Complex (Home to the Heorem Skytunnel), Judicial Plaza (home to the Glitanni Esplanade and the Judicial Arcology), the Legislative Borough, Senate Plaza, the Avenue Of The Core Founders, the Republic Executive Building, the Galactic Senate Building, Hospital Plaza, the Galactic Senate MedCenter, Novaplex, the Palace District (home to the Imperial Palace and Senate Hill), Quadrant A-89 (home to the CSF HQ, the Fellowship Plaza , the Galactic Justice Center and the Temple Precinct (home to the Jedi Temple)), Sector H-52, Sector I-33, the Uscru Boulevard, Westport and Xizor's Palace. It was the de facto capital of Coruscant, the Old Republic, the Galactic Empire, the New Republic, the Galactic Federation Of Free Alliances and the One Sith. It was constructed in 3996 BBY, bordered by the Financial District and the Sah'c District, was close to The Works, and went by the names Legislative District, Government District and Government Center. Alien Protection Zone The walled Alien Protection Zone does not have a note to explain where on the planet it was, but it was likely to be on the equator. It was a segregated spot on the planet where all the aliens resided. Neighbourhoods there represented different species, and each resembled a different culture, making them feel at home, even if they were not. It was built in 19 BBY by the young Galactic Empire and opened by the New Republic in 6 ABY. Sah'c Town Sah'c Town, also known as Sah'c District or Quadrant H-46, was an area on the Equator, named after and controlled by the wealthy Sah'c family. It was home of an emergency bunker where the chancellor of the Galactic Republic or New Republic ruled in case of an emergency (e.g., earthquake, volcano). Sah'c Canyon was also there, which was the exit point of the Senate District's Heorem Skytunnel. Theme park attraction Coruscant also appears in the theme park attraction Star Tours – The Adventures Continue in Disney's Hollywood Studios in Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, Florida, and Disneyland Park in Disneyland Resort in Anaheim, California. See also Ecumenopolis List of Star Wars planets and moons Star Wars: 1313 Trantor References Footnotes Citations Sources Further reading The Essential guide to Planets and Moons (Star Wars), 1st edition, by Daniel Wallace, Scott Kolins. 1998. Star Wars, X-Wing: Wedge's Gamble, (Book 2 of the X-Wing series) 1st paperback printing, 1996. Michael A. Stackpole, Star Wars, X-Wing: The Krytos Trap, (Book 3 of the X-Wing series) 1st paperback printing, 1996. Michael A. Stackpole, Star Wars: Before the Storm, (Book 1 of The Black Fleet Crisis), first paperback printing, 1996. Michael P. Kube-McDowell, Star Wars: Shield of Lies, (Book 2 of The Black Fleet Crisis), first paperback printing, 1996. Michael P. Kube-McDowell, Star Wars, Darksaber, 1st paperback printing, 1995. Kevin J. Anderson, Star Wars: Shadows of the Empire, 1996. Steve Perry, Heir to the Empire, (Book 1 of The Thrawn Crisis), 1st edition, 1991. Timothy Zahn. Dark Force Rising, (Book 2 of The Thrawn Crisis), 1st edition, 1992. Timothy Zahn. The Last Command, (Book 3 of The Thrawn Crisis), 1st edition, 1993. Timothy Zahn. Edge of Victory: Rebirth (Book 8 of the New Jedi Order) 2001. Greg Keyes, Star By Star, (Book 9 of the New Jedi Order) 2002. Troy Denning, The Shadow Academy, Kevin J. Anderson and Rebecca Moesta. Berkley, 1995. () The Lost Ones, Kevin J. Anderson and Rebecca Moesta. Berkley, 1995. () Alain Musset, From New York to Coruscant. Essay on Geofiction (in French only : De New York à Coruscant. Essai de géofiction, PUF, 2005. 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240764	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph%20Wiggum	Ralph Wiggum	Ralph Wiggum is a recurring character on the animated series The Simpsons, voiced by Nancy Cartwright. The son of Police Chief Wiggum, Ralph is a classmate of Lisa Simpson and an odd child noted for his frequent non-sequiturs and bizarre behavior. His lines range from nonsensical, or bizarre interpretations of a current event, to profound statements that go over people's heads; and his behavior varies between blissfully unaware, to dim-witted, to awkwardly spontaneous, even occasionally straightforward. The very nature of the character has undergone differing interpretations over the years and within various media. The creator of the show, Matt Groening, has cited Ralph as his favorite character. He generally remains one of the more popular and often quoted secondary characters in the show. In 2006, IGN ranked Ralph No. 3 on their list of the "Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral Characters," behind Sideshow Bob and Troy McClure. Role in The Simpsons Ralph is a mentally challenged and good-natured 8-year-old boy in Lisa Simpson's second-grade class taught by Ms. Hoover. Although his beginnings were that of a tertiary child character along the same lines as Lisa's on-and-off friend Janey, he has since become one of the more prominent secondary characters on the show, even being the focus or at least a major character of some episodes. These episodes include: "I Love Lisa" (season four, 1993), an episode which set him apart from other tertiary characters and defined much of the character, "This Little Wiggy" (season nine, 1998), and "E Pluribus Wiggum" (season nineteen, 2008); as well as appearances both minor and prominent in many other episodes. Ralph also appears in various other media, such as the Simpsons comic book series by Bongo. Personality Ralph's primary role in the show is to deliver tangent and non-sequitur material, usually with cluelessness and odd behavior often used to perplex or give the audience a quick laugh. He has a very carefree and somewhat "loopy" temperament, as he is often off in his own world. This role has had many variations over the years, and as such, Ralph often displays inconsistent behavior. In some episodes, he may seem quite stupid, verbally challenged, and slow such as proclaiming "I won, I won!" when being told he was failing English, then questioning it and saying, "Me fail English? That's unpossible!", or running on all fours on a hamster wheel. In "To Cur with Love", a flashback scene shows Chief Wiggum and Lou talking about what they want to be when they grow up. Lou (after hearing that Wiggum's goal in life is to be chief of police) says he wants "to be a leader for [his] people, like Ralph Abernathy," to which Wiggum says "Ralph. I like that name" implying that Ralph was named after him. Although it has never been explicitly stated in any Simpsons-related media that Ralph is intellectually disabled and/or brain damaged, it has been hinted in scenes such as a flashback (during the episode "Moms I'd Like to Forget") where Chief Wiggum is holding a baby Ralph, who is drinking out of a bottle. Wiggum suddenly drops the baby Ralph, who lands flat on his head. When Wiggum picks Ralph up again, Ralph suddenly has difficulty drinking out of his bottle. In other episodes, he speaks in a perfectly normal tone and occasionally even displays taciturn behavior such as questioning a film production staff member over the use of a painted cow over a horse, he seems to be playing straight man to Bart as an adult in one possible flashforward, or his overall behavior in the episode "I Love Lisa", in which Ralph played a central role. He even occasionally displays a penchant for certain talents. The inconclusive nature of his character seems to be one of his only consistencies, and has even been used as a joke in itself a few times such as Ralph being poached by the Chicago Tribune. Occasionally, Ralph has even been used to break the fourth wall straightforwardly. Ralph has a multitude of surprising, often creativity-based talents as well as his share of flaws and quirks. He was once chosen as the first pick for the 76ers. The most prominent of these talents as displayed in "I Love Lisa" is performing and acting. Playing the role of George Washington in a school play based on his life, he not only recited his lines perfectly but also managed to give such an amazing performance that he brought the audience to tears. He can also tap dance, paint, play the piano and sing among other things. This is probably attributed to the boy's rich imagination, though this quality also leads to some of Ralph's more peculiar characteristics such as his penchant for imaginary friends including a pyromaniacal leprechaun and Wiggle-Puppy, a character he seems personally very fond of. The character also seems to have a rather large number of phobias like being afraid of the vacuum, indulges in many odd habits, and has a knack for landing himself in peculiar situations such as gluing his shoulder to his ear, being profiled by a scary dentist, or even flying with balloons. The character's temperament has notably changed over the years as he was originally depicted as more awkward and oblivious, but otherwise normal after a time his more "stupid" characteristics became far more exaggerated though this has been mitigated somewhat as of late in favor of plain weirdness that shows in quotes such as "The doctor says I wouldn’t have so many nosebleeds if I kept my finger out of there" and "I'm lernding" and strange outbursts like "Hi liar". Ralph still wets himself and it is a recurring gag in the show when he does so and announces it to someone in an unusual way. Ralph is the only child of Chief Wiggum and his wife Sarah. Chief Wiggum adores his son who returns this affection in turn, though Ralph can be quite a handful. Chief Wiggum's supportive and loving relationship with his son is often depicted as one of his more sympathetic characteristics to contrast his generally boorish behavior. Ralph also has an unrequited crush on Lisa Simpson originating in "I Love Lisa", although this has not been frequently seen in the series since. As Ralph is often blissfully oblivious to the world around him, he remains a generally cheerful boy. He is a misfit at school due to his unique behavior and poor academic performance, often being the butt of ridicule and occasional bullying. Generally, however, his peers are passive towards him and Ralph often tags along with Bart, Milhouse, and Martin in particular. Much of the faculty similarly are indifferent to Ralph: Mrs. Hoover, in particular, treats him with a sort of mild annoyance and Principal Skinner seems to see him as something of a nuisance due to his poor test results and hijinks. Ralph is occasionally used as a catalyst for satire about public education's failings because of this as he may be merely a victim of inflexible and incompetent teaching. He may not be as dim as his academic performance shows. Creation and design In Ralph's first credited appearance in the show, the episode "Moaning Lisa", he was considerably different in both appearance and behavior from his later appearance. Ralph's modern design first appeared in the second-season episode "Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment", and in a couple of episodes after this Ralph can be caught speaking with a voice similar to that of Nelson Muntz's, before acquiring the higher pitched voice that would become permanent after. Originally intended to be a "Mini-Homer", Ralph eventually took on a life of his own. The staff figured that he would also fit perfectly as the son of Chief Wiggum, a fact initially hinted at in "Kamp Krusty" (when Lisa addresses him as "Wiggum") and later made canon in "I Love Lisa". Ralph was named after comedian Jackie Gleason's character on The Honeymooners Ralph Kramden. Matt Groening considers any lines for Ralph "really hard to write." Nancy Cartwright raises her eyebrows whenever she performs Ralph's voice. Ralph's normal attire usually consists of a blue long sleeve shirt with a collar, a belt with a red buckle, and brown pants. However, almost all Simpsons related media and merchandise including the comic book often portray Ralph with white or light gray colored pants instead similar to how Bart is occasionally depicted with a blue shirt instead of his standard orange shirt. Ralph's "stringy" hair is meant to be drawn to make the shape of a bowl-cut, and may allude to Eddie (who has similar hair) being his biological father. In one particular issue of the comic book, Ralph appears along with other Springfield residents drawn in a realistic style which depicts him with blonde hair, implying that the hair lines are meant to be a silhouette of a blonde bowl-cut. Adult Ralph in "Bart to the Future" also has light brown hair. Reception Ralph has become one of the show's most popular characters. He is commonly featured on media and merchandise related to the show, including the season 13 box set. Kidrobot released Ralph as a separate figure from the rest of their Simpsons line of figurines in 2009. The figure is twice as large as the other ones. The comedy band The Bloodhound Gang made a song titled "Ralph Wiggum" on the album Hefty Fine, dedicated to the character and composed solely of some of his most famous quotes for lyrics. Show creator Matt Groening has stated that whenever someone asks who writes specific characters (a common misconception about the writing process), writers will most likely take credit for writing for Ralph. 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240765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibson%20SG	Gibson SG	The Gibson SG is a solid-body electric guitar model introduced by Gibson in 1961 as the Gibson Les Paul SG. It remains in production today in many variations of the initial design. The SG (where "SG" refers to Solid Guitar) Standard is Gibson's best-selling model of all time. Origins In 1960, Gibson Les Paul sales were significantly lower than in previous years. The following year, the Les Paul was given a thinner, flat-topped mahogany body, a double cutaway which made the upper frets more accessible, and a contoured body. The neck joint was moved by three frets to further ease access to the upper frets. The simpler body construction significantly reduced production costs, and the new Les Paul, with its slender neck profile and small heel was advertised as having the "fastest neck in the world". However, the redesign was done without knowledge of Les Paul himself. Although the new guitar was popular, he strongly disliked it. Problems with the strength of the body and neck made Paul dissatisfied with the new guitar. At the same time, Paul was going through a public divorce from wife and vocalist partner Mary Ford, and his popularity was dwindling as music tastes had changed in the early 1960s. Paul asked lifelong friend and former President of Gibson, Ted McCarty to withhold his $1 royalty per guitar and Gibson mutually agreed to end the contract. Gibson also honored Les Paul's request to remove his name from the guitar, and the new model was renamed "SG", which stood for "Solid Guitar". Les Paul's name was officially removed in 1963, but the SG continued to feature Les Paul nameplates and truss rod covers until the end of 1963. In the early-to-mid 1960s Gibson's parent corporation, Chicago Musical Instruments, revived the Kalamazoo brand name for a short time. Later models of the KG-1 and KG-2 featured a body style similar to the Gibson SG, effectively creating a budget-line model until the brand was dropped in the late 1960s. Gibson currently makes lower-cost, internationally sourced versions of the SG at their subsidiary, Epiphone. Because of its ease of play, holding comfort, popularity and vintage heritage, the body style of the SG is often copied by other manufacturers, although much less frequently than the Les Paul and the Fender Stratocaster. Design The SG generally has a solid mahogany body, with a black pickguard. The 24.75" scale mahogany neck joins the body at the 19th or 22nd fret. Early models had a smaller neck joint with a longer tenon. This neck design provided access above the 16th fret. Epiphone-made bolt-on neck models still use a 16th fret neck joint. The SG's set neck is shallower than the Gibson Les Paul's. The SG features the traditional Gibson combination of two or three humbucker pickups or P90 pickups and a Tune-o-matic bridge assembly, wraparound bridge, or vibrato tailpiece, depending on the model. The SG Standard features pearloid trapezoid fretboard inlays, as well as fretboard binding and inlaid pearl "Gibson" logo and crown; the mid-level SG Special features pearloid dot inlays and an inlaid pearl "Gibson" logo, without a crown. The Standard has a volume and a tone control for each individual pickup, and a three-way switch that allows the player to select either the bridge pickup, the neck pickup, or both together. The SG does not include switching to coil split the humbuckers in stock form. Some models use body woods other than mahogany; examples include the swamp ash SG Special, the SG Zoot Suit, made using multiple birch wood laminate, and the SG Voodoo, the 2009 Raw Power, and some walnut bodied 1970s models. High-end models, including the Diablo, occasionally sport decorative maple caps, carved tops, and gold hardware. Models and variations At the launch of the SG in 1961, Gibson offered four variants of the SG; the SG Junior (a stripped-down version of the standard, analogous to the Les Paul Junior), the SG Special, the SG Standard, and the top-of-the-line SG Custom. However, Gibson's current core variants as of 2010 are the SG Standard and the SG Special. Over the years, Gibson has offered many variations of the SG, and continues to manufacture special editions, including models such as the Special and Faded Special, Supreme, Artist Signature SGs, Menace, and Gothic, as well as the premium-priced VOS reissues of the sixties SG Standard and Custom. Models produced between 1961 and early 1966 have the original small pickguard; in late 1966 the guitar was redesigned slightly, first with a longer, more robust neck joint, and then came the modern larger semi-symmetrical "batwing" pickguard. This design continued until late 1971 or early 1972, when variations of the SG were sold with a raised Les Paul style pickguard and a front-mounted control plate. The low-end SG-100 and the P-90 equipped SG-200 appeared during this time, as well as the luxurious SG Pro and SG Deluxe guitars. Vibrato (tremolo arm) tailpieces were also introduced as options. In 1972 the design went back to the original style pickguard and rear-mounted controls but with the neck now set further into the body, joining roughly at the 20th fret. By the end of the seventies, the SG models returned to the original sixties styling, and modern (1991–present) standard and special models have mostly returned to the 1967–1969 styling and construction, with a few exceptions; various reissues and other models of the SG still retain the original 1961–1967 styling. In 1979, a low-cost SG made of walnut wood was introduced called "The SG." It had a clear finish and an ebony fingerboard and was accompanied by low-cost "Les Paul" and "ES 335" type guitars. "The Paul" was also made from walnut, but "The ES" was made out of solid mahogany (rather than the semi-solid body they usually produced). All three guitars were discontinued after about a year, replaced by the "firebrand" series, again made of mahogany. Also in 1979 a limited edition model, the SG Exclusive was produced. Visually similar to the SG Standard of the time, the special features included an ebony fretboard, two Dirty Fingers humbucker pickups, and a master volume, two tone controls, and rotary coil tap that gradually eliminated one coil from each humbucker. The finish was black with cream color plastics and the truss rod cover read "Exclusive". In 1980, the first SG manufactured with "active" factory pickups was introduced. Gibson experimented with an SG that included the same Moog active electronics that had previously been used in another Gibson model, the RD Artist. The resulting SG had a slightly thicker body to accommodate the extra circuitry, and was dubbed the "Gibson SG-R1". The SG-R1 was renamed the "SG Artist" in 1981, and was discontinued shortly afterwards. Approximately 200 active SGs were produced. In 2008, Gibson introduced the Robot SG, which feature a motorized tuning system developed by Tronical. Limited-edition variants include the SG Robot Special and the limited-edition Robot SG LTD. The Robot system was designed to be convenient for players who need to frequently change tunings, without requiring them to manually tune or carry several guitars; however, they also carry a significant price premium. Around 2000 through 2009, Gibson introduced the SG Classic, which harked back to a Junior/Special type design, with bound mahogany fret board with dot inlays and two P-90 pickups, with a thin '60s neck profile. In 2009, Gibson introduced the Raw Power line of SGs, which have an all-maple body, unbound maple neck and fretboard, and unique colors not previously seen in SGs. These models are priced between the entry-level Specials and the more expensive Standards. The year 2009 also brought the Guitar Center-exclusive SG Standard with Coil Taps available in both 50s and 60s style necks. In 2013 Gibson released the new Gibson SG Baritone. This SG comes in Alpine white and has 24 frets. It comes tuned down two and a half steps to B-E-A-D-F#-B. It is made with a full mahogany body, Richlite fretboard 496R (Ceramic) Bridge Position 500T (Ceramic) pickups and a tune-o-matic bridge. Gibson's EB-3, EB-0, EDS-1275, and later model of Melody Maker and Kalamazoo also shared or once shared SG-shaped bodies, but these are not the members of the SG family. Epiphone also offers a range of value-priced models, including a model with 1960s styling, sold as the G-400. These models often feature simpler construction than their Gibson counterparts, although they also often implement a number of features missing from production Gibson models; examples include the period-correct 1961 SG Special's wraparound bridge (unavailable on any Gibson SG Special production model as of 2013), the 22" scale SG Express, the metal-oriented Prophecy line (equipped with high-output humbuckers and unique inlays), and a replica of the Gibson EDS-1275, popularized by Jimmy Page. Images Unique SGs Angus Young of AC/DC occasionally uses a custom-made SG with lightning-bolt inlays, based on a custom model originally produced by luthier John Diggins. Since then, Young has collaborated with Gibson to make the Angus Young SG which features a custom-designed Humbucker in the bridge position, a '57 Classic in the neck position and the lightning-bolt inlays. Robby Krieger of The Doors used a Gibson SG Standard starting in 1965. Gibson produced a limited run of 150 SG's which incorporate many of Krieger's favorite components of various SG's. Bernard Sumner of Joy Division and New Order used a Gibson SG Standard in 1976 (particularly used on album Closer in 1980) Gillian Gilbert of New Order used a Gibson SG Standard in 1980 (on album "Movement") Eric Clapton used a 1964 Gibson SG Standard starting in 1967 while in Cream. This guitar was known as the "Fool" guitar, as it was painted by the Dutch artists known collectively as The Fool. In spring 1968, the SG was loaned to Jackie Lomax, an associate of George Harrison. The "Fool" was later sold to Todd Rundgren for $500 before eventually being sold to a private collector for about $500,000. Tony Iommi of Black Sabbath owns several custom-made black left-handed Gibson SGs with white cross-shaped fretboard inlays. Epiphone produces a similar guitar as the Tony Iommi G-400. Iommi's original SG (used on the early Sabbath albums) was a cherry red, left-handed 1965 SG Special with P-90 pickups. John Cipollina of Quicksilver Messenger Service used a custom Gibson SG with custom pickguards in the shape of bat-like figures, as well as the fret board being customized with unique patterns. Music Machine made a limited run of 20 Stinger SG's in 2003. Ten were standards and ten were customs. Mike Ness of Social Distortion played a black SG in the late 70s and early 80s, with the Social Distortion logo on it, as well as a white Joan Jett and the Blackhearts bumper sticker. It can be seen on the cover of the compilation album Mainliner: Wreckage From the Past. Mike Oldfield used a modified 1963 SG with a guitar synthesizer pickup to control a Roland GR300 Module for some of his guitar sounds on his 1980s albums such as 1983's Crises (including "Shadow on the Wall"), 1984's Discovery (including the title track) and 1987's Islands (including "The Wind Chimes") as well as single-only tracks from this period such as 1984's "In The Pool" and 1986's "Shine". Tommy Bolin when in Zephyr used a 1963 SG. In 1992, the Gibson Custom Shop introduced a "premium plus" reissue of the '67 SG. There was an estimated run of 100 of these instruments. It included three '57 humbuckers, ABR-1 bridge, ebony fingerboard, slim tapered neck and a mother-of-pearl block. There were no certificates issued from Gibson on this particular run. In 1998 Gibson introduced a rarer, higher-specification version of the SG Special—The SG Special Limited Edition. It came with an ebony fingerboard, factory gold hardware, and two gold array Humbuckers, and included a Gibson gigbag. Differences from the Les Paul The SG has a thinner, and more contoured body than the Les Paul, making it much lighter and more comfortable. The lighter, thinner, one-layer body means the SG, unlike the Les Paul, is particularly suitable for harmonic feedback playing techniques. The SG's neck profile is typically shallower, and thinner than that of the Les Paul, though this varies between production years and individual guitars. The SG also lacks the carved maple top and body binding of the Les Paul. Unlike the Les Paul's neck, which joins the body at the 16th fret, the SG's neck joins the body at the 22nd fret, which allows easier access to higher frets. This also makes the neck joint somewhat flexible, and players have exploited this factor in extended techniques by shaking the guitar to induce a vibrato effect such as Pete Townshend at the 1970 Isle of Wight festival. Despite the differences in body design, the SG and Les Paul models share similar electronics and controls. The sound of the SG is often described as having more "bite" (midrange emphasis) than a Les Paul, as both pickups are closer to the guitar's bridge. Notable SG users See also Gibson Les Paul Gibson Les Paul Special—the first model named "Gibson SG Special" (1959–1961). Gibson SG Special Gibson SG Junior Gibson EB-0 Gibson EB-3 Gibson EDS-1275 Epiphone G-400 References External links Details on SGs used by Pete Townshend BBC News item regarding George Harrison's Gibson SG 1961 musical instruments SG The Beatles' musical instruments	[ -0.4305325746536255, -0.30479681491851807, 0.21503710746765137, 0.23964823782444, -0.12287715077400208, 0.5813285112380981, -0.10917828232049942, 0.6208088397979736, -0.3731570243835449, 0.200004443526268, 0.45143818855285645, -0.04525483772158623, -0.19659267365932465, 1.0370256900787354, -0.07042045146226883, 0.7027397751808167, 0.6961023807525635, 0.08727647364139557, 0.03857352212071419, -0.2924250066280365, -0.10573451966047287, -0.1333008110523224, 0.8242470622062683, 0.43497395515441895, 0.3187105655670166, 0.2199767529964447, 0.5669819116592407, 0.029144810512661934, 0.33132749795913696, 0.5393374562263489, -0.26014503836631775, 0.3866387605667114, 0.34518542885780334, -0.12986797094345093, -0.17481234669685364, 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240766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cochrane%20Library	Cochrane Library	The Cochrane Library (named after Archie Cochrane) is a collection of databases in medicine and other healthcare specialties provided by Cochrane and other organizations. At its core is the collection of Cochrane Reviews, a database of systematic reviews and meta-analyses which summarize and interpret the results of medical research. The Cochrane Library aims to make the results of well-conducted controlled trials readily available and is a key resource in evidence-based medicine. Access and use The Cochrane Library is a subscription-based database, originally published by Update Software and now published by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. as part of Wiley Online Library. In many countries, including parts of Canada, the United Kingdom, Ireland, the Scandinavian countries, New Zealand, Australia, India, South Africa, and Poland, it has been made available free to all residents by "national provision" (typically a government or Department of Health pays for the license). There are also arrangements for free access in much of Latin America and in "low-income countries", typically via HINARI. All countries have free access to two-page abstracts of all Cochrane Reviews and to short plain-language summaries of selected articles. Cochrane Reviews appear to be relatively underused in the United States, presumably because public access is limited (the state of Wyoming is an exception, having paid for a licence to enable free access to Cochrane Reviews for all residents of Wyoming). From 26 March to 26 May 2020, the Cochrane Library provided temporary unrestricted access to everyone in every country in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Contents The Cochrane Library consists of the following databases after significant changes in 2018: The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (Cochrane Reviews). Contains all the peer-reviewed systematic reviews and protocols (Cochrane Protocols) prepared by the Cochrane Review Groups. The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL). CENTRAL is a database that contains details of articles of Controlled trials and other studies of healthcare interventions from bibliographic databases (majorly MEDLINE and EMBASE), and other published and unpublished sources that are difficult to access, including trials from the trial registries such as International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) and ClinicalTrials.gov. However, systematic reviewers need to search not only CENTRAL but also ICTRP and ClinicalTrials.gov to identify unpublished studies. Cochrane Clinical Answers. These evidence summaries on a variety of questions of interest to healthcare professionals have a user-friendly presentation with graphics and high-level conclusions of the research evidence based on Cochrane Reviews. The Cochrane Library now also features results from Special Collections and Editorials as well as an option to link out to other reviews compiled by Epistemonikos. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Cochrane Protocols and CENTRAL are produced by Cochrane. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews The Cochrane reviews take the format of full-length methodological studies. Cochrane researchers will perform searches of medical and health databases including MEDLINE/PubMed, EMBASE, PsycINFO, CINAHL, etc.; a continually updated database of trials called the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); hand searching, where researchers look through entire libraries of scientific journals by hand and; reference checking of obtained articles in order to identify additional studies that are relevant to the question they are attempting to answer. The quality of each study is carefully assessed using predefined criteria and evidence of weak methodology or the possibility that a study may have been affected by bias is reported in the review. Cochrane researchers then apply statistical analysis to compare the data of the trials. This creates a review of studies, or systematic review, giving a comprehensive view of the efficacy of a particular medical intervention. Finished reviews are available as a full report with diagrams, in condensed form or as a plain language summary, in order to provide for every reader of the review. Abstracting and indexing According to Journal Citation Reports, The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews has a 2016 impact factor of 6.264, ranking 14th out of 154 in the category "Medicine, General & Internal category". Reviews are abstracted and indexed in the following bibliographic databases: Science Citation Index Expanded, Scopus, CINAHL, EMBASE, MEDLINE. Academic comments The Cochrane Library Feedback tool allows users to provide comments on and feedback of Cochrane Reviews and Protocols in The Cochrane Library. If accepted, the feedback will be published in a scrolling list of comments in reverse chronological order, with the most recent submission at the top of the page. The Collaboration has a procedure for the event of serious error, an event which has only occurred once in its history. Supplements Annual colloquia have been conducted by Cochrane since 1993. From 1994 onwards, Cochrane has maintained a database of posters and presentations of past colloquia. From 2009 onwards, Cochrane published the abstracts of those colloquia as supplements to the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. From 2010 to 2016, an annual newsletter related to Cochrane methodology called Cochrane Methods (), was published as an annual supplement. See also List of academic databases and search engines References External links The Cochrane Library on Wiley Online Abstracts and summaries of Cochrane Reviews, free access The evolution of The Cochrane Library, 1988-2003 The Centre for Reviews and Dissemination Systematic review Health informatics Bibliographic databases and indexes Discipline-oriented digital libraries Full-text scholarly online databases British digital libraries Medical databases in the United Kingdom it:Cochrane Library	[ 0.18721124529838562, 0.3748578131198883, -0.3131428360939026, 0.09805776923894882, 0.07017169147729874, -0.10535459220409393, -0.04869337007403374, -0.233756422996521, -0.2702530026435852, -0.21008612215518951, -0.17431648075580597, 0.2641765773296356, 0.19781440496444702, 0.5382382869720459, -0.07726778835058212, 0.5278300046920776, -0.21622034907341003, 0.4088943600654602, 0.16842858493328094, -0.028508493676781654, -0.5238444805145264, -0.2932174503803253, 0.2934648096561432, 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240769	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20Wars%20%28disambiguation%29	Star Wars (disambiguation)	Star Wars is an epic science fantasy saga created by George Lucas. Star Wars may also refer to: Star Wars franchise Media within the franchise that have had the specific name Star Wars include: Film Star Wars (film), 1977 film, also known as Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope Music Star Wars (soundtrack), 1977 soundtrack album for the film Comics Star Wars comics, adaptations by Marvel Comics and Dark Horse Comics Star Wars (1977 comic book), Marvel Comics comic book series printed between 1977 and 1986, with a one-shot issue published in 2019 Star Wars (manga), adaptations of the first four films Star Wars (UK comics), a UK comic book series by Titan Magazines Books Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker, 1976 novelization of the 1977 film List of Star Wars Books, a comprehensive list and vguide to the books in the Star Wars universe Radio Star Wars (radio series), adaptation produced in 1981, 1983, and 1996 Arcade games Star Wars (1983 video game) Star Wars (1987 video game) Star Wars (1991 video game) Star Wars (1992 pinball) Roleplaying games Star Wars: The Roleplaying Game (West End Games), D6 System, licensed from 1987 to 1999. Star Wars Roleplaying Game (Wizards of the Coast), D20 System, licensed from 2000 to 2010 Star Wars Roleplaying Game (Fantasy Flight Games), Narrative Dice System, licensed from 2012 to 2019 Other uses Strategic Defense Initiative, a United States missile defense program known informally as "Star Wars" in reference to the film Star Wars (Wilco album), 2015 album by American alternative rock band Wilco Star Wars (Indian TV series), a Tamil reality TV show See also Star war, a Mayan conflict of the 1st millennium CE Warstar (disambiguation)	[ -0.34399881958961487, 0.4289827048778534, -0.04878523200750351, 0.07365796715021133, -0.23296624422073364, -0.04202592745423317, -0.4319462180137634, -0.0704735517501831, -0.1523633450269699, -0.04664520546793938, -0.6819949150085449, 0.25880566239356995, -0.5072146654129028, 0.7654622793197632, 0.1491556167602539, -0.0466458834707737, -0.041292134672403336, 0.3071453869342804, -0.48314669728279114, -0.2309538722038269, -0.38880935311317444, 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240772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil%27s%20Paintbrush	Devil's Paintbrush	Devil's Paintbrush may refer to: Pilosella aurantiaca, a flower in the daisy family Pilosella caespitosa, a flower in the daisy family The Devil's Paintbrush, a 2009 novel by Jack Arnott a machine gun, see Maxim gun a golf course in Ontario See also "The Devil's Paintbrush Road", a song by Annabelle Chvostek from the 2004 album Burned My Ass	[ 0.2655404210090637, 0.8237794041633606, -0.37177300453186035, 0.2400568425655365, -0.25233620405197144, 0.5477198362350464, 0.8553221225738525, 0.06703590601682663, 0.18921177089214325, -0.3862041234970093, 0.38230612874031067, 0.4717341661453247, 0.12036773562431335, 0.36157673597335815, -0.13656172156333923, 0.9461433291435242, -0.02434554696083069, 0.727189838886261, -0.32409512996673584, -0.5148752331733704, -0.2072886824607849, -0.6350452899932861, 0.3145711421966553, -0.6144291162490845, -0.2478528618812561, 0.34787070751190186, 0.08430258929729462, 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240778	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat%20lightning	Heat lightning	Heat lightning, also known as silent lightning, summer lightning, or dry lightning (not to be confused with dry thunderstorms, which are also often called dry lightning), is a misnomer used for the faint flashes of lightning on the horizon or other clouds from distant thunderstorms that do not appear to have accompanying sounds of thunder. The actual phenomenon that is sometimes called heat lightning is simply cloud-to-ground lightning that occurs very far away, with thunder that dissipates before it reaches the observer. At night, it is possible to see the flashes of lightning from very far distances, up to , but the sound does not carry that far. In the United States, lightning is especially common in Florida, which is considered the lightning capital of the country. This is due to high moisture content in the lower atmosphere and high surface temperature, which produces strong sea breezes along the Florida coast. As a result, heat lightning is often seen over the water at night, the remnants of storms that formed during the day along a sea breeze front coming in from the opposite coast. Heat lightning is not to be confused with electrically-induced luminosity actually generated at mesospheric altitudes above thunderstorm systems (and likewise visible at exceedingly great ranges), a phenomenon known as "sprites". Cloud-to-ground lightning The movement of sound in the atmosphere depends on the properties of the air, such as temperature and density. Because temperature and density change with height, the sound of thunder is refracted through the troposphere. This refraction results in spaces through which the thunder does not propagate. The sound of thunder often reflects off the Earth's surface. The rumbling sound is partly due to these reflections. This reflection and refraction can leave voids where thunder cannot be heard. Earth's curvature also contributes to distant observers not hearing the thunderclap. Thunder is more likely to reflect off the Earth's surface before it reaches an observer far from the strike, and only the right refraction and reflection of the sound off of the atmosphere will give it the range it needs to be heard far away. The reflection and refraction in the troposphere determines who hears the strike and who doesn't. Usually, the troposphere will reflect the light, and leave out the sound - in these cases some fraction of the light emanating from distant thunderstorms (whose distant clouds may be so low to the horizon as to be essentially invisible) is scattered by the upper atmosphere and thus visible to remote observers. Under optimum conditions, the most intense thunderstorms can be seen at up to over flat terrain or water when the clouds are illuminated by large lightning discharges. However, an upper limit of is more common due to topography, trees on the horizon, low to mid-level clouds, and the fact that local visibilities are generally no more than . The height of the anvil (the large, plume-like top of a thunderhead) also contributes— is very common in the mid latitudes for warm-season thunderstorms, but the anvil height can range from to a current record of . 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240789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainan%20%28disambiguation%29	Hainan (disambiguation)	Hainan is a province of the People's Republic of China. Hainan may also refer to: Places in China Other places in China Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture, Qinghai Hainan District, Wuhai, Inner Mongolia Hainan, Jiangsu, a town in Xinghua, Jiangsu Townships Hainan Township, Hailun, Heilongjiang Hainan Korean Ethnic Township, Xi'an District, Mudanjiang, Heilongjiang Hainan Township, Sichuan, in Xichang, Sichuan Other uses Hainan Airlines, an airline based in Haikou, Hainan Hainan people, the indigenous people of Hainan province Hainan University, Haikou, Hainan Chinese landing helicopter dock Hainan, Chinese People's Liberation Army Navy ship See also Henan, a province in China and Hunan, a province in China	[ 0.09032680839300156, 0.26629579067230225, 0.21290087699890137, -0.2355816662311554, -0.2491520345211029, -0.3256312906742096, -0.03461431711912155, 0.34268200397491455, -0.3316722810268402, -0.04966526851058006, 0.05007220059633255, -0.6971177458763123, -0.3981596827507019, 0.3090446889400482, -0.18535925447940826, 0.4861031174659729, 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240790	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indicator%20function	Indicator function	In mathematics, an indicator function or a characteristic function of a subset of a set is a function that maps elements of the subset to one, and all other elements of the set to zero. The indicator function of a subset of a set maps to the two-element set if an element in belongs to , and if does not belong to . It may be denoted as by or by The Dirichlet function, the indicator function of the rational numbers as a subset of the real numbers, is an example of an indicator function. Definition The indicator function of a subset of a set is a function defined as The Iverson bracket provides the equivalent notation, or to be used instead of The function is sometimes denoted , , , or even just . Notation and terminology The notation is also used to denote the characteristic function in convex analysis, which is defined as if using the reciprocal of the standard definition of the indicator function. A related concept in statistics is that of a dummy variable. (This must not be confused with "dummy variables" as that term is usually used in mathematics, also called a bound variable.) The term "characteristic function" has an unrelated meaning in classic probability theory. For this reason, traditional probabilists use the term indicator function for the function defined here almost exclusively, while mathematicians in other fields are more likely to use the term characteristic function to describe the function that indicates membership in a set. In fuzzy logic and modern many-valued logic, predicates are the characteristic functions of a probability distribution. That is, the strict true/false valuation of the predicate is replaced by a quantity interpreted as the degree of truth. Basic properties The indicator or characteristic function of a subset of some set maps elements of to the range . This mapping is surjective only when is a non-empty proper subset of . If then By a similar argument, if then In the following, the dot represents multiplication, etc. "+" and "−" represent addition and subtraction. "" and "" is intersection and union, respectively. If and are two subsets of then and the indicator function of the complement of i.e. is: More generally, suppose is a collection of subsets of . For any is clearly a product of s and s. This product has the value 1 at precisely those that belong to none of the sets and is 0 otherwise. That is Expanding the product on the left hand side, where is the cardinality of . This is one form of the principle of inclusion-exclusion. As suggested by the previous example, the indicator function is a useful notational device in combinatorics. The notation is used in other places as well, for instance in probability theory: if is a probability space with probability measure and is a measurable set, then becomes a random variable whose expected value is equal to the probability of : This identity is used in a simple proof of Markov's inequality. In many cases, such as order theory, the inverse of the indicator function may be defined. This is commonly called the generalized Möbius function, as a generalization of the inverse of the indicator function in elementary number theory, the Möbius function. (See paragraph below about the use of the inverse in classical recursion theory.) Mean, variance and covariance Given a probability space with the indicator random variable is defined by if otherwise Mean (also called "Fundamental Bridge"). Variance Covariance Characteristic function in recursion theory, Gödel's and Kleene's representing function Kurt Gödel described the representing function in his 1934 paper "On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical systems" (the "¬" indicates logical inversion, i.e. "NOT"): Kleene offers up the same definition in the context of the primitive recursive functions as a function of a predicate takes on values if the predicate is true and if the predicate is false. For example, because the product of characteristic functions whenever any one of the functions equals , it plays the role of logical OR: IF OR OR ... OR THEN their product is . What appears to the modern reader as the representing function's logical inversion, i.e. the representing function is when the function is "true" or satisfied", plays a useful role in Kleene's definition of the logical functions OR, AND, and IMPLY, the bounded- and unbounded- mu operators and the CASE function. Characteristic function in fuzzy set theory In classical mathematics, characteristic functions of sets only take values (members) or (non-members). In fuzzy set theory, characteristic functions are generalized to take value in the real unit interval , or more generally, in some algebra or structure (usually required to be at least a poset or lattice). Such generalized characteristic functions are more usually called membership functions, and the corresponding "sets" are called fuzzy sets. Fuzzy sets model the gradual change in the membership degree seen in many real-world predicates like "tall", "warm", etc. Derivatives of the indicator function A particular indicator function is the Heaviside step function. The Heaviside step function is the indicator function of the one-dimensional positive half-line, i.e. the domain . The distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function is equal to the Dirac delta function, i.e. with the following property: The derivative of the Heaviside step function can be seen as the inward normal derivative at the boundary of the domain given by the positive half-line. In higher dimensions, the derivative naturally generalises to the inward normal derivative, while the Heaviside step function naturally generalises to the indicator function of some domain . The surface of will be denoted by . Proceeding, it can be derived that the inward normal derivative of the indicator gives rise to a 'surface delta function', which can be indicated by where is the outward normal of the surface . This 'surface delta function' has the following property: By setting the function equal to one, it follows that the inward normal derivative of the indicator integrates to the numerical value of the surface area . See also Dirac measure Laplacian of the indicator Dirac delta Extension (predicate logic) Free variables and bound variables Heaviside step function Iverson bracket Kronecker delta, a function that can be viewed as an indicator for the identity relation Macaulay brackets Multiset Membership function Simple function Dummy variable (statistics) Statistical classification Zero-one loss function Notes References Sources Measure theory Integral calculus Real analysis Mathematical logic Basic concepts in set theory Probability theory Types of functions	[ -0.19031938910484314, -0.34011372923851013, -0.3201383352279663, 0.10988172143697739, -0.251302033662796, -0.09187932312488556, -0.08699313551187515, -0.09695092588663101, 0.21646670997142792, -0.6908607482910156, -0.11453267186880112, 0.12944932281970978, -0.7010369896888733, 0.017323682084679604, 0.07391919195652008, 0.48277270793914795, 0.3745560348033905, 0.19650815427303314, -0.3611130118370056, -0.2415946125984192, 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240791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fray%20%28comics%29	Fray (comics)	Fray is an eight-issue comic book limited series, a futuristic spin-off of the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Written by Buffy creator Joss Whedon, the series follows a Slayer named Melaka Fray, a chosen one in a time where vampires (called "lurks") are returning to the slums of New York City, and the rich-poor divide is even greater. Volume one is drawn by Karl Moline (pencils) and Andy Owens (inks). The series was published by Dark Horse Comics beginning in 2001, with delays between the first six and the final two issues caused by Whedon's TV commitments, during which Moline illustrated Route 666 for CrossGen Comics. After the series' conclusion in August 2003, a trade paperback collecting the whole series was also published by Dark Horse. In a short video promoting the charity Equality Now Joss Whedon confirmed that "Fray is not done, Fray is coming back. More than that, I will not say." This was reiterated in 2007's Comic Con where Joss stated that he "absolutely would be returning to that world." Fray next appears as a main character in the 2008 Buffy the Vampire Slayer Season Eight crossover story arc, "Time of Your Life", by Whedon and Moline. The series was closely linked to the concurrently airing seventh season of Buffy, with coinciding depictions of the Slayer's mystical scythe and her origins, a major contributor to the expansion of the canonical "Buffyverse" in which Buffy the Vampire Slayer and other related stories are set. Melaka Fray also appears in the story "Tales", by the same creative team as the series, in the anthology comic book Tales of the Slayers. Characters Melaka "Mel" Fray – A 19-year-old thief and Vampire Slayer. Unlike other Slayers, she has had no prophetic dreams of her destiny or of the Slayers before her and is now trying to figure out what her destiny as the Slayer entails. Harth Fray – Mel's twin brother, who was attacked by a vampire during a theft with Mel. To save his life, Harth deliberately drank the vampire's blood, thereby becoming a vampire himself. It is unprecedented for a Slayer to have a twin and, as an odd side-effect of this, Harth possesses the prophetic dreams and visions of past Slayers that Mel lacks. Erin Fray – Mel's older sister. On opposing sides already because of her job as a cop and Melaka's thieving, Erin also blamed Mel for the death of their brother for a long time. Eventually, in the big battle against their vampire brother, the two reconciled. Urkonn – A demon who trains Mel as a Slayer in lieu of her actual Watcher (who instead immolates himself). A budding friendship grows from the previously harsh mentor-student relationship, but he ultimately betrays her by killing Loo in order to harden her resolve. After defeating her brother, Mel discovers Urkonn's betrayal and lures him into a trap, killing him. Loo – Mel's friend, a mutated girl, murdered by Urkonn in order to motivate Melaka in confronting her brother. Icarus – The vampire that killed Harth four years ago; killed by Erin right before the big battle. Synopsis The story is about a Vampire Slayer of the future named Melaka Fray and her discovery of what being a Slayer means. Centuries have passed since the last Slayer was called. Demons were banished from the Earth at some point in the 21st century by an unnamed Slayer and her friends, and the Watchers' Council has decayed into a group of crazed fanatics. The vampires (dubbed lurks) have now returned and haunt the city. To combat this threat, a new Slayer is called: a professional thief named Melaka Fray. With the Watchers' Council ineffective, a group of "neutral" demons send the demon Urkonn to prepare Melaka for the war that is sure to come. Although training hard and feeling confident, Mel finds herself out of her depth when she fights the vampire Icarus. Years before, Icarus severely injured Mel and killed her twin brother, Harth. Mel discovers that Harth was not actually killed: after being bitten by Icarus, he bit back and fed off the vampire, becoming a vampire himself. Since he was the Slayer's twin, he has the visions and instinctive knowledge that should have been hers: he knew what Mel is long before she did, and also knew how to become a vampire. Disheartened, Mel refuses to fight, until she discovers the body of her young friend, a girl named Loo, with her neck snapped. Determined to avenge her, Mel rallies the inhabitants of the slums to fight against the vampires. Police officer Erin Fray (Mel's older sister) convinces some of the local law enforcement to also join in the crusade. As the battle begins, a giant dragon-like demon flies over the scene. This, Urkonn tells Mel, is the gateway to the demon world, and thousands more demons will be born from its womb. Mel falls into the creature's mouth, and manages to kill it from inside by stabbing its brain. She climbs out of the creature's eye and again encounters Harth, who is riding on its back. His plans foiled, he kisses her on the mouth, and flees. The world is safe, but one more piece of business remains. Mel tells Urkonn that she knows a vampire couldn't have killed Loo: they couldn't have got into her flat uninvited, and would have drained her blood, not snapped her neck. Therefore, Urkonn must have done it, hoping to inspire her to fight. He admits the truth, and they battle. Having figured out that her demon mentor can't swim, Melaka drops him into a pool of water and stabs him in the head. Melaka returns to her former life of crime, while at the same time killing any lurks she finds. In another world, Urkonn's superiors state that he will be stricken from history for his failure to kill her after she stopped Harth, and start to discuss their plans for when Harth tries something again. Bibliography Original issues (Second printing: July 25, 2001) (Second printing: December 26, 2001) (Second printing: December 26, 2001) (Second printing: October 17, 2001) (Second printing: December 5, 2001) (Second printing: March 27, 2002) Collected editions Fray: Future Slayer (softcover trade paperback collecting the miniseries, , published November 26, 2003) Fray: Future Slayer (hardcover edition of the above trade paperback, , published November 26, 2003) Fray (British reprint of the softcover collection, , published December 19, 2003) See also Buffyverse Slayer Mythology Tales of the Slayers – Fray makes an appearance in "Tales" Time of Your Life References External links Article about the miniseries from Dark Horse Comics' official website Buffyverse 2001 comics debuts Comics based on Buffy the Vampire Slayer Comics by Joss Whedon Horror comics Fantasy comics Dystopian comics Works set in the 23rd century Cyberpunk comics Flying cars in fiction	[ 0.0633428543806076, 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240794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstanz%20%28district%29	Konstanz (district)	Konstanz (or Constance) is a Landkreis (district) in the south of Baden-Württemberg on the German-Swiss border, situated along the shores of Lake Constance. Neighboring districts are (from west clockwise) Schwarzwald-Baar, Tuttlingen, Sigmaringen and Bodenseekreis. To the south it borders the Swiss cantons of Zurich, Thurgau and Schaffhausen. The municipality of Büsingen am Hochrhein is an exclave of Germany surrounded by Swiss territory. History The district dates back to the Bezirksamt Konstanz, which was created in 1806 when the area became part of Württemberg (since 1810 Baden). After some changes in its outline it was changed into the district in 1936, including part of the dissolved Bezirksamt Engen. 1939 the city Constance became district-free, but was reintegrated into the district in 1953. 1973 it was merged with the neighboring district Stockach and some municipalities from the districts Sigmaringen and Donaueschingen. Geography The district is located at the north-western shore of Lake Constance, in a landscape called Hegau. The world heritage island Reichenau with its old monastery as well as the flower island Mainau are part of the district. Also located in the district is the Aachtopf near the city Aach, the biggest spring in Germany by water volume. The spring actually contains water from the Danube which moves through karst caves underneath the European watershed. Coat of arms The coat of arms show a fish both in top left as well as the bottom right, representing the fishing industry in the Lake Constance. The cross in the top right is the symbol of the bishopric of Konstanz. The deer antlers in the bottom left were added after the district was merged with the district Stockach. These were taken from the coat of arms of the Counts of Veringen-Nellenbach, and were present in the coat of arms of the district Stockach, as well as the city Stockach. Cities and Towns References External links Official website (German) Freiburg (region) Districts of Baden-Württemberg	[ -0.2348180115222931, 0.18250906467437744, 0.8202202320098877, -0.4031767249107361, 0.03357229381799698, 0.1551026701927185, 0.2788970172405243, 0.39740225672721863, -0.3304655849933624, -0.8980527520179749, -0.6098945140838623, -0.45810118317604065, -0.07766473293304443, 0.29175063967704773, -0.3648427426815033, 0.6294999718666077, 1.0714712142944336, 0.16241003572940826, -0.41071566939353943, -0.6755879521369934, -0.1753077507019043, 0.11531485617160797, 0.22500741481781006, 0.37457704544067383, -0.07924402505159378, -0.47147464752197266, 0.4454854130744934, 0.5603120923042297, 0.2937920391559601, 0.3022170960903168, -0.040652185678482056, 0.4363967180252075, -0.47703489661216736, -0.11799079179763794, -0.05363506078720093, 0.5047661066055298, -0.10371225327253342, -0.5493482351303101, 0.08931282162666321, -0.6912605166435242, -0.4872370958328247, 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240796	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar%20distance	Polar distance	Polar distance may refer to: Polar distance (astronomy), an astronomical term associated with the celestial equatorial coordinate system Σ(α, δ)ellipse and lower, a hyperbola Polar distance (geometry), more correctly called radial distance, typically denoted r, a coordinate in polar coordinate systems (r, θ) Polar distance (botany) is used in the classification of pollens Polar distance (geodesy), the length of the meridian quadrant from the equator to the pole	[ -0.16136357188224792, -0.09840540587902069, 0.7029892206192017, 0.10721170157194138, -0.4541720151901245, -0.058488938957452774, -0.28086793422698975, 0.030130457133054733, -0.0059067253023386, -0.5044506788253784, -0.4553276300430298, -0.060492079704999924, -0.009538917802274227, 0.9359261393547058, 0.059177715331315994, 1.1233690977096558, 0.02088932693004608, 0.7190691828727722, -0.699630081653595, -0.3174581527709961, 0.13685865700244904, 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240799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind%20share	Mind share	Mind share relates to the development of consumer awareness or popularity, and is one of the main objectives of advertising and promotion. When people think of examples of a product type or category, they usually think of a limited number of brand names. The aim of mind share is to establish a brand as being one of the best kinds of a given product or service, and to even have the brand name become a synonym for the product or service offered. For example, a prospective buyer of a college education will have several thousand colleges to choose from. However, the evoked set, or set of schools considered, will probably be limited to about ten. Of these ten, the colleges that the buyer is most familiar with will receive the greatest attention. Marketers and promoters of mind share try to maximize the popularity of their product, so that the brand co-exists with deeper, more empirical categories of objects. Kleenex, for example, can distinguish itself as a type of tissue. But, because it has gained popularity amongst consumers, it is frequently used as a term to identify any tissue, even if it is from a competing brand. Q-tips and band-aids would be other examples of this. Popularity can be established to a greater or lesser degree depending on product and market. For example, in the Southern U.S. it is common to hear people refer to any cola-flavored soft drink as a "coke", regardless of whether it is actually produced by Coca-Cola or not. A legal risk of such popularity is that the name may become so widely accepted that it becomes a generic term and loses trademark protection. Examples include "escalator", "panadol", "chapstick", "tupperware", and "bandaid". Companies will often attempt to prevent a product name from becoming generic to avoid losing trademark protection. Xerox Corporation attempted to prevent the genericization of its core trademark through an extensive public relations campaign advising consumers to "photocopy" instead of "xerox" documents. Other objectives of mind share include short or long term increases in sales, market share, product information, and reputation. 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240808	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern%20copperhead	Eastern copperhead	The eastern copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix), also known as the copperhead, is a species of venomous snake, a pit viper, endemic to eastern North America; it is a member of the subfamily Crotalinae in the family Viperidae. Its generic name is derived from the Greek words ancistro (hooked) and odon (tooth), or fishhook. The trivial name, or specific epithet, comes from the Latin contortus (twisted, intricate, complex), which is usually interpreted to reference the distorted pattern of darker bands across the snake's back, which are broad at the lateral base, but "pinched" into narrow hourglass shapes in the middle at the vertebral area. Five subspecies have been recognized in the past, but recent genetic analysis shows that A c. contorix and two of the subspecies are monotypic, while Agkistrodon laticinctus (formerly Agkistrodon contortrix laticinctus) and the fifth subspecies are a single distinct species (see subspecies table below). It is a common species in many areas within its range, which may lead to accidental encounters with humans. Description Adults grow to a typical length (including tail) of . Some may exceed , although that is exceptional for this species. Males do not typically exceed and weigh from , with a mean of roughly . Females do not typically exceed , and have a mean body mass of . The maximum length reported for this species is for A. c. mokasen (Ditmars, 1931). Brimley (1944) mentions a specimen of A. c. mokasen from Chapel Hill, North Carolina, that was "four feet, six inches" (137.2 cm), but this may have been an approximation. The maximum length for A. c. contortrix is (Conant, 1958). The body is relatively stout and the head is broad and distinct from the neck. Because the snout slopes down and back, it appears less blunt than that of the cottonmouth, A. piscivorus. Consequently, the top of the head extends further forward than the mouth. The escalation includes 21–25 (usually 23) rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 138–157 ventral scales in both sexes, and 38–62 and 37–57 subcaudal scales in males and females, respectively. The subcaudals are usually single, but the percentage thereof decreases clinally from the northeast, where about 80% are undivided, to the southwest of the geographic range where as little as 50% may be undivided. On the head are usually 9 large symmetrical plates, 6–10 (usually 8) supralabial scales, and 8–13 (usually 10) sublabial scales. The color pattern consists of a pale tan to pinkish-tan ground color that becomes darker towards the foreline, overlaid with a series of 10–18 (13.4) crossbands. Characteristically, both the ground color and crossband pattern are pale in A. c. contortrix. These crossbands are light tan to pinkish-tan to pale brown in the center, but darker towards the edges. They are about two scales wide or less at the midline of the back, but expand to a width of 6–10 scales on the sides of the body. They do not extend down to the ventral scales. Often, the crossbands are divided at the midline and alternate on either side of the body, with some individuals even having more half bands than complete ones. A series of dark brown spots is also present on the flanks, next to the belly, and are largest and darkest in the spaces between the crossbands. The belly is the same color as the ground color, but may be a little whitish in part. At the base of the tail are one to three (usually two) brown crossbands followed by a gray area. In juveniles, the pattern on the tail is more distinct: 7–9 crossbands are visible, while the tip is yellow. On the head, the crown is usually unmarked, except for a pair of small dark spots, one near the midline of each parietal scale. A faint postocular stripe is also present; diffuse above and bordered below by a narrow brown edge. Several aberrant color patterns for A. c. contortrix, or populations that intergrade with it, have also been reported. In a specimen described by Livezey (1949) from Walker County, Texas, 11 of 17 crossbands were not joined middorsally, while on one side, three of the crossbands were fused together longitudinally to form a continuous, undulating band, surmounted above by a dark stripe that was 2.0–2.5 scales wide. In another specimen, from Lowndes County, Alabama, the first three crossbands were complete, followed by a dark stripe that ran down either side of the body, with points of pigment reaching up to the midline in six places, but never getting there, after which the last four crossbands on the tail were also complete. A specimen found in Terrebonne Parish, Louisiana, by Ernest A. Liner, had a similar striped pattern, with only the first and last two crossbands being normal. Distribution and habitat Eastern copperheads found in North America; its range within the United States is in Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. In Mexico, it occurs in Chihuahua and Coahuila. The type locality is "Carolina". Schmidt (1953) proposed the type locality be restricted to "Charleston, South Carolina". Unlike some other species of North American pit vipers, such as the timber rattlesnake and massasauga, the copperhead has mostly not re-established itself north of the terminal moraine after the last glacial period (the Wisconsin glaciation), though it is found in southeastern New York and southern New England, north of the Wisconsin glaciation terminal moraine on Long Island. Within its range, it occupies a variety of different habitats. In most of North America, it favors deciduous forest and mixed woodlands. It is often associated with rock outcroppings and ledges, but is also found in low-lying, swampy regions. During the winter, it hibernates in dens or limestone crevices, often together with timber rattlesnakes and black rat snakes. In the states around the Gulf of Mexico, however, this species is also found in coniferous forest. In the Chihuahuan Desert of West Texas and northern Mexico, it occurs in riparian habitats, usually near permanent or semipermanent water and sometimes in dry arroyos (brooks). Conservation status This species is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (v3.1, 2001). This means that relative to many other species, it is not at risk of extinction in the near future. The population trend was stable when assessed in 2007. Behavior In the Southern United States, copperheads are nocturnal during the hot summer, but are commonly active during the day during the spring and fall. Unlike other viperids, they often "freeze" instead of slithering away, and as a result, many bites occur due to people unknowingly stepping on or near them. This tendency to freeze most likely evolved because of the extreme effectiveness of their camouflage. When lying on dead leaves or red clay, they can be almost impossible to notice. They frequently stay still even when approached closely, and generally strike only if physical contact is made. Like most other New World vipers, copperheads exhibit defensive tail vibration behavior when closely approached. This species is capable of vibrating its tail in excess of 40 times per second— faster than almost any other nonrattlesnake snake species. Diet and feeding behavior The eastern copperhead is a diet generalist and is known to feed on a wide variety of prey, including invertebrates (primarily arthropods) and vertebrates. A generalized ontogenetic shift in the diet occurs, with juveniles feeding on higher percentages of invertebrates and ectotherms, and adults feeding on a higher percentage vertebrate endotherms. Both juveniles and adults, though, feed on invertebrates and vertebrates opportunistically. The diet is also known to vary among geographic populations. Studies conducted at various locations within the range of the eastern copperhead (A. contortrix), including Tennessee, Kentucky, Kansas, and Texas, identified some consistently significant prey items included cicadas (Tibicen), caterpillars (Lepidoptera), lizards (Sceloporus and Scincella), voles (Microtus), and mice (Peromyscus). Accounts of finding large numbers copperheads in bushes, vines, and trees seeking newly emerged cicadas, some as high as 40 feet above ground, have been reported from Texas by various herpetologists. Other items documented in the diet include various invertebrates, e.g. millipedes (Diplopoda), spiders (Arachnida), beetles (Coleoptera), dragonflies (Odonata), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), and mantids (Mantidae), as well as numerous species of vertebrates, including salamanders, frogs, lizards, snakes, small turtles, small birds, young opossums, squirrels, chipmunks, rabbits, bats, shrews, moles, rats, and mice. Like most pit vipers, the eastern copperhead is generally an ambush predator; it takes up a promising position and waits for suitable prey to arrive. One exception to ambush foraging occurs when copperheads feed on insects such as caterpillars and freshly molted cicadas. When hunting insects, copperheads actively pursue their prey. Juveniles use a brightly colored tail to attract frogs and perhaps lizards, a behavior termed caudal luring (see video: ). Sight, odor, and heat detection are used in locating prey, although after the prey has been envenomated, odor and taste become the primary means of tracking. Smaller prey items and birds are often seized and held in the mouth until dead, while larger prey items are typically bitten, released, and then tracked until dead. Copperheads occasionally feed on carrion. Gravid females typically fast, although some individuals occasionally take small volumes of food. An individual may eat up to twice its body mass in a year. One study found an individual that ate eight times during an annual activity period, totaling 1.25 times its body mass. Reproduction Eastern copperheads breed in late summer, but not every year; sometimes, females produce young for several years running, then do not breed at all for a time. They give birth to live young, each of which is about in total length. The typical litter size is four to seven, but as few as one, or as many as 20 may be seen. Their size apart, the young are similar to the adults, but lighter in color, and with a yellowish-green-marked tip to the tail, which is used to lure lizards and frogs. A. contortrix males have longer tongue tie lengths than females during the breeding season, which may aid in chemoreception of males searching for females. Facultative parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis is a natural form of reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization. A. contortrix can reproduce by facultative parthenogenesis, that is, they are capable of switching from a sexual mode of reproduction to an asexual mode. The type of parthenogenesis that likely occurs is automixis with terminal fusion, a process in which two terminal products from the same meiosis fuse to form a diploid zygote. This process leads to genome-wide homozygosity, expression of deleterious recessive alleles, and often to developmental failure (inbreeding depression). Both captive-born and wild-born A. contortrix snakes appear to be capable of this form of parthenogenesis. Venom Although venomous, eastern copperheads are generally not aggressive and bites are rarely fatal. Copperhead venom has an estimated lethal dose around 100 mg, and tests on mice show its potency is among the lowest of all pit vipers, and slightly weaker than that of its close relative, the cottonmouth. Copperheads often employ a "warning bite" when stepped on or agitated and inject a relatively small amount of venom, if any at all. "Dry bites" involving no venom are particularly common with the copperhead, though all pit vipers are capable of a dry bite. Bite symptoms include extreme pain, tingling, throbbing, swelling, and severe nausea. Damage can occur to muscle and bone tissue, especially when the bite occurs in the outer extremities such as the hands and feet, areas in which a large muscle mass is not available to absorb the venom. A bite from any venomous snake should be taken very seriously and immediate medical attention sought, as an allergic reaction and secondary infection are always possible. The venom of the southern copperhead has been found to hold a protein called "contortrostatin" that halts the growth of cancer cells in mice and also stops the migration of the tumors to other sites. However, this is an animal model, and further testing is required to verify safety and efficacy in humans. The antivenom CroFab is used to treat copperhead envenomations that demonstrate localized or systemic reactions to the venom. As many copperhead bites can be dry (no envenomation), CroFab is not given in the absence of a reaction (such as swelling) due to the risk of complications of an allergic reaction to the treatment. The antivenom can cause an immune reaction called serum sickness. Pain management, tetanus immunization, laboratory evaluation, and medical supervision in the case of complications are additional courses of action. In 2002, an Illinois poison control center report on the availability of antivenom stated it used 1 Acp to 5 Acp depending on the symptoms and circumstances. Subspecies This species was long considered to contain five subspecies listed below, but gene analysis suggests that A. c. laticinctus represents its own distinct species, while A. c. mokasen and A. c. phaeogaster are regional variants of A. c. contortrix, and A. c. pictigaster is a regional variant of A. c. laticinctus. Gallery References Further reading Behler JL, King FW (1979). The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. . (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 683–684 + Plates 649–652, 655). Boulenger GA (1896). Catalogue of the Snakes in the British Museum (Natural History). Volume III., Containing the ... Viperidæ. London: Trustees of the British Museum (Natural History). (Taylor and Francis, printers). xiv + 727 pp. + Plates I-XXV. (Ancistrodon contortrix, pp. 522–523). Conant R (1975). A Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. xviii + 429 pp. + Plates 1-48. (hardcover), (paperback). (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 226–228 + Plate 34 + Map 174). Conant R, Bridges W (1939). What Snake Is That?: A Field Guide to the Snakes of the United States East of the Rocky Mountains. (with 108 drawings by Edmond Malnate). New York and London: D. Appleton-Century. Frontispiece map + viii + 163 pp. + Plates A-C, 1-32. (Agkistrodon mokasen, pp. 136–139 + Plate 27, Figures 79–81). Gloyd HK (1934). "Studies on the Breeding Habits and Young of the Copperhead, Agkistrodon mokasen Beauvois". Papers Michigan Acad. Sci. 19: 587–604, 2 figures, 3 plates. Holbrook JE (1838). North American Herpetology; or, A Description of the Reptiles Inhabiting the United States [First edition]. Vol II. Philadelphia: J. Dobson. (E.G. Dorsey, printer). 130 pp. + Plates I-XXX. (Trigonocephalus contortrix, pp. 69–72 + Plate XIV). Holbrook JE (1842). North American Herpetology; or, A Description of the Reptiles Inhabiting the United States [Second edition]. Vol. III. Philadelphia: J. Dobson. (E.G. Dorsey, printer). 128 pp. + Plates I-XXX. (Trigonocephalus contortrix, pp. 39–42 + Plate VIII). Hubbs B, O'Connor B (2012). A Guide to the Rattlesnakes and other Venomous Serpents of the United States. Tempe, Arizona: Tricolor Books. 129 pp. . (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 93–103). Jan G, Sordelli F (1874). Iconographie générale des Ophidiens, Quarante-sixième livraison. Paris: Baillière. Index + Plates I-VI. (Trigonocephalus contortrix, Plate V, Figure 1). (in French). Linnaeus C (1766). Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, diferentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Duodecima, Reformata. Stockholm: L. Salvius. 532 pp. (Boa contortrix, new species, p. 373). (in Latin). Morris PA (1948). Boy's Book of Snakes: How to Recognize and Understand Them. A volume of the Humanizing Science Series, edited by Jaques Cattell. New York: Ronald Press. viii + 185 pp. (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 110–114, 181). Powell R, Conant R, Collins JT (2016). Peterson Field Guide to Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Fourth Edition. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. xiv + 494 pp., 207 Figures, 47 color plates. . (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 436–437, Figure 197 + Plate 45). Schmidt KP, Davis DD (1941). Field Book of Snakes of the United States and Canada. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons. 365 pp. (Agkistrodon mokasen, pp. 283–285 + Plate 30). Smith HM, Brodie ED Jr (1982). Reptiles of North America: A Guide to Field Identification. New York: Golden Press. 240 pp. ("limp"), (hardcover). (Agkistrodon contortrix, pp. 198–199). Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. 1,105 pp. (in two volumes). (Ancistrodon contortrix, pp. 903–916 + Figures 259, 261–263 + Map 64). Zim HS, Smith HM (1956). Reptiles and Amphibians: A Guide to Familiar American Species: A Golden Nature Guide. New York: Simon and Schuster. 160 pp. (Ancistrodon contortrix, pp. 109, 156). External links Copperhead on Reptiles and Amphibians of Iowa contortrix Fauna of the Southeastern United States Reptiles of the United States Venomous snakes Articles containing video clips Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Reptiles described in 1766	[ -0.3993244171142578, 0.45764580368995667, -1.0433694124221802, 0.22548840939998627, -0.060933005064725876, 0.43871331214904785, 0.828354001045227, 0.7151408195495605, -0.18223589658737183, 0.04486284404993057, 0.2734486758708954, 0.15743105113506317, -0.7860711216926575, 0.6225566864013672, -0.11111298948526382, 0.6580086350440979, 0.33817824721336365, 0.294980525970459, -0.46999412775039673, 0.2870866358280182, 0.04628494381904602, -0.6457360982894897, 0.7129234671592712, -0.06750719994306564, 0.2620633542537689, 0.30002617835998535, 0.1481814831495285, 0.14214706420898438, -0.267013818025589, 0.19117607176303864, -0.16054043173789978, 0.8698304295539856, -0.24840614199638367, -0.3627261817455292, -0.6747163534164429, 0.13083255290985107, 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240810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulgar	Vulgar	Vulgar is a Latin word meaning "common" or "pertaining to ordinary people." Language Vulgar or common language, the vernacular speech of a region or a people Language use characterised by vulgarity, see Vulgarism and Other uses A vulgar fraction in mathematics, one written in the common way and not as a decimal fraction Vulgar (film), a 2000 American film Vulgar (album), a 2003 album by Japanese band Dir en grey See also Vulgate (disambiguation) Vulgaris (disambiguation) Vulgaria, a 2012 film Volgar (disambiguation) Bulgar (disambiguation) Bolgar (disambiguation)	[ 0.1567859649658203, 0.09029223024845123, -0.7280012369155884, -0.22727571427822113, -0.2363731563091278, 0.14205148816108704, 0.4992050528526306, 1.2242125272750854, 0.10617706924676895, -0.36365970969200134, -0.18088839948177338, 0.7013275027275085, -0.09111972153186798, 0.3942078948020935, -0.2539595067501068, 0.3265420198440552, -0.006847115699201822, 0.7065039873123169, 0.1593785434961319, 0.3280543386936188, -0.24458125233650208, 0.06419728696346283, 0.16457928717136383, -0.5828185677528381, 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240819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justine%20Henin	Justine Henin	Justine Henin (; born 1 June 1982) is a Belgian former professional tennis player. She spent a total of 117 weeks as the world No. 1 and was the year-end No. 1 in 2003, 2006 and 2007. Henin, coming from a country with limited success in tennis, helped establish Belgium as a leading force in women's tennis with Kim Clijsters, and led the country to its first Fed Cup crown in 2001. She was known for her all-court style of play and for being one of the few female players to use a single-handed backhand. Henin won seven Grand Slam singles titles: winning the French Open in 2003, 2005, 2006 and 2007, the US Open in 2003 and 2007 and the Australian Open in 2004. At Wimbledon, she was the runner-up in 2001 and 2006. She also won a gold medal in the women's singles at the 2004 Olympic Games and won the year-ending WTA Tour Championships in 2006 and 2007. In total, she won 43 WTA singles titles. Tennis experts cite her mental toughness, the completeness and variety of her game, her footspeed and footwork, and her one-handed backhand (which John McEnroe described as "the best single-handed backhand in both the women's or men's game") as the principal reasons for her success. She retired from professional tennis on 26 January 2011, due to a chronic elbow injury. In June 2011, she was named one of the "30 Legends of Women's Tennis: Past, Present and Future" by Time. She is widely considered one of the greatest female tennis players of all time. In 2016, she became the first Belgian tennis player inducted into the International Tennis Hall of Fame. Personal life Justine Henin, occasionally spelled Hénin, was born in Liège. Her father is José Henin, and mother, Françoise Rosière — a French and history teacher who died when Justine was 12 years old. She has two brothers and a sister. When she was two, her family moved to a house in Rochefort, situated next to the local tennis club, where she played tennis for the first time. Henin's mother routinely took the young Henin across the border to France to watch the French Open. In 1995, shortly after her mother's death, Henin met her coach Carlos Rodríguez who guided her career both before her retirement in 2008 and during her 2010 comeback. Following a conflict between Henin and her father over her tennis career and her relationship with Pierre-Yves Hardenne, Rodríguez soon became not only her trainer but in some ways a second father figure. On 16 November 2002, Henin married Pierre-Yves Hardenne in the Château de Lavaux-Sainte-Anne, and adopted the name Justine Henin-Hardenne. On 4 January 2007, Henin withdrew from forthcoming tournaments including the Australian Open due to personal issues. She confirmed three weeks later that she had officially separated from her husband. The same year, she reverted to using the name Henin. Since March 2011, she has been in a relationship with Benoît Bertuzzo, a Belgian director and actor, and secretly married him in March 2015. On 12 September 2012, Henin announced that she was pregnant, giving birth to a girl in 2013. In 2017 she gave birth to a second child, a son. Tennis career Early career Henin, known as "Juju" to many of her fans, was coached by Carlos Rodríguez of Argentina. In 1997, she won the junior girls' singles title at the French Open. Early in her senior career, she regularly reached the late rounds of international competitions and won five International Tennis Federation (ITF) tournaments by the end of 1998. Junior Slam results: Australian Open: – French Open: W (1997) Wimbledon: QF (1997) US Open: QF (1997) She began her professional career on the Women's Tennis Association tour in May 1999 as a wild card entry in the Belgian Open clay tournament at Antwerp and became only the fifth player to win her debut WTA Tour event. She also won her hometown event, the Liège Challenger, in July 2000. Henin established herself as a major competitor in 2001, consequently reaching the women's singles semifinals of the French Open and then upset the reigning Australian Open and French Open champion Jennifer Capriati in the semifinals of Wimbledon, losing to defending champion Venus Williams in three sets in the final. By the end of the year, Henin was ranked 7th in singles, with three titles to her name. Also that year, she reached the French Open women's doubles semifinals with Elena Tatarkova and helped Belgium to win the 2001 Fed Cup. Moreover, Henin played for the German tennis club Weiß-Blau Schweinfurt in 2001. In 2002, she reached four WTA finals, winning two of them, and finished the year ranked world No. 5. Her German Open victory, her first win at a Tier I tournament, was noteworthy as she beat Jennifer Capriati in a semifinal and Serena Williams in the final, the then No. 2 and No. 5 ranked players, respectively. At Wimbledon 2002, Henin beat former world No. 1, Monica Seles, in two tough sets. 2003: Ascent to No. 1 Henin started the year as the 5th-ranked player in the world but lost to Kim Clijsters in the semifinals of the Medibank International in Sydney. In the fourth round of the Australian Open in Melbourne, she defeated Lindsay Davenport 7–5, 5–7, 9–7. In a match lasting more than three hours, Henin overcame a 4–1 final set deficit, high temperatures, and muscle cramps to defeat Davenport for the first time in her career. She then lost to Venus Williams in the semifinals in straight sets. Henin also lost to Clijsters in the semifinals of the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp. At the Dubai Tennis Championships one week later, she defeated Monica Seles in the final 4–6, 7–6, 7–5 after Seles had a match point at 5–4 in the second set. Henin's next tournament was the Tier I Miami Masters. She lost in the quarterfinals to world No. 10, Chanda Rubin, 6–3, 6–2. At the clay court Family Circle Cup in Charleston, South Carolina, Henin defeated world No. 1 Serena Williams in the final. This was Williams' first loss of the year after 21 wins. The following week, Henin reached the semifinals of the Bausch & Lomb Championships in Amelia Island, Florida, losing to eventual winner Elena Dementieva 3–6, 6–4, 7–5. Henin then helped Belgium defeat Austria 5–0 in a first round tie of the Fed Cup. In May, Henin successfully defended her title at the German Open in Berlin. In the final, she saved three match points in the third set before defeating Clijsters. At the French Open, she was the fourth seeded player and defeated the defending champion, Serena Williams, in a controversial semifinal 6–2, 4–6, 7–5 which saw Henin asked to acknowledge her raised hand during a Williams service motion. In the final, Henin defeated Clijsters in straight sets. This was her first Grand Slam title, and she was the first Belgian ever to win a Grand Slam singles title. Henin then began her preparations for Wimbledon. At the grass court Ordina Open in Rosmalen, she lost in the final to Clijsters; she was forced to retire from the match after injuring her finger. At Wimbledon, Henin was the third seeded player. She defeated Mary Pierce in the fourth round and Svetlana Kuznetsova in the quarterfinals before losing to Serena Williams in straight sets. Henin's first competition after Wimbledon was the Fed Cup tie against Slovakia. She won both her singles matches to help Belgium win the tie 5–0 and begin her 22-match winning streak. She then played two tournaments during the North American summer hard court season before the US Open. At the Tier I Acura Classic in San Diego, the third-seeded Henin defeated the top-seeded Clijsters in the final. Two weeks later at the Tier I Rogers Cup in Toronto, she defeated Russia's Lina Krasnoroutskaya in the final. Henin was the second-seeded player at the US Open. She won her first four matches against unseeded players before defeating seventh-seeded Anastasia Myskina in the quarterfinals and then defeated sixth-seeded Jennifer Capriati in the semifinals 4–6, 7–5, 7–6(4) in a match that lasted more than three hours and stretched to midnight. Henin recovered from a 3–5 deficit in the second set and a 2–5 deficit in the final set and was just two points from defeat eleven times. She was treated for muscle cramps and dehydration overnight but returned to play in the final the next day. In the final, Henin defeated Clijsters in straight sets. The win raised Henin's ranking to world No. 2, just behind Clijsters. At her next event, the indoor Sparkassen Cup in Leipzig, she lost to Myskina in the final. This ended Henin's 22-match winning streak. Two weeks later at the indoor Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Filderstadt, Henin lost in the final to Clijsters. Had she won this match, she would have immediately replaced Clijsters as the world No. 1. At the Tier I Zurich Open the following week, Henin reached her sixth consecutive final where she defeated Serbia's Jelena Dokić. This win catapulted her to become the 13th world No. 1 on the WTA computer rankings on 20 October, 2003. Henin temporarily lost her number 1 ranking after a week as she declined to defend her title at the Generali Ladies Linz tournament. At the season-ending WTA Tour Championships in Los Angeles, Henin defeated Myskina and Capriati and lost to Japan's Ai Sugiyama in her round robin matches, which was sufficient to advance and return to the top spot on the WTA ranking. In the semifinals, she lost to Amélie Mauresmo 6–7(2), 6–3, 3–6, but managed to close a season ranked world No. 1 for the first time. Henin was named the ITF's women's singles World Champion for 2003. 2004: Australian Open and Olympic gold Henin started 2004 by winning a warm-up tournament in Sydney and then the Australian Open in Melbourne, defeating Clijsters in three sets in the final. By the end of 2004's spring hard court season, Henin had built a 25-match Tier I win streak and 22–1 win-loss record, winning her first 16 matches. At the start of the spring clay court season, Henin's health was adversely affected by infection with a strain of cytomegalovirus and an immune system problem. She often slept up to 18 hours a day but barely had the strength to brush her teeth, let alone play competitive tennis. Although Henin decided to defend her French Open title and was seeded first in the tournament, she lost her second round match to a much lower-ranked player, Tathiana Garbin of Italy. At the time, the loss marked only the second time in 15 Grand Slam events that she had lost before the fourth round. After months of layoff because of a virus, Henin returned to competition in August and won the women's singles gold medal at the Summer Olympics in Athens, defeating Amélie Mauresmo in the final 6–3, 6–3. Henin reached the gold medal match by defeating reigning French Open champion Anastasia Myskina in a semifinal 7–5, 5–7, 8–6 after having trailed 1–5 in the final set. Her medal ceremony was attended by fellow countryman and IOC president Jacques Rogge. In September, she was unsuccessful in her defence of her US Open title, losing to Nadia Petrova in the fourth round. This defeat caused her to lose the world No. 1 ranking, which she had held for 45 non-consecutive weeks. She then withdrew from the ten remaining tournaments of the year in an effort to recover her health and improve her fitness. 2005: Second French Open and injuries Her plan to rejoin the tour at the beginning of 2005 was delayed when she fractured her kneecap in a December 2004 training session. On 25 March, after more than six months away from competition, Henin returned to the WTA tour at the Miami Masters. She lost to second ranked Maria Sharapova in a quarterfinal. She rebounded at her next tournament, winning the clay court Family Circle Cup in Charleston. She won two more clay court titles before the start of the French Open. Her victories over top-ranked Lindsay Davenport, Sharapova, Elena Dementieva, Svetlana Kuznetsova, and Petrova made her a top contender for the title there. Henin was seeded tenth at the French Open and defeated the French player Mary Pierce in the final in straight sets to take her second title at Roland Garros. The win marked Henin's 24th consecutive clay court win and her tenth consecutive final win, a streak dating back to Zurich in October 2003. In capturing the title, she defeated Kuznetsova in the fourth round, Sharapova in a quarterfinal, and Petrova in a semifinal. Henin saved two match points to defeat Kuznetsova in the fourth round 7–6(6), 4–6, 7–5 and thus became only the second woman to win the French Open after saving a match point. With her French Open victory, Henin moved from world No. 12 to No. 7 in the women's singles rankings. She was a perfect 24–0 on clay this year and joined Monica Seles as the only two currently active (in 2005) players on the WTA Tour to have won the French Open at least twice. At Wimbledon, her win streak of 24 matches was snapped in the first round by Greek Eleni Daniilidou 7–6, 2–6, 7–5. It was the first time that a reigning French Open champion failed to win a match at Wimbledon. A hamstring injury sustained earlier in the year eventually limited her to playing only 11 more matches for 2005. Henin next played the Rogers Cup in Toronto, where she reached the final after beating Mauresmo in a semifinal before losing to Clijsters in straight sets. She lost in the fourth round of the US Open to eventual finalist Mary Pierce 3–6, 4–6. Following this, she played in Filderstadt, but after losing her first round match to Flavia Pennetta, she decided not to play for the rest of 2005. TENNIS Magazine placed her in 31st place on its list of that year of the 40 Greatest Players for the period 1965 through 2005. In November, at the Tour Championships, she was named the inaugural winner of the Whirlpool 6th Sense Player of the Year, which honors the player who has demonstrated the most sixth sense intuition, that is to say "heightened intelligence, unbeatable performance and pinpoint precision". 2006: All four Slam finals In January, Henin returned to competitive tennis at the tournament in Sydney, a tune-up for the Australian Open. She was seeded fifth and played former world No. 1 (and newly returned to competitive tennis) Martina Hingis in a much hyped first round match. Henin won 6–3, 6–3. At the Australian Open, Henin defeated top-ranked Lindsay Davenport and fourth ranked Maria Sharapova in three-set matches to set up a final against third ranked Amélie Mauresmo. While trailing 6–1, 2–0, Henin retired from the match, citing intense stomach pain caused by over-use of anti-inflammatories for a persistent shoulder injury. Henin stated afterwards that she feared possible injury had she continued to play. Henin was criticized by the press because she had stated after her semifinal win against Sharapova that she was at the "peak of her fitness" and was playing the "best tennis of her life". This was only the fourth Grand Slam women's singles final to end by retirement since 1900 and the first in open era. Henin captured her second title of the year at the Tier II event in Dubai defeating Sharapova 7–5, 6–2. This was her third Dubai title, having won previously in 2003 and 2004. At Tier I Pacific Life Open in Indian Wells, Henin lost in the semifinals to fourth-seeded Elena Dementieva 6–2, 5–7, 5–7, after leading 6–2, 5–2 and serving for the match twice. Henin also lost in the second round of Tier I Miami Masters to Meghann Shaughnessy 5–7, 4–6. On clay, she failed to retain her title at the Family Circle Cup, losing in the semifinals to third-seeded Patty Schnyder 6–2, 3–6, 2–6. It was her first career defeat at this tournament and the end of her 27-match winning streak on clay. Henin then helped Belgium defeat defending champion Russia in a Fed Cup quarterfinal. She beat fifth ranked Nadia Petrova 6–7, 6–4, 6–3, and 9th ranked Elena Dementieva 6–2, 6–0. Petrova had come into the tie with two consecutive clay court tournament victories and a ten-match clay court winning streak, while Dementieva had defeated Henin in their last meeting in Indian Wells and defeated second ranked Belgian compatriot Kim Clijsters on the first day of the tie. Three weeks later, Henin played the Tier I Qatar Telecom German Open, defeating Mauresmo in the semifinal 6–1, 6–2 before losing to Petrova in a three-set final. At the French Open, Henin defeated second seeded Clijsters in the semifinals 6–3, 6–2. She then defeated Kuznetsova in the final to win her third French Open singles title in four years. Henin captured the title without losing a set and became the first French Open champion to defend her title successfully since Steffi Graf in 1996. At the Eastbourne grass court tournament just before Wimbledon, Henin defeated Anastasia Myskina in the final in three sets. Henin was the third seed going into Wimbledon and advanced to her third consecutive Grand Slam final without losing a set. She defeated Clijsters (who was seeded second) in a semifinal 6–4, 7–6(4) but lost the final to Mauresmo. The final featured two finesse players who used their all-court games, a break from recent years that featured a succession of power baseliners claiming the title. At almost every point throughout the match, both players approached the net to volley. Tipped as the tournament favorite, Henin won the first set. But Mauresmo recovered to win the next two sets and her second Grand Slam singles title and deny the Belgian a career Grand Slam. This was the only Wimbledon final of the decade that did not involve Venus and/or Serena Williams. Henin withdrew from Tier I events in San Diego and Montreal because of injury but played the tournament in New Haven. There, she defeated Kuznetsova and Davenport en route to the title. It was her 28th WTA tour title. She returned to the world No. 2 ranking and crossed over US$12 million in career prize money. At the US Open, Maria Sharapova defeated Henin in the final after Henin had defeated Lindsey Davenport in the quarterfinals and Jelena Janković in the semifinals. Henin became the first woman since Hingis in 1997 to reach the finals of all four Grand Slam singles tournaments in a calendar year. Henin won both of her singles matches during the Fed Cup final against Italy in Charleroi. However, Henin retired from the deciding doubles match because of a knee injury while she and her partner Kirsten Flipkens were trailing 3–6, 6–2, 2–0, giving Italy the championship. Henin guaranteed her year-end world No. 1 ranking by reaching the final of the Sony Ericsson Championships, defeating Maria Sharapova in the semifinals 6–2, 7–6(5). Henin then defeated Mauresmo and won the tournament for the first time in her career. Henin was the first player since Hingis in 2000 to win the WTA Tour Championships and end the year as the top-ranked player. Henin was the first woman to win at least one Grand Slam singles title in four consecutive years since Steffi Graf from 1993 through 1996. Her prize money earnings for the year totaled $4,204,810. 2007: Dominance On 4 January 2007, Henin withdrew from the Australian Open and the warm-up tournament in Sydney to deal with the break-up of her marriage. Not playing those tournaments caused Henin to lose the world No. 1 ranking to Maria Sharapova. In Henin's first tournament of the year, she lost in the semifinals of the Open Gaz de France in Paris to Czech Lucie Šafářová 6–7(5), 4–6. She then won two hardcourt tournaments in the Middle East, the Dubai Duty Free Women's Open (for the fourth time in five years) over Amélie Mauresmo and her first Qatar Total Open title, defeating Svetlana Kuznetsova in the final. She also reached US$14 million in career prize money and on 19 March, regained the world No. 1 ranking. At the Miami Masters, Henin reached the final for the first time in her career, where she lost to Serena Williams 6–0, 5–7, 3–6 after holding two match points at 6–0, 5–4. Her next tournament was the J&S Cup in Warsaw, which she won, beating Alona Bondarenko of Ukraine in the final, 6–1, 6–3. Later, at the Qatar Telecom German Open in Berlin, Henin won her quarterfinal against Jelena Janković 3–6, 6–4, 6–4 after being behind 4–0 in the third set, only to lose her semifinal against Kuznetsova 4–6, 7–5, 4–6. The loss was only her second to Kuznetsova in 16 career meetings. At the French Open, Henin was the two-time defending champion and top seed. In a highly anticipated quarterfinal match against Serena Williams, Henin won 6–4, 6–3. She then defeated Janković in the semifinals 6–2, 6–2. In the final, Henin defeated Ana Ivanovic in straight sets, 6–1, 6–2 to claim her third consecutive French Open title, equalling Seles's open era record. She also surpassed US$15 million in career prize money earnings. Henin won the tournament without dropping a set and had not lost a set at this tournament since the 2005 French Open quarterfinals. She had not lost a match at the French Open since 2004. The International Women's Open in Eastbourne was Henin's first grass court tournament of the year. She and Mauresmo reached the final, which was the first time in nearly 30 years that the Eastbourne final included both finalists from Wimbledon the previous year. Henin recovered from a breakdown in the final set to win in a third-set tiebreak for the second consecutive year. At Wimbledon, Henin lost to Marion Bartoli in the semifinals 6–1, 5–7, 1–6, one day after Henin defeated Serena Williams in the quarterfinals. It was Henin's first win over the American on a surface other than clay. In the semifinal, she was up a break at 1–0 and 4–3 in the second set, but could not hold the lead. In August, Henin won the Tier I Rogers Cup in Toronto, defeating Janković in the final. The tournament championship was her 35th on the WTA tour, moving her past Clijsters who retired with 34 tournament championships. At the US Open, Henin defeated her first four opponents in straight sets, with a 6–0 set in each match. Henin then faced Serena Williams in the quarterfinals for the third consecutive time in a Grand Slam tournament, and for the third time, Henin won, 7–6(3), 6–1. In the semifinals against Venus Williams, Henin was up a break in the first set but could not hold it. She finally won the set in a tiebreak. In the second set, Henin was ahead 3–0 before Williams leveled the set at 3–3. Williams then had three break points on Henin's service but could not convert and lost the game. Henin then broke Williams's serve and held her own serve to go up 5–3. Williams then broke Henin to pull within 5–4 but Henin broke Williams again in the last game to win the match 7–6(2), 6–4. Henin became only the second player to defeat both Williams sisters in the same Grand Slam tournament (after Martina Hingis at the 2001 Australian Open). In the final, Henin won her second US Open singles title, defeating Kuznetsova in straight sets, 6–1, 6–3. Henin won the tournament without dropping a set. She thus became the first women ever to defeat both Williams sisters in the same Grand Slam tournament, and go on to also win the title (Hingis had lost to Jennifer Capriati in the final of the 2001 Australian Open). Henin won her next tournament, the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix, defeating Tatiana Golovin in the final. Two weeks later, Henin won the Zurich Open, her ninth title of the year, by again defeating Golovin in the final. At the WTA Tour Championships, Henin won all three of her round robin matches, defeating Anna Chakvetadze, Janković, and Bartoli. Going into the match against Bartoli, Henin had won 22 consecutive matches since Bartoli defeated her in the 2007 Wimbledon semifinals. Although Henin had already clinched a spot in the semifinals, both Henin and Bartoli did not know Bartoli had to replace Serena Williams until several hours before the match and lost 6–0, 6–0. In the semifinals, Henin defeated Ivanovic 6–4, 6–4. In the final, Henin overcame Sharapova in three sets in a match that lasted 3 hours, 24 minutes. Sharapova won the first set on her eighth set point in the 12-minute last game. Henin won the match on her fifth match point in the final game of the match. This was Henin's longest ever match, the longest final in tournament history, and the twelfth longest women's match ever. This victory extended Henin's winning streak to 25 matches. She only lost three sets after Wimbledon. This victory made her the sixth player to successfully defend her title at the WTA's season-ending championship and the first player to claim at least ten tour titles in a year since Hingis won twelve in 1997. She also became the first woman to break the US$5 million barrier in prize money in a year, and by crossing US$19 million, Henin is now ranked fifth on the all time prize money list. Henin ended the year ranked world No. 1 for the third time in her career, having done so previously in 2003 and 2006. She was the first player since Lindsay Davenport to end the year ranked world No. 1 consecutively for two years (Davenport was ranked year-end world No. 1 in 2004–2005). She also ended the year with a 63–4 record, having lost to only four players: Lucie Šafářová, Serena Williams, Svetlana Kuznetsova and Marion Bartoli. Her winning percentage of 94% was the best since Steffi Graf's 1995 season (Serena Williams surpassed her in 2013 with 95%). 2008: Retirement Henin started the year as the world No. 1. 14 January marked Henin's 100th career week as world No. 1, and on 10 March, Henin became only the seventh female player to be ranked world No. 1 for 12 consecutive months. The Medibank International in Sydney was Henin's first tournament of the year. She defeated Ana Ivanovic in the semifinals 6–2, 2–6, 6–4. She then defeated world No. 2, Svetlana Kuznetsova, 4–6, 6–2, 6–4, overcoming an 0–3 deficit in the final set. At the Australian Open in Melbourne, Henin won her 32nd consecutive match in the fourth round, defeating Hsieh Su-wei of Taiwan 6–2, 6–2. The winning streak ended in the quarterfinals when Sharapova, the eventual winner, defeated Henin 6–4, 6–0. This was Henin's first 6–0 loss since the 2002 French Open and the first time since the 2005 US Open that Henin had been defeated in Grand Slam singles before the semifinals. At the Proximus Diamond Games in Antwerp, Henin defeated Karin Knapp in the final. This was Henin's second singles title in her native Belgium. Two weeks later at the Barclays Dubai Tennis Championships, Henin was the defending champion but lost for the first time in eight meetings to Francesca Schiavone in the quarterfinals 7–6(3), 7–6(4). Henin had struggled for three hours in her first match against Katarina Srebotnik, eventually winning 7–5, 6–7, 6–3. After taking a four-week break, Henin's next tournament was the Miami Masters. She lost in the quarterfinals to Serena Williams 2–6, 0–6. Henin then withdrew from the Tier I Family Circle Cup because of an injury to her right knee. At the Tier I, clay court Qatar Telecom German Open in Berlin, Henin lost in the third round to Dinara Safina 7–5, 3–6, 1–6, in what turned out to be her last match before retirement. In their five previous career matches, Henin had never lost a set to Safina. The day after her defeat, Henin withdrew from the Tier I Internazionali BNL d'Italia in Rome, citing fatigue. Henin announced her immediate retirement from professional tennis on 14 May 2008, and requested the WTA to remove her name from the rankings immediately. Her announcement was a surprise because Henin was still ranked world No. 1 and was considered the favorite for the French Open, where she would have been the three-time defending champion. She said she felt no sadness about her retirement because she believed it was a release from a game she had focused on for twenty years. She also said that in the future, she would be concentrating on charity and her tennis school. 2010: Comeback Belgian newspaper L'Avenir reported on Tuesday 22 September 2009 that Henin would formally announce her return to competitive tennis after 16 months of retirement. Later that day, she confirmed her return to competition. Henin mentioned seeing Roger Federer finally complete the grand slam of titles by winning the French Open in 2009 had been an inspiration, as had Kim Clijsters' return to the tour and her victory at the US Open. Henin made her return to tennis at the Brisbane International where she was given a wildcard. She defeated No. 2 seed Nadia Petrova, Sesil Karatantcheva, No. 7 seed Melinda Czink and No. 3 seed Ana Ivanovic to make it to the final. She then nearly won, losing to her compatriot Clijsters in a riveting final, 3–6, 6–4, 6–7(6) lasting 2 hours, 23 minutes. At one point, Henin was up 3–0 in the third set before Clijsters rallied and took the match to a tie break. Down 1–5 in the tiebreak, she fought back to 6-all before Clijsters took the final two points. At the 2010 Australian Open, Henin was given a wildcard as an unranked player. Henin started off with a straight sets victory over Belgian Kirsten Flipkens. She set up a second round match of the tournament with No. 5 seed Elena Dementieva, whom she defeated 7–5, 7–6(5). Lasting two hours and fifty minutes, commentators felt this match was worthy of a final. Henin approached the net forty-three times, winning thirty-five of those points. In the third round, she defeated No. 28 seed Alisa Kleybanova from Russia; where she made a comeback to win 3–6, 6–4, 6–2. In the fourth round she faced World No. 16 and fellow Belgian, Yanina Wickmayer, defeating her in three sets 7–6, 1–6, 6–3. She then defeated No. 19 seed Nadia Petrova in the quarterfinals. Henin won 7–6, 7–5 after having been down 0–3 in the second set. She then went on to defeat Zheng Jie from China in the semifinals in convincing fashion 6–1, 6–0, setting up a clash with world No. 1 Serena Williams in the 2010 Australian Open ladies' final. This was the first time in their long rivalry that Henin and Serena Williams met in a Grand Slam final. Henin would eventually fall to Serena Williams in three sets 6–4, 3–6, 6–2. A wildcard was granted for Henin to compete at the BNP Paribas Open in Indian Wells, a Premier Mandatory tournament. In the first round, Henin defeated Magdaléna Rybáriková 6–2, 6–2 in a little over an hour. Henin then lost to Gisela Dulko, 2–6, 6–1, 4–6, in a two-hour match. The result gave her a new rank of world No. 33 as of 22 March 2010. She defeated Jill Craybas of US 6–2, 6–2 in the first round of Sony Ericsson Open. In the second round, Henin defeated world No. 6, Elena Dementieva, 6–3, 6–2 in 90 minutes. In the third round, Henin defeated Dominika Cibulková in 93 minutes, 6–4, 6–4 advancing to the quarterfinals where Henin beat Vera Zvonareva 6–1, 6–4 to set up a meeting in the quarterfinals with world No. 2, Caroline Wozniacki. After defeating Wozniacki in a three-set match, she fell to Kim Clijsters in a semifinal battle, 2–6, 7–6(3), 6–7(6). Following her Sony Ericsson Open performance, Henin moved into the top 25 for the first time since her comeback. Henin's next tournament was the Porsche Tennis Grand Prix in Stuttgart. Henin played through this tournament injured, having previously broken her left pinkie during Fed Cup practice. In the first round, Henin saw off German qualifier Julia Görges 7–6(3), 6–1. In her second round, she defeated world No. 12 and fellow Belgian Yanina Wickmayer, defeating her for the 2nd consecutive time, 6–3, 7–5. In the quarterfinals, she defeated fourth seed and world No. 7 Jelena Janković 3–6, 7–6(4), 6–3 for the tenth time in her career. She defeated world No. 20 Shahar Pe'er in the semifinals, 6–3, 6–2, and reached her third final in five tournaments this year. She faced world No. 10 Samantha Stosur. Henin won the final 6–4, 2–6, 6–1 in 100 minutes, to procure her first title in 2010 (in her 3rd final). Winning this tournament also sent Henin into the top 20 for the first time since her comeback. At the Madrid Open she was defeated in the first round by eventual champion Aravane Rezaï 4–6, 7–5, 6–0. As a result of this loss, Henin dropped out of the top 20 to No. 23. Henin then participated at the French Open, seeded 22nd, the second grand slam of the year where she had won four previous titles. In the 1st round, she defeated Tsvetana Pironkova in 89 minutes, 6–4, 6–3. In the second round, Henin faced Klára Zakopalová and defeated her 6–3, 6–3. In the third round, facing former world No. 1 Maria Sharapova, Henin ended her streak of consecutive sets at 40, losing the 2nd set to Sharapova but going on to win 6–2, 3–6, 6–3. She had then tied the number of consecutive sets won at the French Open with Helen Wills Moody. She lost to world No. 7 Samantha Stosur 6–2, 1–6, 4–6 in the fourth round, her first defeat at Roland Garros since 2004. Henin began the grass court season at the UNICEF Open, where she was the top seed for the first time since her return. In the first three rounds she defeated Angelique Kerber, Roberta Vinci, and Kristina Barrois in straight sets. She then beat No. 5 seed Alexandra Dulgheru in the semifinals, 6–2, 6–2. In the final, she defeated No. 7 seed Andrea Petkovic to win her 43rd career title and second of the year. At the Wimbledon Championships, Henin was the No. 17 seed. In the third round, she had a victory over Nadia Petrova, winning 6–1, 6–4. She was eventually defeated in the fourth round by Kim Clijsters 2–6, 6–2, 6–3, after convincingly winning the first set. Midway through the first set, Henin slipped on the court, injuring her right elbow. Further examinations revealed a partial ligament fracture in her elbow, causing her to end her 2010 season prematurely. She was awarded the WTA Comeback Player of the Year award in December for her 2010 season. 2011: Second retirement Henin started her season at the Hopman Cup. She did not lose any sets in the competition earning comfortable victories over Alicia Molik from Australia, Sesil Karatantcheva from Kazakhstan, Ana Ivanovic of Serbia and Bethanie Mattek-Sands of the US in the final. Henin was the 11th seed and a defending finalist at the Australian Open. Henin defeated Sania Mirza from India in the first round 5–7, 6–3, 6–1 and Elena Baltacha in the second, 6–1, 6–3. She then fell to 23rd seed Svetlana Kuznetsova, 4–6, 6–7(8). On 26 January 2011, Henin announced her definitive retirement from professional tennis, due to an exacerbation of the elbow injury she sustained the previous year at Wimbledon. Playing style At the 2007 French Open, Martina Navratilova said that "Henin's offense is just phenomenal ... it's sort of like we've got 'the female Federer', or maybe the guys have 'the male Justine Henin', because she is just head and shoulders above everyone else right now." Her footwork, balance, and court coverage—and she is adept at changing from a defensive style to an aggressive one. Compared to the rest of her game, Henin's serve was rather inconsistent. Her tendency to take risks on her second serve could sometimes result in a high number of double faults. When she first came onto the tour, Henin used a pinpoint stance (most common among the WTA) for serving, but later retooled her serve to use a platform stance, which is most common among male players. Nonetheless, despite her relatively small size, Henin was capable of producing powerful first serves, her fastest one being clocked at at the 2005 Family Circle Cup. Henin's single-handed backhand was the most powerful and accurate in the game. She could hit her backhand flat, with heavy topspin, or slice [underspin]. Her backhand could also be used to surprise her opponents with drop shots, breaking up the pattern of a groundstroke rally. Her forehand was generally regarded as her most dangerous weapon, and the stroke that she normally used to dictate play in a match. It was underrated as most only spoke of her backhand, but particularly in her dominant years of 2003 and 2007, she would dominate the tone of matches with her huge and versatile forehand. Like her serve, her forehand was something retooled during her career and took inspiration from Andre Agassi's forehand. A notable aspect of Henin's playing style was the completeness of her game—the variety and versatility she had. Her style was often compared to that of Roger Federer and to five-time Grand Slam winner Martina Hingis as well. Four-time Grand Slam winner Kim Clijsters commented "Growing up together, she's always been the more touchy player. She has good hands ... she has those quick hands." Former world No. 1 Andy Roddick praised Henin's and Hingis's racket skills, saying "She has probably the best racket skills of any female player I’ve seen, maybe her [Hingis] and Justine." Hingis herself also similarly said "Players were better educated [during my career]. Now it's sheer power. You kind of miss the players like myself or Justine Henin." One-handed (topspin) backhand In an era where two-handed backhands have become increasingly more popular due to their greater power and control, albeit at the expense of reach and shot variety, Henin possessed one of the best one-handed backhands to have ever played the sport of tennis. Her one-handed topspin backhand was particularly celebrated because it contained both unmatched power as well as accuracy, two factors that many juniors may find challenging to acquire earlier in their development and thus have driven a good number of them, especially girls, to choose playing two-handed backhands. Additionally, with Henin's one-handed backhand, it had also enabled her to play not only with more reach but also more variety in her shots (e.g. slices instead of topspin etc) as the situation required. John McEnroe has called Henin's backhand "the best in men's or women's tennis." Volleying ability Henin had always been considered one of the better volleyers on tour, but soon established herself as one of the best in the modern era. Two-time US Open Champion Tracy Austin commented, "At the net she's quite comfortable displaying excellent technique. She knows where to position herself—a contrast to many other players who get up to the net and look like a deer in headlights." Renowned tennis coach Nick Bollettieri included Henin as one of the few female tennis players he regarded as being a successful volleyer and an adept serve-and-volleyer, alongside the likes of Martina Navratilova and Jana Novotná. Allegations of poor sportsmanship During her tennis career, Henin has been accused by several tennis players of poor sportsmanship, most notably by Kim Clijsters, Serena Williams and Jelena Janković. Henin has been accused of feigning injuries to distract her opponents when she was behind in tennis matches. Public life and endorsements Henin has worn apparel manufactured by Adidas and used Wilson racquets for her tournaments. Uncharacteristically for a tennis pro, Henin always used to wear her sponsorship provided Rolex wristwatch even during matches. Later on this habit will be replicated by others on the tour, including Rafael Nadal and Serena Williams. In May 2007, Henin and her coach Carlos Rodríguez started the Academy 6th Sense. At the 2009 US Open – Girls' Doubles the Ukrainian tennis player Maryna Zanevska became the first "6th Sense player" to win a Grand Slam title. On 30 November 2007, Henin opened her own tennis academy Club Justine N1 (in French, "N1" is pronounced almost identically to "Henin"). After retiring, Henin became involved in two Belgian reality shows in 2009. In May, she starred in De Twaalf Werken van Justine Henin – Les 12 travaux de Justine Henin (The 12 Labours of Justine Henin). The show followed Henin as she completed 12 personal challenges. In June 2009, she hosted a musical TV show that revolved around Belgian-Italian singer Lara Fabian. Career statistics Grand Slam performance timeline Grand Slam Singles finals: 12 (7 titles, 5 runners-up) Records These records were attained in open era of tennis. Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements. Tied with Helen Wills Moody for the all-time record for the number of consecutive sets won at the French Open. Only female player in decade of 2000 to 2009 to reach title match of all four grand slams at least twice. Awards and honors 2001 Belgian National Sports Merit Award 2002 UEPS European Sportswoman of the Year 2003 Belgian Sportswoman of the Year ITF World Champion UEPS European Sportswoman of the Year Dame Grand Cross in the Order of the Crown, by Royal Decree of H.M. King Albert II 2004 WTA Player of the Year (for 2003) Belgian Sportswoman of the Year 2005 Family Circle/State Farm "Player Who Makes A Difference" Whirlpool 6th Sense Player of the Year 2006 Appointed UNESCO Champion for Sport ITF World Champion. Belgian Sportswoman of the Year Member of the Belgian Sporting Team of the Year (Fed Cup team) UEPS European Sportswoman of the Year 2007 Whirlpool 6th Sense Player of the Year Belgian Sportswoman of the Year Belgian Sports Personality of the Year (career award) ITF World Champion USSA Female Athlete of the Year EFE Sportsperson of the Year UEPS European Sportswoman of the Year La Gazzetta dello Sport Sportswoman of the Year 2008 Laureus World Sportswoman of the Year WTA Player of the Year (for 2007) 2010 WTA Comeback Player of the Year 2016 International Tennis Hall of Fame See also ATP World Tour records Belgium at the 2004 Summer Olympics WTA Tour records Grand Slam (tennis) Overall tennis records – Women's Singles List of Grand Slam Women's Singles champions List of WTA number 1 ranked singles tennis players List of female tennis players List of tennis tournaments List of tennis rivalries Henin – S. Williams rivalry Clijsters–Henin rivalry Tennis records of the Open Era – Women's Singles Tennis statistics World number 1 women tennis players from 1883–present References External links 1982 births Living people Australian Open (tennis) champions Belgian expatriates in Monaco Belgian female tennis players French Open champions Olympic gold medalists for Belgium Olympic tennis players of Belgium Sportspeople from Liège People from Monte Carlo People from Namur (province) Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics US Open (tennis) champions Walloon sportspeople World No. 1 tennis players Olympic medalists in tennis Hopman Cup competitors Grand Crosses of the Order of the Crown (Belgium) French Open junior champions Grand Slam (tennis) champions in women's singles Grand Slam (tennis) champions in girls' singles Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics Laureus World Sports Awards winners Belgian tennis coaches International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees	[ -0.47833409905433655, 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240827	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harburg%2C%20Hamburg	Harburg, Hamburg	Harburg is a borough of the city of Hamburg, Germany. It is also the name of Harburg quarter in the borough, which used to be the capital of the Harburg district in Lower Saxony. The borough of Harburg lies on the southern banks of the river Elbe and covers parts of the port of Hamburg as well as residential and rural areas. It had a population of 169,221 as of 2020. History Until 1937 Harburg belonged to the Prussian Province of Hanover, where it served as the capital of the Harburg district. In 1927 it was merged with the nearby city of Wilhelmsburg to form the city of Harburg-Wilhelmsburg. Following the Greater Hamburg Act, Harburg was incorporated into the city of Hamburg along with several other independent cities such as Altona. Despite its incorporation into Hamburg, Harburg continued to be the capital of the Hanoverian district of Harburg. In 1944, the district capital was moved to Winsen upon Luhe. On 1 January 2007 the Ortsämter (Precincts) were dissolved and the organisation of all boroughs of Hamburg was restructured. Previously the quarters of Eißendorf, Gut Moor, Harburg, Heimfeld, Langenbek, Marmstorf, Neuland, Rönneburg, Sinstorf and Wilstorf had belonged to the Kerngebiet Harburg (central area), while the quarters of Altenwerder, Cranz, Francop, Hausbruch, Moorburg, Neuenfelde and Neugraben-Fischbek had belonged to the precinct Süderelbe (south Elbe). On 1 March 2008 Harburg's quarter Wilhelmsburg was transferred to the borough Hamburg-Mitte in keeping with civic law. Geography As of 2006, according to the statistical office of Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein, the borough of Harburg has a total area of 160.6 km², while the Harburg quarter has an area of 3.9 km². Administrative divisions Along with the other boroughs of Hamburg, Harburg is divided into quarters: Altenwerder Cranz Eißendorf Francop Gut Moor Harburg Hausbruch Heimfeld Langenbek Marmstorf Moorburg Neuenfelde Neugraben-Fischbek Neuland Rönneburg Sinstorf Wilstorf Demographics In 2006 there were 201,119 inhabitants in the borough. The population density was 1,253 people per km². 18.9% were children under the age of 18, and 18.7% were 65 years of age or older. 20.1% were resident aliens. 12,785 people were registered as unemployed. In 1999 there were 94,273 households, of which 23.9% had children under the age of 18 living in them and 40% of all households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.11. Population by year In 2006 there were 24,900 criminal offences in the borough (124 crimes per 1000 people). These numbers include the Harburg quarter. Diet of the borough Simultaneously with elections to the state parliament (Bürgerschaft), the 51-member Bezirksversammlung is elected to represent the citizens. Elections Elections were held in Hamburg on 24 February 2008. The five parties having more than 5 percent in recent polls (minimum to qualify) are the conservative CDU, the social-democratic SPD, the ecologist Green Party (GAL), the left-wing Die Linke and liberal Free Democratic Party (FDP). The voter participation was 54.6%. Education The borough has 32 elementary schools and 26 secondary schools (e.g. Friedrich-Ebert-Gymnasium); 3 elementary schools and 4 secondary schools are situated in the Harburg quarter. The Hamburg University of Technology is internationally renowned for its engineering faculties. Infrastructure Health systems There were 316 physicians in private practice and 48 pharmacies in 2006. Transportation The borough and the quarter are served by the Hamburg S-Bahn rapid transit network which serves several stations. Hamburg-Harburg station is a significant rail hub in the city at which long-distance (IC/ICE) trains also stop. According to the Department of Motor Vehicles (Kraftfahrt-Bundesamt), there were 69,262 private cars registered in the borough as of 2006 (346 cars/1000 people). Notes References Greater Hamburg Act Gesetz über Groß-Hamburg und andere Gebietsbereinigungen (Groß-Hamburg-Gesetz) 26 January 1937 Text of the law Statistical office Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein, official website Act of the areal organisation, July 6, 2006 Gesetz über die räumliche Gliederung der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg (RäumGiG) External links Harburg on hamburg.de (only in German language) Pictures of Hamburg-Harburg Boroughs of Hamburg	[ 0.03438902273774147, 0.7820609211921692, 0.6372250318527222, -0.7881340384483337, 0.03311092033982277, -0.055816635489463806, 0.38069212436676025, 0.18253324925899506, -0.5025389790534973, -0.4112307131290436, -0.4491487741470337, -0.7334547638893127, -0.27598318457603455, 0.36192086338996887, 0.07234780490398407, 0.5253899693489075, 0.3256043493747711, 0.5495980978012085, -0.6339954733848572, -0.673780083656311, 0.03541872277855873, -0.4320496916770935, 0.4204959571361542, 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240828	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shulamit%20Ran	Shulamit Ran	Shulamit Ran (; born October 21, 1949 in Tel Aviv, Israel) is an Israeli-American composer. She moved from Israel to New York City at 14, as a scholarship student at the Mannes College of Music. Her Symphony (1990) won her the Pulitzer Prize for Music. In this regard, she was the second woman to win the Pulitzer Prize for Music, the first being Ellen Taaffe Zwilich in 1983. Ran was a professor of music composition at the University of Chicago from 1973 to 2015. She has performed as a pianist in Israel, Europe and the U.S., and her compositional works have been performed worldwide by a wide array of orchestras and chamber groups. Biography Early life Born in Israel in 1949, Shulamit Ran began composing songs to Hebrew poetry at the age of seven. By the age of nine, she was studying composition with some of Israel's top composers, most notably Alexander Boskovich and Paul Ben-Haim. As a child, Jewish cantoral music played on the radio by her father had a huge impact on Ran. This is apparent in her opera Between Two Worlds-The Dybbuk. She was able to continue her composition studies into her adult years with scholarships from Mannes College of Music in New York and the American Israel Cultural Foundation. In addition to piano, she studied composition with Norman Dello Joio and Ralph Shapey. While in the United States, studied piano with Nadia Reisenberg and Dorothy Taubman. During her time in the US, Shapey and composer Elliott Carter helped shape Ran's compositional voice, which was constantly changing. Academic career After studying with Shapey, he invited Ran to follow in his path of music education. In 1973, at the age of 26, Shulamit Ran joined the faculty at University of Chicago, where she eventually was named the Andrew MacLeish Distinguished Service Professor in the Department of Music, she also became the artistic director of Contempo (formerly the Contemporary Chamber Players). Ran, whose students included Melinda Wagner, Suzanne Sorkin, Jonathan Elliott and Jorge Liderman, retired from her position at the University of Chicago in June 2015. She also became a member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. About her works Commissioned Shulamit Ran's piece "Legends" was commissioned for the centennials of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra and University of Chicago. Performed by Shulamit Ran's works have been performed by many of the world's leading orchestras, including the New York Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic, Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Cleveland Orchestra, the Jerusalem Orchestra, l'Orchestre de la Suisse Romande, the Amsterdam Philharmonic, the Baltimore Symphony, the National Symphony, the Orchestra of St. Lukes, and the American Composers Orchestra. Ran's works have also been performed by Contemporary Chamber Players of the University of Chicago, Da Capo Chamber Players, Dolce Suono Ensemble, Network for New Music, the New York New Music Ensemble, the Contemporary Chamber Ensemble, Twentieth Century Consort, Monday Evenin Concerts in Los Angeles, Callisto Ensemble, both Collage and Musica Viva in Boston, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's MusicNOW, the Pennsylvania Contemporary Players, the Mendelssohn String Quartet, the Lark Quartet the Penderecki Quartet, the Cassatt Quartet, the Peabody Trio, Musical Elements, San Francisco Contemporary Music Players, and Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center. Her music has been performed worldwide, in such places as the Library of Congress, the Kennedy Center, on "Music Today" in New York, and at the Tanglewood, Aspen, Santa Fe, and Yellow Barn summer festivals. Works Chamber ensemble A Prayer (1981) – Horn, Clarinet, Bass Clarinet, Bassoon, and Timpani Bach-Shards (2002) – String Quartet Chicago Skyline (1991) – Brass and Percussion Concerto da Camera I (1985) – Woodwind Quintet Concerto da Camera II (1987) – String Quartet and Piano Concerto da Camera III (Under the Sun's Gaze) (2003–2004) Double Vision (1976) – Two Quintets (Woodwinds and Brass) and Piano Excursions (1980) – Violin, Cello and Piano Fault Line (2005–2006) – String Quartet No. 3 – Glitter, Shards, Doom, Memory (2013) Invocation (1994) for Horn, Timpani and Chimes Lyre of Orpheus (2009) for String Sextet with featured Cello solo Mirage (1990) for Five Players Moon Songs (2011) for Voice, Flute (doubling Piccolo), Cello, and Piano Private Game (1979) for Clarinet and Cello Soliloquy (1997) for Violin, Cello and Piano Sonatina (1961) for two flutes Song and Dance (2007) Duo for Saxophones and Percussion String Quartet No. 1 (1984) String Quartet No.2 – Vistas (1988–89) Instrumental solo Birds of Paradise (2014) for flute and piano East Wind (1987) for flute Fantasy Variations (1979, rev. 1984) for solo cello For an Actor (1978) monologue for clarinet Ha'llel (2005) for solo organ Hyperbolae (1976) for piano Inscriptions (1991) for solo violin Piano Sonata No. 2 (No date) Short Piano Pieces (No date) Sonata Walzer (1983) for piano Three Fantasy Pieces (1971) for cello and piano Three Scenes (2000) for clarinet Verticals (1982) for piano Opera Between Two Worlds (The Dybbuk), opera in two acts (1997) Orchestra Concert Piece (1970), for piano and orchestra Concerto for Orchestra (1986) Legends for orchestra (1992–93, rev. 2001) The Show Goes On for Clarinet and Orchestra (Ha'hatzaga Nimshechet) (2008) Symphony (1989–90) Vessels of Courage and Hope, for orchestra (1998) Violin Concerto (2002–03) Voices (2000) for flautist with orchestra Yearning (1995) for violin and string orchestra Transcriptions (Transcribed by Cliff Colnot) Fanfare for Brass (1991) Soliloquy II (2007) for Violin, Strings and Percussion Three Fantasy Movements (1993) for Cello and Orchestra Vocal and Choral Adonai Malach (Psalm 93) (1985) Amichai Songs (1985) Apprehensions for Voice, Clarinet and Piano (1979) Credo/Ani Ma'amin (2006) Ensembles for 17 (1975) for Soprano and Instrumental Ensemble Fanfare for Multi-Tracked Sopranos (1981) Hatzvi Israel Eulogy (1969) for Mezzo-soprano, Flute, Harp, String Quartet O The Chimneys (Not Yet Released) for Mezzo-soprano and Chamber Ensemble Shirim L'Yom Tov (Four Festive Songs) (2003 and 2005) for a cappella choir Supplications for Chorus and Orchestra (no date) Achievements Shulamit Ran's achievements include fellowships and commissions from Martha Baird Rockefeller Fund, Ford Foundation, the National Endowment for the Arts, the Guggenheim Foundation, the Fromm Music Foundation, WFMT, Chamber Music America, the Serge Koussevitzky Music Foundation in the Library of Congress, the American Academy of Arts and Letters, Eastman School of Music, the American Composers Orchestra, the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center, the Philadelphia Orchestra, the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, the Baltimore Symphony, and many more. Ran was named the Chicago Symphony Orchestra's second composer-in-residence and served from 1990 until 1997. Her Symphony, performed in 1990, won her the Pulitzer Prize in 1991 and took first place as the Kennedy Center Friedheim Award. This makes her the second woman to win the Pulitzer Prize in music, the first being Ellen Taaffe Zwilich in 1983. She has received five honorary doctorates, and her works are published by Theodore Presser Company and the Israeli Music Institute. In addition to this, she has been recorded by more than 12 record labels. References Sources Dunbar, Julie C. Women, Music, Culture: An Introduction. New York: Routledge, 2011. Print. "Shulamit Ran, Composer." Weekend of Chamber Music. Web. <http://www.wcmconcerts.org/266>. "Shulamit Ran." Theodore Presser Company Music Publisher & Distributor. Web. <https://web.archive.org/web/20060101004642/http://www.presser.com/Composers/info.cfm?Name=SHULAMITRAN>. External links Shulamit Ran's page at Theodore Presser Company Shulamit Ran on the University of Chicago's website Art of the States: Shulamit Ran Shulamit Ran biography, analysis of compositional style and photograph on the site of Presser music publisher and distributor Two Interviews with Shulamit Ran, December 1, 1994 & June 1, 1997 1949 births Living people People from Tel Aviv 20th-century classical composers University of Chicago faculty Israeli emigrants to the United States 21st-century classical composers Pulitzer Prize for Music winners Women classical composers Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Mannes School of Music alumni 21st-century American composers American classical composers Israeli composers 20th-century American women musicians 20th-century American composers 21st-century American women musicians 20th-century women composers 21st-century women composers Jewish opera composers American women academics	[ -0.052101731300354004, 0.5104931592941284, 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240829	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan%20Eijkman	Christiaan Eijkman	Christiaan Eijkman ( , , ; 11 August 1858 – 5 November 1930) was a Dutch physician and professor of physiology whose demonstration that beriberi is caused by poor diet led to the discovery of antineuritic vitamins (thiamine). Together with Sir Frederick Hopkins, he received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1929 for the discovery of vitamins. Biography Early life and education Christiaan Eijkman was born on 11 August 1858, at Nijkerk, Netherlands as the seventh child of Christiaan Eijkman, the headmaster of a local school, and Johanna Alida Pool. His elder brother Johann Frederik Eijkman (1851–1915) was also a chemist. A year later, in 1859, the Eijkman family moved to Zaandam, where his father was appointed head of a newly founded school for advanced elementary education. It was here that Christiaan and his brothers received their early education. In 1875, after taking his preliminary examinations, Eijkman became a student at the Military Medical School of the University of Amsterdam, where he was trained as a medical officer for the Netherlands Indies Army, passing through all his examinations with honours. From 1879 to 1881, he was an assistant of T. Place, Professor of Physiology, during which time he wrote his thesis On Polarization of the Nerves, which gained him his doctoral degree, with honours, on 13 July 1883. Career In 1883, Eijkman left the Netherlands for The Dutch East Indies, where he was made medical officer of health, first in Semarang, then later at Tjilatjap, a small village on the south coast of Java, and at Padang Sidempoean in Northern Sumatra. It was at Tjilatjap that he caught malaria, which later so impaired his health that he, in 1885, had to return to Europe on sick-leave. For Eijkman this was to prove a lucky event, as it enabled him to work in E. Forster's laboratory in Amsterdam, and also in Robert Koch's bacteriological laboratory in Berlin; here he came into contact with C. A. Pekelharing and C. Winkler, who were visiting the German capital before their departure to the Indies. In this way medical officer Christiaan Eijkman was seconded as assistant to the Pekelharing-Winkler mission, together with his colleague M. B. Romeny. This mission had been sent out by the Dutch Government to conduct investigations into Beriberi, a disease which at that time was causing havoc in that region. In 1887, Pekelharing and Winkler were recalled, but before their departure Pekelharing proposed to the Governor General that the laboratory which had been temporarily set up for the Commission in the Military Hospital in Batavia should be made permanent. This proposal was readily accepted, and Christiaan Eijkman was appointed its first military career – now he was able to devote himself entirely to science. Eijkman was Director of the "Geneeskundig Laboratorium" (Medical Laboratory) from 15 January 1888 to 4 March 1896, and during that time he made a number of his most important researches. These dealt first of all with the physiology of people living in tropical regions. He was able to demonstrate that a number of theories had no factual basis. Firstly he proved that in the blood of Europeans living in the tropics the number of red corpuscles, the specific gravity, the serum, and the water content, undergo no change, at least when the blood is not affected by disease which will ultimately lead to anaemia. Comparing the metabolism of the European with that of the native, he found that in the tropics as well in the temperate zone, this is entirely governed by the work carried out. Neither could he find any disparity in respiratory metabolism, perspiration, and temperature regulation. Thus Eijkman put an end to a number of speculations on the acclimatization of Europeans in the tropics which had hitherto necessitated the taking of various precautions. Greatest work Eijkman had been sent to the Dutch East Indies to study beriberi, a disease of the peripheral nerves, but his discovery of the cause was accidental. He noticed the symptoms of beriberi in some chickens used in his laboratory when their feed had been altered for a few months. During that time, chickens in the laboratory had been fed leftover rice from military rations, until a new cook refused to allow military rice to be fed to civilian animals. Rice was then purchased from another source, and the birds soon recovered. During the months that the chickens developed beriberi, the feed had been polished rice, and when the birds' diet was switched back to unpolished rice, the birds recovered in a few days. Eijkman surmised that polished rice lacked a dietary component found in unpolished rice, and that beriberi was caused by depriving the body of this component, which he called "the anti-beriberi factor". Subsequently, Eijkman was able to prove that the disease was not caused by blood contamination, respiratory metabolism, perspiration, or seasonal or temperature variation. He suspected the disease was caused by an unknown bacteria. Eijkman was unable to continue his research due to ill health, but a study by his friend Adolphe Vorderman confirmed the link between polished rice and the disease. Eventually it was determined the missing compound that was causing beriberi was vitamin B1, thiamine. Chemist Casimir Funk shortened the term "vital amine" to coin a new word, vitamin. For his contributions to the discovery of antineuritic vitamins, Eijkman won the 1929 Nobel Prize for Medicine, sharing the prize with Sir Frederick Hopkins. Funk, perhaps unfairly, was never given full credit for his work. In addition to his work on beriberi, he occupied himself with other problems such as arach fermentation, and indeed still had time to write two textbooks for his students at the Java Medical School, one on physiology and the other on organic chemistry. Later life and death In 1898 he became successor to G. van Overbeek de Meyer, as Professor in Hygiene and Forensic Medicine at Utrecht. His inaugural speech was entitled Over Gezondheid en Ziekten in Tropische Gewesten (On health and diseases in tropical regions). At Utrecht, Eijkman turned to the study of bacteriology, and carried out his well-known fermentation test, by means of which it can be readily established if water has been polluted by human and animal defecation containing coli bacilli. Another research was into the rate of mortality of bacteria as a result of various external factors, whereby he was able to show that this process could not be represented by a logarithmic curve. This was followed by his investigation of the phenomenon that the rate of growth of bacteria on solid substratum often decreases, finally coming to a halt. Beyerinck's auxanographic method was applied on several occasions by Eijkman, as for example during the secretion of enzymes which break down casein or bring about haemolysis, whereby he could demonstrate the hydrolysis of fats under the influence of lipases. Eijkman did not confine himself to the University. He also engaged himself in problems of water supply, housing, school hygiene, physical education. As a member of the Gezondheidsraad (Health Council) and the Gezondheidscommissie (Health Commission), he participated in the struggle against alcoholism and tuberculosis. He was the founder of the Vereeniging tot Bestrijding van de Tuberculose (Society for the struggle against tuberculosis ). He died in Utrecht, on 5 November 1930, after a protracted illness. Awards and legacy In 1907, Eijkman was appointed Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, after having been Correspondent since 1895. The Dutch Government conferred upon him several orders of knighthood, whereas on the occasion of the 25th anniversary of his professorship a fund was established to enable the awarding of the Eijkman Medal. But the crown of all his work was the award of the Nobel Prize in 1929. Eijkman was holder of the John Scott Medal, Philadelphia, and foreign associate of the National Academy of Sciences in Washington. He was also honorary fellow of the Royal Sanitary Institute in London. To honor his dedication, the government of Indonesia named his research center on pathology and bacteriology the Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology. Personal life In 1883, before his departure to the Indies, Eijkman married Aaltje Wigeri van Edema, who died in 1886. In Batavia, Professor Eijkman married Bertha Julie Louise van der Kemp in 1888; a son, Pieter Hendrik, who became a physician, was born in 1890. See also Eijkman test. References Lodewijk Palm, Christiaan Eijkman 1858–1930 In: K. van Berkel, A. van Helden and L. Palm ed., A history of Science in the Netherlands. Survey, Themes and Reference (Leiden: Brill, 1999) 447–449. Nobel Prize.org, Christiaan Eijkman, Nobel Laureate External links Eijkman Institute for Molecular Biology including the nobel Lecture Antineuritic Vitamin and Beriberi Museum Boerhaave Negen Nederlandse Nobelprijswinnaars A.M. Luyendijk-Elshout, Eijkman, Christiaan (1858–1930), in Biografisch Woordenboek van Nederland. 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240832	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restless%20legs%20syndrome	Restless legs syndrome	Restless legs syndrome (RLS), now known as Willis-Ekbom Disease (WED), is generally a long-term disorder that causes a strong urge to move one's legs. There is often an unpleasant feeling in the legs that improves somewhat by moving them. This is often described as aching, tingling, or crawling in nature. Occasionally, arms may also be affected. The feelings generally happen when at rest and therefore can make it hard to sleep. Due to the disturbance in sleep, people with RLS may have daytime sleepiness, low energy, irritability and a depressed mood. Additionally, many have limb twitching during sleep. RLS is not the same as habitual foot tapping or leg rocking. Risk factors for RLS include low iron levels, kidney failure, Parkinson's disease, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, pregnancy and celiac disease. A number of medications may also trigger the disorder including antidepressants, antipsychotics, antihistamines, and calcium channel blockers. There are two main types. One is early onset RLS which starts before age 45, runs in families and worsens over time. The other is late onset RLS which begins after age 45, starts suddenly, and does not worsen. Diagnosis is generally based on a person's symptoms after ruling out other potential causes. Restless legs syndrome may resolve if the underlying problem is addressed. Otherwise treatment includes lifestyle changes and medication. Lifestyle changes that may help include stopping alcohol and tobacco use, and sleep hygiene. Medications used include levodopa or a dopamine agonist such as pramipexole. RLS affects an estimated 2.5–15% of the American population. Females are more commonly affected than males, and it becomes increasingly common with age. Signs and symptoms RLS sensations range from pain or an aching in the muscles, to "an itch you can't scratch", a "buzzing sensation", an unpleasant "tickle that won't stop", a "crawling" feeling, or limbs jerking while awake. The sensations typically begin or intensify during quiet wakefulness, such as when relaxing, reading, studying, or trying to sleep. It is a "spectrum" disease with some people experiencing only a minor annoyance and others having major disruption of sleep and impairments in quality of life. The sensations—and the need to move—may return immediately after ceasing movement or at a later time. RLS may start at any age, including childhood, and is a progressive disease for some, while the symptoms may remit in others. In a survey among members of the restless legs Syndrome Foundation, it was found that up to 45% of patients had their first symptoms before the age of 20 years. "An urge to move, usually due to uncomfortable sensations that occur primarily in the legs, but occasionally in the arms or elsewhere." The sensations are unusual and unlike other common sensations. Those with RLS have a hard time describing them, using words or phrases such as uncomfortable, painful, 'antsy', electrical, creeping, itching, pins and needles, pulling, crawling, buzzing, and numbness. It is sometimes described similar to a limb 'falling asleep' or an exaggerated sense of positional awareness of the affected area. The sensation and the urge can occur in any body part; the most cited location is legs, followed by arms. Some people have little or no sensation, yet still, have a strong urge to move. "Motor restlessness, expressed as activity, which relieves the urge to move." Movement usually brings immediate relief, although temporary and partial. Walking is most common; however, stretching, yoga, biking, or other physical activity may relieve the symptoms. Continuous, fast up-and-down movements of the leg, and/or rapidly moving the legs toward then away from each other, may keep sensations at bay without having to walk. Specific movements may be unique to each person. "Worsening of symptoms by relaxation." Sitting or lying down (reading, plane ride, watching TV) can trigger the sensations and urge to move. Severity depends on the severity of the person's RLS, the degree of restfulness, duration of the inactivity, etc. "Variability over the course of the day-night cycle, with symptoms worse in the evening and early in the night." Some experience RLS only at bedtime, while others experience it throughout the day and night. Most people experience the worst symptoms in the evening and the least in the morning. "restless legs feel similar to the urge to yawn, situated in the legs or arms." These symptoms of RLS can make sleeping difficult for many patients and a recent poll shows the presence of significant daytime difficulties resulting from this condition. These problems range from being late for work to missing work or events because of drowsiness. Patients with RLS who responded reported driving while drowsy more than patients without RLS. These daytime difficulties can translate into safety, social and economic issues for the patient and for society. RLS may contribute to higher rates of depression and anxiety disorders in RLS patients. Primary and secondary RLS is categorized as either primary or secondary. Primary RLS is considered idiopathic or with no known cause. Primary RLS usually begins slowly, before approximately 40–45 years of age and may disappear for months or even years. It is often progressive and gets worse with age. RLS in children is often misdiagnosed as growing pains. Secondary RLS often has a sudden onset after age 40, and may be daily from the beginning. It is most associated with specific medical conditions or the use of certain drugs (see below). Causes While the cause is generally unknown, it is believed to be caused by changes in the nerve transmitter dopamine resulting in an abnormal use of iron by the brain. RLS is often due to iron deficiency (low total body iron status). Other associated conditions may include end-stage kidney disease and hemodialysis, folate deficiency, magnesium deficiency, sleep apnea, diabetes, peripheral neuropathy, Parkinson's disease, and certain autoimmune diseases, such as multiple sclerosis. RLS can worsen in pregnancy, possibly due to elevated estrogen levels. Use of alcohol, nicotine products, and caffeine may be associated with RLS. A 2014 study from the American Academy of Neurology also found that reduced leg oxygen levels were strongly associated with restless legs Syndrome symptom severity in untreated patients. ADHD An association has been observed between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and RLS or periodic limb movement disorder. Both conditions appear to have links to dysfunctions related to the neurotransmitter dopamine, and common medications for both conditions among other systems, affect dopamine levels in the brain. A 2005 study suggested that up to 44% of people with ADHD had comorbid (i.e. coexisting) RLS, and up to 26% of people with RLS had confirmed ADHD or symptoms of the condition. Medications Certain medications may cause or worsen RLS, or cause it secondarily, including: certain antiemetics (antidopaminergic ones) certain antihistamines (especially the sedating, first generation H1 antihistamines often in over-the-counter cold medications) many antidepressants (both older TCAs and newer SSRIs) antipsychotics and certain anticonvulsants a rebound effect of sedative-hypnotic drugs such as a benzodiazepine withdrawal syndrome from discontinuing benzodiazepine tranquilizers or sleeping pills alcohol withdrawal can also cause restless legs syndrome and other movement disorders such as akathisia and parkinsonism usually associated with antipsychotics opioid withdrawal is associated with causing and worsening RLS Both primary and secondary RLS can be worsened by surgery of any kind; however, back surgery or injury can be associated with causing RLS. The cause vs. effect of certain conditions and behaviors observed in some patients (ex. excess weight, lack of exercise, depression or other mental illnesses) is not well established. Loss of sleep due to RLS could cause the conditions, or medication used to treat a condition could cause RLS. Genetics More than 60% of cases of RLS are familial and are inherited in an autosomal dominant fashion with variable penetrance. Research and brain autopsies have implicated both dopaminergic system and iron insufficiency in the substantia nigra. Iron is well understood to be an essential cofactor for the formation of L-dopa, the precursor of dopamine. Six genetic loci found by linkage are known and listed below. Other than the first one, all of the linkage loci were discovered using an autosomal dominant model of inheritance. The first genetic locus was discovered in one large French Canadian family and maps to chromosome 12q. This locus was discovered using an autosomal recessive inheritance model. Evidence for this locus was also found using a transmission disequilibrium test (TDT) in 12 Bavarian families. The second RLS locus maps to chromosome 14q and was discovered in one Italian family. Evidence for this locus was found in one French Canadian family. Also, an association study in a large sample 159 trios of European descent showed some evidence for this locus. This locus maps to chromosome 9p and was discovered in two unrelated American families. Evidence for this locus was also found by the TDT in a large Bavarian family, in which significant linkage to this locus was found. This locus maps to chromosome 20p and was discovered in a large French Canadian family with RLS. This locus maps to chromosome 2p and was found in three related families from population isolated in South Tyrol. The sixth locus is located on chromosome 16p12.1 and was discovered by Levchenko et al. in 2008. Three genes, MEIS1, BTBD9 and MAP2K5, were found to be associated to RLS. Their role in RLS pathogenesis is still unclear. More recently, a fourth gene, PTPRD was found to be associated with RLS. There is also some evidence that periodic limb movements in sleep (PLMS) are associated with on chromosome 6p21.2, MEIS1, MAP2K5/SKOR1, and PTPRD. The presence of a positive family history suggests that there may be a genetic involvement in the etiology of RLS. Mechanism Although it is only partly understood, pathophysiology of restless legs syndrome may involve dopamine and iron system anomalies. There is also a commonly acknowledged circadian rhythm explanatory mechanism associated with it, clinically shown simply by biomarkers of circadian rhythm, such as body temperature. The interactions between impaired neuronal iron uptake and the functions of the neuromelanin-containing and dopamine-producing cells have roles in RLS development, indicating that iron deficiency might affect the brain dopaminergic transmissions in different ways. Medial thalamic nuclei may also have a role in RLS as part as the limbic system modulated by the dopaminergic system which may affect pain perception. Improvement of RLS symptoms occurs in people receiving low-dose dopamine agonists. Diagnosis There are no specific tests for RLS, but non-specific laboratory tests are used to rule out other causes such as vitamin deficiencies. Five symptoms are used to confirm the diagnosis: A strong urge to move the limbs, usually associated with unpleasant or uncomfortable sensations. It starts or worsens during inactivity or rest. It improves or disappears (at least temporarily) with activity. It worsens in the evening or night. These symptoms are not caused by any medical or behavioral condition. These symptoms are not essential, like the ones above, but occur commonly in RLS patients: genetic component or family history with RLS good response to dopaminergic therapy periodic leg movements during day or sleep most strongly affected are people who are middle-aged or older other sleep disturbances are experienced decreased iron stores can be a risk factor and should be assessed According to the International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD-3), the main symptoms have to be associated with a sleep disturbance or impairment in order to support RLS diagnosis. As stated by this classification, RLS symptoms should begin or worsen when being inactive, be relieved when moving, should happen exclusively or mostly in the evening and at night, not be triggered by other medical or behavioral conditions, and should impair one's quality of life. Generally, both legs are affected, but in some cases there is an asymmetry. Differential diagnosis The most common conditions that should be differentiated with RLS include leg cramps, positional discomfort, local leg injury, arthritis, leg edema, venous stasis, peripheral neuropathy, radiculopathy, habitual foot tapping/leg rocking, anxiety, myalgia, and drug-induced akathisia. Peripheral artery disease and arthritis can also cause leg pain but this usually gets worse with movement. There are less common differential diagnostic conditions included myelopathy, myopathy, vascular or neurogenic claudication, hypotensive akathisia, orthostatic tremor, painful legs, and moving toes. Treatment If RLS is not linked to an underlying cause, its frequency may be reduced by lifestyle modifications such as adopting improving sleep hygiene, regular exercise, and stopping smoking. Medications used may include dopamine agonists or gabapentin in those with daily restless legs syndrome, and opioids for treatment of resistant cases. Treatment of RLS should not be considered until possible medical causes are ruled out. Secondary RLS may be cured if precipitating medical conditions (anemia) are managed effectively. Physical measures Stretching the leg muscles can bring temporary relief. Walking and moving the legs, as the name "restless legs" implies, brings temporary relief. In fact, those with RLS often have an almost uncontrollable need to walk and therefore relieve the symptoms while they are moving. Unfortunately, the symptoms usually return immediately after the moving and walking ceases. A vibratory counter-stimulation device has been found to help some people with primary RLS to improve their sleep. Iron There is some evidence that intravenous iron supplementation moderately improves restlessness for people with RLS. Medications For those whose RLS disrupts or prevents sleep or regular daily activities, medication may be useful. Evidence supports the use of dopamine agonists including: pramipexole, ropinirole, rotigotine, and cabergoline. They reduce symptoms, improve sleep quality and quality of life. Levodopa is also effective. However, pergolide and cabergoline are less recommended due to their association with increased risk of valvular heart disease. Ropinirole has a faster onset with shorter duration. Rotigotine is commonly used as a transdermal patch which continuously provides stable plasma drug concentrations, resulting in its particular therapeutic effect on patients with symptoms throughout the day. One review found pramipexole to be better than ropinirole. There are, however, issues with the use of dopamine agonists including augmentation. This is a medical condition where the drug itself causes symptoms to increase in severity and/or occur earlier in the day. Dopamine agonists may also cause rebound when symptoms increase as the drug wears off. In many cases, the longer dopamine agonists have been used the higher the risk of augmentation and rebound as well as the severity of the symptoms. Also, a recent study indicated that dopamine agonists used in restless legs syndrome can lead to an increase in compulsive gambling. Gabapentin or pregabalin, a non-dopaminergic treatment for moderate to severe primary RLS Opioids are only indicated in severe cases that do not respond to other measures due to their very high abuse liability and high rate of side effects, which may include constipation, fatigue and headache. One possible treatment for RLS is dopamine agonists, unfortunately patients can develop dopamine dysregulation syndrome, meaning that they can experience an addictive pattern of dopamine replacement therapy. Additionally, they can exhibit some behavioral disturbances such as impulse control disorders like pathologic gambling, compulsive purchasing and compulsive eating. There are some indications that stopping the dopamine agonist treatment has an impact on the resolution or at least improvement of the impulse control disorder, even though some people can be particularly exposed to dopamine agonist withdrawal syndrome. Benzodiazepines, such as diazepam or clonazepam, are not generally recommended, and their effectiveness is unknown. They however are sometimes still used as a second line, as add on agents. Quinine is not recommended due to its risk of serious side effects involving the blood. Prognosis RLS symptoms may gradually worsen with age, although more slowly for those with the idiopathic form of RLS than for people who also have an associated medical condition. Current therapies can control the disorder, minimizing symptoms and increasing periods of restful sleep. In addition, some people have remissions, periods in which symptoms decrease or disappear for days, weeks, or months, although symptoms usually eventually reappear. Being diagnosed with RLS does not indicate or foreshadow another neurological disease, such as Parkinson's disease. RLS symptoms can worsen over time when dopamine-related drugs are used for therapy, an effect called "augmentation" which may represent symptoms occurring throughout the day and affect movements of all limbs. There is no cure for RLS. Epidemiology RLS affects an estimated 2.5–15% of the American population. A minority (around 2.7% of the population) experience daily or severe symptoms. RLS is twice as common in women as in men, and Caucasians are more prone to RLS than people of African descent. RLS occurs in 3% of individuals from the Mediterranean or Middle Eastern regions, and in 1–5% of those from East Asia, indicating that different genetic or environmental factors, including diet, may play a role in the prevalence of this syndrome. RLS diagnosed at an older age runs a more severe course. RLS is even more common in individuals with iron deficiency, pregnancy, or end-stage kidney disease. The National Sleep Foundation's 1998 Sleep in America poll showed that up to 25 percent of pregnant women developed RLS during the third trimester. Poor general health is also linked. There are several risk factors for RLS, including old age, family history, and uremia. The prevalence of RLS tends to increase with age, as well as its severity and longer duration of symptoms. People with uremia receiving renal dialysis have a prevalence from 20% to 57%, while those having kidney transplant improve compared to those treated with dialysis. RLS can occur at all ages, although it typically begins in the third or fourth decade. Genome‐wide association studies have now identified 19 risk loci associated with RLS. Neurological conditions linked to RLS include Parkinson's disease, spinal cerebellar atrophy, spinal stenosis, lumbosacral radiculopathy and Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease type 2. History The first known medical description of RLS was by Sir Thomas Willis in 1672. Willis emphasized the sleep disruption and limb movements experienced by people with RLS. Initially published in Latin (De Anima Brutorum, 1672) but later translated to English (The London Practice of Physick, 1685), Willis wrote: The term "fidgets in the legs" has also been used as early as the early nineteenth century. Subsequently, other descriptions of RLS were published, including those by François Boissier de Sauvages (1763), Magnus Huss (1849), Theodur Wittmaack (1861), George Miller Beard (1880), Georges Gilles de la Tourette (1898), Hermann Oppenheim (1923) and Frederick Gerard Allison (1943). However, it was not until almost three centuries after Willis, in 1945, that Karl-Axel Ekbom (1907–1977) provided a detailed and comprehensive report of this condition in his doctoral thesis, restless legs: clinical study of hitherto overlooked disease. Ekbom coined the term "restless legs" and continued work on this disorder throughout his career. He described the essential diagnostic symptoms, differential diagnosis from other conditions, prevalence, relation to anemia, and common occurrence during pregnancy. Ekbom's work was largely ignored until it was rediscovered by Arthur S. Walters and Wayne A. Hening in the 1980s. Subsequent landmark publications include 1995 and 2003 papers, which revised and updated the diagnostic criteria. Journal of Parkinsonism and RLS is the first peer-reviewed, online, open access journal dedicated to publishing research about Parkinson's disease and was founded by a Canadian neurologist Dr. Abdul Qayyum Rana. Nomenclature For decades the most widely used name for the disease was restless legs syndrome, and it is still the most commonly used. In 2013 the Restless Legs Syndrome Foundation renamed itself the Willis–Ekbom Disease Foundation, and it encourages the use of the name Willis–Ekbom disease; its reasons are quoted as follows: A point of confusion is that RLS and delusional parasitosis are entirely different conditions that have both been called "Ekbom syndrome", as both syndromes were described by the same person, Karl-Axel Ekbom. Today, calling WED/RLS "Ekbom syndrome" is outdated usage, as the unambiguous names (WED or RLS) are preferred for clarity. Controversy Some doctors express the view that the incidence of restless legs syndrome is exaggerated by manufacturers of drugs used to treat it. Others believe it is an underrecognized and undertreated disorder. Further, GlaxoSmithKline ran advertisements that, while not promoting off-licence use of their drug (ropinirole) for treatment of RLS, did link to the Ekbom Support Group website. That website contained statements advocating the use of ropinirole to treat RLS. The ABPI ruled against GSK in this case. Research Different measurements have been used to evaluate treatments in RLS. Most of them are based on subjective rating scores, such as IRLS rating scale (IRLS), Clinical Global Impression (CGI), Patient Global Impression (PGI), and Quality of life (QoL). These questionnaires provide information about the severity and progress of the disease, as well as the person's quality of life and sleep. Polysomnography (PSG) and actigraphy (both related to sleep parameters) are more objective resources that provide evidences of sleep disturbances associated with RLS symptoms. See also Periodic limb movement disorder References External links Extrapyramidal and movement disorders Sleep disorders Syndromes Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate	[ -0.01975833624601364, -0.029511474072933197, 0.16668693721294403, -0.2492993026971817, 0.10116048157215118, -0.16568580269813538, 0.778662919998169, 0.23965616524219513, -1.0622944831848145, -0.2432578057050705, -0.08714623749256134, -0.3407509922981262, -0.6397213935852051, 0.40703338384628296, -0.32085782289505005, 0.8609747290611267, 0.36435970664024353, 0.3891473412513733, -0.4099472463130951, -0.145239919424057, -0.04890362545847893, -0.2800637483596802, 0.45997682213783264, -0.4208274781703949, 0.13927747309207916, -0.5422332882881165, 0.02097519300878048, -0.11485296487808228, 0.03767498582601547, -0.5431243181228638, 0.4024040400981903, 0.41577622294425964, 0.33424925804138184, -0.03479869291186333, 0.0785965770483017, 0.20811060070991516, 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240834	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kylin%20%28operating%20system%29	Kylin (operating system)	Kylin () is an operating system developed by academics at the National University of Defense Technology in the People's Republic of China since 2001. It is named after the mythical beast qilin. The first versions were based on FreeBSD and were intended for use by the Chinese military and other government organizations. With version 3.0 Kylin became Linux-based, and there is a version called NeoKylin which was announced in 2010. By 2019 NeoKylin variant is compatible with more than 4,000 software and hardware products and it ships pre-installed on most computers sold in China. Together, Kylin and Neokylin have 90% market share of the government sector. A separate project using Ubuntu as the base Linux operating system was announced in 2013. The first version of Ubuntu Kylin was released in April 2013. In August 2020, v10 of Kylin OS was launched. It is compatible with 10,000 hardware and software products and it "supports Google's Android ecosystem". FreeBSD version Development of Kylin began in 2001, when the National University of Defense Technology was assigned the mission of developing an operating system under the 863 Program intended to make China independent of foreign technology. The aim was "to support several kinds of server platforms, to achieve high performance, high availability and high security, as well as conforming to international standards of Unix and Linux operating systems". It was created using a hierarchy model, including "the basic kernel layer which is similar to Mach, the system service layer which is similar to BSD and the desktop environment which is similar to Windows". It was designed to comply with the UNIX standards and to be compatible with Linux applications. In February 2006, "China Military Online" (a website sponsored by PLA Daily of the Chinese People's Liberation Army) reported the "successful development of the Kylin server operating system", which it said was "the first 64-bit operating system with high security level (B2 class)" and "also the first operating system without Linux kernel that has obtained Linux global standard authentification by the international Free Standards Group". In April 2006, it was said that the Kylin operating system was largely based on FreeBSD 5.3. An anonymous Chinese student in Australia, who used the pseudonym "Dancefire", carried out a kernel similarity analysis and showed that the similarities between the two operating systems reached 99.45 percent. One of Kylin's developers confirmed that Kylin was based on FreeBSD during a speech at the international conference EuroBSDCon 2006. In 2009, a report presented to the US-China Economic and Security Review Commission stated that the purpose of Kylin is to make Chinese computers impenetrable to competing countries in the cyberwarfare arena. The Washington Post reported that: China has developed more secure operating software for its tens of millions of computers and is already installing it on government and military systems, hoping to make Beijing’s networks impenetrable to U.S. military and intelligence agencies. The deployment of Kylin was said to have "hardened key Chinese servers". Kylin Linux (NeoKylin) With the advent of version 3.0, Kylin has used the Linux kernel. In December 2010, it was announced that China Standard Software and the National University of Defense Technology had signed a strategic partnership to launch a version called NeoKylin. China Standard Software is the maker of the "NeoShine Linux" desktop series. NeoKylin is intended for use by government offices, national defense, energy and other sectors of the Chinese economy. In 2014, Bloomberg News reported that the northeastern city of Siping had migrated its computers from Microsoft Windows to NeoKylin, as part of a government effort to shift computer technology to Chinese suppliers. In September 2015 US computer maker Dell reported that 42% of personal computers they sold in China were now running NeoKylin. The operating system of the Tianhe-1 supercomputer is 64-bit Kylin Linux, which is oriented to high-performance parallel computing optimization, and supports power management and high-performance virtual computing. The newer Tianhe-2 also uses Kylin Linux. Ubuntu Kylin In 2013, Canonical reached an agreement with the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology of the People's Republic of China to release an Ubuntu-based Linux OS with features targeted at the Chinese market. Ubuntu Kylin has been described as "a loose continuation of China's Kylin OS". It is intended for desktop and laptop computers. The first official release, Ubuntu Kylin 13.04, was on 25 April 2013. See also Unity Operating System Canaima (operating system) – a similar project by the Venezuelan computer manufacturer VIT, C.A. and Chinese information technology company Inspur GendBuntu – a similar project used by Gendarmerie in France LiMux – a similar project of the city council of Munich Nova (operating system) – a similar project by the Cuban government Red Star OS – a similar project by the North Korean government References External links Kylin Official Website (Chinese) What is Kylin, Project Mission Statement, September 2004, at the Internet Archive (English) Official Kylin website, April 2006, on the Internet Archive (Chinese) NeoKylin (Chinese) NeoKylin Operating System at China Aid Software Service Center (English) Chinese-language Linux distributions Computing platforms FreeBSD Supercomputing in China Unix variants State-sponsored Linux distributions Linux distributions	[ 0.10046498477458954, 0.5158989429473877, 0.3044222593307495, 0.07885713130235672, 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240836	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto%20Heinrich%20Warburg	Otto Heinrich Warburg	Otto Heinrich Warburg (, ; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970), son of physicist Emil Warburg, was a German physiologist, medical doctor, and Nobel laureate. He served as an officer in the elite Uhlan (cavalry regiment) during the First World War, and was awarded the Iron Cross (1st Class) for bravery. He was the sole recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1931. In total, he was nominated for the award 47 times over the course of his career. Biography Otto Heinrich Warburg was born in Freiburg im Breisgau in 1883, close to the Swiss border. Otto's mother was the daughter of a Protestant family of bankers and civil servants from Baden. His father, Emil Warburg, had converted to Protestantism as an adult, although Emil's parents were Orthodox Jews. Emil was a member of the illustrious Warburg family of Altona.Emil was also president of the Physikalische Reichsanstalt, Wirklicher Geheimer Oberregierungsrat (True Senior Privy Counselor). Otto Warburg studied chemistry under Emil Fischer, and earned his doctorate in chemistry in Berlin in 1906. He then studied under Ludolf von Krehl and earned the degree of doctor of medicine in Heidelberg in 1911. Between 1908 and 1914, Warburg was affiliated with the Naples Marine Biological Station, (in Naples, Italy), where he conducted research. In later years, he would return for visits, and maintained a lifelong friendship with the family of the station's director, Anton Dohrn. A lifelong equestrian, he served as an officer in the elite Uhlans (cavalry) on the front during the First World War, where he won the Iron Cross. Warburg later credited this experience with affording him invaluable insights into "real life" outside the confines of academia. Toward the end of the war, when the outcome was unmistakable, Albert Einstein, who had been a friend of Warburg's father Emil, wrote to Warburg at the behest of friends, asking him to leave the army and return to academia, since it would be a tragedy for the world to lose his talents. Einstein and Warburg later became friends, and Einstein's work in physics had a great influence on Warburg's biochemical research. Scientific work and Nobel Prize While working at the Marine Biological Station, Warburg performed research on oxygen consumption in sea urchin eggs after fertilization and showed that upon fertilization the rate of respiration increases as much as sixfold. His experiments also showed that iron is essential for the development of the larval stage. In 1918, Warburg was appointed professor at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology in Berlin-Dahlem (part of the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft). By 1931 he was named director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Cell Physiology, which had been founded the previous year by a donation of the Rockefeller Foundation to the Kaiser Wilhelm Gesellschaft (since renamed the Max Planck Society). Warburg investigated the metabolism of tumors and the respiration of cells, particularly cancer cells, and in 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme". In particular, he discovered that animal tumors produce large quantities of lactic acid. The award came after receiving 46 nominations over a period of nine years beginning in 1923, 13 of which were submitted in 1931, the year he won the prize. Nobel Laureate George Wald, having completed his Ph.D. in zoology at Columbia University, received an award from the U.S. National Research Council to study with Warburg. During his time with Warburg, 1932–1933, Wald discovered vitamin A in the retina. Survival under the Nazis When the Nazis came to power, people of Jewish descent were forced from their professional positions, although the Nazis made exceptions. Warburg had a Protestant mother and a father with Jewish heritage (who had converted to Protestantism). According to the Reichsbürgergesetz from 1935 (cf. Nuremberg Laws) Warburg, as a half-Jew was labeled a Halbjude or Mischling. Warburg was also at risk due to his relationship with Jacob Heiss, with whom he lived and worked. Beginning around 1918, Heiss served variously as Warburg's personal aid, secretary, and administrative assistant. The couple, rumoured to be homosexual, lived together in an elegant villa in Dahlem, in Berlin. Warburg was banned from teaching, but allowed to carry on his research. In 1941, Warburg briefly lost his post for making remarks critical of the Nazi regime, but in a few weeks was able to resume his research following a personal order from Hitler's Chancellery. Hermann Göring also arranged for him to be classified as one-quarter Jewish. In September 1942, Warburg made an official request for equal status ("Gleichstellung") with German Aryans, which was granted. The Nazis were willing to allow Warburg to work because of his focus on metabolism and cancer. Hitler was obsessed with cancer, having lost his own mother to breast cancer at an early age. Warburg disagreed with the Nazi regime, and refused to acknowledge the Nazi salute, to the point of provoking retaliation from its officers. Authors have speculated on why he stayed in Germany under the Reich. Apple suggests that, like many others, he did not imagine how bad things could get. His own egotism may have led him to underestimate the potential threat posed by the Nazis. Others have suggested that Warburg was so totally devoted to his work that he was prepared not only to stay in Germany but to tolerate the treatment of his Jewish colleagues and relatives by the Nazis. An anecdote from Birgit Vennesland, who became a director at Warburg's institute in West Berlin in 1968, is suggestive. She said that Warburg's advice for an acquaintance who was experiencing emotional difficulties was "Tell him not to think about anything but science-think about absolutely nothing else-only science." In 1943 Warburg relocated his laboratory to the village of Liebenburg on the outskirts of Berlin to avoid ongoing air raids. The Rockefeller Foundation reportedly offered to continue funding his work if he emigrated. After the war ended, Warburg inquiried about the prospect of moving to the United States, but was turned down. Nomination for a second Nobel Prize In 1944, Warburg was nominated for a second Nobel Prize in Physiology by Albert Szent-Györgyi, for his work on nicotinamide, the mechanism and enzymes involved in fermentation, and the discovery of flavin (in yellow enzymes). Some sources report that he was selected to receive the award that year, but was prevented from receiving it by Adolf Hitler's regime, which had issued a decree in 1937 that forbade Germans from accepting Nobel Prizes. According to the Nobel Foundation, this rumor is not true; although he was considered a worthy candidate, he was not selected for the prize at that time. Three scientists who worked in Warburg's lab, including Sir Hans Adolf Krebs, went on to win the Nobel Prize in future years. Among other discoveries, Krebs is credited with the identification of the citric acid cycle (or Szentgyörgyi-Krebs cycle). Warburg's combined work in plant physiology, cell metabolism, and oncology made him an integral figure in the later development of systems biology. He worked with Dean Burk on the quantum yield of photosynthesis. Cancer hypothesis Warburg hypothesized that cancer growth is caused by tumor cells generating energy (as, e.g., adenosine triphosphate/ATP) mainly by anaerobic breakdown of glucose (known as fermentation, or anaerobic respiration). This is in contrast to healthy cells, which generate energy mainly from oxidative breakdown of pyruvate. Pyruvate is an end product of glycolysis and is oxidized within the mitochondria. Hence, according to Warburg, cancer should be interpreted as a mitochondrial dysfunction. Warburg continued to develop the hypothesis experimentally and gave several prominent lectures outlining the theory and the data. Today, mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes are thought to be responsible for malignant transformation, and the metabolic changes Warburg thought of as causative are now considered to be a result of these mutations. A recent reevaluation of the data from nuclear/cytoplasm transfer experiments, where nuclei from cancer cells are placed in normal cytoplasm and where nuclei from normal cells are placed in cancer cytoplasm, support the role of metabolism in cancer and the mitochondria in aiding tumor suppression. Still, as evident from the references therein, this promising phenomenon still fails to explain the origin of cancer as Warburg originally proposed. While Warburg's hypothesis certainly inspired the scientific community to further investigate the field of cancer metabolism, his tendency to oversimplify perhaps prevented him from accepting the vastly complex role and interactions between both the mitochondria and nucleus, or more generally, metabolism and mutations. Later years Otto Warburg edited and had much of his original work published in The Metabolism of Tumours (tr. 1931) and wrote New Methods of Cell Physiology (1962). An unabashed anglophile, Otto Warburg was thrilled when Oxford University awarded him an honorary doctorate. He was awarded the Order Pour le Mérite in 1952 and was known to tell other universities not to bother with honorary doctorates. He would ask officials to mail him medals he had been awarded so as to avoid a ceremony that would separate him from his beloved laboratory. When frustrated by the lack of acceptance of his ideas, Warburg was known to quote an aphorism he attributed to Max Planck: "Science advances one funeral at a time". Seemingly utterly convinced of the accuracy of his conclusions, Warburg expressed dismay at the "continual discovery of cancer agents and cancer viruses" that he expected to "hinder necessary preventive measures and thereby become responsible for cancer cases". When Josef Issels was tried and convicted for promoting the Issels treatment, an ineffective regimen claimed to treat cancer, Warburg offered to testify on Issels' behalf at his appeal to the German Supreme Court. All of Issels' convictions were overturned. Warburg never married and resided in the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute with his faithful companion, Jacob Heiss, a personal friend and the secretary and manager of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute. Warburg pursued his research until the age of 86. He left his entire estate to Heiss. In 1968, he suffered a broken femur. This was complicated by deep vein thrombosis. He died in 1970 from pulmonary embolism and was buried in a Christian cemetery. The Otto Warburg Medal The Otto Warburg Medal is intended to commemorate Warburg's outstanding achievements. It has been awarded by the German Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (Gesellschaft für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie) since 1963. The prize honors and encourages pioneering achievements in fundamental biochemical and molecular biological research. The Otto Warburg Medal is regarded as the highest award in Germany for biochemists and molecular biologists. It has been endowed with prize money, sponsored by the publishing company Elsevier/BBA. Bibliography Über die Rolle des Eisens in der Atmung des Seeigeleis nebst Bemerkungen über einige durch Eisen beschleunigte Oxydationen m. Abb. (Sitzungsber. Heidelberger Akad. Wiss. math.-nat. Kl B Heidelberg, 1911) (Trans: On the rôle of Iron in the Breathing of the Sea Urchin Egg and Comments about some Oxidations accelerated by Iron. Proceedings of the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences Heidelberg 1911.) Schwermetalle als Wirkungsgruppe von Fermenten (Berlin, 1946.) (Trans: Heavy metal prosthetic groups and enzyme action) Ideen zur Fermentchemie der Tumoren (Abh. der Deutschen Akad. der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Math-naturwissenschaft. Kl 1947, Berlin 1947) (Trans: Theses on the enzymatic chemistry of Tumors, Proceedings of the German Academy of Sciences in Berlin, mathematical-scientific ?, Berlin 1947) Wasserstoffübertragende Fermente (Berlin, Saenger 1948) (Trans: Hydrogen-transferring Enzymes) Weiterentwicklung der zellphysiologischen Methoden: angewandt auf Krebs, Photosynthese und Wirkungsweise der Röntgenstrahlung: Arbeiten aus den Jahren 1945-1961, (Thieme, Stuttgart 1962) (Trans: Further Developments of Methods in Cellular Physiology applied to Cancer, Photosynthesis and the Effects of X-ray Radiation) Texts in German and English See also Warburg effect inversion Oncometabolism References External links The Prime Cause and Prevention of Cancer Excerpt from The Warburgs by Ron Chernow pgs. 539-541 Website of the Otto Warburg Medal 1883 births 1970 deaths Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine German Nobel laureates Otto Heinrich Warburg Physicians from Freiburg im Breisgau People from the Grand Duchy of Baden German people of Jewish descent Humboldt University of Berlin alumni University of Freiburg alumni German physiologists Recipients of the Iron Cross (1914), 1st class Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Foreign Members of the Royal Society Researchers of photosynthesis Grand Crosses with Star and Sash of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany Members of the German Academy of Sciences at Berlin Max Planck Society people Physicians of the Charité	[ -0.37386825680732727, 0.7740997076034546, -0.3201325535774231, -0.015905793756246567, 0.003817223012447357, 0.9190760850906372, 1.0002937316894531, -0.3869749903678894, -0.03310813009738922, -0.17355459928512573, -0.5128784775733948, -0.08923656493425369, -0.079686239361763, 0.8442171812057495, 0.28806379437446594, 0.1315847784280777, -0.059084273874759674, -0.29638218879699707, -0.35319265723228455, 0.23139439523220062, -0.01891733705997467, -0.24925023317337036, 0.5417147874832153, 0.1598215252161026, 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240838	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas%20Ferrar	Nicholas Ferrar	Nicholas Ferrar (22 February 1592 – 4 December 1637) was an English scholar, courtier and businessman, who was ordained a deacon in the Church of England. He lost much of his fortune in the Virginia Company and retreated with his extended family in 1626 to the manor of Little Gidding, Huntingdonshire, for his remaining years, in an informal spiritual community following High Anglican practice. His friend the poet and Anglican priest George Herbert (1593–1633), on his deathbed, sent Ferrar the manuscript of The Temple, telling him to publish the poetry if it might "turn to the advantage of any dejected poor soul." "If not, let him burn it; for I and it are less than the least of God's mercies." Ferrar published the verses in 1633; they remain in print. Early life Nicholas Ferrar was born in the City of London, England the third son and fifth child (of six) of Nicholas Ferrar and his wife Mary Ferrar (née Wodenoth). He is sometimes identified as Nicholas Ferrar the Younger while his father is identified as Nicholas Ferrar the Elder. Having been sent to a nearby school, he is said to have been reading perfectly by the age of five. He was confirmed by the Bishop of London in 1598, contriving to have the bishop lay hands on him twice. In 1600 he was sent away to boarding school in Berkshire, and in 1605, aged 13, he entered Clare Hall, Cambridge. He was elected a fellow-commoner at the end of his first year, took his BA in 1610 and elected a fellow the following year. Travels abroad Ferrar suffered from poor health and was advised to travel to continental Europe, away from the damp air of Cambridge. He obtained a position in the retinue of Princess Elizabeth, daughter of James I who married the Elector Frederick V. In April 1613 he left England with the princess, not returning until 1618. By May he had left the Court to travel alone. Over the next few years he visited the Dutch Republic, Austria, Bohemia, Italy and Spain, learning to speak Dutch, German, Italian and Spanish. He studied at Leipzig and especially at Padua, where he continued his medical studies. He met Anabaptists and Roman Catholics, including Jesuits and Oratorians, as well as Jews, broadening his religious education. During this time Ferrar recorded many adventures in his letters home to his family and friends. In 1618 he is said to have had a vision that he was needed at home, and so he returned to England. Virginia Company The Ferrar family was deeply involved in the London Virginia Company. His family home was often visited by Sir Walter Raleigh, half-brother of Sir Humphrey Gilbert. Upon returning to London, Ferrar found that the family fortunes, primarily invested in Virginia, were under threat. Ferrar entered the Parliament of England and worked with Sir Edwin Sandys. They were part of a parliamentary faction (the "country party" or "patriot party") that seized control of the government's finances from a rival "court faction", and were grouped around Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick. The court faction supported Sir Thomas Smythe (or Smith), also a prominent member of the East India Company. Smythe as treasurer of the Virginia Company from 1609 to 1620 encouraged the governor to end evangelisation of Native Americans and expand tobacco culture. Ferrar wrote a 16-page pamphlet criticising Smythe's management. Smythe (as he spelt his name) was criticised by rivals for allegedly skimming profits, but an investigation revealed no wrongdoing and he continued to enjoy the support of the king. The argument ended with the London Virginia Company losing its charter after a court decision in May 1624. Ferrar served briefly as Member of Parliament for Lymington from 1624. At Little Gidding In 1626 Ferrar and his extended family left London and moved to the largely deserted village of Little Gidding in Huntingdonshire. The household centred on the Ferrar family: Nicholas's mother, his brother John Ferrar (with his wife Bathsheba and their children), and his sister Susanna, with her husband John Collett and their children. They bought the manor of Little Gidding and restored the abandoned little church for their use. The household always had someone at prayer and had a strict routine. They tended to the health and education of local children. Ferrar and his family produced harmonies of the Gospels that survive today as some of the finest in Britain. Many of the family also learned the art of bookbinding, apparently from the daughter of a Cambridge bookbinder, whose style they worked in. In 1633 the poet George Herbert, on his deathbed, sent the manuscript of The Temple to Nicholas Ferrar, telling him to publish the poems if he thought they might "turn to the advantage of any dejected poor soul", and otherwise, to burn them. Ferrar arranged to publish them that year. The Temple: Sacred Poems and Private Ejaculations (1633) had gone through eight editions by 1690. Nicholas Ferrar died on 4 December 1637, but the extended family continued their way of life without him. After his siblings John Ferrar and Susanna Ferrar Collett died in 1657 within a month of each other, the larger community began to disband. Puritans criticised the life of the Ferrar household, denouncing them as Arminians, and saying they lived as in a "Protestant nunnery". However, the Ferrars never lived a formal religious life: there was no Rule, vows were not taken, and there was no enclosure. In this sense there was no "community" at Little Gidding, but rather a family living a Christian life in accordance with the Book of Common Prayer, according to High Church principles. The fame of the Ferrar household was widespread, and attracted many visitors. Among them was King Charles I, who visited Little Gidding three times. He briefly took refuge there in 1645 after the Battle of Naseby. Legacy and honours Nicholas Ferrar is commemorated in the calendar of the Church of England on 4 December, the date of his death. In the calendar of the Episcopal Church in the United States, the Anglican Church of Southern Africa and the Church in Wales, he is commemorated on 1 December. T. S. Eliot honoured Nicholas Ferrar in the Four Quartets, naming one of the quartets Little Gidding. The Friends of Little Gidding were founded in 1946 by Alan Maycock with the patronage of Eliot, to maintain and adorn the church at Little Gidding, and honour the life of Ferrar and his family and their place in the village. The Friends organise an annual pilgrimage to Ferrar's tomb, formerly held each July, but in recent years in May (the month when Eliot visited Little Gidding) and celebrate Nicholas Ferrar Day on the Saturday nearest to 4 December. A new religious community was founded at Little Gidding in the 1970s, inspired by the example of Ferrar and called the Community of Christ the Sower, but it disbanded in 1998. The Pilsdon Community in Dorset was also based on Ferrar's Little Gidding model. The former Poet Laureate Ted Hughes was directly related to Nicholas Ferrar on his mother's side. Hughes and his wife, the poet Sylvia Plath, named their son Nicholas Farrar Hughes. The family evidently used both spellings of the surname. Nicholas Ferrar is regarded as patron of the Oratory of the Good Shepherd, an international Anglican religious community. See also Little Gidding (poem) Saints in Anglicanism St John's Church, Little Gidding References Notes Citations Sources Further reading , John Inglesant is a novel set in the 17th century, contains in Chapter IV a description and discussion of Ferrar and his family at Little Gidding. Willam, A. M. Conversations at Little Gidding. 'On the retirement of Charles V.' 'On the austere life': dialogues by members of the Ferrar family [transcribed by Nicholas Ferrar] with and introduction and notes. London: Cambridge University Press, 1970. External links The Friends of Little Gidding 1592 births 1637 deaths 17th-century Anglicans 17th-century Christian mystics 17th-century English clergy 17th-century English merchants Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge Anglican clergy from London Anglican deacons Anglican saints Arminian ministers Arminian writers Bookbinders English MPs 1624–1625 Fellows of Clare College, Cambridge Members of Anglican religious orders People from Little Gidding Protestant mystics	[ -0.2752983868122101, 0.18100513517856598, 0.0641460046172142, -0.47825342416763306, -0.1321841925382614, 0.972398042678833, 0.9802901744842529, -0.11539947241544724, -0.38357827067375183, -0.3840290606021881, -0.4426378607749939, 0.32035279273986816, -0.42170295119285583, 0.06451974809169769, 0.18181155622005463, -0.3314688801765442, 0.25616350769996643, -0.24934473633766174, -0.37333178520202637, -0.40589597821235657, -0.21643133461475372, 0.20872566103935242, 0.34168606996536255, 0.08950692415237427, -0.29231706261634827, 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240840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobbejaanland	Bobbejaanland	Bobbejaanland is a theme park in Lichtaart, Belgium. The park was founded by Bobbejaan Schoepen, a Flemish singer, guitarist, and entertainer who enjoyed international popularity in the fifties and early sixties. In 1959 he bought a 30 hectare marsh, had it drained and built a 1000 capacity venue that opened in December 1961 as Bobbejaanland. This developed into an amusement park and remained in his possession until he sold it in 2004. History For its first decade after opening the park centered on water attractions and performance spaces. Numerous variety artists from Belgium, the Netherlands and Germany appeared there. Following the advice of Phantasialand owner Gottlieb Löffelhard, Bobbejaanland evolved from 1975 onwards into a theme park, with rides becoming more important than music shows. It grew to fifty attractions with four hundred employees and received visitors from the Benelux countries, France, and Germany. As an independent family concern, it also supported educational and cultural projects. By the end of the seventies, Bob's wife Josée (a former opera singer and model) opened a museum with works of art from the Hopi and Navajo cultures, forming an extensive private collection of Native American art. From the 1990s, three of his five children worked for the park. It added a high windmill that provides the region with energy, and an adjoining museum of alternative energy generation. Attractions Bobbejaanland contains about 50 attractions, such as the Waterslide (1980), the Giant wheel (1976), Indiana River (indoor waterslide, 1991), the Revolution (a dark Rollercoaster, 1989), the Speedy Bob (roller coaster, 1998), the Air Race (suspended roller coaster, 1987, now named Dreamcatcher), the longest junior roller coaster in the world, 'Okidoki' (i.e. 'that's all right', 2003/04), and the world's second Gerstlauer Euro-Fighter roller coaster, "Typhoon" (2003/04), with a drop angle of over 97°(a roller coaster with a fourfold loop and a free fall) and a Splash Battle, "Banana Battle", (2007) made by Preston & Barbieri. The giant Sledgehammer (a Giant Frisbee) reaches a speed of 110 km/h). In 1995 'Kinderland' (English: Kids' Country) was opened as an area for young children. In 1979 Bobbejaanland opened the Looping Star roller coaster (Schwarzkopf GmbH). Although the ride had a security bar placed over the hip, it was more the centrifugal force which held the passengers in the vehicle when it looped the loop. The coaster was dismantled in 2003. Bobbejaanland also has Revolution: a fully enclosed tubular steel roller coaster manufactured by Vekoma, with world's largest train where two passengers can sit bobsled style per car. In 2016 the attraction was equipped with Samsung Gear VR. In the morning, the original ride is active. In the afternoon, passengers have the option to wear the virtual glasses and the ride is about an escape from the erupting volcano "Mount Mara". Due to this concept only one passenger per car can wear the glasses. Physical limitations prohibit children to wear the glasses as they don't fit on their head. Because Bobbejaan Schoepen was primarily a folk and country singer, the park is still partly themed as a western village (for example the El Rio White Water Rapids and the El Paso Dark ride). In the Star Theater, Las Vegas style shows are performed. Bobbejaan bought Zorro's horse from stuntman Casey Tibbs, but the animal was accidentally electrocuted by an exposed cable. He also acquired an ornate white Pontiac Nudie mobile decorated with American coins. Changes In the winter of 2003 the park invested 12 million dollars in two new rides named the Typhoon and the Sledge Hammer. In a 2004 survey of 13 European amusement parks by Belgian consumer organisation Test-Aankoop Bobbejaanland was rated second after Phantasialand. In the early 2000s the founder was diagnosed with cancer and he sold Bobbejaanland to the Spanish-American Parques Reunidos group in April 2004. References Sources Bobbejaan Schoepen (Johan Roggen, Publisher Het Volk, 1980 - D/1980/2345/10). De Vlaamse kleinkunstbeweging na de Tweede Wereldoorlog - Een historisch overzicht (Peter Notte, Universiteit Gent 1992). 'The Flemish Variety Movement after World War II - An Historical Overview'. Peter Notte, Ghent University, 1992) Bobbejaan Schoepen — "Histories" documentary, 4 January 2001 (Canvas/VRT) Bobbejaan Schoepen — The Belgian Pop & Rock Archive (Dirk Houbrechts and the Flanders Music Center, 2001). "Brel Le flamand" — Histories documentary, 2003 (Canvas/VRT). rides.nl Bobbejaan Schoepen Archive — Bobbejaan Records bvba Official Biography Bobbejaan Schoepen — by Tom Schoepen - "Volkskundige Kroniek" van de Federatie voor Volkskunde in Vlaanderen (i.e. “Folklife Chronicles”, magazine of the Folklife Federation Flanders)- yr. 14 - nr. 2 April-may-juin 2006). External links Bobbejaanland Website (English) Official site Bobbejaan Schoepen Official myspace Bobbejaan Schoepen The Yodeling Whistler Bobbejaanland Timeline Bobbejaanland Fansite (Dutch) Bobbejaan-Online (Dutch) Amusement parks in Belgium Western (genre) theme parks Buildings and structures in Antwerp (province) Parques Reunidos 1961 establishments in Belgium Tourist attractions in Antwerp (province) Amusement parks opened in 1961 Kasterlee	[ 0.09598089009523392, -0.0013132629683241248, 0.37545445561408997, -0.45203259587287903, 0.49628746509552, -0.15011662244796753, 1.0224761962890625, 0.5238085985183716, -0.8769547343254089, 0.3508771061897278, -0.12762683629989624, -0.0005715211154893041, -0.052261341363191605, 0.7612372040748596, -0.6441158056259155, 0.4438772201538086, 0.358450710773468, 0.40588638186454773, 0.0820324495434761, -0.7637165188789368, -0.12670134007930756, -0.7556703686714172, 0.28501418232917786, -0.1687707006931305, -0.024941647425293922, -0.2572382092475891, 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240841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South%20China%20Sea%20Islands	South China Sea Islands	The South China Sea Islands consist of over 250 islands, atolls, cays, shoals, reefs and seamounts in the South China Sea. The islands are mostly low and small, and have few inhabitants. The islands and surrounding seas are subject to overlapping territorial claims by the countries bordering the South China Sea. The South China Sea Islands constitute a distinct tropical moist broadleaf forest terrestrial ecoregion, and the South China Sea Oceanic Islands marine ecoregion. Geography The islands, shoals, and reefs are grouped into three archipelagos, plus the Zhongsha Islands (Macclesfield Bank and Scarborough Shoal). The South China Sea Islands as defined here consist of the sea's oceanic islands, and do not include the sea's continental shelf islands like Hainan and Natuna. Collectively, they have a total land surface area of less than 15 km2 at low tide. The island groups include: The Paracel Islands, disputed between the People's Republic of China (PRC), the Republic of China (ROC, a.k.a. Taiwan), and Vietnam. Occupied by the PRC following the Battle of the Paracel Islands (1974). Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks, disputed between the PRC and the ROC, occupied by the ROC. The Spratly Islands, disputed between the PRC, the ROC, and Vietnam, with Malaysia, the Philippines and, to a lesser degree, Brunei, claiming various parts of the archipelago. James Shoal Taiping Island Zhongzhou Reef The Zhongsha Islands Macclesfield Bank (with no land above sea level), disputed between the PRC, the ROC, and the Philippines. Walker Shoal Scarborough Shoal (with only rocks above sea level), disputed between the PRC, the ROC, and the Philippines. Truro Shoal (Sianfa Ansha or Shianfa Ansha 特魯暗沙; 16°20′N 116°44′E) The sea floor contains Paleozoic and Mesozoic granite and metamorphic rocks. The abysses are caused by the formation of the Himalayas in the Cenozoic. Except for one volcanic island, the islands are made of coral reefs of varying ages and formations. Climate The Paracel islands have a tropical marine climate. Annual rainfall averages 1130 mm, and is strongly seasonal. Between May and August the southwest trade winds bring rainfall to the islands, with the maximum rainfall in June (226 mm). The northeast trade winds bring a winter dry season, and December is the lowest-rainfall month (3.3 mm). The Spratly Islands have a tropical climate. The average annual temperature is 27 °C, and ranges from 30 °C between May and August to 25 °C during the winter months. Rainfall averages 1800 to 2200 mm annually. The southwest monsoon from May to November brings a five-month rainy season, and the seven-month dry season includes the March to April southeast monsoon. Flora Many of the smaller islands are devoid of vegetation. Larger islands support terrestrial plant communities which include coral island evergreen forest, scrub forest, and coastal scrub and grasses. There are 340 species of land plants and fungi recorded in the Paracel Islands, composed of 224 genera in 89 plant families. These include 312 species of flowering plants (angiosperms) and five species of pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies), along with 22 species of macrofungi (larger fungi) and one lichen species. The flora of the Paracel Islands is similar to that of Hainan Island to the north. Humans have introduced other plants to the islands. The Chinese and the Vietnamese introduced 47 more species, including peanut, sweet potato, and various vegetables. Fauna There are no known native terrestrial animals on the islands. The islands are feeding and nesting sites for large numbers of seabirds, including the streaked shearwater (Calonectris leucomelas), brown booby (Sula leucogaster), red-footed booby (S. sula), great crested tern (Sterna bergii), and white tern (Gygis alba). Seabird faeces can accumulate 10 mm to 1 m annually, and over time create thick deposits of guano. Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) and hawksbill sea turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) inhabit waters around the islands and nest on the islands' beaches. History From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He commanded expeditionary voyages to Southeast Asia, South Asia, Western Asia, and East Africa in Ming dynasty in China. In 1421, Zheng prepared the 6 edition Mao Kun map, usually referred to by Chinese people as Zheng He's Navigation Map (), which included South China Sea Islands. In the 19th century, as a part of the occupation of Indochina, France claimed control of the Spratlys until the 1930s, exchanging a few with the British. During World War II, the South China Sea islands were all occupied by Japan. The People's Republic of China, founded in 1949, claimed the islands as part of the province of Canton (Guangdong), and later of the Hainan special administrative region. Names The South China Sea Islands were discussed from the 4th century BC in the Chinese texts Yizhoushu, Classic of Poetry, Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu, but only implicitly as part of the "Southern Territories" () or "South Sea" (, Nán Hǎi). During the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC), government administrators called the South China Sea Islands the "Three Mysterious Groups of Islands" (, Sān Shén Shān). But during the Eastern Han dynasty (23-220), the South China Sea was renamed "Rising Sea" (, Zhǎng Hǎi), so the islands were called the "Rising Sea Islands" (, Zhǎnghǎi Qítóu). During the Jin dynasty (266–420), they were known as the "Coral Islands" (, Shānhú Zhōu). From the Tang dynasty (618–907) to the Qing dynasty (1644–1912), various names were used for the islands, but in general Changsha and permutations referred to the Paracel Islands, while Shitang referred to the Spratly Islands. These variations included, for the Paracels: Jiǔrǔ Luózhōu (), Qīzhōu Yáng (), Chángshā (), Qiānlǐ Chángshā (), and Qiānlǐ Shítáng (); for the Spratlys: Shítáng (), Shíchuáng (), Wànlǐ Shítáng (), and Wànlǐ Chángshā (). During the Qing, the names Qianli Changsha and Wanli Shitang were in vogue, and Chinese fishermen from Hainan named specific islands from within the groups, although the Qing officially named 15 large islands in 1909. During China's Republican era (1912-1949), the government named the Spratlys Tuánshā Qúndǎo () and then Nánshā Qúndǎo (); the Paracels were Xīshā Qúndǎo (); Republican authorities mapped over 291 islands, reefs, and banks in surveys in 1932, 1935, and 1947. The People's Republic of China has retained the Republican-era names for the island groups, supplementing them with a list of 287 names for islands, reefs, banks, and shoals in 1983. From 2011–2012, China's State Oceanic Administration named 1,660 nameless islands and islets under its claimed jurisdiction; in 2012, China announced plans to name a further 1,664 nameless features by August 2013. The naming campaign is intended to consolidate China's sovereignty claim over Sansha (), a city which includes islands from the Xisha (Paracel), Nansha (Spratly and James Shoal) and Zhongsha (, Zhōngshā; Macclesfield Bank, Scarborough Shoal, and others) groups. Resources There are minerals, natural gas, and oil deposits on the islands and under their nearby seafloor, also an abundance of sea life, such as fish, animals and vegetation, traditionally exploited as food by all the claimant nations for thousands of years—mostly without disputes that could risk war. In the 20th century, since the WW2 settlements failed to resolve ownership of such lesser areas of land, seas and islands—and because of the economic, military, and transportational importance—their control, especially that of the Spratlys, has been in dispute between China and several Southeast Asian countries, such as Vietnam, from the mid-20th century onwards. True occupation and control are shared between the claimants (see claims and control below). Claims and control The Republic of China (ROC) named 132 of the South China Sea Islands in 1932 and 1935. In 1933, the Chinese government lodged an official protest to the French government after its occupation of Taiping Island. In 1947, the Ministry of Interior of China renamed 149 of the islands. Later, in November 1947, the Secretaritat of Guangdong Government of China was authorised to publish the Map of the South China Sea Islands. The Japanese and the French renounced their claims as soon as their respective occupations or colonization had ended. In 1958, the People's Republic of China (PRC) issued a declaration defining its territorial waters within what is known as the Nine-Dash Line which encompassed the Spratly Islands. North Vietnam's prime minister, Phạm Văn Đồng, sent a diplomatic note to Zhou Enlai, stating that "The Government of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam respects this decision." The diplomatic note was written on 14 September and was publicised in Nhan Dan newspaper (Vietnam) on 22 September 1958. Regarding this letter, there have been many arguments on its true meaning and the reason why Phạm Văn Đồng decided to send it to Zhou Enlai. In an interview with BBC Vietnam, Dr. Balázs Szalontai provided the following analysis of this issue: It was also argued that, Phạm Văn Đồng who represented North Vietnam at that time had no legal right to comment on a territorial part which belonged to the South Vietnam represented by Ngo Dinh Diem. Therefore, the letter has no legal value and is considered as a diplomatic document to show the support of the government of North Vietnam to the PRC at that time. In China, in 1959, the islands were put under an administrative office (办事处/banshichu). In 1988, the office was switched to the administration of the newly founded Hainan Province. The PRC strongly asserted its claims to the islands, but in the late 1990s, under the new security concept, the PRC put its claims less strongly. According to the Kyodo News, in March 2010 PRC officials told US officials that they consider the South China Sea a "core interest" on par with Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang. In July 2010, the Communist Party-controlled Global Times stated that "China will never waive its right to protect its core interest with military means" and a Ministry of Defense spokesman said that "China has indisputable sovereignty of the South Sea and China has sufficient historical and legal backing" to underpin its claims. China added a tenth-dash line to the east of Taiwan island in 2013 as a part of its official sovereignty claim to the disputed territories in the South China Sea. In addition to the People's Republic of China and Vietnam, the Republic of China (i.e. Taiwan), Malaysia, Brunei, and the Philippines also claim and occupy some islands. Taiwan claims all the Spratly Islands, but occupies only one island and one shelf, including Taiping Island. Malaysia occupies three islands on its continental shelf. The Philippines claim most of the Spratlys and calls them the Kalayaan Group of islands, and they form a distinct municipality in the province of Palawan. The Philippines, however, occupy only eight islands. Brunei claims a relatively small area, including islands on Louisa Reef. Indonesia's claims are not on any island, but on maritime rights. (See South China Sea) In July 2016, in Philippines v. China, the Permanent Court of Arbitration ruled in favor of the Philippines. It clarified that it would not "...rule on any question of sovereignty over land territory and would not delimit any maritime boundary between the Parties". The tribunal also ruled that China has "no historical rights" based on the "nine-dash line" map. China has rejected the ruling, as has Taiwan. See also Great wall of sand List of islands in the South China Sea List of islands of the Philippines List of islands of the Republic of China List of islands of Vietnam List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands References Citations Sources The Dotted Line on the Chinese Map of the South China Sea: A Note The South China Sea Issue Geopolitics of Scarborough Schoal Chinese islands names defined by the Republic of China (Taiwan) External links Ecoregions of Asia Ecoregions of China Ecoregions of Malaysia Ecoregions of the Philippines Ecoregions of Taiwan Ecoregions of Vietnam Indomalayan ecoregions Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Disputed islands Disputed territories in Asia Islands of Southeast Asia Maritime Southeast Asia	[ 0.1071990430355072, -0.26226571202278137, -0.08653800934553146, -0.28035691380500793, -0.22539940476417542, 0.1855124682188034, 0.162027046084404, 0.4117322564125061, -0.4980584681034088, 0.03484908118844032, -0.45423227548599243, 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240842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Hallett%20Dale	Henry Hallett Dale	Sir Henry Hallett Dale (9 June 1875 – 23 July 1968) was an English pharmacologist and physiologist. For his study of acetylcholine as agent in the chemical transmission of nerve pulses (neurotransmission) he shared the 1936 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Otto Loewi. Early life and education Henry Hallett Dale was born in Islington, London, to Charles James Dale, a pottery manufacturer from Staffordshire, and his wife, Frances Anne Hallett, daughter of a furniture manufacturer, from South Devon. Henry was the third of seven children, one of whom (his younger brother, Benjamin Dale) became an accomplished composer and warden of the Royal Academy of Music. Henry was educated at the local Tollington Park College and then The Leys School Cambridge (one of the school's houses is named after him) and in 1894 entered Trinity College, Cambridge, working under the physiologist John Langley. For a few months in 1903 he also studied under Paul Ehrlich in Frankfurt, Germany. Also in 1903, Dale assisted Ernest Starling and William Bayliss in the vivisection of a dog, by removing the dog's pancreas and then killing the dog with a knife, which ultimately led to the events of the Brown Dog affair. Dale received his Doctor of Medicine degree from Cambridge in 1909. Career and research While working at the University College London, he met and became friends with Otto Loewi. Dale became the Director of the Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology at the National Institute for Medical Research in London in 1914. He became a Fullerian Professor of Chemistry at the Royal Institution in 1942. During World War II he served on the Scientific Advisory Panel to the Cabinet. Although Dale and his colleagues first identified acetylcholine in 1914 as a possible neurotransmitter, Loewi showed its importance in the nervous system. The two men shared the 1936 Nobel Prize for Medicine. During the 1940s Dale was embroiled in the scientific debate over the nature of signaling at the synapse. Dale and others believed that signaling at the synapse was chemical, while John Carew Eccles and others believed that the synapse was electrical. It was later found that most synaptic signalling is chemical, but there are some synapses that are electrical. Dale also originated the scheme used to differentiate neurons according to the neurotransmitters they release. Thus, neurons releasing noradrenaline (known in the United States as norepinephrine) are called noradrenergic, neurons releasing GABA are GABAergic, and so on. This is called Dale's principle (sometimes erroneously referred to as Dale's Law), one interpretation of which holds that each neuron releases only one type of neurotransmitter. This particular interpretation of Dale's principle has been shown to be false, as many neurons release neuropeptides and amino acids in addition to classical neurotransmitters such as acetylcholine or biogenic amines (see cotransmission) (Bear, et al. 2001). This finding, that numerous neurotransmitters can be released by the same neuron, is referred to as the "coexistence principle." This phenomenon was most popularized by the Swedish neuroanatomist and neuropharmacologist Tomas Hökfelt, who is considered to be the "Father of the Coexistence Principle." Between 1938 and 1960 Dale served as chairman of the Wellcome Trust. Awards and honours Dale was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1914. In 1926, he was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. He was knighted in 1932, receiving the Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire in 1943 and the Order of Merit in 1944. He served as President of the Royal Society from 1940 to 1945 and President of the Royal Society of Medicine from 1948 to 1950. The Sir Henry Dale Fellowships of the Wellcome Trust are named in his honour and the Society for Endocrinology awards the Dale Medal annually in his honour. Personal life In 1904, Dale had married his first cousin Elen Harriet Hallett and had a son and two daughters. One of their daughters, Alison Sarah Dale, married Alexander R. Todd, who too won the Nobel Prize and served as President of the Royal Society from 1940 to 1945. The Dales lived at Mount Vernon House from 1919 to 1942. Dales's residency at the house is marked by a Greater London Council blue plaque erected in 1981 on the garden wall of the house. References External links including the Nobel Lecture, 12 December 1936 Some Recent Extensions of the Chemical Transmission of the Effects of Nerve Impulses 1875 births 1968 deaths People educated at The Leys School Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge English neuroscientists English pharmacologists Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Fellows of the Royal Society Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences Presidents of the Royal Society Presidents of the Royal Society of Medicine Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class) Members of the Order of Merit Royal Medal winners Recipients of the Copley Medal Knights Bachelor English Nobel laureates National Institute for Medical Research faculty Academics of University College London	[ -0.07310240715742111, 0.8130863904953003, -0.359576940536499, -0.7159792184829712, -0.005686548072844744, 0.5533521771430969, 0.755126416683197, -0.46367761492729187, 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240843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tumor%20necrosis%20factor	Tumor necrosis factor	Tumor necrosis factor (TNF, cachexin, or cachectin; often called tumor necrosis factor alpha or TNF-α) is an adipokine and a cytokine. TNF is a member of the TNF superfamily, which consists of various transmembrane proteins with a homologous TNF domain. As an adipokine, TNF promotes insulin resistance, and is associated with obesity-induced type 2 diabetes. As a cytokine, TNF is used by the immune system for cell signaling. If macrophages (certain white blood cells) detect an infection, they release TNF to alert other immune system cells as part of an inflammatory response. TNF signaling occurs through two receptors: TNFR1 and TNFR2. TNFR1 is constituitively expressed on most cell types, whereas TNFR2 is restricted primarily to endothelial, epithelial, and subsets of immune cells. TNFR1 signaling tends to be pro-inflammatory and apoptotic, whereas TNFR2 signaling is anti-inflammatory and promotes cell proliferation. Suppression of TNFR1 signaling has been important for treatment of autoimmune disease, whereas TNFR2 signaling promotes wound healing. TNF-α exists as a transmembrane form (mTNF-α) and as a soluble form (sTNF-α). sTNF-α results from enzymatic cleavage of mTNF-α, by a process called substrate presentation. mTNF-α is mainly found on monocytes/macrophages where it interacts with tissue receptors by cell-to-cell contact. sTNF-α selectively binds to TNFR1, whereas mTNF-α binds to both TNFR1 and TNFR2. TNF-α binding to TNFR1 is irreversible, whereas binding to TNFR2 is reversible. The primary role of TNF is in the regulation of immune cells. TNF, as an endogenous pyrogen, is able to induce fever, apoptotic cell death, cachexia, and inflammation, inhibit tumorigenesis and viral replication, and respond to sepsis via IL-1 and IL-6-producing cells. Dysregulation of TNF production has been implicated in a variety of human diseases including Alzheimer's disease, cancer, major depression, psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Though controversial, some studies have linked depression and IBD to increased levels of TNF. Under the name tasonermin, TNF is used as an immunostimulant drug in the treatment of certain cancers. Drugs that counter the action of TNF are used in the treatment of various inflammatory diseases, for instance rheumatoid arthritis. Certain cancers can cause overproduction of TNF. TNF parallels parathyroid hormone both in causing secondary hypercalcemia and in the cancers with which excessive production is associated. Discovery The theory of an anti-tumoral response of the immune system in vivo was recognized by the physician William B. Coley. In 1968, Gale A Granger from the University of California, Irvine, reported a cytotoxic factor produced by lymphocytes and named it lymphotoxin (LT). Credit for this discovery is shared by Nancy H. Ruddle from Yale University, who reported the same activity in a series of back-to-back articles published in the same month. Subsequently, in 1975 Lloyd J. Old from Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, reported another cytotoxic factor produced by macrophages and named it tumor necrosis factor (TNF). Both factors were described based on their ability to kill mouse fibrosarcoma L-929 cells. These concepts were extended to systemic disease in 1981, when Ian A. Clark, from the Australian National University, in collaboration with Elizabeth Carswell in Old's group, working with pre-sequencing era data, reasoned that excessive production of TNF causes malaria disease and endotoxin poisoning. The cDNAs encoding LT and TNF were cloned in 1984 and were revealed to be similar. The binding of TNF to its receptor and its displacement by LT confirmed the functional homology between the two factors. The sequential and functional homology of TNF and LT led to the renaming of TNF as TNFα and LT as TNFβ. In 1985, Bruce A. Beutler and Anthony Cerami discovered that cachectin (a hormone which induces cachexia) was actually TNF. They then identified TNF as a mediator of lethal endotoxin poisoning. Kevin J. Tracey and Cerami discovered the key mediator role of TNF in lethal septic shock, and identified the therapeutic effects of monoclonal anti-TNF antibodies. Research in the Laboratory of Mark Mattson has shown that TNF can prevent the death/apoptosis of neurons by a mechanism involving activation of the transcription factor NF-κB which induces the expression of antioxidant enzymes and Bcl-2. Gene The human TNF gene was cloned in 1985. It maps to chromosome 6p21.3, spans about 3 kilobases and contains 4 exons. The last exon shares similarity with lymphotoxin alpha (LTA, once named as TNF-β). The three prime untranslated region (3'-UTR) of TNF contains an AU-rich element (ARE). Structure TNF is primarily produced as a 233-amino acid-long type II transmembrane protein arranged in stable homotrimers. From this membrane-integrated form the soluble homotrimeric cytokine (sTNF) is released via proteolytic cleavage by the metalloprotease TNF alpha converting enzyme (TACE, also called ADAM17). The soluble 51 kDa trimeric sTNF tends to dissociate at concentrations below the nanomolar range, thereby losing its bioactivity. The secreted form of human TNF takes on a triangular pyramid shape, and weighs around 17-kDa. Both the secreted and the membrane bound forms are biologically active, although the specific functions of each is controversial. But, both forms do have overlapping and distinct biological activities. The common house mouse TNF and human TNF are structurally different. The 17-kilodalton (kDa) TNF protomers (185-amino acid-long) are composed of two antiparallel β-pleated sheets with antiparallel β-strands, forming a 'jelly roll' β-structure, typical for the TNF family, but also found in viral capsid proteins. Cell signaling TNF can bind two receptors, TNFR1 (TNF receptor type 1; CD120a; p55/60) and TNFR2 (TNF receptor type 2; CD120b; p75/80). TNFR1 is 55-kDa and TNFR2 is 75-kDa. TNFR1 is expressed in most tissues, and can be fully activated by both the membrane-bound and soluble trimeric forms of TNF, whereas TNFR2 is found typically in cells of the immune system, and responds to the membrane-bound form of the TNF homotrimer. As most information regarding TNF signaling is derived from TNFR1, the role of TNFR2 is likely underestimated. At least partly because TNFR2 has no intracellular death domain, it shows neuroprotective properties. Upon contact with their ligand, TNF receptors also form trimers, their tips fitting into the grooves formed between TNF monomers. This binding causes a conformational change to occur in the receptor, leading to the dissociation of the inhibitory protein SODD from the intracellular death domain. This dissociation enables the adaptor protein TRADD to bind to the death domain, serving as a platform for subsequent protein binding. Following TRADD binding, three pathways can be initiated. Activation of NF-κB: TRADD recruits TRAF2 and RIP. TRAF2 in turn recruits the multicomponent protein kinase IKK, enabling the serine-threonine kinase RIP to activate it. An inhibitory protein, IκBα, that normally binds to NF-κB and inhibits its translocation, is phosphorylated by IKK and subsequently degraded, releasing NF-κB. NF-κB is a heterodimeric transcription factor that translocates to the nucleus and mediates the transcription of a vast array of proteins involved in cell survival and proliferation, inflammatory response, and anti-apoptotic factors. Activation of the MAPK pathways: Of the three major MAPK cascades, TNF induces a strong activation of the stress-related JNK group, evokes moderate response of the p38-MAPK, and is responsible for minimal activation of the classical ERKs. TRAF2/Rac activates the JNK-inducing upstream kinases of MLK2/MLK3, TAK1, MEKK1 and ASK1 (either directly or through GCKs and Trx, respectively). SRC- Vav- Rac axis activates MLK2/MLK3 and these kinases phosphorylate MKK7, which then activates JNK. JNK translocates to the nucleus and activates transcription factors such as c-Jun and ATF2. The JNK pathway is involved in cell differentiation, proliferation, and is generally pro-apoptotic. Induction of death signaling: Like all death-domain-containing members of the TNFR superfamily, TNFR1 is involved in death signaling. However, TNF-induced cell death plays only a minor role compared to its overwhelming functions in the inflammatory process. Its death-inducing capability is weak compared to other family members (such as Fas), and often masked by the anti-apoptotic effects of NF-κB. Nevertheless, TRADD binds FADD, which then recruits the cysteine protease caspase-8. A high concentration of caspase-8 induces its autoproteolytic activation and subsequent cleaving of effector caspases, leading to cell apoptosis. The myriad and often-conflicting effects mediated by the above pathways indicate the existence of extensive cross-talk. For instance, NF-κB enhances the transcription of C-FLIP, Bcl-2, and cIAP1 / cIAP2, inhibitory proteins that interfere with death signaling. On the other hand, activated caspases cleave several components of the NF-κB pathway, including RIP, IKK, and the subunits of NF-κB itself. Other factors, such as cell type, concurrent stimulation of other cytokines, or the amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) can shift the balance in favor of one pathway or another. Such complicated signaling ensures that, whenever TNF is released, various cells with vastly diverse functions and conditions can all respond appropriately to inflammation. Both protein molecules tumor necrosis factor alpha and keratin 17 appear to be related in case of oral submucous fibrosis In animal models TNF selectively kills autoreactive T cells. There is also evidence that TNF-α signaling triggers downstream epigenetic modifications that result in lasting enhancement of pro-inflammatory responses in cells. Enzyme regulation This protein may use the morpheein model of allosteric regulation. Clinical significance TNF was thought to be produced primarily by macrophages, but it is produced also by a broad variety of cell types including lymphoid cells, mast cells, endothelial cells, cardiac myocytes, adipose tissue, fibroblasts, and neurons. Large amounts of TNF are released in response to lipopolysaccharide, other bacterial products, and interleukin-1 (IL-1). In the skin, mast cells appear to be the predominant source of pre-formed TNF, which can be released upon inflammatory stimulus (e.g., LPS). It has a number of actions on various organ systems, generally together with IL-1 and interleukin-6 (IL-6): On the hypothalamus: Stimulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis by stimulating the release of corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) Suppressing appetite Fever On the liver: stimulating the acute phase response, leading to an increase in C-reactive protein and a number of other mediators. It also induces insulin resistance by promoting serine-phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1), which impairs insulin signaling It is a potent chemoattractant for neutrophils, and promotes the expression of adhesion molecules on endothelial cells, helping neutrophils migrate. On macrophages: stimulates phagocytosis, and production of IL-1 oxidants and the inflammatory lipid prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) On other tissues: increasing insulin resistance. TNF phosphorylates insulin receptor serine residues, blocking signal transduction. On metabolism and food intake: regulates bitter taste perception. A local increase in concentration of TNF will cause the cardinal signs of Inflammation to occur: heat, swelling, redness, pain and loss of function. Whereas high concentrations of TNF induce shock-like symptoms, the prolonged exposure to low concentrations of TNF can result in cachexia, a wasting syndrome. This can be found, for example, in cancer patients. Said et al. showed that TNF causes an IL-10-dependent inhibition of CD4 T-cell expansion and function by up-regulating PD-1 levels on monocytes which leads to IL-10 production by monocytes after binding of PD-1 by PD-L. The research of Pedersen et al. indicates that TNF increase in response to sepsis is inhibited by the exercise-induced production of myokines. To study whether acute exercise induces a true anti-inflammatory response, a model of 'low grade inflammation' was established in which a low dose of E. coli endotoxin was administered to healthy volunteers, who had been randomised to either rest or exercise prior to endotoxin administration. In resting subjects, endotoxin induced a 2- to 3-fold increase in circulating levels of TNF. In contrast, when the subjects performed 3 hours of ergometer cycling and received the endotoxin bolus at 2.5 h, the TNF response was totally blunted. This study provides some evidence that acute exercise may inhibit TNF production. In the brain TNF can protect against excitotoxicity. TNF strengthens synapses. TNF in neurons promotes their survival, whereas TNF in macrophages and microglia results in neurotoxins that induce apoptosis. TNF-α and IL-6 concentrations are elevated in obesity. Monoclonal antibody against TNF-α is associated with increases rather than decreases in obesity, indicating that inflammation is the result, rather than the cause, of obesity. TNF and IL-6 are the most prominent cytokines predicting COVID-19 severity and death. Pharmacology TNF promotes the inflammatory response, which, in turn, causes many of the clinical problems associated with autoimmune disorders such as rheumatoid arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, hidradenitis suppurativa and refractory asthma. These disorders are sometimes treated by using a TNF inhibitor. This inhibition can be achieved with a monoclonal antibody such as infliximab (Remicade) binding directly to TNF, adalimumab (Humira), certolizumab pegol (Cimzia) or with a decoy circulating receptor fusion protein such as etanercept (Enbrel) which binds to TNF with greater affinity than the TNFR. On the other hand some patients treated with TNF inhibitors develop an aggravation of their disease or new onset of autoimmunity. TNF seems to have an immunosuppressive facet as well. One explanation for a possible mechanism is this observation that TNF has a positive effect on regulatory T cells (Tregs), due to its binding to the tumor necrosis factor receptor 2 (TNFR2). Anti-TNF therapy has shown only modest effects in cancer therapy. Treatment of renal cell carcinoma with infliximab resulted in prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients. Etanercept was tested for treating patients with breast cancer and ovarian cancer showing prolonged disease stabilization in certain patients via downregulation of IL-6 and CCL2. On the other hand, adding infliximab or etanercept to gemcitabine for treating patients with advanced pancreatic cancer was not associated with differences in efficacy when compared with placebo. Interactions TNF has been shown to interact with TNFRSF1A. Nomenclature Because LTα is no longer referred to as TNFβ, TNFα, as the previous gene symbol, is now simply called TNF, as shown in HGNC (HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee) database. 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240844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reef	Reef	A reef is a ridge or shoal of rock, coral or similar relatively stable material, lying beneath the surface of a natural body of water. Many reefs result from natural, abiotic processes—deposition of sand, wave erosion planing down rock outcrops, etc.—but there are also reefs such as the coral reefs of tropical waters formed by biotic processes dominated by corals and coralline algae, and artificial reefs such as shipwrecks and other anthropogenic underwater structures may occur intentionally or as the result of an accident, and sometimes have a designed role in enhancing the physical complexity of featureless sand bottoms, to attract a more diverse assemblage of organisms. Reefs are often quite near to the surface, but not all definitions require this. Earth's largest coral reef system is the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, at a length of over . Biotic There is a variety of biotic reef types, including oyster reefs and sponge reefs, but the most massive and widely distributed are tropical coral reefs. Although corals are major contributors to the framework and bulk material comprising a coral reef; the organisms most responsible for reef growth against the constant assault from ocean waves are calcareous algae, especially, although not entirely, coralline algae. The preferred substrate for oyster larvae is the shells of oysters so they tend to settle on adult oysters and thereby develop layers building upwards, eventually forming a fairly massive hard stony calcium carbonate structure on which other reef organisms like sponges and seaweeds can grow, and provide a habitat for mobile benthic organisms. These biotic reef types take on additional names depending upon how the reef lies in relation to the land, if any. Reef types include fringing reefs, barrier reefs, and atolls. A fringing reef is a reef that is attached to an island. A barrier reef forms a calcareous barrier around an island resulting in a lagoon between the shore and the reef. An atoll is a ring reef with no land present. The reef front (ocean side) is a high energy locale whereas the internal lagoon will be at a lower energy with fine grained sediments. Mounds One useful definition distinguishes reefs from mounds as follows: Both are considered to be varieties of organosedimentary buildups – sedimentary features, built by the interaction of organisms and their environment, that have synoptic relief and whose biotic composition differs from that found on and beneath the surrounding sea floor. Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework. Coral reefs are an example of this kind. Corals and calcareous algae grow on top of one another and form a three-dimensional framework that is modified in various ways by other organisms and inorganic processes. By contrast, mounds lack a macroscopic skeletal framework. Mounds are built by microorganisms or by organisms that don't grow a skeletal framework. A microbial mound might be built exclusively or primarily by cyanobacteria. Examples of biostromes formed by cyanobacteria occur in the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and in Shark Bay on the coast of Western Australia. Cyanobacteria do not have skeletons, and individuals are microscopic. Cyanobacteria can encourage the precipitation or accumulation of calcium carbonate to produce distinct sediment bodies in composition that have relief on the seafloor. Cyanobacterial mounds were most abundant before the evolution of shelly macroscopic organisms, but they still exist today; stromatolites are microbial mounds with a laminated internal structure. Bryozoans and crinoids, common contributors to marine sediments during the Mississippian, for instance, produced a very different kind of mound. Bryozoans are small and the skeletons of crinoids disintegrate. However, bryozoan and crinoid meadows can persist over time and produce compositionally distinct bodies of sediment with depositional relief. The Proterozoic Belt Supergroup contains evidence of possible microbial mat and dome structures similar to stromatolite and chicken reef complexes. Geologic Rocky reefs are underwater outcrops of rock projecting above the adjacent unconsolidated surface with varying relief. They can be found in depth ranges from intertidal to deep water, and provide a substrate for a large range of sessile benthic organisms, and shelter for a large range of mobile organisms. Structures Ancient reefs buried within stratigraphic sections are of considerable interest to geologists because they provide paleo-environmental information about the location in Earth's history. In addition, reef structures within a sequence of sedimentary rocks provide a discontinuity which may serve as a trap or conduit for fossil fuels or mineralizing fluids to form petroleum or ore deposits. Corals, including some major extinct groups Rugosa and Tabulata, have been important reef builders through much of the Phanerozoic since the Ordovician Period. However, other organism groups, such as calcifying algae, especially members of the red algae Rhodophyta, and molluscs (especially the rudist bivalves during the Cretaceous Period) have created massive structures at various times. During the Cambrian Period, the conical or tubular skeletons of Archaeocyatha, an extinct group of uncertain affinities (possibly sponges), built reefs. Other groups, such as the Bryozoa have been important interstitial organisms, living between the framework builders. The corals which build reefs today, the Scleractinia, arose after the Permian–Triassic extinction event that wiped out the earlier rugose corals (as well as many other groups), and became increasingly important reef builders throughout the Mesozoic Era. They may have arisen from a rugose coral ancestor. Rugose corals built their skeletons of calcite and have a different symmetry from that of the scleractinian corals, whose skeletons are aragonite. However, there are some unusual examples of well-preserved aragonitic rugose corals in the Late Permian. In addition, calcite has been reported in the initial post-larval calcification in a few scleractinian corals. Nevertheless, scleractinian corals (which arose in the middle Triassic) may have arisen from a non-calcifying ancestor independent of the rugosan corals (which disappeared in the late Permian). Artificial An artificial reef is a human-created underwater structure, typically built to promote marine life in areas with a generally featureless bottom, to control erosion, block ship passage, block the use of trawling nets, or improve surfing. Many reefs are built using objects that were built for other purposes, for example by sinking oil rigs (through the Rigs-to-Reefs program), scuttling ships, or by deploying rubble or construction debris. Other artificial reefs are purpose built (e.g. the reef balls) from PVC or concrete. Shipwrecks become artificial reefs on the seafloor. Regardless of construction method, artificial reefs generally provide stable hard surfaces where algae and invertebrates such as barnacles, corals, and oysters attach; the accumulation of attached marine life in turn provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish. See also References Sources Shears N.T. (2007) Biogeography, community structure and biological habitat types of subtidal reefs on the South Island West Coast, New Zealand. Science for Conservation 281. p 53. Department of Conservation, New Zealand. External links Reef Rescue - Smithsonian Ocean Portal Coral Reefs of the Tropics: facts, photos and movies from The Nature Conservancy NOAA Photo Library Reef Environmental Education Foundation NOS Data Explorer - A portal to obtain NOAA National Ocean Service data Reef formation Atolls – Distribution, Development and Architecture Stratigraphy Coastal geography Coastal and oceanic landforms	[ 0.457463800907135, -0.3828484117984772, -0.3404299020767212, 0.3961968719959259, -0.018064703792333603, -0.19592534005641937, 0.28546085953712463, 0.3102971911430359, -0.43212586641311646, -0.5401829481124878, -0.7659990191459656, 0.3825913071632385, -0.14976060390472412, 0.5979278683662415, 0.038261737674474716, 0.7922664284706116, 0.6262187957763672, -0.09383092820644379, -0.11549124121665955, 0.5167361497879028, -1.1592458486557007, 0.19580481946468353, 0.072657510638237, -0.45087170600891113, 0.5204136967658997, -0.2800527513027191, 0.22383730113506317, 0.47072675824165344, 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240845	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunpei%20Yokoi	Gunpei Yokoi	, sometimes transliterated Gumpei Yokoi, was a Japanese video game designer. He was a long-time Nintendo employee, best known as creator of the Game & Watch handheld system, inventor of the "cross" shaped Control Pad, the original designer of the Game Boy, and producer of a few long-running and critically acclaimed video game franchises, such as Metroid and Kid Icarus. Career Yokoi graduated from Doshisha University with a degree in electronics. He was first hired by Nintendo in 1965 to maintain the assembly-line machines used to manufacture its hanafuda cards. In 1966, Hiroshi Yamauchi, president of Nintendo at the time, came to a hanafuda factory where Yokoi was working at and took notice of a toy, an extending arm, that Yokoi made for his own amusement during spare time as the company's machine maintenance man. Yamauchi ordered Yokoi to develop it as a proper product for the Christmas rush. The Ultra Hand was a huge success, and Yokoi was asked to work on other Nintendo toys including the Ten Billion Barrel puzzle, a miniature remote-controlled vacuum cleaner called the Chiritory, a baseball throwing machine called the Ultra Machine, and a "Love Tester." He worked on toys until the company decided to make video games in 1974, when he became one of its first game designers, only preceded by Genyo Takeda. While traveling on the Shinkansen, Yokoi saw a bored businessman playing with an LCD calculator by pressing the buttons. Yokoi then got the idea for a watch that doubled as a miniature video gaming pastime, and went on to create Game & Watch, a line of handheld electronic games of simple LCD animated minigames, which ran from 1980 to 1991 and had 60 variations. In 1981, Yamauchi appointed Yokoi to supervise Donkey Kong, an arcade game created by Shigeru Miyamoto. Yokoi explained many of the intricacies of game design to Miyamoto at the beginning of his career, and the project only came to be approved after Yokoi brought Miyamoto's game ideas to the president's attention. After the worldwide success of Donkey Kong, Yokoi continued to work with Miyamoto on the next Mario game, Mario Bros. He proposed the multiplayer concept and convinced his co-worker to give Mario some superhuman abilities, such as the ability to jump unharmed from great heights. After Mario Bros., Yokoi produced several R&D1 games, such as Kid Icarus and Metroid. He designed R.O.B. and the Game Boy, the latter of which became a worldwide success. Another of his creations, the Virtual Boy, was a commercial failure. Nintendo has denied that the Virtual Boy's poor performance in the market was the reason for Yokoi's subsequent departure from the company, holding that his retirement was "absolutely coincidental" to the market performance of any Nintendo hardware. According to his Nintendo and Koto colleague Yoshihiro Taki, Yokoi had originally decided to retire at age 50 to do as he pleased but had simply delayed it. According to David Sheff's book Game Over, Yokoi never actually intended for the console to be released in its present form. However, Nintendo pushed the Virtual Boy to market so that it could focus development resources on the Nintendo 64. Amid the failure of the Virtual Boy and the launch of the more successful Game Boy Pocket, Yokoi left Nintendo on 15 August 1996 after thirty-one years at the company. Leaving with several of his subordinates to form a new company called Koto, Yokoi led the development of the Bandai WonderSwan handheld gaming machine. Lateral Thinking with Withered Technology Yokoi said "The Nintendo way of adapting technology is not to look for the state of the art but to utilize mature technology that can be mass-produced cheaply." He articulated his philosophy of (also translated as "Lateral Thinking with Seasoned Technology"), in the book Yokoi Gunpei Game House. "Withered technology" in this context refers to a mature technology which is cheap and well understood. "Lateral thinking" refers to finding radical new ways of using such technology. Yokoi held that toys and games do not necessarily require cutting-edge technology; novel and fun gameplay are more important. In the interview, he suggested that expensive cutting-edge technology can get in the way of developing a new product. Game & Watch was developed based on this philosophy. At the time of its development, Sharp and Casio were fiercely competing in the digital calculator market. For this reason, there was a glut of liquid crystal displays and semiconductors. The "lateral thinking" was to find an original and fun use for this cheap and abundant technology. The NES and Game Boy were developed under a similar philosophy. In the handheld market, Yokoi's refusal to adopt a color display for the Game Boy in favor of long battery life is cited as the main reason it prevailed against Sega's Game Gear and Atari's Lynx. Satoru Iwata, CEO of Nintendo from 2002 until his death in 2015, claimed that this philosophy is still part of Nintendo as it has been passed on to the disciples of Yokoi, such as Miyamoto, and it continues to show itself in Nintendo's then current use of technology with the Nintendo DS handheld system and the highly successful home gaming console, the Wii. The Wii's internal technology is similar to the previous game system's, the GameCube's, and is not as advanced in terms of computational capability and multimedia versatility compared to the competing Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 consoles. Instead, the system offered something completely different by introducing motion-based controls to the console market in an attempt to change the ways video games are played, and consequently, to widen the audience for video games in general – which it successfully did. This strategy demonstrated Nintendo's belief that graphical advancement isn't the only way to make progress in gaming technology; indeed, after the Wii's overwhelming initial success, Sony and Microsoft released their own motion control peripherals. Nintendo's emphasis on peripherals for the Wii has also been pointed to as an example of Yokoi's "lateral thinking" at work. Death On 4 October 1997, Yokoi was riding in a car driven by his associate Etsuo Kiso on the Hokuriku Expressway, when the vehicle rear-ended a truck. After the two men had left the car to inspect the damage, Yokoi was hit and fatally injured by a passing car. The driver of the car that hit Yokoi in the second accident was Gen Tsushima, a member of the tourism industry. Yokoi's death was confirmed two hours later. Kiso suffered only a fractured rib. Legacy The title of his main biography from 2010 translates from Japanese as Father of Games – Gunpei Yokoi, the Man Who Created Nintendo's DNA. A 1997 book's title translates to Yokoi's House of Gaming, which was explored in English in 2010 by Tokyo Scum Brigade. A 2014 book about him is Gunpei Yokoi: The Life & Philosophy of Nintendo's God of Toys. In 2003, Yokoi posthumously received the Lifetime Achievement Award of the International Game Developers Association. GameTrailers placed him on their lists for the "Top Ten Game Creators". An art gallery in Japan created an art exhibit in 2010 titled "The Man Who Was Called the God of Games" featuring all his key Nintendo works. In 1999, Bandai began releasing a series of handheld puzzle games named Gunpey as a tribute to their original creator, Yokoi. References External links Gunpei Yokoi's Lifetime Achievement Award N-Sider Profile: Gunpei Yokoi N-Sider: History of R&D 1 Gunpei Yokoi In Memoriam 1941 – 1997 Searching for Gunpei Yokoi Twenty Years of the Game Boy – Celebrating Gunpei Yokoi's Genius 1941 births 1997 deaths People from Kyoto Road incident deaths in Japan Nintendo people Metroid Japanese video game designers Japanese inventors Toy designers Virtual reality pioneers Doshisha University alumni Game Developers Conference Lifetime Achievement Award recipients	[ 0.2274027317762375, 0.342971533536911, -0.7646953463554382, -0.1606259047985077, -0.8549511432647705, 0.911294162273407, 0.15895746648311615, -0.5257369875907898, -0.3727835714817047, -0.08362957090139389, -0.037988048046827316, 0.5377443432807922, -0.29300451278686523, -0.05499359965324402, -0.5148065090179443, 0.02117437683045864, -0.030777370557188988, 0.1728803813457489, -0.7624027132987976, -0.4247378408908844, -0.5028092861175537, -0.8605135679244995, 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240846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann%20Joseph%20Muller	Hermann Joseph Muller	Hermann Joseph Muller (December 21, 1890 – April 5, 1967) was an American geneticist, educator, and Nobel laureate best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation (mutagenesis), as well as his outspoken political beliefs. Muller frequently warned of long-term dangers of radioactive fallout from nuclear war and nuclear testing, which resulted in greater public scrutiny of these practices. Early life Muller was born in New York City, the son of Frances (Lyons) and Hermann Joseph Muller, Sr., an artisan who worked with metals. Muller was a third-generation American whose father's ancestors were originally Catholic and came to the United States from Koblenz. His mother's family was of mixed Jewish (descended from Spanish and Portuguese Jews) and Anglican background, and had come from Britain. Among his first cousins are Herbert J. Muller and Alfred Kroeber (Kroeber is Ursula Le Guin's father). As an adolescent, Muller attended a Unitarian church and considered himself a pantheist; in high school, he became an atheist. He excelled in the public schools. At 16, he entered Columbia College. From his first semester, he was interested in biology; he became an early convert of the Mendelian-chromosome theory of heredity—and the concept of genetic mutations and natural selection as the basis for evolution. He formed a biology club and also became a proponent of eugenics; the connections between biology and society would be his perennial concern. Muller earned a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1910. Muller remained at Columbia (the pre-eminent American zoology program at the time, due to E. B. Wilson and his students) for graduate school. He became interested in the Drosophila genetics work of Thomas Hunt Morgan's fly lab after undergraduate bottle washers Alfred Sturtevant and Calvin Bridges joined his biology club. In 1911–1912, he studied metabolism at Cornell University, but remained involved with Columbia. He followed the drosophilists as the first genetic maps emerged from Morgan's experiments, and joined Morgan's group in 1912 (after two years of informal participation). In the fly group, Muller's contributions were primarily theoretical—explanations for experimental results and ideas and predictions for new experiments. In the emerging collaborative culture of the drosophilists, however, credit was assigned based on results rather than ideas; Muller felt cheated when he was left out of major publications. Career In 1914, Julian Huxley offered Muller a position at the recently founded William Marsh Rice Institute, now Rice University; he hurried to complete his Doctor of philosophy degree and moved to Houston for the beginning of the 1915–1916 academic year (his degree was issued in 1916). At Rice, Muller taught biology and continued Drosophila lab work. In 1918, he proposed an explanation for the dramatic discontinuous alterations in Oenothera lamarckiana that were the basis of Hugo de Vries's theory of mutationism: "balanced lethals" allowed the accumulation of recessive mutations, and rare crossing over events resulted in the sudden expression of these hidden traits. In other words, de Vries's experiments were explainable by the Mendelian-chromosome theory. Muller's work was increasingly focused on mutation rate and lethal mutations. In 1918, Morgan, short-handed because many of his students and assistants were drafted for the U.S. entry into World War I, convinced Muller to return to Columbia to teach and to expand his experimental program. At Columbia, Muller and his collaborator and longtime friend Edgar Altenburg continued the investigation of lethal mutations. The primary method for detecting such mutations was to measure the sex ratios of the offspring of female flies. They predicted the ratio would vary from 1:1 due to recessive mutations on the X chromosome, which would be expressed only in males (which lacked the functional allele on a second X chromosome). Muller found a strong temperature dependence in mutation rate, leading him to believe that spontaneous mutation was the dominant mode (and to initially discount the role of external factors such as ionizing radiation or chemical agents). In 1920, Muller and Altenburg coauthored a seminal paper in Genetics on "modifier genes" that determine the size of mutant Drosophila wings. In 1919, Muller made the important discovery of a mutant (later found to be a chromosomal inversion) that appeared to suppress crossing over, which opened up new avenues in mutation-rate studies. However, his appointment at Columbia was not continued; he accepted an offer from the University of Texas and left Columbia after the summer of 1920. Muller taught at the University of Texas from 1920 until 1932. Soon after returning to Texas, he married mathematics professor Jessie Marie Jacobs, whom he had courted previously. In his early years at Texas, Muller's Drosophila work was slow going; the data from his mutation rate studies were difficult to interpret. In 1923, he began using radium and X-rays, but the relationship between radiation and mutation was difficult to measure because such radiation also sterilized the flies. In this period, he also became involved with eugenics and human genetics. He carried out a study of twins separated at birth that seemed to indicate a strong hereditary component of I.Q. Muller was critical of the new directions of the eugenics movement (such as anti-immigration), but was hopeful about the prospects for positive eugenics. In 1932, at the Third International Eugenics Congress, Muller gave a speech and stated, "eugenics might yet perfect the human race, but only in a society consciously organized for the common good". Discovery of X-ray mutagenesis In 1926, a series of major breakthroughs began. In November, Muller carried out two experiments with varied doses of X-rays, the second of which used the crossing over suppressor stock ("ClB") he had found in 1919. A clear, quantitative connection between radiation and lethal mutations quickly emerged. Muller's discovery created a media sensation after he delivered a paper entitled "The Problem of Genetic Modification" at the Fifth International Congress of Genetics in Berlin; it would make him one of the better-known public intellectuals of the early 20th century. By 1928, others had replicated his dramatic results, expanding them to other model organisms, such as wasps and maize. In the following years, he began publicizing the likely dangers of radiation exposure in humans (such as physicians who frequently operate X-ray equipment or shoe sellers who radiated their customers' feet). His lab grew quickly, but it shrank again following the onset of the Great Depression. Especially after the stock market crash, Muller was increasingly pessimistic about the prospects of capitalism. Some of his visiting lab members were from the USSR, and he helped edit and distribute an illegal leftist student newspaper, The Spark. It was a difficult period for Muller both scientifically and personally; his marriage was falling apart, and he was increasingly dissatisfied with his life in Texas. Meanwhile, the waning of the eugenics movement, ironically hastened by his own work pointing to the previously ignored connections between environment and genetics, meant that his ideas on the future of human evolution had reduced impact in the public sphere. Work in Europe In September 1932, Muller moved to Berlin to work with the Russian expatriate geneticist Nikolay Timofeeff-Ressovsky; a trip intended as a limited sabbatical stretched into an eight-year, five-country journey. In Berlin, he met two physicists who would later be significant to the biology community: Niels Bohr and Max Delbrück. The Nazi movement was precipitating the rapid emigration of scientific talent from Germany, and Muller was particularly opposed to the politics of National Socialism. The FBI was investigating Muller because of his involvement with The Spark, so he chose instead to go to the Soviet Union (an environment better suited to his political beliefs). In 1933, Muller and his wife reconciled, and their son David E. Muller and she moved with Hermann to Leningrad. There, at the Institute of Genetics, he imported the basic equipment for a Drosophila lab—including the flies—and set up shop. The institute was moved to Moscow in 1934, and Muller and his wife were divorced in 1935. In the USSR, Muller supervised a large and productive lab, and organized work on medical genetics. Most of his work involved further explorations of genetics and radiation. There he completed his eugenics book, Out of the Night, the main ideas of which dated to 1910. By 1936, however, Joseph Stalin's repressive policies and the rise of Lysenkoism was making the USSR an increasingly problematic place to live and work. Muller and many of the Russian genetics community did what they could to oppose Trofim Lysenko and his Larmarckian evolutionary theory, but Muller was soon forced to leave the Soviet Union after Stalin read a translation of his eugenics book and was "displeased by it, and...ordered an attack prepared against it." Muller, with about 250 strains of Drosophila, moved to Edinburgh in September 1937, after brief stays in Madrid and Paris. In 1938, with war on the horizon, he began looking for a permanent position back in the United States. He also began courting Dorothea "Thea" Kantorowicz, a German refugee; they were married in May 1939. The Seventh International Congress on Genetics was held in Edinburgh later that year; Muller wrote a "Geneticists' Manifesto" in response to the question: "How could the world's population be improved most effectively genetically?" He also engaged in a debate with the perennial genetics gadfly Richard Goldschmidt over the existence of the gene, for which little direct physical evidence existed at the time. Later career When Muller returned to the United States in 1940, he took an untenured research position at Amherst College, in the department of Otto C. Glaser. After the U.S. entry into World War II, his position was extended indefinitely and expanded to include teaching. His Drosophila work in this period focused on measuring the rate of spontaneous (as opposed to radiation-induced) mutations. Muller's publication rate decreased greatly in this period, from a combination of lack of lab workers and experimentally challenging projects. However, he also worked as an adviser in the Manhattan Project (though he did not know that was what it was), as well as a study of the mutational effects of radar. Muller's appointment was ended after the 1944–1945 academic year, and despite difficulties stemming from his socialist political activities, he found a position as professor of zoology at Indiana University. Here, he lived in a Dutch Colonial Revival house in Bloomington's Vinegar Hill neighborhood. In 1946, Muller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by X-rays". Genetics, and especially the physical and physiological nature of the gene, was becoming a central topic in biology, and X-ray mutagenesis was a key to many recent advances, among them George Beadle and Edward Tatum's work on Neurospora that established in 1941 the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis. In Muller's Nobel Prize lecture, he argued that no threshold dose of radiation existed that did not produce mutagenesis, which led to the adoption of the linear no-threshold model of radiation on cancer risks. The Nobel Prize, in the wake of the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, focused public attention on a subject Muller had been publicizing for two decades - the dangers of radiation. In 1952, nuclear fallout became a public issue; since Operation Crossroads, more and more evidence had been leaking out about radiation sickness and death caused by nuclear testing. Muller and many other scientists pursued an array of political activities to defuse the threat of nuclear war. With the Castle Bravo fallout controversy in 1954, the issue became even more urgent. In 1955, Muller was one of 11 prominent intellectuals to sign the Russell-Einstein Manifesto, the upshot of which was the first 1957 Pugwash Conference on Science and World Affairs, which addressed the control of nuclear weapons. He was a signatory (with many other scientists) of the 1958 petition to the United Nations, calling for an end to nuclear weapons testing, which was initiated by the Nobel Prize-winning chemist Linus Pauling. Muller's opinions on the effect of radiation on mutagenesis were used by Rachel Carson in her book Silent Spring, however, his opinions have been criticized by some scientists; geneticist James F. Crow called Muller's view "alarmist" and wrote that it created in the public "an irrational fear of low-level radiation relative to other risks". It has been argued that Muller's opinion was not supported by studies on the survivors of the atomic bombings, or by research on mice, and that he ignored another study that contradicted the linear no-threshold model he supported, thereby affecting the formulation of policy that favored this model. Muller was awarded the Linnean Society of London's Darwin-Wallace Medal in 1958 and the Kimber Genetics Award of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1955. He served as president of the American Humanist Association from 1956 to 1958. The American Mathematical Society selected him as its Gibbs Lecturer for 1958. He retired in 1964. The Drosophila basic units of inheritance, their chromosomal arms, are named "Muller elements" in Muller's honor. H. J. Muller and science-fiction writer Ursula K. Le Guin were second cousins; his father (Hermann J. Muller Sr.) and her father's mother (Johanna Muller Kroeber) were siblings, the children of Nicholas Müller, who immigrated to the United States in 1848, and at that time dropped the umlaut from his name. Another cousin was Herbert J. Muller, whose grandfather Otto was another son of Nicholas and a sibling of Hermann Sr. and Johanna. Personal life Muller is survived by his daughter, Helen J. Muller, now a professor emerita at the University of New Mexico, who has a daughter, Mala Htun, also a professor at the University of New Mexico. His son, David E. Muller, professor emeritus of mathematics and computer science at the University of Illinois and at New Mexico State University, died in 2008 in Las Cruces, New Mexico. David's mother was Jessie Jacobs Muller Offermann (1890–1954), Hermann's first wife. Helen's mother was Dorothea Kantorowicz Muller (1909–1986), Hermann's second wife, who came to the U.S. in 1940 as a German Jewish refugee. He had a brief affair with Milly Bennett. Notable former students Raissa L. Berg Elof Axel Carlson H. Bentley Glass C. P. Oliver Wilson Stone Former postdoctoral fellows George D. Snell Worked in lab as undergraduates Carl Sagan Bibliography Herman Joseph Muller, Modern Concept of Nature (SUNY Press, 1973). . Herman Joseph Muller, Man's Future Birthright (SUNY Press, 1973). . H. J. Muller, Out of the Night: A Biologist's View of the Future (Vanguard Press, 1935). H. J. Muller, Studies in Genetics: The Selected Papers of H. J. Muller (Indiana University Press, 1962). See also Mutagenesis Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model Repository for Germinal Choice Muller's ratchet Muller's morphs History of biology History of genetics History of model organisms References External links including the Nobel Lecture on December 12, 1946 The Production of Mutations The Muller manuscripts, 1910–1967 in archives of the Indiana University On the origins of the linear no-threshold (LNT) dogma by means of untruths, artful dodges and blind faith, Edward J. Calabrese, Environmental Research 142 (2015) 432–442. Hermann J. Muller Collection Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives 1890 births 1967 deaths Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine American Nobel laureates Academics of the University of Edinburgh American atheists American biophysicists American communists American eugenicists American geneticists American humanists American people of German descent American people of British-Jewish descent Amherst College faculty American anti–nuclear weapons activists Columbia College (New York) alumni Cornell University alumni History of genetics Indiana University faculty Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Modern synthesis (20th century) Foreign Members of the Royal Society Radiation health effects researchers Radiobiology Columbia University faculty Rice University faculty University of Texas at Austin faculty American expatriates in the Soviet Union	[ 0.6078941822052002, 0.4291791319847107, -1.2186119556427002, 0.0036881135310977697, 0.05940287932753563, 0.26657959818840027, 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240849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islet	Islet	An islet is a very small island. Most definitions are not precise, but some suggest that an islet has little or no vegetation, and cannot support human habitation. They may be made of rock, sand, and/or coral, may be permanent or tidal, and may exist in the sea, rivers, or any other body of water. Definition As suggested by its origin as islette, an Old French diminutive of "isle", use of the term implies small size, but little attention is given to drawing an upper limit on its applicability. The World Landforms website says "An islet landform is generally considered to be a rock or small island that has little vegetation and cannot sustain human habitation", and further that size may vary from a few square feet to several square miles, with no specific rule pertaining to size. Other terms Ait (/eɪt/, like eight) or eyot (/aɪ(ə)t, eɪt/), a small island. It is especially used to refer to river islands found on the River Thames and its tributaries in England. Cay or key, an islet formed by the accumulation of fine sand deposits atop a reef, especially in the Caribbean and West Atlantic. Rum Cay in the Bahamas and the Florida Keys off Florida are examples of islets. The French suffix -hou from the Scandinavian -holm, is used for the names of some islets in the Channel Islands, such as Écréhous, Burhou, Lihou and Les Houmets, and off Normandy, such as Tatihou. Inch, a term used especially in Scotland, from the Gaelic innis, which originally meant island, but has been supplanted to refer to smaller islands, such the islet of Inch, off St Mary's Isle Priory, Inch Kenneth, Inchkeith, Keith Inch (no longer an island) and Inchcailloch. Motu, a reef islet formed by broken coral and sand, surrounding an atoll, especially in Polynesia, such as Motu One, Motu Nao and Motu Paahi. River island, an islet within the current of a river, such as the Île de la Cité in Paris. A "rock", in the sense of a type of islet, is an uninhabited landform composed of rock, lying offshore, and having at most minimal vegetation, such as Albino Rock in the Palm Island group off Queensland, Australia. Sandbar or shoal, an exposed sandbar. Sea stack, a thin, vertical landform jutting out of a body of water. Skerry, a small rocky island, usually defined to be too small for habitation, especially in Ireland. Subsidiary islets, a more technical application, is applied to small land features isolated by water, lying off the shore of a larger island. Similarly, any emergent land in an atoll is also called an islet. Tidal island, small islands (not always islets) which lie off the mainland of an area, being connected to it in low tide and isolated in high tide. In international law Whether an islet is considered a rock or not, it can have significant economic consequences under Article 121 of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, which stipulates that "Rocks which cannot sustain human habitation or economic life of their own shall have no exclusive economic zone or continental shelf." One long-term dispute over the status of such an islet was that of Snake Island (Black Sea). The International Court of Justice jurisprudence however sometimes ignores islets, regardless of inhabitation status, in deciding territorial disputes; it did so in 2009 in adjudicating the Romania-Ukraine dispute, and previously in the dispute between Libya and Malta involving the islet of Filfla. List of islets There are thousands of islets on Earth: approximately 24,000 islands and islets in the Stockholm archipelago alone. The following is a list of example islets from around the world. Águila Islet, the southernmost point of The Americas Aplin Islet (Queensland) Apia Auster Lake Islet Ball's Pyramid, South Pacific Bay Islet or See Chau, Hong Kong Bikirrin, in Majuro, Marshall Islands Black Rock, South Atlantic Boundary Islet, Australia Bogskär, Finland Briggs Islet, southeastern Australia Bushy Islet (Queensland) Capitancillo Islet, in Bogo City, Cebu, Philippines Chão, in the Madeira Islands, Portugal Cholmondeley Islet (Queensland) Clubes Island, Brasília, Brazil Columbretes Islands, Spain Cone Islet, southeastern Australia Douglas Islet (Queensland) Dry Tortugas, Florida Keys, USA Dugay Islet, southeastern Australia Edwards Islet, southeastern Australia Enekalamur in Majuro, Marshall Islands Enemanit in Majuro, Marshall Islands Fairway Rock, Bering Strait Fastnet Rock, Ireland Filfla, southern Malta Formigas, in the Azores islands Gáshólmur, Faroe Islands Granite Island (South Australia), Victor Harbor, South Australia. Galatasaray Islet, Istanbul, Turkey Halfway Islet, Queensland, Australia Herald Island, Arctic Ocean Île Vierge, France Isles of Scilly, United Kingdom Kid Island, Lake of the Ozarks, Missouri United States Islets of Caroline Island, in Kiribati Islets of Mauritius Isla de Alborán, Spain, Western Mediterranean Jardine Islet (Queensland) Jethou, Bailiwick of Guernsey Keelung Islet, off the northern shore of Taiwan Klein Bonaire, Netherlands Kolbeinsey, Iceland Liancourt Rocks, South Korea Lihou, Bailiwick of Guernsey Magra Islet (Queensland) Mañagaha, Saipan Martin Islet (New South Wales) Mid Woody Islet, southeastern Australia Milman Islet (Queensland) Monchique Islet, Europe's westernmost point, in the Azores, Portugal Noorderhaaks, off the coast of the Netherlands Oodaaq, Greenland Parece Vela, West Pacific Perejil Island, Strait of Gibraltar Penguin Islet (Tasmania) Pigeon Island, Sri Lanka Pokonji Dol, Croatia Velika Sestrica, Croatia Rockall, North Atlantic Saint Peter and Saint Paul rocks, equatorial Atlantic Salas y Gómez, Northeast from Easter Island Saunders Islet (Queensland) Seacrow Islet, southeastern Australia Shag Rocks, South Atlantic Silver Islet, Ontario Sinclair Islet (Queensland) Skull Islet, in British Columbia, Canada Star Keys/Motuhope, New Zealand Saltholm, small Islet in Oresund west of Copenhagen Sue Islet (Queensland) Sumbiarholmur, Faroe Islands Sunday Islet (Queensland) Taprobane Island, Sri Lanka Thomson Islet (Queensland) Tindhólmur, Faroe Islands Vilkitsky Island, Arctic Ocean Wallace Islet (Queensland) Wachusett Reef, Ernest Legouve Reef, and Maria Theresa Reef, South Pacific Ocean Westward Islet, in the Pitcairn Islands Ynys Lawd, Wales Notes References Coastal and oceanic landforms Coastal geography Islands by type	[ 0.14959368109703064, 0.007794050499796867, 0.03902662545442581, -0.02843242883682251, 0.23380719125270844, -0.36437687277793884, 0.4085770845413208, 0.09096115082502365, -0.6478362083435059, -0.3162766098976135, 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240850	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene%20silencing	Gene silencing	Gene silencing is the regulation of gene expression in a cell to prevent the expression of a certain gene. Gene silencing can occur during either transcription or translation and is often used in research. In particular, methods used to silence genes are being increasingly used to produce therapeutics to combat cancer and other diseases, such as infectious diseases and neurodegenerative disorders. Gene silencing is often considered the same as gene knockdown. When genes are silenced, their expression is reduced. In contrast, when genes are knocked out, they are completely erased from the organism's genome and, thus, have no expression. Gene silencing is considered a gene knockdown mechanism since the methods used to silence genes, such as RNAi, CRISPR, or siRNA, generally reduce the expression of a gene by at least 70% but do not eliminate it. Methods using gene silencing are often considered better than gene knockouts since they allow researchers to study essential genes that are required for the animal models to survive and cannot be removed. In addition, they provide a more complete view on the development of diseases since diseases are generally associated with genes that have a reduced expression. Types Transcriptional Genomic Imprinting Paramutation Transposon silencing (or Histone Modifications) Transgene silencing Position effect RNA-directed DNA methylation Post-transcriptional RNA interference RNA silencing Nonsense mediated decay Meiotic Transvection Meiotic silencing of unpaired DNA Research methods Antisense oligonucleotides Antisense oligonucleotides were discovered in 1978 by Paul Zamecnik and Mary Stephenson. Oligonucleotides, which are short nucleic acid fragments, bind to complementary target mRNA molecules when added to the cell. These molecules can be composed of single-stranded DNA or RNA and are generally 13–25 nucleotides long. The antisense oligonucleotides can affect gene expression in two ways: by using an RNase H-dependent mechanism or by using a steric blocking mechanism. RNase H-dependent oligonucleotides cause the target mRNA molecules to be degraded, while steric-blocker oligonucleotides prevent translation of the mRNA molecule. The majority of antisense drugs function through the RNase H-dependent mechanism, in which RNase H hydrolyzes the RNA strand of the DNA/RNA heteroduplex. expression. Ribozymes Ribozymes are catalytic RNA molecules used to inhibit gene expression. These molecules work by cleaving mRNA molecules, essentially silencing the genes that produced them. Sidney Altman and Thomas Cech first discovered catalytic RNA molecules, RNase P and group II intron ribozymes, in 1989 and won the Nobel Prize for their discovery. Several types of ribozyme motifs exist, including hammerhead, hairpin, hepatitis delta virus, group I, group II, and RNase P ribozymes. Hammerhead, hairpin, and hepatitis delta virus (HDV) ribozyme motifs are generally found in viruses or viroid RNAs. These motifs are able to self-cleave a specific phosphodiester bond on an mRNA molecule. Lower eukaryotes and a few bacteria contain group I and group II ribozymes. These motifs can self-splice by cleaving and joining phosphodiester bonds. The last ribozyme motif, the RNase P ribozyme, is found in Escherichia coli and is known for its ability to cleave the phosphodiester bonds of several tRNA precursors when joined to a protein cofactor. The general catalytic mechanism used by ribozymes is similar to the mechanism used by protein ribonucleases. These catalytic RNA molecules bind to a specific site and attack the neighboring phosphate in the RNA backbone with their 2' oxygen, which acts as a nucleophile, resulting in the formation of cleaved products with a 2'3'-cyclic phosphate and a 5' hydroxyl terminal end. This catalytic mechanism has been increasingly used by scientists to perform sequence-specific cleavage of target mRNA molecules. In addition, attempts are being made to use ribozymes to produce gene silencing therapeutics, which would silence genes that are responsible for causing diseases. RNA interference RNA interference (RNAi) is a natural process used by cells to regulate gene expression. It was discovered in 1998 by Andrew Fire and Craig Mello, who won the Nobel Prize for their discovery in 2006. The process to silence genes first begins with the entrance of a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) molecule into the cell, which triggers the RNAi pathway. The double-stranded molecule is then cut into small double-stranded fragments by an enzyme called Dicer. These small fragments, which include small interfering RNAs (siRNA) and microRNA (miRNA), are approximately 21–23 nucleotides in length. The fragments integrate into a multi-subunit protein called the RNA-induced silencing complex, which contains Argonaute proteins that are essential components of the RNAi pathway. One strand of the molecule, called the "guide" strand, binds to RISC, while the other strand, known as the "passenger" strand is degraded. The guide or antisense strand of the fragment that remains bound to RISC directs the sequence-specific silencing of the target mRNA molecule. The genes can be silenced by siRNA molecules that cause the endonucleatic cleavage of the target mRNA molecules or by miRNA molecules that suppress translation of the mRNA molecule. With the cleavage or translational repression of the mRNA molecules, the genes that form them are rendered essentially inactive. RNAi is thought to have evolved as a cellular defense mechanism against invaders, such as RNA viruses, or to combat the proliferation of transposons within a cell's DNA. Both RNA viruses and transposons can exist as double-stranded RNA and lead to the activation of RNAi. Currently, siRNAs are being widely used to suppress specific gene expression and to assess the function of genes. Companies utilizing this approach include Alnylam, Sanofi, Arrowhead, Discerna, and Persomics, among others. Three prime untranslated regions and microRNAs The three prime untranslated regions (3'UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often contain regulatory sequences that post-transcriptionally cause gene silencing. Such 3'-UTRs often contain both binding sites for microRNAs (miRNAs) as well as for regulatory proteins. By binding to specific sites within the 3'-UTR, a large number of specific miRNAs decrease gene expression of their particular target mRNAs by either inhibiting translation or directly causing degradation of the transcript, using a mechanism similar to RNA interference (see MicroRNA). The 3'-UTR also may have silencer regions that bind repressor proteins that inhibit the expression of an mRNA. The 3'-UTR often contains microRNA response elements (MREs). MREs are sequences to which miRNAs bind and cause gene silencing. These are prevalent motifs within 3'-UTRs. Among all regulatory motifs within the 3'-UTRs (e.g. including silencer regions), MREs make up about half of the motifs. As of 2014, the miRBase web site, an archive of miRNA sequences and annotations, listed 28,645 entries in 233 biologic species. Of these, 1,881 miRNAs were in annotated human miRNA loci. miRNAs were predicted to each have an average of about four hundred target mRNAs (causing gene silencing of several hundred genes). Freidman et al. estimate that >45,000 miRNA target sites within human mRNA 3'UTRs are conserved above background levels, and >60% of human protein-coding genes have been under selective pressure to maintain pairing to miRNAs. Direct experiments show that a single miRNA can reduce the stability of hundreds of unique mRNAs. Other experiments show that a single miRNA may repress the production of hundreds of proteins, but that this repression often is relatively mild (less than 2-fold). The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression seem to be important in cancer. For instance, in gastrointestinal cancers, nine miRNAs have been identified as epigenetically altered and effective in down regulating DNA repair enzymes. The effects of miRNA dysregulation of gene expression also seem to be important in neuropsychiatric disorders, such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, major depression, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and autism spectrum disorders. Applications Medical research Gene silencing techniques have been widely used by researchers to study genes associated with disorders. These disorders include cancer, infectious diseases, respiratory diseases, and neurodegenerative disorders. Gene silencing is also currently being used in drug discovery efforts, such as synthetic lethality, high-throughput screening, and miniaturized RNAi screens. Cancer RNA interference has been used to silence genes associated with several cancers. In in vitro studies of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), siRNA was used to cleave the fusion protein, BCR-ABL, which prevents the drug Gleevec (imatinib) from binding to the cancer cells. Cleaving the fusion protein reduced the amount of transformed hematopoietic cells that spread throughout the body by increasing the sensitivity of the cells to the drug. RNA interference can also be used to target specific mutants. For instance, siRNAs were able to bind specifically to tumor suppressor p53 molecules containing a single point mutation and destroy it, while leaving the wild-type suppressor intact. Receptors involved in mitogenic pathways that lead to the increased production of cancer cells there have also been targeted by siRNA molecules. The chemokine receptor chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), associated with the proliferation of breast cancer, was cleaved by siRNA molecules that reduced the number of divisions commonly observed by the cancer cells. Researchers have also used siRNAs to selectively regulate the expression of cancer-related genes. Antiapoptotic proteins, such as clusterin and survivin, are often expressed in cancer cells. Clusterin and survivin-targeting siRNAs were used to reduce the number of antiapoptotic proteins and, thus, increase the sensitivity of the cancer cells to chemotherapy treatments. In vivo studies are also being increasingly utilized to study the potential use of siRNA molecules in cancer therapeutics. For instance, mice implanted with colon adenocarcinoma cells were found to survive longer when the cells were pretreated with siRNAs that targeted B-catenin in the cancer cells. Infectious disease Viruses Viral genes and host genes that are required for viruses to replicate or enter the cell, or that play an important role in the life cycle of the virus are often targeted by antiviral therapies. RNAi has been used to target genes in several viral diseases, such as the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis. In particular, siRNA was used to silence the primary HIV receptor chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5). This prevented the virus from entering the human peripheral blood lymphocytes and the primary hematopoietic stem cells. A similar technique was used to decrease the amount of the detectable virus in hepatitis B and C infected cells. In hepatitis B, siRNA silencing was used to target the surface antigen on the hepatitis B virus and led to a decrease in the number of viral components. In addition, siRNA techniques used in hepatitis C were able to lower the amount of the virus in the cell by 98%. RNA interference has been in commercial use to control virus diseases of plants for over 20 years (see Plant disease resistance). In 1986–1990, multiple examples of "coat protein-mediated resistance" against plant viruses were published, before RNAi had been discovered. In 1993, work with tobacco etch virus first demonstrated that host organisms can target specific virus or mRNA sequences for degradation, and that this activity is the mechanism behind some examples of virus resistance in transgenic plants. The discovery of small interfering RNAs (the specificity determinant in RNA-mediated gene silencing) also utilized virus-induced post-transcriptional gene silencing in plants. By 1994, transgenic squash varieties had been generated expressing coat protein genes from three different viruses, providing squash hybrids with field-validated multiviral resistance that remain in commercial use at present. Potato lines expressing viral replicase sequences that confer resistance to potato leafroll virus were sold under the trade names NewLeaf Y and NewLeaf Plus, and were widely accepted in commercial production in 1999–2001, until McDonald's Corp. decided not to purchase GM potatoes and Monsanto decided to close their NatureMark potato business. Another frequently cited example of virus resistance mediated by gene silencing involves papaya, where the Hawaiian papaya industry was rescued by virus-resistant GM papayas produced and licensed by university researchers rather than a large corporation. These papayas also remain in use at present, although not without significant public protest, which is notably less evident in medical uses of gene silencing. Gene silencing techniques have also been used to target other viruses, such as the human papilloma virus, the West Nile virus, and the Tulane virus. The E6 gene in tumor samples retrieved from patients with the human papilloma virus was targeted and found to cause apoptosis in the infected cells. Plasmid siRNA expression vectors used to target the West Nile virus were also able to prevent the replication of viruses in cell lines. In addition, siRNA has been found to be successful in preventing the replication of the Tulane virus, part of the virus family Caliciviridae, by targeting both its structural and non-structural genes. By targeting the NTPase gene, one dose of siRNA 4 hours pre-infection was shown to control Tulane virus replication for 48 hours post-infection, reducing the viral titer by up to 2.6 logarithms. Although the Tulane virus is species-specific and does not affect humans, it has been shown to be closely related to the human norovirus, which is the most common cause of acute gastroenteritis and food-borne disease outbreaks in the United States. Human noroviruses are notorious for being difficult to study in the laboratory, but the Tulane virus offers a model through which to study this family of viruses for the clinical goal of developing therapies that can be used to treat illnesses caused by human norovirus. Bacteria Unlike viruses, bacteria are not as susceptible to silencing by siRNA. This is largely due to how bacteria replicate. Bacteria replicate outside of the host cell and do not contain the necessary machinery for RNAi to function. However, bacterial infections can still be suppressed by siRNA by targeting the host genes that are involved in the immune response caused by the infection or by targeting the host genes involved in mediating the entry of bacteria into cells. For instance, siRNA was used to reduce the amount of pro-inflammatory cytokines expressed in the cells of mice treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The reduced expression of the inflammatory cytokine, tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα), in turn, caused a reduction in the septic shock felt by the LPS-treated mice. In addition, siRNA was used to prevent the bacteria, Psueomonas aeruginosa, from invading murine lung epithelial cells by knocking down the caveolin-2 (CAV2) gene. Thus, though bacteria cannot be directly targeted by siRNA mechanisms, they can still be affected by siRNA when the components involved in the bacterial infection are targeted. Respiratory diseases Ribozymes, antisense oligonucleotides, and more recently RNAi have been used to target mRNA molecules involved in asthma. These experiments have suggested that siRNA may be used to combat other respiratory diseases, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis. COPD is characterized by goblet cell hyperplasia and mucus hypersecretion. Mucus secretion was found to be reduced when the transforming growth factor (TGF)-α was targeted by siRNA in NCI-H292 human airway epithelial cells. In addition to mucus hypersecretion, chronic inflammation and damaged lung tissue are characteristic of COPD and asthma. The transforming growth factor TGF-β is thought to play a role in these manifestations. As a result, when interferon (IFN)-γ was used to knock down TGF-β, fibrosis of the lungs, caused by damage and scarring to lung tissue, was improved. Neurodegenerative disorders Huntington's disease Huntington's disease (HD) results from a mutation in the huntingtin gene that causes an excess of CAG repeats. The gene then forms a mutated huntingtin protein with polyglutamine repeats near the amino terminus. This disease is incurable and known to cause motor, cognitive, and behavioral deficits. Researchers have been looking to gene silencing as a potential therapeutic for HD. Gene silencing can be used to treat HD by targeting the mutant huntingtin protein. The mutant huntingtin protein has been targeted through gene silencing that is allele specific using allele specific oligonucleotides. In this method, the antisense oligonucleotides are used to target single nucleotide polymorphism (SNPs), which are single nucleotide changes in the DNA sequence, since HD patients have been found to share common SNPs that are associated with the mutated huntingtin allele. It has been found that approximately 85% of patients with HD can be covered when three SNPs are targeted. In addition, when antisense oligonucleotides were used to target an HD-associated SNP in mice, there was a 50% decrease in the mutant huntingtin protein. Non-allele specific gene silencing using siRNA molecules has also been used to silence the mutant huntingtin proteins. Through this approach, instead of targeting SNPs on the mutated protein, all of the normal and mutated huntingtin proteins are targeted. When studied in mice, it was found that siRNA could reduce the normal and mutant huntingtin levels by 75%. At this level, they found that the mice developed improved motor control and a longer survival rate when compared to the controls. Thus, gene silencing methods may prove to be beneficial in treating HD. Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), also called Lou Gehrig's disease, is a motor neuron disease that affects the brain and spinal cord. The disease causes motor neurons to degenerate, which eventually leads to neuron death and muscular degeneration. Hundreds of mutations in the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) gene have been found to cause ALS. Gene silencing has been used to knock down the SOD1 mutant that is characteristic of ALS. In specific, siRNA molecules have been successfully used to target the SOD1 mutant gene and reduce its expression through allele-specific gene silencing. Therapeutics challenges There are several challenges associated with gene silencing therapies, including delivery and specificity for targeted cells. For instance, for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, molecules for a prospective gene silencing therapy must be delivered to the brain. The blood-brain barrier makes it difficult to deliver molecules into the brain through the bloodstream by preventing the passage of the majority of molecules that are injected or absorbed into the blood. Thus, researchers have found that they must directly inject the molecules or implant pumps that push them into the brain. Once inside the brain, however, the molecules must move inside of the targeted cells. In order to efficiently deliver siRNA molecules into the cells, viral vectors can be used. Nevertheless, this method of delivery can also be problematic as it can elicit an immune response against the molecules. In addition to delivery, specificity has also been found to be an issue in gene silencing. Both antisense oligonucleotides and siRNA molecules can potentially bind to the wrong mRNA molecule. Thus, researchers are searching for more efficient methods to deliver and develop specific gene silencing therapeutics that are still safe and effective. Food Arctic Apples are a suite of trademarked apples that contain a nonbrowning trait created by using gene silencing to reduce the expression of polyphenol oxidase (PPO). It is the first approved food product to use this technique. See also CRISPR DNA-directed RNA interference Gene drive Gene knockdown PPRHs References External links RNAiAtlas - database of siRNA libraries and their target analysis results. Science project: Transgenic apple varieties Approaches to preventing outcrossing – possible effects on micro-organisms Research project: New Cost-effective method for gene silencing Gene expression Epigenetics DNA RNA Post-translational modification Australian inventions	[ 0.09131605178117752, -0.1952732354402542, -0.41686153411865234, 0.2748989462852478, 0.06070158630609512, -0.24713100492954254, 0.21646329760551453, 0.020036334171891212, -0.1324312537908554, -0.23667940497398376, -0.32933753728866577, -0.11843804270029068, -0.7683584094047546, 0.7914358973503113, -0.4197383522987366, 0.40487855672836304, -0.01570749841630459, 0.4336952567100525, 0.3560834527015686, -0.30268582701683044, -0.08105629682540894, -0.1053585559129715, -0.23588822782039642, 0.0719960480928421, 0.1721647083759308, -0.4854869246482849, -0.022459011524915695, -0.3334113657474518, 0.3136569857597351, 0.0717562735080719, 0.2788381576538086, 0.46666213870048523, -0.0350172258913517, 0.41973188519477844, 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240852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shrubbery	Shrubbery	A shrubbery, shrub border or shrub garden is a part of a garden where shrubs, mostly flowering species, are thickly planted. The original shrubberies were mostly sections of large gardens, with one or more paths winding through it, a less-remembered aspect of the English landscape garden with very few original 18th-century examples surviving. As the fashion spread to smaller gardens, linear shrub borders covered up walls and fences, and were typically underplanted with smaller herbacious flowering plants. By the late 20th century, shrubs, trees and smaller plants tend to be mixed together in the most visible parts of the garden, hopefully blending successfully. At the same time, shrubs, especially very large ones, have become part of the woodland garden, mixed in with trees, both native species and imported ornamental varieties. The word is first recorded by the OED in a letter of 1748 by Henrietta Knight, Lady Luxborough to the fanatical gardener William Shenstone: "Nature has been so remarkably kind this last Autumn to adorn my Shrubbery with the flowers that usually blow at Whitsuntide". The shrubbery developed to display exciting new imported flowering species, initially mostly from the East Coast of British America, and quickly replaced the older formal "wilderness", with compartments of smaller trees surrounded by hedges, and little colour. It was a further part of the garden, beyond the terrace and flower garden that the house usually opened onto, and when mature provided shade on hot days, some shelter from a wind, and some privacy. The shrubbery was at first the development of the plant collector wing of the growing movement of English gardeners, who in the early and mid-18th century eagerly awaited the new seeds and cuttings arriving at London nurserymen such as Thomas Fairchild (d. 1729) from America. There was some tension between them and the more landscape-oriented gardeners such as Capability Brown, though Brown's designs in fact allowed for flower gardens and shrubberies, which have very rarely survived as well as his landscape vistas in the parks. Shrubbery is also the collective noun for shrubs in other contexts, sometimes used for shrubland, a type of natural landscape dominated by shrubs or bushes. The many distinct types of these include fynbos, maquis, shrub-steppe, shrub swamp and moorland. 18th century According to the garden historian Mark Laird, "by the early 1750s, we may reasonably claim that the shrubbery had been invented". The exact appearance of the earliest examples needs careful reconstruction from such plans, letters, poems and visual images as have survived. A high proportion seem to have been viewed from "serpentine" paths, already a very fashionable layout for gardens, using an expanded version of the line of beauty promoted by William Hogarth's book The Analysis of Beauty of 1753. In plans some of these proceed in a single overall direction, with several more or less curves to left and right, and often no exit shown at the end. With large shrubs these would first bring plants into view when fairly close, supplying a succession of surprises. There was great emphasis on "graduation" in planting, with shorter plants, including herbacious flowers, at the front near the path or lawn, with middle-sized ones behind, and the largest, and any trees, at the back. This principle, to some extent self-evident, has governed much planting ever since, for example that of Gertrude Jekyll, but was rather novel in European gardening at this point, where the different sizes of plants were usually planted in different areas. 19th century A shrubbery was a feature of 19th-century gardens in the English manner, or the gardenesque style of the early part of the century. A shrubbery was a collection of hardy shrubs, quite distinct from a flower garden, which was also a cutting garden to supply flowers in the house. The shrubbery was arranged as a walk, ideally a winding one, that made a circuit that brought the walker back to the terrace of the house. Its paths were gravel, so that they dried quickly after a rain. A walk in the shrubbery offered a chance for a private conversation, and a winding walk among shrubs surrounding even quite a small lawn was a feature of the garden behind a well-furnished Regency suburban villa. "Mr Rushworth," said Lady Bertram, "if I were you, I would have a very pretty shrubbery. One likes to get out into a shrubbery in fine weather." —Jane Austen, Mansfield Park (1814). In the later part of the 19th century hardy Asian shrubs from the hills around the Himalayas and Western China became the most exciting new additions to the European garden, and large Asian rhododendrons now often dominate shrubberies and woodland gardens planted in the period that have not been carefully maintained, especially the invasive rhododendron ponticum. This had a wide range across Asia, extending to southern Spain, and it was introduced to England in the 1760s. But many sections of gardens, mostly from about 1890 to 1950, were planted as "rhododendron gardens" or "azealea gardens" from the start. A variant on this, from the 1890s onwards, was a European interpretation of the Japanese garden, whose aesthetic was introduced to the English-speaking world by Josiah Conder's Landscape Gardening in Japan (Kelly & Walsh, 1893). Conder was a British architect who had worked for the Japanese government and other clients in Japan from 1877 until his death. The book was published when the general trend of Japonisme, or Japanese influence in the arts of the West, was already well-established, and sparked the first Japanese gardens in the West. Initially these were mostly sections of large private gardens, but as the style grew in popularity, many Japanese gardens were, and continue to be, added to public parks and gardens. These are to a large extent planted with shrubs, as well as small trees. Technically the rose garden is a specialized type of shrub garden, but it is normally treated as a type of flower garden, if only because its origins in Europe go back to at least the Middle Ages in Europe, when roses were effectively the largest and most popular flowers, already existing in numerous garden cultivars. Roses were never out of fashion, but received a great boost in the 19th century, as many hybrids from Asian species were developed, above all from rosa chinensis (the "China rose"), which is still the dominant parent in most modern garden roses. Large rose gardens became highly popular as features of public parks at the end of the century, and remained popular additions in the 20th. Many rose breeders also show off their plants in gardens at their nurseries. 20th century After the turn of the new century Gertrude Jekyll offered a chapter of suggestions for "Wood and Shrubbery Edges" in Colour Schemes for the Flower Garden (London, 1908) in which her descriptions were based on her own garden at Munstead Wood, south of Godalming, Surrey, but her shrubbery and hardy perennial plantings were designed to soften transitions: "Where woodland joins garden ground there is often a sudden jolt; the wood ends with a hard line, sometimes with a path along it, accentuating the defect." In the expansive space of even a small Edwardian garden, Miss Jekyll recommended a space "from twenty-five to forty feet" planted so as to bring wood and garden into harmony, "so planted as to belong equally to garden and wood." Rhododendrons were the stand-by in these shrub belts, combined with ferns, wood-rush, lilies, white foxgloves and white columbines. Structural components In the 1980s John Nash's never-executed plans for the garden setting of the Brighton Pavilion, illustrated in Nash's volume Views of the Royal Pavilion (1826), were finally carried out in connection with the extensive restorations of the Pavilion itself. Its "fairly open landscape of soft lawns dotted with trees and set with lightly-wooded, sinuous shrubberies" are best illustrated in Augustus Charles Pugin's watercolor view c. 1822 of the west front of the Pavilion, reproduced in Nash's publication. The winding perimeter walk circling the lawn among the shrubs and trees, enriched with island beds of herbaceous perennials, began to be laid out in 1814, with a flush of activity 1817-21. Two books of commentaries proved indispensable for the replanting scheme. One was Henry Phillips, who wrote in 1823 The shrubbery is a style of pleasure-garden which seems to owe its creation to the idea that our sublime poet formed of Eden. It originated in England and is as peculiar to the British nation as landscape planting. The formulas for arranging a shrubbery were founded on contemporary painterly requirements for the Picturesque; judicious contrast and variety were essential, but Philips seems to have been among the first garden writers to notice that yellowish-green leaves in the foreground seem to throw bluish green-leaved shrubs deeper into a perceived distance. The desirable undulations of paths and islands and bands of shrub plantings would ideally undulate in elevation too: "break up the level by throwing up elevations,' Philips suggested, "so as to answer the double purpose of obscuring private walks and screening other parts from the wind." Nash was at work also on the public parks of London, devising the shrubberies of Regent's Park and of St. James's Park, where the German visitor Prince Pückler-Muskau discerned that Mr Nash ... masses the shrubs more closely together, allows the grass to disappear in wide sweeps under the plants or lets it run along the edges of the shrubs without trimming them ... hence they soon develop into a thicket that gracefully bends over the lawn without showing anywhere a sharply defined outline Such precise effects were made immeasurably simpler by the invention in 1827 by the English engineer Edwin Beard Budding of the rotary lawn mower, an extrapolation of machinery commonly used to cut velvet pile. Cultural references "A shrubbery" is the innocuous demand made by the less-than terrifying Knights Who Say "Ni!" in the 1975 film Monty Python and the Holy Grail: ARTHUR: O Knights of Ni, you are just and fair, and we will return with a shrubbery. HEAD KNIGHT: One that looks nice. ARTHUR: Of course. HEAD KNIGHT: And not too expensive. ARTHUR: Yes. Notes References Laird, Mark, The Flowering of the Landscape Garden: English Pleasure Grounds, 1720-1800, 1999, University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978081223457, google books Wulf, Andrea, The Brother Gardeners: A Generation of Gentlemen Naturalists and the Birth of an Obsession, 2008, William Heinemann (US: Vintage Books), Gardening Shrubs	[ -0.01048316154628992, -0.16015136241912842, -0.20115195214748383, 0.1602594256401062, -0.04360676929354668, 0.14092493057250977, 0.47349920868873596, -0.0036701892968267202, -0.17957068979740143, -0.36077070236206055, -0.8188851475715637, -0.02532513253390789, -0.5096509456634521, 0.34862491488456726, -0.6074140667915344, 0.8293430805206299, 0.8265677094459534, 0.6937267780303955, 0.04278825223445892, 0.4405515789985657, -0.3845573961734772, -0.8343634605407715, 0.088442862033844, -0.7687942385673523, 1.1234406232833862, -0.5592671036720276, 0.34546107053756714, 0.4179680645465851, 0.174149751663208, -0.39387068152427673, 0.13980476558208466, 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240854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pointy-haired%20Boss	Pointy-haired Boss	The Pointy-haired Boss (or Pointy-headed Boss often abbreviated to just PHB or "The Boss") is Dilbert's boss in the Dilbert comic strip. He is notable for his micromanagement, gross incompetence, obliviousness to his surroundings, and unhelpful buzzword usage; yet somehow retains power in the workplace. In the Dilbert TV series, in which he is voiced by comedian Larry Miller, the character is notably smarter (although still quite stupid and inept) and more openly corrupt. He is also parodied in Bee Movie as Dean Buzzwell, also voiced by Larry Miller. Mr Perkins in Despicable Me is visually based on him. His motto is Anything I Don't Understand Must Be Easy. Dilbert The PHB's real name is unknown in the comic, although in one episode of the TV series ("The Return"), he signs for a package using his line dancing pseudonym "Eunice". Later in that episode, two other aliases are posted on the "Most Wanted" board in the post office (however, he thinks that is because they like him). In another episode of the series, "Art", the boss signs for another package with his real name (which is unseen), and the delivery man seems shocked when reading it. Creator Scott Adams has said it is easier to imagine the PHB as one's own boss when he is not given a name. The Pointy-haired Boss is mostly bald, except for a fringe of hair across the back of the head, and two tufts that rise to points above his ears (hence the name). Scott Adams has admitted that the Boss's odd hair was inspired by devil horns. He used to have jowls at first because Adams wanted the character to look gruff, but the boss ended up looking dumb instead. When he first appeared, the Boss was very cruel and uncaring (shocking people with electric belts or wanting them to work 178 hours a week, although there are only 168 hours in a week — he expected the employees' families to contribute a few hours). He showed few obvious signs of cluelessness. However, as the series continued, he became less malicious and more incompetent. He still shows signs of this by referring to his department as his empire. The Boss is frequently childish, immature, ignorant, and rude, yet also annoyingly cheerful and oblivious to his own actions. He frequently uses bizarre metaphors and analogies to "motivate" employees (Adams admits this to be a pet peeve), and on the TV series engages in rambling non sequiturs in conversation. In some strips, when he displays an above-average intelligence, or at least exhibits surprisingly original and cunning (albeit unethical or unscrupulous) thinking, Dilbert calls him a resourceful idiot. But most of his actions are incredibly stupid, including once in the TV series using Moviefone to check on his IBM stock. At one time on the strip, the PHB recognizes that the biggest contribution that his department does to the company is actually the "brown table meetings", and that it is the only asset that prevents them from being outsourced. In another strip the department gives a disastrous presentation to a new VP who decides to cut half the employees, but it is revealed that the Boss, anticipating the department's characteristic poor performance, told the VP that they were the marketing department. The boss made his most significant physical change on October 21, 1991, when his hair began to appear pointed. The last daily strip appearance of the jowly boss was in the strip dated September 20, 1991, although his back may have been seen in the September 26, 1991, strip. Following a protracted series about Elbonia, the boss reappeared on October 21, 1991, without the jowls and with the pointed hair. A version of the boss with slightly pointy hair but with jowls appeared in the December 1, 1991, Sunday strip; this was changed the next time the boss appeared in a Sunday strip, March 22, 1992. A series of flashbacks shown in the April 28, 1995 strip shows the Boss with a full head of hair in 1985, then with his original look in 1990. The Boss's family sometimes makes an appearance in the strips, and are frequently presented as being as incompetent as he is. In 1998, the Boss's son, who hid in the attic for four years instead of attending college, was hired for the company and made VP of marketing due to his complete lack of knowledge. In the July 10, 2003 strip the Boss receives a phone call (presumably from his current or ex-wife) telling him that while he was working his children grew up and moved away, an achievement which the Boss regards as his most successful plan ever. In the December 28, 2003 strip, the Boss's wife was hired as a receptionist for the company. (This would be at least his third wife, as in the May 22, 2001 strip he tells Alice that he got his first and third wives using the "bait-lube-and-switch trick". A wife with hair unlike his appears on April 7, 1994, and a different pointy-haired wife appears on February 13, 2010.) On August 31, 2012, the Boss's daughter appeared, a late teenager disparaged by her father for wanting to study visual and performing arts and clearly smarter and more open-minded than him. The Boss's wife, son, and daughter all share his trademark pointy hairstyle, as do many managers in the comic strips. Dilbert was also once asked to interview the PHB's nephew for a position. He listed his work experience as "bowling" (because, although he'd only bowled once, the balls were heavy and it felt like work), and contrary to Dilbert's suggestion (to have him whacked), the PHB made him Dilbert's new boss. It was revealed in one strip that the Boss' mother calls him at work every Monday to loudly swear and insult him. The Pointy-haired Boss finds pointy hair as a positive and attractive feature, and often judges people based on the pointiness of their hair, such as when he promoted an employee named Ted because of a pointy "beard" that was growing on his forehead, or when he became attracted to Alice because she styled her hair like his. The PHB also has a brother named Phil, the ruler of "Heck" (a subsidiary of Hell). In an episode of the animated series, he sends all the engineers to mandatory ethics training camp, even though management had committed all the violations. He also had very poor knowledge of ethical guidelines: Within Dilbert's company, the PHB represents middle management. Until recently, the CEOs and vice presidents of the firm were constantly changing, and typically were even more inept or unethical than the PHB. (The extremely rare occasions where the PHB is portrayed sympathetically usually deal with upper management.) The strip isn't particularly shy about killing members of upper management. [Adams coined the expression "Bungee Boss," to exemplify the rapid turnover of upper management.] The Boss' actual position and level of authority within the company seems to change from strip to strip; in some strips he is portrayed as being as powerless as the peons he manages, in others he is seen working closely with the CEO. Due to the frequent reorganisations and mergers within the company, and the fact that the Boss has had his position and title changed several times at the whim of his superiors, it is probable that he has been bounced up and down the corporate ladder several times over the course of his career. The Boss engages in empire building and political gamesmanship with other managers, often to the detriment of the company, for instance deliberately not buying critical infrastructure to force another department head to do so, so that his rival will be reprimanded for exceeding his budget. He also deliberately fosters a culture of inefficiency to justify hiring more employees to boost his title and compensation, and engages in wasteful spending every December to avoid having his budget cut the next year, e.g. buying $10,000 worth of mousepads and allowing Wally to buy a coffee-holding panda. In one strip Dilbert asked him if they could move on to hosing the competition instead of their own company, to which the Boss replies "Our customers are next". The company's actual name, as spoken in the TV series, was "Path-Way Electronics" before merging with "E-Tech Management", making it "Path-E-Tech Management" (a play on the word "pathetic"), but when Dogbert acquired it later in the episode, there was a "Dogbert Inc." sign being lifted into place. Dogbert is later mentioned as selling the company for "not quite $100 billion". In the television series, he was mentioned as being a former atheist, having converted to some religion. In one strip, he said he was a big fan of Barney and Friends. 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240860	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bren%20light%20machine%20gun	Bren light machine gun	The Bren gun was a series of light machine guns (LMG) made by Britain in the 1930s and used in various roles until 1992. While best known for its role as the British and Commonwealth forces' primary infantry LMG in World War II, it was also used in the Korean War and saw service throughout the latter half of the 20th century, including the 1982 Falklands War. Although fitted with a bipod, it could also be mounted on a tripod or be vehicle-mounted. The Bren gun was a licensed version of the Czechoslovak ZGB 33 light machine gun which, in turn, was a modified version of the ZB vz. 26, which British Army officials had tested during a firearms service competition in the 1930s. The later Bren gun featured a distinctive top-mounted curved box magazine, conical flash hider, and quick change barrel. The name Bren was derived from Brno, the Czechoslovak city in Moravia, where the Zb vz. 26 was designed (in the Zbrojovka Brno Factory) and Enfield, site of the British Royal Small Arms Factory. The designer was Václav Holek, a gun inventor and design engineer. In the 1950s, many Bren guns were re-barrelled to accept the 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge and modified to feed from the magazine for the L1 (Commonwealth version of the FN FAL) rifle as the L4 light machine gun. It was replaced in the British Army as the section LMG by the L7 general-purpose machine gun (GPMG), a heavier belt-fed weapon. This was supplemented in the 1980s by the L86 Light Support Weapon firing the 5.56×45mm NATO round, leaving the Bren gun in use only as a pintle mount on some vehicles. The Bren gun was manufactured by Indian Ordnance Factories as the "Gun Machine 7.62mm 1B" before it was discontinued in 2012. Development At the close of the First World War in 1918, the British Army was equipped with two main automatic weapons; the Vickers medium machine gun (MMG) and the Lewis light machine gun. The Vickers was heavy and required a supply of water to keep it in operation, which tended to relegate it to static defence and indirect fire support. The Lewis, although lighter, was still heavy and was prone to frequent stoppages; its barrel could not be changed in the field, which meant that sustained firing resulted in overheating until it stopped altogether. In 1922, to find a replacement for the Lewis, the Small Arms Committee of the British Army ran competitive trials between the Madsen machine gun, the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle (BAR), the Hotchkiss M1909 machine gun, the Beardmore-Farquhar rifle, and the Lewis itself. Although the BAR was recommended, the sheer number of Lewis guns available and the difficult financial conditions meant that nothing was done. Various new models of light machine gun were tested as they became available, and in 1930, a further set of extensive trials commenced, overseen by Frederick Hubert Vinden. This time the weapons tested included the SIG Neuhausen KE7, the Vickers-Berthier and the Czechoslovak ZB vz.26. The Vickers-Berthier was later adopted by the Indian Army because it could be manufactured at once, rather than wait for the British Lewis production run to finish; it too saw extensive service in World War II. Following these trials, the British Army adopted the Czechoslovak ZB vz.26 light machine gun manufactured in Brno in 1935, although a slightly modified model, the ZB vz. 27, rather than the ZB vz. 26 which had been submitted for the trials. The design was modified to British requirements under new designation ZGB 33, which was then licensed for British manufacture under the Bren name. The major changes were in the magazine and barrel and the lower pistol grip assembly which went from a swivelling grip frame pivoted on the front of the trigger guard to a sliding grip frame which included the forward tripod mount and sliding ejection port cover. The magazine was curved in order to feed the rimmed .303 inch SAA ("Small Arms Ammunition") cartridge, a change from the various rimless Mauser-design cartridges such as the 8mm Mauser round previously used by Czech designs. These modifications were categorised in various numbered designations, ZB vz. 27, ZB vz. 30, ZB vz. 32, and finally the ZGB 33, which was licensed for manufacture under the Bren name. The Bren was a gas-operated weapon, which used the same .303 ammunition as the standard British bolt-action rifle, the Lee–Enfield, firing at a rate of between 480 and 540 rounds per minute (rpm), depending on the model. Propellant gases vented from a port towards the muzzle end of the barrel through a regulator (visible just in front of the bipod) with four quick-adjustment apertures of different sizes, intended to tailor the gas volume to different ambient temperatures (smallest flow at high temperature, e.g. summer desert, largest at low temperature, e.g. winter Arctic). The vented gas drove a piston which in turn actuated the breech block. Each gun came with a spare barrel that could be quickly changed when the barrel became hot during sustained fire, though later guns featured a chrome-lined barrel, which reduced the need for a spare. To change barrels, the release catch in front of the magazine was rotated to unlock the barrel. The carrying handle above the barrel was used to grip and remove the hot barrel without burning the hands. The Bren was magazine-fed, which slowed its rate of fire and required more frequent reloading than British belt-fed machine guns such as the larger .303 Vickers machine gun. The slower rate of fire prevented more rapid overheating of the Bren's air-cooled barrel, and the Bren was much lighter than belt-fed machine guns, which typically had cooling jackets, often liquid filled. The magazines also prevented the ammunition from getting dirty, which was more of a problem with the Vickers with its 250-round canvas belts. The sights were offset to the left, to avoid the magazine on the top of the weapon. The position of the sights meant that the Bren could be fired only from the right shoulder. Service Second World War In the British and Commonwealth armies, the Bren was generally issued on a scale of one per rifle section. An infantry battalion also had a "carrier" platoon, equipped with Universal Carriers, each of which carried a Bren gun. Parachute battalions from 1944 had an extra Bren in the Anti-tank platoon. The 66-man "Assault Troop" of British Commandos had a nominal establishment of four Bren guns. Realising the need for additional section-level firepower, the British Army endeavoured to issue the Bren in great numbers, with a stated goal of one Bren to every four private soldiers. The Bren was operated by a two-man crew, sometimes commanded by a Lance Corporal as an infantry section's "gun group", the remainder of the section forming the "rifle group". The gunner or "Number 1" carried and fired the Bren, and a loader or "Number 2" carried extra magazines, a spare barrel and a tool kit. Number 2 helped reload the gun and replace the barrel when it overheated, and spotted targets for Number 1. Generally, the Bren was fired from the prone position using the attached bipod. On occasion, a Bren gunner would use his weapon on the move supported by a sling, much like an automatic rifle, and from standing or kneeling positions. Using the sling, Australian soldiers regularly fired the Bren from the hip, for instance in the marching fire tactic, a form of suppressive fire moving forward in assault. A Victoria Cross was awarded to Private Bruce Kingsbury for such use at Isurava, New Guinea, in 1942, during the Australians' fighting retreat from Kokoda. Each British soldier's equipment normally included two magazines for his section's Bren gun. The large ammunition pouches on the 1937 Pattern Web Equipment were designed around the Bren magazine. The Bren was regarded as the principal weapon of an infantry section, providing the majority of its firepower. As such, all ranks were expected to be "experts in its use". The Bren had an effective range of around when fired from a prone position with a bipod. It could deliver a beaten ground of by at on the bipod. A 'rapid' fire rate of 120 rounds per minute (four magazines a minute) was sustainable with a barrel change after ten magazines (or reduction in fire rate) to limit wear but doctrine was to fire in 4-5 round bursts. Soldiers were instructed to fired single-shot in imitation of rifle fire to conceal the presence of an automatic weapon. For a light machine gun of the interwar and early World War II era, the Bren was about average in weight. On long marches in non-operational areas it was often partially disassembled and its parts were carried by two soldiers. The top-mounted magazine vibrated and moved during fire, making the weapon more visible in combat, and many Bren gunners used paint or improvised canvas covers to disguise the prominent magazine. The 30-round magazine was in practice usually filled with 27 or 28 rounds to prevent jams and for magazines kept full for a long time 20 rounds to avoid wearing out the magazine spring. Care needed to be taken when loading the magazine to ensure that each round went ahead of the previous round, so that the .303 cartridge rims did not overlap the wrong way, which would cause a jam. The spent cartridge cases were ejected downwards, which was an improvement on the Lewis gun, which ejected sideways, since the glint of them flying through the air could compromise a concealed firing position. In general, the Bren was considered a reliable and effective light machine gun, though in North Africa it was reported to jam regularly unless kept very clean and free of sand or dirt. It was popular with British troops, who respected its reliability and combat effectiveness. The quality of the materials used would generally ensure minimal jamming. When the gun did jam through fouling caused by prolonged firing, the operator could adjust the four-position gas regulator to feed more gas to the piston increasing the power to operate the mechanism. The barrel needed to be unlocked and slid forward slightly to allow the regulator to be turned. It was even said that all problems with the Bren could simply be cleared by hitting the gun, turning the regulator or doing both. It was "by general consent the finest light machine gun in the world of its period, and the most useful weapon provided to the (French) "maquis" ... accurate up to 1,000 meters, and (it) could withstand immense maltreatment and unskilled use. "Resistants" were constantly pleading for maximum drops of Brens". Although they were generally well-liked, the high cost of £40 each gun was an issue for the British Army leadership. This became a greater issue when it was discovered that only 2,300 of the 30,000 Bren guns issued to the British Expeditionary Force came back to Britain after the defeat of France. As the result, cost savings and increased rate of production became two main goals for subsequent variant designs. The Bren Mk II design simplified production by replacing the drum rear sight with a ladder design, making the bipod legs non-adjustable, simplifying the gun butt, reducing the use of stainless steel, among other steps that reduced the cost by 20% to 25%; Mk II was approved in September 1940 and entered production in 1941. While the Bren Mk III design also aimed at reducing cost, it also had the concurrent goal of being lightened for jungle warfare; the final product weighed , 3 pounds lighter than the original Bren Mk I design; it was standardised in July 1944 and saw a production of 57,600. Also standardised in July 1944 was the Bren Mk IV, which was further lightened to ; however, it did not enter production until July 1945, and only 250 were built before the end of the war. While Enfield was able to produce only 400 Bren Mk I guns each month, with the various simplification efforts production numbers rose to 1,000 guns per week by 1943. Among the variant designs were two speciality prototypes that never entered production: The belt-fed Taden gun for stationary defence use, and the ultra-simplified Besal gun to be produced in case a German invasion of Britain actually took place (which would hinder British production efforts). Later designs of production Bren guns featured chrome-lined barrels that offered less resistance, preventing overheating and reducing the need for quick changes of barrels. Bren guns were produced outside of Britain as well. In Canada, the John Inglis plant in Toronto began tooling its facilities for production in 1938; the first of 186,000 examples was completed in March 1940. Some of the Inglis-built Bren guns were chambered for the 7.92-mm Mauser ammunition; these were destined for export to Nationalist Chinese forces rather than for British and Commonwealth forces. In Australia, the Lithgow Small Arms Factory in New South Wales began building Bren guns in 1940; a total of 17,249 were built. In India, the factory at Ishapore began building Bren guns in 1942 (it had produced Vickers-Berthier machine guns prior to this time), and would continue producing them for decades long after the end of the Second World War. Many of the Bren guns produced at Ishapore went to Indian troops, who had lost a great number of automatic weapons during the disastrous campaigns against the Japanese in Malaya and Burma; 17th Indian Infantry Division, for example, found itself with only 56 Bren guns after fleeing out of Burma in 1942. A tripod mount with 42 degrees of traverse was available to allow the Bren to be used on "fixed lines" of fire for defensive shooting at pre-determined areas in the dark or if obscured by fog or smoke. The Bren was also used on many vehicles, the Universal Carrier also known as the "Bren Gun Carrier", and on tanks and armoured cars. The Carrier was intended to use its "armour, speed and cross country performance" to bring the gun team into position from where it would fire dismounted; firing from the vehicle only in an emergency. The Bren could not be used as a co-axial weapon on tanks, as the magazine restricted its depression and was awkward to handle in confined spaces, and it was therefore used on a pintle mount only. (The belt fed Vickers or Besa, the latter being another Czechoslovak machine gun design adopted by the British, were instead used as co-axial weapons.) An unfortunate problem occurred when the Bren was fired from the Dingo Scout Car; the hot cartridge cases tended to be ejected down the neck of the driver, whose position was next to the pintle. A canvas bag was designed to catch the cartridges and overcome the problem, but it seems to have been rarely issued. The Bren was also employed in the anti-aircraft role with the tripod reconfigured for high angle fire. There were also several designs of less-portable mountings, including the Gallows and Mottley mounts. A 100-round pan magazine was available for the Bren for use in the anti-aircraft role. The Bren's direct ancestor, the Czechoslovak ZB vz. 26, was also used in World War II by German and Romanian forces, including units of the Waffen SS. Many 7.92 mm ZB light machine guns were shipped to China, where they were employed first against the Japanese in World War II, and later against UN forces in Korea, including British and Commonwealth units. Some ex-Chinese Czech ZB weapons were also in use in the early stages of the Vietnam War. Production of a 7.92 mm round model for the Far East was carried out by Inglis of Canada. The Bren was also delivered to the Soviet Union as part of the lend-lease program. Post-war The British Army, and the armies of various countries of the Commonwealth, used the Bren in the Korean War, the Malayan Emergency, the Mau Mau Uprising and the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation, where it was preferred to its replacement, the belt-fed L7 GPMG, on account of its lighter weight. In the conflict in Northern Ireland (1969–1998), a British Army squad typically carried the L4A4 version of the Bren as the squad automatic weapon in the 1970s. During the Falklands War in 1982, 40 Commando Royal Marines carried one LMG and one GPMG per section. Its final operational deployment with the British Army, on a limited scale, was in the First Gulf War in 1991. When the British Army adopted the 7.62 mm NATO cartridge, the Bren was re-designed to 7.62 mm calibre, fitted with a new bolt, barrel and magazine. It was re-designated as the "L4 light machine gun" (in various sub-versions) and remained in British Army service into the 1990s. A slotted flash hider similar to that of the contemporary L1 rifle and L7 general purpose machine gun replaced the conical flash hider. The change from a rimmed to rimless cartridge and nearly straight magazine improved feeding considerably, and allowed use of 20-round magazines from the 7.62 mm L1A1 Self-Loading Rifle. Bren gunners using the L4A1 were normally issued with the 30-round magazine from the SAW L2A1. Completion of the move to a 5.56 mm NATO cartridge led to the Army removing the Bren/L4 from the list of approved weapons and then withdrawing it from service. The Mark III Bren remained in limited use with the Army Reserve of the Irish Defence Forces until 2006, when the 7.62 mm GPMG replaced it. The Bren was popular with the soldiers who fired it (known as Brenners) as it was light and durable, and had a reputation for accuracy. The most notable use of the Bren by Irish forces was in the Congo Crisis during the 1960s, when the Bren was the regular army's standard section automatic weapon. Bren guns were in service with the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War, including a substantial number re-chambered for 7.62 mm cartridges similar to those examples in the British Army. The Rhodesian Bren guns continued to see frequent action until the 1970s, when they were largely replaced by the FN MAG. A few were captured and re-issued by the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA). Some examples were still in service with reservists of the British South Africa Police in 1980, and were inherited by the Zimbabwe Republic Police upon the country's internationally recognised independence. Zimbabwean policemen continued to deploy Bren guns during operations against ZIPRA dissidents throughout the early 1980s. The South African Defence Force deployed Bren guns during the South African Border War alongside the more contemporary FN MAG as late as 1978. Variants Mark 1 Introduced September 1937; the original Czechoslovak designed ZGB 33. Overall length , barrel length. Weight . Features: Drum-pattern rear aperture sight Buttstrap for use over-the-shoulder when firing Rear grip under butt Telescoping bipod Folding cocking handle An Enfield-made .303 Bren Mk 1 was converted to 7.92mm in 1938 due to the suggestion of a possibility of a British Army change over to a rimless cartridge for machine guns being mooted. Mark 2 Introduced 1941. A simplified version of the Mk1 more suited to wartime production with original design features subsequently found to be unnecessary deleted. Produced by Inglis of Canada and the Monotype Group through a number of component manufacturing factories. Sometimes known as the "Garage hands" model. Overall length , barrel length. Weight . Features: Folding-leaf rear sight Buttstrap deleted Rear grip deleted Fixed height bipod Fixed cocking handle The Bren Mk2 was much simplified in the body, which although still being milled from a solid billet of steel, required significantly fewer milling operations than the Mk1, resulting in a much cleaner appearance. The bipod was simplified in design as well as not having extending legs. Most Mk2 bipods resembled a simple A-frame and were more 'soldier proof'. The Mk2 also featured a slightly higher rate of fire than the Mk1. The woodwork on the Mk2 was simplified by being less ornate and ergonomic, which sped up the manufacturing process. The barrel was also simplified by means of a non-stepped removable flash hider and, in some cases, a barrel fore-end that was matte instead of highly polished. The buffered buttplate of the Mk1 was omitted and replaced with a sheet metal buttplate. A small number of Inglis-made .303 Bren Mk 2 were converted post-war to fire the .280 in (7 mm) Mk 1Z round used by the EM-2 rifle. The Inglis version of the Bren Mk 2 chambered for the .30-06 (7.62 mm) cartridge and known as the M41 was also manufactured in Taiwan after the end of the Chinese Civil War. Mark 3 A shorter and lighter Bren made by Enfield from 1944 for the war in the East and for Airborne Forces. This was similar to the Mk2 but with the light weight features of the early Mk1. With the main distinguishing feature being a shorter barrel and serrated area in front of the barrel nut. Overall length , barrel length. Weight . Mark 4 As with the Mk3 but this was a conversion of a Mk2. Overall length , barrel length. Weight . L4 The Bren was converted to 7.62x51mm in the 1950s, and designated the L4. L4 Brens can easily be identified by their straighter magazine and cylindrical flash hider. The British-issue L4 magazine retains the 30-round capacity and has a slight curve. The L4 magazine was interchangeable with the L1A1 SLR magazine, so the L4 Bren can be seen fitted with straight 20-round magazines from the SLR or with the straight 30-round magazine from the Australian L2A1 or Canadian C2A1 heavy-barrel SLR. The flash suppressor was changed from the cone type of .303 variants to a slotted, cylindrical type similar in appearance to that used on the SLR and L7 GPMG. The L4 remained in British service until the 1990s. Taden gun The Taden gun was a development of the Bren to use with the .280 British (7 mm) intermediate round proposed to replace the .303 in British service. The Taden was belt-fed with spade grips and would have replaced both the Bren and the Vickers machine gun. Although reliable it was not accepted due to the US-driven standardization within NATO on the larger 7.62×51mm NATO round. Semiautomatic Bren guns Many nations' militaries have disposed of their Bren guns as surplus to their needs. Surplus Brens have been imported to the United States for sale to collectors, but due to US gun laws restricting the importation of automatic weapons such guns must be legally destroyed by cutting up the receivers. A number of US gunsmiths have manufactured new semiautomatic Brens by welding the pieces of destroyed receivers back together, with modifications to prevent the use of full automatic parts, and fitting new fire-control components capable of only semiautomatic fire. The balance of the parts are surplus Bren parts. Such "semiautomatic machine guns" are legally considered rifles under US Federal law and the laws of most states. Production United Kingdom Bren guns were produced at the Royal Small Arms Factory, in Enfield, London. The first Bren guns were built in September 1937, and by December, a total of 42 had been produced. Weekly production was 300 Brens a week in July 1938, and 400 a week in September 1939. The Monotype Group produced Mark 2 Brens. Enfield produced a total of 220,000 Mark I Bren guns, 57,600 in Mark III, and 250 in Mark IV. Canada John Inglis and Company received a contract from the British and Canadian governments in March 1938 to supply 5,000 Bren machine guns to the UK and 7,000 Bren machine guns to Canada. Both countries shared the capital costs of bringing in this new production facility. Production started in 1940; by August 1942, the Inglis plant was averaging 10,000 Brens per month, and produced 186,000 Bren guns of all variants by the end of the war, including 43,000 chambered in 7.92×57mm Mauser for export to the Chinese National Revolutionary Army. India In 1942, the Ishapore Arsenal began to produce Bren guns, and continued to do so long after the end of World War II, also manufacturing variants in 7.62×51mm NATO. A shadow factory for Ishapore was set up at Kanpur and produced .303 Brens before it was later rechambered to fire 7.62 NATO ammo in 1964 as the 1A LMG. Australia In 1940, the Lithgow Small Arms Factory in New South Wales began to manufacture Bren guns, producing a total of 17,249 by 1945. Users : National Liberation Army received 500 Brens from Egypt : during World War II and Korean War. Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation (as L4A4). Continued in limited service until about the time of the general introduction of the F88 Steyr (ca 1990). : post-war : received Czech-made Brens in 8×56mmR, designated kartěnice 39 Chadian FROLINAT : used by Gendarmerie and Republican Guard : Mark 2 version known to be used in the Croatian War of Independence. : Many guns captured from Kuomintang. Used during Korean War. Some converted to fire 7.62x39 caliber ammunition from ammo supplied by their Soviet allies. They used regular AK-47 magazines. : used by National Revolutionary Army 43,000 guns produced in 7.92×57mm Mauser by Inglis in Canada. Later in 1952, Taiwan produced a .30-06 Springfield version of Bren Mk II, the Type 41. : post-war : Used by the Free French Forces and French Resistance. : Captured Brens were issued to the Milice. French Far East Expeditionary Corps : Used by the Royal Hong Kong Regiment. : manufactured by the Ordnance Factories Board Phased out of Indian military service in 2012. : Iraq : Irish Defence Forces, replaced by the FN MAG in 1960s. Remained in use with Irish military reserve forces until the early 2000s. : During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and for some time thereafter by the Haganah and the Israeli Defense Forces. Replaced after Operation Kadesh (1953). : airdropped to partisans and also issued to the Italian Co-Belligerent Army in the latter part of WWII. It continued to see post-war use with the Italian Army. Also used by the Italian Police in .30-06 caliber. : captured weapons. : Arab Legion : used captured examples under the designation 7.7 mm Leichtes MG 138(e) : Bren L4 : post-war : WWII and L4 post war : post-war : Used by the Polish Underground State and Polish Armed Forces in the West during World War II. : m/43 : Used by Ceylon Defence Force in World War II : 294 guns were purchased by the Tibetan Army in 1950. : British and Commonwealth forces, and cadet forces until the introduction of the L98 Cadet Rifle State of Vietnam : used by Viet-Minh acquired from China and the Soviet Union or by capture : Supplied by the United Kingdom during the Lend-Lease program. : Yugoslav Partisans and Chetniks during World War II; : Gallery See also Besal Universal carrier CZ 805 BREN Browning Automatic Rifle Charlton Automatic Rifle Degtyaryov machine gun FM 24/29 light machine gun Mendoza RM2 Type 96 light machine gun Type 99 light machine gun Type 73 light machine gun Vickers K machine gun Vickers-Berthier ZB-26 Notes References External links Modern Firearms (additional information) History of the London Borough of Enfield Light machine guns Machine guns of the United Kingdom World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom World War II machine guns .303 British machine guns Czechoslovakia–United Kingdom relations Military equipment introduced in the 1930s	[ -0.2026100605726242, 0.47698938846588135, -0.015692565590143204, -0.444068968296051, -0.38070595264434814, 0.5132338404655457, 0.6944143176078796, -0.6147764921188354, -0.16798393428325653, 0.34087562561035156, -0.4266565442085266, 0.7027490735054016, -0.06063895672559738, 0.2691901922225952, -0.08333718776702881, 0.5366097688674927, 0.11651895940303802, 0.3501185178756714, -0.12086930871009827, -0.518094003200531, 0.26559513807296753, -0.4445497393608093, 0.42236554622650146, 0.106606125831604, -0.026931723579764366, 0.3945268392562866, 0.7726492285728455, 0.4297090172767639, 0.5077725052833557, 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240863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychological%20pricing	Psychological pricing	Psychological pricing (also price ending, charm pricing) is a pricing and marketing strategy based on the theory that certain prices have a psychological impact. In this pricing method, retail prices are often expressed as just-below numbers: numbers that are just a little less than a round number, e.g. $19.99 or £2.98. There is evidence that consumers tend to perceive just-below prices (also referred to as "odd prices") as being lower than they actually are, tending to round to the next lowest monetary unit. Thus, prices such as $1.99 may to some degree be associated with spending $1 rather than $2. The theory that drives this is that pricing practices such as this cause greater demand than if consumers were perfectly rational. Psychological pricing is one cause of price points. Overview According to a 1997 study published in the Marketing Bulletin, approximately 60% of prices in advertising material ended in the digit 9, 30% ended in the digit 5, 7% ended in the digit 0 and the remaining seven digits combined accounted for only slightly over 3% of prices evaluated. In the UK, before the withdrawal of the halfpenny coin in 1969, prices often ended in 11d (elevenpence halfpenny: just under a shilling, which was 12d); another example (before 1961) was £1/19/11¾d. (one pound, nineteen shillings and elevenpence three farthings) which is one farthing under £2. This is still seen today in gasoline (petrol) pricing ending in of the local currency's smallest denomination; for example in the US the price of a gallon of gasoline almost always ends in US$0.009 (e.g. US$2.199). In a traditional cash transaction, fractional pricing imposes tangible costs on the vendor (printing fractional prices), the cashier (producing awkward change) and the customer (stowing the change). These factors have become less relevant with the increased use of checks, credit and debit cards and other forms of currency-free exchange; also, the addition of sales tax makes the pre-tax price less relevant to the amount of change (although in Europe the sales tax is generally included in the shelf price). The psychological pricing theory is based on one or more of the following hypotheses: Thomas and Morwitz (2005) coined the term "left-digit effect" and suggested that this bias is caused by the use of an anchoring heuristic in multi-digit comparisons. Another rationale for just-below pricing is prospect theory. This theory holds that "consumers facing uncertainty in decision making, base the value of an alternative on gains or losses offered by the alternative, relative to some reference point, rather than on final absolute states of wealth or welfare." The theory also incorporates evidence that small deviations from a reference point tend to be over-valued. So, based on prospect theory, pricing something only a few cents under a whole dollar could be beneficial. This theory works well because of how the reference point is established by the consumer. The reference point for something that is $19.98 would be $20. This leads the just-below price to be seen as involving a gain, thus making it feel like a better deal. Consumers ignore the least significant digits rather than do the proper rounding. Even though the cents are seen and not totally ignored, they may subconsciously be partially ignored. Keith Coulter, Associate Professor of Marketing at the Graduate School of Management, Clark University, suggests that this effect may be enhanced when the cents are printed smaller (for example, $1999). Fractional prices suggest to consumers that goods are marked at the lowest possible price. When items are listed in a way that is segregated into price bands (such as an online real estate search), price ending is used to keep an item in a lower band, to be seen by more potential purchasers. The theory of psychological pricing is controversial. Some studies show that buyers, even young children, have a very sophisticated understanding of true cost and relative value and that, to the limits of the accuracy of the test, they behave rationally. Other researchers claim that this ignores the non-rational nature of the phenomenon and that acceptance of the theory requires belief in a subconscious level of thought processes, a belief that economic models tend to deny or ignore. Results from research using modern scanner data are mixed. Now that many customers are used to just-below pricing, some restaurants and high-end retailers psychologically-price in even numbers in an attempt to reinforce their brand image of quality and sophistication. Theories Kaushik Basu used game theory in 1997 to argue that rational consumers value their own time and effort at calculation. Such consumers process the price from left to right and tend to mentally replace the last two digits of the price with an estimate of the mean "cent component" of all goods in the marketplace. In a sufficiently large marketplace, this implies that any individual seller can charge the largest possible "cent component" (99¢) without significantly affecting the average of cent components and without changing customer behavior. Ruffle and Shtudiner's (2006) laboratory test shows considerable support for Basu's 99-cent pricing equilibrium, particularly when other sellers' prices are observable. The introduction of the euro in 2002, with its various exchange rates, distorted existing nominal price patterns while at the same time retaining real prices. A European wide study (el Sehity, Hoelzl and Kirchler, 2005) investigated consumer price digits before and after the euro introduction for price adjustments. The research showed a clear trend towards psychological pricing after the transition. Further, Benford's Law as a benchmark for the investigation of price digits was successfully introduced into the context of pricing. The importance of this benchmark for detecting irregularities in prices was demonstrated and with it a clear trend towards psychological pricing after the nominal shock of the euro introduction. Another phenomenon noted by economists is that a price point for a product (such as $4.99) remains stable for a long period of time, with companies slowly reducing the quantity of product in the package until consumers begin to notice. At this time, the price will increase marginally (to $5.05) and then within an exceptionally short time will increase to the next price point ($5.99, for example). Several studies have shown that when prices are presented to a prospect in descending order (versus ascending order) positive effects result, mainly a willingness to pay a higher price, higher perceptions of value, and higher probability of purchase. The reason for this is that when presented in the former, the higher price serves as a reference point, and the lower prices are perceived favorably as a result. Psychological pricing in consumer behavior Thomas and Morwitz (2005) suggested that this bias is a manifestation of the pervasive anchoring heuristic in multi-digit comparisons. (The anchoring heuristic is one of the heuristics identified by Nobel laureate Kahneman and his co-author Tversky.) Judgments of numerical differences are anchored on leftmost digits, causing a bias in relative magnitude judgments. This hypothesis suggests that people perceive the difference between 1.99 and 3.00 to be closer to 2 than to 1 because their judgments are anchored on the leftmost digit. Stiving and Winer (1997) examined the left-digit effect using scanner panel models. They proposed that 9-ending prices can influence consumer behavior through two distinct processes: image effects and level effects. Image effect suggests that 99-ending prices are associated with images of sales promotions. Level effect captures the magnitude underestimation caused by anchoring on leftmost digits of prices. Their results suggest that both of these effects account for the influence of 9-ending prices in grocery stores. Manning and Sprott (2009) demonstrated that left-digit anchoring can influence consumer choices using experimental studies. Choi, Lee, and Ji (2012) examined the interactive effects of 9-ending prices and message framing in advertisements. The researchers found that when pairing nine-ending prices with positive messages, advertisements were much more positively received by consumers. This in turn increased their likelihood of making a purchase decision. Psychological pricing in financial markets Left-digit effect has also been shown to influence stock-market transactions. Bhattacharya, Holden, and Jacobsen (2011) examined the left-digit effect in stock market transactions. They found that there was excess buying at just-below prices ($1.99) versus round numbers ($2.00) right above them. This discrepancy in buy-sell can lead to significant changes in 24-hour returns, that can meaningfully impact markets. Psychological pricing in public policy Research has also found psychological pricing relevant to the study of politics and public policy. For instance, a study of Danish municipal income taxes found evidence of "odd taxation" as tax rates with a nine-ending were found to be over-represented compared to other ending digits. Further, it was found that citizens’ evaluations of public-school districts in a Danish population changed noticeably based on the leftmost digit. In particular, the researchers looked at minuscule changes in average grades that shifted the leftmost digit. Once this value changed, citizens responded more drastically and as such their stance in terms of public policy on the issue changed. MacKillop et al. (2014) looked at how the left-digit effect affects the relationship between price hikes and smoking cessation. There was a very clearly demonstrated inverse relationship between the price of cigarettes and individual's motivation to smoke. Researchers found that price hikes that impacted the leftmost digit in the price (i.e. $4.99 vs. $5.00) were particularly effective in causing change among adult smokers. These findings can be utilized by public policy researchers and legislators to implement more effective cigarette tax policies. Regulation According to Davidovich-Weisberg (2013), in Israel several high-profile regulatory commissions have joined to ban retailers from charging prices ending in 99. These regulatory bodies have claimed that this was an attempt to make prices look less expensive to customers. In addition, due to the phasing out of certain denominations of coins in Israel, these quirky prices also made little practical sense in terms of everyday shopping. Historical comments Exactly how psychological pricing came into common use is not clear, though it is known the practice arose during the late 19th century. One source speculates it originated in a newspaper pricing competition. Melville E. Stone founded the Chicago Daily News in 1875, intending to price it at one cent to compete with the nickel papers of the day. The story claims that pennies were not common currency at the time, and so Stone colluded with advertisers to set whole dollar prices a cent lower—thus guaranteeing that customers would receive ample pennies in change. Others have suggested that fractional pricing was first adopted as a control on employee theft. For cash transactions with a round price, there is a chance that a dishonest cashier will pocket the bill rather than record the sale. For cash transactions with a just-below price, the cashier must nearly always make change for the customer. This generally means opening the cash register which creates a record of the sale in the register and reduces the risk of the cashier stealing from the store owner. In the former Czechoslovakia, people called this pricing "baťovská cena" ("Baťa's price"), referring to Tomáš Baťa, a Czech manufacturer of footwear. He began to widely use this practice in 1920. Price ending has also been used by retailers to highlight sale or clearance items for administrative purposes. A retailer might end all regular prices in 95 and all sale prices in 50. This makes it easy for a buyer to identify which items are discounted when looking at a report. In its 2005 United Kingdom general election manifesto, the Official Monster Raving Loony Party proposed the introduction of a 99-pence coin to "save on change". A recent trend in some monetary systems is to eliminate the smallest denomination coin (typically 0.01 of the local currency). The total cost of purchased items is then rounded up or down to, for example, the nearest 0.05. This may have an effect on future just-below pricing so as to maximize the rounding advantage for vendors by favoring 98 and 99 endings (rounded up) over 96 and 97 ending (rounded down) especially at small retail outlets where single-item purchases are more common. Australia is a good example of this practice where 5 cents has been the smallest denomination coin since 1992, but pricing at .98 or .99 on items under several hundred dollars is still almost universally applied (e.g.: $1.99 – $299.99) while goods on sale often price at .94 and its variations. It is also the case in Finland and the Netherlands, the first two countries using the euro currency to eliminate the 1 and 2 cent coins. See also Infomercial Pricing Price point Marketing mix Mental accounting Microeconomics Take a penny, leave a penny Numerical cognition References Bibliography External links The Left-Digit Effect in Price Cognition Heuristics in Numerical Cognition 99-cent pricing hooks shoppers Nine-ending Price and Consumer Behavior: An Evaluation in a New Context (PDF) "Get smart for just $9.99" "Perfect Pricing: The psychology of online prices" Business terms Pricing Cognitive biases Consumer behaviour	[ -0.021366361528635025, 0.026428360491991043, -0.16001532971858978, 0.32133468985557556, -0.1769767850637436, 0.36592063307762146, 0.03872677683830261, 0.13222168385982513, 0.09997452795505524, -0.25134187936782837, -0.13522969186306, 0.9164302349090576, -0.08302699029445648, 0.4371141195297241, -0.32663077116012573, 0.3881211280822754, -0.14403024315834045, 0.05551588535308838, -0.023387501016259193, -0.20669160783290863, -0.880272626876831, -0.3145540654659271, 0.22068555653095245, 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