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240866 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vratislavice%20nad%20Nisou | Vratislavice nad Nisou | Vratislavice nad Nisou () is a district of the city of Liberec, in the north of the Czech Republic. As of 2021, it has about 8,800 inhabitants. and straddles the Nisa river between Liberec and Jablonec, around 3.5 km south-east of Liberec city centre.
History
The settlement of "Wratislawicz" was established, it is thought, in the 13th century by Bohemian colonists on the left bank of the river Nisa. The very first written document mentioning this place comes from the 1460s which by this stage had a stone church. The right bank of the Nisa was settled (as an independent village) during the 16th century by German speaking people from Silesia, and called the village Meffersdorf after the settlers' home village.
These two villages possessed not only different names, but even belonged to different governances (Liberec and Český Dub). After the Thirty Years' War the German name, mangled to Maffersdorf, became used for both places - the name Wratislawicz faded into obscurity.
Maffersdorf on the right bank (Liberec side) of Nisa continued to grow steadily. In 1701, construction of a new parish church was finished, designed by a Prague architect Marco Antonio Canavelli.
In the second half of the 19th century industrial activity arrived to both villages. A carpet-making factory founded by Ignaz Ginzkey (and developed by his son Willy) achieved world renown. In 1924, Ginzkey equipped the Waldorf-Astoria hotel in New York City with the world's largest carpet. In 1871 Franz Peukert established a company that later developed into a familiar name in butcher's equipment. Eduard Stiassny founded porcelain production in the town in 1896.
After the discovery of a spring in 1862, the village on the left bank became involved in the spa business. In 1913, the owner of the spa, Rudolf, joined with Weber, the owner of a mineral water source discovered in 1866. Afterwards in 1918, the spa in Maffersdorf was bought by the owner of the resort in Lázně Libverda to promote competition.
In 1872, Reichenberger founded a public-owned brewery and maltworks in Maffersdorf, which became famous for its beer. The two settlements that belonged to the Bohemian governance of Liberec () had 4,910 inhabitants between them. A local railway branch line was inaugurated on the 12th of July as a part of the Liberec-Jablonec-Tanvald railway route, leading to the building of two stations - Mattersdorf and Dörfel.
In 1901 both villages were merged into one market town (population 6,234 by 1934), and Czech inhabitants started to use currently known name Vratislavice. In 1903 it obtained full status as a town, and 1918 saw the area become part of the newly founded state of Czechoslovakia.
As a part of the Sudetenland, the town was occupied and incorporated into the Third Reich, according to the Munich Agreement followed in 1945 by the transfer of nearly all of the almost exclusively German speaking inhabitants of the town by the Czechoslovak government to Germany, as agreed upon by the Allies as a definite solution to the existing ethnic strife.
In 1951, the town became connected to Liberec and Jablonec by a tram project that had been proposed since 1900. In 1970, services on the tramway had been periodically discontinued due to the poor condition of the tracks. Nowadays, the streetcar route is operated by the local transportation company Dopravní podnik města Liberce.
Vratislavice was promoted to the status of town again in 1956, but in 1980 it became an administrative part of Liberec. Since 1989 there have been several attempts to renew the status of an independent town of Vratislavice.
Economy
After the dissolution of the Communist Party rule during the Velvet Revolution, some companies found the transition into the free-market economy very difficult. The well-known brewery, Vratislav was so run down that it was forced into closure in 1998. During a two-year dormancy the company was bought by the Hols firm, and with help of many friends of Maffersdorfer beer the brewery was put back into operation in summer of 2004, trading under the name of Konrad. In 2003, the Hols brewery produced 6,500,000 litres. In October 2004, a new classic car museum was opened in the grounds of the brewery.
Vratislavice is not only notable in drinks industry as a producer of beer; Vratislavická kyselka s.r.o., owned by UNIPO a.s. of Pardubice, produce mineral water (Vratislavická kyselka) and other alcohol-free beverages.
To this day, the brewery and carpet factory are the most important industries in Vratislavice.
Notable people
Ignaz Ginzkey (1818–1876), carpet magnate
Wilhelm Ginzkey (1856–1934), whole industrialist
Ferdinand Porsche (1875–1951), car designer
Oskar Baudisch (1881–1950), German-American radiographer
Hans Molitor (1895–1945) Austrian-American pharmacologist
Konrad Henlein (1898–1945), Nazi politician
Walter Radetz (1926–1986), German author, editor, translator
Roland Bulirsch (born 1932), mathematician, grew up here
Kurt Erwin Bluemel (1933–2014), plantsman, chairman of American Horticultural Society
Roland Schneider (1939–2007), German Japanologist
References
External links
Maffersdorf (de)
Liberec
Populated places in Liberec District
Neighbourhoods in the Czech Republic | [
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240868 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transvaal%20%28province%29 | Transvaal (province) | The Province of the Transvaal (), commonly referred to as the Transvaal (; ), was a province of South Africa from 1910 until 1994, when a new constitution subdivided it following the end of apartheid. The name "Transvaal" refers to the province's geographical location to the north of the Vaal River. Its capital was Pretoria, which was also the country's executive capital.
History
In 1910, four British colonies united to form the Union of South Africa. The Transvaal Colony, which had been formed out of the bulk of the old South African Republic after the Second Boer War, became the Transvaal Province in the new union. Half a century later, in 1961, the union ceased to be part of the Commonwealth of Nations and became the Republic of South Africa. The PWV (Pretoria-Witwatersrand-Vereeniging) conurbation in the Transvaal, centred on Pretoria and Johannesburg, became South Africa's economic powerhouse, a position it still holds today as Gauteng Province.
In 1994, after the fall of apartheid, the former provinces were abolished, and the Transvaal ceased to exist. The south-central portion (including the PWV) became Gauteng, the northern portion became Limpopo and the southeastern portion became Mpumalanga. Most of the North West came from the southwestern portion of the old Transvaal, and a tiny segment of the Transvaal joined KwaZulu-Natal.
Even before 1994, the Transvaal Province was subdivided into regions for a number of purposes (such as municipal and district courts, and sporting divisions). These divisions included Northern Transvaal (present-day Limpopo and Pretoria), Eastern Transvaal (currently Mpumalanga), Western Transvaal (currently part of North West Province) and Southern Transvaal (now Gauteng Province).
Geography
The Transvaal province lay between the Vaal River in the south, and the Limpopo River in the north, roughly between and S, and 25 and 32 E. To its south it bordered with the Orange Free State and Natal provinces, to its west were the Cape Province and the Bechuanaland Protectorate (later Botswana), to its north Rhodesia (later Zimbabwe), and to its east Portuguese East Africa (later Mozambique) and Swaziland. Except on the south-west, these borders were mostly well defined by natural features.
Several Bantustans were entirely inside the Transvaal: Venda, KwaNdebele, Gazankulu, KaNgwane and Lebowa. Parts of Bophuthatswana were also in the Transvaal, with other parts in Cape Province and Orange Free State.
Within the Transvaal lies the Waterberg Massif, a prominent ancient geological feature of the South African landscape.
Regions
PWV region (later Gauteng province) consisting of the Witwatersrand, which in turn consists of the West Rand and the East Rand, as well as Johannesburg; the Vaal Triangle and Pretoria.
The North West
Limpopo
Mpumalanga
Districts in 1991
Districts of the province and population at the 1991 census.
Johannesburg: 1,574,631
Alberton: 367,929
Germiston: 171,541
Boksburg: 195,905
Benoni: 288,629
Kempton Park: 354,787
Randburg: 341,430
Roodepoort: 219,149
Westonaria: 160,531
Oberholzer: 177,768
Randfontein: 116,405
Krugersdorp: 196,213
Brakpan: 130,463
Springs: 157,702
Nigel: 92,881
Delmas: 48,614
Pretoria: 667,700
Wonderboom: 266,153
Soshanguve: 146,334
Cullinan: 32,006
Vanderbijlpark: 434,004
Vereeniging: 250,511
Heidelberg: 77,055
Balfour: 38,311
Standerton: 85,893
Hoëveldrif (Highveld Ridge): 155,881
Bethal: 77,780
Volksrust: 29,924
Amersfoort: 33,461
Wakkerstroom: 33,246
Piet Retief: 64,052
Ermelo: 111,082
Carolina: 30,438
Bronkhorstspruit: 38,605
Witbank: 173,281
Middelburg: 140,015
Belfast: 28,973
Waterval-Boven: 9,300
Groblersdal: 57,742
Moutse (main town Dennilton): 102,179
Nelspruit: 61,921
Barberton: 72,165
Witrivier: 30,235
Pelgrimsrus (main town Sabie): 29,063
Lydenburg: 36,976
Letaba (main town Tzaneen): 59,900
Phalaborwa: 30,126
Soutpansberg (main town Louis Trichardt): 35,839
Messina: 22,959
Pietersburg: 64,207
Potgietersrus: 69,571
Waterberg (main town Nylstroom): 48,991
Ellisras: 24,530
Thabazimbi: 48,844
Warmbad: 41,692
Brits: 111,798
Rustenburg: 125,307
Swartruggens: 12,607
Marico: 38,983
Koster: 29,228
Ventersdorp: 36,315
Coligny: 22,154
Lichtenburg: 79,013
Delareyville: 36,036
Potchefstroom: 185,552
Klerksdorp: 321,478
Wolmaransstad: 61,497
Schweizer-Reneke: 46,893
Bloemhof: 15,291
Christiana: 13,596
Administrators
Sports
The province was divided into a number of sporting teams. These teams were renamed after the Transvaal became defunct, however their traditional territories have remained unchanged in many cases, even though they overlap the boundaries of the Transvaal's successor provinces.
Examples of this include the Blue Bulls (formerly Northern Transvaal), which governs rugby in Pretoria (now part of Gauteng) and Limpopo Province, and the Golden Lions (formerly Transvaal) formed in 1889.
The Orlando Pirates Football Club was founded in 1937 and was originally based in Orlando, Soweto and Kaizer Chiefs were founded. January 1970. Mamelodi Sundowns F.C. originated from Marabastad, a cosmopolitan area north west of the Pretoria CBD in the early 1960s.
Cricket teams from the former Transvaal include Transvaal (later Gauteng) which represented the southern parts of the province, and Northern Transvaal (later Northerns) that represents the northern parts of Gauteng, including Pretoria, as well as areas further north.
References
History of South Africa
Former provinces of South Africa
States and territories established in 1910
States and territories disestablished in 1994
1910 establishments in South Africa
1994 disestablishments in South Africa | [
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240869 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosuo | Mosuo | The Mosuo (; also spelled Moso, Mosso or Musuo), often called the Naxi among themselves, is a small ethnic group living in Yunnan and Sichuan Provinces in China, close to the border with Tibet. Consisting of a population of approximately 40,000, many of them live in the Yongning region, around Lugu Lake, in Labai, in Muli, and in Yanyuan, located high in the Himalayas ().
Although the Mosuo are culturally distinct from the Nakhi, the Chinese government places them as members of the Nakhi minority. The Nakhi are about 320,000 people spread throughout different provinces in China. Their culture has been documented by indigenous scholars Lamu Gatusa, Latami Dashi, Yang Lifen and He Mei.
Introduction
The Mosuo are often referred to as China's "last matrilineal society." The Mosuo themselves may also often use the description matriarchal, which they believe increases interest in their culture and thus attracts tourism. However, the terms matrilineal and matriarchal do not reflect the full complexity of their social organization. In fact, it is not easy to categorize Mosuo culture within traditional Western definitions. They have aspects of a matriarchal culture: women are often the head of the house, inheritance is through the female line, and women make business decisions. However, unlike a matriarchy, the political power tends to be in the hands of males. For instance, a man named Ge Ze A Che is the political leader of Luoshui village. However, according to an article by NPR, there was once a time when the political leaders of Mosuo villages were in fact female. The anthropologist Peggy Reeves Sanday has argued that the Musou should be considered a matriarchy. Further, scholars have argued that while matrilineal arrangements are the normative pattern, domestic arrangements still vary geographically and by family circumstance.
Lifestyle
Daily life
Mosuo culture is primarily agrarian, with work based on farming tasks such as raising livestock (yak, water buffalo, sheep, goats, poultry) and growing crops, including grains and potatoes. The people are largely self-sufficient in diet, raising enough for their daily needs. Meat is an important part of their diet and, since they lack refrigeration, is preserved through salting or smoking. The Mosuo are renowned for their preserved pork, which may be kept for 10 years or more. They produce a local alcoholic beverage made from grain, called sulima, which is similar to strong wine. Sulima is drunk regularly and usually offered to guests and at ceremonies and festivals.
Local economies tend to be barter-based. However, increased interaction with the outside world brings greater use of a cash-based trade system. Average incomes are low (US$150–200 per year), causing financial restrictions when cash is needed for activities such as education or travel. Electricity has been introduced in most Mosuo communities, but some villages still lack electric power.
Mosuo homes consist of four rectangular structures arranged in a square, around a central courtyard. The first floor houses livestock, including water buffalo, horses, geese, and poultry. The main cooking, eating and visiting areas are also on the first floor. The second floor is commonly used for storage and for the bedrooms.
Role of women
As soon as a Mosuo girl becomes old enough, she learns the tasks that she will perform for the rest of her life. Mosuo women do all the housework, including cleaning, tending the fire, cooking, gathering firewood, feeding the livestock, and spinning and weaving. In the past, due to isolation, Mosuo women produced all their own household goods. Today, due to increased trade with surrounding villages and cities, it is easier to obtain goods. Nevertheless, some Mosuo women, especially those of older generations, know how to use looms to produce cloth goods.
Role of men
According to some, men have no responsibility in Mosuo society—they have no jobs, rest all day, and conserve their strength for nighttime visits. However, Mosuo men do have roles in their society. They help to bring up the children of their sisters and female cousins, build houses and are in charge of livestock and fishing, which they learn from their uncles and older male family members as soon as they are old enough.
Men deal with the slaughter of livestock, in which women never participate. Slaughtered pigs, in particular, are kept whole and stored in a dry, airy place that keeps them edible for up to ten years. This is especially helpful when harsh winters make food scarce.
Matrilineality
Mosuo families tend to trace their lineage through the female side of the family. Occasionally, in fact, they may not know who the father of a child is, which does not carry stigma as in many other societies, but is considered embarrassing. Children belong to and reside within their mother's household and have access to its land and resources.
Matriarch
The matriarch (Ah mi, or elder female, in Chinese) is the head of the house. The Ah mi has absolute power; she decides the fate of all those living under her roof. In walking marriages, Mosuo women are responsible for much of the work done around the house and financial decisions. The matriarch also manages the money and jobs of each family member. When the Ah mi wishes to pass her duties on to the next generation, she will give this female successor the keys to the household storage, signifying the passing on of property rights and responsibility.
History
An important historical fact often missed in studies of the Mosuo was that their social organization has traditionally been feudal, with a small nobility controlling a larger peasant population. The Mosuo nobility practiced a "parallel line of descent" that encouraged cohabitation, usually within the nobility, in which the father passed his social status to his sons, while the women passed their status to their daughters. Thus, if a Mosuo commoner female married a male serf, her daughter would be another commoner, while her son would have serf status.
Chuan-Kang Shih argued that matrilineality and "walking marriage" (tisese) is a primary institution of family, sex and reproduction, and marriage is secondary. As Shih argues, marriage, as different from tisese, was introduced into Mosuo society through contact with other ethnic groups during the Yuan and Qing empire-building process.
Adoption
If there are no offspring of one sex, it is common for a child from another family to join an adoptive household. Such a child might come from a large family, or one too small to continue. Children raised in this sense are genealogically linked to their new households. They are treated as equal family members; in some instances, adopted females become the matriarchs of their adoptive families.
Walking marriages
One of the best known aspects of Mosuo culture is its practice of "walking marriage" (走婚 zǒu hūn in Chinese), although this practice remains poorly understood. Walking marriages are the most prominent form of marriage in Mosuo culture; however, it is not unheard of for women in Mosuo culture to marry outside of their culture, therefore participating in marriages other than walking marriages. In a walking marriage, both partners live under the roof of their respective extended families during the day; however, at night it is common for the man to visit and stay at the women's house (if given permission) until sunrise. Therefore, they do not technically live in the same household, but they are free to visit when granted permission. Children of parents in a walking marriage are not raised by their father. The brothers of the mother (maternal uncles) in the marriage take on the responsibilities of the father since the father is not typically around during the daytime. Due to the separation of the father and mother, it is crucial for the uncle(s) to play a large role in the development of the child.
Shih (2010) offers the most sophisticated anthropological account of Mosuo practices of sexual union. "All on-going sexual relationships in Mosuo culture are called "walking marriages." These bonds are "based on mutual affection." "When a Mosuo woman or man expresses interest in a potential partner, it is the woman who may give the man permission to visit her. These visits are usually kept secret, with the man visiting the woman's house after dark, spending the night, and returning to his own home in the morning." After the birth of the child, the man has no moral, cultural, or legal obligation to take care of the child. However, the child will be raised with adequate care and attention. The overwhelming support from the woman's extended family, allows both the man and woman to engage in sexual relations with whomever they please.
General practice
"The Mosuo have large extended families, and several generations (great-grandparents, grandparents, parents, children, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, nieces, nephews, etc.) live together in the same house. Everyone lives in communal quarters, and there are no private bedrooms or living areas, except for women between certain ages (see the section on "coming of age", below) who may have their own private rooms."
"While a pairing may be long-term, the man never lives with the woman's family, or vice versa. Mosuo men and women continue to live with and be responsible to their respective families. The couple do not share property. The father usually has little responsibility for his offspring." However, this does not mean that men can wipe their hands free of responsibilities and spend every night participating in shenanigans. After work, they are obligated to go home and help raise their nieces and nephews. The children rely on the collective effort of the extended family rather than that of the biological father.
"A father may indicate an interest in the upbringing of his children by bringing gifts to the mother's family. This gives him status within the mother's family, while not actually making him part of the family."
Matrilineal society
Unlike other cultures, women in the Mosuo society dominate the household and family. They are responsible for housework, agricultural duties, and taking care of children. In a walking marriage, the ancestral line is most important on the wife's side of the family and the children of the couple reside and belong to the wife's family household. Considering women are responsible for most domestic jobs, they have a larger role in the walking marriage and are viewed with more respect and importance in this society.
Husbands in walking marriages have a much less involved role than wives. The husbands in these relationships are generally the figures who are in charge of all religious and political decisions for the family. Regarding the family responsibilities, the father or husband in the family does not have nearly as many responsibilities regarding the family as the wife does. In fact, the male relatives of the mother's side of the family, such as uncles and cousins, are generally the "father figure" to the husband's children. The mother's brothers occupy the central role in the household. Their roles include disciplining children, caring for them, and supporting the children financially. Since the husband and wife live with their separate immediate families, they help take care of the families' children and issues regarding their household. Even though fathers are involved in their sister's children's lives, they are not necessarily involved in their biological children's life. In walking marriages, the involvement of a father in his child's life is optional. If a father decides to be involved in the upbringing of his own biological child, he can bring gifts and help with work around the woman's household. This relationship can be performed regardless if the woman and man are still in the walking marriage and it gives the man a type of "official status" among the family without being fully involved.
Advantages to a walking marriage
Other than the child receiving exceptional care and attention from the extended family, there are many inconspicuous advantages for participating in a walking marriage. For example: divorce is never an issue because the man and woman are not legally bound together, thus sharing very few of the same responsibilities. There are also never any disputes over who owns custody of the child since the child belongs to the mother's extended family and takes the mother's last name. In the case of a parent's death, the child still has a prodigious amount of care and affection from the extended family.
Myths and controversies
Outsiders often believe the following myths:
Mosuo women have many partners
"While it is possible for a Mosuo woman to change partners as often as she likes, few Mosuo women have more than one partner at a time. Anthropologists call this system "serial monogamy." Most Mosuo form long-term relationships and do not change partners frequently. Some of these pairings may even last a lifetime."
But, in other anthropologists' views, it is a more recent change, "in the face of political campaigns and cultural integration with the Han Chinese", and "previous generations often continued with multiple partners even after a child was born. Some older Na report having upwards of 30, 40, even 50 partners throughout their lifetime" and despite these changes, "notions of exclusivity are not entrenched, and the Na language has no word for 'jealousy'."
Fathers of children are commonly not known
"The large majority of women know their children's fathers; it is actually a source of embarrassment if a mother cannot identify a child's father. But, "unlike many cultures which castigate mothers and children without clear paternity, Na children induce no such censure". The father of a child born from a walking marriage will not see his child during the day, but rather at night time. The father doesn't play as large a role in the development of the child. "At a child's birth, the father, his mother and sisters come to celebrate, and bring gifts. On New Year's Day, a child visits the father to pay respect to him and his household. A father also participates in the coming-of-age ceremony. Though he does not have an everyday role, the father is nevertheless an important partner."
Customs
Coming of age
The coming-of-age ceremony, which occurs at the age of thirteen, is one of the most important events in a Mosuo child's life. Before this ceremony, Mosuo children all dress the same and are restricted from certain aspects of Mosuo life, particularly those that involve religious rites. Also, a child who dies before this ceremony does not receive the traditional funeral. Once they come of age, girls are given their skirts, and boys are given their trousers (thus, it is called the "skirt ceremony" for girls, and the "trouser ceremony" for boys).
After coming of age, Mosuo females can get their own private bedroom, called a "flowering room"; and, once past puberty, can begin to invite partners for "walking marriages".
Hearth
This is the center of the household. It combines the worship of nature, ancestors, and spirits. Behind the hearth is a slab of stone (called guo zhuang in Chinese) and an ancestral altar where Mosuo household members leave a food offering. They do this before each meal, even when having tea.
Funeral
Death is the domain of men, who make all funeral arrangements. It is the only time men prepare food for family and guests. Usually, every family in the village will send at least one male to help with the preparations. Dabas and Lamas are invited to recite prayers for the deceased. Mosuo believe that if a spirit does not have assistance of a Daba, it will be lost. Without Lamas, a spirit will not be able to attain reincarnation. Caskets are small and square, with the deceased's body placed in the fetal position so that it can be reborn in the next life. During cremation, a decorated horse is led around the fire, which Mosuo believe will help carry the deceased's spirit away. Afterwards, friends and family gather to pay their last respects and wish the deceased an easy journey to their ancestral land.
Dogs
While some Asian cultures practice the custom of eating dogs, this is strictly forbidden to the Mosuo. In Mosuo culture, a myth describes that long ago, dogs had life spans of 60 years while humans had life spans of thirteen years. Humans felt their life span was too short, so they traded it with the dogs in exchange for paying homage to them. Therefore, dogs are valued members of the family. They are never killed, and they most certainly are never eaten. During the initiation rites into adulthood, Mosuo adolescents pray before the family dogs.
Religion
Religion is a major part of Mosuo life. It is made up of two coexisting beliefs: their own syncretic faith called Daba and the influence of Tibetan Buddhism.
Daba
Daba has been a part of Mosuo culture for thousands of years, handed down through generations by word of mouth. It functions as a repository of most of the Mosuo culture and history. It is based on animistic principles and involves ancestor worship and the worship of a mother goddess: "The Mosuo are alone among their neighbors to have a guardian mother goddess rather than a patron warrior god".
The primary tasks of the priest (or shaman), also called daba, are to perform exorcisms and assist deceased spirits. Priests drink alcohol until they go into a trance and can converse with these spirits. Since the Mosuo have no written language, there is no religious script, nor is there a temple. All Daba priests are male, and they live in their mother's house with their brothers and sisters. When not pursuing their religious duties, they engage in everyday tasks such as fishing and herding.
On a day-to-day basis, Daba plays a far smaller role in the lives of the Mosuo. The daba is mostly called on to perform traditional ceremonies at key events, such as naming a child, a child's coming-of-age ceremony, a funeral, or special events such as the Spring Festival. The daba is also called on to perform specific rites if someone is sick.
A cultural crisis is emerging. Due to past Chinese government policies, which made being a Daba priest illegal (this policy has now ceased), there are very few remaining dabas, most of whom are old men. This leads some Mosuo to worry that Mosuo history and heritage may be lost when the current generation of Dabas are gone.
Buddhism
Buddhism has started to play a larger role in their culture in recent years. Today Tibetan-style Buddhism is the predominant religion, but it has been somewhat adapted to Mosuo society. Like the Buddhist population of Tibet, both lay and monastic Buddhists among the Mosuo eat meat. Mosuo lamas offer prayers of thanks and prayers for the dead, offer basic religious and secular education to young children, and counsel adults. In families with more than one male child, one will most often be sent to be a monk.
The Mosuo even have their own "living Buddha", a man said to be a reincarnation of one of the great Tibetan spiritual leaders. He usually lives in Lijiang, but returns to the main Tibetan temple in Yongning for important spiritual holidays. Many Mosuo families will send at least one male to be trained as a monk, and in recent years, the number of such monks has increased quite significantly. The current Mosuo Living Buddha died of old age in April 2011.
In most Mosuo homes, a statue of some Buddhist deity can be found above the cooking fire; the family will usually put a small portion of whatever they are cooking in the fire, as an offering to their deity. Tibetan Buddhist holidays and festivals are participated in by the entire Mosuo community.
Economy
The Mosuo are primarily farmers. Subsistence is mostly based on agriculture. Farmers work "seven hours a day and seven months a year". In the past, they cultivated oats, buckwheat, and flax exclusively. This changed under Han influence at the end of the nineteenth century. Since then, these farmers have also cultivated, among other things, corn, sunflowers, soybeans, potatoes and other vegetables such as pumpkins and beans. Potatoes were their main staple for a while until the mid-twentieth century when they began growing rice, which today makes up more than half of annual production. In recent years, subsistence for some Mosuo has shifted dramatically from agriculture due to a thriving tourist industry
Mosuo also keep a variety of livestock. Since the early twentieth century they have raised buffalo, cows, horses, and goats which originated from Han and Tibetan regions. However, their preferred stock is pigs. Pork plays several important roles in Mosuo society. It is fed to guests, is the obligatory offering at funerals, and used as payment or reimbursement. Hua (2001) insists that it is "a kind of currency and... a symbol of wealth".
Once a year, regions of Mosuo males gather for a livestock fair. They travel for miles on buses, horses, or foot to attend. Here men sell and trade livestock to supplement household incomes.
The Mosuo fish on Lake Lugu and also set land-based fish traps; however, they do not use motorboats, and catching fish in open water using their very primitive gear is not easy.
Language
The Mosuo speak Na (a.k.a. Narua), a Naish language (closely related to Naxi), a member of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Although there is no question that the language of the Mosuo and that of the Naxi are closely related, some Mosuo speakers resent the use of the language name Naxi, which is commonly used to refer to the dialect of the town of Lijiang and the surrounding villages. A more adequate name is Na, used in several linguistic publications. The name "Narua" is used in the Summer Institute of Linguistics' inventory of languages, Ethnologue.Narua A collection of audio recordings is available online, and a trilingual glossary has also been posted online. Two book-length descriptions of the language are available, as well as several research articles.
Yongning Na, which is spoken in Yongning township, Lijiang municipality, Yunnan, China, has been documented by Jacques and Michaud (2011).
Script
Like other Chinese, the Mosuo today use Han script for daily communication. The Tibetan script may sometimes be used for religious purposes.
The Mosuo also have their own native religion, called Daba, which uses 32 symbols. "They follow a "primal" belief system. However, the head ritual specialists of the Daba religion, who are called daba, have advanced beyond the stage of spirit-possessed shamans, and also are in possession of a number of sacred texts. Therefore, these practitioners should be categorized as a type of priest." However, there are currently efforts underway to develop a written form of the Mosuo language.
Intercultural exchanges
The Han are the ethnic majority of China, one of the 56 ethnic groups of China. In the Yongning region during the Ming Dynasty. the Mosuo integrated many Han ideals. The Mosuo also accepted Buddhism and adapted it to fit their values. Neither the Cultural Revolution nor trade between different cultures fundamentally changed Mosuo beliefs. But recently, Mosuo society has been rapidly changing.
Modernity
With improved technology, there are better roads and transportation. Young Mosuo men and women use these modes to leave their villages and find employment in neighboring cities. Television has brought the ideas of the modern world and an image of a more affluent lifestyle. Also, men have begun to take jobs independent of the household and earn their own income. Older Mosuo fear emerging property conflicts as a consequence. Care for the family, with younger children generations leaving the villages, is also a concern.
Tourism
Mosuo living near Lugu Lake inhabit an aesthetically pleasing region. Photographers, television crews, writers, and artists are drawn to their homes. This increased attention has also brought tourists. Tourism is primarily domestic and typically occurs as a part of organized tour groups to view a culture that seems "exotic". Tourism has influenced kinship and parenting practices, with Mosuo residing in areas where tourism is prevalent being less likely to adhere to strict matrilineal norms.
Films
There are many documentaries made about the Mosuo, in English and Mandarin, and there has even been a film festival dedicated to some of them. Most films perpetuate the myth that women run the society, some even claiming that men have no say in political or household matters and do not work.
"Without Fathers or Husbands" (1995, 26 min., Royal Anthropological Institute). Made by Chinese born, French educated anthropologist Cai Hua. It does not make claims about matriarchy.
"A World without Fathers and Husbands" Eric Blavier (2000, 52 min.)
"The Ladies of the Lake: A Matriarchal Society" (20 min.)
Elsewhere (2001)
Mosso, the Land of Free Love: The Last Matriarchy (2006, 50 min.)
Mosso, the Land of Free Love: Walking Marriage (2006, 50 min.)
Kingdom of Women: The Matriarchal Mosuo of China (2007, 54 min.)
"Frontline World: The Women's Kingdom" (July 19, 2005, 9 min.)
"Frontline World: stories from a small planet" (June 27, 2006, 9 min)
[Mosuo Song Journey], by Diedie Weng and Carol Bliss (2007, 37 minutes)
Kingdom of Women - A Reflection of a Matriarchal Society on Lugu Lake (58 minutes)
"Taboo: Sex", National Geographic Channel (2008)
The Mosuo Sisters (2012, 80 min.). A tale of two sisters living in the shadow of two Chinas directed by Marlo Poras.
"Free Love," National Geographic Channel (2008)
"The Fall of Womenland," Director: Xiaodan He (2009)
"The Land Where Women Rule: Inside China's Last Matriarchy." Broadly staff. 2016. Broadly. October. 2016.
Sunny Side of Sex (2011) by Sunny Bergman
See also
Chiefdom of Yongning
Chinese marriage
Kettu Kalyanam
List of ethnic groups in China
List of matrilineal or matrilocal societies
Lugu Lake
Matriarchy
Matrilineality
Matrilocal residence
Mosuo women
Naxi people
Sambandam
Yang Erche Namu, a notable Chinese writer, singer and TV star of Mosuo ethnicity
Bibliography
Barber, Nigel."Chinese tribe without marriage points to future" Huffington Post January 2014. Huffington Post. October 2016.
Dashi, Latami (editor). 摩梭社会文化研究论文集 (1960–2005)，云南大学出版社，主编：拉他咪达石
Gong, Binglin, Huibin Yan, and Chun-Lei Yang. "Gender Differences in the Dictator Experiment: Evidence from the Matrilineal Mosuo and the Patriarchal Yi." SSRN Electronic Journal (2010): 1-25. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
Hamon, Raeann R.; and Bron B Ingoldsby (editors). Mate Selection: Across Cultures, Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, California, 2003.
Hua, Cai. A Society Without Fathers or Husbands: The Na of China, New York: Zone Books, 2001.
Hua, Cai. « Une société sans père ni mari : les Naxi de Chine », Presses Universitaires de France, 2001.
Hamon, Raeann R.; and Bron B Ingoldsby (editors). Mate Selection: Across Cultures, Sage Publications: Thousand Oaks, California, 2003.
Mattison, S. M., Scelza, B., & Blumenfield, T. (2014). Paternal Investment and the Positive Effects of Fathers among the Matrilineal Mosuo of Southwest China. American Anthropologist, 116(3), 591–610.
Mattison, S. M. (2010). Economic impacts of tourism and erosion of the visiting system among the Mosuo of Lugu lake. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 11(2), 159–176.
Mattison, Siobhán M., Brooke Scelza, and Tami Blumenfield. "Paternal Investment and the Positive Effects of Fathers among the Matrilineal Mosuo of Southwest China." American Anthropologist 116.3 (2014): 591–610. Web. 24 Oct. 2016.
"Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture." Matriarchal/Matrilineal Culture. Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association, 2006. Web. 25 Oct. 2016.
Mattison, Siobhán. 2010. Economic Impacts of Tourism and Erosion of the Visiting System Among the Mosuo of Lugu Lake. The Asia Pacific Journal of Anthropology, 11: 2, 159 — 176.
Namu, Yang Erche; and Christine Mathieu. Leaving Mother Lake: A Girlhood at the Edge of the World, Little, Brown: Boston, 2003, ,
Roland J. Hardenberg. Die Moso (China) im interkulturellen Vergleich : Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des komparativen Ansatzes in der Ethnologie. In : Paideuma, vol. 54 (2008), p. 109-127. ISSN 0078-7809.
Shih, Chuan-kang. Quest for Harmony: The Moso Traditions of Sexual Union & Family Life. Stanford, 2010.
Stacey, Judith. Unhitched: Love, Sex, and Family Values from West Hollywood to Western China. New York: New York University Press, 2011. , , ,
Stockard, Janice E. Marriage in Culture: Practice and Meaning Across Diverse Societies, Wadsworth and Thomson Learning: Belmont, 2002.
Ward, Martha; and Monica Edenstein. A World Full of Women, Pearson: Boston, 2009.
Waihong, Choo. The Kingdom of Women: Life, Love and Death in China's Hidden Mountains. I B Tauris, London, 2017, ,
XU Duoduo. (2015). A Comparison of the Twenty-Eight Lunar Mansions Between Dabaism and Dongbaism. Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies, 3, 2: 61-81 (links: 1. academia.edu; 2. Archaeoastronomy and Ancient Technologies).
XU Duoduo. (2017). From Daba Script to Dongba Script: A Diachronic Exploration of the History of Moso Pictographic Writings. Libellarium: Journal for the Research of Writing, Books, and Cultural Heritage Institutions, X, 1: 1-47 (Links: 1. Libellarium; 2. academia.edu).
Yuan, Lu. "Land of the Walking Marriages." Natural History. Ed. Sam Mitchell. N.p.: n.p., n.d. 57–65. Print.
References
Further media
Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine:
External links
Girl's kingdom (via archive.org)
The Mosuo
Pictures of Mosuo in Buddhist prayers
Kingdom of Daughters
5 Successful Societies Run by Women
Ethnic groups in China
Nakhi people
Matriarchy | [
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240872 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20gun | Lewis gun | The Lewis gun (or Lewis automatic machine gun or Lewis automatic rifle) is a First World War–era light machine gun. Designed privately in America but not adopted, the design was finalised and mass-produced in the United Kingdom, and widely used by troops of the British Empire during the war. It had a distinctive barrel cooling shroud (containing a finned, aluminium breech-to-muzzle heat sink to cool the gun barrel) and top-mounted pan magazine. The Lewis served to the end of the Korean War, and was widely used as an aircraft machine gun during both World Wars, almost always with the cooling shroud removed, as air flow during flight offers sufficient cooling.
History
A predecessor to the Lewis gun incorporating the principles upon which it was based was designed by Ferdinand Mannlicher. The Lewis gun was invented by U.S. Army colonel Isaac Newton Lewis in 1911, based on initial work by Samuel Maclean. Despite its origins, the Lewis gun was not initially adopted by the U.S. military, most likely because of political differences between Lewis and General William Crozier, the chief of the Ordnance Department. Lewis became frustrated with trying to persuade the U.S. Army to adopt his design, "slapped by rejections from ignorant hacks", in his words, and retired from the army.
Lewis left the United States in 1913 and went to Belgium, where he established the Armes Automatique Lewis company in Liège to facilitate commercial production of the gun. Lewis had been working closely with British arms manufacturer the Birmingham Small Arms Company Limited (BSA) in an effort to overcome some of the production difficulties of the weapon. The Belgians bought a small number of Lewis guns in 1913, using the .303 British round and, in 1914, BSA purchased a licence to manufacture the Lewis machine gun in England, which resulted in Lewis receiving significant royalty payments and becoming very wealthy.
Lewis and his factory moved to England before 1914, away from possible seizure in the event of a German invasion.
The onset of the First World War increased demand for the Lewis gun, and BSA began production, under the designation Model 1914. The design was officially approved for service on 15 October 1915 under the designation "Gun, Lewis, .303-cal." No Lewis guns were produced in Belgium during the war; all manufacture was carried out by BSA in England and the Savage Arms Company in the US.
Production
The Lewis was produced by BSA and Savage Arms during the war, and although the two versions were largely similar, enough differences existed to stop them being completely interchangeable, although this was rectified by the time of the Second World War.
The major difference between the two designs was that the BSA weapons were chambered for .303 British ammunition, whereas the Savage guns were chambered for .30-06 cartridges, which necessitated some difference in the magazine, feed mechanism, bolt, barrel, extractors, and gas operation system. Savage did make Lewis guns in .303 British calibre, though. The Model 1916 and Model 1917 were exported to Canada and the United Kingdom, and a few were supplied to the US military, particularly the Navy. The Savage Model 1917 was generally produced in .30-06 calibre. A number of these guns were supplied to the UK under lend-lease during the Second World War.
Design details
The Lewis gun was gas operated. A portion of the expanding propellant gas was tapped off from the barrel, driving a piston to the rear against a spring. The piston was fitted with a vertical post at its rear which rode in a helical cam track in the bolt, rotating it at the end of its travel nearest the breech. This allowed the three locking lugs at the rear of the bolt to engage in recesses in the gun's body to lock it into place. The post also carried a fixed firing pin, which protruded through an aperture in the front of the bolt, firing the next round at the foremost part of the piston's travel.
The gun's aluminum barrel-shroud caused the muzzle blast to draw air over the barrel and cool it, due to the muzzle-to-breech, radially finned aluminum heat sink within the shroud's barrel, and protruding behind the shroud's aft end, running lengthwise in contact with the gun barrel (somewhat like the later American M1917/18 Marlin-Rockwell machine gun's similar gun barrel cooling design) from the "bottleneck" near the shroud's muzzle end and protruding externally behind the shroud's rear end. Some discussion occurred over whether the shroud was really necessary—in the Second World War, many old aircraft guns that did not have the tubing were issued to antiaircraft units of the British Home Guard and to British airfields, and others were used on vehicle mounts in the Western Desert; all were found to function properly without it, which led to the suggestion that Lewis had insisted on the cooling arrangement largely to show that his design was different from Maclean's earlier prototypes. Only the Royal Navy retained the tube/heatsink cooling system on their deck-mounted AA-configuration Lewis guns.
The Lewis gun used a pan magazine holding 47 or 97 rounds. Pan magazines hold the ammunition nose-inwards toward the center, in a radial fan. Unlike the more common drum magazines, which hold the rounds parallel to the axis and are fed by spring tension, pan magazines are mechanically indexed. The Lewis magazine was driven by a cam on top of the bolt which operated a pawl mechanism via a lever.
An interesting point of the design was that it did not use a traditional helical coiled recoil spring, but used a spiral spring, much like a large clock spring, in a semicircular housing just in front of the trigger. The operating rod had a toothed underside, which engaged with a cog which wound the spring. When the gun fired, the bolt recoiled and the cog was turned, tightening the spring until the resistance of the spring had reached the recoil force of the bolt assembly. At that moment, as the gas pressure in the breech fell, the spring unwound, turning the cog, which, in turn, wound the operating rod forward for the next round. As with a clock spring, the Lewis gun recoil spring had an adjustment device to alter the recoil resistance for variations in temperature and wear. Unusual as it seems, the Lewis design proved reliable and was even copied by the Japanese and used extensively by them during the Second World War.
The gun's cyclic rate of fire was about 500–600 rounds per minute. A recoil enhancer was added to the 1918 aircraft gun variant (and refitted to many 1917 models) which increased the rate of fire to about 800 rounds per minute. The ground use versions weighed 28 lb (12.7 kg), only about half as much as a typical medium machine gun of the era, such as the Vickers machine gun, and was chosen in part because, being more portable than a heavy machine gun, it could be carried and used by one soldier. BSA even produced at least one model (the "B.S.A. Light Infantry Pattern Lewis Gun", which lacked the aluminium barrel shroud and had a wooden fore grip) designed as a form of assault rifle.
Service
First World War
During the first days of the war, the Belgian Army had put in service 20 prototypes (5 in 7.65×53mm and 15 in .303) for the defense of Namur.
The United Kingdom officially adopted the Lewis gun in .303 British calibre for land and aircraft use in October 1915. The weapon began to be issued to the British Army's infantry battalions on the Western Front in early 1916 as a replacement for the heavier and less mobile Vickers machine gun, which had been withdrawn from the infantry for use by the specialist Machine Gun Corps. The US Navy and Marine Corps followed in early 1917, adopting the M1917 Lewis gun (produced by the Savage Arms Co.), in .30-06 calibre.
Notes made during his training in 1918 by Arthur Bullock, a private soldier in the 2/4th Oxfordshire and Buckinghamshire Light Infantry, record that the chief advantage of the gun was 'its invulnerability' and its chief disadvantages were 'its delicacy, the fact that it is useless for setting up a barrage, and also that the system of air cooling employed does not allow of more than 12 magazines being fired continuously'. He records its weight as 26 lbs unloaded and 30½ lbs loaded (though later he mentions that it weighed 35 lbs loaded), and that it had 47 cartridges in a fully loaded magazine; also that it was supported by a bipod in front and by the operator's shoulder at the rear. About six months into his service, Bullock was sent on Lewis gun refresher course at La Lacque, and he recalled that the rigour of the training meant that 'everyone passed out 100 percent efficient, the meaning of which will be appreciated when I say that part of the final test was to strip down the gun completely and then, blindfolded, put those 104 parts together again correctly in just one minute.'The gun was operated by a team of seven. Bullock was the First Lewis Gunner who carried the gun and a revolver, while 'The Second Gunner carried a bag containing spare parts, and the remaining five members of the team carried loaded pans of ammunition'. Bullock noted, 'all could fire the gun if required, and all could effect repairs in seconds'. Bullock provides several vivid descriptions of the gun's use in combat. For example, on 13 April 1918 he and his fellow soldiers intercepted a German advance along the Calonne/Robecq road, noting 'we fired the gun in turns until it was too hot to hold' and recording that 400 German casualties were caused, 'chiefly by my Lewis gun!'.
The US Army never officially adopted the weapon for infantry use and even went so far as to take Lewis guns away from US Marines arriving in France and replace them with the Chauchat LMG—a practice believed to be related to General Crozier's dislike of Lewis and his gun. The divisions of the US II Corps attached to the British Army were equipped with the gun. The US Army eventually adopted the Browning Automatic Rifle in 1917 (although it was September 1918 before any of the new guns reached the front). The US Navy and Marine Corps continued to use the .30-06 calibre Lewis until the early part of the Second World War.
The Russian Empire purchased 10,000 Lewis guns in 1917 from the British government, and ordered another 10,000 weapons from Savage Arms in the US. The US government was unwilling to supply the Tsarist Russian government with the guns and some doubt exists as to whether they were actually delivered, although records indicate that 5,982 Savage weapons were delivered to Russia by 31 March 1917. The Lewis guns supplied by Britain were dispatched to Russia in May 1917, but it is not known for certain whether these were the Savage-made weapons being trans-shipped through the UK, or a separate batch of UK-produced units. White armies in Northwest Russia received several hundred Lewis guns in 1918–1919.
British Mark IV tanks used the Lewis, replacing the Vickers and Hotchkiss used in earlier tanks. The Lewis was chosen for its relatively compact magazines, but the ventilation system inside the tank caused the airflow to be reversed through the Lewis cooling jacket, resulting in hot air and fumes being blown into the gunner's face. As soon as an improved magazine belt for the Hotchkiss was developed, the Lewis was replaced by them in later tank models.
As their enemies used the mobility of the gun to ambush German raiding parties, the Germans nicknamed the Lewis "the Belgian Rattlesnake". They used captured Lewis guns in both World Wars, and included instruction in its operation and care as part of their machine-gun crew training.
Despite costing more than a Vickers gun to manufacture (the cost of a Lewis gun was £165 in 1915 and £175 in 1918; the Vickers cost about £100), Lewis machine guns were in high demand with the British military during the First World War. The Lewis also had the advantage of being about 80% faster to build than the Vickers, and was a lot more portable. Accordingly, the British government placed orders for 3,052 guns between August 1914 and June 1915. Lewis guns outnumbered the Vickers by a ratio of about 3:1.
Aircraft use
The Lewis gun has the distinction of being the first machine gun fired from an aeroplane; on 7 June 1912, Captain Charles Chandler of the US Army fired a prototype Lewis gun from the foot-bar of a Wright Model B Flyer.
Lewis guns were used extensively on British and French aircraft during the First World War, as either an observer's or gunner's weapon or an additional weapon to the more common Vickers. The Lewis's popularity as an aircraft machine gun was partly due to its low weight, the fact that it was air-cooled and that it used self-contained 97-round drum magazines. Because of this, the Lewis was first mounted on the Vickers F.B.5 "Gunbus", which was probably the world's first purpose-built combat aircraft when it entered service in August 1914, replacing the Vickers machine gun used on earlier experimental versions. It was also fitted on two early production examples of the Bristol Scout C aircraft by Lanoe Hawker in the summer of 1915, mounted on the port side and firing forwards and outwards at a 30° angle to avoid the propeller arc.
The problem in mounting a Lewis to fire forward in most single-engined tractor configuration fighters was due to the open bolt firing cycle of the Lewis, which prevented it from being synchronized to fire directly forward through the propeller arc of such aircraft; only the unusual French SPAD S.A "pulpit plane" which possessed a unique hinged gunner's nacelle immediately ahead of the propeller (and the pilot), and the British pusher fighters Vickers F.B.5, Airco D.H.2, Royal Aircraft Factory F.E.2 and F.E.8 could readily use the Lewis as direct forward-firing armament early in the war. Some British single-engined tractor fighters used a Foster mounting on the top wing to elevate a Lewis gun above the propeller arc for unsynchronized firing, including production S.E.5/S.E.5a fighters and field-modified examples of the Avro 504. For the use of observers or rear gunners, the Lewis was mounted on a Scarff ring, which allowed the gun to be rotated and elevated whilst supporting the gun's weight.
Until September 1916 Zeppelin airships were very difficult to attack successfully at high altitude, although this also made accurate bombing impossible. Aeroplanes struggled to reach a typical altitude of , and firing the solid bullets usually used by aircraft Lewis guns was ineffectual: they made small holes causing inconsequential gas leaks. Britain developed new bullets, the Brock containing spontaneously igniting potassium chlorate, and the Buckingham filled with pyrophoric phosphorus, to set fire to the Zeppelin's hydrogen. These had become available by September 1916. When combined with explosive Pomeroy bullets which ripped open the envelopes, they proved very successful, and Lewis guns loaded with a mixture of Pomeroy, Brock and Buckingham ammunition were often employed for balloon-busting against German Zeppelins, other airships and Drache barrage balloons.
On the French Nieuport 11 and later Nieuport 17 sesquiplanes, a Lewis gun was mounted above the top wing (in a similar way as fitted to the British S.E.5a) – sometimes on a Foster mount, which allowed firing directly forward outside the propeller arc. The Foster mount usually incorporated an arc-shaped I-beam rail as its rearmost structural member, that a Lewis gun could be slid backwards and downwards along the rail towards the cockpit, to allow the ammunition drum to be changed in flight – but RFC fighter ace Albert Ball VC also understood that the Lewis gun in such a mount also retained its original trigger, and could thus be fired upwards. He used the upward firing Lewis to attack solitary German two-seater aircraft from below and behind, where the observer could not see him or fire back. It was his use of the weapon in this way, in a Nieuport, that led to its later introduction on the S.E.5/S.E.5a: Ball had acted in a consultant capacity on the development of this aeroplane. The later Sopwith Dolphin, already armed with twin synchronized Vickers guns just forward of the pilot and just above its V-8 engine, could also use one or two Lewis guns mounted on the forward crossbar of its cabane structure, between the top wing panels, as an anti-Zeppelin measure. A few of the Dolphins in use with No. 87 Squadron RAF in the summer of 1918, alternatively mounted their twin Lewises atop the lower wings just inboard of the inner wing struts for an additional pair of forward-firing machine guns; in such a field-achieved configuration, however, neither gun-jam clearing, nor drum magazine replacement were possible on their Lewises during a mission.
Lewis guns were also carried as defensive guns on British airships. The SS class blimps carried one gun. The larger NS class blimps carried two or three guns in the control car and some were fitted with an additional gun and a gunner's position at the top of the gasbag.
Second World War
By the Second World War, the British Army had replaced the Lewis gun with the Bren gun for most infantry use. As an airborne weapon, the Lewis was largely supplanted by the Vickers K, a weapon that could achieve over twice the rate of fire of the Lewis.
In the crisis following the Fall of France, where a large part of the British Army's equipment had been lost up to and at Dunkirk, stocks of Lewis guns in both .303 and .30-06 were hurriedly pressed back into service, primarily for Home Guard, airfield defence and anti-aircraft use. 58,983 Lewis guns were taken from stores, repaired, refitted and issued by the British during the course of the war. In addition to their reserve weapon role in the UK, they also saw front-line use with the Dutch, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces in the early years of the Pacific campaign against the Japanese. The Lewis gun saw continued service as an anti-aircraft weapon during the war; in this role, it was credited by the British for bringing down more low-flying enemy aircraft than any other AA weapon. Peter White indicates that his battalion of the King's Own Scottish Borderers was still using the Lewis on Universal Carriers in 1945.
At the start of the Second World War, the Lewis was the Royal Navy's standard close-range air defence weapon. It could be found on major warships, armed trawlers and defensively equipped merchant ships. It was often used in twin mountings and a quadruple mount was developed for motor torpedo boats. British submarines generally carried two guns on single mounts. Although it was gradually replaced by the Oerlikon 20 mm cannon, new corvettes were still being fitted with twin Lewises as late as 1942. Lewis guns were also carried by the Royal Air Force's air-sea rescue launches.
American forces used the Lewis gun (in .30-06 calibre) throughout the war. The US Navy used the weapon on armed merchant cruisers, small auxiliary ships, landing craft and submarines. The US Coast Guard also used the Lewis on their vessels. It was never officially adopted by the US Army for anything other than aircraft use.
The Germans used captured British Lewis guns during the war under the designation MG 137(e), whilst the Japanese copied the Lewis design and employed it extensively during the war; it was designated the Type 92 and chambered for a 7.7 mm rimmed cartridge that was interchangeable with the .303 British round.
The Lewis was officially withdrawn from British service in 1946, but continued to be used by forces operating against the United Nations in the Korean War. It was also used against French and US forces in the First Indochina War and the subsequent Vietnam War.
Total production of the Lewis gun during the Second World War by BSA was over 145,000 units, a total of 3,550 guns were produced by the Savage Arms Co. for US service—2,500 in .30-06 and 1,050 in .303 British calibre.
Variants
Canada
Model 1915. This was the designation given to .303 Lewis Mk I weapons manufactured for Canada in the United States by the Savage Arms Company. Large numbers of these guns were also produced by Savage for the British Army and in an aircraft configuration, for France and Italy.
Czechoslovakia
Vz 28/L. 731 7.92×57mm Lewis guns formerly used by the Czechoslovakian infantry were modified to aircraft (or anti-aircraft) machine guns by Česká zbrojovka Strakonice.
Netherlands
Mitrailleur M. 20. In the Netherlands, the Lewis in both ground and aircraft versions was used in 6.5×53 mm R calibre, using a 97-round magazine only. The infantry version was equipped with a carrying handle on a clamp around the rear of the cooling tube. After the German invasion of May 1940, the weapon was also used by Germany under the designation 6,5 mm leichtes Maschinengewehr 100 (h). This Dutch modification of the older BSA redesign would have been extremely simple, as the Dutch/Romanian 6.5mm Mannlicher round has very nearly the same critical dimensions of the case head and rim as .303" British.
United Kingdom
Mark I. The .303 Lewis Mk I was the basic ground pattern model used by British and British Empire forces from 1915 with few improvements.
Mark II. This was the first purpose built aircraft version of the Lewis, earlier versions had been improvised from Mk I guns. The cooling fins were omitted to save weight, but a light protective shroud around the barrel was retained. The wooden stock was removed and replaced with a "spade" grip, which resembled the handle of a garden spade. A 97-round drum magazine was introduced which required a larger magazine spigot on the body of the gun.
Mark II*. An improved Mk II with an increased rate of fire introduced in 1918.
Mark III. A further upgrade of the Mk II with an even faster rate of fire and the barrel shroud deleted, introduced later in 1918.
Mark III*. The British designation for the US .30-06 M1918 aircraft gun, some 46,000 of which were imported for the use of the Home Guard in 1940. These guns were modified for ground use by the replacement of the spade grip with a crude skeleton stock and the addition of a simple wooden fore-stock which would allow the gun to be fired while resting on a sandbag, or from the hip while advancing.
Mark III**. The designation for the .303 Mark III modified in the same way as the US M1918s.
Mark III DEMS. Intended for Defensively Equipped Merchant Ships (DEMS), it was similar to the Mk III** but with the addition of a pistol grip on the fore-stock, so that the weapon could be fired free-standing from the shoulder, from any part of a ship's decks.
Mark IV. After all the usable weapons had been reconditioned and issued, there remained a large number of incomplete Lewis guns and spare parts. These were assembled into guns similar to the Mk III**. There was a particular shortage of the fragile "clock" springs for the Lewis, so a simpler spring was manufactured and housed in a straight tube which extended into the skeleton stock. Many of these guns were fitted with a simple and light tripod which had been specially produced.
United States
M1917 Lewis. Savage produced a version of the Lewis Mk I for US forces, rechambered for the .30-06 round and with a modified gas operation due to the greater power of the US ammunition. A few of these were modified for aircraft use, when intended for non-synchronized emplacements on an airframe. The US Navy designation was Lewis Mark IV.
M1918 Lewis. A purpose built aircraft version of the M1917.
Experimental projects
A commercial venture in 1921 by the Birmingham Small Arms Company was a version which fired the 12.7×81mm (0.5-inch Vickers) ammunition, intended for use against aircraft and tanks. At around the same time, BSA developed the Light Infantry Model which had a 22-round magazine and a wooden fore-stock in place of the radiator fins and shroud; it was intended to be used in a similar way to the Browning Automatic Rifle. Another development was a twin Lewis for aircraft use in which the bodies of the two weapons were joined side-by-side and the drum magazines were mounted vertically, one on each side. None of these projects was accepted by any armed forces.
Lewis had also experimented with lighter, 30-06 calibre, box magazine-fed infantry rifle variants intended for shoulder or hip fire as a competition to the BAR. They were dubbed "Assault Phase Rifle" – what could be understood as the first use of the term "Assault Rifle", despite the weapon being, by today's designation, a battle rifle. Despite being three pounds lighter than it and loaded with very forward-thinking features for the time (such as an ambidexterous magazine release), the U.S. Army still chose to adopt the BAR.
A short-barrelled light machine gun variant was developed at the start of the Second World War. It came with a hand guard and was fed from a 30-round Bren magazines; however, it was decided by the British authorities to concentrate production on the Bren, which had the advantage of a changeable barrel.
Influence on later designs
The German FG 42 paratrooper's rifle used the Lewis gun's gas assembly and bolt design which were in turn incorporated into the M60 machine gun.
The Type 92 machine gun, the standard hand-held machine gun used by Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft gunners in WWII, was essentially a copy of the Lewis gun.
The Russian PKP Pecheneg machine gun uses a streamlined version of the Lewis gun's forced air cooling in a fixed heavy barrel. This enables the Pecheneg to fire more than 600 rounds through the barrel without warping, in contrast to NATO machine guns which require removable barrels to maintain suppressive fire.
Users
Armée de Libération Nationale guerrillas
: Bermuda Volunteer Rifle Corps
British Malaya
Kept in reserve in 1940.
: Used as 7,62 pk/Lewis and 7,70 pk/Lewis
(Mostly People's Guard and some army units in 1918–1921)
(Which found it much lighter than the MG08/15)
: infantry variant, modified to be used on aircraft
: standard LMG during Latvian War of Independence and interwar period. Used in both infantry and anti-aircraft roles, ~8000 in stock by April 1936. Used by Latvian Police Battalions of WW2.
: in the interwar period
Mauritius
: manufactured before WWI
Republic of China: Used by warlord armies Between 1928 and 1930, Liu Xiang's army acquired 3,000 British Lewis Guns with 15 million cartridges.
: Somaliland Camel Corps
Transjordan
& British Empire
See also
DP machine gun
Emu war
FM 24/29 light machine gun
Johnston Model D1918 machine gun
List of U.S. Army weapons by supply catalog designation SNL A-11
Type 92 machine gun
Citations
General references
Pages 62–64, 66, 69-70, 85-86.
Further reading
External links
Scans of Lewis gun manual of 1917
Lewis light machine gun (USA – Great Britain) at Modern Firearms
Animation of Lewis machine gun 1916
Lewis gun with cooling shroud in demonstration firing
YouTube animation showing Lewis gun on WW1 aircraft Scarf ring
Aircraft guns
Light machine guns
Machine guns of the United Kingdom
Machine guns of the United States
Savage Arms
World War I aircraft guns
World War I British infantry weapons
World War I infantry weapons of Australia
World War I infantry weapons of the United States
World War I machine guns
World War II infantry weapons of the United Kingdom
World War II firearms of the United States
World War II machine guns
Weapons of the Philippine Army
.30-06 Springfield machine guns
.303 British machine guns | [
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240873 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Scholl | Hans Scholl | Hans Fritz Scholl (; 22 September 1918 – 22 February 1943) was, along with Alexander Schmorell, one of the two founding members of the White Rose resistance movement in Nazi Germany. The principal author of the resistance movement's literature, he was found guilty of high treason for distributing anti-Nazi material and was executed by the Nazi regime in 1943 during World War II.
Early life
Scholl was born in Ingersheim on September 22, 1918. (Ingersheim is now a part of Crailsheim, Baden-Württemberg). His father, Robert, later became the mayor of Forchtenberg am Kocher. Hans was the second of six children:
Inge Aicher-Scholl (1917–1998)
Hans Scholl (1918–1943)
Elisabeth Scholl Hartnagel (1920–2020), married Sophie's long-term boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel
Sophie Scholl (1921–1943)
Werner Scholl (1922–1944) missing in action and presumed dead in June 1944
Thilde Scholl (1925–1926)
Scholl was raised as a Lutheran, although he did at one point consider converting to Catholicism. Against the declared will of his father, he became an enthusiastic member of the Hitler Youth on April 15, 1933 and initially held leadership positions in the Deutsches Jungvolk, but quickly became disillusioned with the group when he realised its true principles. In 1935, he was one of three standard-bearers from Ulm who took part in the NSDAP's "Reich Party Rally for Freedom" from September 10 to 16 in Nuremberg. During this time, his attitude towards the Nazi regime gradually began to change. One reason was that the fanaticism promoted in the Hitler Youth and the unconditional subordination to the power structures ruling there became more and more repugnant.
1937–1938 Trial
Scholl was arrested in 1937–38 because of his membership in a forbidden Youth Movement organisation. Hans Scholl had joined the Deutsche Jungenschaft 1. 11. (d.j.1.11) in 1934, when he and other Hitler Youth members in Ulm considered membership in this group and the Hitler Youth to be compatible.
During the trial, Hans was also charged under “Paragraph 175”, the paragraph in Nazi law that criminalized homosexual behavior. Under questioning, he admitted to having had two separate relationships, one with Rolf Futterknecht, and one with Ernest Reden, who had also made advances on his brother Werner. Futterknecht had been the one to inform on Hans.
Hans made a positive impact on the judge, who dismissed the choice to join the youth groups as the “youthful exuberance” and “obstinate personality” of a “headstrong young man.” The judge then dismissed the homosexual allegations as a “youthful failing.” Hans was allowed to leave the trial with a clean slate. Ernest Reden, on the other hand, was sentenced to three months prison and three months in a concentration camp for the relationship.
After Hans’ trial, no one spoke of the allegations against him. The only people who knew were his parents and his older sister, Inge, who never spoke about the allegations.
Medical Studies and Wehrmacht
In spring of 1937, he joined the Reich Labour Service, having volunteered for duty. He was discharged in March 1939 to attend medical school at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich. At the university he came into contact with professors, teachers, and students who represented positions that were clearly Christian-ethical and critical of the regime. Therefore, Hans began to question his own ideological position more critically.
During the semester break, he was drafted as a medic for front service and took the rank of medical sergeant in the French campaign. What he experienced during direct frontline operations reinforced his personal stance against the rulers and the war in particular. Hans was again enrolled in the military service in the spring of 1941 as a medic in the Wehrmacht.
Origins of the White Rose
Between 1940 and 1941, Scholl, a former member of the Hitler Youth, began questioning the principles and policies of the Nazi regime. As a student at the University of Munich, Scholl met two Roman Catholic men of letters who redirected his life, inspiring him to turn from studying medicine and pursue religion, philosophy, and the arts.
After their experiences at the Eastern Front, having learned about mass murder in Poland and the Soviet Union, Scholl and Alexander Schmorell felt compelled to take action. From the end of June until mid-July 1942, they wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the German poets, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution.
From 23 July to 30 October 1942, Willi Graf, Scholl and Schmorell served again at the Soviet front, and activities ceased until their return. After their return, Willi Graf became one of the core members of the White Rose. Sophie was the second to last member to join. By the end of December 1942, Kurt Huber became the last main member of the White Rose.
With six core members, two more White Rose pamphlets were created and circulated over the summer of 1942.
The leaflets were distributed around the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, where many of the group members studied. Leaflets were distributed at the University of Hamburg and in the city of Ulm as well. Additionally, leaflets were also mailed to doctors, scholars, and pub owners throughout Germany.
Capture and execution
Gestapo photos of Hans Scholl taken after his capture on February 18, 1943
On 18 February 1943, while Hans and Sophie were distributing leaflets at Ludwig Maximilian University, Sophie flung the last remaining leaflets from the top floor down into the atrium. This spontaneous action was observed by the university maintenance man, Jakob Schmid. Schmid reported the offense and the Scholls were arrested by the Gestapo. Along with Christoph Probst, the two siblings were tried for treason by Judge Roland Freisler. They were found guilty and condemned to death on 22 February.
During his interrogation, Hans tried to protect his sister by claiming to have thrown the leaflets himself, but his testimony was contradicted by the custodian's. He further tried to hide the role played by other members of the White Rose. Hans was well aware of the likely consequence of his actions.
At the trial, Hans, Sophie, and Christoph were sentenced to death. They were originally scheduled to be hanged in public, (they had already begun work on the scaffolds) but the officials feared they would be immortalized as martyrs if they were killed in public. As such, a last minute decision was made to switch the execution method to Guillotine.
After the trial, Hans, Christoph, and Sophie were brought to Stadelheim Prison. While there, they were told that they would be executed the same day. This came as a shock to them, as prisoners were supposed to have at least a 99-day respite before execution. Left in separate cells, they began to write their last letters.
While in their cells, Hans, Sophie, and Christoph each saw a priest to give them the last rites oF the Catholic Church. Christoph, who was not part of any denomination, asked to be baptized into the Catholic Church. Hans and Sophie each also asked individually to be allowed into the Catholic Church, but their Lutheran priest advised against it, on the basis that it would upset their mother, who was a devout Lutheran.
At around 4-5 pm, Robert and Magdalena Scholl, the parents of Sophie and Hans, went to the prison and demanded to see their children. To their surprise, the request was granted. Robert and Magdalena were let to a room. In a few minutes Hans entered. Dressed in prison uniform, he stood tall as he walked to his parents and grabbed their hands through the barrier separating them. “I have no hatred. I have put everything behind me.” His father replied, “You will go down in history -- there is such a thing as justice.”
After Hans was led out, Sophie was brought in. Dressed in normal clothes, she smiled happily, pleased to see her parents. After speaking for a few minutes, her mother grasped her hands. “You know, Sophie -- Jesus.” “Yes, but you too.” Sophie replied. She walked out of the room, head held high.
A few minutes before the execution, the three of them were allowed to be together for a short while. While there, they were given a cigarette to share. Christoph is credited with remarking, “I didn’t know dying could be so easy.” At around 5 pm, the executioners came for Sophie. After a few minutes, a dull thump was heard. The executioner came for Hans next. Unlike Sophie, who had gone to her death silently, Hans yelled “Es leibe die Freiheit!” As the blade came down. Christoph was last to be executed. He wasn’t able to see any of his family before he died.
After the trial of Hans, Sophie, and Christoph, three more trials of the White Rose members took place. In the end, 29 people were accused of being members of the White Rose. 16 were executed, and 13 were given prison sentences ranging from 6 months to 10 years.
Legacy
Following the deaths, a copy of the sixth leaflet was smuggled out of Germany through Scandinavia to the UK by German jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, where it was used by the Allied Forces. In July 1943, they dropped millions of copies of the tract, retitled The Manifesto of the Students of Munich, over Germany.
The White Rose's legacy has been considered significant by many historical commentators, both as a demonstration of exemplary spiritual courage, and as a well-documented case of social dissent in a time of violent repression, censorship and pressure to conform.
Playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag stated in Newsday (22 February 1993):
It is possibly the most spectacular moment of resistance that I can think of in the twentieth century... The fact that five little kids, in the mouth of the wolf, where it really counted, had the tremendous courage to do what they did, is spectacular to me. I know that the world is better for them having been there, but I do not know why.
In the same issue of Newsday, Holocaust historian Jud Newborn noted:
You cannot really measure the effect of this kind of resistance in whether or not X number of bridges were blown up or a regime fell... The White Rose really has a more symbolic value, but that's a very important value.
It was not until the 1998 law to abolish Nazi judgments of injustice in the administration of criminal justice that the sentences against Hans Scholl and other members of the White Rose became void in Germany.
In 2003, Germans were invited by television broadcaster ZDF to participate in Unsere Besten (Our Best), a nationwide competition to choose the top ten most important Germans of all time. Voters under the age of 40 helped Scholl and his sisters to finish in fourth place, above Bach, Goethe, Gutenberg, Bismarck, Willy Brandt, and Albert Einstein. If the votes of young viewers alone had been counted, Sophie and Hans Scholl would have been ranked first.
The Audimax of the Bundeswehr Medical Academy in Munich was named after him in 2012.
In film
Three films have been produced about the White Rose:
Hans was portrayed by Michael Cornelius in the film Funf Letze Tage (1982)
Hans was portrayed by Wulf Kessler in the film Die Weisse Rose (1982)
Hans was portrayed by Fabian Hinrichs in the film Sophie Scholl – The Final Days (2005).
See also
Geschwister-Scholl-Preisa literary prize in honour of the Scholls
Unsere Besten ("Our Best")a listing of 100+ great Germans
References
External links
The White Rose: A Lesson in Dissent by Jacob G. Hornberger
Text of leaflets in English
A collaborative, student-led translation of the six printed leaflets by students at the University of Oxford
1918 births
1943 deaths
People from Crailsheim
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
German Lutherans
Hitler Youth members
Protestants in the German Resistance
Lutheran pacifists
German Christian pacifists
German revolutionaries
White Rose members
Nonviolence advocates
German Army soldiers of World War II
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
People condemned by Nazi courts
Executed activists
Executed revolutionaries
Executed students
Executed German Resistance members
German civilians killed in World War II
People executed by Nazi Germany by guillotine
People executed for treason against Germany
People from Baden-Württemberg executed by Nazi Germany
Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany
Reich Labour Service members
LGBT people from Germany | [
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240876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophie%20Scholl | Sophie Scholl | Sophia Magdalena Scholl (9 May 1921 – 22 February 1943) was a German student and anti-Nazi political activist, active within the White Rose non-violent resistance group in Nazi Germany.
She was convicted of high treason after having been found distributing anti-war leaflets at the University of Munich (LMU) with her brother, Hans. For her actions, she was executed by guillotine. Since the 1970s, Scholl has been extensively commemorated for her anti-Nazi resistance work.
Early life
Scholl was the daughter of Magdalena (née Müller) and Robert Scholl, a liberal politician, and ardent Nazi critic, who was the mayor of her hometown of Forchtenberg am Kocher in the Free People's State of Württemberg at the time of her birth. She was the fourth of six children:
Inge Aicher-Scholl (1917–1998)
Hans Scholl (1918–1943)
Elisabeth Hartnagel-Scholl (27 February 1920 – 28 February 2020), married Sophie's long-term boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel
Sophie Scholl (1921–1943)
Werner Scholl (1922–1944) missing in action and presumed dead in June 1944
Thilde Scholl (1925–1926)
Scholl was brought up in the Lutheran church. She entered junior or grade school at the age of seven, learned easily, and had a carefree childhood. In 1930, the family moved to Ludwigsburg and then two years later to Ulm where her father had a business consulting office.
In 1932, Scholl began attending a secondary school for girls. At the age of 12, she chose to join the Bund Deutscher Mädel (League of German Girls), as did most of her classmates. Her initial enthusiasm gradually gave way to criticism. She was aware of the dissenting political views of her father, friends, and some teachers. Her own brother Hans, who once eagerly participated in the Hitler Youth program, became entirely disillusioned with the Nazi Party. Political attitude had become an essential criterion in her choice of friends. The arrest of her brothers and friends in 1937 for participating in the German Youth Movement left a strong impression on her.
She had a talent for drawing and painting and for the first time, came into contact with a few so-called "degenerate" artists. An avid reader, she developed a growing interest in philosophy and theology.
In spring 1940, she graduated from secondary school, where the subject of her essay was "The Hand that Moved the Cradle, Moved the World." Scholl almost did not graduate, having lost all desire to participate in the classes which had largely become Nazi indoctrination. Being fond of children, she became a kindergarten teacher at the Fröbel Institute in Ulm. She had also chosen this job hoping that it would be recognized as an alternative service in the Reichsarbeitsdienst (National Labor Service), a prerequisite for admission to university. This was not the case and in spring 1941 she began a six-month stint in the auxiliary war service as a nursery teacher in Blumberg. The military-like regimen of the Labor Service caused her to rethink her understanding of the political situation and to begin practising passive resistance.
After her six months in the National Labor Service, in May 1942, she enrolled at the University of Munich as a student of biology and philosophy. Her brother Hans, who was studying medicine at the same institution, introduced her to his friends. Although this group of friends eventually was known for their political views, they initially were drawn together by a shared love of art, music, literature, philosophy, and theology. Hiking in the mountains, skiing, and swimming were also of importance to them. They often attended concerts, plays, and lectures together.
In Munich, Scholl met a number of artists, writers, and philosophers, particularly Carl Muth and Theodor Haecker, who were important contacts for her. The question they pondered the most was how the individual must act under a dictatorship. During the summer vacation in 1942, Scholl had to do war service in a metallurgical plant in Ulm. At the same time, her father was serving time in prison for having made a critical remark to an employee about Adolf Hitler.
Importance of Religion in Sophie Scholl's life
Based upon letters between Scholl and her boyfriend, Fritz Hartnagel (reported and analyzed by Gunter Biemer and Jakob Knab in the journal Newman Studien), she had given two volumes of Cardinal Newman's sermons to Hartnagel when he was deployed to the eastern front in May 1942. This discovery by Jakob Knab shows the importance of religion in Scholl's life and was highlighted in an article in the Catholic Herald in the UK. Her correspondence with Hartnagel deeply discussed the "theology of conscience" developed in Newman's writings. This is seen as her primary defense in her transcribed interrogations leading to her "trial" and execution.
Origins of the White Rose
Between 1940 and 1941, Scholl's brother, Hans Scholl, a former member of the Hitler Youth, began questioning the principles and policies of the Nazi regime. As a student at the University of Munich, Hans Scholl met two Roman Catholic men of letters who redirected his life, inspiring him to turn from studying medicine and pursue religion, philosophy, and the arts. Gathering around him like-minded friends, Alexander Schmorell, Willi Graf, and Jurgen Wittenstein, they eventually adopted a strategy of passive resistance towards the Nazis by writing and publishing leaflets that called for the toppling of National Socialism, calling themselves the White Rose. The activities of the White Rose first started in June 1942. From end of June until mid July 1942, Hans Scholl and Alexander Schmorell wrote the first four leaflets. Quoting extensively from the Bible, Aristotle and Novalis, as well as Goethe and Schiller, the iconic poets of German bourgeoisie, they appealed to what they considered the German intelligentsia, believing that these people would be easily convinced by the same arguments that also motivated the authors themselves. These leaflets were left in telephone books in public phone booths, mailed to professors and students, and taken by courier to other universities for distribution. Sophie is believed to have first learned about the White Rose in July 1942, but Fritz Hartnagel remembers her asking him in May 1942 if he could get her a pass to buy a duplicating machine (impossible to get in Nazi Germany without a signed and countersigned form), which suggests that perhaps she knew about the activities sooner than thought. Whenever she joined, she proved to be valuable to the group because, as a woman, her chances of being randomly stopped by the SS were much smaller.
Arrest and execution
On 18 February 1943, Sophie and Hans Scholl went to the Ludwig Maximilian University to leave flyers out for the students to read. The Scholls brought a suitcase full of leaflets to the university main building, and hurriedly dropped stacks of copies in the empty corridors for students to find when they left the lecture rooms. Leaving before the lectures had ended, the Scholls noticed that there were some left-over copies in the suitcase and decided to distribute them. Sophie flung the last remaining leaflets from the top floor down into the atrium. This spontaneous action was observed by the university maintenance man, Jakob Schmid, a self-avowed Nazi, who had joined the NSDAP in 1937. Hans and Sophie Scholl were taken into the custody of the Gestapo. A draft of a seventh pamphlet, written by Christoph Probst, was found in the possession of Hans Scholl at the time of his arrest by the Gestapo. While Sophie Scholl was able to hide incriminating evidence in an empty classroom shortly before she was captured, Hans tried to destroy the draft of the last leaflet by tearing it apart and trying to swallow it. The Gestapo recovered enough of it to read what it said, and, when pressed, Hans gave the name of the author, Christoph Probst. As Hans Scholl said in his second interrogation: The piece of paper that I tore up following my arrest this morning originated with Christoph Probst...All other persons with the exception of Probst are in my opinion not guilty. Christoph Probst was captured on February 20, 1943.
The main Gestapo interrogator was Robert Mohr, who initially thought Sophie was innocent. However, after Hans had confessed, Sophie assumed full responsibility in an attempt to protect other members of the White Rose.
In the People's Court before Judge Roland Freisler on 22 February 1943, Scholl was recorded as saying these words:
No testimony was allowed for the defendants; this was their only defense.
On 22 February 1943, Scholl, her brother, Hans, and their friend, Christoph Probst, were found guilty of treason and condemned to death. They were all beheaded by guillotine by executioner Johann Reichhart in Munich's Stadelheim Prison. Sophie was executed at 5 pm, while Hans was executed at 5:02 PM and Christoph was executed at 5:05 PM. The execution was supervised by Walter Roemer, the enforcement chief of the Munich district court. Prison officials were impressed by the condemned prisoners' bravery, and let them smoke cigarettes together before they were executed.
Sophie's last known words are disputed, although Else Gebel remembers the last words Sophie said to her as:
As for her last words, they were most likely either "God, my refuge into eternity." or "The sun still shines."
Fritz Hartnagel was evacuated from Stalingrad in January 1943, but did not return to Germany before Sophie was executed. In October 1945, he married Sophie's sister Elisabeth.
Legacy
After her death, a copy of the sixth leaflet was smuggled out of Germany through Scandinavia to England by German jurist Helmuth James Graf von Moltke, where it was used by the Allied Forces. In mid-1943, the Royal Air Force dropped millions of propaganda copies of the tract over Germany, now retitled The Manifesto of the Students of Munich.
Playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag said in Newsday on 22 February 1993, that "It is possibly the most spectacular moment of resistance that I can think of in the twentieth century ... The fact that five little kids, in the mouth of the wolf, where it really counted, had the tremendous courage to do what they did, is spectacular to me. I know that the world is better for them having been there, but I do not know why."
In the same issue of Newsday, Holocaust historian Jud Newborn observed that "You cannot really measure the effect of this kind of resistance in whether or not X number of bridges were blown up or a regime fell ... The White Rose really has a more symbolic value, but that's a very important value."
On 22 February 2003, a bust of Scholl was placed by the government of Bavaria in the Walhalla temple in her honour. She was the fifth woman to receive that honor.
The Geschwister-Scholl-Institut ("Scholl Siblings Institute") for Political Science at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU) is named in honour of Sophie Scholl and her brother Hans. The institute is home to the university's political science and communication departments, and is housed in the former Radio Free Europe building close to the city's Englischer Garten.
Many local schools as well as countless streets and squares in Germany, and also Austria, have been named after Scholl and her brother.
In 2003, Germans were invited by television broadcaster ZDF to participate in Unsere Besten (Our Best), a nationwide competition to choose the top ten most important Germans of all time. Voters under the age of 40 helped Scholl and her brother Hans to finish in fourth place, above Bach, Goethe, Gutenberg, Bismarck, Willy Brandt, and Albert Einstein. If the votes of young viewers alone had been counted, Sophie and Hans Scholl would have been ranked first. Several years earlier, readers of Brigitte, a German magazine for women, voted Scholl "the greatest woman of the twentieth century".
On 9 May 2014, Google depicted Scholl for its Google Doodle on the occasion of what would have been her 93rd birthday.
In April 2021, the German Ministry of Finance issued a commemorative sterling silver €20 coin celebrating the 100th anniversary of Scholl’s birth.
In popular culture
Film and television
In the 1970s and 1980s, there were three film accounts of Sophie Scholl and the White Rose resistance. The first TV film Der Pedell (1971) focused on the university maintenance man Jakob Schmid, who denounced Scholl and the other White Rose members. The TV film was produced for the West German ZDF. Percy Adlon's Fünf letzte Tage (Five Last Days, 1982) presented Lena Stolze as Scholl in her last days from the point of view of her cellmate Else Gebel. Stolze repeated the role in Michael Verhoeven's Die Weiße Rose (The White Rose, also 1982). In an interview, Stolze said that playing the role was "an honour".
In February 2005, a film about Scholl's last days, Sophie Scholl – Die letzten Tage (Sophie Scholl – The Final Days), featuring Julia Jentsch in the title role, was released. Drawing on interviews with survivors and transcripts that had remained hidden in East German archives until 1990, it was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in January 2006. For her portrayal of Scholl, Jentsch won the best actress at the European Film Awards, best actress at the German Film Awards (Lolas), along with the Silver Bear for best actress at the Berlin Film Festival.
The German TV docudrama Frauen die Geschichte machten – Sophie Scholl was broadcast in 2013. Sophie Scholl was played by Liv Lisa Fries.
She was portrayed by Victoria Chilap in the documentary movie Death of a Nation in 2018.
In literature
In February 2009, The History Press published Sophie Scholl: The Real Story of the Woman who Defied Hitler by Frank McDonough.
In February 2010, Carl Hanser Verlag released Sophie Scholl: A Biography (in German), by Barbara Beuys.
In theatre
American playwright Lillian Garrett-Groag's play The White Rose features Scholl as a major character.
We Will Not Be Silent, a dramatization by David Meyers of Scholl's imprisonment and interrogation, premiered at the Contemporary American Theater Festival in Shepherdstown, West Virginia in July, 2017.
In later life Whitney Seymour, his wife Catryna, and their daughters Tryntje and Gabriel, co-wrote and produced Stars in the Dark Sky, a one-act play about Hans and Sophie Scholl and their role in the White Rose resistance group in Nazi Germany in the 1940s. The play, which took around five years to write, was released in 2008 (when Seymour was 85) and had five performances off-Broadway.
In music
George Donaldson, a Scottish folk singer wrote a song called "The White Rose" on an album titled the same, about Sophie and the White Rose movement.
The English punk band Zatopeks released an eponymous love song for Sophie Scholl on their debut album (2005).
Mickey 3D, a French rock band, wrote a song called "La Rose Blanche" on an album titled Sebolavy (2016).
American rock band Sheer Mag recorded a song called "(Say Goodbye to) Sophie Scholl" on its 2017 debut album Need to Feel Your Love.
Reg Meuross, a British folk singer, released "For Sophie" on his album Faraway People in 2017.
Social Media
Under the title @ichbinsophiescholl the German broadcasters Südwestrundfunk and Bayerische Rundfunk began in May 2021 an Instagram project to commemorate Scholl's 100th birthday. The last months of Scholl's life are feautured on Instagram posts and stories styled as if Scholl herself were posting them. The actress Luna Wedler plays Sophie Scholl and illustrates the last year of her life in the style of a modern digital influencer.
Further reading
Aretz, Bernd: Sophie Scholl. Der Mut, sich selbst treu zu sein. Ein Lebensbild. Neue Stadt Verlag, München 2013, .
Bald, Detlef: "Wider die Kriegsmaschinerie". Kriegserfahrungen und Motive des Widerstandes der "Weißen Rose". Klartext Verlag, Essen 2005, .
Beuys, Barbara: Sophie Scholl. Biografie. Carl Hanser Verlag, München 2010, .
Breinersdorfer, Fred (Editor), Sophie Scholl – Die letzten Tage, 2005.
Leisner, Barbara: "Ich würde es genauso wieder machen". Sophie Scholl. List Verlag, Berlin 2005, .
McDonough, Frank: Sophie Scholl: The Real Story of the Woman who Defied Hitler. The History Press, 2009, (als Hardcover), (als Taschenbuch).
Selg, Peter: "Wir haben alle unsere Maßstäbe in uns selbst." Der geistige Weg von Hans und Sophie Scholl. Verlag des Goetheanums, Dornach 2006, .
Sichtermann, Barbara: Wer war Sophie Scholl? , Berlin 2008, .
Vinke, Hermann: ‚‘Das kurze Leben der Sophie Scholl.‘‘ Ravensburger Buchverlag 1980, .
Vinke, Hermann: "Hoffentlich schreibst Du recht bald." Sophie Scholl und Fritz Hartnagel, eine Freundschaft 1937–1943. Maier Verlag, Ravensburg 2006, .
Waage, Peter N.: Es lebe die Freiheit! – Traute Lafrenz und die Weiße Rose. Aus dem Norwegischen von Antje Subey-Cramer. Urachhaus, Stuttgart 2012, .
Wilson, Kip: White Rose. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019, .
See also
Geschwister-Scholl-Preis
Helmuth Hübener
Otto and Elise Hampel
Swing Kids
List of peace activists
Notes
References
External links
The Geschwister-Scholl-Institut
Court documents and testimonies (Center for White Rose Studies
Sophie Scholl's childhood years in Ludwigsburg
1921 births
1943 deaths
Executed German Resistance members
Executed German women
Executed activists
Executed revolutionaries
Executed students
German Christian pacifists
German Lutherans
German anti-fascists
German civilians killed in World War II
German people of World War II
German resistance members
German revolutionaries
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
Lutheran pacifists
Nonviolence advocates
People condemned by Nazi courts
People executed by Nazi Germany by guillotine
People executed for treason against Germany
People from Baden-Württemberg executed by Nazi Germany
People from Forchtenberg
People from the Free People's State of Württemberg
Protestants in the German Resistance
Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany
White Rose members
Women in World War II
Women sentenced to death
Reich Labour Service members
Hitler Youth members
Female anti-fascists | [
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240885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramathibodi | Ramathibodi | Ramathibodi or Ramathipbodi (, ; ; "Overlord Rāma") was a Thai royal title. All Thai monarchs took Ramathibodi as their formal or ceremonial title, but a few are widely known by it.
It may refer to:
Ramathibodi I, also known as U Thong
Ramathibodi II, also known as Chetthathirat
Order of Rama, known in Thai as Ramathibodi
Ramathibodi Hospital
See also
Rama (Kings of Thailand)
Thai royal titles | [
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240889 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blushing | Blushing | Blushing is the reddening of a person's face due to psychological reasons. It is normally involuntary and triggered by emotional stress associated with passion, embarrassment, shyness, fear, anger, or romantic stimulation.
Severe blushing is common in people who have social anxiety in which the person experiences extreme and persistent anxiety in social and performance situation.
Summary
Blushing is generally distinguished, despite a close physiological relation, from flushing, which is more intensive and extends over more of the body, and seldom has a mental source. If redness persists for abnormal amounts of time after blushing, then it may be considered an early sign of rosacea. Idiopathic craniofacial erythema is a medical condition where a person blushes strongly with little or no provocation. Just about any situation can bring on intense blushing and it may take one or two minutes for the blush to disappear. Severe blushing can make it difficult for the person to feel comfortable in either social or professional situations. People who have social phobia are particularly prone to idiopathic craniofacial erythema. Psychological treatments and medication can help control blushing.
Some people are very sensitive to emotional stress. Given a stimulus such as embarrassment, the person's sympathetic nervous system will cause blood vessels to open wide, flooding the skin with blood and resulting in reddening of the face. In some people, the ears, neck and upper chest may also blush. As well as causing redness, blushing can sometimes make the affected area feel hot.
Erythrophobia is the fear of blushing, from and literally "fear of redness".
Physiology
A blush is a reddening of the cheeks and forehead brought about by increased capillary blood flow in the skin. It can also extend to the ears, neck and upper chest, an area termed the 'blush region'.
There is evidence that the blushing region is anatomically different in structure. The facial skin, for example, has more capillary loops per unit area and generally more vessels per unit volume than other skin areas. In addition, blood vessels of the cheek are wider in diameter, are nearer the surface, and visibility is less diminished by tissue fluid. These specific characteristics of the architecture of the facial vessels led Wilkin in an overview of possible causes of facial flushing to the following conclusion: "[...] increased capacity and greater visibility can account for the limited distribution of flushing".
Evidence for special vasodilation mechanisms was reported by Mellander and his colleagues (Mellander, Andersson, Afzelius, & Hellstrand. 1982). They studied buccal segments of the human facial veins in vitro. Unlike veins from other areas of the skin, facial veins responded with an active myogenic contraction to passive stretch and were therefore able to develop an intrinsic basal tone. Additionally Mellander et al. showed that the veins in this specific area were also supplied with beta-adrenoceptors in addition to the common alpha-adrenoceptors. These beta-adrenoceptors could exert a dilator mechanism on the above-described basal tone of the facial cutaneous venous plexus. Mellander and his colleagues propose that this mechanism is involved in emotional blushing. Drummond has partially confirmed this effect by pharmacological blocking experiments (Drummond. 1997). In a number of trials, he blocked both alpha-adrenergic receptors (with phentolamine) and beta-adrenergic receptors (with propranolol introduced
transcutaneously by iontophoresis). Blushing was measured at the forehead using a dual channel laser Doppler flowmeter. Subjects were undergraduate students divided into frequent and infrequent blushers according to self-report. Their mean age was 22.9 years, which is especially favorable for assessing blushing, since young subjects are more likely to blush and blush more intensively. The subjects underwent several procedures, one of which was designed to produce blushing. Alpha-adrenergic blockade with phentolamine had no influence on the amount of blushing in frequent or in infrequent blushers, indicating that release of sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone does not substantially influence blushing. This result was expected since vasoconstrictor tone in the facial area is known to be generally low (van der Meer. 1985). Beta-adrenergic blockade with propranolol on the other hand decreased blushing in both frequent and infrequent blushers. However, despite complete blockade, blood flow still increased substantially during the embarrassment and blushing inducing procedure. Additional vasodilator mechanisms must therefore be involved.
Psychology
Charles Darwin devoted Chapter 13 of his 1872 The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals to complex emotional states including self-attention, shame, shyness, modesty and blushing. He described blushing as "... the most peculiar and most human of all expressions."
Several different psychological and psycho-physiological mechanisms for blushing have been hypothesized by Crozier (2010): "An explanation that emphasizes the blush's visibility proposes that when we feel shame we communicate our emotion to others and in doing so we send an important signal to them. It tells them something about us. It shows that we are ashamed or embarrassed, that we recognise that something is out of place. It shows that we are sorry about this. It shows that we want to put things right. To blush at innuendo is to show awareness of its implications and to display modesty that conveys that you are not brazen or shameless. The blush makes a particularly effective signal because it is involuntary and uncontrollable. Of course, a blush can be unwanted [but the] costs to the blusher on specific occasions are outweighed by the long-term benefits of being seen as adhering to the group and by the general advantages the blush provides: indeed the costs may enhance the signal's perceived value." A number of techniques may be used to help prevent or reduce blushing.
It has also been suggested that blushing and flushing are the visible manifestations of the physiological rebound of the basic instinctual fight/flight mechanism, when physical action is not possible.
See also
Endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy
References
Further reading
Vickers, S., MyBlushingCure.com: Free Information from a former blusher, Australian Publisher, 2012
Crozier, W. R., Blushing and the Social Emotions: The Self Unmasked, Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006.
Miller, R. S., Embarrassment: Poise and Peril in Everyday Life, Guilford Press, 1997.
Jadresic, E., When Blushing Hurts: Overcoming Abnormal Facial Blushing (2nd edition, expanded and revised), iUniverse, 2014. .
Daniels B. W Understanding Uncontrollable Facial Blushing, Neptune, Elizabeth Stewart, 2010.
ESFB Channel - The online community for people suffering from facial blushing, excessive sweating, rosacea and social phobia
- Blushing in Plato
Reflexes
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240891 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt%20Huber | Kurt Huber | Kurt Huber (24 October 1893 – 13 July 1943) was a university professor and resistance fighter with the anti-Nazi group White Rose. For his involvement he was imprisoned and guillotined.
Early life
Huber was born in Chur, Switzerland, to German parents. He was raised in Stuttgart and later, after his father's death, in Munich. He showed an aptitude for such subjects as music, philosophy and psychology. Huber became a professor of Psychology and Music in 1926 at the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich.
Resistance
Huber was appalled by the rise of the Nazi Party and decided that Adolf Hitler and his government had to be removed from power. He came into contact with the White Rose movement through some students who attended his lectures, Hans Scholl and Alexander Schmorell. Huber wrote the White Rose's sixth and final leaflet calling for an end to National Socialism.
Arrest
Huber's political activities came to the attention of the Gestapo and he was arrested on 27 February 1943. By coincidence, composer Carl Orff called at Huber’s house the day after he was taken. Huber’s wife begged him to use his influence to help her husband. But Orff told her that if his friendship with Huber was ever discovered he would be “ruined.” Orff left; Huber’s wife never saw him again. Later, wracked by guilt, Orff would write a letter to his late friend Huber imploring him for forgiveness. Orff's Die Bernauerin, a project which he completed in 1946 and which he had discussed with Huber before the latter's execution, is dedicated to Huber's memory. The final scene of this work, which is about the wrongful execution of Agnes Bernauer, depicts a guilt-ridden chorus begging not to be implicated in the title character's death.
Trial and execution
Huber was brought before the People's Court on 19 April. In a brief show trial, Chief Justice Roland Freisler subjected Huber to a humiliating verbal attack. He was sentenced to death for insurrection. On 13 July, he was executed by guillotine at Munich's Stadelheim Prison, along with Alexander Schmorell. The university had stripped Huber of his position and his doctorate at the time of his arrest. Attempts to take up a collection for Huber's widow Clara eventually led to Hans Leipelt's arrest and execution.
Legacy
The square opposite from the main building of the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich was named Professor Huber Platz in his remembrance. Huber wrote a biography of Gottfried Leibniz which he completed while in prison and which was published in 1951 edited by his wife and pupil. After the war, a memorial volume with contributions from his friends and colleagues, including the 1946 letter from Carl Orff, was published by his widow.
References
External links
1893 births
1943 deaths
People condemned by Nazi courts
Executed German Resistance members
People executed by Nazi Germany by guillotine
Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich faculty
German civilians killed in World War II
German monarchists in the German Resistance
White Rose members
People from Chur
People educated at Eberhard-Ludwigs-Gymnasium
Swiss people executed by Nazi Germany
Resistance members killed by Nazi Germany
Burials at Munich Waldfriedhof
Nazi Party members | [
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240894 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Sur | Big Sur | Big Sur () is a rugged and mountainous section of the Central Coast of California between Carmel and San Simeon, where the Santa Lucia Mountains rise abruptly from the Pacific Ocean. It is frequently praised for its dramatic scenery. Big Sur has been called the "longest and most scenic stretch of undeveloped coastline in the contiguous United States", a sublime "national treasure that demands extraordinary procedures to protect it from development", and "one of the most beautiful coastlines anywhere in the world, an isolated stretch of road, mythic in reputation". The views, redwood forests, hiking, beaches, and other recreational opportunities have made Big Sur a popular destination for about 7 million people who live within a day's drive and visitors from across the world. It is among the top 35 tourist destinations world-wide. The region receives about the same number of visitors as Yosemite National Park, but offers only limited bus service, few restrooms, and a narrow two-lane highway that for most of its length clings to the steep coastal cliffs. North-bound traffic during the peak summer season and holiday weekends is often backed up for about from Big Sur Village to Carmel Highlands. Due to the large number of visitors, congestion and slow traffic between Carmel and Posts is becoming the norm.
The region is often confused with an unincorporated village, a collection of small roadside businesses and homes, also known as Big Sur. The larger region known as Big Sur does not have specific boundaries, but is generally considered to include the segment of California State Route 1 between Malpaso Creek near Carmel Highlands in the north and San Carpóforo Creek near San Simeon in the south, as well as the entire Santa Lucia range between these creeks. The interior region is mostly uninhabited, while the coast remains relatively isolated and sparsely populated, with between 1,800 and 2,000 year-round residents and relatively few visitor accommodations scattered among four small settlements. The region remained one of the most inaccessible areas of California and the entire United States until, after 18 years of construction, the Carmel–San Simeon Highway (now signed as part of State Route 1) was completed in 1937. Along with the ocean views, this winding, narrow road, often cut into the face of towering seaside cliffs, dominates the visitor's experience of Big Sur. The highway has been closed more than 55 times by landslides, and in May 2017, a slide blocked the highway at Mud Creek, north of Salmon Creek near the San Luis Obispo County line, to just south of Gorda. The road was reopened on July 18, 2018.
The region is protected by the Big Sur Local Coastal Plan, which preserves it as "open space, a small residential community, and agricultural ranching." Approved in 1986, the plan is one of the most restrictive local-use programs in the state, and is widely regarded as one of the most restrictive documents of its kind anywhere. The program protects viewsheds from the highway and many vantage points, and severely restricts the density of development. About 60% of the coastal region is owned by governmental or private agencies which do not allow any development. The majority of the interior region is part of the Los Padres National Forest, Ventana Wilderness, Silver Peak Wilderness or Fort Hunter Liggett.
Location
Big Sur is not an incorporated town but a region without formal boundaries in California's Central Coast region. The region is often confused with the small community of buildings and services south of Carmel in the Big Sur River valley, sometimes referred to by locals as Big Sur Village, but officially known as Big Sur. Some visitors think Big Sur only refers to Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park, whose environmental setting is extremely different from the overall rocky coastal environment.
Historical boundaries
The various informal boundaries applied to the region have gradually expanded north and south over time. Esther Pfeiffer Ewoldson, who was born in 1904 and was a granddaughter of Big Sur pioneers Micheal and Barbara Pfeiffer, wrote that the region extended from the Little Sur River south to Slates Hot Springs. Members of the Harlan family, who homesteaded the Lucia region south of Slates Hot Springs, said that Big Sur was "miles and miles to the north of us." Prior to the construction of Highway 1, residents on the south coast had little contact with residents to the north of them.
Northern and southern boundaries
Most current descriptions of the area refer to Malpaso Creek south of the Carmel River as the northern border. The southern border is generally accepted to be San Carpóforo Creek in San Luis Obispo County.
Inland extent
The vast majority of visitors only see Big Sur's dramatic coastline and consider the Big Sur region to include only the coastal flanks of the Santa Lucia Mountains, which at various points extend from inland.
Some residents place the eastern border at the boundaries of the vast inland areas comprising the Los Padres National Forest, Ventana Wilderness, and Silver Peak Wilderness, or the unpopulated regions all the way to the eastern foothills of the Santa Lucia Mountains. Author and local historian Jeff Norman considered Big Sur to extend inland to include the watersheds that drain into the Pacific Ocean.
Author Lillian Ross wrote about life in Big Sur in several books. She and her husband Harry Dick Ross lived in southern Big Sur near Lime Creek beginning in 1939. Harry, a wood sculptor, worked at Hearst’s estate in San Simeon as a tile-setter. She famously described Big Sur as "not a place at all but a state of mind."
Etymology
The name "Big Sur" has its origins in the area's early Spanish history. While the Portolá expedition was exploring Alta California, they arrived at San Carpóforo Canyon near present-day San Simeon on September 13, 1769. Unable to penetrate the difficult terrain along the coast, they detoured inland through the San Antonio and Salinas Valleys before arriving at Monterey Bay, where they founded Monterey and named it the provincial capital.
The Spanish referred to the vast and relatively unexplored coastal region to the south of Monterey as el país grande del sur, meaning 'the big country of the south'. This was often shortened to el sur grande 'the big south'. The two major rivers draining this portion of the coast were named El Rio Grande del Sur and El Rio Chiquito del Sur.
The first recorded use of the name el Sud (meaning 'the South') was on a map of the Rancho El Sur land grant given by Governor José Figueroa to Juan Bautista Alvarado on July 30, 1834. The first American use of the name 'Sur' was by the U.S. Coast Survey in 1851, which renamed a point of land that looked like an island and was shaped like a trumpet, known to the Spanish as Morro de la Trompa and Punta que Parece Isla, to Point Sur.
Big Sur’s first post office was named "Posts" after William Brainard Post, in whose home it was located. He had obtained a patent to land at the top of the grade south of the Big Sur River, where he built a home in 1867. Confusion ensued when mail intended for the Presidio was sent to Big Sur, and mail for the local residents was sent to the military post. The residents changed the name of the post office to Arbolado ('woodland'), but that was confused by the post office for Alvarado, a street in Monterey. The post office operated at Posts from 1889 to 1910; it was moved in 1905 several miles northwest to Big Sur Village. The English-speaking homesteaders petitioned the United States Post Office in Washington D.C. to change the name of their post office from Arbolado ('woodland') to Big Sur, and the rubber stamp using that name was returned on March 6, 1915, cementing the use of Big Sur as the place name.
Popularity
Big Sur is renowned worldwide for its natural features and relatively pristine scenery. It is rated among the top 35 tourist destinations in the world. The Big Sur coast has been called the "longest and most scenic stretch of undeveloped coastline in the [contiguous] United States." The region has been described as a "national treasure that demands extraordinary procedures to protect it from development." The New York Times wrote that it is "one of the most stunning meetings of land and sea in the world." The Washington Times stated that it is "one of the most beautiful coastlines anywhere in the world, an isolated stretch of road, mythic in reputation." Condé Nast Traveler named State Route 1 through Big Sur one of the top 10 world-famous streets, comparable to Broadway in New York City and the Champs-Élysées in Paris. Realtor Mark Peterson commented, "Big Sur’s popularity has erupted with the growth of social media. It has become a year-round destination."
Writers have compared Big Sur to other natural wonders like the Grand Canyon. Novelist Herbert Gold described it as "one of the grand American retreats for those who nourish themselves with wilderness."
Scenic designations
The section of Highway 1 running through Big Sur is widely considered one of the most scenic driving routes in the United States, if not the world. The views are one reason that Big Sur was ranked second among all United States destinations in TripAdvisor's 2008 Travelers' Choice Destination Awards. The unblemished natural scenery owes much of its preservation to the highly restrictive development plans enforced in Big Sur; no billboards or advertisements are permitted along the highway and signage for businesses must be modestly scaled and of a rural nature conforming to the Big Sur region. The state of California designated the section of the highway from Cambria to Carmel Highlands as the first California Scenic Highway in 1965. In 1966, First Lady Lady Bird Johnson led the official scenic road designation ceremony at Bixby Creek Bridge. In 1996, the road became one of the first designated by the federal government as an "All-American Road" under the National Scenic Byways Program. CNN Traveler named McWay Falls as the most beautiful place in California.
Driving popularity
The drive along Highway 1 has been described as "one of the best drives on Earth", and is considered one of the top 10 motorcycle rides in the United States. Highway 1 was named the most popular drive in California in 2014 by the American Automobile Association.
Protection
Despite and because of its popularity, the region is heavily protected to preserve the rural and natural character of the land. The entire Big Sur coast is located within the protected coastal zone established by the 1976 California Coastal Act. This includes land use within a defined "coastal zone" extending inland from up to . The California Coastal Commission has the authority to control construction of any type, including buildings, housing, roads, as well as fire and erosion abatement structures, and can issue fines for unapproved construction. The Coastal Zone is specifically defined by law as an area that extends from the State's seaward boundary of jurisdiction, and inland for a distance from the Mean High Tide Line of between a couple of hundred feet in urban areas, to up to five miles in rural areas. The Big Sur Local Coastal Plan, approved by Monterey County Supervisors in 1981, states that the region is meant to be an experience that visitors transit through, not a destination. For that reason, development of all kinds is severely restricted.
Attractions
Besides sightseeing from the highway, Big Sur offers hiking and outdoor activities. There are a large number of state and federal lands and parks, including McWay Falls at Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park, one of only two waterfalls in California that plunge directly into the ocean. The waterfall is located near the foundation of a grand stone cliffside house built in 1940 by Lathrop and Hélène Hooper Brown that was the region's first electrified home. However, parking is very limited and usually unavailable on summer weekends and holidays.
Another notable landmark is Point Sur Lightstation, the only complete nineteenth century lighthouse complex open to the public in California.
The Ventana Wildlife Center near Andrew Molera State Park features a free Discovery Center that enables visitors to learn about the California Condor recovery program and other wildlife.
The Henry Miller Memorial Library (Miller lived in Big Sur from '44 to February '63, and wrote a book about the Place, Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch) is a nonprofit bookstore and arts center that opened in 1981 as a tribute to the legendary writer. It is a gathering place for locals and has become the focal point of individuals with a literary mind, a cultural center devoted to Miller's life and work, and a popular attraction for tourists.
Camping
There are both public and private camp grounds along the coast. Kirk Creek, Limekiln, and Plaskett Creek Campgrounds are located very near Highway 1. The public sites accommodate at least one vehicle while Plaskett Creek offers large group camping. The public campgrounds are privately managed and fill months ahead of time. Camping is not permitted alongside local roads or state highways.
Beaches
There are a few small, scenic beaches that are accessible to the public and popular for walking, but usually unsuitable for swimming, because of unpredictable currents, frigid temperatures and dangerous surf. The beach at Garrapata State Park is sometimes rated as the best beach in Big Sur. Depending on the season, visitors can view sea otters, sea lions, seals and migrating whales from the beach. The beach is barely visible from Highway 1.
Pfeiffer Beach is very popular but is only accessible via the narrow Sycamore Canyon Road. The parking lot at the beach only accommodates 60 vehicles and is usually full on summer and holiday weekends. During the summer, a shuttle operates from the US Forest Service headquarters to the beach. The wide sandy expanse offers views of a scenic arch rock offshore. It is sometimes confused with the beach at Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park to the south.
In the south, Sand Dollar Beach is the longest stretch of beach in Big Sur. It is popular with hikers and photographers for its views of nearby bluffs. The beach is south of the Big Sur village on Highway 1. A steep staircase leads down to the beach from the highway. Jade Cove, south of Sand Dollar Beach, is also sometimes popular with visitors.
Two beaches are surrounded by private land owned by the El Sur Ranch and are inaccessible to the public. At the mouth of the Little Sur river are some of the largest sand dunes on the Big Sur coast. The mouth of the Little Sur River, the sand dunes, and the mile-long Little Sur River beach are within the boundaries of the El Sur Ranch. The owner of the ranch maintains a secure fence and has prominently posted "Private Property" and "No Trespassing" signs on the fence along Highway 1 as suggested by legal precedent. While the beach below the mean high tide line is open to the public, the law does not permit individuals to trespass on private property to reach the public beach. Individuals who trespass to reach the beach have been cited. Another is Point Sur Beach, a long sandy beach located below and to the north of Point Sur Lighthouse.
Swiss Canyon Beach is a long, sandy beach that's visible when looking north from the mouth of the Big Sur River in Andrew Molera State Park. The eastern side of the beach is bounded by private land. The beach may be accessible from the southern end depending on the tide.
There are several beaches that are not accessible to the public. There is a small beach at Rocky Point that is surrounded by private property, making it inaccessible. The beach at the foot of McWay falls is physically inaccessible from the shore. To the south near the county line, Wreck Beach south of Pfeiffer Beach is not accessible. Gamboa Point Beach near the Monterey / San Luis Obispo count line is closed to the public.
Hiking
The Pine Ridge Trail (USFS 3E06) is the most popular hiking route into the Ventana Wilderness. Currently closed, hikers could use it to access many campsites in the back country, including Ventana Camp, Terrace Creek, Barlow Flats, Sykes, and Redwood camps. When open, it is accessible from the Big Sur Station. The trail, connecting trails, and the campsites along its route were closed during the Soberanes Fire in July 2016. They were damaged by the fire itself and further damaged by the heavy rains during the following winter. , the trail was blocked by four major washouts and more than 100 fallen trees across the path. Reopening the trail will require an environmental assessment, and perhaps re-routing the trail entirely. The trail is closed indefinitely.
The Mt. Manuel Trail (USFS 2E06) begins within Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park. It follows a northeasterly route up the slopes of Mt. Manuel. Hikers following this route can access Vado, Launtz Creek, and Tin House camp sites. It connects to the Little Sur trail that provides access to the Little Sur River watershed. The trail is not maintained.
The North Coast Ridge Road (USFS 20S05) is accessible from the road to the Ventana Inn and indirectly from the south via Limekiln State Park. Parking is available in the north at Cadillac Flat near the Ventana Inn. From Ventana Inn, the trail climbs steeply to the crest of the coast ridge and south about to near Cone Peak. There are wide views in all directions for almost the entire hike. It connects to a number of trails over its length, including Terrace Creek Trail (closed ), Boronda Trail, DeAngulo Trail, Big Sur Trail, Marble Peak Trail, Bee Camp Trail, Lost Valley Connector Trail, Rodeo Flat Trail, and the Arroyo Seco Trail. It provides access to Timber Top and Cold Spring Camp. It passes near the summit of Anderson Peak () and Marble Peak (), and through to the Nacimiento-Fergusson Road and connects to the Cone Peak Road. It is not open to vehicular traffic or bicycles. , the trail is closed.
Garrapata State Park, Andrew Molera State Park, Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park, and Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park all contain short hiking trails. , almost all trails on the east side of Highway 1 in these parks are closed due to the Soberanes Fire and damage sustained during heavy rains the following winter. Some trails west of Highway 1 are open.
Places of contemplation
Among the places that draw visitors is the formerly counterculture but now upscale Esalen Institute. Esalen hosted many figures of the nascent "New Age" and, in the 1960s, played an important role in popularizing Eastern philosophies, the "Human Potential Movement", and Gestalt therapy in the United States. Esalen is named after the Native Americans who congregated there at the natural hot springs possibly for thousands of years. Far from the coast within the Los Padres National Forest, the Tassajara Zen Mountain Center, accessible via a steep, narrow, dirt road, is only open to guests during the summer months.
Big Sur is also the location of a Catholic monastery, the New Camaldoli Hermitage. The Hermitage in Big Sur was founded in 1957. It rents a few simple rooms for visitors who would like to engage in silent meditation and contemplation. Normally all retreats are silent and undirected.
Special events
The Big Sur International Marathon is an annual marathon that begins south of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park and ends at the Crossroads Shopping Center in Carmel-by-the-Sea. The marathon was established in 1986 and attracts about 4,500 participants annually.
Civic leaders in Big Sur stage a run each year in October to raise funds for the Big Sur Volunteer Fire Brigade and the Big Sur Health Center. Since the race, known as the Big Sur River Run, was founded in 1971, more than $1,025,104 has been donated to the two organizations. The run through the redwoods was cancelled in 2016 due to the Soberanes Fire and in 2017 due to winter storms.
The Big Sur Folk Festival was held from 1964 to 1971. It began unintentionally when Nancy Carlen, a friend of singer Joan Baez, organized a weekend seminar at the Esalen Institute in June 1964 titled "The New Folk Music". On Sunday afternoon, they invited all the neighbors for a free, open performance. This became the first festival. The festival was held yearly on the grounds of the Esalen Institute, except for 1970, when it was held at the Monterey County Fairgrounds. Even when then well-known acts like Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young or the Beach Boys performed, the event was purposefully kept small with no more than a few thousand in attendance.
State and federal lands
State parks
The state parks in Big Sur grew out of the original residents' desire to protect and preserve the land they admired. "The early settlers considered land stewardship their obligation to community." The first was Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park. John Pfeiffer, son of pioneers Michael Pfeiffer and Barbara Laquet, was offered $210,000 for his land near Sycamore Canyon by a Los Angeles developer, who wanted to build a subdivision on the land. Instead, Pfeiffer sold 700 acres (2.8 km2) to the state of California in 1933.
, portions of most of these parks are closed due to after effects of the Soberanes Fire.
From north to south, the following state parks are in use:
Garrapata State Park
Point Sur State Historic Park
Andrew Molera State Park
Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park
Julia Pfeiffer Burns State Park
John Little State Natural Reserve
Limekiln State Park
State reserves
John Little State Natural Reserve
Big Creek State Marine Reserve and Marine Conservation Area
Federal land
, some trails and campsites within the following areas are closed, due to damage caused by the 2016 Soberanes Fire and the following winter's rains.
Pfeiffer Beach
Los Padres National Forest
Ventana Wilderness
Silver Peak Wilderness
Overuse issues
During most summer weekends and on all major holidays, Big Sur is overwhelmingly crowded. Although some Big Sur residents catered to adventurous travelers in the early twentieth century, the modern tourist economy began when Highway 1 opened the region to automobiles in 1937, but only took off after World War II-era gasoline rationing and a ban on pleasure driving ended in August 1945. Big Sur has become a destination for travelers both within the United States and internationally.
Increasing numbers of visitors
The number of visitors to Big Sur has risen from about 1.5 million in 1978, to about 3 million in 1980, to an estimated 4 to 5 million during 2014 and 2015, comparable to or greater than the number of visitors to Yosemite National Park. Unlike Yosemite, which is managed by a single federal entity, about one-quarter of the land in Big Sur is privately owned and the remainder is managed by a conglomeration of federal, state, local, and private agencies. Yosemite offers 5,400 parking spots and a free, daily, park-wide bus service. In Big Sur during the summer, there is a single public bus that runs three times daily and a single shuttle van that operates on Thursday through Sunday from the Big Sur Station to Pfeiffer Beach. The owner of the Nepenthe restaurant estimated in 2017 that the number of visitors had increased by 40% since 2011. Big Sur residents and business owners are concerned about the impact visitors are having on the region. Traffic and parking is consistently bad during summer and holidays weekends and some visitors don't obey the laws.
Residents began discussing the potential necessity of shuttle buses, tollgates along Highway 1, and limits on the number of private autos allowed on the highway in 1978. One of the reasons for Big Sur's popularity is that it is only a one-day drive for about 7 million people. With the advent of social media, hashtags like "#sykeshotsprings" and "#pineridgetrail", two popular destinations within Big Sur, encourage more visitors. Visitors must pay $15 for a parking spot at a trailhead parking lot and take a 14-passenger van to Pfeiffer Beach. In response to visitor abuses, an anonymous Big Sur resident began an Instagram account in May 2019 named BigSurHatesYou intended to shame visitors into treating the Big Sur region better.
The television series Big Little Lies, which is filmed in the Monterey and Big Sur area, has increased the number of visitors to the area.
Restricted public transportation
Public transportation is available to and from Monterey on Monterey–Salinas Transit. The summer schedule operates from Memorial Day to Labor Day three times a day, while the winter schedule only offers bus service on weekends. The route is subject to interruption due to wind and severe inclement weather.
Limited vehicle services
There are only six gas stations along Highway 1 in Big Sur, from Ragged Point in the south to Carmel Highlands in the north. Three of them are in the north near Big Sur Valley. The filling station in Gorda has one of the highest prices in the United States, as it is far from the electrical grid and part of the cost of auto fuel is used to support operation of a diesel generator. All of them only operate during regular business hours and none of them supply diesel fuel. There are three Tesla recharging stations near Posts.
Lack of restrooms
There are only 16 public restrooms along the entire coast to accommodate the almost 5 million annual visitors. The number of visitors far exceeds the available restrooms, and most restrooms are not available in locations where tourists frequently visit. Businesses report that the large number of visitors using their bathroom has overwhelmed their septic systems.
If visitors can locate them, they can use bathrooms within California State Parks or federal campgrounds without paying an entrance fee. But many of the bathrooms are not visible from Highway 1. This is due in part to the fact that restroom signs along Highway 1 were removed for aesthetic reasons.
As a result, visitors often resort to defecating in the bushes near locations like the Bixby Creek Bridge. Residents complain that visitors regularly defecate along Highway 1. Toilet paper, human waste, and trash litter the roadsides. Local residents have taken it upon themselves to clean up after visitors. The California Department of Transportation, which cleans the roadside areas about once a week, finds human waste during every cleanup. Butch Kronlund, Executive Director of the Coast Property Owners Association, criticized the lack of rest rooms. He says, "It's a 'scenic highway' with piles of shit up and down the highway."
The 1976 California Coastal Act makes installing public bathrooms, trash bins, or even new road signs along Highway 1 extremely difficult. A number of federal, state, and local agencies have jurisdiction in Big Sur, all of which must weigh in on decisions affecting residents and visitors.
Few visitors' services
The land use restrictions that preserve Big Sur's natural beauty also mean that visitor accommodations are limited, often expensive, and places to stay fill up quickly during the busy summer season.
There are no urban areas, just three small clusters of restaurants, gas stations, motels, and camp grounds: Posts in the Big Sur River valley, Lucia, near Limekiln State Park, and Gorda, on the southern coast. Scattered among these distant settlements are nine small grocery stores, a few gift shops, and no chain hotels, supermarkets, or fast-food outlets, and no plans to add facilities or shopping. Among the places to stay and eat are the luxury Ventana Inn, Post Ranch, and the Nepenthe restaurant, built around the cabin Orson Welles and Rita Hayworth impulsively bought.
Limited accommodations
There are fewer than 300 hotel rooms on the entire stretch of Highway 1 between San Simeon and Carmel. Lodging include a few cabins, motels, and campgrounds, and higher-end resorts such as the Post Ranch Inn, charging as much as $1,800, and the Ventana Inn, with suites up to $2,400 per night. There are some short-term rentals, but their legality is still being determined.
Illegal camping
Some social media sites report the availability of free camping on the side of roads, but camping of any sort along highways and secondary roads is illegal and subject to fines. Casual campers have at times turned every wide spot along the Nacimiento-Fergusson Road into an illegal campsite, although there are no bathrooms or fire pits. Residents complain about illegal camp fires and people defecating along the road without using proper sanitation. Camping is only permitted within designated private and state or federal park campsites or within USFS lands. On July 22, 2016, an illegal campfire within Garrapata State Park, where camping is not permitted, got out of control. The resulting Soberanes Fire burned , 57 homes and 11 outbuildings, and killed a bulldozer operator. It took almost three months to extinguish and cost about $236 million to suppress. In October, 2017, a visitor from Florida was arrested for starting an illegal campfire that grew out of control.
Solutions under consideration
The Community Association of Big Sur (formerly the Big Sur Property Owners Association) is proposing some solutions. They want to close the parking lot at Bixby Creek for a year to encourage visitors to take public transportation. They are considering asking community volunteers to keep tourists from walking onto the bridge, which is both dangerous and illegal. Tourists who want to get to Pfeiffer Beach over the current mile-long, one-lane road to a small 65 car parking lot would be required to reserve and pay for parking ahead of time, or take a shuttle. Parking on the highway shoulder at popular McWay Falls to avoid a $10 parking lot fee would be prohibited. Another idea under consideration is a ban on dispersed camping in the national forest during fire season "until proper backcountry monitoring and enforcement exists." An illegal campfire in 2017 burned 57 homes and killed one firefighter. The Forest Service used to have a number of back country rangers, but now has none.
Culture
The arrival of Bay Area artists in Carmel-by-the-Sea beginning in 1904 was the beginning of a literary and artistic colony on the northern edge of Big Sur. Robinson Jeffers moved to Carmel in September 1914, and over his lifetime wrote many evocative poems about the isolation and natural beauty of Big Sur. Beginning in the 1920s, his poetry introduced the romantic idea of Big Sur's wild, untamed spaces to a national audience, which encouraged many of the later visitors.
Henry Miller moved to Big Sur at the invitation of the Greco-French artist Jean Varda, uncle of filmmaker Agnès Varda. He lived in Big Sur for almost 20 years, from 1944 to 1962. When he first arrived, he was broke and novelist Lynda Sargent was renting a cabin from a local riding club. She allowed Miller to live rent free for a while. But when the cabin was sold to Orson Welles and Rita Hayworth in 1945, Miller moved several miles south to a wood cabin on Partington Ridge that had been owned by his friend Emil White.
While in Big Sur, Miller, avant-garde musician Harry Partch and Jean Varda were part of a local group of bohemians known as the Anderson Creek Gang, many of whom lived at the former highway work camp near the mouth of Anderson Creek. Miller lived in a shack there during 1946 before moving back to the cabin on Partington Ridge in 1947. In his 1957 essay/memoir/novel Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch, Miller described the joys and hardships that came from escaping the "air conditioned nightmare" of modern life.
Bohemian reputation
Hunter S. Thompson worked as a security guard and caretaker at a resort in Big Sur Hot Springs for eight months in 1961, just before the Esalen Institute was founded at that location. While there, he published his first feature story in the nationally distributed men's magazine Rogue about Big Sur's artisan and bohemian culture. In the article, he described how the Bohemian image attracted people who annoyed residents:
Other writers and artists were also attracted by Big Sur, including Edward Weston, Richard Brautigan, Emile Norman and Jack Kerouac. Big Sur acquired a bohemian reputation with these newcomers. Kerouac followed Miller to Big Sur and included the rugged coast in large parts of two of his novels. He spent a few days in early 1960 at fellow poet Lawrence Ferlinghetti's cabin in Bixby Canyon and based his novel Big Sur on his time there.
Notable people
Well-known individuals have called Big Sur home, including:
José Abrego merchant, politician
Ansel Adams photographer / musician
Juan Bautista Alvarado politician
Morley Baer photographer
José Castro politician, statesman, and military officer
John B. R. Cooper merchant, landowner
Kaffe Fassett textile artist
Lawrence Ferlinghetti author
Allen Funt actor
Al Jardine musician
Philip Johnson architect
Carolyn Mary Kleefeld author and artist
Henry Miller author and artist
Gordon Newell sculptor
John Nesbitt radio announcer, TV producer
Emile Norman artist
Kim Novak actress
Nathaniel A. Owings architect
David Packard business executive
Linus Pauling Nobel Prize winner
Trent Reznor musician
Johnny Rivers musician
Nicholas Roosevelt diplomat
Ted Turner business executive
Jean Varda author
Cole Weston photographer
Edward Weston photographer
Vilmos Zsigmond cinematographer
Highway 1 impact
Prior to the construction of California State Route 1, the California coast south of Carmel and north of San Simeon was one of the most remote regions in the state, rivaling at the time nearly any other region in the United States for its difficult access. At the turn of the 19th century, the trip from Monterey to the Pfeiffer Ranch in the Big Sur valley could take three days by wagon. It was a rough road that ended in present-day Big Sur Village and could be impassible in winter. There was no road beyond the Pfeiffer Ranch, only a horseback trail connecting the homesteads to the south. The ride from Pfeiffer Ranch to San Carpóforo canyon was about in a direct line, but about three times that by horseback. J. Smeaton Chase, who traveled on horseback up the coast in 1911, reported that a stage coach carried passengers from Posts (then named Arbolado) to the Everett Hotel in Monterey on Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays.
The highway was first proposed by Dr. John L. D. Roberts, a physician who was summoned on April 21, 1894 to treat survivors of the wreck of the S.S. Los Angeles (originally USRC Wayanda), which had run aground near the Point Sur Light Station about south of Carmel-by-the-Sea. The ride on his two-wheeled, horse-drawn cart took him hours, a very fast trip for the day. Construction began in 1921, ceased for two years in 1926 when funding ran out, and after 18 years of construction, the Carmel–San Simeon Highway was completed in 1937. The route was incorporated into the state highway system and re-designated as Highway 1 in 1939.
The highway is a dominant feature of the Big Sur coast, providing the primary means of access and transportation. The Big Sur portion of Highway 1 is generally considered to include the segment adjoining the unincorporated region of Big Sur between Malpaso Creek near Carmel Highlands in the north and San Carpóforo Creek near San Simeon in the south.
Along with the ocean views, this winding, narrow road, often cut into the face of towering seaside cliffs, dominates the visitor's experience of Big Sur. The stunning views, redwood forests, hiking, beaches, and other recreational opportunities have made Big Sur a popular destination for about 7 million people who live within a day's drive and visitors from across the world.
The highway has been closed more than 55 times by landslides, and in May 2017, a slide blocked the highway at Mud Creek, north of Salmon Creek near the San Luis Obispo County line, to just south of Gorda. The road was reopened on July 18, 2018, but is subject to closure during heavy storms.
Big Sur land use
The policies protecting land used in Big Sur are some of the most restrictive local-use standards in California, and are widely regarded as one of the most restrictive development protections anywhere. The program protects viewsheds from the highway and many vantage points, and severely restricts the density of development. About 60% of the coastal region is owned by governmental or private agencies which do not allow any development. The majority of the interior region is part of the Los Padres National Forest, Ventana Wilderness, Silver Peak Wilderness or Fort Hunter Liggett. The area is protected by the Big Sur Local Coastal Plan, which preserves it as "open space, a small residential community, and agricultural ranching." Its intention is "preserving the environment and visual access to it, the policies of the local coastal plan are to minimize, or limit, all destination activities."
The unincorporated region encompassing Big Sur does not have specific boundaries, but is generally considered to include the segment of California State Route 1 between Malpaso Creek near Carmel Highlands in the north and San Carpóforo Creek near San Simeon in the south, as well as the entire Santa Lucia range between these creeks. The interior region is mostly uninhabited, while the coast remains relatively isolated and sparsely populated, with between 1,800 and 2,000 year-round residents and relatively few visitor accommodations scattered among four small settlements.
History
Native Americans
Three tribes of Native Americans — the Ohlone, Esselen, and Salinan — are the first known people to have inhabited the area. The Ohlone, also known as the Costanoans, are believed to have lived in the region from San Francisco to Point Sur. The Esselen lived in the area between Point Sur south to Big Creek, and inland including the upper tributaries of the Carmel River and Arroyo Seco watersheds. The Salinan lived from Big Creek south to San Carpóforo Creek. Archaeological evidence shows that the Esselen lived in Big Sur as early as 3500 BC, leading a nomadic, hunter-gatherer existence. The aboriginal people inhabited fixed village locations, and followed food sources seasonally, living near the coast in winter to harvest rich stocks of otter, mussels, abalone, and other sea life. In the summer and fall, they traveled inland to gather acorns and hunt deer. The native people hollowed mortar holes into large exposed rocks or boulders which they used to grind the acorns into flour. These can be found throughout the region. Arrows were of made of cane and pointed with hardwood foreshafts. The tribes also used controlled burning techniques to increase tree growth and food production.
The population was limited as the Santa Lucia Mountains made the area relatively inaccessible and long-term habitation a challenge. The population of the Esselen who lived in the Big Sur area are estimated from a few hundred to a thousand or more.
Spanish exploration and settlement
The first Europeans to see Big Sur were Spanish mariners led by Juan Cabrillo in 1542, who sailed up the coast without landing. When Cabrillo sailed by, he described the coastal range as "mountains which seem to reach the heavens, and the sea beats on them; sailing along close to land, it appears as though they would fall on the ships."
Two centuries passed before the Spaniards attempted to colonize the area. On September 13, 1769, an expedition led by Gaspar de Portolá were the first Europeans to enter the Big Sur region when they arrived at San Carpóforo Canyon near Ragged Point. While camping there, they were visited by six indigenous people who offered pinole and fish and received beads in exchange. They explored the coast ahead and concluded it was impassable. They were forced to turn inland up the steep arroyo. The march through the mountains was one of the most difficult portions of the expedition's journey. The Spanish were forced to "make a road with crowbar and pickaxe". Crespi wrote, "The mountains which enclose it are perilously steep, and all are inaccessible, not only for men but also for goats and deer." From a high peak near the San Antonio River, they could see nothing but mountains in every direction. They reached Monterey on October 1. When they attempted to explore further south, the scouts found their way blocked by "the same cliff that had forced us back from the shore and obliged us to travel through the mountains."
After the Spanish established the California missions in 1770, they baptized and forced the native population to labor at the missions. While living at the missions, the aboriginal population was exposed to diseases unknown to them, like smallpox and measles, for which they had no immunity, devastating the Native American population and their culture. Many of the remaining Native Americans assimilated with Spanish and Mexican ranchers in the nineteenth century.
In 1909, forest supervisors reported that three Indian families still lived within what was then known as the Monterey National Forest. The Encinale family of 16 members and the Quintana family with three members lived in the vicinity of The Indians (now known as Santa Lucia Memorial Park west of Ft. Hunger Liggett). The Mora family consisting of three members was living to the south along the Nacimiento-Ferguson Road.
Spanish ranchos
Along with the rest of Alta California, Big Sur became part of Mexico when it gained independence from Spain in 1821. But, due to its inaccessibility, only a few small portions of the Big Sur region were included in land grants given by Mexican governors José Figueroa and Juan Bautista Alvarado.
Rancho Tularcitos
Rancho Tularcitos, of land, was granted in 1834 by Governor José Figueroa to Rafael Goméz. It was located in upper Carmel Valley along Tularcitos Creek.
Rancho San Francisquito
Rancho San Francisquito was a land grant given in 1835 by Governor José Castro to Catalina Manzanelli de Munrás. She was the wife of Esteban Munrás (1798–1850), a Monterey trader, amateur painter, and grantee of Rancho San Vicente. The grant was located in the upper Carmel Valley, inland and east of Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito.
Rancho Milpitas
Rancho Milpitas was a land grant given in 1838 by governor Juan Alvarado to Ygnacio Pastor. The grant encompassed present day Jolon and land to the west. When Pastor obtained title from the Public Land Commission in 1875, Faxon Atherton immediately purchased the land. By 1880, the James Brown Cattle Company owned and operated Rancho Milpitas and neighboring Rancho Los Ojitos. William Randolph Hearst's Piedmont Land and Cattle Company acquired the rancho in 1925. In 1940, in anticipation of the increased forces required in World War II, the U.S. War Department purchased the land from Hearst to create a troop training facility known as the Hunter Liggett Military Reservation.
Rancho El Sur
On July 30, 1834, Figueroa granted Rancho El Sur, two square leagues of land totalling 8,949-acres (3,622 ha), to Juan Bautista Alvarado. The grant extended between the Little Sur River and what is now called Cooper Point. Alvarado later traded Rancho El Sur for the more accessible Rancho Bolsa del Potrero y Moro Cojo in the northern Salinas Valley, owned by his uncle by marriage, Captain John B. R. Cooper. Rancho El Sur is still an operating cattle ranch.
Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito
In 1839, Alvarado granted Rancho San Jose y Sur Chiquito, also about two square leagues of land totalling , to Marcelino Escobar, a prominent official of Monterey. The grant was bounded on the north by the Carmel River and on the south by Palo Colorado Canyon.
In 1848, two days after the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill, Mexico ceded California to the United States as a result of the Mexican–American War.
First survey
During the first survey of the coast conducted by the U.S. Coast Survey in 1886, the surveyor reported:
Homesteaders
The first known European settler in Big Sur was John Davis who in 1853 built a v cabin near the present day site l of the Mount Manuel Trail trailhead. In 1868, Native Americans Manual and Florence Innocenti bought Davis' cabin and land for $50.
John Bautista Rogers Cooper, born John Rogers Cooper, was a Yankee from the British Channel Islands who arrived in Monterey in 1823. He became a Mexican citizen, converted to Catholicism, and was given a Spanish name at his baptism. He married Native American Encarnacion Vallejo and acquired considerable land, including Rancho El Sur, on which he had a cabin built in April or May 1861. The Cooper Cabin is the oldest surviving structure in Big Sur.
William B. Post arrived in California in 1848 and was the foreman of the Soberanes Ranch when he built a single room cabin in 1867. His son added to it in 1877, when the family moved there full time. The Post House is a historic landmark and is on the grounds of the Ventana Inn resort.
Michael Pfeiffer, his wife, and four children arrived in Big Sur in 1869 with the intention of settling on the south coast. After reaching Sycamore Canyon, they found it to their liking and decided to stay. He filed a land patent on January 20, 1883, claiming two sections of land he already resided on near and immediately north of the mouth of Sycamore Canyon. They had six more children later on.
Another important pioneer-era historic resource is the Swetnam / Trotter House, a late 19th century dwelling located at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon.
After passage of the federal Homestead Act in 1862, a few hardy settlers were drawn by the promise of free 160-acre (65 ha) parcels. After the claimant filed for the land, they had gained full ownership after five years of residence or by paying $1.50 per acre within six months. Each claim was for 160 acres, a quarter section of free government land.
William and Sarah (Barnes) Plaskett and their family settled in Pacific Valley in 1869. They built several homes and a saw mill.
Other settlers included William F. Notley, who homesteaded at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon in 1891. He began harvesting tanoak bark from the canyon, a lucrative source of income at the time. Notley's Landing is named after him. Isaac Swetnam worked for Notley and built a house at the mouth of Palo Colorado Canyon, which is still a residence. Sam Trotter, who also worked for Notley, later bought Swetnam's house. He married Adelaide Pfeiffer, the daughter of Micheal Pfeiffer, and they raised a family there from 1906 to 1923.
Further south, in Pacific Valley, is the Junge Cabin, a one-room redwood cabin built in 1920 by homesteader John Junge. The John Little State Natural Reserve straddling the mouth of Lime Creek preserves the original 1917 cabin of conservationist Elizabeth K. Livermore.
Many other local sites retain names from settlers during this period: Bottcher, Gamboa, Anderson, Partington, Dani, Harlans, McQuades, Ross, and McWay are a few of the place names. Wilber Harlan, a native of Indiana, homesteaded near Lucia in 1885. His family descendants are still operating the Lucia Lodge.
Industrial era and gold rush
Along with industries based on tanoak bark harvesting, gold mining, and limestone processing, the local economy provided more jobs and supported a larger population than it does today. From the 1860s through the start of the twentieth century, lumbermen cut down most of the readily accessible coast redwoods. Redwood harvesting further inland was always limited by the rugged terrain and difficulty in transporting the lumber to market. Pioneer William F. Notley was one of the first to harvest the bark of the Tanbark Oak from the Little Sur River canyon.
Tanbark was used to manufacture tannic acid, necessary to the growing leather tanning industry located in Santa Cruz, and to preserve fish nets. The tanbark was harvested from the isolated trees inland, left to dry, corded, and brought out on mules or hauled out on "go-devils". The go-devil was a wagon with two wheels on the front, while the rear had rails for pulling. Notley constructed a landing at the mouth of the Palo Colorado River like that at Bixby Landing to the south. The tanbark was loaded by cable onto waiting vessels anchored offshore. In 1889, as much as 50,000 cords of tanbark were hauled out from the Little Sur River and Big Sur River watersheds. A small village grew up around Notley's Landing from 1898 to 1907. Near the start of the 20th century, the tan oak trees were becoming seriously depleted, which slowly led to the demise of the industries they had created.
A point on the Palo Colorado road is still nicknamed "The Hoist" because of the very steep road which required wagon-loads of tanbark and lumber to be hoisted by block and tackle hitched to oxen. The old block and tackle on a beam is still mounted between mailboxes.
In the 1880s, gold was found in the Los Burros District at Alder Creek in the mountains east of present-day Gorda. The gold rush town of Manchester at existed for a few short years. The town boasted a population of 200, four stores, a restaurant, five saloons, a dance hall, and a hotel, but it was abandoned soon after the start of the twentieth century and burned to the ground in 1909. Miners extracted about $150,000 in gold (about $ in ) during the mine's existence.
The trip from Monterey to the Pfeiffer Ranch usually took all day by wagon. If the road was in bad shape, the stage driver only took a light-weight spring wagon. The rough road ended in present-day Big Sur Village and could be impassible in winter. Local entrepreneurs built small boat landings like what is known today as Bixby Landing at a few coves along the coast from which supplies could be received and products could be shipped. At locations where it was impossible to land products directly on shore, a cable hoist was built from land to schooners anchored just off shore. A steamer would make a trip from San Francisco to drop off supplies in Big Sur once a year in the fall. In 1894, ranch owners Post, Pfeiffer, and Castro hired the steamer Bonita to bring lumber and seed oats to the coast. It dropped of the freight at the mouth of the Big Sur River and at Big Creek, north of Lucia. A large crowd gathered to receive the supplies and to load butter, honey, beans, wool, hides, and other products on to the ship. Only the stone foundations of some of these landings remain today.
In the late 1800s, the Ventana Power Company operated a sawmill near present-day Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park. They began planning to build a dam on the Big Sur River just downstream of the confluence of Ventana Creek and the Big Sur River. They hoped to sell the electricity to the City of Monterey. They built a diversion channel along the Big Sur River, but the 1906 San Francisco earthquake bankrupted the company and they abandoned the project. The stonework from the diversion channel is still visible. Few other signs of this brief industrial period are visible. The rugged, isolated terrain kept out all but the sturdiest and most self-sufficient settlers. Travelers who ventured south of the Post Ranch rode horse back along trails that connected the various homesteaders along the coast.
Geography
Geology
The Santa Lucia Mountain Range, which dominates the Big Sur region, is long, extending from Carmel in the north to the Cuyama River in San Luis Obispo County. The range is never more than from the coast.
The Santa Lucia Mountains are characterized by extremely steep slopes, all associated with watersheds flowing directly or indirectly into the Pacific Ocean. The range forms the steepest coastal slope in the contiguous United States. The mountains are of recent tectonic origin, and is rugged, steep and dissected by deep stream canyons. The general trend of the range is northwest–southeast, paralleling the numerous faults that transect the area.
The topography is complex, however, reflecting active uplift and deformation, a variety of lithological types, rapidly incising stream networks and highly unstable slopes. Stream channels and hill slopes are very steep, with average hill slope gradients exceeding 60% in some interior watersheds. The coastal side of the range rises directly from the shoreline, with oceanfront ridges rising directly to the crest of the coastal range. Big Sur's Cone Peak, at an elevation of , is only from the ocean and is the tallest coastal mountain in the contiguous United States.
The basement rocks of the Santa Lucia Range contain Mesozoic Franciscan and Salinian Block rocks. The Franciscan complex is composed of greywacke sandstone and greenstone, with serpentinite bodies and other Ultramafic rocks present. Small areas of marble and limestone lenses form resistant outcrops that are prominent landscape features, often white to light gray in color. The Salinian block is made up of highly fractured, and deeply weathered meta-sediments, especially biotite schist and gneiss, intruded by plutonic (granitic) rocks such as quartz diorite and granodiorite. Both formations have been disrupted and tectonically slivered by motion on the San Andreas and associated fault systems. The Palo Colorado and Church Creek faults are prominent features influencing the linear northwest–southeast alignment of primary drainages.
Marine influence
Along with much of the central and northern California coast, Big Sur frequently has dense fog in summer. Fog and lack of precipitation during the summer both result from the North Pacific High's presence offshore during that season. The high pressure cell inhibits rainfall and generates northwesterly air flow. These prevailing summer winds from the northwest drive the ocean surface water slightly offshore (through the Ekman effect) which generates an upwelling of colder sub surface water. Warm surface air blowing over cold upwelling ocean water close to the coast is cooled to create a surface-based inversion. Summer fog is common below about elevation. During 2014 and 2015, researchers recorded summer seasonal totals of and of fog water drip under open shrub canopies. They concluded that precipitation from fog dripping into the soils under coastal shrub canopies can be as much as 50% of annual average rainfall rates. The fog usually moves out to sea during the day and closes in at night, but sometimes heavy fog blankets the coast all day.
Wildfires
Fire plays a key role in the ecology of the upper slopes of the Big Sur region's mountains where chaparral dominates the landscape. It is known that Native Americans burned chaparral to promote grasslands for textiles and food, but little is known about the natural frequency of fire in the Santa Lucia Mountains. During the Spanish and Mexican era there were a number of reports of local Native Americans setting fires, especially in coastal and valley grasslands.
Following the depopulation of the Native Americans from the region in the late 1800s, there have been a number of very large fires in the Big Sur area. In 1894, a fire burned for weeks through the upper watersheds of all of the major streams in the Big Sur region. Another large fire in 1898 burned without any effort by the few local residents to put it out, except to save their buildings. In 1903, a fire started by an untended campfire near Chews Ridge burned a path wide to the coast over three months. In 1906, a fire that began in Palo Colorado Canyon from the embers of a campfire burned over 35 days and was finally extinguished by the first rainfall of the season. The number of fires declined when the U.S. Forest Service began managing the land in 1907. A study of fire scars on sugar pines on Junipero Serra Peak found that at least six fires had burned the region between 1790 and 1901.
In recent history, the area was struck by the Molera Fire in 1972, which resulted in flooding and mud flows in the Big Sur River valley that buried portions of several buildings the following winter. The area was burned by Marble Cone Fire in 1977, the Rat Creek Gorda Complex Fire in 1985, the Kirk Complex Fire in 1999, the Basin Complex Fire in 2008, and the Soberanes Fire in 2016.
The Basin Complex Fire forced an eight-day evacuation of Big Sur and the closure of Highway 1, beginning just before the July 4, 2008 holiday weekend. The fire, which burned over , represented the largest of many lightning-caused wildfires that had broken out throughout California during the same period. Although the fire caused no loss of life, it destroyed 27 homes, and the tourist-dependent economy lost about a third of its expected summer revenue. The Pfeiffer Fire that occurred from December 17 to 20, 2013 only burned , but destroyed 34 homes in an area near Pfeiffer Ridge Road and Sycamore Canyon Road.
In the lower elevations and canyons, the California Redwood is often found. Its thick bark, along with foliage that starts high above the ground, protect the species from both fire and insect damage, contributing to the coast redwood's longevity. Fire appears to benefit redwoods by removing competitive species. A 2010 study compared post-wildfire survival and regeneration of redwood and associated species. It concluded that fires of all severity increase the relative abundance of redwood and higher-severity fires provide the greatest benefit.
Soberanes Fire
The July 2016 Soberanes Fire was caused by unknown individuals who started and lost control of an illegal campfire in the Garrapata Creek watershed. After it burned 57 homes in the Garrapata and Palo Colorado Canyon areas, fire fighters were able to build lines around parts of the Big Sur community. A bulldozer operator was killed when his equipment overturned during night operations in Palo Colorado Canyon.
Coast residents east of Highway 1 were required to evacuate for short periods, and Highway 1 was shut down at intervals over several days to allow firefighters to conduct backfire operations. Visitors avoided the area and tourism revenue was impacted for several weeks.
Climate
Big Sur typically enjoys a mild Mediterranean climate, with a sunny, dry summer and fall, and a cool, wet winter. Coastal temperatures range from the 50s at night to the 70s by day (Fahrenheit) from June through October, and in the 40s to 60s from November through May. Farther inland, away from the ocean's moderating influence, temperatures are much more variable. The weather varies widely due to the influence of the jagged topography, creating many microclimates.
The record maximum temperature was on June 20, 2008, and the record low was , recorded on December 21, 1998, and January 13, 2007.
During the winter, Big Sur experiences some of the heaviest rainfall in California. More than 70 percent of the rain falls from December through March. The summer is generally dry. The Santa Lucia range rises to more than 5,800 ft (1760 m), and the amount of rainfall greatly increases as the elevation rises and cools the air, but rainfall amounts decrease sharply in the rain shadow of the coastal mountains. Scientists estimate that about 90 in. (230 cm) falls on average near the ridge tops. But actual totals vary considerably. Snowfall is rare on the coast, but is common in the winter months on the higher ridges of the Santa Lucia Range.
Monterey County maintains a remote rain gauge for flood prediction on Mining Ridge at 4,000 ft (1200 m) about north-east of Cone Peak. The gauge frequently receives more rain than any gauge in the Monterey and San Francisco Bay Areas. The wettest winter season was 1982–1983, when it rained more than 178 in. (452 cm) but the total is unknown because the rain gauge failed at that point. The wettest calendar year on record was 1983, when it rained .
The month with the greatest rain fall total was January 1995 it rained a record . At Pfeiffer–Big Sur State Park on the coast, rainfall averaged about 43 in. (109 cm) annually from 1914 to 1987. In 1975–1976, it rained only 15 in. (39 cm) at the park, compared to 85 in. (216 cm) in 1982–1983.
Flora and fauna
The many climates of Big Sur result in a great biodiversity, including many rare and endangered species such as the wild orchid Piperia yadonii, which is found only on the Monterey Peninsula and on Rocky Ridge in the Los Padres forest. Arid, dusty chaparral-covered hills exist within easy walking distance of lush riparian woodland. Fort Hunter-Liggett is host to about one-fourth of all Tule elk found in California, and provides roosting places for bald eagles and endangered condors. It also is home to some of the healthiest stands of live valley and blue oaks.
Southern limit of redwood trees
The high coastal mountains trap moisture from the clouds: fog in summer, rain and snow in winter, creating a favorable environment for the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) trees found in the Big Sur region. They are found near the ocean in canyon bottoms or in inland canyons alongside creeks and in other areas that meet its requirements for cooler temperatures and moisture. Due to drier conditions, trees in the Big Sur region only grow about tall, smaller than specimens found to the north.
The redwood trees in Big Sur are the remnant of much larger groves. Many old-growth trees were cut by the Ventana Power Company which operated a sawmill near present-day Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park from the late 1800s through 1906, when its operations were bankrupted by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. When John and Florence Pfeiffer opened Pffeifer's Ranch Resort in 1910, they built guest cabins from lumber cut using the mill. The mill was resurrected when Highway 1 was constructed during the 1920s. It supplied lumber for housing built for workers.
While many trees were harvested, a number of inaccessible locations were never logged. A large grove of trees are found along the north fork of the Little Sur River. William Randolph Hearst was interested in preserving the uncut redwood forest, and on November 18, 1921, he purchased about from the Eberhard and Kron Tanning Company of Santa Cruz for about $50,000. He later donated the land to the Monterey Bay Area Council of the Boy Scouts of America, who completed construction of Camp Pico Blanco in 1954.
In 2008, scientist J. Michael Fay published a map of the old growth redwoods based on his transect of the entire redwood range. The southernmost naturally occurring grove of redwoods is found within the Big Sur region in the Southern Redwood Botanical Area, a reserve located in the Little Redwood Gulch watershed adjacent to the Silver Peak Wilderness. It is just north of the Salmon Creek trailhead. The southernmost tree is about from Highway 1 at the approximate coordinates
Rare species
The rare Santa Lucia fir (Abies bracteata) is found only in the Santa Lucia mountains. A common "foreign" species is the Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), which was uncommon in Big Sur until the late nineteenth century, though its major native habitat is only a few miles upwind on the Monterey Peninsula, when many homeowners began to plant the quick-growing tree as a windbreak. There are many broadleaved trees as well, such as the tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus), coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia), and California bay laurel (Umbellularia californica). In the rain shadow, the forests disappear and the vegetation becomes open oak woodland, then transitions into the more familiar fire-tolerant California chaparral scrub.
Wildlife
The Big Sur River watershed provides habitat for mountain lion, deer, fox, coyotes and non-native wild boars. The boars, of Russian stock, were introduced in the 1920s by George Gordon Moore, the owner of Rancho San Carlos. Because most of the upper reaches of the Big Sur River watershed are within the Los Padres National Forest and the Ventana Wilderness, much of the river is in pristine condition.
Former Grizzly bear range
The region was historically populated by California grizzly bears. During the Spanish period of California history, the Spaniards rarely entered the area, except to capture runaway Mission Indians or to hunt grizzly bears that ate their livestock. The Mexican settlers captured bears for Monterey's bear and bull fights and they also sold their skins for 6 to 10 pesos to trading ships that visited Monterey. Bear Trap Canyon near Bixby Creek was one of their favorite sites for trapping grizzly bears.
The California grizzly bear (Ursus arctos californicus) was heavier and larger than grizzly bears found elsewhere in the continental United States. Malcolm Margolin in The Ohlone Way wrote that "These enormous bears were everywhere, feeding on berries, lumbering along the beaches, congregating beneath oak trees during acorn season, and stationed along nearly every stream and creek during the annual runs of salmon and steelhead." Grizzly bears presented a serious threat to human beings armed with only a bow and arrows and the Native Americans used to avoid them whenever possible.
The Monterey Herald noted on July 4, 1874:
There are remnants of a grizzly bear trap within Palo Corona Regional Park east of Point Lobos in a grove of redwood trees next to a creek.
European settlers paid bounties on the bears who regularly preyed on livestock until the early 20th century. Absolom (Rocky) Beasley hunted grizzly bears throughout the Santa Lucia Range and claimed to have killed 139 bears in his lifetime. The Pfeiffer family would fill a bait ball of swine entrails with strychnine and hang it from a tree. They wrote that the last grizzly bear was seen in Monterey County in 1941 on the Cooper Ranch near the mouth of the Little Sur River. Other sources report that last California grizzly was seen in 1924.
Since about 1980, American black bears have been sighted in the area, likely expanding their range from southern California and filling in the ecological niche left when the grizzly bear was exterminated.
Steelhead
The California Department of Fish and Game says the Little Sur River is the "most important spawning stream for Steelhead" distinct population segment on the Central Coast, where the fish is listed as threatened. and that it "is one of the best steelhead streams in the county." The Big Sur River is also a key habitat for the steelhead.
A US fisheries service report estimates that the number of trout in the entire south-central coast area—including the Pajaro River, Salinas River, Carmel River, Big Sur River, and Little Sur River—have dwindled from about 4,750 fish in 1965 to about 800 in 2005.
Numerous fauna are found in the Big Sur region. Among amphibians the California giant salamander (Dicamptodon ensatus) is found here, which point marks the southern extent of its range.
California condor
The California condor (Gymnogyps californianus) is a critically endangered species that was near extinction when the remaining wild birds were captured. A captive breeding program was begun in 1987. The Ventana Wildlife Society acquired 80 acres near Anderson Canyon that it used for a captive breeding program. After some success, a few birds were released in 1991 and 1992 in Big Sur, and again in 1996 in Arizona near the Grand Canyon.
In 1997, the Ventana Wildlife Society began releasing captive-bred California Condors in Big Sur. The birds take six years to mature before they can produce offspring, and a nest was discovered in a redwood tree in 2006. This was the first time in more than 100 years in which a pair of California condors had been seen nesting in Northern California. The repopulation effort has been successful in part because a significant portion of the birds' diet includes carcasses of large sea creatures that have washed ashore, which are unlikely to be contaminated with lead, the principal cause of the bird's mortality.
, the Ventana Wildlife Society managed 34 free-flying condors. There were part of a total population of 437 condors spread over California, Baja California and Arizona, of which 232 are wild birds and 205 are in captivity.
Marine protected areas
The off-shore region of the Big Sur Coast is protected by the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary. Within that sanctuary are other conservation areas and parks. The onshore topography that drops abruptly into the Pacific continues offshore where a narrow continental shelf drops to the continental slope in only a few miles. The ocean reaches a depth of more than just offshore. Two deep submarine canyons cut into the shelf near the Big Sur coast: the Sur Submarine Canyon, reaching a depth of just south of Point Sur, and Partington Submarine Canyon, which reaches a similar depth of offshore of Grimes Canyon.
Like underwater parks, these marine protected areas help conserve ocean wildlife and marine ecosystems.
Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary
Point Lobos State Marine Reserve
Point Sur State Marine Reserve and Marine Conservation Area
Big Creek State Marine Reserve and Marine Conservation Area
Salmon Creek State Area of Special Biological Significance
California Sea Otter Game Refuge
Julia Pfeiffer Burns Underwater Park
Demographics
Big Sur is sparsely populated. There are about 1,800 to 2,000 year-round residents, only a few hundred more residents than found there in 1900. Big Sur residents include descendants of the original ranching families, artists and writers, service staff, along with home-owners. The mountainous terrain, restrictions imposed by the Big Sur Coastal Use Plan, limited availability of property than can be developed, and the expense required to build on available land have kept Big Sur relatively undeveloped. According to the Big Sur Chamber of Commerce, about half the businesses derive their income from the hospitality industry, and they in turn produce about 90 percent of the local economy.
Census data
The United States does not define a census-designated place called Big Sur, but it does define a census tract (115) that includes almost all of the Big Sur coast, beginning in the north at Malpaso Creek and ending south of Lucia. It doesn't include New Camoldi Hermatige, Gorda, and Ragged Point where a few dozen people live, and it doesn't include the isolated private inholdings within the Los Padres National Forest. It includes much of the interior coast as far west as the Tassajara Zen Center.
In 2018, the Census Bureau estimated there were 1,728 residents, (1,125 white, 525 Latino or Hispanic), 892 housing units, 639 households, 253 vacant or rental housing units, $877,100 median value of owner-occupied housing units. Per capita income $34,845. Median income $63,843, mean income $81,766.
The racial makeup of this area was 87.6% White, 1.1% African American, 1.3% Native American, 2.4% Asian, 0.0% Pacific Islander, 5.5% from other races, and 3.0% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 9.6% of the population. In the 93920 ZCTA, the population age was widely distributed, with 20.2% under the age of 20, 4.5% from 20 to 24, 26.9% from 25 to 44, 37.0% from 45 to 64, and 11.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.2 years. The median income in 2000 for a household in 93920 ZCTA was $41,304, and the median income for a family was $65,083.
Government
At the county level, Big Sur is represented on the Monterey County Board of Supervisors by Mary Adams. In the California State Assembly, Big Sur is in , and in . In the United States House of Representatives, Big Sur is in .
Settlements
Existing settlements in the Big Sur region, between Carmel Highlands and the San Carpoforo Creek, include Big Sur Village, Gorda, Lucia, Palo Colorado Canyon, Posts, and Slates Hot Springs. Other residential areas include Otter Cove, Garrapata Ridge, Garrapata Canyon, Bixby Canyon, Pfeiffer Ridge, Sycamore Canyon, Coastlands, Partington Ridge, Burns Creek, Buck Creek to Lime Creek, Plaskett Ridge and Redwood Gulch.
In popular culture
In film
The area's increasing popularity and reputation for beauty has attracted the attention of movie and television personalities and producers. Orson Welles and his wife at the time, Rita Hayworth, bought a Big Sur cabin on an impulse during a trip down the coast in 1944. The couple never spent a single night there, and the property is now the location of a popular restaurant, Nepenthe.
A number of well-known films are set in Big Sur, including The Sandpiper (1965), starring Elizabeth Taylor, Richard Burton, Eva Marie Saint and Charles Bronson. The 1974 film Zandy's Bride, starring Gene Hackman and Liv Ullmann, was also based in the region. In 2013, Jack Kerouac's novel Big Sur was adapted into a film of the same name, starring Kate Bosworth and directed by the actress' husband, Michael Polish. , 19 movies had been filmed in the Big Sur region, beginning with Suspicion in 1941.
In books
In 1995, prominent environmentalist David Brower published Not Man Apart: Photographs of the Big Sur Coast, featuring Jeffers' poetry and photography of the Big Sur coast. In the posthumously published 2002 book Stones of the Sur, Carmel landscape photographer Morley Baer combined his classical black-and-white photographs of Big Sur with some of Jeffers' poetry.
In music
"California Saga: California" (1973), a single on The Beach Boys' album Holland, depicts the rugged wilderness in the area and the culture of its inhabitants.
Buckethead's song "Big Sur Moon" from his album Colma is named after the region.
In computing
Apple's desktop operating system, macOS Big Sur, announced on June 22, 2020, during WWDC, is named after this region.
See also
Big Sur Land Trust
References
Further reading
Big Sur, Jack Kerouac, Penguin Books, Reprint edition (1962, reprinted 1992), 256 pages,
Big Sur: A Battle for the Wilderness 1869 – 1981, John Woolfenden, The Boxwood Press (1981), 143 pages,
Big Sur: Images of America, Jeff Norman, Big Sur Historical Society, Arcadia Publishing (2004), 128 pages,
Big Sur and the Oranges of Hieronymus Bosch, Henry Miller, New Directions Publishing Corp (1957), 404 pages,
Hiking & Backpacking Big Sur, Analise Elliott, Wilderness Press (2005), 322 pages,
The Natural History of Big Sur, Paul Henson and Donald J. Usner, University of California Press (1993), 416 pages,
A Wild Coast and Lonely: Big Sur Pioneers, Rosalind Sharpe Wall, Wide World Publishing, (1989, reprinted April 1992), 264 pages,
Big Sur: The Making of a Prized California landscape, Shelley Alden Brooks, University of California Press (1979), 280 pages,
Big Sur River Watershed Management Plan (2014) Resource Conservation District of Monterey County
"Historical Overview of the Carmel to San Simeon Highway" Caltrans (November 1996) Excerpted from Historic Resource Evaluation Report on the Rock Retaining Walls, Parapets, Culvert Headwalls and Drinking Fountains along the Carmel to San Simeon Highway." Robert C. Pavlik
Guide to the Geology of Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park'' Gordon B Oakeshott. (1951) State of Calif., Dept. of Natural Resources, Division of Mines
External links
A Guide to California's Big Sur: A comprehensive visitor's guide to the Big Sur region
"The Big Sur cabin": Dating the earliest cabin in Big Sur, 1861
"Hiking In Big Sur" – Hiking at Big Sur
(not) Big (enough) Sur Video documenting over use by visitors
Geography of Monterey County, California
Geography of San Luis Obispo County, California
Santa Lucia Range
Monterey Ranger District, Los Padres National Forest
California State Route 1
Cliffs of the United States
Northern California
Regions of California
Regions of the West Coast of the United States | [
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240895 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gang%20Hong-rip | Gang Hong-rip | Gang Hongrip (1560 – 6 September 1627) was a Korean general during the Joseon Dynasty.
Under repeated requests from Ming China, Gwanghaegun commanded Gang Hongrip to help Ming forces with ten thousand soldiers against the Manchus in 1619. However, Ming armies were crushed in the Battle of Sarhū. The Korean army under command of Liu Ting lost two-thirds of his troops at Fuca and surrendered to Nurhaci. Official Korean records say that Gwanghaegun had ordered a betrayal to Nurhaci, but it is suspected to be a defamation by the Westerners faction, who deposed the king. In 1620 almost all Korean captives were released but Gang Hongrip, who had good command of the Manchu language, was still kept.
Frustrated with unsatisfactory reward for the coup which deposed Gwanghaegun, Yi Gwal rebelled against King Injo in 1624. He temporarily occupied Hanseong (modern-day Seoul), but was eventually crushed. Han Myeong-nyeon, an accomplice of Yi Gwal, was also killed, but his son Han Yun fled to the Manchus.
Gang Hongrip fell for Han Yun's trick and wrongly believed that his family was all killed by the government. To get his revenge on Korea, he urged the Manchus to defeat the dynasty. In 1627 he guided the Manchu army led by Amin to Hanseong and as a Manchu delegate he negotiated for a truce with Korea. Then he discovered that he was deceived about his family being killed and suffered a heartbreak. He was branded as a traitor and deprived his official rank. He was rehabilitated after his death.
In popular culture
Portrayed by Ahn Dae-yong in the 1995 KBS2 TV Series West Palace.
See also
History of Korea
16th-century Korean people
17th-century Korean people
16th-century births
Korean generals
1560 births
1627 deaths | [
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240899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axillary%20nerve | Axillary nerve | The axillary nerve or the circumflex nerve is a nerve of the human body, that originates from the brachial plexus (upper trunk, posterior division, posterior cord) at the level of the axilla (armpit) and carries nerve fibers from C5 and C6. The axillary nerve travels through the quadrangular space with the posterior circumflex humeral artery and vein to innervate the deltoid and teres minor.
Structure
The nerve lies at first behind the axillary artery, and in front of the subscapularis, and passes downward to the lower border of that muscle.
It then winds from anterior to posterior around the neck of the humerus, in company with the posterior humeral circumflex artery, through the quadrangular space (bounded above by the teres minor, below by the teres major, medially by the long head of the triceps brachii, and laterally by the surgical neck of the humerus), and divides into an anterior, a posterior, and a collateral branch to the long head of the triceps brachii branch.
The anterior branch (upper branch) winds around the surgical neck of the humerus, beneath the deltoid muscle, with the posterior humeral circumflex vessels. It continues as far as the anterior border of the deltoid to provide motor innervation. The anterior branch also gives off a few small cutaneous branches, which pierce the muscle and supply in the overlaying skin.
The posterior branch (lower branch) supplies the teres minor and the posterior part of the deltoid. The posterior branch pierces the deep fascia and continues as the superior (or upper) lateral cutaneous nerve of arm, which sweeps around the posterior border of the deltoid and supplies the skin over the lower two-thirds of the posterior part of this muscle, as well as that covering the long head of the triceps brachii.
The motor branch of the long head of the triceps brachii arises, on average, a distance of 6 mm (range 2–12 mm) from the terminal division of the posterior cord termination.
The trunk of the axillary nerve gives off an articular filament which enters the shoulder joint below the subscapularis.
Variation
Traditionally, the axillary nerve is thought to only supply the deltoid and teres minor. However, several studies on cadavers pointed out that the long head of triceps brachii is innervated by a branch of the axillary nerve.
Function
The axillary nerve supplies three muscles in the arm: deltoid (a muscle of the shoulder), triceps (long head) and teres minor (one of the rotator cuff muscles).
The axillary nerve also carries sensory information from the shoulder joint. It also innervates the skin covering the inferior region of the deltoid muscle, known as the regimental badge area. This is innervated by the superior lateral cutaneous nerve branch of the axillary nerve.
The posterior cord of the brachial plexus splits inferiorly to the glenohumeral joint giving rise to the axillary nerve which wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus, and the radial nerve which wraps around the humerus anteriorly and descends along its lateral border.
Clinical significance
The axillary nerve may be injured in anterior-inferior dislocations of the shoulder joint, compression of the axilla with a crutch or fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus. An example of injury to the axillary nerve includes axillary nerve palsy. Injury to the nerve results in:
Paralysis of the teres minor muscle and deltoid muscle, resulting in loss of abduction of arm (from 15-90 degrees), weak flexion, extension, and rotation of shoulder. Paralysis of deltoid and teres minor muscles results in flat shoulder deformity.
Loss of sensation in the skin over the regimental badge area.
Direct trauma to the nerve can also lead to paralysis and loss of sensation.
Additional images
See also
Axillary nerve dysfunction
References
External links
Nerves of the upper limb | [
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240900 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20War%20II%20casualties | World War II casualties | World War II was the deadliest military conflict in history. An estimated total of 70–85 million people perished, or about 3% of the 1940 world population (est. 2.3 billion). Deaths directly caused by the war (including military and civilian fatalities) are estimated at 50–56 million, with an additional estimated 19–28 million deaths from war-related disease and famine. Civilian deaths totaled 50–55 million. Military deaths from all causes totaled 21–25 million, including deaths in captivity of about 5 million prisoners of war. More than half of the total number of casualties are accounted for by the dead of the Republic of China and of the Soviet Union. The tables below give a detailed country-by-country count of human losses. Statistics on the number of military wounded are included whenever available.
Recent historical scholarship has shed new light on the topic of Second World War casualties. Research in Russia since the collapse of the Soviet Union has caused a revision of estimates of Soviet World War II fatalities. According to Russian government figures, USSR losses within postwar borders now stand at 26.6 million, including 8 to 9 million due to famine and disease. In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated Poland's dead at between 5.6 and 5.8 million. Historian Rüdiger Overmans of the Military History Research Office (Germany) published a study in 2000 that estimated the German military dead and missing at 5.3 million, including 900,000 men conscripted from outside of Germany's 1937 borders, in Austria, and in east-central Europe. The Red Army claimed responsibility for the majority of Wehrmacht casualties during World War II. The People's Republic of China puts its war dead at 20 million, while the Japanese government puts its casualties due to the war at 3.1 million.
Classification of casualties
Compiling or estimating the numbers of deaths and wounded caused during wars and other violent conflicts is a controversial subject. Historians often put forward many different estimates of the numbers killed and wounded during World War II. The authors of the Oxford Companion to World War II maintain that "casualty statistics are notoriously unreliable." The table below gives data on the number of dead and military wounded for each country, along with population information to show the relative impact of losses. When scholarly sources differ on the number of deaths in a country, a range of war losses is given, in order to inform readers that the death toll is disputed. Since casualty statistics are sometimes disputed the footnotes to this article present the different estimates by official governmental sources as well as historians. Military figures include battle deaths (KIA) and personnel missing in action (MIA), as well as fatalities due to accidents, disease and deaths of prisoners of war in captivity. Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war-related famine and disease.
The sources for the casualties of the individual nations do not use the same methods, and civilian deaths due to starvation and disease make up a large proportion of the civilian deaths in China and the Soviet Union. The losses listed here are actual deaths; hypothetical losses due to a decline in births are not included with the total dead. The distinction between military and civilian casualties caused directly by warfare and collateral damage is not always clear-cut. For nations that suffered huge losses such as the Soviet Union, China, Poland, Germany, and Yugoslavia, sources can give only the total estimated population loss caused by the war and a rough estimate of the breakdown of deaths caused by military activity, crimes against humanity and war-related famine. The casualties listed here include 19 to 25 million war-related famine deaths in the USSR, China, Indonesia, Vietnam, the Philippines, and India that are often omitted from other compilations of World War II casualties.
The footnotes give a detailed breakdown of the casualties and their sources, including data on the number of wounded where reliable sources are available.
Human losses by country
Total deaths by country
Figures are rounded to the nearest hundredth place.
Military casualties include deaths of regular military forces from combat as well as non-combat causes. Partisan and resistance fighter deaths are included with military losses. The deaths of prisoners of war in captivity and personnel missing in action are also included with military deaths. Whenever possible the details are given in the footnotes.
The armed forces of the various nations are treated as single entities, for example the deaths of Austrians, French and foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe in the Wehrmacht are included with German military losses. For example, Michael Strank is included with American not Czechoslovak war dead.
Civilian war dead are included with the nations where they resided. For example, German Jewish refugees in France who were deported to the death camps are included with French casualties in the published sources on the Holocaust.
The official casualty statistics published by the governments of the United States, France, and the UK do not give the details of the national origin, race and religion of the losses.
Civilian casualties include deaths caused by strategic bombing, Holocaust victims, German war crimes, Japanese war crimes, population transfers in the Soviet Union, Allied war crimes, and deaths due to war related famine and disease. The exact breakdown is not always provided in the sources cited.
Nazi Germany
German sources do not provide figures for Soviet citizens conscripted by Germany. Russian historian Grigoriy Krivosheyev puts the losses of the "Vlasovites, Balts and Muslims etc." in German service at 215,000
Soviet Union
The estimated breakdown for each Soviet republic of total war dead
The source of the figures is . Erlikman, a Russian historian, notes that these figures are his estimates.
The population listed here of 194.090 million is taken from Soviet era sources. Recent studies published in Russia put the actual corrected population in 1940 at 192.598 million.
According to Russian estimates the population in 1939 included 20.268 million in the territories annexed by the USSR from 1939 to 1940: the eastern regions of Poland 12.983 million; Lithuania 2.440 million; Latvia 1.951 million; Estonia 1.122 million; Romanian Bessarabia and Bukovina 3.7 million; less transfers out of (392,000) ethnic Germans deported during the Nazi–Soviet population transfers; the Anders Army (120,000); the First Polish Army (1944–45) (26,000) and Zakerzonia & the Belastok Region (1,392,000) which was returned to Poland in 1945.
Russian sources estimate post war population transfers resulted in a net loss of (622,000). The additions were the annexation of the Carpatho-Ukraine 725,000; the Tuvan People's Republic 81,000; the remaining population on South Sakhalin 29,000 and in the Kaliningrad Oblast 5,000; and the deportation of Ukrainians from Poland to the USSR in 1944–47 518,000. The transfers out included the flight and expulsion of Poles from the USSR 1944–47 (1,529,000) and the post war emigration to the west (451,000) According to Viktor Zemskov, 3/4 of the post war emigration to the west was of persons who were from the territories annexed in 1939–40
Estimates in the west for the population transfers differ. According to Sergei Maksudov, a Russian demographer living in the west, the population of the territories annexed by the USSR was 23 million less the net population transfers out of 3 million persons who emigrated from the USSR including 2,136,000 Poles who left the USSR; 115,000 Polish soldiers of the Anders Army ; 392,000 Germans who left in the era of the Nazi-Soviet Pact and 400,000 Jews, Romanians, Germans Czech and Hungarians who emigrated after the war The Polish government-in-exile put the population of the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union at 13.199 million
Polish sources put the number of refugees from the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union living in post war Poland at about 2.2 million, about 700,000 more than those listed in the Soviet sources of Poles repatriated. The difference is due to the fact that Poles from the eastern regions who were deported to Germany during the war or had fled Volhynia and Eastern Galicia were not included in the figures of the organized transfers in 1944–47.
Figures for Belarus, Ukraine and Lithuania include about two million civilian dead that are also listed in Polish sources in the total war dead of Poland. Polish historian Krystyna Kersten estimated losses of about two million in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. The formal transfer of the territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union occurred with the Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945.
According to Erlikman, in addition to the war dead, there were 1,700,000 deaths due to Soviet repression (200,000 executed; 4,500,000 sent to prisons and Gulag of whom 1,200,000 died; 2,200,000 deported of whom 300,000 died).
Holocaust deaths
Included in the figures of total war dead for each nation are victims of the Holocaust.
Jewish deaths
The Holocaust is the term generally used to describe the genocide of approximately six million European Jews during World War II. Martin Gilbert estimates 5.7 million (78%) of the 7.3 million Jews in German-occupied Europe were Holocaust victims. Estimates of Holocaust deaths range between 4.9 and 5.9 million Jews.
Statistical breakdown of Jewish dead:
In Nazi extermination camps: according to Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers, 2,830,000 Jews were murdered in the Nazi death camps (500,000 Belzec; 150,000 Sobibor; 850,000 Treblinka; 150,000 Chełmno; 1,100,000 Auschwitz; 80,000 Majdanek). Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the death camps, including Romanian Transnistria, at 3.0 million.
In the USSR by the Einsatzgruppen: Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the area of the mobile killing groups at 1.4 million.
Aggravated deaths in the Ghettos of Nazi-occupied Europe: Raul Hilberg puts the Jewish death toll in the Ghettos at 700,000.
Yad Vashem estimated that, in early 2019, its Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names contained the names of 4.8 million Jewish Holocaust dead.
The figures for the pre-war Jewish population and deaths in the table below are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. The low, high and average percentage figures for deaths of the pre-war population have been added.
The total population figures from 1933 listed here are taken from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. From 1933 to 1939 about 400,000 Jews fled Germany, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. Some of these refugees were in western Europe when Germany occupied these countries in 1940. In 1940 there were 30,000 Jewish refugees in the Netherlands, 12,000 in Belgium, 30,000 in France, 2,000 in Denmark, 5,000 in Italy, and 2,000 in Norway
Hungarian Jewish losses of 569,000 presented here include the territories annexed in 1939–41. The number of Holocaust dead in 1938 Hungarian borders were 220,000. According to Martin Gilbert, the Jewish population inside Hungary's 1941 borders was 764,000 (445,000 in the 1938 borders and 319,000 in the annexed territories). Holocaust deaths from inside the 1938 borders was 200,000, not including 20,000 men conscripted as forced labor for the military.
Netherlands figure listed in the table of 112,000 Jews taken from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust includes those Jews who were resident in Holland in 1933. By 1940 the Jewish population had increased to 140,000 with the inclusion of 30,000 Jewish refugees. In the Netherlands 8,000 Jews in mixed marriages were not subject to deportation. However, an article in the Dutch periodical De Groene Amsterdammer maintains that some Jews in mixed marriages were deported before the practice was ended by Hitler.
Hungarian Jewish Holocaust victims within the 1939 borders were 200,000.
Romanian Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 469,000 within the 1939 borders, which includes 300,000 in Bessarabia and Bukovina occupied by the USSR in 1940.
According to Martin Gilbert, Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 8,000 in Italy, and 562 in the Italian colony of Libya.
Non-Jews persecuted and killed by Nazi and Nazi-affiliated forces
Some scholars maintain that the definition of the Holocaust should also include the other victims persecuted and killed by the Nazis.
Donald L. Niewyk, professor of history at Southern Methodist University, maintains that the Holocaust can be defined in four ways: first, that it was the genocide of the Jews alone; second, that there were several parallel Holocausts, one for each of the several groups; third, the Holocaust would include Roma and the handicapped along with the Jews; fourth, it would include all racially motivated German crimes, such as the murder of Soviet prisoners of war, Polish and Soviet civilians, as well as political prisoners, religious dissenters, and homosexuals. Using this definition, the total number of Holocaust victims is between 11 million and 17 million people.
According to the College of Education of the University of South Florida "Approximately 11 million people were killed because of Nazi genocidal policy".
R.J. Rummel estimated the death toll due to Nazi Democide at 20.9 million persons.
Timothy Snyder put the number of victims of the Nazis killed as a result of "deliberate policies of mass murder" only, such as executions, deliberate famine and in death camps, at 10.4 million persons including 5.4 million Jews.
German scholar Hellmuth Auerbach puts the death toll in the Hitler era at 6 million Jews killed in the Holocaust and 7 million other victims of the Nazis.
Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of the Nazi era at between 12 and 14 million persons, including 5.6–5.7 million Jews.
Roma Included in the figures of total war dead are the Roma victims of the Nazi persecution; some scholars include the Roma deaths with the Holocaust. Most estimates of Roma (Gypsies) victims range from 130,000 to 500,000. Ian Hancock, Director of the Program of Romani Studies and the Romani Archives and Documentation Center at the University of Texas at Austin, has argued in favour of a higher figure of between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma dead. Hancock writes that, proportionately, the death toll equaled "and almost certainly exceed[ed], that of Jewish victims". In a 2010 publication, Ian Hancock stated that he agrees with the view that the number of Romanis killed has been underestimated as a result of being grouped with others in Nazi records under headings such as "remainder to be liquidated", "hangers-on" and "partisans".
In 2018, the United States Holocaust museum has the number of murdered during the time period of the holocaust at 17 million6 million Jews and 11 million others.
The following figures are from The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, the authors maintain that "statistics on Gypsy losses are especially unreliable and controversial. These figures (cited below) are based on necessarily rough estimates".
Handicapped persons: 200,000 to 250,000 handicapped persons were killed. A 2003 report by the German Federal Archive put the total murdered during the Action T4 and Action 14f13 programs at 200,000.
Prisoners of War: POW deaths in Nazi captivity totalled 3.1 million including 2.6 to 3 million Soviet prisoners of war.
Ethnic Poles: According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "It is estimated that the Germans killed at least 1.9 million non-Jewish Polish civilians during World War II." They maintain that "Documentation remains fragmentary, but today scholars of independent Poland believe that 1.8 to 1.9 million Polish civilians (non-Jews) were victims of German Occupation policies and the war." However the Polish government affiliated Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) in 2009 estimated 2,770,000 ethnic Polish deaths due to the German occupation (see World War II casualties of Poland).
Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians: According to Nazi ideology, Slavs were useless sub-humans. As such, their leaders, the Soviet elite, were to be killed and the remainder of the population enslaved, starved to death, or expelled further eastward. As a result, millions of civilians in the Soviet Union were deliberately killed, starved, or worked to death. Contemporary Russian sources use the terms "genocide" and "premeditated extermination" when referring to civilian losses in the occupied USSR. Civilians killed in reprisals during the Soviet partisan war and wartime-related famine account for a major part of the huge toll. The Cambridge History of Russia puts overall civilian deaths in the Nazi-occupied USSR at 13.7 million persons including 2 million Jews. There were an additional 2.6 million deaths in the interior regions of the Soviet Union. The authors maintain "scope for error in this number is very wide". At least 1 million perished in the wartime GULAG camps or in deportations. Other deaths occurred in the wartime evacuations and due to war related malnutrition and disease in the interior. The authors maintain that both Stalin and Hitler "were both responsible but in different ways for these deaths", and "In short the general picture of Soviet wartime losses suggests a jigsaw puzzle. The general outline is clear: people died in colossal numbers but in many different miserable and terrible circumstances. But individual pieces of the puzzle do not fit well; some overlap and others are yet to be found". Bohdan Wytwycky maintained that civilian losses of 3.0 million Ukrainians and 1.4 million Belarusians "were racially motivated". According to Paul Robert Magocsi, between 1941 and 1945, approximately 3,000,000 Ukrainian and other non-Jewish victims were killed as part of Nazi extermination policies in the territory of modern Ukraine. Dieter Pohl puts the total number of victims of the Nazi policies in the USSR at 500,000 civilians killed in the repression of partisans, 1.0 million victims of the Nazi Hunger Plan, c. 3.0 million Soviet POW and 1.0 million Jews (in pre-war borders). Soviet author Georgiy A. Kumanev put the civilian death toll in the Nazi-occupied USSR at 8.2 million (4.0 million Ukrainians, 2.5 million Belarusians, and 1.7 million Russians). A report published by the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1995 put the death toll due to the German occupation at 13.7 million civilians (including Jews): 7.4 million victims of Nazi genocide and reprisals; 2.2 million persons deported to Germany for forced labor; and 4.1 million famine and disease deaths in occupied territory. Sources published in the Soviet Union were cited to support these figures.
Homosexuals: According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "Between 1933 and 1945 the police arrested an estimated 100,000 men as homosexuals. Most of the 50,000 men sentenced by the courts spent time in regular prisons, and between 5,000 and 15,000 were interned in concentration camps." They also noted that there are no known statistics for the number of homosexuals who died in the camps.
Other victims of Nazi persecution: Between 1,000 and 2,000 Roman Catholic clergy, about 1,000 Jehovah's Witnesses, and an unknown number of Freemasons perished in Nazi prisons and camps. "The fate of black people from 1933 to 1945 in Nazi Germany and in German-occupied territories ranged from isolation to persecution, sterilization, medical experimentation, incarceration, brutality, and murder." During the Nazi era Communists, Socialists, Social Democrats, and trade union leaders were victims of Nazi persecution.
Serbs: The numbers of Serbs murdered by the Ustaše is the subject of debate and estimates vary widely. Yad Vashem estimates over 500,000 murdered, 250,000 expelled and 200,000 forcibly converted to Catholicism. The estimate of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum is that the Ustaše murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia between 1941 and 1945, with roughly 45,000 to 52,000 murdered at the Jasenovac concentration camp alone. According to the Wiesenthal Center at least 90,000 Serbs, Jews, Gypsies and anti-fascist Croatians perished at the hands of the Ustashe at the camp at Jasenovac. According to Yugoslav sources published in the Tito era the estimates of the number of Serb victims range from 200,000 to at least 600,000 persons. See also World War II persecution of Serbs.
German war crimes
See also the Holocaust.
Nazi Germany ordered, organized and condoned a substantial number of war crimes in World War II. The most notable of these is the Holocaust in which millions of Jews, Poles, and Romani were systematically murdered or died from abuse and mistreatment. Millions also died as a result of other German actions.
While the Nazi Party's own SS forces (in particular the SS-Totenkopfverbände, Einsatzgruppen and Waffen-SS) of Nazi Germany was the organization most responsible for the genocidal killing of the Holocaust, the regular armed forces represented by the Wehrmacht committed war crimes of their own, particularly on the Eastern Front in the war against the Soviet Union.
Japanese war crimes
Included with total war dead are victims of Japanese war crimes.
R. J. Rummel estimates the civilian victims of Japanese democide at 5,964,000. Detailed by country: China 3,695,000; Indochina 457,000; Korea 378,000; Indonesia 375,000; Malaya-Singapore 283,000; Philippines 119,000, Burma 60,000 and Pacific Islands 57,000. Rummel estimates POW deaths in Japanese custody at 539,000 Detailed by country: China 400,000; French Indochina 30,000; Philippines 27,300; Netherlands 25,000; France 14,000; Britain 13,000; British Colonies 11,000; U.S. 10,700; Australia 8,000.
Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian deaths at 20,365,000. Detailed by country: China 12,392,000; Indochina 1,500,000; Korea 500,000; Dutch East Indies 3,000,000; Malaya and Singapore 100,000; Philippines 500,000; Burma 170,000; Forced laborers in Southeast Asia 70,000, 30,000 interned non-Asian civilians; Timor 60,000; Thailand and Pacific Islands 60,000. Gruhl estimates POW deaths in Japanese captivity at 331,584. Detailed by country: China 270,000; Netherlands 8,500; Britain 12,433; Canada 273; Philippines 20,000; Australia 7,412; New Zealand 31; and the United States 12,935. Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity. There were 14,657 deaths among the total 130,895 western civilians interned by the Japanese due to famine and disease.
Oppression in the Soviet Union
The total war dead in the USSR includes about 1 million victims of Stalin's regime. The number of deaths in the Gulag labor camps increased as a result of wartime overcrowding and food shortages. The Stalin regime deported the entire populations of ethnic minorities considered to be potentially disloyal. Since 1990 Russian scholars have been given access to the Soviet-era archives and have published data on the numbers of people executed and those who died in Gulag labor camps and prisons. The Russian scholar Viktor Zemskov puts the death toll from 1941 to 1945 at about 1 million based on data from the Soviet archives. The Soviet-era archive figures on the Gulag labor camps has been the subject of a vigorous academic debate outside Russia since their publication in 1991. J. Arch Getty and Stephen G. Wheatcroft maintain that Soviet-era figures more accurately detail the victims of the Gulag labor camp system in the Stalin era. Robert Conquest and Steven Rosefielde have disputed the accuracy of the data from the Soviet archives, maintaining that the demographic data and testimonials by survivors of the Gulag labor camps indicate a higher death toll. Rosefielde posits that the release of the Soviet Archive figures is disinformation generated by the modern KGB. Rosefielde maintains that the data from the Soviet archives is incomplete; for example, he pointed out that the figures do not include the 22,000 victims of the Katyn massacre. Rosefielde's demographic analysis puts the number of excess deaths due to Soviet repression at 2,183,000 in 1939–40 and 5,458,000 from 1941 to 1945. Michael Haynes and Rumy Husun accept the figures from the Soviet archives as being an accurate tally of Stalin's victims, they maintain that the demographic data depicts an underdeveloped Soviet economy and the losses in World War Two rather than indicating a higher death toll in the Gulag labor camps.
In August 2009 the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) researchers estimated 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation. Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets. In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000.
The Estonian State Commission for the Examination of Repressive Policies Carried out During the Occupations put civilian deaths due to the Soviet occupation in 1940–1941 at 33,900 including (7,800 deaths) of arrested people, (6,000) deportee deaths, (5,000) evacuee deaths, (1,100) people gone missing and (14,000) conscripted for forced labor. After the reoccupation by the U.S.S.R., 5,000 Estonians died in Soviet prisons during 1944–45.
The following is a summary of the data from the Soviet archives:
Reported deaths for the years 1939–1945 1,187,783, including: judicial executions 46,350; deaths in Gulag labor camps 718,804; deaths in labor colonies and prisons 422,629.
Deported to special settlements: (figures are for deportations to Special Settlements only, not including those executed, sent to Gulag labor camps or conscripted into the Soviet Army. Nor do the figures include additional deportations after the war).
Deported from annexed territories 1940–41 380,000 to 390,000 persons, including: Poland 309–312,000; Lithuania 17,500; Latvia 17,000; Estonia 6,000; Moldova 22,842. In August 1941, 243,106 Poles living in the Special Settlements were amnestied and released by the Soviets.
Deported during the War 1941–1945 about 2.3 million persons of Soviet ethnic minorities including: Soviet Germans 1,209,000; Finns 9,000; Karachays 69,000; Kalmyks 92,000; Chechens and Ingush 479,000; Balkars 37,000; Crimean Tatars 191,014; Meskhetian Turks 91,000; Greeks, Bulgarians and Armenians from Crimea 42,000; Ukrainian OUN members 100,000; Poles 30,000.
A total of 2,230,500 persons were living in the settlements in October 1945 and 309,100 deaths were reported in special settlements for the years 1941–1948.
Russian sources list Axis prisoner of war deaths of 580,589 in Soviet captivity based on data in the Soviet archives (Germany 381,067; Hungary 54,755; Romania 54,612; Italy 27,683; Finland 403, and Japan 62,069). However some western scholars estimate the total at between 1.7 and 2.3 million.
Military casualties by branch of service
Germany
The number killed in action was 2,303,320; died of wounds, disease or accidents 500,165; 11,000 sentenced to death by court martial; 2,007,571 missing in action or unaccounted for after the war; 25,000 suicides; 12,000 unknown; 459,475 confirmed POW deaths, of whom 77,000 were in the custody of the U.S., UK and France; and 363,000 in Soviet custody. POW deaths includes 266,000 in the post-war period after June 1945, primarily in Soviet captivity.
Rüdiger Overmans writes "It seems entirely plausible, while not provable, that one half of the 1.5 million missing on the eastern front were killed in action, the other half (700,000) however in fact died in Soviet custody".
Soviet sources list the deaths of 474,967 of the 2,652,672 German Armed Forces POW taken in the war.
USSR
Estimated total Soviet military war dead in 1941–45 on the Eastern Front (World War II) including missing in action, POWs and Soviet partisans range from 8.6 to 10.6 million. There were an additional 127,000 war dead in 1939–40 during the Winter War with Finland.
The official figures for military war dead and missing in 1941–45 are 8,668,400 comprising 6,329,600 combat related deaths, 555,500 non-combat deaths. 500,000 missing in action and 1,103,300 POW dead and another 180,000 liberated POWs who most likely emigrated to other countries. Figures include Navy losses of 154,771. Non-combat deaths include 157,000 sentenced to death by court martial.
Casualties in 1939–40 include the following dead and missing: Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 (8,931), Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139), Winter War with Finland (1939–40) (126,875).
The number of wounded includes 2,576,000 permanently disabled.
The official Russian figure for total POW held by the Germans is 4,059,000; the number of Soviet POW who survived the war was 2,016,000, including 180,000 who most likely emigrated to other countries, and an additional 939,700 POW and MIA who were redrafted as territory was liberated. This leaves 1,103,000 POW dead. However, western historians put the number of POW held by the Germans at 5.7 million and about 3 million as dead in captivity (in the official Russian figures 1.1 million are military POW and remaining balance of about 2 million are included with civilian war dead).
Conscripted reservists is an estimate of men called up, primarily in 1941, who were killed in battle or died as POWs before being listed on active strength. Soviet and Russian sources classify these losses as civilian deaths.
British Commonwealth
Number served: UK and Crown Colonies (5,896,000); India-(British colonial administration) (2,582,000), Australia (993,000); Canada (1,100,000); New Zealand (295,000); South Africa (250,000).
Total war related deaths reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission: UK and Crown Colonies (383,786); India-(British colonial administration) (87,032), Australia (40,464); Canada (45,383); New Zealand (11,929); South Africa (11,903).
Total military dead for the United Kingdom alone (according to preliminary 1945 figures): 264,443. Royal Navy (50,758); British Army (144,079); Royal Air Force (69,606).
Wounded: UK and Crown Colonies (284,049); India-(British colonial administration) (64,354), Australia (39,803); Canada (53,174); New Zealand (19,314); South Africa (14,363).
Prisoner of war: UK and Crown Colonies (180,488); India-(British colonial administration) (79,481); Australia (26,358); South Africa (14,750); Canada (9,334); New Zealand (8,415).
The Debt of Honour Register from the Commonwealth War Graves Commission lists the 1.7m men and women of the Commonwealth forces who died during the two world wars.
U.S.
Battle deaths (including POWs who died in captivity, does not include those who died of disease and accidents) were 292,131: Army 234,874 (including Army Air Forces 52,173); Navy 36,950; Marine Corps 19,733; and Coast Guard 574 (185,924 deaths occurred in the European/Atlantic theater of operations and 106,207 deaths occurred in Asia/Pacific theater of operations).
During World War II, 14,059 American POWs died in enemy captivity throughout the war (12,935 held by Japan and 1,124 held by Germany).
During World War II, 1.2 million African Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces and 708 were killed in action. 350,000 American women served in the Armed Forces during World War II and 16 were killed in action. During World War II, 26,000 Japanese-Americans served in the Armed Forces and over 800 were killed in action.
Commonwealth military casualties
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) Annual Report 2014–2015 is the source of the military dead for the British Empire. The war dead totals listed in the report are based on the research by the CWGC to identify and commemorate Commonwealth war dead. The statistics tabulated by the CWGC are representative of the number of names commemorated for all servicemen/women of the Armed Forces of the Commonwealth and former UK Dependencies, whose death was attributable to their war service. Some auxiliary and civilian organizations are also accorded war grave status if death occurred under certain specified conditions. For the purposes of CWGC the dates of inclusion for Commonwealth War Dead are 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947.
See also
World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
German casualties in World War II
World War II casualties of Poland
Equipment losses in World War II
World War I casualties
List of wars and disasters by death toll
Footnotes
Albania
No reliable statistics on Albania's wartime losses exist, but the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration reported about 30,000 Albanian war dead. Albanian official statistics claim somewhat higher losses.
Jewish Holocaust victims totalled 200, these Jews were Yugoslav citizens resident in Albania. Jews of Albanian origin survived the Holocaust.
Australia
The Australian War Memorial reports 39,648 military deaths. This figure includes all personnel who died from war-related causes during 1939–47.
According to official statistics Australian battle casualties included 27,073 killed, died of wounds or died as POW; wounded or injured in action were 23,477, these figures exclude non-battle casualties, such as deaths in non operational areas and deaths due to natural causes.
The Australian government does not regard merchant mariners as military personnel and the 349 Australians killed in action while crewing merchant ships around the world, are included in the total civilian deaths. Other civilian fatalities were due to air raids and attacks on passenger ships.
The preliminary data for Australian losses included 23,365 killed, 6,030 missing, 39,803 wounded, and 26,363 POWs.
Austria
Military war dead reported by Rüdiger Overmans of 261,000 are included with Germany.
Austrian civilian casualties were 99,700 victims of Nazi persecution and 24,000 killed in Allied air raids. The Austrian government provides the following information on human losses during the rule of the Nazis. "For Austria the consequences of the Nazi regime and the Second World War were disastrous: During this period 2,700 Austrians had been executed and more than 16,000 citizens murdered in the concentration camps. Some 16,000 Austrians were killed in prison, while over 67,000 Austrian Jews were deported to death camps, only 2,000 of them lived to see the end of the war. In addition, 247,000 Austrians lost their lives serving in the army of the Third Reich or were reported missing, and 24,000 civilians were killed during bombing" raids.
Belgium
Belgian government sources reported 12,000 military war dead which included (8,800 killed, 500 missing in action, 200 executed, 800 resistance movement fighters and 1,800 POWs) and civilian losses of 73,000 which included (32,200 deaths due to military operations, 3,400 executed, 8,500 political deportees, 5,000 workers in Germany and 27,000 Jewish Holocaust victims).
Losses of about 10,000 in the German Armed Forces are not included in these figures, they are included with German military casualties.
Brazil
The Brazilian Expeditionary Force war dead were 510, Navy losses in the Battle of the Atlantic were 492.
Civilian losses due to attacks on merchant shipping were 470 merchant mariners and 502 passengers.
Bulgaria
Total Bulgarian military war dead were 18,500 including 6,671 battle deaths
There were 3,000 civilian deaths in Allied air raids including 1,400 in the bombing of Sofia
A Russian historian in a handbook of human losses in the 20th century has provided the following assessment of Bulgarian casualties:Military deaths: 2,000 military Axis occupation forces in Yugoslavia and Greece; 10,124 dead as allies of the USSR and 10,000 Anti-Fascist Partisan deaths. Regarding partisan and civilian casualties Erlikman notes "According to the official data of the royal government 2,320 were killed and 199 executed. The communists claim that 20–35,000 persons died. In reality, deaths were 10,000, including an unknown number of civilians."
Burma
Military casualties with the pro-Japanese Burma National Army were 400 killed in action, 1,500 other deaths, 715 missing, 2,000 wounded and 800 POW
Civilian deaths during the Japanese occupation of Burma totalled 250,000; 110,000 Burmese, plus 100,000 Indian and 40,000 Chinese civilians in Burma.
Werner Gruhl estimates 70,000 Asian laborers died cruelly during the construction of the Burma Railway.
Canada
The Canadian War Museum puts military losses at 42,000 plus 1,600 Merchant Navy deaths. An additional 700 military dead from Newfoundland are included with the U.K.
Library and Archives Canada puts military losses at 44,090 (24,525 Army, 17,397 Air Force, 2,168 Navy.)
The preliminary data for Canadian losses included killed 37,476, missing 1,843, wounded 53,174 and POW 9,045.
China
Sources for total Chinese war dead are divergent and range from 10 to 20 million as detailed below.
John W. Dower has noted "So great was the devastation and suffering in China that in the end it is necessary to speak of uncertain 'millions' of deaths. Certainly, it is reasonable to think in general terms of approximately 10 million Chinese war dead, a total surpassed only by the Soviet Union." Dower cited a United Nations report from 1947 that put Chinese war dead at 9 million.
According to Rana Mitter "the death toll on China is still being calculated, but conservative estimates number the dead at 14 million" Rana Mitter cited the estimate of Chinese casualties by Odd Arne Westad of 2 million combat deaths and 12 civilian deaths, Mitter also cited a Chinese study published in 2006 that put the death toll in the war at 8 to 10 million.
An academic study of the Chinese population concluded that "a conservative estimate would put total human casualties directly caused by the war of 1937–1945 at between 15,000,000 and 20,000,000" This study cited a Chinese Nationalist source that put total civilian casualties at 2,144,048 =(1,073,496 killed; 237,319 wounded; 71,050 captured by Japanese; 335,934 killed in Japanese air raids; 426,249 wounded in air raids), military casualties at 6,750,000 in 1937–1943 (1,500,000 killed; 3,000,000 wounded; 750,000 missing; 1,500,000 deaths caused by sickness, etc. In addition 960,000 collaborator forces and 446,736 Communist were killed or wounded
The official Chinese government (communist) statistic for China's civilian and military casualties in the Second Sino-Japanese War in 1937–1945 is 20 million dead and 15 million wounded.
Chinese scholar Bianxiu Yue has published a study of China's population losses in the Second Sino-Japanese War. He put total Chinese losses at 20.6 million dead and 14.2 million injured.
Official Nationalist Chinese casualty figures were: killed 1,319,958; wounded 1,716,335 and missing 130,126, An academic study of the Chinese population concluded that these figures are "unreasonably low" and "highly suspect"
R. J. Rummel's estimate of total war dead in 1937–45 is 19,605,000. Military dead: 3,400,000 (including 400,000 POW) Nationalist/Communist, and 432,000 collaborator forces. Civilian war deaths: 3,808,000 killed in fighting and 3,549,000 victims of Japanese war crimes (not including an additional 400,000 POWs). Other deaths: Repression by Chinese Nationalists 5,907,000 (3,081,000 military conscripts who died due to mistreatment and 2,826,000 civilian deaths caused by Nationalist government, including the 1938 Yellow River flood); political repression by Chinese Communists 250,000 and by Warlords 110,000. Additional deaths due to famine were 2,250,000.
Werner Gruhl estimates China's total war losses at 15,554,000, Civilians :12,392,000 including (8,191,000) due to the Japanese brutality and military dead 3,162,000.
Cuba
Cuba lost 5 merchant ships and 79 merchant mariners died.
Czechoslovakia
According to the Czechoslovak State Statistical Office the population at 1/1/1939 (within post war 1945–1992 borders) was 14,612,000. The population in 1939 included about 3.3 million ethnic Germans that were expelled after the war or were German military casualties during the war.
Russian demographer Boris Urlanis estimated Czechoslovak war dead of 340,000 persons, 46,000 military and 294,000 civilians.
A Russian historian in a handbook of human losses in the 20th century has provided the following assessment of Czechoslovak casualties: 35,000 Military deaths: including: killed during 1938 occupation (171); Czechoslovak Forces with the Western Allies (3,220); Czechoslovak military units on Eastern front (4,570); Slovak Republic Axis forces (7,000); Czechs in German forces (5,000), partisan losses 10,000 and (5,000) POWs.320,000 Civilian deaths: (10,000) in bombing and shelling; (22,000) executed; (285,000 in camps including 270,000 Jews, 8,000 Roma); and (3,000) forced laborers in Germany.
Denmark
The Danish Ministry of Education has detailed Denmark's losses in the war of about 8,000 persons including 2,685 killed in Denmark in bombing raids, resistance fighters and those executed by the Germans and 3,000 who died outside Denmark including (2,000 merchant seamen, 63 serving with Allied forces, 600 in German camps, 400 workers in Germany). In addition 2,000 Danish volunteers were killed serving in the Germany military.
Dutch East Indies
The United Nations reported in 1947 that "about 30,000 Europeans and 300,000 Indonesian internees and forced laborers died during the occupation." They reported, "The total number who were killed by the Japanese, or who died from, hunger, disease and lack of medical attention is estimated at 3,000,000 for Java alone, 1,000,000 for the Outer Islands. Altogether 35,000 of the 240,000 Europeans died; most of them were men of working age."
John W. Dower cited the 1947 UN report that estimated 4 million famine and forced labor dead during the Japanese Occupation of Indonesia.
Werner Gruhl estimated the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 3,000,000 Indonesians and 30,000 interned Europeans.
A discussion of the famine in Java during 1944–45, leads Pierre van der Eng to conclude that 2.4 million Indonesians perished.
Dutch Military losses in Asia were 2,500 killed in the 1942 Dutch East Indies campaign
Data from the Netherlands Institute of War Documentation puts the number of Dutch POW captured by the Japanese at 37,000 of whom 8,500 died.
The Japanese interned 105,530 Dutch civilians in the East Indies, of whom 13,567 died.
Egypt
Egyptian military casualties were 1,125 killed and 1,308 wounded. The British used the Egyptian army to guard lines of communication and to clear minefields.
Estonia
Estonia's human losses due to the Soviet and German occupation of Estonia from 1940 to 1945 were approximately 67,000 persons based on a study by Estonian State Commission on Examination of Policies of Repression.
Soviet occupation 1940–41 dead and missing of 43,900 including (7,800) arrested persons who were murdered or perished in the Soviet Union; (6,000) deported persons who perished in the Soviet Union; (24,000) mobilized persons who perished in the Soviet Union and (1,100) persons who went missing)
Losses during the 1941–1944 Occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany were 23,040, including (7,800) executed by Nazis and (1,040) killed in prison camps. (200) people died in forced labor in Germany. (800) deaths in Soviet bombing raids against Estonian cities, (1,000) killed in Allied air raids on Germany and (1,000) perished at sea while attempting to flee the country in 1944–45. (10,000) Estonians were war dead in the Germany armed forces and (1,000) surrendered POW were executed by the Soviets. Included in the above figures is the genocide of (243) Roma people and (929) Jews
After the reoccupation by the USSR, 16,000 Estonians died in Soviet repressions during 1944–53.
Total deaths from 1940 to 1953 due to the war and the Soviet occupation were approximately 83,000 persons (7.3% of the population).
Ethiopia
Total military and civilian dead in the East African Campaign were 100,000 including 15,000 native military with Italian forces.
Small and Singer put the military losses at 5,000.
The deaths of African soldiers conscripted by Italy are not included with the Italian war dead. The Italian Ministry of Defense estimated 10,000 deaths of native soldiers in East African Campaign
These totals do not include losses in the Italian Second Italo-Abyssinian War and Italian occupation from 1935 to 1941. The official Ethiopian government report lists 760,000 deaths due to the war and Italian occupation from 1935 to 1941. However, R.J. Rummel estimates 200,000 Ethiopians and Libyans were killed by the Italians from the 1920s–1941 "based on Discovery TV Cable Channel Program 'Timewatch'", which aired January 17, 1992.
Finland
Military dead include killed and missing from the Winter War and Continuation War with the Soviet Union between 1939 and 1944, as well as action against German forces in the Lapland War 1944–45. Winter War (1939–40) losses were approximately 27,000 military deaths, Continuation War (1941–44) were 66,000, and 1,000 in Lapland War (1944–45).
The Finnish National Archives website's database lists the names of the 94,676 Finnish war dead between 1939 and 1945. The database includes all servicemen and women who died during being listed in the Finnish army, navy or the air force. It also includes foreign volunteers who died during their service in Finland and Finnish SS-men who died while serving in the German army. The database contains civilians in case they have been buried at a military cemetery. That was sometimes done if the deceased was, for example, an ammunition worker, air raid victim or a civilian worker who for some other reason died because of the war. Some parishes continued burying in the Second World War military cemeteries up to the 1980s.
Soviet sources list the deaths of 403 of the 2,377 Finnish POW taken in the War.
1,407 Finnish volunteers served in the Finnish Volunteer Battalion of the Waffen-SS and 256 were killed in action.
Civilian war dead were approximately 2,100, due in part to the bombing of Helsinki in World War II.
France
French military war of 210,000 dead include 150,000 regular forces (1939–40 Battle of France 92,000; 1940–45 on Western Front (World War II) 58,000); 20,000 French resistance fighters and 40,000 POWs in Germany. Civilian losses of 390,000 include: 60,000 killed in allied (mainly American) bombardments, 60,000 in land fighting, 30,000 murdered in executions, 60,000 political deportees, 40,000 workers in Germany, 100,000 victims of Nazi genocide (Jews & Roma) and 40,000 French nationals in the German Armed forces who were conscripted in Alsace-Lorraine,)
The French Ministry of Defense puts French military war dead at 200,000. They note that these losses include combatants from the French colonies as well as metropolitan France; regular soldiers and members of the resistance.
Vadim Erlikman, a Russian historian, estimates losses of Africans in the French Colonial Forces at about 22,000.
752 civilians were killed during the U.S. air attacks on French Tunisia in 1942–43.
R. J. Rummel estimates the deaths of 20,000 anti-Fascist Spanish refugees resident in France who were deported to Nazi camps, these deaths are included with French civilian casualties.
French Indochina
John W. Dower estimated 1.0 million deaths due to Vietnamese Famine of 1945 during Japanese occupation.
Werner Gruhl estimates the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 1,500,000.
Vietnamese sources put the number of deaths during the 1944–45 famine in North Vietnam at between 1 and 2 million.
Germany
The following notes summarize German casualties, the details are presented in German casualties in World War II.
German population
The 1939 Population for Germany within 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png was 69.3 million persons
Foreign nationals of German ancestry in the countries of East-Central Europe were subject to conscription by Nazi Germany during the war. According to a 1958 report by the West German Statistisches Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office) the pre war ethnic German population in eastern Europe was 7,423,300 persons (249,500 Baltic states & Memel; 380,000 Danzig; 1,371,000 Poland (1939 Borders) ; 3,477,000 Czechoslovakia; 623,000 Hungary; 536,800 Yugoslavia; and 786,000 Romania). These German estimates are disputed. A recent analysis by a Polish scholar found that "Generally speaking, the German estimates... are not only highly arbitrary, but also clearly tendentious in presentation of the German losses". He maintains that the German government figures from 1958 overstated the total number of the ethnic Germans living in Poland prior to war as well as the total civilian deaths due to the post war expulsions.
Total German war dead
(1949) The West German Statistisches Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office)estimated total war dead of 5,483,000; (3,250,000)military; (500,000) civilians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign; (1,533,000) deaths in the expulsions from Poland and (200,000) victims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecution. These figures are for Germany in 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and do not include Austria or foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe.
(1953) The German economist :de:Bruno Gleitze from the German Institute for Economic Research estimated total war dead of 6,000,000; (3,100,000)military; (600,000) civilians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign; (800,000) deaths to expulsion from Poland (300,000) victims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecution, (1,200,000) increase in natural deaths due to the war. These figures are for Germany in 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and do not include Austria or foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe.
(1956) The West German Statistisches Bundesamt (Federal Statistical Office)estimated total war dead of 5,650,000 = (3,760,000)military; (430,000)civilians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign; (1,260,000) deaths to expulsion from Poland and (200,000) victims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecution. These figures are for Germany in 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and do not include Austria or foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe.
(1961) The West German government issued a statement listing a total of 7,032,800 war dead: (military dead 3,760,000 in prewar 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and 432,000 foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe); (430,000 civilians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign in prewar 1937 borders); (300,000 victims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecution including 170,000 Jews); (expulsion dead 1,224,900 in prewar 1937 borders and 885,900 foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe) These figures do not include Austria. The Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland 1961, listed Austrian casualties as 250,000 military dead and 24,000 civilians killed in bombing raids
(1984) A German demographic study estimated 6,900,000 deaths caused by the war in prewar 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png. (3,800,000)military and (3,100,000) civilians.
(1991) A German demographic study estimated 5,450,000 to 5,600,000 war dead (4,300,000 military dead; 430,000 civilians killed in bombing raids and the land campaign and 882,000 deaths due to expulsions from Poland). These figures are for Germany in 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and do not include Austria or foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe
(1998) A German demographic study estimated 5,500,000 to 6,900,000 war dead. These figures vary because of the shift of borders between 1937 and 1940.
(2005) The German government issued a report listing total war dead of 7,375,800 (3,100,000 soldiers killed; 1,200,000 soldiers missing; 500,000 civilians killed in bombing raids; 2,251,500 civilian victims of expulsions and deportations; 24,300 Austrian civilians killed and 300,000 victims of Nazi racial, religious or political persecution. These figures include Austria and foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe.)
German military casualties
(1945) The casualty figures compiled by the German High Command (OKW) as of January 31, 1945 put total military losses at 2,001,399 dead, 1,902,704 missing and POW held by Allies and 4,429,875 wounded.
(1946) The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. estimated German military dead at 3,250,000.
(1947) The combined staff of the U.K., Canada and the U.S. prepared "A study of the employment of German manpower from 1933–1945". They estimated German casualties up until April 30, 1945, at 2,230,324 dead, 2,870,404 missing and POW held by Allies.
(1960) The West German government issued figures of the war losses. Total military dead were put at 4,440,000 (3,760,000 in prewar 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png, 430,000 foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe and 250,000 Austria).
(1974) The Maschke Commission found that about 1.2 million German military personnel reported as missing more than likely died as POWs, including 1.1 million in the USSR.
(1985) The Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) has been responsible for providing information for the families of those military personnel who were killed or went missing in the war, they do not compile figures of the total war dead. By 1985 they had identified 3.1 million confirmed dead and 1.2 million missing and presumed dead. The Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt) reported the same figures in 2005.
(1993) The Russian historian Grigoriy Krivosheyev puts the losses of the "Vlasovites, Balts and Muslims etc." in German service at 215,000 According to Krivosheev, 450,600 German POWs died in Soviet captivity (356,700 in camps and 93,900 in transit).
(2000) Rüdiger Overmans, an associate of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office, provided a reassessment of German military war dead based on a statistical survey of German military personnel records at the Deutsche Dienststelle (WASt). The Overmans research project was financed by a private foundation and published with the endorsement of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office of the Federal Ministry of Defense (Germany). The study found that the statistics compiled by German military during the war were incomplete and did not provide an accurate accounting of casualties. The research by Overmans concluded that German military dead and missing were 5,318,000 (4,456,000 in prewar 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png and 539,000 foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe, 261,000 Austria and 63,000 foreign nationals from western European nations). The Overmans study did not include Soviet citizens in German service. The details of the Overmans study are presented in German casualties in World War II. In a separate study, Overmans concluded that the actual death toll of German POWs was about 1.1 million men (including 1.0 million in the USSR).
Civilian Casualties
German civilian casualties are combined from (a) air raid dead, (b) racial, religious and political persecution and (c) casualties due to expulsion of the Germans from east-central Europe:
(a) Official German and Austrian sources from the 1950s cite 434,000 air raid dead (410,000 in Germany, 24,000 in) Austria The figure cited by Overy (2013) is 353,000 air raid dead.
(b) The number of victims of Nazi persecution in Germany and Austria (victims of the Nazi euthanasia program) is estimated at close to 400,000 (300,000 in Germany, 100,000 in Austria). According to the German government the euthanasia accounted for an additional 200,000 victims.
(c) The number of victims of the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) is contentious. Estimates in the 1960s cited a total of 2,111,000 deaths, and the German government as of 2005 still maintained a number of "ca. 2 million". Direct civilian deaths due to the expulsion of Germans is estimated at 600,000 by the German Federal Archive (1974) and at 100,000 to 200,000 by Haar (2009). The substantial difference of close to 1.5 million comprises people whose fate is uncertain in the reported German statistics. The German government maintains that these deaths are due to famine and disease during the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–50) This was disputed by historian Ingo Haar who maintains that the difference classified as missing is due to a decline in births, the assimilation of ethnic Germans in Eastern Europe after the war, the understatement of military casualties and murdered Jews.
Civilian casualties in air raids
*(1945–47) The United States Strategic Bombing Survey gave three different figures for German air raid deaths.
1- The summary report of September 30, 1945 put total casualties for the entire period of the war at 305,000 killed and 780,000 wounded.
2- The section Effects of Strategic Bombing on the German War Economy of October 31, 1945 put the losses at 375,000 killed and 625,000 wounded.
3- The section The Effect of Bombing on Health and Medical Care in Germany of January 1947 made a preliminary calculated estimate of air raid dead at 422,000. Regarding overall losses, they concluded that "It was further estimated that an additional number, approximately 25% of known deaths in 1944–45, were still unrecovered and unrecorded. With an addition of this estimate of 1944–45 unrecorded deaths, the final estimation gave in round numbers a half a million German civilians killed by Allied aerial attacks."
(1956) A German government study put German air war dead at 635,000; 500,000 killed by allied strategic bombing and 135,000 refugees killed during the evacuations from eastern Europe in 1945. These figures include 593,000 Germany in 1937 borders :File:DR1937.1.png (410,000 civilians, 32,000 foreigners and POW and 23,000 military and Police killed in strategic bombing and 127,000 civilians and 1,000 military and Police refugees fleeing on the eastern front). There were an additional 42,000 dead in Austria and the annexed territories (26,000 civilians, 7,000 foreigners and POW and 1,000 military and Police were killed in strategic bombing and 7,000 refugees fleeing on the eastern front).
Historian Richard Overy in 2014 published a study of the air war The Bombers and the Bombed: Allied Air War Over Europe 1940–1945 in which he disputed the official German figures of air war dead. He estimated total air raid deaths at 353,000. Overy maintains that the German estimates are based on incorrect speculations for losses during the last three months of the war when there was a gap in the record keeping system. He points out that the figures for air raid dead in the last three months of the war were estimated in the West German figures from 1956 at 300,000 people which he believes is not plausible. The official figures include an inflated total of 60,000 in the Bombing of Dresden and the inclusion of refugees fleeing westward.
Civilians killed in 1945 military campaign
The West German government in made a rough estimate in 1956 of 20,000 civilians killed during the 1945 military campaign in current post war German borders, not including the former German territories in Poland. However, there is a more recent estimate of 22,000 civilians killed during the fighting in Berlin only.
Deaths due to Nazi political, racial and religious persecution
The West German government put the number of Germans killed by the Nazi political, racial and religious persecution at 300,000 (including 170,000 German Jews).
A 2003 report by the German Federal Archive put the total murdered during the Action T4 Euthanasia program at over 200,000 persons.
Expulsion and flight of ethnic Germans
The following notes summarize German expulsion casualties, the details are presented in the flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950), the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union' and the Demographic estimates of the flight and expulsion of Germans. The figures for these losses are currently disputed, estimates of the total deaths range from 500,000 to 2,000,000. The death toll attributable to the flight and expulsions was estimated at 2.2 million by the West German government in 1958. German government reports which were released to the public in 1987 and 1989 have caused some historians in Germany to put the actual total at 500,000 to 600,000. English language sources put the death toll at 2 to 3 million based on the West German government statistical analysis of the 1950s.
(1950) The West German government made a preliminary estimate of 3.0 million civilian deaths in the expulsions.(1.5 million in prewar 1937 Germany :File:Oder-neisse.gif and 1.5 million foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe)
(1954–1961) The Schieder commission made preliminary estimates the civilian death toll in the expulsions of about 2.3 million persons, broken out as follows: 2,000,000 Poland (in post-war borders) and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia; 225,600 Czechoslovakia; 69,000 Yugoslavia; 40,000 Romania; 6,000 Hungary. These preliminary figures were superseded with the publication of the 1958 West German demographic study.
(1958) A West German government demographic study estimated 2,225,000 civilians died during the flight during the war, post war expulsions and the Forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union, broken out as follows: Germany in 1937 borders :File:Oder-neisse.gif 1,339,000; Poland in 1939 borders 185,000; Danzig 83,000; Czechoslovakia 273,000; Yugoslavia 136,000; Romania 101,000; Hungary 57,000; Baltic States 51,000.
(1965), The search service of the German churches and Red Cross was able to confirm 473,013 civilian deaths in eastern Europe due to the expulsions, broken out as follows: 367,392 Poland (in post war borders); 18,889 Sudetenland; 64,779 Slovakia, Hungary, Romania and Yugoslavia; 9,064 Baltic States ; and 12,889 Germans resettled in Poland. There were an additional 1,905,991 unsolved cases of persons reported missing. The results of this survey were kept secret until 1987.
(1966) The West German Federal Ministry for Expellees, Refugees and War Victims issued a statement that put the number of expulsion dead at 2,111,000 (1,225,000 Germany in 1937 borders :File:Oder-neisse.gif and 886,000 foreign nationals of German ancestry in eastern Europe)
(1974) A study by the German Federal Archive estimated a death toll of 600,000 of civilians in the expulsions and deportations to the USSR. (400,000 in Poland (in post war borders) and the Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia; 130,000 in Czechoslovakia and 80,000 in Yugoslavia.) The authors of the report maintain that these figures cover only those deaths caused by violent acts and deaths in forced labor and internment camps. They also stated that their figures do not include deaths due to malnutrition and disease. This report was kept secret and not published until 1989.
(1985) A demographic analysis which has the support of the German government, estimated 2,020,000 civilians died during the post war expulsions and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union broken out as follows: (870,000Germany in 1937 borders east of the Oder–Neisse line; 108,000 Germans resettled in Poland during the war; 174,000 Poland in 1939 borders ; 40,000 Danzig; 220,000 Czechoslovakia; 106,000 Yugoslavia; 75,000 Romania; 84,000 Hungary; 33,000 Baltic States; 310,000 USSR)
The German government currently maintains that 2.0 million civilians perished in the flight and expulsion from Eastern Europe. In 2006, Christoph Bergner, Secretary of State in Germany's Bureau for Inner Affairs maintainted that the figure of 2 million deaths is correct because it includes the deaths from malnutrition and disease of those civilians subject to the expulsions.
A 2005 report by the German government search service put the death toll at 2,251,500, they did not provide details of the figure The current position in 2015 of the German government Federal Agency for Civic Education is that 2 million civilians perished in the expulsions, they cited as the source for this figure Gerhard Reichling, Die deutschen Vertriebenen in Zahlen.
German government figures of 2.0 to 2.5 million civilian deaths due to expulsions have been disputed by scholars since the publication of the results of the German church search service survey and the report by the German Federal Archive.
German historian Rüdiger Overmans (2000) published a study of German military casualties, this project did not investigate civilian expulsion deaths. Overmans did however provide a critical analysis of the previous studies by German government of the human losses in the expulsions. Overmans maintains that these studies lack adequate support, he maintains that a figure of 500,000 expulsion dead is credible and that there are more arguments for the lower figures rather than the higher figures, he believes that new research is needed to determine the correct balance of the human losses in the expulsions. According to Overmans the figure of 1.9 million missing persons reported by the search service is unreliable as it includes military dead and persons of dubious German ancestry who were not expelled after the war but remained in eastern Europe, also the figures for expellees living in the GDR was understated.
Historian Ingo Haar In 2006 controversially disputed the official figures in an article published on 14 November 2006 in the German newspaper Süddeutsche Zeitung. Haar argued for a total of 500,000 to 600,000 victims. Christoph Bergner, Secretary of state in the German Federal Ministry of the Interior, argued in an interview on 29 November against revising the official count of 2.0 to 2.5 million victims, and that the controversy was based on what he maintains is misunderstanding, as he stated that Haar's figures represent the number violent deaths, while the official figures include the much more numerous deaths due to exhaustion, disease and starvation which occurred in the wake of the expulsions and deportations. Haar has published three articles in academic journals during 2006–2009 which covered the background of the research by the West German government on the expulsions. According to Haar the numbers were set too high for postwar political reasons. Haar argues that the government figure of two million is overstated. He maintains the total number of known German deaths east of the Oder–Neisse line and the ethnic Germans in East Central Europe lies between 500,000 and 600,000, including those deported to the Soviet Union. Haar argues that the number reported missing includes a decline in births, persons of dubious German nationality, military deaths and murdered Jews.
German historians Hans Henning Hahn and Eva Hahn (2010) have published a detailed study of the flight and expulsions. They maintain that figures related to flight and expulsion have been manipulated by the German government due to political pressure. The Hahn's believe the official German figure of 2 million deaths is an historical myth, lacking foundation. They place the ultimate blame for the mass flight and expulsion on the wartime policy of the Nazis in Eastern Europe. The Hahn's maintain that the 473,013 confirmed deaths is a correct accounting of the losses. Most of these losses occurred during the Nazi organized flight and evacuation during the war, and the forced labor of Germans in the Soviet Union; they point out that there are 80,522 confirmed deaths in the postwar internment camps.
The German Historical Museum puts the number of deaths due to the expulsions at 600,000, they maintain that the figure of 2 million deaths in the previous government studies cannot be supported.
A joint Czech–German Historical Commission determined that between 15,000 and 30,000 Germans perished in the expulsions. The commission found that the demographic estimates by the German government of 220,000 to 270,000 civilian deaths due to expulsions from Czechoslovakia were based on faulty data. The Commission determined that the demographic estimates by the German government counted as missing 90,000 ethnic Germans assimilated into the Czech population; military deaths were understated and that the 1950 census data used to compute the demographic losses was unreliable.
Polish historian Bernadetta Nitschke has provided a summary of the research in Poland on German losses due to the flight and resettlement of the Germans from Poland, not including other eastern European countries. Nitschke contrasted the estimate of 1.6 million deaths in Poland reported by the West German government in the 1950s with the figure of 400,000 (in Poland only) that was disclosed in 1989. According to Nitschke most of the civilian deaths occurred during the flight and evacuation during the war, the deportation to the U.S.S.R. for forced labor, and after the resettlement in the Soviet occupation zone in post war Germany.
Polish historians Witold Sienkiewicz and Grzegorz Hryciuk believe that between 600,000 and 1.2 million German civilians perished during the wartime evacuations. The main causes of death were cold, stress, and bombing. According to Sienkiewicz and Hryciuk between 200,000 and 250,000 persons were held in postwar Polish internment camps and between 15,000 and 60,000 perished.
Post war increase in natural deaths
German government figures of war losses do not include the increase in natural deaths with war casualties. The German economist Bruno Gleitze from the German Institute for Economic Research estimated that there were 1,200,000 excess deaths caused by the harsh conditions in Germany during and after the war. Gleitze estimated 400,000 excess deaths during the war and 800,000 in post war Germany The West German Statistisches Bundesamt put the actual deaths in 1939–46 due to natural causes at 7,130,000 persons, the demographic study by Peter Marschalck estimated the expected deaths in peacetime due to natural causes of 5,900,000 persons, a difference of 1,230,000 excess deaths. In Allied-occupied Germany the shortage of food was an acute problem in 1946–47. The average kilocalorie intake per day was only 1,600 to 1,800, an amount insufficient for long-term health.
Greece
The Greek government is planning to claim reparations from Germany for war damages.
The Greek National Council for Reparations from Germany reports the following casualties during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II. Military dead 35,077, including: 13,327 killed in the Greco-Italian War of 1940–41; 1,100 with the Greek Armed Forces in the Middle East, and 20,650 partisan deaths. Civilian deaths 171,845, including: 56,225 executed by Axis forces; 105,000 dead in German concentration camps (including Jews); 7,120 deaths due to bombing; 3,500 merchant marine dead; 600,000 Famine deaths during the war
A study published by Cambridge University Press in 2010 estimated that Greece suffered approximately 300,000 deaths during the Axis occupation as a result of famine and malnutrition
Gregory Frumkin, who was throughout its existence editor of the Statistical Year-Book of the League of Nations gave the following assessment of Greek losses in the war. He points out that "the data on Greek war losses are frequently divergent and even inconsistent". His estimates for Greek losses are as follows: the war dead included 20,000 military deaths in the Greco-Italian War of 1940–41, 60,000 non-Jewish civilians, 20,000 non-Jewish deportees, 60,000 Jews and 140,000 famine deaths during the Axis occupation of Greece during World War II.
In campaigns against the Greek Resistance the German occupiers engaged in a policy of reprisals against civilians, the most notorious were the Distomo massacre and the Massacre of Kalavryta. According to the German historian Dieter Pohl at least 25,000 but perhaps even more civilians were killed in mass executions. Pohl maintains that about 1 million persons (14% of the population) were displaced in the campaigns against the Greek Resistance because their homes were destroyed or they were expelled and became refugees.
Guam
Guam was a United States administered territory during World War Two. The local Chamorro people were granted U.S. citizenship in the Guam Organic Act of 1950.
According to an official U.S. report during the Battle of Guam on December 8–10, 4 Guam local military personnel and 3 Guam residents were killed in the battle. However, Japanese sources reported 40–50 of the local population killed.
Between 1,000 to 2,000 Chamorro people were killed or otherwise died of abuse and mistreatment during the Japanese occupation of Guam from December 10, 1941, until August 10, 1944, including an estimated 600 civilians who were massacred by the Japanese during the Battle of Guam (1944).
Hungary
Tamás Stark of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences has provided the following assessment of Hungarian losses. Military losses were 300,000 to 310,000 including 110–120,000 killed in action and 200,000 in Soviet POW and labor camps and 20,000–25,000 Jews in Hungarian military labor service. About 200,000 were from Hungary in the 1938 borders and 100,000 men who were conscripted from the annexed territories of Greater Hungary in Slovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia. Civilian dead within the borders of present-day Hungary included 220,000 Hungarian Jews killed in the Holocaust and 44,000 deaths from military operations The Jewish population of Hungary in the 1941 borders was 764,000 (445,000 in the 1938 borders and 319,000 in the annexed territories). Holocaust deaths in the 1938 borders was 200,000 not including 20,000 men conscripted as forced labor for the military. During the Soviet occupation of Hungary, about 700,000 men were deported to Soviet Union, only 300,000 retrned to Hungary.
Iceland
Confirmed losses of civilian sailors due to German attacks and mines.
India
India, which was a British colony during World War II, included the present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. India under British administration is sometimes referred to as the British Raj.
The war dead of 87,029 listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission,
Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the British Indian Army during the Second World War. Gurkha casualties with the British Indian Army can be broken down as: 8,985 killed or missing and 23,655 wounded.
The preliminary 1945 data for Indian losses was, killed 24,338, missing 11,754, wounded 64,354 and POW 79,489. Out of 60,000 Indian Army POWs taken at the Fall of Singapore, 11,000 died in captivity.
The pro-Japanese Indian National Army lost 2,615 dead and missing.
Bengal famine of 1943
Cormac Ó Gráda (2007): "[E]stimates of mortality in [the Bengal famine of 1943] range from 0.8 million to 3.8 million; today the scholarly consensus is about 2.1 million (Hall-Matthews 2005; Sen 1981; Maharatna 1996)."
John W. Dower estimated 1.5 million civilian deaths in the Bengal famine of 1943.
Amartya Sen currently the Lamont University Professor at Harvard University has recently estimated that a figure of 2.0 to 2.5 million fatalities may be more accurate.
Iran
Losses during allied occupation in 1941.
Iraq
Losses during Anglo-Iraqi War and UK occupation in 1941.
According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, 150–180 Jews were killed in the Farhud pogrom in 1941.
Ireland
Although neutral, an estimated 70,000 of the Irish Free State's citizens volunteered in the British military service. Some 40 Irish citizens were killed by accidental bombings in Dublin and Carlow, and 33 Irish merchant seamen were killed in U-boat attacks by Germany.
Italy
The Italian government issued an accounting of the war dead in 1957, they broke out the losses before and after the Armistice with Italy: military dead and missing 291,376 (204,376 pre-armistice and 87,030 post armistice). Civilian dead and missing at 153,147 (123,119 post armistice) including in air raids 61,432 (42,613 post armistice). A brief summary of data from this report can be found online.
Military war dead
Confirmed dead were 159,957 (92,767 pre-armistice, 67,090 post armistice)
Missing and presumed dead(including POWs) were 131,419 (111,579 pre-armistice, 19,840 post armistice)
Losses by branch of service: Army 201,405; Navy 22,034; Air Force 9,096; Colonial Forces 354; Chaplains 91; Fascist militia
10,066; Paramilitary 3,252; not indicated 45,078.
Military Losses by theatre of war: Italy 74,725 (37,573 post armistice); France 2,060 (1,039 post armistice);
Germany 25,430 (24,020 post armistice); Greece, Albania, and Yugoslavia 49,459 (10,090 post armistice);
USSR 82,079 (3,522 post armistice); Africa 22,341 (1,565 post armistice), at sea 28,438 (5,526 post armistice);
other and unknown 6,844 (3,695 post armistice).
Military losses in Italy after the September 1943 Armistice with Italy, included 5,927 with the Allies, 17,488 Italian resistance movement fighters in Italy and 13,000 RSI Italian Social Republic Fascist forces.
Included in the losses are 64,000 victims of Nazi reprisals and genocide including 30,000 POWs and 8,500 Jews.
According to Martin Gilbert, Jewish Holocaust victims totaled 8,000 in Italy and 562 in the Italian colony of Libya
Updated studies (2010) by the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro of the Italian Ministry of Defence, p. 4 have revised the military deaths to 319,207, of which 246,432 belonged to the Army, 31,347 to the Navy, 13,210 to the Air Force, 15,197 to the Partisan formations and 13,021 to the armed forces of the Italian Social Republic. The casualties recorded for Italy do not include Italians who were born in Italian colonies and possessions (ethnic Italians in Libya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia and the Dodecanese) and in national territories that Italy lost with the Paris peace treaty of 1947 (mainly the Julian March, Istria and Zara/Zadar; a large part of the victims of the Foibe massacres are thus not included). Also Africans conscripted by Italy are not included in their figures.
With regards to the Partisan casualties, a ministerial study published in 1955 listed the partisans killed or executed as 35,828; however, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro only considered as partisans the members of the Resistance who were civilians before joining the partisans, whereas partisans who were formerly members of the Italian armed forces (more than half those killed) were considered as members of their armed force of origin.
With regards to the Italian Social Republic casualties, the Ufficio dell'Albo d'Oro excludes from its lists of the fallen the individuals who committed war crimes. In the context of the RSI, where numerous war crimes were committed in the anti-partisan warfare, and many individuals were therefore involved in such crimes (especially GNR and Black Brigades personnel), this influences negatively the casualty count, under a statistical point of view. The "RSI Historical Foundation" (Fondazione RSI Istituto Storico) has drafted a list that lists the names of some 35,000 RSI military personnel killed in action or executed during and immediately after World War II (including the "revenge killings" that occurred at the end of the hostilities and in their immediate aftermath), including some 13,500 members of the Guardia Nazionale Repubblicana and Milizia Difesa Territoriale, 6,200 members of the Black Brigades, 2,800 Aeronautica Nazionale Repubblicana personnel, 1,000 Marina Nazionale Repubblicana personnel, 1,900 X MAS personnel, 800 soldiers of the "Monterosa" Division, 470 soldiers of the "Italia" Division, 1,500 soldiers of the "San Marco" Division, 300 soldiers of the "Littorio" Division, 350 soldiers of the "Tagliamento" Alpini Regiment, 730 soldiers of the 3rd and 8th Bersaglieri regiments, 4,000 troops of miscellaneous units of the Esercito Nazionale Repubblicano (excluding the aabove-mentioned Divisions and Alpini and Bersaglieri Regiments), 300 members of the Legione Autonoma Mobile "Ettore Muti", 200 members of the Raggruppamento Anti Partigiani, 550 members of the Italian SS, and 170 members of the Cacciatori degli Appennini Regiment.
This would bring the total number of Italian military personnel killed to some 341,000 (excluding colonial troops).
According to the official history of the Italian Army (Rovighi, Alberto (1988), Le Operazioni in Africa Orientale: (giugno 1940 – novembre 1941) [Operations in East Africa: (June 1940 – November 1941)], Rome, Stato Maggiore Esercito, Ufficio storico) From June 1940 to 16 April 1941, 11,755 askaris were killed in Italian East Africa, excluding the losses in Giuba region and eastern fronts. After that date, in the last battles in East Africa there were 490 askaris killed in the battle of Culqualber and 3,700 killed in the battle of Gondar, plus an unknown number in the battle of Amba Alagi and other minor clashes. This would mean that the number of askaris killed in East Africa was likely somewhere between 16,000 and 20,000. According to the Italian Army official history (USSME, La prima offensiva Britannica in Africa Settentrionale, tomo I, allegato 32 (page 375)), the two Libyan colonial divisions lost 1,399 soldiers killed (not counting the officers, who were Italian) in the battle of Sidi Barrani, where they were both destroyed. There was not much use of colonial troops in North Africa afterwards.
Japan
Estimates for total Japanese war dead in 1937–1945 range from at least 2.5 million to 3.237 million
According to the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare Japanese war dead(1937–45) totaled 3.1 million persons including 2.3 million soldiers and Army/Navy civilian employees, 500,000 civilians in Japan and 300,000 civilians living outside of Japan. These figures include military dead of 30,000 Chinese from Taiwan and 22,182 Koreans.
Military dead
According to a report compiled by the Relief Bureau of the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare in March 1964, combined Japanese Army and Navy deaths during the war (1937–45) numbered approximately 2,121,000; broken down as follows:
Key: Location, Army dead, Navy dead, (Total dead)
Japan Proper: 58,100, 45,800, (103,900)
Bonin Islands: 2,700, 12,500, (15,200)
Okinawa: 67,900, 21,500, (89,400)
Formosa (Taiwan): 28,500, 10,600, (39,100)
Korea: 19,600, 6,900, (26,500)
Sakhalin, the Aleutian, and Kuril Islands: 8,200, 3,200, (11,400)
Manchuria: 45,900, 800, (46,700)
China (inc. Hong Kong): 435,600, 20,100, (455,700)
Siberia: 52,300, 400, (52,700)
Central Pacific: 95,800, 151,400, (247,200)
Philippines: 377,500, 121,100, (498,600)
French Indochina: 7,900, 4,500, (12,400)
Thailand: 6,900, 100, (7,000)
Burma (inc. India): 163,000, 1,500, (164,500)
Malaya & Singapore: 8,500, 2,900, (11,400)
Andaman & Nicobar Islands: 900, 1,500, (2,400)
Sumatra: 2,700, 500, (3,200)
Java: 2,700, 3,800, (6,500)
Lesser Sundas: 51,800, 1,200, (53,000)
Borneo: 11,300, 6,700, (18,000)
Celebes: 1,500, 4,000, (5,500)
Moluccas: 2,600, 1,800, (4,400)
New Guinea: 112,400, 15,200, (127,600)
Bismarck Archipelago: 19,700, 10,800, (30,500)
Solomon Islands: 63,200, 25,000, (88,200)
Total: 1,647,200, 473,800, (2,121,000)
Overall, perhaps two thirds of all Japanese military dead came not from combat, but from starvation and disease. In some cases this figure was potentially even higher, up to 80% in the Philippines and a staggering 97% in New Guinea.
According to John W. Dower, the Japanese source Showa Shi – 1959 by Shigeki Toyama put Japanese war dead in 1937–1941 in the Second Sino-Japanese War at 185,467.
In 1949 the report of the Japanese government Economic Stabilization Board put military war dead from December 1941 to December 21, 1946, at 1,555,308 Killed and 309,402 wounded These figures do not include an additional 240,000 missing Army personnel. The figures of wounded show only those receiving pensions. The details of these figures are as follows:
Army
China after Pearl Harbor 202,958 killed and 88,920 wounded.
vs. United States 485,717 killed and 34,679 wounded.
vs. U.K. and Netherlands 208,026 killed and 139,225 wounded.
vs. Australia 199,511 killed and 15,000 wounded.
French Indochina 2,803 killed and 6,000 wounded.
Manchuria & USSR 7,483 killed and 4,641 wounded.
other overseas 23,388 killed and 0 wounded
Japan proper 10,543 killed and 6,782 wounded
Army total 1,140,429 killed and 295,247 wounded.
Navy
Sailors 300,386 killed and 12,275 wounded and missing.
Civilians in Navy service 114,493 killed and 1,880 wounded and missing.
Navy total 414,879 killed and 14,155 wounded and missing.
The Japanese Central Liaison Office reported in July 1947 to the Allied occupation authorities that Japanese military dead in 1935–1945 were 1,687,738(1,340,700 Army and 347,038 Navy)
The Yasukuni Shrine in Japan lists a total of 191,250 war dead from 1937 to 1941 in the Second Sino-Japanese War and 2,133,915 in the Pacific War Their figures include civilians who participated in combat and Chinese(Taiwan) and Koreans in the Japanese Armed Forces.
According to the calculations of Werner Gruhl, Japanese military war dead were 2,565,878 (250,000 from 1931 to 1941 and 2,315,878 in 1942–45).
John W. Dower Dower maintains that "only one third of the military deaths occurred in actual combat, the majority being caused by illness and starvation". According to Dower over 300,000 Japanese POW were missing after being captured by the Soviets. Japanese figures as of 12/31/1948 listed 469,074 missing personnel in Soviet hands, while at the same time the Soviets admitted to holding 95,000 Japanese prisoners thus leaving 374,041 surrendered Japanese personnel who were unaccounted for and presumed dead. According to Dower "Known deaths of Japanese troops awaiting repatriation in Allied(non-Soviet) hands were listed as 81,090 by U.S. authorities.
The Japanese Ministry of Welfare and Foreign Office reported from 1951 to 1960 that 254,000 military personnel and civilians were confirmed dead and 95,000 went missing in Soviet hands after the war. The details of these losses are as follows: 199,000 in Manchurian transit camps, 36,000 in North Korea, 9,000 on Sakhalin and 103,000 in the USSR.
According to the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare 65,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the 1945 military campaign against the Soviet Union. After the war ended deaths at the hands of the Red Army and local Chinese population were 185,000 Manchuria, 28,000 in North Korea and 10,000 on Sakhalin and the Kurile islands. An additional 700,000 were taken prisoner by the Soviets were 50,000 died in forced labor in the USSR and Outer Mongolia.
The Japanese government figures for POW deaths are not in agreement with Soviet figures. Russian sources report that the Soviets reported the POW deaths of 62,105 (61,855 Japanese and 214 collaborator forces) out of the 640,105 captured (609,448 Japanese and 30,657 collaborator forces).
Civilian Dead
The 1949 report of the Japanese government Economic Stabilization Board detailed the casualties caused by air raids and sea bombardment. Total casualties were 668,315 including 299,485 dead, 24,010 missing and 344,820 injured. These figures include the casualties in Tokyo (東京) 97,031 dead, 6,034 missing and 113,923 injured; in Hiroshima (広島) 86,141 dead, 14,394 missing and 46,672 injured, in Nagasaki (長崎) 26,238 dead, 1,947 missing and 41,113 injured. According to John W. Dower, an error which appears in English language sources puts the total killed in air raids at 668,000, a figure which includes dead, missing and injured.
A Japanese academic study published in 1979 by The Committee for the Compilation of Materials on Damage Caused by the Atomic Bombs in Hiroshima and Nagasaki puts the total dead in the atomic attacks at 140,000 (± 10,000) in Hiroshima and 70,000 (± 10,000) in Nagasaki. According to the authors of the report a study of atomic bomb related casualties in Hiroshima in December 1945 was "lost and not discovered until twenty years later", they cited a similar survey in Nagasaki done in December 1945. The authors maintain that the lower casualty figures published in the immediate post war era did not include military personnel and missing persons. The figures of dead in the atomic attacks from this study were cited by John W. Dower in his War Without Mercy.
According to the World Nuclear Association, "In Hiroshima, of a resident civilian population of 250,000 it was estimated that 45,000 died on the first day and a further 19,000 during the subsequent four months. In Nagasaki, out of a population of 174,000, 22,000 died on the first day and another 17,000 within four months. Unrecorded deaths of military personnel and foreign workers may have added considerably to these figures. About 15 square kilometers (over 50%) of the two cities was destroyed. It is impossible to estimate the proportion of these 103,000 deaths, or of the further deaths in military personnel, which were due to radiation exposure rather than to the very high temperatures and blast pressures caused by the explosions." They noted that "To the 103,000 deaths from the blast or acute radiation exposure at Hiroshima and Nagasaki have since been added those due to radiation-induced cancers, which amounted to some 400 within 30 years, and which may ultimately reach about 550. (Some 93,000 exposed survivors were still being monitored 50 years later.)"
The Radiation Effects Research Foundation puts the number of deaths (within two to four months), in Hiroshima at 90,000 to 166,000 persons, and in Nagasaki at 60,000 to 80,000 persons. They noted that deaths caused by the atomic bombings include those that occurred on the days of the bombings due to the overwhelming force and heat of the blasts, as well as later deaths attributable to radiation exposure. The total number of deaths is not known precisely because military personnel records in each city were destroyed; entire families perished, leaving no one to report deaths; and unknown numbers of forced laborers were present in both cities
The U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey published the following estimates of Japanese casualties due to U.S. bombing.
1-Summary Report (July 1946) Total civilian casualties in Japan, as a result of 9 months of air attack, including those from the atomic bombs, were approximately 806,000. Of these, approximately 330,000 were fatalities.
2-United States Strategic Bombing Survey, Medical Division (1947) The bombing of Japan killed 333,000 civilians and injured 473,000. Of this total 120,000 died and 160,000 were injured in the atomic bombings, leaving 213,000 dead and 313,000 injured by conventional bombing.
3-The effects of air attack on Japanese urban economy. Summary report (1947) Estimated that 252,769 Japanese were killed and 298,650 injured in the air war.
4-The Effects of strategic bombing on Japanese morale Based on a survey of Japanese households the death toll was put at 900,000 dead and 1.3 million injured, the SBS noted that this figure was subject to a maximum sampling error of 30%.
5-Strategic Bombing Survey The Effects of Atomic Bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki The most striking result of the atomic bombs was the great number of casualties. The exact number of dead and injured will never be known because of the confusion after the explosions. Persons unaccounted for might have been burned beyond recognition in the falling buildings, disposed of in one of the mass cremations of the first week of recovery, or driven out of the city to die or recover without any record remaining. No sure count of even the prepaid populations existed. Because of the decline in activity in the two port cities, the constant threat of incendiary raids, and the formal evacuation programs of the Government, an unknown number of the inhabitants had either drifter away from the cities or been removed according to plan. In this uncertain situation, estimates of casualties have generally ranged between 100,000 and 180,000 for Hiroshima, and between 50,000 and 100,000 for Nagasaki. The Survey believes the dead at Hiroshima to have been between 70,000 and 80,000, with an equal number injured; at Nagasaki over 35,000 dead and somewhat more than that injured seems the most plausible estimate.
John W. Dower puts Japanese civilian dead in Battle of Saipan at 10,000 and 150,000 in Battle of Okinawa based on a recent study of the campaign. However American military sources put civilian dead on Okinawa at 42,000, they noted that Japanese sources indicate 50,000 Okinawan noncombatants were killed during the campaign
War related deaths of Japanese merchant marine personnel were 27,000.
Korea
American researcher R. J. Rummel estimated 378,000 Korean dead due to forced labor in Japan and Manchuria. According to Rummel, "Information on Korean deaths under Japanese occupation is difficult to uncover. We do know that 5,400,000 Koreans were conscripted for labor beginning in 1939, but how many died can only be roughly estimated."
Werner Gruhl estimated the civilian death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 533,000
John W. Dower has noted "Between 1939 and 1945, close to 670,000 Koreans were brought to Japan for fixed terms of work, mostly in mines and heavy industry, and it has been estimated that 60,000 or more of them died under harsh conditions of their work places. Over 10,000 others were probably killed in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki".
Latvia
Independent Russian historian Vadim Erlikman estimated Latvian civilian war dead in 1941–45 at 220,000 (35,000 in military operations; 110,000 executed, 35,000 in Germany and 40,000 due to hunger and disease. Military dead were estimated with Soviet forces at 10,000 and 15,000 with German. POW deaths 3,000.)
Lithuania
Independent Russian historian Vadim Erlikman estimated Lithuanian civilian war dead in 1941–45 at 345,000 (25,000 in military operations; 230,000 executed, 15,000 in Germany and 75,000 due to hunger and disease. Military dead were estimated with Soviet forces at 15,000 and 5,000 with German. POW deaths 4,000.)
Luxembourg
Total war dead were 5,000 which included military losses of about 3,000 with the German Armed Forces and 200 in a separate unit attached to the Belgian Army.
Malaya and Singapore
The British colony of Malaya consisted of the Straits Settlements, the Federated Malay States and Unfederated Malay States. Today they are the nations Malaysia and Singapore.
According to John W. Dower "Malayan officials after the war claimed, possibly with exaggeration, that as many as 100,000 residents, mostly Chinese, may have been killed by the Japanese; of 73,000 Malayans transported to work on the Burma-Siam railway, 25,000 were reported to have died.
According to Werner Gruhl in Singapore the Japanese murdered 5,000 to 10,000 Chinese in 1942. In Malaya and Singapore an estimated 50,000 Chinese were killed in this genocide by the end of the war
Malta 1,493 civilians were killed and 3,734 wounded during the Siege of Malta (World War II) Maltese civilians killed during the siege are also included with U.K. civilian deaths by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission
Mexico
Mexico lost 7 merchant ships and 63 dead merchant mariners. A Mexican Air Force unit Escuadrón 201 served in the Pacific and suffered 5 combat deaths.
Mongolia
Military losses with USSR against Japan in the 1939 Battle of Khalkhin Gol (200) and the 1945 Soviet invasion of Manchuria (72) campaigns.
Nauru
During World War II Japan occupied Nauru in August 1942 and deported 1,200 Nauruans to work as laborers in the Caroline Islands, where 463 died. The survivors returned to Nauru in January 1946.
Nepal
Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the British Indian Army and Nepalese Army during the Second World War. The war dead reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission for India include Nepalese in the British Indian Army and Nepalese Army.
Gurkha casualties can be broken down as: 8,985 killed or missing and 23,655 wounded.
Netherlands
In 1948 the Netherlands Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) issued a report of war losses. They listed 210,000 direct war casualties in the Netherlands, not including the Dutch East Indies.
Military deaths 6,750 which included 3,900 regular Army, 2,600 Navy forces, and 250 POW in Germany.
Civilian deaths of 203,250 which included 1,350 Merchant seaman, 2,800 executed, 2,500 dead in Dutch concentration camps,
20,400 killed by acts of war, 104,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, 18,000 political prisoners in Germany, 27,000 workers in Germany,
3,700 Dutch nationals in the German armed forces and 7,500 missing and presumed dead in Germany and 16,000 deaths
in the Dutch famine of 1944. Not Included in the figure of 210,000 war dead are 70,000 "indirect war casualties",
which are attributed to an increase in natural deaths from 1940–1945 and 1,650 foreign nationals killed while serving in the
Dutch Merchant Marine
The Netherlands War Graves Foundation maintains a registry of the names of Dutch war dead.
Newfoundland
Newfoundland lost 1,089 persons with U.K. and Canadian Forces during the war.
The losses of the Newfoundland Merchant Navy are commemorated at the Allied Merchant Navy Memorial in Newfoundland,
Civilian losses were due to the sinking of the SS Caribou in October 1942.
New Zealand
The Auckland War Museum puts the number of World War II dead at 11,671
The preliminary data for New Zealand losses was killed 10,033, missing 2,129, wounded 19,314 and POW 8,453.
Norway
According to Norwegian government sources the war dead were 10,200
Military(Norwegian & Allied Forces) 2,000 (800 Army, 900 Navy and 100 Air).
Civilians 7,500 (3,600 Merchant seaman, 1,500 resistance fighters, 1,800 civilians killed and 600 Jews killed)
In German Armed Forces 700
Papua New Guinea
Civilian deaths were caused by Allied bombing and shellfire and Japanese atrocities. Both the Allies and Japanese also conscripted civilians to work as laborers and porters.
Philippines
Philippines military losses were 57,000 including 7,000 KIA in 1941–42 campaign, 8,000 guerrillas KIA 1942–45 and 42,000 POWs(out of 98,000).
According to Werner Gruhl the death toll due to the war and Japanese occupation at 527,000 (27,000 military dead, 141,000 massacred, 22,500 forced labor deaths and 336,500 deaths due war related famine). Civilian losses included victims of Japanese war crimes, such as the Manila massacre which claimed the lives of 100,000 Filipinos
Between 5,000 and 10,000 Filipinos serving with the Filipino troops, Scouts, Constabulary and Philippine Army units lost their lives on the Bataan Death March.
Poland
Total Polish war dead
In 2009, Wojciech Materski and Tomasz Szarota of the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) put the figure of Poland's dead at between 5,620,000 and 5,820,000; including an estimated 150,000 Polish citizens who died due to Soviet repression. The IPN's figures include 2.7 to 2.9 million Polish Jews who died in the Holocaust and 2,770,000 ethnic Poles (including "Direct War Losses" −543,000; "Murdered in Camps and in Pacification" −506,000; "Deaths in prisons and Camps" 1,146,000; "Deaths outside of prisons and Camps" 473,000; "Murdered in Eastern Regions" 100,000; "Deaths in other countries" 2,000). Polish researchers have determined that the Nazis murdered 2,830,000 Jews (including 1,860,000 Polish Jews) in the extermination camps in Poland, in addition over 1.0 million Polish Jews were murdered by the Einsatzgruppen in the eastern regions or died of starvation and disease while in ghettos.
In his 2009 book, Andrzej Leon Sowa of the Jagiellonian University emphasizes the lack of reliable data concerning Warld War II losses. According to him, between 2.35 and 2.9 million Polish citizens of Jewish ethnicity were killed, in addition to about two million ethnic Poles. He writes that not even estimated figures are available regarding Polish citizens of German, Ukrainian or Belarusian ethnicity.
The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum maintains that, in addition to 3 million Polish Jews killed in the Holocaust, "[d]ocumentation remains fragmentary, but today scholars of independent Poland believe that at least 1.9 million Polish civilians (non-Jews) were victims of German occupation policies and the war.
Czesław Łuczak in 1993 estimated Poland's war dead to be 5.9 to 6.0 million, including 2.9 to 3.0 million Jews killed in the Holocaust and 2.0 million ethnic Polish victims of the German and Soviet occupations, (1.5 million under German occupation and the balance of 500,000 in the former eastern Polish regions under Soviet occupation). Łuczak also included in his figures an estimated 1,000,000 war dead of Polish citizens from the ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian ethnic groups who comprised 20% of Poland's pre-war population.
Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated Poland's losses in World War II to be 5.6 million; including 5,150,000 victims of Nazi crimes against ethnic Poles and The Holocaust, 350,000 deaths during the Soviet occupation in 1940–41 and about 100,000 Poles killed in 1943–44 during the massacres of Poles in Volhynia. Losses by ethnic group were 3,100,000 Jews; 2,000,000 ethnic Poles; 500,000 Ukrainians and Belarusians.
Total losses by geographic area were about 4.4 million in present-day Poland and about 1.6 million in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Polish historian Krystyna Kersten estimated losses of about 2.0 million in the Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union. Contemporary Russian sources also include Poland's losses in the annexed territories with Soviet war deaths.
The official Polish government report on war damages prepared in 1947 listed 6,028,000 war victims during the German occupation (including 123,178 military deaths, 2.8 million Poles and 3.2 million Jews), out of a population of 27,007,000 ethnic Poles and Jews; this report excluded ethnic Ukrainian and Belarusian losses. Losses were calculated for the territory of Poland in 1939, including the territories annexed by the USSR. The figure of 6.0 million war dead has been disputed by Polish scholars since the fall of communism who now put the total actual losses at about 3.0 million Jews and 2.0 million ethnic Poles, not including other ethnic groups (Ukrainians and Belarussians). They maintain that the official statistics include those persons who were missing and presumed dead, but actually remained abroad in the West and the USSR after the war.
Polish losses during the Soviet occupation (1939–1941)
In August 2009, Wojciech Materski and Tomasz Szarota of the Polish Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) estimated that 150,000 Polish citizens were killed due to Soviet repression. Since the collapse of the USSR, Polish scholars have been able to do research in the Soviet archives on Polish losses during the Soviet occupation.
In his 2009 book, Andrzej Leon Sowa of the Jagiellonian University states that about 325,000 Polish citizens were deported by the Soviets in 1940–41. The number of the deaths for which the Soviets are responsible "probably did not exceed 100,000", and the same applies to the killings perpetrated by Ukrainian nationalists.
Andrzej Paczkowski puts the number of Polish deaths at 90,000–100,000 of the 1.0 million persons deported and 30,000 executed by the Soviets.
In 2005 Tadeusz Piotrowski estimated the death toll in Soviet hands at 350,000.
An earlier estimate made in 1987 by Franciszek Proch of the Polish Association of Former Political Prisoners of Nazi and Soviet Concentration Camps estimated the total dead due to the Soviet occupation at 1,050,000.
Polish military casualties
Poland lost a total of 139,800 regular soldiers and 100,000 Polish resistance movement fighters during the war. Polish military casualties. Military dead and missing were 66,000 and 130,000 wounded in the 1939 Invasion of Poland, in addition 17,000–19,000 were killed by the Soviets in the Katyn massacre and 12,000 died in German POW camps. The Polish contribution to World War II included the Polish Armed Forces in the West, and the 1st Polish Army fighting under Soviet command. Total casualties of these forces in exile were 33,256 killed in action, 8,548 missing in action, 42,666 wounded and 29,385 interned.The Polish Red Cross reported that the 1944 Warsaw Uprising cost the lives of 120,000–130,000 Polish civilians and 16,000–17,000 Polish resistance movement fighters. The names of Polish war dead are presented at a database online.
During the war, 2,762,000 Polish citizens of German descent declared their loyalty to Germany by signing the Deutsche Volksliste. A West German government report estimated the deaths of 108,000 Polish citizens serving in the German armed forces, these men were conscripted in violation of international law. The Institute of National Remembrance (IPN) estimates 200,000–210,000 Polish citizens, including 76,000 ethnic Poles were conscripted into the Soviet armed forces in 1940–41 during the occupation of the eastern regions. The (IPN) also reported that the Germans conscripted 250,000 Polish nationals into the Wehrmacht, 89,300 later deserted and joined the Polish Armed Forces in the West.
Timor
Officially neutral, East Timor was occupied by Japan during 1942–45. Allied commandos initiated a guerrilla resistance campaign and most deaths were caused by Japanese reprisals against the civilian population. The Australian Dept. of Defence estimated the civilian death toll at 40,000 to 70,000. However, another source puts the death toll at 40,000 to 50,000.
Romania
Demographer Boris Urlanis estimated Romanian war dead at 300,000 military and 200,000 civilians
Total Romanian military war dead were approximately 300,000. Total killed were 93,326 (72,291 with Axis and 21,035 with Allies). Total missing and POW were 341,765 (283,322 with Axis and 58,443 with Allies), only about 80,000 survived Soviet captivity.
Civilian losses included 160,000 Jewish Holocaust dead, the genocide of Roma people 36,000 and 7,693 civilians killed in Allied air raids on Romania
Ruanda Urundi
The Ruzagayura famine from October 1943 to December 1944 was due to a local drought and the harsh wartime policies of the Belgian colonial administration to increase food production for the war effort in the Congo. By the time the famine ended between 36,000 and 50,000 people died of hunger in the territory. Several hundred thousand people also emigrated away from Ruanda-Urundi, most to the Belgian Congo but also to British Uganda.
As Ruanda [Rwanda] was not occupied nor its food supply cut off, these deaths are not usually included with World War II casualties. However, at least one historian has compared the 1943 famine there to the Bengal famine of 1943, which is attributed to war.
South Africa
The war dead of 11,907 listed here are those reported by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission,
The preliminary 1945 data for South African losses was killed 6,840, missing 1,841 wounded 14,363 and POW 14,589.
South Seas Mandate
This territory includes areas now known as the Marshall Islands, Micronesia, Palau, and the Northern Mariana Islands.
Micronesian war related civilian deaths were caused by American bombing and shellfire; and malnutrition caused by the U.S. blockade of the islands. In addition the civilian population was conscripted by the Japanese as forced laborers and were subjected to numerous mindless atrocities.
John W. Dower put Japanese civilian dead in Battle of Saipan at 10,000
Soviet Union
The following notes summarize Soviet casualties, the details are presented in World War II casualties of the Soviet Union
A 1993 report published by the Russian Academy of Science estimated the total Soviet losses in World War II at 26.6 million The Russian Ministry of Defense in 1993 put total military dead and missing in 1941–45 at 8,668,400 These figures have generally been accepted by historians in the west. The total population loss of 26.6 million is an estimate based on a demographic study, it is not an exact accounting of the war dead. The figures of 26.6 million total war dead and 8.668 million military dead are cited by the Russian government for the losses in the war.
Military war dead The figures for Soviet military war dead and missing are disputed. The official report on the military casualties was prepared by Grigori F. Krivosheev According to Krivosheev, the losses of the Red Army and Navy combat forces in the field were 8,668,400 including 5,226,800 killed in action, 555,500 non-combat deaths, 1,102,800 died of wounds 500,000 missing in action.The remaining balance includes 1,103,000 POW dead and 180,000 POWs who remained in western countries at the end of the war. Krivosheev maintains that the higher figure of 3.3 million POW dead cited in western sources is based on German figures and analysis. Krivosheev maintains that these statistics are not correct because they include reservists not on active strength, civilians and military personnel reported missing who were recovered during the course of the war. He maintains that the actual number captured were 4,559,000, he deducted 3,276,000 to arrive at his total of 1.283 million POW irrecoverable losses, his deductions were 500,000 reservists not on actual strength, 939,700 military personnel reported missing who were recovered during the war and 1,836,000 POWs who returned to the Soviet Union at the end of the war. Krivosheev's figures are disputed by historians who put the actual losses at between 10.9 and 11.5 million. Critics of Krivosheev maintain that he underestimated the losses of POWs and missing in action and did he did not include the casualties of those convicted. Data published in Russia by Viktor Zemskov put Soviet POW losses at 2,543,000 (5,734,000 were captured, 821,000 released into German service and 2,371,000 liberated). Zemskov estimated the total military war dead were 11.5 million, including POW dead of 2.3 million and 1.5 million missing in action. S. N. Mikhalev estimated total military irrecoverable losses at 10.922 million. A recent study by Christian Hartmann put Soviet military dead at 11.4 million. Additional losses not included by Krivosheev were 267,300 who died of sickness in hospital, 135,000 convicts executed, and 422,700 convicts sent to penal units at the front. S. N. Mikhalev estimated total military demographic losses at 13.7 million. S. A. Il'enkov, an official of the Central Archives of the Russian Ministry of Defense, maintained, "We established the number of irreplaceable losses of our Armed Forces at the time of the Great Patriotic War of about 13,850,000." Il'enkov and Mikhalev maintained that the field unit reports did not include deaths in rear area hospitals of wounded personnel and personnel captured in the early months of the war. Additional demographic losses to the Soviet military were those imprisoned for desertion after the war and deserters in German military service. According to Krivosheev, the losses of deserters in German service were 215,000. He listed 436,600 convicts who were imprisoned.
Civilian war dead The Russian government puts the civilian death toll due to the war at 13,684,000 (7,420,000 killed, 2,164,000 forced labor deaths in Germany and 4,100,000 deaths due to famine and disease). A Russian academic study estimated an additional 2.5 to 3.2 million civilian dead due to famine and disease in Soviet territory not occupied by the Germans. Statistics published in Russia list civilian war losses of 6,074,857 civilians killed reported by the Extraordinary State Commission in 1946, 641,803 famine deaths during the siege of Leningrad according to official figures, 58,000 killed in bombing raids (40,000 Stalingrad,17,000 Leningrad and 1,000 Moscow), and an additional 645,000 civilian reservists that were killed or captured are also included with civilian casualties. The statistic of forced labor deaths in Germany of 2.164 million includes the balance of POW'S and those convicted not included in Krivosheev's figures. In addition to these losses, a Russian demographic study of the wartime population indicated an increase of 1.3 million in infant mortality caused by the war and that 9–10 million of the 26.6 million total Soviet war dead were due to the worsening of living conditions in the USSR, including the region that was not occupied. The number deaths in the siege of Leningrad have been disputed. According to David Glantz, the 1945 Soviet estimate presented at the Nuremberg Trials was 642,000 civilian deaths. He noted that Soviet era source from 1965 put the number of dead in the Siege of Leningrad at "greater than 800,000" and that a Russian source from 2000 put the number of dead at 1,000,000. These casualties are for 1941–1945 within the 1946–1991 borders of the USSR. Included with civilian losses are deaths in the territories annexed by the USSR in 1939–1940 including 600,000 in the Baltic states and 1,500,000 in Eastern Poland. Russian sources include Jewish Holocaust deaths among total civilian dead. Gilbert put Jewish losses at one million within 1939 borders; Holocaust deaths in the annexed territories numbered an additional 1.5 million, bringing total Jewish losses to 2.5 million.
Alternative viewpoints According to the Russian demographer Dr. L.L. Rybakovsky, there are a wide range of estimates for total war dead by Russian scholars. He cites figures of total war dead that range from 21.8 million up to 28.0 million. Rybakovsky points out that the variables that are used to compute losses are by no means certain and are currently disputed by historians in Russia. Viktor Zemskov put the total war dead at 20 million, he maintained that the official figure of 26.6 million includes about 7 million deaths due to natural causes based on the mortality rate that prevailed before the war. He put military dead at 11.5 million, 4.5 million civilians killed and 4.0 due to famine and disease. Some Russian historians put the figure as high as 46.0 million by counting the population deficit due to children not born. Based on the birth rate prior to the war there is a population shortfall of about 20 million births during the war. The figures for the number of children born during the war and natural deaths are rough estimates because of a lack of vital statistics.
There were additional casualties in 1939–40, which totaled 136,945: Battle of Khalkhin Gol in 1939 (8,931), Invasion of Poland of 1939 (1,139), and the Winter War with Finland in 1939–40 (126,875). The names of many Soviet war dead are presented in the OBD Memorial database online.
Spain
There were 4,500 military deaths with the all Spanish Blue Division serving with the German Army in the U.S.S.R. The unit was withdrawn by Spain in 1943.
R.J. Rummel estimates the deaths of 20,000 anti-Fascist Spanish refugees resident in France who were deported to Nazi camps, these deaths are included with French civilian casualties.
Sweden
During the Winter war of 1939–40 the Swedish Volunteer Corps served with the Finnish Armed Forces and lost 28 men in combat.
33 Swedish sailors were killed when submarine HMS Ulven was sunk by a German mine on April 16, 1943.
During the war, Swedish merchant shipping was attacked by both German and Soviet submarines; 2,000 merchant seamen were killed.
Switzerland
The Americans accidentally bombed neutral Switzerland during the war causing civilian casualties.
Thailand
Military deaths included: 108 dead in the French–Thai War (1940–41) and 5,559 who died either resisting the Japanese invasion (1941), or fighting alongside Japanese forces in the Burma Campaign of 1942–45.
Allied bombing in 1944–45 caused 2,000 civilian deaths.
Unlike other parts of South East Asia, Thailand did not suffer from famine during the war.
Turkey
The Refah tragedy (Turkish: Refah faciası) refers to a maritime disaster during World War II, when the cargo steamer Refah of neutral Turkey, carrying Turkish military personnel from Mersin in Turkey to Port Said, Egypt was sunk in eastern Mediterranean waters by a torpedo fired from an unidentified submarine. Of the 200 passengers and crew aboard, only 32 survived.
.
United Kingdom and Colonies
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission reported a total of 383,758 military dead from all causes for both the UK and non-dominion British colonies, not including India which was reported separately; figures include identified burials and those commemorated by name on memorials. These figures include deaths that occurred after the war up until 31 December 1947
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission also maintains a Roll of Honour of those civilians under Crown Protection (including foreign nationals) who died as a result of enemy actions in the Second World War. The names of 67,170 are commemorated in the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour.
Modern updates of UK casualties including the wounded are contained in online
The official UK report on war casualties of June 1946 provided a summary of the UK war losses, excluding colonies. This report (HMSO 6832) listed:
Total war dead of 357,116; Navy (50,758); Army (144,079); Air Force (69,606); Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service (624);
Merchant Navy (30,248); British Home Guard (1,206) and Civilians (60,595).
The total still missing on 2/28/1946 were 6,244; Navy (340); Army (2,267); Air Force (3,089); Women's Auxiliary Territorial Service (18);
Merchant Navy (530); British Home Guard (0) and Civilians (0).
These figures included the losses of Newfoundland and Southern Rhodesia.
Colonial forces are not included in these figures.
There were an additional 31,271 military deaths due to "natural causes" which are not included in these figures.
Deaths due to air and V-rocket attacks were 60,595 civilians and 1,206 British Home Guard.
The preliminary 1945 data for UK colonial forces was killed 6,877, missing 14,208, wounded 6,972 and POW 8,115.
UK casualties include losses of the colonial forces. UK colonial forces included units from East Africa, West Africa, Ghana, the Caribbean, Malaya, Burma, Hong Kong, Jordan, Sudan, Malta and the Jewish Brigade. The Cyprus Regiment made up of volunteers that fought with the UK Army, and suffered about 358 killed and 250 missing. Gurkhas recruited from Nepal fought with the British Army during the Second World War. Included with UK casualties are citizens of the various European countries occupied by Germany. There were separate RAF squadrons with citizens from Poland (17); Czechoslovakia (5); Netherlands (1); Free French (7); Yugoslavia (2); Belgium (3); Greece (3); Norway (2). Volunteers from the United States served in 3 RAF squadrons known as the Eagle Squadrons. Many foreign nationals and persons from the British colonies served in the UK Merchant Navy.
United States
American military dead#
Total U.S. military deaths in battle and from other causes were 407,316. The breakout by service is as follows: Army 318,274 (234,874 battle, 83,400 nonbattle), Navy 62,614, Marine Corps 24,511, and the Coast Guard 1,917.
Deaths in battle were 292,131. The breakout by service is as follows: Army 234,874, Navy 36,950, Marine Corps 19,733, and Coast Guard 574. These losses were incurred during the period 12/8/41 until 12/31/46
During the period of America's neutrality in World War II (September 1, 1939 – December 8, 1941), U.S. military losses including 126 killed in October 1941 when the USS Kearny and the USS Reuben James were attacked by U-Boats, as well as 2,335 killed during the surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by Japanese air forces on December 7, 1941.
The United States Army Air Forces losses, which are included in the Army total, were 52,173 deaths due to combat and 35,946 from non-combat causes.
U.S. Combat Dead by Theater of war: Europe–Atlantic 183,588 (Army ground forces 141,088, Army Air Forces 36,461, and Navy/Coast Guard 6,039); Asia–Pacific 108,504 (Army ground forces 41,592, Army Air Forces 15,694, Navy/Coast Guard 31,485, Marine Corps 19,733); unidentified theaters 39 (Army). Included with combat deaths are 14,059 POWs (1,124 in Europe and 12,935 in Asia). The details of U.S. military casualties are listed online: the U.S. Army, the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Marine Corps.
U.S. Army figures include the deaths of 5,337 from the Philippines and 165 from Puerto Rico (see p. 118).
The names of individual U.S. military personnel killed in World War II can be found at the U.S. National Archives.
American Battle Monuments Commission website lists the names of military and civilian war dead from World War II buried in ABMC cemeteries or listed on Walls of the Missing.
American civilian dead #
According to the Usmm.org, 9,521 merchant mariners lost their lives in the war (8,421 killed and 1,100 who later died of wounds). In 1950, the United States Coast Guard put U.S. Merchant Marine losses at 5,662 (845 due to enemy action, 37 in prison camps, and 4,780 missing), excluding U.S. Army transports and foreign flagged ships and they did not break out losses between the Atlantic and Pacific theaters.
The names of U.S. Merchant Mariners killed in World War II are listed by USMM.org.
The Civil Air Patrol assumed many missions including anti-submarine patrol and warfare, border patrols, and courier services. During World War II CAP's coastal patrol had flown 24 million miles, found 173 enemy U-boats, attacked 57, hit 10 and sunk 2, dropping a total of 83 bombs and depth charges throughout the conflict. By the end of the war, 64 CAP members had lost their lives in the line of duty.
According to U.S. War Department figures, 18,745 American civilians were interned in the war (13,996 in the Far East and 4,749 in Europe). A total of 2,419 American civilian internees were listed as dead and missing. Under Japanese internment, 992 died and another 544 were listed as "unknown"; under German internment, 168 died and a further 715 were listed as "unknown".
68 U.S. civilians were killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.
The official U.S. report listed 1 U.S. civilian killed during the Battle of Guam on December 8–10. However, another source reported 13 "civilians" killed during the battle and 70 U.S. civilians were killed during the Battle of Wake Island from December 8–23, 1941. 98 U.S. civilian POWs were massacred by the Japanese on Wake Island in October 1943.
During Japan's Aleutian Islands Campaign in Alaska in June 1942, a U.S. civilian was killed during the bombing of Dutch Harbor. The Japanese invaded the island of Attu, killing a white U.S. civilian and interned 45 Alaska Native Aleuts in Japan, in which 19 died during the rest of the war.
Six U.S. civilians were killed in Oregon in May 1945 by Japanese balloon bombs.
Yugoslavia
The official Yugoslav figure for total war dead is 1.7 million (300,000 military and 1,400,000 civilians). This figure is cited in reference works dealing with World War II Studies in Yugoslavia by Franjo Tudjman and Ivo Lah put losses at 2.1 million However, the official Yugoslav figure has been disputed studies by Vladimir Žerjavić and Bogoljub Kočović who put actual losses at about 1.0 million persons. The calculation of Yugoslav losses is not an exact accounting listing of the dead, but is based on demographic calculations of the population balance which estimate births during the war and natural deaths. The number of persons who emigrated after the war (ethnic Germans, Hungarians, Italians and Yugoslav refugees to the west) are rough estimates.
The U.S. Bureau of the Census published a report in 1954 that concluded that Yugoslav war-related deaths were 1,067,000. The U.S. Bureau of the Census noted that the official Yugoslav government figure of 1.7 million war dead was overstated because it "was released soon after the war and was estimated without the benefit of a postwar census".
A recent study by Vladimir Žerjavić estimates total war related deaths at 1,027,000, which included losses of 237,000 Yugoslav partisans and 209,000 "Quislings and collaborators" (see discussion below losses of Yugoslav collaborators) Civilian dead of 581,000 included 57,000 Jews. Losses by each Yugoslav republic were: Bosnia 316,000; Serbia 273,000; Croatia 271,000; Slovenia 33,000; Montenegro 27,000; Macedonia 17,000; and killed abroad 80,000.
Bogoljub Kočović, a Yugoslav statistician, calculated the actual war losses at 1,014,000.
Jozo Tomasevich, Professor Emeritus of Economics at San Francisco State University, stated that the calculations of Kočović and Žerjavić "seem to be free of bias, we can accept them as reliable".
The losses of Yugoslav collaborators
Croatian emigres in the west made exaggerated allegations that 500,000–600,000 Croatians and Chetniks were massacred by the Partisans after the war; these claims are cited by Rudolph Rummel in his study Statistics of DemocideJozo Tomasevich noted that the figures of the number of collaborators killed by the Partisans are disputed. According to Tomasevich some Croatian exiles "have been more moderate in their estimates", putting the death toll at "about 200,000". Regarding the death toll in the reprisals by the Yugoslav partisans Tomasevich believed that "It is impossible to establish the exact number of victims in these operations, although fairly accurate figures could probably be reached after much additional unbiased research"
The reasons for the high human toll in Yugoslavia were as follows
A. Military operations between the occupying German military forces and their "Quislings and collaborators" against the Yugoslav resistance.
B. German forces, under express orders from Hitler, fought with a special vengeance against the Serbs, who were considered Untermensch. One of the worst one-day massacres during the German military occupation of Serbia was the Kragujevac massacre.
C. Deliberate acts of reprisal against target populations were perpetrated by all combatants. All sides practiced the shooting of hostages on a large scale. At the end of the war, many Ustaše and Slovene collaborators were killed in or as a result of the Yugoslav death march of Nazi collaborators.
D. The systematic extermination of large numbers of people for political, religious or racial reasons. The most numerous victims were Serbs. According to Yad Vashem, "During their four years in power, the Ustasa carried out a Serb genocide, exterminating over 500,000, expelling 250,000 and forcing another 200,000 to convert to Catholicism. The Ustasa also killed most of Croatia's Jews, 20,000 Gypsies, and many thousands of their political enemies." According to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum "The Croat authorities murdered between 320,000 and 340,000 ethnic Serb residents of Croatia and Bosnia during the period of Ustaša rule; more than 30,000 Croatian Jews were killed either in Croatia or at Auschwitz-Birkenau".
The USHMM reports between 77,000 and 99,000 persons were killed at the Jasenovac and Stara Gradiška concentration camps. The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims. Stara Gradiška was a sub-camp of Jasenovac established for women and children. The names and data for 12,790 victims at Stara Gradiška have been established. Serbian sources currently claim that 700,000 persons were murdered at Jasenovac
Some 40,000 Roma were murdered. Jewish victims in Yugoslavia totaled 67,122.
E. Reduced food supply caused famine and disease.
F. Allied bombing of German supply lines caused civilian casualties. The hardest hit localities were Podgorica, Leskovac, Zadar and Belgrade.
G. The demographic losses due to the reduction of 335,000 births and emigration of about 660,000 are not included with war casualties.
Other Nations
Dominican Republic had 27 Merchant Mariners killed
References
Further reading
External links
Documenting Numbers of Victims of the Holocaust and Nazi Persecution
The Central Database of Shoah Victims' Names
Demographic history | [
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240902 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United%20States%20theaters%20of%20operations%20in%20World%20War%20II | United States theaters of operations in World War II | During World War II, the United States Army divided its operations around the world into four theaters. Forces from many different Allied nations fought in these theaters. Other Allied countries have different conceptions of the theaters and/or different names for them.
European Theater of Operations campaigns
US Army
The 16 officially recognized US Army campaigns in the European Theater of Operations are:
North Africa campaigns:
Egypt-Libya: 11 June 1942 – 12 February 1943, American participation in the Western Desert campaign
Algeria-French Morocco: 8–11 November 1942, the allied landings in North Africa
Tunisia: 17 November 1942 – 13 May 1943, the Tunisian campaign
Italy campaigns:
Sicily: 9 July – 17 August 1943, the allied invasion and liberation of Sicily
Naples-Foggia:
Air: 18 August 1943 – 21 January 1944
Ground: 9 September 1943 – 21 January 1944, from the Allied invasion of Italy to the Winter Line battles
Anzio: 22 January – 24 May 1944, the landing and battle at Anzio
Rome–Arno: 22 January – 9 September 1944, from the landing at Anzio to the arrival at the Gothic Line
Northern Apennines: 10 September 1944 – 4 April 1945, the Gothic Line battles
Po Valley: 5 April – 8 May 1945, the allied spring offensive 1945
Western Europe campaigns:
Air Offensive Europe: 4 July 1942 – 5 June 1944, from the first American bombing mission over enemy-occupied territory in Europe to the night before D-day
Normandy: 6 June – 24 July 1944, the allied landings in Normandy
Northern France: 25 July – 14 September 1944, from Operation Cobra to the beginning of Operation Market Garden
Southern France: 15 August – 14 September 1944, the allied landings in Southern France
Rhineland: 15 September 1944 – 21 March 1945, from Operation Market Garden to the start of the allied invasion of Germany
Ardennes-Alsace: 16 December 1944 – 25 January 1945, the Battle of the Bulge
Central Europe: 22 March – 11 May 1945, the allied invasion of Germany
US Navy
The nine officially recognized US Navy campaigns in the European Theater of Operations are:
North African occupation: allied landings in North Africa
Sicilian occupation: allied landings in Sicily
Salerno landings: allied landings in Southern Italy
West Coast of Italy operations (1944): allied landing at Anzio and subsequent supply of the Anzio beachhead
Invasion of Normandy: allied landings in Normandy
Northeast Greenland operation
Invasion of Southern France: allied landings in Southern France
Reinforcement of Malta: allied convoys to supply besieged Malta
Escort, antisubmarine, armed guard and special operations
Pacific Theater of Operations
Operational commands were the Pacific Ocean and South West Pacific.
US Army
The 16 officially recognized US Army campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations are:
Pacific Ocean Areas Command:
Central Pacific: 7 December 1941 – 6 December 1943, allied landings on Tarawa and Makin during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
Air Offensive Japan: 17 April 1942 – 2 September 1945
Aleutian Islands: 3 June 1942 – 24 August 1943, the Aleutian Islands campaign
Northern Solomons: 22 February 1943 – 21 November 1944, part of the Solomon Islands campaign
Eastern Mandates: 31 January – 14 June 1944, allied landings on Kwajalein and Eniwetok during the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign
Western Pacific: 15 June 1944 – 2 September 1945, the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign
Ryukyus: 26 March – 2 July 1945, the allied landings on Okinawa
South West Pacific Areas Command:
Philippine Islands: 7 December 1941 – 10 May 1942, the Japanese conquest Philippines
East Indies: 1 January – 22 July 1942, Japanese conquest of the Dutch East Indies
Papua: 23 July 1942 – 23 January 1943, part of the New Guinea campaign
Guadalcanal: 7 August 1942 – 21 February 1943, the Guadalcanal campaign
New Guinea: 24 January 1943 – 31 December 1944, the New Guinea campaign
Bismarck Archipelago: 15 December 1943 – 27 November 1944
Leyte: 17 October 1944 – 1 July 1945, allied landings and liberation of Leyte
Luzon: 15 December 1944 – 4 July 1945, allied landings and liberation of Luzon
Southern Philippines: 27 February – 4 July 1945, allied liberation of the Southern Philippines during the Philippines campaign
US Navy campaigns
The 43 officially recognized US Navy campaigns in the Pacific Theater of Operations are:
Pearl Harbor: Pearl Harbor-Midway: 7 December 1941
Wake Island: 8–23 December 1941
Philippine Islands operation: 8 December 1941 – 6 May 1942
Netherlands East Indies engagements: 23 January – 27 February 1942
Pacific raids (1942): 1 February – 10 March 1942
Coral Sea: 4–8 May 1942
Midway: 3–6 June 1942
Guadalcanal-Tulagi landings: 7–9 August 1942 (First Savo)
Capture and defense of Guadalcanal: 10 August 1942 – 8 February 1943
Makin Raid: 17–18 August 1942
Eastern Solomons 23–25 August 1942
Buin-Faisi-Tonolai raid: 5 October 1942
Cape Esperance: 11–12 October 1942 (Second Savo)
Santa Cruz Islands: 26 October 1942
Guadalcanal: 12–15 November 1942 (Third Savo)
Tassafaronga: 30 November – 1 December 1942 (Fourth Savo)
Eastern New Guinea operation: 17 December 1942 – 24 July 1944
Rennel Island: 29-30 January 1943
Consolidation of Solomon Islands: 8 February 1943 – 15 March 1945
Aleutians operation: 26 March – 2 June 1943
New Georgia Group operation: 20 June – 16 October 1943
Bismarck Archipelago operation: 25 June 1943 – 1 May 1944
Pacific raids (1943): 31 August – 6 October 1943
Treasury-Bougainville operation: 27 October – 15 December 1943
Gilbert Islands operation: 13 November – 8 December 1943
Marshall Islands operation: 26 November 1943 – 2 March 1944
Asiatic-Pacific raids (1944): 16 February – 9 October 1944
Western New Guinea operations: 21 April 1944 – 9 January 1945
Marianas operation: 10 June – 27 August 1944
Western Caroline Islands operation: 31 August – 14 October 1944
Leyte operation: 10 October – 29 November 1944
Luzon operation: 12 December 1944 – 1 April 1945
Iwo Jima operation 15 February – 16 March 1945
Okinawa Gunto operation: 17 March – 30 June 1945
Third Fleet operations against Japan: 10 July – 15 August 1945
Kurile Islands operation: 1 February 1944 – 11 August 1945
Borneo operations: 27 April – 20 July 1945
Tinian capture and occupation: 24 July – 1 August 1944
Consolidation of the Southern Philippines: 28 February – 20 July 1945
Hollandia operation: 21 April – 1 June 1944
Manila Bay-Bicol operations: 29 January – 16 April 1945
Escort, antisubmarine, armed guard and special operations: 7 December 1941 – 2 September 1945
Submarine War Patrols (Pacific): 7 December 1941 – 2 September 1945
China Burma India Theater
The China Burma India Theater served more as an Administrative Command rather than a Theater of Operations and lacked any true Operational Command. The Operational Command was joint Allied South East Asia Command in the South-East Asian Theater. The American General Joseph Stilwell commanded the operational Northern Combat Area Command and used his other positions to communicate directly with Joint Chiefs of Staff about operational matters.
The officially recognized US Army campaigns in the China Burma India Theater are:
Burma campaigns:
Burma 1942: 7 December 1941 – 26 May 1942, allied defensive operations during the Japanese conquest of Burma
India-Burma: 2 April 1942 – 28 January 1945, allied operations in Burma 1942–43 and Burma and India 1944
Central Burma: 29 January – 15 July 1945, the allied Burma offensive in 1945
China campaigns:
China Defensive: 4 July 1942 – 4 May 1945
China Offensive: 5 May – 2 September 1945
References
Theaters and campaigns of World War II
Military units and formations of the United States Army in World War II | [
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240904 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sleeping%20pad | Sleeping pad | In camping, a ground pad, sleeping pad, thermal pad, sleeping mat, or roll mat is lightweight pad, common among hikers, backpackers and budget travelers, often used in conjunction with a sleeping bag. Its purpose is to provide padding and thermal insulation. All types currently available use air as their primary form of insulation.
In its simplest form a sleeping pad consists of a foam-like material that is about half a centimeter thick (about a quarter of an inch). The dimensions of the pad are usually about the same length as a sleeping bag and a little wider. Slight variations in design can be found, such as rippling in the foam, but these do not significantly affect the pad's thermal properties.
A common misconception is that the pads are primarily for creating a more comfortable sleeping or sitting area. Instead, the primary purpose of the pad is to prevent the loss of body heat into the ground while sleeping. The materials used are typically filled with air pockets, slowing down the conduction of heat through the pad, as air is one of the best (and cheapest) insulators.
Types
Manually inflated
Closely related to the air mattress, a pad of this type requires an external pressure source to inflate, typically in the form of a pump or by blowing orally. Convection of the air inside the mattress reduces the amount of insulation it provides. More complicated mattresses reduce convection by partitioning the internal cavities, or by filling the cavities with material to trap the air such as down feathers or synthetic insulation. Manually inflated pads have the advantage of offering good thickness and a great deal of comfort while being lightweight and able to pack to a small size.
Self-inflating
An extension on the conventional manually inflated mattress, this type is capable of self-inflation due to the open-cell foam that fills the internal cavity. For many years this design was protected by various patents held by Cascade Designs and they were an unusual and premium item. But since these patents expired many other manufacturers are now producing this type of mattress and they are now commonplace. These mattresses are lightweight and pack to a small size, which make them popular amongst hikers and campers.
Foam
Closed-cell foam is used to produce mats that can be used without requiring any inflation. Closed-cell foam pads are lighter and more durable than their self-inflating counterparts, as they are constructed of fewer materials and not susceptible to damage from accidental puncture. Many may also be trimmed to size should the user choose to do so. However, they are generally not as comfortable as manually inflated and self-inflating mats because they are thinner, and may also take up more space in a pack, depending on the materials used. Variations include textured or shaped foam to increase the unrolled volume and/or change the stiffness of the mattress. This can also be used to trap the air within ridges or an egg-carton type of texture.
Open-cell foam, although comfortable, is rarely used in the outdoors due to its ability to absorb water (like a sponge) and its air cells are crushed in use reducing its insulation capacity.
Insulation / ratings
A sleeping pads's warmth is characterized by R-value. But unlike sleeping bags' EN 13537 test standard and widely accepted recommendations, sleeping pad R-values lacks a simple mapping and label for 'how much warmth' a consumer should expect. Combining various standards and various authors' research, an approximate R-value to temperature chart follows:
Same as EN 13537, a "standard man" is assumed to be 25 years old, with a height of 1.73 m and a weight of 73 kg; a "standard woman" is assumed to be 25 years old, with a height of 1.60 m and a weight of 60 kg. The sleeping bag and pad system (above, below, and sides) should provide the same insulation value all around a person, but cost, size, weight, comfort, and lack-of-knowledge often lead persons to reduce the R-value to below their personal 'recommended R-value'. Since the pad and bag work together, a 'warmer' bag can compensate the a 'thin' pad and a 'thick pad' for a 'cold' bag. Highly heat-conductive surfaces (e.g. concrete, granite) require more insulation for the same temperature than insulating ground surfaces (e.g.snow, dry moss, loose soil, wood, etc.). More heat is lost downward when sleeping on one's stomach vs sleeping one's side (due to reduced contact area and cooler body parts in contact). Most persons can 'feel the cold ground' at approximately half the 'recommended R-values'.
Sleeping pads R-values range from 1 to more than 10. A few category examples follow:
See also
Swag (bedroll)
Yoga mat
References
Camping equipment
Travel gear
Mattresses | [
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240905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrelaps | Austrelaps | Austrelaps is a genus of venomous elapid snakes native to the relatively fertile, temperate, southern and eastern part of the Australian continent. Three species are currently recognized, with no subspecies. They are commonly called copperheads or Australian copperheads. They are not closely related to the American copperhead, Agkistrodon contortrix.
Description
There are three species of Australian copperheads: the pygmy, the highland, and the lowland. The pygmy copperhead is long, and lives in South Australia and on Kangaroo Island. The highland copperhead is in length and lives in alpine areas of Victoria and New South Wales. The lowland copperhead reaches in length and lives in southern Victoria into Tasmania.
Australian copperheads are usually of medium size, , only rarely being more than long, and have a moderate build. Their colour varies a great deal, from a coppery mid-brown to yellowish, reddish, grey or even black, depending on the individual. The copper head colouring that gave rise to the common name is not always present. Some individuals also have visible markings just behind the head. Perhaps in consequence of their great variation, it was not realised until the second half of the 20th century that there were three different species. Venom toxicity has been measured at 0.5 mg/kg subcutaneous, at least for the lowland copperhead.
Common names
Common names include copperhead, diamond snake, superb snake, lowland snake, and highland snake.
Distribution and habitat
Copperheads are well adapted to cooler climates; they remain active after most reptiles have become dormant, and are the first to resume hunting at the end of winter. Their favoured habitat is near water. While they are moderately uncommon elsewhere, they congregate in substantial numbers where conditions are suitable.
Behaviour
Copperheads are diurnal at most times of year, but switch to night hunting in hot weather.
Diet
Copperheads are very much at home in the water; they swim well and often hunt tadpoles. They are generalised carnivores and will take any suitably-sized prey, including their own young, but the major diet item is frogs. Where frogs are common, so too are copperheads, and other snakes tend to be rare.
Breeding
Breeding starts in spring, and females give birth in late summer to about 14 live young, each a little under long.
Venom
Like all elapids (members of the family Elapidae), Australian copperheads have hollow, fixed fangs mounted at the front of the jaw. They are shy and retiring by nature, and prefer to escape rather than fight where escape is possible. Their venom is, by Australian standards, only moderately toxic (equal on a per-mg basis to that of the Indian cobra). Nevertheless, they deliver a substantial quantity of venom, and a copperhead bite left untreated can easily kill a healthy adult human. There is no specific copperhead antivenom, but tiger snake antivenom is effective.
Species
References
External links
Integrated Taxonomic Information System - Austrelaps
Snakes of Australia
Snake genera
Taxa named by Eric Worrell | [
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240906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Kinsley | Billy Kinsley | William Ellis Kinsley (born 28 November 1946) is an English musician, who was lead vocalist and bassist with The Merseybeats until 1966 (although he temporarily left the band both to form the Kinsleys) The group disbanded in January 1966 to resurface as a duo called The Merseys. They recorded The McCoys' song "Sorrow" (also covered by David Bowie on his 1973 cover album, Pin Ups) with the band before embarking on a solo career, where he recorded "Bye Bye Baby" (not to be confused with a Four Seasons track of a similar title), a typical Merseybeat tune, followed by the singles "Annabella", and "You Make My Day".
Kinsley was born in Anfield, Liverpool. His session work notably included working for Apple Records (alongside George Harrison on at least one song for Jackie Lomax). He also worked on the popular Top of the Pops record series, which contained anonymous cover versions of recent and current hit singles. During this time he worked with fellow musician friend, Jimmy Campbell, and formed the band Rockin' Horse. They recorded one album and toured England and Europe as the backing band for Chuck Berry.
Kinsley later formed Liverpool Express in the mid-1970s, and again experienced chart success with "You Are My Love", mentioned by Paul McCartney as one of his favourite love songs, plus "Every Man Must Have A Dream", "Dreamin", "Hold Tight", and "Smile". They toured the UK and Europe supporting Rod Stewart, released more singles, and found popularity in South America (they were the first band to play large stadiums in Brazil). They had quite a few hit singles all over South America, and three of their singles ("You Are My Love", "Dreamin'", and "Every Man Must Have A Dream") reached No. 1 in the charts. In 1978, they played at the Royal Gala Performance at the request of Prince Charles, at the Empire Theatre in Liverpool. The following year, after three albums and more single releases, they had no further chart success.
Kinsley formed a side band, The Cheats, with members Kenny Parry (guitar), and Brian Rawling (drums), playing pubs and clubs in and around Merseyside. In the mid-1980s, Phil Chittuck joined the band in place of Rawling, and they released the following two singles (as Liverpool Express): "So What" and "If You're Out There". Kinsley later took on more session work. Then most notably he joined (with old friend Kenny Parry) The Pete Best Band, with whom he recorded a live album Live At The Adelphi (recorded in 1988), and on which he plays bass and sings lead vocal and is credited with "editing" (the album was not released until the 1990s) as well as working on a single ("Heaven"). In the mid-1990s, Kinsley re-joined The Merseybeats. In 1999, he once again joined The Pete Best Band and recorded Casbah Coffee Club, which he produced and sang lead vocal, played bass, and rhythm guitar (once again bringing along his friend Kenny Parry to play lead guitar on some tracks). Liverpool Express recorded an album in 2003, Once Upon a Time, which followed a best of album, and a single, a tribute to the Beatles, titled "John George Ringo & Paul".
In 2009, Spencer Leigh of BBC Radio Merseyside produced a four-part radio series about Kinsley's career, entitled It's Love That Really Counts, which featured interviews with Kinsley and others, and music from his career. A book was also issued under the same title, as well as a CD featuring new recordings.
References
External links
1946 births
Living people
English pop guitarists
English male guitarists
English male singers
English pop singers
Musicians from Liverpool
The Merseybeats members
Liverpool Express members | [
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240907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daddy%20Day%20Care | Daddy Day Care | Daddy Day Care is a 2003 American family comedy film starring Eddie Murphy, Jeff Garlin, Steve Zahn, Regina King, and Anjelica Huston. Written by Geoff Rodkey and directed by Steve Carr, it marks Murphy and Carr's second collaboration after Dr. Dolittle 2 (2001). The plot follows two fathers who start a child day care out of their home after they are laid off from their corporate jobs.
The film was released in the United States on May 9, 2003, by Columbia Pictures. It received generally negative reviews from critics, and grossed $164 million worldwide on a budget of $60 million. The movie was followed by two sequels, in the film series of the same name.
Plot
Marketing executive Charlie Hinton and his best friend, Phil Ryerson, along with 300 others, find themselves fired when their boss, CEO Jim Fields, shuts down the company's entire health division due to children disliking new, healthy breakfast cereals made from vegetables.
While his wife Kim supports the family by returning to work as a lawyer, Charlie, after six weeks of job hunting, is forced by the bank to take their young son Ben out of Chapman Academy - an expensive and over-academic preschool headed by the haughty Gwyneth Harridan. Unable to find a satisfactory alternative, Charlie opens a daycare center in his home with the help of Phil, calling it "Daddy Day Care". Although local parents are suspicious of men working with kids, a few choose their service as it's cheaper and more child-based.
Charlie and Phil open with a few children, struggling at first with chaos, and some personal issues. Angered at the competition, Harridan attempts to shut them down, notifying child services of the new daycare. Charlie and Phil find themselves rectifying problems pointed out by Dan Kubitz, a director of child services, to ensure their daycare is suitable for children, including hiring their former colleague Marvin as an additional care provider.
In time, they slowly begin to enjoy running Daddy Day Care, which grows in popularity, and bonding with the kids, with Charlie delighted to see Ben enjoying himself, and having a good time. However, Harridan continues trying to shut them down after losing children to them. When Kubitz points out the house cannot accommodate the number of children they have, Charlie opts to find a new permanent facility somewhere in the city for the daycare rather than remove a few of the kids to keep it operating.
Marvin quickly mentions he knows of a building with potential, but they cannot afford it. They decide to hold a fundraising children's festival called "Rock for Daddy Day Care", to raise the necessary capital. However, Harridan learns of the event and sabotages it with help from her hesitant assistant Jennifer. At the same time, Jim offers Charlie and Phil their old jobs back at double their salaries, letting them run the whole health division. Harridan offers to take in their children for a cheaper price in exchange for Daddy Day Care shutting down. Charlie and Phil reluctantly accept the offer, leaving Marvin heartbroken and refusing to join them. The next day, at the marketing meeting for a cereal made from cotton candy, Charlie questions his decision, after he realizes the impact Daddy Day Care has had on Ben and the other children. He declares that his kid, Ben, is the most important thing to him, and quits.
Convincing Phil to quit with him and re-open Daddy Day Care, and informing Marvin of their plans, Charlie confronts Harridan during a student orientation and reveals to the parents in attendance how little she cares about their children. After mentioning how much Daddy Day Care changed and helped the children, like potty training Max, teaching Becca to read, teaching Crispin how to be polite and helping Ben make friends, Charlie convinces the parents to go back to Daddy Day Care. Six months later, the daycare manages to buy the building it needs to expand, and prospers, with Charlie and Phil successful, Jennifer now working for the center, and Marvin entering a relationship with one of the children's mothers. With Chapman forced out of business, Harridan is forced to work as a crossing guard. When one of her former children, Crispin, gives her a flower, it attracts bees, causing her to fight them off, inadvertently creating a traffic jam by shooing the bees away with her stop sign.
Cast
Eddie Murphy as Charles "Charlie" Hinton
Jeff Garlin as Phillip "Phil" Ryerson
Steve Zahn as Marvin
Regina King as Kimberly "Kim" Hinton
Anjelica Huston as Miss Gwyneth Harridan
Khamani Griffin as Benjamin "Ben" Hinton
Kevin Nealon as Bruce
Jonathan Katz as Daniel "Dan" Kubitz
Lacey Chabert as Jennifer "Jenny"
Max Burkholder as Maxwell "Max" Ryerson
Jimmy Bennett as Tony/Flash
Leila Arcieri as Kelli
Shane Baumel as Crispin
Elle Fanning as Jamie
Felix Achille as Dylan
Hailey Noelle Johnson as Becca
Siobhan Fallon Hogan as Peggy
Arthur Young as Nicky
Wallace Langham as Jim Fields
Lisa Edelstein as Bruce's wife/Crispin's mother
Mark Griffin as Steve
Laura Kightlinger as Sheila
Cheap Trick appear as themselves at the Rock for Daddy Day Care charity event.
Production
In April 2002, The Hollywood Reporter reported Eddie Murphy was to reteam with Steve Carr, who directed Dr. Dolittle 2, on Daddy Day Care. In June 2002, Anjelica Huston was in negotiations to join the cast. The following month, Revolution Studios set Jeff Garlin, as well as Steve Zahn, to join Murphy in the film. Shooting began on August 1, 2002 in Los Angeles, California.
Production was started on August 5, 2002, and wrapped on November 22, 2002. In December 2002, the film's poster was officially released, with the tagline, D-Day is coming.
Release
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, Daddy Day Care has an approval rating of 27% based on 132 reviews, with an average rating of 4.51/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "Daddy Day Care does its job of babysitting the tots. Anyone older will probably be bored." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 39 out of 100, based on 31 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A–" on an A+ to F scale.
Todd McCarthy from Variety called it "Scarcely more amusing than spending ninety minutes in a pre K classroom" and a "comically undernourished junk food snack".
Box office
Despite the negative critical ratings, the film was a box office success, grossing over $160 million worldwide based on a $60 million budget. The film was released in the United Kingdom on July 11, 2003, and opened at #3, behind Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle and Bruce Almighty. The next two weekends, the film moved down one place, before finally ending up at No. 10 on August 1.
Sequels
In August 2003, soon after the release of Daddy Day Care, Murphy was rumored to be involved in a sequel film, although he had not signed up for one. A sequel was released on August 8, 2007, titled Daddy Day Camp, with Cuba Gooding, Jr. replacing Murphy as Charlie Hinton and Sony once again distributes the film (this time under TriStar). The film was panned by critics, with a 1% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. It won the Razzie Award for "Worst Prequel or Sequel."
References
External links
2003 films
2003 comedy films
American films
American buddy films
English-language films
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in California
Films directed by Steve Carr
Columbia Pictures films
Revolution Studios films
Davis Entertainment films
Films scored by David Newman
Films produced by John Davis
American children's comedy films
Films produced by Wyck Godfrey | [
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240908 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baka | Baka | Baka, baká or BAKA may refer to:
Ethnicities and languages
Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon), an African ethnic group
Baka people (Congo and South Sudan), an African ethnic group
Baka language, a dialect cluster of Cameroon and Gabon
Baka language (South Sudan), a Central Sudanic language of South Sudan
People with the name
Józef Baka, 18th century poet, Jesuit priest and missionary
Latifa Baka (born 1964), Moroccan author
Bikheris or Ba-Ka, Fourth Dynasty Egyptian pharaoh
Baka (prince), Fourth Dynasty Egyptian prince who might be the above-named Bikheris
Baka Prase (born 1996), Serbian YouTuber, rapper, gamer and entertainer
Fictional and mythical characters
Bakasura, a mythical demon in the Mahabharata also known as Baka
Baka Brahma, a deity in Buddhism - see Brahmā (Buddhism)
Bākā, a character from Juken Sentai Gekiranger
Cirno, a fictional character from the Touhou Project who is often referred to by its fans and creator as "baka"
Places
Baka, Burkina Faso, a village in Gnagna Province
Baka, Iran, a village in Hormozgan Province
Baka, Jerusalem, a neighborhood in southern Jerusalem, Israel
Baka, Slovakia, a village in Dunajská Streda District
Bakkah, also transliterated Baka, another name for Mecca, Saudi Arabia
Baká, one of the municipalities of Nicaragua
Other uses
Baka (Japanese word), meaning "fool; idiot; foolish", and which applies to:
Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka, or Baka, Japanese suicide planes
BAKA, the Muslim chaplain service of the Royal Malaysian Police
Baka indigobird (Vidua larvaticola), a variant spelling of barka indigobird, an African species of bird
Baka, the 1990 debut album of the world-music group Outback (group)
See also
The Baka Boyz (Nick and Eric Vidal), nationally syndicated radio hosts in the US
Baka Rangers, a group of Negima! Magister Negi Magi characters
Bakas, a village in Uttar Pradesh, India
Amalia Bakas (1897–1979), Greek singer born Mazaltov Matsa
Rifaiz Bakas (born 1982), Dutch former cricketer
Language and nationality disambiguation pages | [
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240909 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshiwara | Yoshiwara | was a famous (red-light district) in Edo, present-day Tokyo, Japan. Established in 1617, Yoshiwara was one of three licensed and well-known red-light districts created during the early 17th century by the Tokugawa shogunate, alongside Shimabara in Kyoto in 1640 and Shinmachi in Osaka.
Created by the shogunate to curtail the tastes of and sequester the nouveau riche (merchant) classes, the entertainment offered in Yoshiwara, alongside other licensed districts, would eventually give rise to the creation of geisha, who would become known as the fashionable companions of the classes and simultaneously cause the demise of , the upper-class courtesans of the red-light districts.
History
17th and 18th century
The licensed district of Yoshiwara was created in the city of Edo, near to the area today known as Nihonbashi, itself close to the beginning of the Tōkaidō road, the primary route to western Kyoto during the Edo period.
In 1656, due to the need for space as the city grew, the government decided to relocate Yoshiwara, with plans being made to move the district to its present location north of Asakusa on the outskirts of the city.
Having been established some decades earlier, the original Yoshiwara district burned down, along with much of the city, in the Great fire of Meireki of 1657; it was then rebuilt in its new location, named 'Shin Yoshiwara' ('New Yoshiwara'), the old location being known as 'Moto Yoshiwara' ('Original Yoshiwara'), though the moniker of 'new' was eventually dropped, with the rebuilt district becoming known simply as Yoshiwara.
Yoshiwara was home to some 1,750 women in the 18th century, with records of some 3,000 women from all over Japan at one time. Many were typically indentured to their brothel; if indentured by their parents, a larger advance payment would often be received. Though contracts of indenture often did not last more than five to ten years, the debt sometimes accrued by these women could keep them working there for much longer. However, a significant number either served out their contracts and married a client, went into other employment (including other forms of prostitution), or returned to their family homes. In these cases, the advanced payments a woman's parents received could be used to fund her dowry. Despite this, many women also died of sexually transmitted diseases, or following failed abortions, before completing their contracts.
If chosen to receive the correct training at a young age, a girl indentured to a brothel could become an apprentice to a high-ranking courtesan; when the girl was old enough and had completed her training, she would become a courtesan herself and work her way up the ranks. Another path to success and eventual freedom for a working woman in Yoshiwara was for a rich man to buy out her contract from the brothel, and thus keep her as his wife or mistress; a further path would be for a woman to work successfully enough that she could eventually buy her own freedom, though this was an uncommon and infrequent occurrence.
Social classes were not strictly divided in Yoshiwara; a commoner with enough money would be served as an equal to a samurai, and though samurai were discouraged from entering Yoshiwara, they often did so, the only requirement being that their weapons be left at the town's entrance. By law, brothel patrons were only allowed to stay for a night and a day at a time. Like all official policies for Yoshiwara, this was rarely enforced.
Following its inception, Yoshiwara became a strong commercial area, with the fashions created in the town by prostitutes changing frequently and creating a great demand for merchants and artisans. Traditionally, prostitutes were supposed to wear only simple blue robes, but this was rarely enforced. In contrast, the highest ranking (courtesans) came to be emblematic of the height of Edo period fashion, wearing colourful and expensive silk kimono alongside elaborate hairstyles and a number of hair accessories; these outfits frequently dictated the contemporary trends of fashion in Japan of the time.
Despite the reputation of Yoshiwara and its highest-ranking courtesans, most prostitutes working in the area came from poor families, would be commonly exploited, and were so poor that, when they died, their bodies would be brought anonymously to Jōkan-ji temple and left at the back entrance, a proper burial being too expensive to afford. The temple therefore also became known as 'Nage-komi dera' ('Throw-away temple'); a memorial in the temple to thousands of anonymous prostitutes of Yoshiwara was consecrated in the Meiji era.
19th, 20th and 21st century
The area had over 9,000 women in 1893, many of whom suffered from syphilis. In 1913, the area was damaged by an extensive fire, and further damaged to the point of near-obliteration a decade later by the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake. However, Yoshiwara remained in business as a traditional red-light district until prostitution was outlawed by the Japanese government in 1958 following World War II.
Though technically illegal - with the definition of prostitution under the Prostitution Prevention Law being 'compensated penetrative sex with an unspecified person' other forms of sex work that do not violate this law continue to exist in the modern area of Yoshiwara, with the portion of the town near Minowa station on the Hibiya Line, now known as Senzoku Yon-chōme, retaining a large number of soaplands and other façades for sexual services.
People and services
People involved in ) would include (comedians), kabuki actors, dancers, dandies, rakes, tea-shop girls, Kanō (painters of the official school of painting), courtesans who resided in (green houses) and geisha in their .
The sex workers found within Yoshiwara would consist of (lit., "woman of pleasure"; the district's rank and file prostitutes), (young female students), (senior female students), (lower-ranking courtesans), (high-ranking courtesans just below ), (high-ranking courtesans), , (older chaperones for an ), and the who replaced the when they were priced out of the market.
In addition to courtesans, there were also geisha, apprentice geisha, geisha (male geishas), (patrons of a geisha), and the female managers of teahouses and . The lines between geisha and courtesans were, officially, sharply drawn soon after the inception of the geisha profession; laws were passed forbidding a geisha from being sexually involved with a customer. In reality a number of exceptions existed, with geisha ranging from little more than themselves to geisha who offered only artistic entertainment and companionship.
Yoshiwara today
Today, Yoshiwara roughly corresponds to . While Yoshiwara today looks very similar to many other neighborhoods of modern Tokyo, it retains legacies to its past as it contains commercial establishments engaged in the sex trade, although police cracked down on the soaplands in 2007. The street grid pattern and the temples and shrines from times past still exist.
In popular culture
The second act of Pietro Mascagni's opera Iris (1898) is set in Yoshiwara.
"Yoshiwara" is the name of the futuristic red-light district in the classic silent German film Metropolis (1927).
The 1937 French film Yoshiwara, directed by Max Ophüls, is set in the Yoshiwara in the mid-19th century.
The 1956 Japanese film Street of Shame, directed by Kenji Mizoguchi, is set in Yoshiwara in the mid-20th century.
The 1955 Japanese film Growing Up, directed by Heinosuke Gosho, is set in Yoshiwara in the early years of the Meiji era.
Yoshiwara regularly appears in the anime Gin Tama.
In a side chapter of Rurouni Kenshin: To Rule Flame, Shishio Makoto met his lover Komagata Yumi in Yoshiwara. Yumi was working as a high-ranking there.
In the manga , the protagonist Haru Hanamori time travels to Edo period Yoshiwara and becomes an .
French jazz-progressive band Ghost Rhythms' disc Live at Yoshiwara (2019), on Cuneiform Records, is named after the Yoshiwara Club in the classic silent German film Metropolis (1927).
The Japanese soundtrack for the video game Silent Hill 4: The Room, composed by Akira Yamaoka, includes the audio drama Inescapable Rain in Yoshiwara narrated by Teisui Ichiryusai. The song is a set in the Edo era about a woman who is deceived and sends her daughter to do maid work for a relative, not knowing she will be forced to work in a brothel.
The red-light district in Yoshiwara serves as the setting for the second season (subtitled 遊郭編; Yūkaku Hen) of the anime series Demon Slayer: Kimetsu no Yaiba.
The red-light district of Yoshiwara was a recurring setting in the manga Jin by Motoka Murakami.
See also
Bousbir
References
Bibliography
Waley, P. Tokyo Now & Then. First Edition (1984). John Weatherhill, Inc. .
External links
Information about the Yoshiwara District
Pictures and Information
Image of Yoshiwara
The Glittering World of the Japanese Courtesan?
What was the Yoshiwara District? by Honolulu Museum of Art
The Social Structure of the Yoshiwara Before 1750 by Honolulu Museum of Art
The Social Structure of the Yoshiwara After the 1760s by Honolulu Museum of Art
The Gentrification of the Yoshiwara by Honolulu Museum of Art
Red-light districts in Japan
Sexuality in Japan
Commoners of Edo-period Japan
Edo | [
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240910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mongkut | Mongkut | Mongkut (; 18 October 18041 October 1868) was the fourth monarch of Siam (Thailand) under the House of Chakri, ruling from 1851 to 1868. His full title in Thai is Phra Bat Somdet Phra Menthora Ramathibodi Sri Sinthara Mahamakut Phra Mongkut Phra Siam Deva Mahamakut Wittaya Maharaj (พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรเมนทรรามาธิบดีศรีสินทรมหามงกุฎ พระจอมเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว พระสยามเทวมหามกุฏวิทยมหาราช).
Outside Thailand, he is best known as the king in the 1951 musical and 1956 film The King and I, based on the 1946 film Anna and the King of Siamin turn based on a 1944 novel by an American missionary about Anna Leonowens' years at his court, from 1862 to 1867.
Siam first felt the pressure of Western expansionism during his reign. Mongkut embraced Western innovations and initiated the modernization of his country, both in technology and culture—earning him the nickname "The Father of Science and Technology" in Siam.
Mongkut was also known for appointing his younger brother, Prince Chutamani, as Second King, crowned in 1851 as King Pinklao. Mongkut assured the country that Pinklao should be respected with equal honor to himself (as King Naresuan had done with his brother Ekathotsarot in 1583). During Mongkut's reign, the power of the House of Bunnag reached its zenith: It became the most powerful noble family of Siam.
Early life
Mongkut (, literal meaning: crown) was the second son of Prince Isarasundhorn, son of Phutthayotfa Chulalok, the first Chakri king of Siam (King Rama I) and Princess Bunreod. Mongkut was born in the Old (Thonburi) Palace in 1804, where the first son had died shortly after birth in 1801. He was followed by Prince Chutamani () in 1808. In 1809, Prince Isarasundhorn was crowned as Buddha Loetla Nabhalai (later styled King Rama II.) The royal family then moved to the Grand Palace. Thenceforth, until their own accessions as kings, the brothers ( ) were called Chao Fa Yai () and Chao Fa Noi ().
Monastic life and Thammayut sect
In 1824, Mongkut became a Buddhist monk (ordination name Vajirayan; Pali Vajirañāṇo), following a Siamese tradition that men aged 20 should become monks for a time. The same year, his father died. By tradition, Mongkut should have been crowned the next king, but the nobility instead chose the older, more influential and experienced Prince Jessadabodindra (Nangklao), son of a royal concubine rather than a queen. Perceiving the throne was irredeemable and to avoid political intrigues, Mongkut retained his monastic status.
Vajirayan became one of the members of the royal family who devoted his life to religion. He travelled around the country as a monk and saw the relaxation of the rules of Pali Canon among the Siamese monks he met, which he considered inappropriate. In 1829, at Phetchaburi, he met a monk named Buddhawangso, who strictly followed the monastic rules of discipline, the vinaya. Vajirayan admired Buddhawangso for his obedience to the vinaya, and was inspired to pursue religious reforms.
In 1835 he began a reform movement reinforcing the vinaya law that evolved into the Dhammayuttika Nikaya, or Thammayut sect. A strong theme in Mongkut's movement was that, "…true Buddhism was supposed to refrain from worldly matters and confine itself to spiritual and moral affairs." Mongkut eventually came to power in 1851, as did his colleagues who had the same progressive mission. From that point on, Siam more quickly embraced modernization. Vajirayan initiated two major revolutionary changes. Firstly, he fought for the people to embrace modern geography, among other sciences considered "Western." Secondly he sought reform in Buddhism and, as a result, a new sect was created in Siamese Theravada Buddhism. Both revolutions challenged the purity and validity of the Buddhist order as it was practiced in Siam at the time.
In 1836, Vajirayan arrived at Wat Bowonniwet in what is now Bangkok's central district, but was then the city proper, and became the wat's first abbot (). During this time, he pursued a Western education, studying Latin, English, and astronomy with missionaries and sailors. Vicar Pallegoix of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Bangkok lived nearby; the two became close friends, and Vajirayan invited Pallegoix to preach Christian sermons in the wat. Vajirayan admired Christian morals and achievements as presented by the vicar, but could make nothing of Christian doctrine. It was then he made the comment later attributed to him as king: "What you teach people to do is admirable, but what you teach them to believe is foolish."
King Mongkut would later be noted for his excellent command of English, although it is said that his younger brother, Viceroy Pinklao, could speak it even better. Mongkut's first son and heir, Chulalongkorn, granted the Thammayut sect royal recognition in 1902 through the Ecclesiastical Polity Act; it became one of the two major Buddhist denominations in modern Thailand.
Chulalongkorn also persuaded his father's 47th child, Vajirañana, to enter the order and he rose to become the 10th Supreme Patriarch of Thailand from 1910 to 1921.
Reign as king
Accounts vary about Nangklao's intentions regarding the succession. It is recorded that Nangklao verbally dismissed the royal princes from succession for various reasons; Prince Mongkut was dismissed for encouraging monks to dress in the Mon style.
Prince Mongkut was indeed supported by the pro-British Dis Bunnak who was the Samuha Kalahom, or Armed Force Department's president, and the most powerful noble during the reign of Rama III. He also had the support of British merchants who feared the growing anti-Western sentiment of the previous monarch and saw the 'prince monk' Mongkut as the 'champion' of European influence among the royal elite.
Bunnak, with the supporting promise of British agents, sent his men to the leaving-from-monk-status ceremony for Prince Mongkut even before Nangklao's death. With the support of powerful nobility and the Great Power, Britain, Mongkut's ascension to the throne was ensured.
After his twenty-seven years of monastic life, King Mongkut voluntarily defrocked and ascended the throne in 1851, aged 47. He took the name Phra Chom Klao, although foreigners continued to call him King Mongkut. The king was well known among the foreigners, particularly some British officers, as pro-British. Sir James Brooke, a British delegation, even praised him as 'our own king', and showed his support of him as a new king of Siam. Having been celibate for 27 years, he now set about building the biggest Royal Family of the Chakri Dynasty. In the "Inside" of the Palace there was a veritable city of women—reports say three thousand or more. They were mostly servants, guards, officials, maids and so on, but Mongkut acquired 32 wives, and by the time he died, aged 64, he had 82 children.
His awareness of possibility of an outbreak of war with the European powers led him to institute many innovative activities. He ordered the nobility to wear shirts while attending his court; this was to show that Siam was a "modern" nation from the Western point of view.
However, Mongkut's own astrological calculations pointed out that his brother, Prince Isaret, was as well-favored as himself to be the monarch. So, Mongkut then crowned his brother as King Pinklao, the second king. As a prince, Pinklao was known for his abilities in foreign languages and relations. Mongkut also raised his supporter Dis Bunnak to Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Prayurawongse (Somdet Chao Phraya was the highest rank of nobility on a par with royalty) and made him his regent kingdom-wide. Mongkut also appointed Dis Bunnak's brother, Tat Bunnak, as Somdet Chao Phraya Borom Maha Pichaiyat, as his regent in Bangkok. As a result, the administrative power of Siam rested largely in the hands of the two Bunnaks, Dis and Tat.
Upon his coronation, Mongkut married his first wife, Queen Somanat. However, Queen Somanat died in the same year. He then married his half-grandniece, Mom Chao Rampoei Siriwongse, later Queen Debsirindra.
Shan campaigns
In 1849, there were upheavals in the Shan State of Kengtung and Chiang Hung kingdom in response to weakened Burmese influence. However, the two states then fought each other and Chiang Hung sought Siamese support. Nangklao saw this as an opportunity to gain control over Shan states but he died in 1851 before this plan was realized. In 1852, Chiang Hung submitted the request again. Mongkut sent Siamese troops northwards but the armies were turned aside by the mountainous highlands. In 1855 the Siamese marched again and reached Kengtungthough with even greater difficulty. They laid siege on Kengtung for 21 days. However, the resources of the Siamese army ran out and the army had to retreat.
Cultural reforms
Introduction of Western geography
Accompanying the influx of Western visitors to Siam was the notion of a round earth. By many Siamese, this was difficult to accept, particularly by religious standards, because Buddhist scripture described the earth as being flat. The Traiphum, which was a geo-astrological map created before the arrival of Westerners, described "…a path between two mountain ranges through which the stars, planets, moon and sun pass." Religious scholars usually concluded that Buddhist scriptures "…were meant to be taken literally only when it came to matters of spiritual truth; details of natural science are revealed figuratively and allegorically."
Mongkut claimed to have abandoned the Traiphum cosmology before 1836. He claimed that he already knew of the round state of earth 15 years before the arrival of American missionaries, but the debate about Earth's shape remained an issue for Siamese intellectuals throughout the 1800s.
Education reforms
During his reign, Mongkut urged his royal relatives to have "a European-style education." The missionaries, as teachers, taught modern geography and astronomy, among other subjects. Six years after Mongkut's death, the first Thai-language geography book was published in 1874, called Phumanithet by J.W. Van Dyke. However, geography was only taught in select schools, mainly those that were run by American missionaries with English programs for upper secondary students. Thongchai Winichakul argues that Mongkut's efforts to popularize Western geography helped bring reform to education in Siam.
Social changes
1852 saw an influx of English and American missionaries into Siam as Mongkut hired them to teach the English language to the princes. He also hired Western mercenaries to train Siamese troops in Western style. In Bangkok, American Dan Beach Bradley had already reformed the printing and then resumed the publishing of Siam's first newspaper, the Bangkok Recorder. However, the missionaries were not as successful when it came to making religious conversions.
However, Mongkut did not abandon the traditional culture of Siam. In 1852, he ordered the nobles of the court to wear upper garments. Previously, Siamese nobles were forbidden to wear any shirts to prevent them from hiding any weapons in it and met the king bare-chested. The practice was criticized by Westerners and so Mongkut ended it.
For Buddhism, Mongkut pioneered the rehabilitation of various temples. He also began the Magha Puja (มาฆบูชา) festival in the full moon of the third lunar month, to celebrate Buddha's announcement of his main principles. He instigated the Recompilation of Tripitaka in Siam according to Theravada traditions. He also formally established the Thammayut sect as a rightful branch of Theravada.
Mongkut also improved women's rights in Siam. He released a large number of royal concubines to find their own husbands, in contrast to how his story has been dramatized. He banned forced marriages of all kinds and the selling of one's wife to pay off a debt.
In contrast to the previous king, Nangklao, Mongkut didn't see the importance of sending envoys to the Qing dynasty court, as the mission symbolised Siam's subjection to the Qing emperors and because the Qing dynasty was then not so powerful as it had once been, as it was itself threatened by Western powers.
The Bowring Treaty
In 1854, John Bowring, the Governor of Hong Kong in the name of Queen Victoria, came to Siam to negotiate a treaty. For the first time Siam had to deal seriously with international laws. Prayurawongse negotiated on the behalf of the Siamese. The result was the Bowring Treaty between the two nations. The main principle of the treaty was to abolish the Royal Storage (พระคลังสินค้า), which since Ayutthaya's times held the monopoly on foreign trade. The Royal Storage had been the source of Ayutthaya's prosperity as it collected immense taxation on foreign traders, including the taxation according to the width of the galleon and the tithe. Western products had to go through a series of tax barriers to reach Siamese people.
The Europeans had been attempting to undo this monopoly for a long time but no serious measures had been taken. For Siamese people, trading with foreigners subjected them to severe punishment by the government. The taxation was partially reduced in the Burney Treaty. However, in the world of nineteenth-century liberalism, government control over trade was swiftly disappearing.
The abolition of such trade barriers replaced Siamese commerce with free trade. Import taxation was reduced to 3% and could only be collected once. This, of course, was a blow on the national revenue. However, this led to dramatic growth of commercial sectors as common people gained access to foreign trade. People rushed to acquire vast, previously empty fields to grow rice and the competition eventually resulted in the lands ending up in the hands of nobility.
The Bowring Treaty also had a legal impact. Due to the horror of the Nakorn Bala methods of torture in judicial proceedings, the British requested not to be tried under the Siamese system, securing a grant of extraterritoriality; British subjects in Siam were therefore subject only to British law, while the Siamese in Britain enjoyed no reciprocal privilege.
In 1856, with the skilled assistance of the French diplomat Albert-Édouard Levieux de Caligny to the court of King Mongkut and the envoy of Charles de Montigny, more treaties were then made with other powers, further undermining national revenue and legal rights. The Bowring treaty proved to be the economic and social revolution of Siam. Mongkut's reign saw immense commercial activities in Siam for the first time, which led to the introduction of coinage in 1860. The first industries in Siam were rice milling and sugar production. Infrastructure was improved; there was a great deal of paving of roads and canal diggingfor transport and water reservoirs for plantations.
Anna Leonowens
In 1862, following a recommendation by Tan Kim Ching in Singapore, the court hired an English woman named Anna Leonowens, whose influence was later the subject of great Thai controversy. It is still debated how much this affected the worldview of one of his sons, Prince Chulalongkorn, who succeeded to the throne.
Her story would become the inspiration for the Hollywood movies Anna and the King of Siam and Anna and the King as well as the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical The King and I and its subsequent film adaptation, which, because of their fictionalized historical references and perceived disrespectful treatment of King Mongkut, were initially banned in Thailand as the Thai government and people considered them to be lèse majesté. To clarify the historical record, well-known Thai intellectuals Seni and Kukrit Pramoj in 1948 wrote The King of Siam Speaks. The Pramoj brothers sent their manuscript to the American politician and diplomat Abbot Low Moffat (1901–1996), who drew on it for his 1961 biography, Mongkut the King of Siam. Moffat donated the Pramoj manuscript to the United States Library of Congress in 1961.
Anna claimed that her conversations with Prince Chulalongkorn about human freedom, and her relating to him the story of Uncle Tom's Cabin, became the inspiration for his abolition of slavery almost 40 years later. However, the slavery system in Siam differed from that in the United States, with no racial distinction between slaves and free persons. Slavery in Thailand was sometimes a voluntary alternative for individuals to be rid of social and financial obligations. One could be punished for torturing slaves in Siam, and some slaves could buy their freedom. Some western scholars and observers have expressed the opinion that Siamese slaves were treated better than English servants.
Death and legacy
The solar eclipse at Wakor
During his monkhood, Mongkut studied both indigenous astrology and English texts on Western astronomy and mathematics, hence developing his skills in astronomical measurement. One way that he honed his mastery of astronomy, aside from the accurate prediction of the solar eclipse of August 18, 1868 (Wakor solar eclipse), was changing the official Buddhist calendar, "which was seriously miscalculated and the times for auspicious moments were incorrect."
In 1868, he invited high-ranking European and Siamese officials to accompany him to Wakor village in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province, south of Hua Hin, where the solar eclipse that was to occur on 18 August could be best viewed as a total eclipse. Sir Harry Ord, the British Governor of Straits Settlements from Singapore, was among those who were invited. King Mongkut predicted the solar eclipse, at (in his own words) "East Greenwich longitude 99 degrees 42' and latitude North 11 degrees 39'." King Mongkut's calculations proved accurate. When he made calculations on the Wakor solar eclipse that was to occur, he used the Thai system of measuring time ("mong" and "baht"), but he implemented the Western method of longitude and latitude when he determined where on Earth the eclipse would best be viewed. Upon returning from his journey to Wakor, he condemned the court astrologers "for their...stupid statements because of their negligence of his detailed prediction and their inattention to measurement and calculation by modern instruments."
During the expedition, King Mongkut and Prince Chulalongkorn were infected with malaria. The king died six weeks later in the capital, and was succeeded by his son, who survived malaria.
It has been argued that the assimilation of Western geography and astronomy into 19th-century Siam "proved that Siam equalled the West in terms of knowledge, and therefore the imperialists' claim that Siam was uncivilized and had to be colonized was unreasonable." This suggests that the Western form of these sciences may have saved Siam from actually being colonized by Western powers.
Elephant story
Contrary to popular belief, King Mongkut did not offer a herd of war elephants to the US president Abraham Lincoln during the American Civil War for use against the Confederacy. He did, however, offer to send some domesticated elephants to US president James Buchanan, to use as beasts of burden and means of transportation. The royal letter of 14 February 1861, which was written even before the Civil War started, took some time to arrive in Washington DC, and by the time it reached its destination, President Buchanan was no longer in office. (Text of the royal letter here.) Lincoln, who succeeded Buchanan, is said to have been asked what the elephants could be used for, and in reply he said that he did not know, unless "they were used to stamp out the rebellion." However, in his reply dated 3 February 1862, Lincoln did not mention anything about the Civil War. The President merely politely declined to accept King Mongkut's proposal, explaining to the King that the American climate might not be suitable for elephants and that American steam engines could also be used as beasts of burden and means of transportation.
A century later, during his state visit to the US, King Bhumibol Adulyadej of Thailand, who was Mongkut's great-grandson, referred to this event in his address before the US Congress on 29 June 1960. He said, "my great-grandfather offered to send the President and Congress elephants to be turned loose in the uncultivated land of America for breeding purposes. That offer was made with no other objective than to provide a friend with what he lacks, in the same spirit in which the American aid program is likewise offered."
151834 Mongkut
The asteroid 151834 Mongkut is named in honour of the King and his contributions to astronomy and the modernization of Siam.
Tributes
Wives, concubines, and children
King Mongkut is one of the people with the most children in Thai history; he had 32 wives and concubines during his lifetime who produced at least 82 children, one of whom was Chulalongkorn, who married four of his half sisters.
Ancestry
See also
Dhammayuttika Nikaya
Rattanakosin period
List of people with the most children
Chum Krairoek
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
Abbot Low Moffat, Mongkhut, the King of Siam, Cornell U. P. 1961
Constance Marilyn Wilson, State and Society in the Reign of King Mongkut, 1851–1868: Thailand on the Eve of Modernization, Ph. D. thesis, Cornell 1970, University Microfilms.
B. J. Terwiel, A History of Modern Thailand 1767–1942, University of Queensland Press, Australia 1983. This contains some anecdotes not included in the other references.
Stephen White, John Thomson: A Window to the Orient, University of New Mexico Press, United States. Thomson was a photographer and this book contains his pictures some of which provided the basis for the engravings (sometimes misidentified) in Anna Leonowens' books. There is reference to Mongkut in the introductory text.
Suárez, Thomas. Early Mapping of Southeast Asia: The Epic Story of Seafarers, Adventurers, and Cartographers Who First Mapped the Regions Between China and India. Singapore: Periplus Editions (HK) Ltd. (1999). Web. Pg. 25
Winichakul, Thongchai. Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation. Various pages from Chapter 2. University of Hawaii Press (1997). Web.
External links
The King's Thai: Entry to Thai Historical Data – Mongkut's Edicts maintained by Doug Cooper of Center for Research in Computational Linguistics, Bangkok; accessed 2008-07-11.
Thai monarchs
Thai people of Mon descent
Rattanakosin Kingdom
1804 births
1868 deaths
19th-century Thai women
19th-century Chakri dynasty
Deaths from malaria
Thai Theravada Buddhists
1850s in Siam
1860s in Siam
Grand Croix of the Légion d'honneur
19th-century monarchs in Asia
Founders of Buddhist sects
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240912 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuschwanstein%20Castle | Neuschwanstein Castle | Neuschwanstein Castle (, , Southern Bavarian: Schloss Neischwanstoa) is a 19th-century historicist palace on a rugged hill above the village of Hohenschwangau near Füssen in southwest Bavaria, Germany. The palace was commissioned by King Ludwig II of Bavaria as a retreat and in honour of Richard Wagner. Ludwig chose to pay for the palace out of his personal fortune and by means of extensive borrowing, rather than Bavarian public funds. Construction began in 1869, but was never fully completed.
The castle was intended as a private residence for the King, until he died in 1886. It was open to the public shortly after his death. Since then more than 61 million people have visited Neuschwanstein Castle. More than 1.3 million people visit annually, with as many as 6,000 per day in the summer.
Location
The municipality of Schwangau lies at an elevation of at the southwest border of the German state of Bavaria. Its surroundings are characterised by the transition between the Alpine foothills in the south (toward the nearby Austrian border) and a hilly landscape in the north that appears flat by comparison.
In the Middle Ages, three castles overlooked the villages. One was called Schwanstein Castle. In 1832, Ludwig's father King Maximilian II of Bavaria bought its ruins to replace them with the comfortable neo-Gothic palace known as Hohenschwangau Castle. Finished in 1837, the palace became his family's summer residence, and his elder son Ludwig (born 1845) spent a large part of his childhood here.
Vorderhohenschwangau Castle and Hinterhohenschwangau Castle sat on a rugged hill overlooking Schwanstein Castle, two nearby lakes (Alpsee and Schwansee), and the village. Separated by only a moat, they jointly consisted of a hall, a keep, and a fortified tower house.
In the nineteenth century only ruins remained of the twin medieval castles, but those of Hinterhohenschwangau served as a lookout place known as Sylphenturm.
The ruins above the family palace were known to the crown prince from his excursions. He first sketched one of them in his diary in 1859. When the young king came to power in 1864, the construction of a new palace in place of the two ruined castles became the first in his series of palace building projects. Ludwig called the new palace New Hohenschwangau Castle; only after his death was it renamed Neuschwanstein. The confusing result is that Hohenschwangau and Schwanstein have effectively swapped names: Hohenschwangau Castle replaced the ruins of Schwanstein Castle, and Neuschwanstein Castle replaced the ruins of the two Hohenschwangau Castles.
History
Inspiration and design
Neuschwanstein embodies both the contemporaneous architectural fashion known as castle romanticism (), and King Ludwig II's enthusiasm for the operas of Richard Wagner.
In the 19th century, many castles were constructed or reconstructed, often with significant changes to make them more picturesque. Palace-building projects similar to Neuschwanstein had been undertaken earlier in several of the German states and included Hohenschwangau Castle, Lichtenstein Castle, Hohenzollern Castle, and numerous buildings on the River Rhine such as Stolzenfels Castle. The inspiration for the construction of Neuschwanstein came from two journeys that Ludwig took in 1867 — one in May to the reconstructed Wartburg near Eisenach, another in July to the Château de Pierrefonds, which Eugène Viollet-le-Duc was transforming from a ruined castle into a historistic palace.
The King saw both buildings as representatives of a romantic interpretation of the Middle Ages, as well as the musical mythology of his friend Wagner, whose operas Tannhäuser and Lohengrin had made a lasting impression on him.
In February 1868, Ludwig's grandfather King Ludwig I died, freeing the considerable sums that were previously spent on the abdicated King's appanage. This allowed Ludwig II to start the architectural project of building a private refuge in the familiar landscape far from the capital Munich, so that he could live out his idea of the Middle Ages.
The building design was drafted by the stage designer Christian Jank and realised by the architect Eduard Riedel. For technical reasons, the ruined castles could not be integrated into the plan. Initial ideas for the palace drew stylistically on Nuremberg Castle and envisaged a simple building in place of the old Vorderhohenschwangau Castle, but they were rejected and replaced by increasingly extensive drafts, culminating in a bigger palace modelled on the Wartburg. The king insisted on a detailed plan and on personal approval of each and every draft. Ludwig's control went so far that the palace has been regarded as his own creation, rather than that of the architects involved.
Whereas contemporary architecture critics derided Neuschwanstein, one of the last big palace building projects of the nineteenth century, as kitsch, Neuschwanstein and Ludwig II's other buildings are now counted among the major works of European historicism. For financial reasons, a project similar to Neuschwanstein – Falkenstein Castle – never left the planning stages.
The palace can be regarded as typical for nineteenth-century architecture. The shapes of Romanesque (simple geometric figures such as cuboids and semicircular arches), Gothic (upward-pointing lines, slim towers, delicate embellishments) and Byzantine architecture and art (the Throne Hall décor) were mingled in an eclectic fashion and supplemented with 19th-century technical achievements. The Patrona Bavariae and Saint George on the court face of the (main building) are depicted in the local Lüftlmalerei style, a fresco technique typical for Allgäu farmers' houses, while the unimplemented drafts for the Knights' House gallery foreshadow elements of Art Nouveau. Characteristic of Neuschwanstein's design are theatre themes: Christian Jank drew on coulisse drafts from his time as a scenic painter.
The basic style was originally planned to be neo-Gothic but the palace was primarily built in Romanesque style in the end. The operatic themes moved gradually from Tannhäuser and Lohengrin to Parsifal.
Construction
In 1868, the ruins of the medieval twin castles were completely demolished; the remains of the old keep were blown up. The foundation stone for the palace was laid on 5 September 1869; in 1872 its cellar was completed and in 1876, everything up to the first floor, the gatehouse being finished first. At the end of 1882 it was completed and fully furnished, allowing Ludwig to take provisional lodgings there and observe the ongoing construction work. In 1874, management of the civil works passed from Eduard Riedel to Georg von Dollmann. The topping out ceremony for the was in 1880, and in 1884, the King was able to move in to the new building. In the same year, the direction of the project passed to Julius Hofmann, after Dollmann had fallen from the King's favour.
The palace was erected as a conventional brick construction and later encased in various types of rock. The white limestone used for the fronts came from a nearby quarry.
The sandstone bricks for the portals and bay windows came from Schlaitdorf in Württemberg. Marble from Untersberg near Salzburg was used for the windows, the arch ribs, the columns and the capitals. The Throne Hall was a later addition to the plans and required a steel framework.
The transport of building materials was facilitated by scaffolding and a steam crane that lifted the material to the construction site. Another crane was used at the construction site. The recently founded Dampfkessel-Revisionsverein (Steam Boiler Inspection Association) regularly inspected both boilers.
For about two decades the construction site was the principal employer in the region. In 1880, about 200 craftsmen were occupied at the site, not counting suppliers and other persons indirectly involved in the construction. At times when the King insisted on particularly close deadlines and urgent changes, reportedly up to 300 workers per day were active, sometimes working at night by the light of oil lamps. Statistics from the years 1879/1880 support an immense amount of building materials: of Salzburg marble, of sandstone, 400,000 bricks and of wood for the scaffolding.
In 1870, a society was founded for insuring the workers, for a low monthly fee, augmented by the King. The heirs of construction casualties (30 cases are mentioned in the statistics) received a small pension.
In 1884, the King was able to move into the (still unfinished) , and in 1885, he invited his mother Marie to Neuschwanstein on the occasion of her 60th birthday. By 1886, the external structure of the (hall) was mostly finished. In the same year, Ludwig had the first, wooden Marienbrücke over the Pöllat Gorge replaced by a steel construction.
Despite its size, Neuschwanstein did not have space for the royal court, but contained only the King's private lodging and servants' rooms. The court buildings served decorative, rather than residential purposes: The palace was intended to serve King Ludwig II as a kind of inhabitable theatrical setting. As a temple of friendship it was also dedicated to the life and work of Richard Wagner, who died in 1883 before he had set foot in the building. In the end, Ludwig II lived in the palace for a total of only 172 days.
Funding
The King's wishes and demands expanded during the construction of Neuschwanstein, and so did the expenses. Drafts and estimated costs were revised repeatedly. Initially a modest study was planned instead of the great throne hall, and projected guest rooms were struck from the drafts to make place for a Moorish Hall, which could not be realised due to lack of resources. Completion was originally projected for 1872, but deferred repeatedly.
Neuschwanstein, the symbolic medieval knight's castle, was not King Ludwig II's only huge construction project. It was followed by the rococo style Lustschloss of Linderhof Palace and the baroque palace of Herrenchiemsee, a monument to the era of absolutism. Linderhof, the smallest of the projects, was finished in 1886, and the other two remain incomplete. All three projects together drained his resources. The King paid for his construction projects by private means and from his civil list income. Contrary to frequent claims, the Bavarian treasury was not directly burdened by his buildings. From 1871, Ludwig had an additional secret income in return for a political favour given to Otto von Bismarck.
The construction costs of Neuschwanstein in the King's lifetime amounted to 6.2 million marks (equivalent to million €), almost twice the initial cost estimate of 3.2 million marks. As his private means were insufficient for his increasingly escalating construction projects, the King continuously opened new lines of credit. In 1876, a court counselor was replaced after pointing out the danger of insolvency.
By 1883 he already owed 7 million marks, and in spring 1884 and August 1885 debt conversions of 7.5 million marks and 6.5 million marks, respectively, became necessary.
Even after his debts had reached 14 million marks, King Ludwig II insisted on continuation of his architectural projects; he threatened suicide if his creditors seized his palaces. In early 1886, Ludwig asked his cabinet for a credit of 6 million marks, which was denied. In April, he followed Bismarck's advice to apply for the money to his parliament. In June the Bavarian government decided to depose the King, who was living at Neuschwanstein at the time. On 9 June he was incapacitated, and on 10 June he had the deposition commission arrested in the gatehouse. In expectation of the commission, he alerted the gendarmerie and fire brigades of surrounding places for his protection. A second commission headed by Bernhard von Gudden arrived on the next day, and the King was forced to leave the palace that night. Ludwig was put under the supervision of von Gudden. On 13 June, both died under mysterious circumstances in the shallow shore water of Lake Starnberg near Berg Castle.
Simplified completion
At the time of King Ludwig's death the palace was far from complete. The external structures of the Gatehouse and the were mostly finished but the Rectangular Tower was still scaffolded. Work on the Bower had not started, but was completed in a simplified form by 1892 without the planned figures of the female saints. The Knights' House was also simplified. In King Ludwig's plans the columns in the Knights' House gallery were held as tree trunks and the capitals as the corresponding crowns. Only the foundations existed for the core piece of the palace complex: a keep of height planned in the upper courtyard, resting on a three-nave chapel. This was not realised, and a connection wing between the Gatehouse and the Bower saw the same fate. Plans for a castle garden with terraces and a fountain west of the were also abandoned after the King's death.
The interior of the royal living space in the palace was mostly completed in 1886; the lobbies and corridors were painted in a simpler style by 1888. The Moorish Hall desired by the King (and planned below the Throne Hall) was not realised any more than the so-called Knights' Bath, which, modelled after the Knights' Bath in the Wartburg, was intended to render homage to the knights' cult as a medieval baptism bath. A Bride Chamber in the Bower (after a location in Lohengrin), guest rooms in the first and second floor of the and a great banquet hall were further abandoned projects. In fact, a complete development of Neuschwanstein had never even been planned, and at the time of the King's death there was not a utilisation concept for numerous rooms.
Neuschwanstein was still incomplete when Ludwig II died in 1886. The King never intended to make the palace accessible to the public. No more than six weeks after the King's death, however, the Prince-Regent Luitpold ordered the palace opened to paying visitors. The administrators of King Ludwig's estate managed to balance the construction debts by 1899. From then until World War I, Neuschwanstein was a stable and lucrative source of revenue for the House of Wittelsbach, indeed King Ludwig's castles were probably the single largest income source earned by the Bavarian royal family in the last years prior to 1914. To guarantee a smooth course of visits, some rooms and the court buildings were finished first. Initially the visitors were allowed to move freely in the palace, causing the furniture to wear quickly.
When Bavaria became a republic in 1918, the government socialised the civil list. The resulting dispute with the House of Wittelsbach led to a split in 1923: King Ludwig's palaces including Neuschwanstein fell to the state and are now managed by the Bavarian Palace Department, a division of the Bavarian finance ministry. Nearby Hohenschwangau Castle fell to the Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfonds, whose revenues go to the House of Wittelsbach. The visitor numbers continued to rise, reaching 200,000 in 1939.
World War II
Due to its secluded and strategically unimportant location, the palace survived the destruction of two World Wars. Until 1944, it served as a depot for Nazi plunder that was taken from France by the Reichsleiter Rosenberg Institute for the Occupied Territories (), a suborganisation of the Nazi Party. The castle was used to catalogue the works of arts. (After World War II 39 photo albums were found in the palace documenting the scale of the art seizures. The albums are now stored in the United States National Archives.)
In April 1945, the SS considered blowing up the palace to prevent the building itself and the artwork it contained from falling to the enemy. The plan was not realised by the SS- who had been assigned the task, however, and at the end of the war the palace was surrendered undamaged to representatives of the Allied forces. The Allied occupation authorities eventually returned the palace to the reconstituted Bavarian state government. Thereafter the Bavarian archives used some of the rooms as a provisional store for salvaged archival material, as the premises in Munich had been bombed.
Architecture
The effect of the Neuschwanstein ensemble is highly stylistic, both externally and internally. The king's influence is apparent throughout, and he took a keen personal interest in the design and decoration. An example can be seen in his comments, or commands, regarding a mural depicting Lohengrin in the ; "His Majesty wishes that ... the ship be placed further from the shore, that Lohengrin's neck be less tilted, that the chain from the ship to the swan be of gold and not of roses, and finally that the style of the castle shall be kept medieval."
The suite of rooms within the contains the Throne Room, King Ludwig's suite, the Singers' Hall, and the Grotto. The interior and especially the throne room Byzantine-Arab construction resumes to the chapels and churches of the royal Sicilian Norman-Swabian period in Palermo related to the Kings of Germany House of Hohenstaufen. Throughout, the design pays homage to the German legends of Lohengrin, the Swan Knight. Hohenschwangau, where King Ludwig spent much of his youth, had decorations of these sagas. These themes were taken up in the operas of Richard Wagner. Many rooms bear a border depicting the various operas written by Wagner, including a theatre permanently featuring the set of one such play. Many of the interior rooms remain undecorated, with only 14 rooms finished before Ludwig's death. With the palace under construction at the King's death, one of the major features of the palace remained unbuilt. A massive keep, which would have formed the highest point and central focus of the ensemble, was planned for the middle of the upper courtyard but was never built, at the decision of the King's family. The foundation for the keep is visible in the upper courtyard.
Neuschwanstein Castle consists of several individual structures which were erected over a length of 150 metres on the top of a cliff ridge. The elongate building is furnished with numerous towers, ornamental turrets, gables, balconies, pinnacles and sculptures. Following Romanesque style, most window openings are fashioned as bi- and triforia. Before the backdrop of the Tegelberg and the Pöllat Gorge in the south and the Alpine foothills with their lakes in the north, the ensemble of individual buildings provides varying picturesque views of the palace from all directions. It was designed as the romantic ideal of a knight's castle. Unlike "real" castles, whose building stock is in most cases the result of centuries of building activity, Neuschwanstein was planned from the inception as an intentionally asymmetric building, and erected in consecutive stages. Typical attributes of a castle were included, but real fortifications – the most important feature of a medieval aristocratic estate – were dispensed with.
Exterior
The palace complex is entered through the symmetrical Gatehouse flanked by two stair towers. The eastward-pointing gate building is the only structure of the palace whose wall area is fashioned in high-contrast colours; the exterior walls are cased with red bricks, the court fronts with yellow limestone. The roof cornice is surrounded by pinnacles. The upper floor of the Gatehouse is surmounted by a crow-stepped gable and held King Ludwig II's first lodging at Neuschwanstein, from which he occasionally observed the building work before the hall was completed. The ground floors of the Gatehouse were intended to accommodate the stables.
The passage through the Gatehouse, crowned with the royal Bavarian coat of arms, leads directly into the courtyard. The courtyard has two levels, the lower one being defined to the east by the Gatehouse and to the north by the foundations of the so-called Rectangular Tower and by the gallery building. The southern end of the courtyard is open, imparting a view of the surrounding mountain scenery. At its western end, the courtyard is delimited by a bricked embankment, whose polygonally protracting bulge marks the choir of the originally projected chapel; this three-nave church, never built, was intended to form the base of a 90-metre (295-ft) keep, the planned centrepiece of the architectural ensemble. A flight of steps at the side gives access to the upper level.
Today, the foundation plan of the chapel-keep is marked out in the upper-courtyard pavement. The most striking structure of the upper court level is the so-called Rectangular Tower (45 metres or 148 feet). Like most of the court buildings, it mostly serves a decorative purpose as part of the ensemble. Its viewing platform provides a vast view over the Alpine foothills to the north. The northern end of the upper courtyard is defined by the so-called Knights' House. The three-storey building is connected to the Rectangular Tower and the Gatehouse by means of a continuous gallery fashioned with a blind arcade. From the point of view of castle romanticism the Knights' House was the abode of a stronghold's menfolk; at Neuschwanstein, estate and service rooms were envisioned here. The Bower, which complements the Knights' House as the "ladies' house" but was never used as such, defines the south side of the courtyard. Both structures together form the motif of the Antwerp Castle featuring in the first act of Lohengrin. Embedded in the pavement is the floor plan of the planned palace chapel.
The western end of the courtyard is delimited by the (hall). It constitutes the real main and residential building of the castle and contains the King's stateroom and the servants' rooms. The is a colossal five-story structure in the shape of two huge cuboids that are connected in a flat angle and covered by two adjacent high gable roofs. The building's shape follows the course of the ridge. In its angles there are two stair towers, the northern one surmounting the palace roof by several storeys with its height of 65 metres (213 ft). With their polymorphic roofs, both towers are reminiscent of the Château de Pierrefonds. The western front supports a two-storey balcony with view on the Alpsee, while northwards a low chair tower and the conservatory protract from the main structure. The entire is spangled with numerous decorative chimneys and ornamental turrets, the court front with colourful frescos.
The court-side gable is crowned with a copper lion, the western (outward) gable with the likeness of a knight.
Interior
Had it been completed, the palace would have had more than 200 interior rooms, including premises for guests and servants, as well as for service and logistics. Ultimately, no more than about 15 rooms and halls were finished. In its lower stories the accommodates administrative and servants' rooms and the rooms of today's palace administration. The King's staterooms are situated in the upper stories: The anterior structure accommodates the lodgings in the third floor, above them the Hall of the Singers. The upper floors of the west-facing posterior structure are filled almost completely by the Throne Hall. The total floor space of all floors amounts to nearly .
Neuschwanstein houses numerous significant interior rooms of German historicism. The palace was fitted with several of the latest technical innovations of the late 19th century. Among other things it had a battery-powered bell system for the servants and telephone lines. The kitchen equipment included a Rumford oven that turned the skewer with its heat and so automatically adjusted the turning speed. The hot air was used for a calorifère central heating system. Further novelties for the era were running warm water and toilets with automatic flushing.
The largest room of the palace by area is the Hall of the Singers, followed by the Throne Hall. The Hall of the Singers is located in the eastern, court-side wing of the , in the fourth floor above the King's lodgings. It is designed as an amalgamation of two rooms of the Wartburg: The Hall of the Singers and the Ballroom. It was one of the King's favourite projects for his palace. The rectangular room was decorated with themes from Lohengrin and Parzival. Its longer side is terminated by a gallery that is crowned by a tribune, modelled after the Wartburg. The eastern narrow side is terminated by a stage that is structured by arcades and known as the Sängerlaube. The Hall of the Singers was never designed for court festivities of the reclusive King. Rather, like the Throne Hall it served as a walkable monument in which the culture of knights and courtly love of the Middle Ages was represented. The first performance in this hall took place in 1933: A concert commemorating the 50th anniversary of Richard Wagner's death.
The Throne Hall, , is situated in the west wing of the . With its height of it occupies the third and fourth floors. Julius Hofmann modelled it after the Allerheiligen-Hofkirche in the Munich Residenz. On three sides it is surrounded by colorful arcades, ending in an apse that was intended to hold King Ludwig's thronewhich was never completed. The throne dais is surrounded by paintings of Jesus, the Twelve Apostles and six canonised kings. The mural paintings were created by Wilhelm Hauschild. The floor mosaic was completed after the king's death. The chandelier is fashioned after a Byzantine crown. The Throne Hall makes a sacral impression. Following the king's wish, it amalgamated the Grail Hall from Parzival with a symbol of the divine right of kings, an incorporation of unrestricted sovereign power, which King Ludwig as the head of a constitutional monarchy no longer held. The union of the sacral and regal is emphasised by the portraits in the apse of six canonised Kings: Saint Louis of France, Saint Stephen of Hungary, Saint Edward the Confessor of England, Saint Wenceslaus of Bohemia, Saint Olaf of Norway and Saint Henry, Holy Roman Emperor.
Apart from the large ceremonial rooms several smaller rooms were created for use by King Ludwig II. The royal lodging is on the third floor of the palace in the east wing of the . It consists of eight rooms with living space and several smaller rooms. In spite of the gaudy décor, the living space with its moderate room size and its sofas and suites makes a relatively modern impression on today's visitors. King Ludwig II did not attach importance to representative requirements of former times, in which the life of a monarch was mostly public. The interior decoration with mural paintings, tapestry, furniture and other handicraft generally refers to the King's favourite themes: the grail legend, the works of Wolfram von Eschenbach, and their interpretation by Richard Wagner.
The eastward drawing room is adorned with themes from the Lohengrin legend. The furnituresofa, table, armchairs and seats in a northward alcoveis comfortable and homelike. Next to the drawing room is a little artificial grotto that forms the passage to the study. The unusual room, originally equipped with an artificial waterfall and a so-called rainbow machine, is connected to a little conservatory. Depicting the Hörselberg grotto, it relates to Wagner's Tannhäuser, as does the décor of the adjacent study. In the park of Linderhof Palace the King had installed a similar grotto of greater dimensions. Opposite the study follows the dining room, adorned with themes of courtly love. Since the kitchen in Neuschwanstein is situated three stories below the dining room, it was impossible to install a wishing table (dining table disappearing by means of a mechanism) as at Linderhof Palace and Herrenchiemsee. Instead, the dining room was connected with the kitchen by means of a service lift.
The bedroom adjacent to the dining room and the subsequent house chapel are the only rooms of the palace that remain in neo-Gothic style. The King's bedroom is dominated by a huge bed adorned with carvings. Fourteen carvers worked more than four years on the bed canopy with its numerous pinnacles and on the oaken panellings. It was in this room that Ludwig was arrested on the night of the 11th to 12th of June 1886. The adjacent little house chapel is consecrated to Saint Louis, after whom the owner was named.
The servants' rooms in the basement of the are quite scantily equipped with massive oak furniture. Besides one table and one cabinet there are two beds of length each. Opaque glass windows separated the rooms from the corridor that connects the exterior stairs with the main stairs, so that the King could enter and leave unseen. The servants were not allowed to use the main stairs, but were restricted to the much narrower and steeper servants' stairs.
Tourism
Neuschwanstein welcomes almost 1.5 million visitors per year making it one of the most popular tourist destinations in Europe. For security reasons the palace can only be visited during a 35-minute guided tour, and no photography is allowed inside the castle. There are also special guided tours that focus on specific topics. In the peak season from June until August, Neuschwanstein has as many as 6,000 visitors per day, and guests without advance reservation may have to wait several hours. Those without tickets may still walk the long driveway from the base to the top of the mountain and visit the grounds and courtyard without a ticket, but will not be admitted to the interior of the castle. Ticket sales are processed exclusively via the ticket centre in Hohenschwangau. , the total number of visitors was more than 60 million. In 2004, the revenues were booked as €6.5 million.
Culture, art, and science
Neuschwanstein is a global symbol of the era of Romanticism. The palace has appeared prominently in several movies such as Helmut Käutner's Ludwig II (1955) and Luchino Visconti's Ludwig (1972), both biopics about the King; the musical Chitty Chitty Bang Bang (1968), the spoof comedy Spaceballs and the war drama The Great Escape (1963). It served as the inspiration for Disneyland's Sleeping Beauty Castle, Cameran Palace in the animated Pokémon film Lucario and The Mystery of Mew (2005), and later similar structures. It is also visited by the character Grace Nakimura alongside Herrenchiemsee in the game The Beast Within: A Gabriel Knight Mystery (1996).
In 1977, Neuschwanstein Castle became the motif of a West German definitive stamp, and it appeared on a €2 commemorative coin for the German series in 2012. In 2007, it was a finalist in the widely publicised on-line selection of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
A meteorite that reached Earth spectacularly on 6 April 2002, at the Austrian border near Hohenschwangau was named Neuschwanstein after the palace. Three fragments were found: Neuschwanstein I (, found July 2002) and Neuschwanstein II (, found May 2003) on the German side, and Neuschwanstein III (, found June 2003) on the Austrian side near Reutte. The meteorite is classified as an enstatite chondrite with unusually large proportions of pure iron (29%), enstatite and the extremely rare mineral sinoite (Si2N2O).
World Heritage candidature
Since 2015, Neuschwanstein and Ludwig's Linderhof and Herrenchiemsee palaces are on the German tentative list for a future designation as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. A joint candidature with other representative palaces of the romantic historicism is discussed (including Schwerin Palace, for example).
Panoramas
Notes
Citations
General sources
External links
Official website.
Neuschwanstein Pictures: From a visitor's perspective.
Neuschwanstein Castle on Bavarian Palace Department website.
Floor Plan All floors.
Webcam.
Many 360° panoramas, with locations on three floor plans on ZDF site (requires Flash version 9 or higher).
Several 360° panoramas (requires QuickTime VR).
See it in stereoscopic 3D
1886 establishments in Bavaria
Buildings and structures in Ostallgäu
Castles in Bavaria
Heritage sites in Bavaria
Historic house museums in Germany
Houses completed in 1886
House of Wittelsbach
Landmarks in Germany
Ludwig II of Bavaria
Lohengrin
Museums in Bavaria
Registered historic buildings and monuments in Bavaria
Romanesque Revival architecture in Germany
Royal residences in Bavaria | [
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240914 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulnar%20nerve | Ulnar nerve | In human anatomy, the ulnar nerve is a nerve that runs near the ulna bone. The ulnar collateral ligament of elbow joint is in relation with the ulnar nerve. The nerve is the largest in the human body unprotected by muscle or bone, so injury is common. This nerve is directly connected to the little finger, and the adjacent half of the ring finger, innervating the palmar aspect of these fingers, including both front and back of the tips, perhaps as far back as the fingernail beds.
This nerve can cause an electric shock-like sensation by striking the medial epicondyle of the humerus from posteriorly, or inferiorly with the elbow flexed. The ulnar nerve is trapped between the bone and the overlying skin at this point. This is commonly referred to as bumping one's "funny bone". This name is thought to be a pun, based on the sound resemblance between the name of the bone of the upper arm, the humerus, and the word "humorous". Alternatively, according to the Oxford English Dictionary, it may refer to "the peculiar sensation experienced when it is struck".
Structure
Arm
The ulnar nerve originates from the C8-T1 nerve roots (and occasionally carries C7 fibers which arise from the lateral cord), which then form part of the medial cord of the brachial plexus, and descends medial to the brachial artery, up until the insertion point of coracobrachialis muscle (middle 5 cm over the medial border of the humerus). Then, it pierces the medial intermuscular septum and enters the posterior compartment of the arm, accompanied by superior ulnar collateral vessels. It runs at the posteromedial aspects of the humerus, passing behind the medial epicondyle (in the cubital tunnel) at the elbow, where it can be palpated by hand.
Forearm
The ulnar nerve is not a content of the cubital fossa. It enters the anterior (flexor) compartment of the forearm between the two heads of flexor carpi ulnaris, and lies along the lateral border of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The ulnar nerve runs between the flexor digitorum superficialis (laterally) and flexor digitorum profundus medially. Near the wrist, it courses superficial to the flexor retinaculum of hand, but covered by volar carpal ligament to enter the hand.
In the forearm it gives off the following branches:
Muscular branches of ulnar nerve - supplies one and a half muscles (flexor carpi ulnaris and the medial half of flexor digitorum profundus)
Palmar branch of ulnar nerve - arises from the middle part of the forearm and supplies the skin over the hypothenar eminence.
Dorsal branch of ulnar nerve - arises from 7.5 cm above the wrist, winds backwards to supply the skin of the proximal part of the ulnar one and half fingers and the adjoining area between the fingers.
Articular branches are given off to the elbow joint.
Hand
Ulnar nerve enters the palm of the hand via the Guyon's canal, superficial to the flexor retinaculum and lateral to the pisiform bone.
Here it gives off the following branches:
Superficial branch of ulnar nerve - supplies the palmaris brevis and gives digital branches to the medial one and a half fingers.
Deep branch of ulnar nerve - It accompanies the deep branch of the ulnar artery. It passes backwards between the abductor digiti minimi, flexor digiti minimi, and opponens digiti minimi, supplying all the three muscles, and lying on the hook of hamate bone. It then turns laterally, supplying the 3rd and 4th lumbricals and all the palmar interossei muscles and dorsal interossei of the hand. It terminates by supplying the adductor pollicis.
Articular branches to the wrist.
Function
Ulnar nerve is also known as "musician's nerve" as it controls the fine movements of the fingers.
Sensory
The ulnar nerve also provides sensory innervation to the fifth digit and the medial half of the fourth digit, and the corresponding part of the palm:
Palmar branch of ulnar nerve - supplies cutaneous innervation to the anterior skin and nails
Dorsal cutaneous branch of ulnar nerve - supplies cutaneous innervation to the dorsal medial hand and the dorsum of the medial 1.5 fingers
Motor
The ulnar nerve and its branches innervate the following muscles in the forearm and hand:
An articular branch that passes to the elbow joint while the ulnar nerve is passing between the olecranon and medial epicondyle of the humerus
In the forearm, via the muscular branches of ulnar nerve:
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor digitorum profundus (medial half)
In the hand, via the deep branch of ulnar nerve:
Hypothenar muscles
Opponens digiti minimi
Abductor digiti minimi
Flexor digiti minimi brevis
The third and fourth lumbrical muscles
Dorsal interossei
Palmar interossei
Adductor Pollicis
Flexor pollicis brevis (deep head)
In the hand, via the superficial branch of ulnar nerve:
Palmaris brevis
Clinical significance
The ulnar nerve can suffer injury anywhere between its proximal origin of the brachial plexus all the way to its distal branches in the hand. It is the most commonly injured nerve around the elbow. Although it can be damaged under various circumstances, it is commonly injured by local trauma or physical impingement ("pinched nerve"). Injury of the ulnar nerve at different levels causes specific motor and sensory deficits.
At the elbow
Common mechanisms of injury: Cubital tunnel syndrome, fracture of the medial epicondyle of the humerus (causing direct ulnar nerve injury), fracture of the lateral epicondyle of the humerus (causing cubitus valgus with tardy ulnar nerve palsy), Driver's Elbow
Motor deficit:
Weakness in flexion of the hand at the wrist, loss of flexion of ulnar half of digits, or the 4th and 5th digits, loss of ability to cross the digits of the hand. (Note: Motor deficit is absent or very minor in cubital tunnel syndrome as the ulnar nerve is compressed in the cubital tunnel, rather than transected.)
Presence of a claw hand deformity when the hand is at rest, due to hyperextension of the 4th and 5th digits at the metacarpophalangeal joints, and flexion at the interphalangeal joints.
Weakness of adduction of the thumb, which may be assessed by the presence of Froment's sign.
Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation or paresthesiae in ulnar half of the palm and dorsum of hand, and the medial 1½ digits on both palmar and dorsal aspects of the hand
At the wrist
Common mechanism: penetrating wounds, Guyon canal cyst (and other lesions)
Motor deficit:
Loss of flexion of ulnar half of digits, or the 4th and 5th digits, loss of ability to cross the digits of the hand.
Presence of a claw hand deformity when the hand is at rest, due to hyperextension of the 4th and 5th digits at the metacarpophalangeal joints, and flexion at the interphalangeal joints.
The claw hand deformity is more prominent with injury at the wrist as opposed to a lesion higher up in the arm, for instance, at the elbow, as the ulnar half of the flexor digitorum profundus is not affected. This pulls the distal interphalangeal joints of the 4th and 5th digit into a more flexed position, producing a more deformed 'claw'. This is known as the ulnar paradox.
Weakness of adduction of the thumb, which may be assessed by the presence of Froment's sign.
Sensory deficit: Loss of sensation or paresthesiae in ulnar half of the palm, and the medial 1½ digits on the palmar aspect of the hand, with dorsal sparing. The dorsal aspect of the hand is unaffected as the posterior cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve is given off higher up in the forearm and does not reach the wrist.
In severe cases, surgery may be performed to relocate or "release" the nerve to prevent further injury.
Additional images
See also
Axillary nerve
Median nerve
Musculocutaneous nerve
Radial nerve
References
External links
Cubital Tunnel Support Forums
- "The major subdivisions and terminal nerves of the brachial plexus."
- "Anterior view of the nerves, vessels, and superficial tendons that cross the left wrist."
- "Transverse section through the carpal tunnel and distal row of the carpal bones."
- "Axilla, dissection, anterior view"
Overview at neuro.wustl.edu
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240920 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20shark | Blue shark | The blue shark (Prionace glauca), also known as the great blue shark, is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, that inhabits deep waters in the world's temperate and tropical oceans. Averaging around and preferring cooler waters, the blue shark migrates long distances, such as from New England to South America. It is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.
Although generally lethargic, they can move very quickly. Blue sharks are viviparous and are noted for large litters of 25 to over 100 pups. They feed primarily on small fish and squid, although they can take larger prey. Maximum lifespan is still unknown, but it is believed that they can live up to 20 years.
Anatomy and appearance
Blue sharks are light-bodied with long pectoral fins. Like many other sharks, blue sharks are countershaded: the top of the body is deep blue, lighter on the sides, and the underside is white. The male blue shark commonly grows to at maturity, whereas the larger females commonly grow to at maturity. Large specimens can grow to long. Occasionally, an outsized blue shark is reported, with one widely printed claim of a length of , but no shark even approaching this size has been scientifically documented. The blue shark is fairly elongated and slender in build and typically weighs from in males and from in large females. Occasionally, a female in excess of will weigh over . The heaviest reported weight for the species was . The blue shark is also ectothermic and it has a unique sense of smell.
Reproduction
They are viviparous, with a yolk-sac placenta, delivering four to 135 pups per litter. The gestation period is between nine and 12 months. Females mature at five to six years of age and males at four to five. Courtship is believed to involve biting by the male, as mature specimens can be accurately sexed according to the presence or absence of bite scarring. Female blue sharks have adapted to the rigorous mating ritual by developing skin three times as thick as male skin.
Ecology
Range and habitat
The blue shark is an oceanic and epipelagic shark found worldwide in deep temperate and tropical waters from the surface to about . In temperate seas it may approach shore, where it can be observed by divers; while in tropical waters, it inhabits greater depths. It lives as far north as Norway and as far south as Chile. Blue sharks are found off the coasts of every continent, except Antarctica. Its greatest Pacific concentrations occur between 20° and 50° North, but with strong seasonal fluctuations. In the tropics, it spreads evenly between 20° N and 20° S. It prefers water temperatures between , but can be seen in water ranging from . Records from the Atlantic show a regular clockwise migration within the prevailing currents.
Feeding
Squid are important prey for blue sharks, but their diet includes other invertebrates, such as cuttlefish and pelagic octopuses, as well as lobster, shrimp, crab, a large number of bony fishes, small sharks, mammalian carrion and occasional sea birds. Whale and porpoise blubber and meat have been retrieved from the stomachs of captured specimens and they are known to take cod from trawl nets. Sharks have been observed and documented working together as a "pack" to herd prey into a concentrated group from which they can easily feed. Blue sharks may eat tuna, which have been observed taking advantage of the herding behaviour to opportunistically feed on escaping prey. The observed herding behaviour was undisturbed by different species of shark in the vicinity that normally would pursue the common prey. The blue shark can swim at fast speeds, allowing it to catch up with prey easily. Its triangular teeth allow it to easily catch hold of slippery prey.
Predators
Young and smaller individuals may be eaten by larger sharks, such as the great white shark and the tiger shark. Killer whales have been reported to hunt blue sharks. This shark may host several species of parasites. For example, the blue shark is the definitive host of the tetraphyllidean tapeworm, Pelichnibothrium speciosum (Prionacestus bipartitus). It becomes infected by eating intermediate hosts, probably opah (Lampris guttatus) and/or longnose lancetfish (Alepisaurus ferox).
Northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris) have been observed to feed on blue sharks.
Relationship to humans
Blue shark meat is edible, but not widely sought after; it is consumed fresh, dried, smoked and salted and diverted for fishmeal. There is a report of high concentration of heavy metals (mercury and lead) in the edible flesh. The skin is used for leather, the fins for shark-fin soup and the liver for oil. Blue sharks are occasionally sought as game fish for their beauty and speed.
Blue sharks rarely bite humans. From 1580 up until 2013, the blue shark was implicated in only 13 biting incidents, four of which ended fatally.
In captivity
Blue sharks, like most pelagic sharks, tend to fare poorly in captivity. The first attempt of keeping blue sharks in captivity was at Sea World San Diego in 1968, and since then a small number of other public aquariums in North America, Europe and Asia have attempted it. Most of these were in captivity for about three months or less, and some of them were released back to the wild afterwards. The record time for blue sharks in captivity is 246 and 224 days for two individuals at Tokyo Sea Life Park, 210 days for an individual at New Jersey Aquarium, and 194 days for one at Lisbon Oceanarium and 252 and 873 days for two individuals at Sendai Umino-Mori Aquarium.
The blue shark that survived the longest in captivity was captured in Shizugawa Bay on July 27, 2018, and taken to the Sendai Umino-Mori Aquarium. The total length at the time of delivery was , the estimated weight was 0.345kg, and the age was about 1 year old. After that, it lived for 873 days, but died due to factors such as disordered swimming due to dehydration. At the time of death, the total length was and the weight was 4kg. This growth rate is said to be the same as that of wild blue sharks.
Blue sharks are relatively easy to feed and store in captivity, and the three primary issues appear to be transport, predation by larger sharks and trouble avoiding smooth surfaces in tanks. Small blue sharks, up to long, are relatively easy to transport to aquariums, but it is much more complicated to transport larger individuals. However, this typical small size when introduced to aquariums means that they are highly vulnerable to predation by other sharks that are often kept, such as bull, grey reef, sandbar and sand tiger sharks. For example, several blue sharks kept at Sea World San Diego initially did fairly well, but were eaten when bull sharks were added to their exhibit. Attempts of keeping blue sharks in tanks of various sizes, shapes and depths have shown that they have trouble avoiding walls, aquarium windows and other smooth surfaces, eventually leading to abrasions to the fins or snout, which may result in serious infections. To keep blue sharks, it is therefore necessary with tanks that allow for relatively long, optimum swimming paths where potential contact with smooth surfaces is kept at a minimum. It has been suggested that prominent rockwork may be easier to avoid for blue sharks than smooth surfaces, as has been shown in captive tiger sharks.
Conservation status
In June 2018 the New Zealand Department of Conservation classified the blue shark as "Not Threatened" with the qualifier "Secure Overseas" under the New Zealand Threat Classification System. The species is listed as Near Threatened by the IUCN.
See also
Outline of sharks
List of sharks
List of prehistoric cartilaginous fish genera
References
External links
ARKive – Images and movies of the blue shark (Prionace glauca)
Canadian Shark research laboratory
BBCNews – 'Jaws' comes to a US beach 3 August 2010.
BBCNews – Footage of shark which closed New Quay (Wales) beach 8 August 2012.
Species Description of Prionace glauca at www.shark-references.com
blue shark
Viviparous fish
Cosmopolitan fish
Extant Pliocene first appearances
blue shark
blue shark | [
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240927 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabriel%20Parra | Gabriel Parra | Gabriel Parra (1947–1988) was the drummer of Chilean folk group Los Jaivas. He was the youngest of the three Parra brothers who formed the band.
He died in a crash in Peru in 1988. After this accident, his daughter Juanita Parra replaced him as drummer in Los Jaivas.
Notoriety
He is widely considered to be the top drummer from Chile, with a unique and strong style.
In 1979 Los Jaivas toured England for the first time. They played at the Shaftesbury Theatre in London, where they were seen by a writer from Music Week. He later wrote that Gabriel Parra was one of the ten top drummers in the world.
See also
Chilean rock
Los Jaivas
References
1947 births
1988 deaths
Chilean folk singers
People from Valparaíso
20th-century Chilean male singers
20th-century drummers
Chilean drummers | [
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240928 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/For%20each | For each | For each may refer to:
In mathematics, Universal quantification. Also read as: "for all"
In computer science, foreach loop
See also
Each (disambiguation) | [
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240929 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken%20Ranch%20%28Nevada%29 | Chicken Ranch (Nevada) | The Chicken Ranch is a legal, licensed brothel located about west of Las Vegas near the town of Pahrump, in Nye County, at 10511 Homestead Road. The 17-bed brothel sits on of land. A separate building, connected to the main house by a breezeway, contains three extensively-decorated themed "bungalows" catering to those customers wishing a more luxurious experience.
Approximately 60 courtesans call the Chicken Ranch "home" with around 12 to 15 women living and working there at any time. The women often stay for at least 2 weeks at a time.
The ladies are independent contractors and set their own prices and menu of services. Due to Nye County ordinances, solicitation cannot be done outside of the house of the brothel.
The ranch used to house a collection of memorabilia from the original Chicken Ranch which was located outside of La Grange, Texas.
The ranch is also site of the Leghorn Bar. The bar has a separate entrance for customers not wishing to enter the brothel parlor.
History
Walter Plankinton opened the Nevada Chicken Ranch in 1976, as close to Las Vegas as legally possible. He encountered strong opposition from local law enforcement and other brothel owners. It remains the closest brothel to Las Vegas.
The initial location of the Chicken Ranch was inside the town limits of Pahrump, where prostitution was illegal. Plankinton was arrested and found guilty of violating the town's laws. He moved the brothel to a new location within Nye County, but outside of town limits. After lengthy appeals he served 60 days in jail in 1981.
Nye County did not require brothels to be licensed in 1976, and three other brothels operated legally in the county at the time. Nevertheless, officials circulated a petition opposing the Chicken Ranch and then tried to close it down as a "public nuisance per se". The resulting court case reached the Nevada Supreme Court, which ruled in Plankinton's favor in 1978.
In 1978, the Chicken Ranch was burned to the ground, allegedly by arsonists. Plankinton reopened with a new set of trailers 5 days later.
In 1982, Plankinton sold the Chicken Ranch for $1,250,000 to Kenneth Green, a San Francisco businessman, and Russel Reade, an ex-teacher. Reade, who had contributed $25,000 towards the purchase, became the manager. Around 15 women were working at the ranch at that time.
Chicken Ranch Airport was an airstrip on premises which allowed small planes to land at the brothel. Pictures from 1994 show the airstrip was closed by this time.
On February 8, 2006, the ranch accepted a purchase offer for $5.2 million.
Books, movies, TV shows, music
Don Stadterman was a chauffeur for the Chicken Ranch Brothel in Nevada for seven years. His book, Ride With Me To The Chicken Ranch Brothel is about the men he drove to the brothel and the ladies who worked there. Jeanie Kasindorf's book Nye County Brothel Wars (Linden Press/Simon & Schuster 1985) describes the opposition Plankinton encountered in Nye County.
In 1983, the house was the subject of the documentary Chicken Ranch by filmmaker Nick Broomfield.
The six part Sundance Channel series Pleasure for Sale (2008) documented life in the Chicken Ranch, describing the sometimes tense relations among the sex workers there.
The Chicken Ranch was the location for Orville Peck's video "Dead of Night". Women from the Chicken Ranch were featured throughout the video and thanked by Orville Peck at the end of the video.
See also
Prostitution in Nevada
List of brothels in Nevada
References
External links
1976 establishments in Nevada
Brothels in Nevada
Buildings and structures in Nye County, Nevada | [
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240931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.hack%20%28video%20game%20series%29 | .hack (video game series) | .hack () is a series of single-player action role-playing video games developed for the PlayStation 2 console by CyberConnect2 and published by Bandai. The four games, .hack//Infection, .hack//Mutation, .hack//Outbreak, and .hack//Quarantine, all feature a "game within a game", a fictional massively multiplayer online role-playing game (MMORPG) called The World which does not require the player to connect to the Internet. Players may transfer their characters and data between games in the series. Each game comes with an extra DVD containing an episode of .hack//Liminality, the accompanying original video animation (OVA) series which details fictional events that occur concurrently with the games.
The games are part of a multimedia franchise called Project .hack, which explores the mysterious origins of The World. Set after the events of the anime series, .hack//Sign, the games focus on a player character named Kite and his quest to discover why some users have become comatose in the real world as a result of playing The World. The search evolves into a deeper investigation of the game and its effects on the stability of the Internet.
Critics gave the series mixed reviews. It was praised for its unique setting and its commitment to preserve the suspension of disbelief, as well as the character designs. However, it was criticized for uneven pacing and a lack of improvement between games in the series. The commercial success of the franchise led to the production of .hack//frägment—a Japan-only remake of the series with online capabilities—and .hack//G.U., another video game trilogy which was released for the PlayStation 2 between 2006 and 2007. A remastered collection of the latter was released for the PlayStation 4 and Microsoft Windows in 2017, titled .hack//G.U. Last Recode. On December 22nd, 2021, Bandai Namco announced that the collection would be coming to Nintendo Switch on March 11th, 2022
Gameplay
.hack simulates an MMORPG; players assume the role of a participant in a fictional game called The World. The player controls the on-screen player character Kite from a third-person perspective but first-person mode is available. The player manually controls the viewing perspective using the game controller. Within the fictional game, players explore monster-infested fields and dungeons, and "Root Towns" that are free of combat. They can also log off from The World and return to a computer desktop interface which includes in-game e-mail, news, message boards, and desktop and background music customization options. The player may save the game to a memory card both from the desktop and within The World at a Save Shop. A Data Flag appears on the save file after the player completes the game, allowing the transfer of all aspects of the player character and party members to the next game in the series.
The series is typical of action role-playing games, in which players attack enemies in real time. The game's action pauses whenever the menu is opened to select magic to cast, items to use, or skills to perform. The player directly controls Kite and the other characters are controlled by artificial intelligence. The player may either provide the computer-controlled characters with guidelines ("attack", "first aid", "magic", etc.) or issue direct commands. Most hostile creatures are contained within magic portals and combat will not begin until the player character approaches the portal and releases the monsters inside. Kite possesses a unique ability called "Data Drain" which allows him to transform these enemies into rare items. Many boss monsters are known as "Data Bugs"—enemies with corrupted data which gives them infinite health. Data Drain is used to repair the damaged monsters' data and render them vulnerable but its use increases Kite's level of infection, randomly causing harmful side effects. The infection can be cured by defeating enemies without Data Drain.
Root Towns are non-combat areas of The World where the player may restock items, buy equipment, or chat and trade with other players of The World. In many towns, the player may also raise a sentient, pig-like creature called a Grunty, which can be ridden in fields and in later games raced for prizes. A blue portal called the Chaos Gate is used to travel between towns (called "servers") and to access the fields and dungeons where battles occur. A three-word password system controls the characteristics of each area; attributes such as the prevalence of monsters or items change depending on the properties of each word in the password phrase. Certain plot-related areas have restricted access, but the player character has an ability called "Gate Hacking" which allows him to access these areas using "Virus Cores" obtained through Data Drain.
Plot
Setting
The .hack games are set in an alternate timeline of Earth, in the year 2010. After a computer virus called "Pluto's Kiss" crashes nearly every computer in the world, access to the Internet is closed to the general public to address security concerns. After two years without the Internet and online games, a MMORPG called The World is released. It becomes the most popular online game of all time with over 20 million unique players. Shortly before the events portrayed in the .hack games, a number of users become comatose as a result of playing The World. However, the developers blame their condition on cyberterrorism.
The World was developed by a German programmer named Harald Hoerwick; its backstory is based on the Epitaph of Twilight, an epic poem by Emma Wielant. Her death inspired Hoerwick to create the game. Elements of the poem are coded into the game's programming. The hidden purpose of Hoerwick's game is to develop the ultimate artificial intelligence (AI), which is capable of making decisions for itself. To this end, Hoerwick inserted functions into the system which monitor and extract behavioral data from millions of the game's players to aid in the AI's learning process. After Hoerwick's death, these pieces of code became black boxes to the current developers, who cannot fathom their purpose, yet are critical to the proper functioning of the game.
Characters
The main protagonist of .hack is Kite, a new player of The World whose friend Orca becomes comatose under mysterious circumstances. Kite is joined by nearly twenty other players in his quest to solve the mystery of the coma victims. The players who have the greatest impact on the success of Kite's mission are BlackRose, a fellow newbie to The World whose brother is also in a coma; Balmung, a legendary player who seeks to eliminate sources of corruption in the game he loves; and Wiseman, an information broker who becomes a key strategist for Kite's team. Helba, a professional hacker, and Lios, a reluctant system administrator, also aid in Kite's efforts to rescue the coma victims. Two non-human characters play important roles in the story: Aura seeks to complete her growth into the ultimate AI, while Morganna, an AI who rebels against her task of nurturing Aura, acts as the unseen primary antagonist.
Story
In .hack//Infection, Kite's friend Orca invites him to play The World. In the first dungeon they visit, they encounter a girl in white, Aura, being chased by a humanoid monster. Aura tries to entrust Orca with an item called "the Book of Twilight", but the monster attacks him, crashing The World's servers. Kite's player discovers that Yasuhiko, Orca's player, has fallen comatose after the attack, and resolves to discover the cause. Kite meets BlackRose, who takes him to a cathedral where they are attacked by a headless swordsman. The legendary player Balmung appears and defeats it, but the monster revives itself as a Data Bug. The Book of Twilight then activates, altering Kite's character data and giving him the Twilight Bracelet. He uses its Data Drain to correct the swordsman's code, allowing Balmung to kill it. Balmung accuses Kite of causing the viral infection spreading through the game, and leaves. Kite and BlackRose decide to cooperate to help the coma victims. After investigating a number of leads, Kite and BlackRose track down Skeith, the creature that put Orca into a coma. They defeat Skeith. The remnants of Skeith attracts a much larger enemy named Cubia, which defeats Kite and his party. Helba then drives Cubia away.
In .hack//Mutation, Kite and BlackRose encounter system administrator Lios, who declares Kite's bracelet to be an illegal hack. He tries to delete Kite's character data, but fails due to Kite's data being encrypted by the Book of Twilight. Helba intervenes, and convinces Lios to observe Kite for the time being. Lios directs them to an area where they find Innis, a monster with powers similar to Skeith's. Upon defeating Innis, Kite receives an e-mail from Aura, who reveals that she is an AI. They travel to an area to meet her; but Cubia attacks them, and they repel the monster with difficulty. Short on leads, they contact Wiseman, who is intrigued by Kite's bracelet. He suggests that Skeith and Innis are based on the "Cursed Wave", an antagonistic force featured in the poem Epitaph of Twilight, upon which The World is based. Wiseman helps grant them access to Net Slum, a place known as a paradise for hackers and wandering AIs. Upon arrival, another Cursed Wave monster called Magus attacks them. They defeat it and return to the Root Town, where they discover that the computer virus has spread to The World main servers and into the real world.
In .hack//Outbreak, Balmung realizes that he cannot end the situation on his own, and joins Kite's quest. BlackRose tells Kite that her brother became comatose under similar circumstances as Orca, which renews both characters' determination. Wiseman formulates a plan to combat the Cursed Wave, enlisting Helba's assistance. Their teamwork destroys the Wave monster Fidchell, but the aftermath causes networks in the real world to malfunction. Aura contacts Kite again, but their meeting is cut short by Cubia's reappearance. Lios, observing Cubia's power, agrees to join Kite, Helba, and the others to combat the Cursed Wave. In the resulting operation, the team pools their resources to defeat another Wave monster called Gorre, with no repercussions in the real world.
.hack//Quarantine sees the current server becoming increasingly unstable. To fix the problem, Helba replaces it with a copy of the Net Slum. At the bottom of a dungeon, Kite encounters Mia, a member of his party. He discovers that Mia is actually another Cursed Wave monster named Macha, whom he reluctantly defeats. Meanwhile, Cubia grows stronger, and Kite's team barely fends off its latest attack. In contrast, Operation Orca is a success as they destroy Tarvos, the next Wave monster. Kite seeks the advice of Harald Hoerwick, the creator of the game who survives beyond death through his AI incarnations. Aura appears and hints that Cubia is the "shadow" of Kite's Twilight Bracelet. Cubia ambushes them and destroys the AI Harald. In their final battle, Kite recalls Aura's hint and has BlackRose destroy the bracelet, causing Cubia to fade away. Without the bracelet, the final Wave member, Corbenik, ambushes the party in Net Slum Root Town. With the aid of the spirits of the coma victims, Kite penetrates Corbenik's barrier. Aura sacrifices herself to end the battle, restoring the network to normal and reviving all the coma victims.
Development
Development for .hack began in early 2000 with the aim of shocking and surprising the player and creating a distinctive product. CyberConnect2's president Hiroshi Matsuyama played a key role in developing the concept for the series. A number of core ideas, including "slaying dragons or being a thief in London" were explored, but these were rejected in favor of an "offline/online game". Matsuyama said that this would give young gamers an opportunity to experience online play without paying monthly fees or needing powerful Internet connections. The developers looked at a number of MMORPGs such as Phantasy Star Online, Ultima Online, and Final Fantasy XI for inspiration, and drew influences from the prior works of character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto (Neon Genesis Evangelion) and scenario writer Kazunori Itō (Ghost in the Shell). Itō noted that casting the player into the role of a subscriber of The World creates a unique story-telling situation which draws the player deeper into the plot.
From the start of its development, .hack was envisioned as a four-part series intended to mirror the four-volume story arcs found in manga. Matsuyama theorized that the act of transferring saved data across the four volumes would help to create a sense of the human drama embodied by the games' story and invest the player into the narrative. The games were developed simultaneously alongside other elements of Project .hack such as .hack//Sign to emphasize the multimedia aspect of the franchise. The three-month gap between each game's release allowed the developers to make minor changes in response to criticisms. The games were packaged with bonus DVDs featuring episodes of .hack//Liminality, an original video animation (OVA) series that depicts events that occur concurrently with the games. The developers intended the OVA series to depict fictional events happening in the real world outside the game. Players in Japan who purchased all four games were rewarded with .hack//Gift, an OVA parodying the .hack series. After the completion of the series, the development team produced .hack//frägment, a game using the same engine as the .hack series with an online multiplayer component. The aims of .hack//frägment were to allow the developers to watch player interactions in an online environment and to gauge interest in an online .hack game.
Reception
By April 2004, the games had sold units in Japan and the United States. By March 2004, sales of the .hack games exceeded 1.73 million, with 780,000 copies sold in Japan.
Critics gave the series mixed reviews. .hack//Infection received the most positive reviews of the series; critics were intrigued by the games' unique premise. Jeremy Dunham of IGN was impressed by the game's commitment to preserve the illusion of online and praised the character designs and the inclusion of the Japanese voice track, but criticized the camera manipulation and the game's shortness and lack of difficulty. A Game Informer reviewer praised the way it captures the sense of community that a real MMORPG offers.
Many reviewers cited the game's unusual setting as the counterbalance to the mediocre gameplay, repetitive environments and poor camera control. Overall, the first game was moderately well received, with reviewers overlooking gameplay flaws because of a compelling story. Christian Nutt of GameSpy awarded if four stars out of five and commended Bandai for breaking new ground and Cyber Connect 2 for providing an engrossing RPG experience. Gary Steinman of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine wrote, "[a]t its core, .hack is not a good game", calling the battle systems "wildly unbalanced" and the graphics "spectacularly underwhelming", but said the "mind-bending" story allowed him to look past its obvious flaws and anticipate future games in the series. Greg Kasavin of GameSpot was less forgiving, deriding .hack//Infection as a sub-par version of Kingdom Hearts.
.hack//Mutation also received mixed reviews, and many critics complained that little was done to address the problems of its predecessor. Fennec Fox of Gamepro said that game, "is simply an extension of Infection", with "muddy graphics, questionable control, and a story concept that's just interesting enough to keep you going." Greg Kasavin of GameSpot gave it a rating of 6.7 out of 10 and wrote, "not only does it bring you exactly the same sort of repetitive hack-and-slash gameplay, but it's also similarly short and simple and once again offers little in the way of plot or character development." Nutt found the second game to be more addictive than the first, despite its numerous shortcomings such as obvious padding towards the end of the story. He praised the "mixture of cool story and viscerally engaging RPG gameplay", the accelerating story, gameplay progression and memorable boss battles. Other reviewers were encouraged by the MMORPG-oriented details that contribute to the game's presentation and built excitement for the future of the series. IGN also named .hack//Mutation as PlayStation 2 Game of the Month for May 2003.
.hack//Outbreak represented a shift in the critical reception of the series as reviewers grew tired of the incremental or nonexistent improvements between titles. Kasavin rated it 6.4 out of 10, and wrote that it "just doesn't make for a satisfying experience".
Dunham gave it an overall rating of 8.4 out of 10, praised the battle system and wrote that there had been a great improvement in the artificial intelligence of ally characters and enemies, although he was disappointed by the lack of any other changes. Nutt awarded .hack//Outbreak three stars out of five, writing that the game's "extremely challenging enemies and lots of solo missions give the game an edge that keeps it from becoming boring". However, he criticized the four-part game structure, observing, "we are paying Bandai $200 for one game" and that "the extreme lack of improvements from volume to volume is ... downright exploitative of the fans".
Some critics called the final game, .hack//Quarantine, a satisfying conclusion to a mediocre series, while others said it is a confusing mess of poor pacing and plot holes. Dunham awarded the game 8.3 out of 10 and called the plot twists "shocking and clever". Kasavin rated it 6.1 out of 10 and wrote that, "[o]n its own merits, Quarantine isn't a bad game, and [loyal players] should find it to have a satisfying conclusion that, sure enough, leaves the possibility for further adventures in The World". He also called Bandai's decision to add 60 to 80 hours of padding to the game, split it into four full-priced products, and release these as a series disappointing. Nutt was similarly disappointed with the final game, awarding it two stars out of five. He wrote that the story was well-presented and excellent, but that it was only present in the game's first and last quarters. He was satisfied by the game's ending and loved its story, style, and characters, but grew tired of the game's "endless chains of chambers, these easily-defeated enemies, this total lack of strategy". The Game Informer reviewer hoped to see a more effective implementation of .hacks concept in the future. Japanese magazine Famitsu Weekly gave the .hack games scores in the 29 to 30 out of 40 range, indicating average reviews. However, the Japanese Computer Entertainment Supplier's Association (CESA) honored the series for its combination of different fictional media including games, anime, radio, and manga into a compelling whole at the 2002-2003 CESA Awards.
Related media and legacy
The .hack video games are part of a multimedia franchise that includes novels, manga, and anime series. Set before the events of the video games, .hack//Sign is an anime television series that establishes The World as a setting. .hack//Another Birth is a series of novels that retells the story of the games from BlackRose's perspective. .hack//XXXX is a manga adaptation of the games' story with changes to some elements, such as Cubia acting as a player character. The first official sequel to the games is the manga and anime series .hack//Legend of the Twilight, which began serializing on July 30, 2002. It tells the story of Shugo and Rena—regular players who win avatars of Kite and BlackRose in a contest—and their exploration of The World and its secrets. .hack//G.U. is a series of video games also released in multiple parts that forms the centerpiece of .hack Conglomerate, a new project set seven years after the events of Project .hack with a new version of The World.
Music
The games' soundtrack, titled .hack//Game Music Perfect Collection, was released as a double album in Japan on April 23, 2003. It features 68 compositions by Chikayo Fukuda, Seizo Nakata, and Norikatsu Fukuda. A special edition of this soundtrack includes a third disc featuring sound effects and clips used in the games. The album was released with fewer tracks in North America as .hack//Game Music Best Collection. Patrick Gann of RPGFan wrote that the second disc, which contains music for cutscenes and special events, was stronger than the first disc's generic town and battle themes. He called the soundtrack "techno meets opera", singled out the volume intro tracks for particular praise. Gann noted that the North American release functions as a "Best of" album, but felt that "a lot of solid music [is] missing" in this release. Other reviewers were less enthusiastic; Paul Koehler of RPGamer called the music "particularly bland" and IGN's Dunham lamented that the second installment did not introduce many new pieces. However, he concluded that "the melodious piano and oboe themes were still brawny enough to convince us that we needed to buy the soundtrack sometime in the near future".
.hack//Game Music Perfect Collection
.hack//Game Music Best Collection
.hack//frägment
.hack//frägment is a multiplayer online game based on the fictional MMORPG, The World. It was released only in Japan on November 23, 2005 and online service ended on January 18, 2007, after being extended two months because of its popularity. Famitsu Weekly gave .hack//frägment a cumulative score of 29 out of 40 over four reviews, much like its reviews of the main series. Designer Hiroshi Matsuyama described the game as a way to see how players would react to online play. The game uses the same game engine as the .hack video game series and thus, its gameplay is identical, with the exception of online mode. Players explore areas and fight monsters in real time. A major difference is that during online play, the action does not pause when the menu is opened. Players may still use the skill "Data Drain" to weaken monsters and collect rare items. The user interface and control scheme are otherwise unchanged.
Players may create their characters based on a number of preset body shapes and color schemes and may choose a class (such as Wavemaster or Twin Blade) and character name. In online mode, players may enter a lobby and search for a maximum of two other players to join them on an adventure. The game includes an expanded communication interface that allows players to chat, send e-mail, post to an in-game Bulletin Board System, and receive server news updates. It is possible to establish ad hoc chat rooms separate from the public-access ones. Guilds are permanent, exclusive chat rooms for members. In offline mode, players may level up, obtain items, and learn new skills as one of their online mode characters without the need for an Internet connection. Players may invite or create characters from the .hack games, .hack//Sign, and .hack//Legend of the Twilight into their party. The "story mode" of .hack//frägment is identical to that of the .hack games, with the player's created character replacing Kite. With the goal of collecting the member address of characters from the .hack franchise starting with Bear and B.T. and ending with Kite and Helba. While offline, players may use a Windows XP era program called "Area Server" to create fields and dungeons and release them online. The creators of the most popular areas are given the ability to add strong monsters for players to defeat.
As the official online servers ended back in January 2007, an alternative player run lobby server is available for owners of this game to connect to in present-day and play with players as you did back in 2005, fan translated into English thanks to a patch from the community.
Notes
References
External links
dot hack official site
Project .hack official site
Bandai Namco Entertainment franchises
Action role-playing video games
Artificial intelligence in fiction
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 2-only games
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 2002
Video games developed in Japan
Massively multiplayer online role-playing games in fiction
Video games set in 2010
Video games using procedural generation | [
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240934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J.%20L.%20Mackie | J. L. Mackie | John Leslie Mackie (25 August 1917 – 12 December 1981) was an Australian philosopher. He made significant contributions to the philosophy of religion, metaphysics, and the philosophy of language, and is perhaps best known for his views on metaethics, especially his defence of moral scepticism as well as his sophisticated defence of atheism. He wrote six books. His most widely known, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977), opens by boldly stating, "There are no objective values." It goes on to argue that because of this, ethics must be invented rather than discovered. His posthumously published The Miracle of Theism: Arguments For and Against the Existence of God (1982) has been called a tour de force in contemporary analytic philosophy. The atheist philosopher Kai Nielsen described it as "one of the most, probably the most, distinguished articulation of an atheistic point of view given in the twentieth century." In 1980 Time magazine described him as "perhaps the ablest of today's atheistic philosophers."
Life
Mackie was born 25 August 1917 in Killara, Sydney, son of Alexander Mackie, professor of education at the University of Sydney and principal of the Sydney Teachers College, influential in the educational system of New South Wales. and Annie Burnett (née Duncan), who was a schoolteacher.
Mackie graduated from the University of Sydney in 1938 after studying under John Anderson, sharing the medal in philosophy with Harold Glass. Mackie received the Wentworth Travelling Fellowship to study greats at Oriel College, Oxford, where he graduated with first-class honours in 1940.
During the Second World War Mackie served with the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers in the Middle East and Italy, and was mentioned in dispatches. He was professor of philosophy at the University of Otago in New Zealand from 1955 to 1959 and succeeded Anderson as the Challis Professor of philosophy at the University of Sydney from 1959 to 1963. In 1963, he moved to the United Kingdom, becoming the inaugural holder of the chair of philosophy in the University of York, a position he held until 1967, when he was elected a fellow of University College, Oxford, where he served as praelector. In 1969, he gave a lecture, "What's Really Wrong with Phenomenalism?", at the British Academy as part of its annual Philosophical Lectures series. In 1974, he became a fellow of the British Academy.
Mackie died in Oxford on 12 December 1981.
Character and family
Mackie is said to have been capable of expressing total disagreement in such a genial way that the person being addressed might mistake his comment for a compliment. This personal style is exemplified by the following words from the preface to Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong:
I am nowhere mainly concerned to refute any individual writer. I believe that all those to whom I have referred, even those with whom I disagree most strongly, have contributed significantly to our understanding of ethics: where I have quoted their actual words, it is because they have presented views or arguments more clearly or more forcefully than I could put them myself.
Mackie married Joan Meredith in 1947. One of their three surviving children, Penelope Mackie, also became a philosopher. She lectured in philosophy at the University of Birmingham from 1994 to 2004, and was appointed Head of the University of Nottingham's Department of Philosophy in 2007. Mackie's son David is also a philosopher and graduated from Oxford University, where he held lectureships at Exeter College, Corpus Christi College, and Christ Church before being appointed a Fellow and Tutor at Oriel College. He is Head of Philosophy at D'Overbroeck's College, Oxford. His daughter Hilary is a classicist at Rice University.
Philosophical work
Mackie is best known for his contributions to metaethics, philosophy of religion, and metaphysics. In metaethics, he took a position called moral scepticism, arguing against the objective existence of right and wrong as intrinsically normative entities on fundamental grounds. He was unsure what kinds of thing they would be if they existed.
His perhaps most widely known work, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, bluntly begins with the sentence "There are no objective values". He uses several arguments to support this claim. He argues that some aspects of moral thought are relative, and that objective morals require an absurd intrinsic action-guiding feature. Most of all, he thinks it is very unclear how objective values could supervene on features of the natural world (see the Argument from queerness), and argues it would be difficult to justify our knowledge of "value entities" or account for any links or consequences they would have. Finally, he thinks it possible to show that even without any objective values, people would still have reason to firmly believe in them (hence he claims that it is possible for people to be mistaken or fooled into believing that objective values exist). The Times called the book "a lucid discussion of moral theory which, although aimed at the general reader, has attracted a good deal of professional attention."
Concerning religion, he was well known for vigorously defending atheism, and also arguing that the problem of evil made untenable the main monotheistic religions. His criticisms of the free will theodicy are particularly significant. He argued that the idea of human free will is no defence for those who wish to believe in an omnicompetent being in the face of evil and suffering, as such a being could have given us both free will and moral perfection, thus resulting in us choosing the good in every situation. In 1955 he published "Evil and Omnipotence", which summarized his view that belief in the existence of evil and an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good god is "positively irrational".
Mackie's views on this so-called logical problem of evil prompted Alvin Plantinga to respond with the "free will defence", to which Mackie later responded in his The Miracle of Theism.
In metaphysics, Mackie made significant contributions relating to the nature of causal relationships, especially conditional statements describing them (see, for example, Mackie 1974) and the notion of an INUS condition.
After being given a copy of Richard Dawkins's The Selfish Gene as a Christmas present, in 1978 Mackie wrote an article in the journal Philosophy praising the book and discussing how its ideas might be applied to moral philosophy. The philosopher Mary Midgley responded in 1979 with "Gene-Juggling", an article arguing that The Selfish Gene was about psychological egoism rather than evolution. This started a dispute between Mackie, Midgley, and Dawkins that was ongoing at the time of Mackie's death.
Publications
Books
Truth, Probability, and Paradox (1973), Oxford University Press, .
The Cement of the Universe: A Study of Causation (1980 [1974]), Oxford University Press, .
Problems from Locke (1976), Oxford University Press, .
Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (1977), Viking Press, . (1978 Reprint Available for loan at Open Library)
Hume's Moral Theory (1980), Routledge Keegan & Paul, .
The Miracle of Theism: Arguments for and against the Existence of God (1982), Oxford University Press, .
Anthologies
Logic and Knowledge: Selected Papers, Volume I (1985), Oxford University Press, .
Persons and Values: Selected Papers, Volume II (1985), Oxford University Press, .
For a more complete list of works see "The publications of J. L. Mackie" compiled by Joan Mackie.
References
Further reading
McDowell, John. (1991) "Mackie, John Leslie, 1917–1981" in Proceedings of the British Academy 76
Franklin, James. (2003) Corrupting the Youth: A History of Philosophy in Australia, Macleay Press, , ch. 5.
Honderich, Ted. (ed). (1985) Morality and Objectivity: A Tribute to J. L. Mackie, Routledge Kegan & Paul, .
Campbell, Keith. (2010) "Mackie, J.L." in A Companion to Philosophy in Australia and New Zealand
1917 births
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British Army personnel of World War II
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Writers about religion and science | [
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240935 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN1%20reaction | SN1 reaction | {{DISPLAYTITLE:SN1 reaction}}
The SN1 reaction is a substitution reaction in organic chemistry, the name of which refers to the Hughes-Ingold symbol of the mechanism. "SN" stands for "nucleophilic substitution", and the "1" says that the rate-determining step is unimolecular. Thus, the rate equation is often shown as having first-order dependence on electrophile and zero-order dependence on nucleophile. This relationship holds for situations where the amount of nucleophile is much greater than that of the intermediate. Instead, the rate equation may be more accurately described using steady-state kinetics. The reaction involves a carbocation intermediate and is commonly seen in reactions of secondary or tertiary alkyl halides under strongly basic conditions or, under strongly acidic conditions, with secondary or tertiary alcohols. With primary and secondary alkyl halides, the alternative SN2 reaction occurs. In inorganic chemistry, the SN1 reaction is often known as the dissociative substitution. This dissociation pathway is well-described by the cis effect. A reaction mechanism was first proposed by Christopher Ingold et al. in 1940. This reaction does not depend much on the strength of the nucleophile unlike the SN2 mechanism. This type of mechanism involves two steps. The first step is the ionization of alkyl halide in the presence of aqueous acetone or ethyl alcohol. This step provides a carbocation as an intermediate.
In the first step of SN1 mechanism a carbocation is formed which is planar and hence attack of nucleophile (second step) may occur from either side to give a racemic product but actually complete racemization doesn't take place. This is because the nucleophilic species attacks the carbocation even before the departing halides ion has moved sufficiently away from the carbocation. The negatively charged halide ion shields the carbocation from being attacked on the front side and backside attack which leads to inversion of configuration is preferred. Thus the actual product no doubt, consist of a mixture of enantiomers but the enantiomers with inverted configuration would predominate and a complete racemization does not occurs.
Mechanism
An example of a reaction taking place with an SN1 reaction mechanism is the hydrolysis of tert-butyl bromide forming tert-butanol:
This SN1 reaction takes place in three steps:
Formation of a tert-butyl carbocation by separation of a leaving group (a bromide anion) from the carbon atom: this step is slow.
Nucleophilic attack: the carbocation reacts with the nucleophile. If the nucleophile is a neutral molecule (i.e. a solvent) a third step is required to complete the reaction. When the solvent is water, the intermediate is an oxonium ion. This reaction step is fast.
Deprotonation: Removal of a proton on the protonated nucleophile by water acting as a base forming the alcohol and a hydronium ion. This reaction step is fast.
Rate law
Although the rate law of the SN1 reaction is often regarded as being first order in alkyl halide and zero order in nucleophile, this is a simplification that holds true only under certain conditions. While it too is an approximation, the rate law derived from the steady state approximation (SSA) provides more insight into the kinetic behavior of the SN1 reaction. Consider the following reaction scheme for the mechanism shown above:
Though a relatively stable tertiary carbocation, tert-butyl cation is a high-energy species that is present at very low concentration and cannot be directly observed under normal conditions. Thus, SSA can be applied to this species:
(1) Steady state assumption: d[tBu+]/dt = 0 = k1[tBuBr] – k–1[tBu+][Br–] – k2[tBu+][H2O]
(2) Concentration of t-butyl cation, based on steady state assumption: [tBu+] = k1[tBuBr]/(k–1[Br–] + k2[H2O])
(3) Overall reaction rate, assuming rapid final step: d[tBuOH]/dt = k2[tBu+][H2O]
(4) Steady state rate law, by plugging (2) into (3): d[tBuOH]/dt = k1k2[tBuBr][H2O]/(k–1[Br–] + k2[H2O])
Under normal synthetic conditions, the entering nucleophile is more nucleophilic than the leaving group and is present in excess. Moreover, kinetic experiments are often conducted under initial rate conditions (5 to 10% conversion) and without the addition of bromide, so [Br–] is negligible. For these reasons, k–1[Br–] ≪ k2[H2O] often holds. Under these conditions, the SSA rate law reduces to rate = d[tBuOH]/dt = k1k2[tBuBr][H2O]/(k2[H2O]) = k1[tBuBr], the simple first-order rate law described in introductory textbooks. Under these conditions, the concentration of the nucleophile does not affect the rate of the reaction, and changing the nucleophile (e.g. from H2O to MeOH) does not affect the reaction rate, though the product is, of course, different. In this regime, the first step (ionization of the alkyl bromide) is slow, rate-determining, and irreversible, while the second step (nucleophilic addition) is fast and kinetically invisible.
However, under certain conditions, non-first order reaction kinetics can be observed. In particular, when a large concentration of bromide is present while the concentration of water is limited, the reverse of the first step becomes important kinetically. As the SSA rate law indicates, under these conditions, there is a fractional (between zeroth and first order) dependence on [H2O], while there is a negative fractional order dependence on [Br–]. Thus, SN1 reactions are often observed to slow down when an exogenous source of the leaving group (in this case, bromide) is added to the reaction mixture. This is known as the common ion effect and the observation of this effect is evidence for an SN1 mechanism (although the absence of a common ion effect does not rule it out).
Scope
The SN1 mechanism tends to dominate when the central carbon atom is surrounded by bulky groups because such groups sterically hinder the SN2 reaction. Additionally, bulky substituents on the central carbon increase the rate of carbocation formation because of the relief of steric strain that occurs. The resultant carbocation is also stabilized by both inductive stabilization and hyperconjugation from attached alkyl groups. The Hammond–Leffler postulate suggests that this too will increase the rate of carbocation formation. The SN1 mechanism therefore dominates in reactions at tertiary alkyl centers.
An example of a reaction proceeding in a SN1 fashion is the synthesis of 2,5-dichloro-2,5-dimethylhexane from the corresponding diol with concentrated hydrochloric acid:
As the alpha and beta substitutions increase with respect to leaving groups the reaction is diverted from SN2 to SN1.
Stereochemistry
The carbocation intermediate is formed in the reaction's rate determining step (RDS)is an sp2 hybridized carbon with trigonal planar molecular geometry. This allows two different ways for the nucleophilic attack, one on either side of the planar molecule. If neither way is preferentially favored, these two ways occur equally, yielding a racemic mixture of enantiomers if the reaction takes place at a stereocenter. This is illustrated below in the SN1 reaction of S-3-chloro-3-methylhexane with an iodide ion, which yields a racemic mixture of 3-iodo-3-methylhexane:
However, an excess of one stereoisomer can be observed, as the leaving group can remain in proximity to the carbocation intermediate for a short time and block nucleophilic attack. This stands in contrast to the SN2 mechanism, which is a stereospecific mechanism where stereochemistry is always inverted as the nucleophile comes in from the rear side of the leaving group.
Side reactions
Two common side reactions are elimination reactions and carbocation rearrangement. If the reaction is performed under warm or hot conditions (which favor an increase in entropy), E1 elimination is likely to predominate, leading to formation of an alkene. At lower temperatures, SN1 and E1 reactions are competitive reactions and it becomes difficult to favor one over the other. Even if the reaction is performed cold, some alkene may be formed. If an attempt is made to perform an SN1 reaction using a strongly basic nucleophile such as hydroxide or methoxide ion, the alkene will again be formed, this time via an E2 elimination. This will be especially true if the reaction is heated. Finally, if the carbocation intermediate can rearrange to a more stable carbocation, it will give a product derived from the more stable carbocation rather than the simple substitution product.
Solvent effects
Since the SN1 reaction involves formation of an unstable carbocation intermediate in the rate-determining step(RDS) , anything that can facilitate this will speed up the reaction. The normal solvents of choice are both polar (to stabilize ionic intermediates in general) and protic solvents (to solvate the leaving group in particular). Typical polar protic solvents include water and alcohols, which will also act as nucleophiles and the process is known as solvolysis.
The Y scale correlates solvolysis reaction rates of any solvent (k) with that of a standard solvent (80% v/v ethanol/water) (k0) through
with m a reactant constant (m = 1 for tert-butyl chloride) and Y a solvent parameter. For example, 100% ethanol gives Y = −2.3, 50% ethanol in water Y = +1.65 and 15% concentration Y = +3.2.
See also
Arrow pushing
Nucleophilic acyl substitution
Neighbouring group participation
SN2 reaction
References
External links
Diagrams: Frostburg State University
Exercise: the University of Maine
Nucleophilic substitution reactions
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240936 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20King%20of%20Queens | The King of Queens | The King of Queens is an American television sitcom that ran on CBS from September 21, 1998, to May 14, 2007, a total of nine seasons and 207 episodes. The series was created by Michael J. Weithorn and David Litt, who also served as the show's executive producer, and stars Kevin James and Leah Remini as Doug and Carrie Heffernan, a working-class couple living in Rego Park, Queens, New York City. All the episodes were filmed in front of a live studio audience.
The King of Queens was produced by Hanley Productions and CBS Productions (1998–2007), CBS Paramount Network Television (2007), in association with Columbia TriStar Television (1998–2002), and Sony Pictures Television (2002–07). It was filmed at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City, California.
The ninth and final season concluded with a double-length finale episode, making The King of Queens the last American live action sitcom that premiered in the 1990s to end its run. In May 2017, Kevin James and Leah Remini reunited in the 2016 television sitcom Kevin Can Wait, which ended on May 7, 2018.
Plot
The show exhibits undertones of the original 1950s TV production The Honeymooners, starring Jackie Gleason and Audrey Meadows. Doug (Kevin James) and Carrie Heffernan (Leah Remini) are a working-class couple living at "3121 Aberdeen Street" in Rego Park, Queens, New York, along with Carrie's father, Arthur Spooner (Jerry Stiller). Doug works for the fictional International Parcel Service (IPS) as a delivery driver, while Carrie works as a secretary in Manhattan, first for a law firm and later for a real estate firm. Their lives are plagued by the demands of Arthur; so much so that they eventually hire Holly, a professional dog walker, to spend time with him as she walks dogs in the park. Doug Heffernan represents the "everyman" with his love of sports, TV, junk food, and his wife. His constant deceit and schemes through various situations leave him humiliated as his plans backfire.
Also featured on the show are Doug's friends Deacon Palmer (Victor Williams), Spence Olchin (Patton Oswalt), and Richie Iannucci (Larry Romano), as well as Doug's cousin Danny Heffernan (played by James' real-life brother Gary Valentine). Deacon's wife Kelly (Merrin Dungey) is Carrie's best friend, having met through the relationship her husband has with Deacon Palmer.
Most scenes take place in the Heffernans' home, but other common locations include Doug and Carrie's workplaces, the restaurant "Cooper's Ale House," and the residences of friends and family. While locations seen during the opening montage were filmed in areas around New York, the series was filmed in California.
The series begins after Doug and Carrie have been married for 3 years, and how they met is somewhat unclear due to continuity issues. In one flashback episode, "Meet By-Product," Doug meets Carrie while he is a bouncer at a nightclub that Carrie attends. However, in another episode, "Road Rayge," Carrie reflects on a song that she says Doug asked her to dance to when they were in junior high school.
Characters
Main
Doug Heffernan (played by Kevin James) is an average parcel delivery man with a cheeky personality who never hesitates to protest his grievances vocally. The name of the company is IPS. His birth date is February 9, 1965, and he was born in Montreal, Quebec, Canada (unbeknownst to him until the season 5 episode "Dog Shelter"). Some of his problems are fueled by his love of food. These basic desires sometimes cause him to think of selfish, dangerous schemes in order to get what he wants, although they usually fall through in the end, causing constant arguments between Doug and Carrie. Doug's tendency to give in to his temptations, despite promising Carrie otherwise, is another common cause of conflict. He generally enjoys the simple pleasures of watching sports and playing poker with his friends.
Carrie Heffernan, née "Simone Spooner" (played by Leah Remini), is Doug's sardonic wife. She has a fiery temper and occasionally lashes out at people, mainly Doug. She has been characterized as scary by Holly and Doug, particularly when she is annoyed. During a flashback, Carrie concludes that she is happier when others are miserable. She never finished college and is employed as a dead-beat legal secretary. Her constant attempts to make her relationship with Doug more romantic and loving cause Doug anxiety, as he prefers a simple life with as few restrictions as possible. The more impulsive and broad-minded of the couple, Carrie often pushes Doug to make more of himself and improve his outlook, but she is generally just as mean-spirited as he is. Although Carrie mocks Doug for his careless behavior, she has proven to be careless as well at times, with little patience for others' problems or tolerance for their quirks. Carrie's best friend is Deacon's wife, Kelly Palmer.
Arthur Spooner (played by Jerry Stiller) is Carrie's widowed father, who has been married three times. His fourth marriage is to Spence's mother (played by Anne Meara, Stiller's real-life wife) during the final episode of the final season, which ends shortly after in the same episode. Arthur is the classic oddball of the family. He lives in the basement of the Heffernan house because he accidentally set fire to his own uninsured home, burning it to the ground in the pilot episode. Very volatile, Arthur is mostly known for his incoherent, irascible outbursts. He tells a lot of questionable stories of what he claims he has been through in his past, although his claim of having been a television and film actor for a time in years past turns out to be true. Arthur regularly causes chaos in the Heffernan household and gets on Doug's and Carrie's nerves. And, although he and Doug have a bitter rivalry in some episodes, he still approves of Doug, regardless. Doug and Carrie sometimes have trouble finding time alone because Arthur tends to get in the way. Arthur also tries to cause trouble with Doug's friends. He especially bullies Spence but also (unsuccessfully) tries it on Deacon, who often refers to him as "the old man".
Deacon Palmer (played by Victor Williams) (recurring, season 1; main seasons 2–9) is Doug's best friend and co-worker. Towering in height, and athletic, Deacon is a year and a few weeks younger than Doug, but the more level-headed of the two, in addition to being the classic "family man". He and his wife Kelly have two sons, Major and Kirby. He is often seen hanging out with Doug, whether it is on their lunch breaks at work, over the weekends, or for family gatherings. He will often help Doug plan elaborate schemes to fool Carrie, but he rarely likes to get involved himself. Deacon attended St. John's University in Queens, where he received two bachelor's degrees, one in art history and one in music. In the first-season episode "Best Man," Deacon mentions having served in the National Guard. He also volunteers as a big brother. In season 3, he gets caught having an affair with another woman and divorces Kelly in season 4.
Spencer "Spence" Olchin (played by Patton Oswalt) (recurring, season 3; main seasons 1–2, 4–9) is another friend of Doug's and the nerd of the group. He tends to be angst-ridden, sickly, and takes an interest in science fiction, fantasy movies, and comic book conventions—interests that his friends do not share. Spence's birthday is February 14. He is of Albanian heritage, and works as a subway token booth clerk. He moved to New York City from rural West Virginia. In one episode he is a "house boy" for Deacon and Kelly. His character is based largely on the actor who plays him. Spence demonstrates intelligence and competence in a variety of pursuits, but he is haunted by his family history, his intimidating and troubled mother, and his inability to protect himself. Numerous episodes mention that Spence is asthmatic (a burden he shares with Danny) and allergic to peanuts (however, in the episode "Richie's Song" he is seen eating Peanut M&M's out of Doug's vehicle). In the season eight episode "Hartford Wailer", Spence is said to be from Ottawa but it appears that he had only said that to Huey Lewis in an attempt to impress him. He has a pet Pug named Alan. In the series' penultimate episode "Single Spaced", Spence shows romantic interest in Carrie when it appears she and Doug will divorce.
Richard "Richie" Iannucci (main seasons 1–2; guest season 3, 9) played by Larry Romano) is one of Doug's closest friends. He and Doug were roommates before Doug married Carrie (shown in the episode "Meet By-Product"). He was quietly written out of the show in season three so Romano could work on another sitcom (Kristin). During that season, he only appeared in one episode, "Paint Misbehavin'". He mostly addressed Doug as "Moose". Richie was known as the ladies' man among Doug's friends, even admitting to sleeping with Doug's sister. Richie is an FDNY firefighter. He is also something of a con artist. His last appearance on the show was in the episode "Paint Misbehavin'", in which he has sex (off-screen) with Doug's sister Stephanie (Ricki Lake); although she promises to call him afterward, she has no intention to. He was also briefly seen in a few clips during the flashback montage at the end of the series finale.
Daniel "Danny" Heffernan (recurring seasons 1–3, main cast seasons 4–9; played by Gary Valentine) is Doug's cousin, and he is also seen hanging out with Doug, Deacon and Spence. In the show's early seasons, Doug has a negative view of Danny bordering on hate due to the latter's over-eagerness to spend time with the former, but at the end of "S'no Job", they become friends and co-workers, and regularly hang out along with Deacon and Spence. Danny soon becomes Spence's roommate in a small apartment. The two fight like a married couple, and many of the jokes revolve around what looks to their friends like a romantic relationship. At one point, they legally marry in order to get a free TV from a sales pitch for which only married couples are eligible. Danny once owned a pizza parlor, and he is divorced from a woman named Eva. He once had the nickname "Stumpy", given to him by Doug. Episodes "Silent Mite" and "Paint Misbehavin'" reveal that Danny has asthma and uses an inhaler. Gary Valentine and Kevin James are real-life brothers. They each created last names for their acting careers. Valentine is their father's middle name.
Holly Shumpert (guest season 3; main cast seasons 4–7, recurring seasons 8–9; played by Nicole Sullivan) is a polite yet timid dog-walker who, like the Heffernans, lives in Queens, where she was hired by Doug and Carrie to "walk" Arthur. She is often seen arriving at the Heffernan home to pick up Arthur but is also a family friend of the Heffernans. She is often viewed as strange because of her habits, the men she dates, her "sketchy" ethics, and her habit of drinking too much, to which she openly confesses. Holly is a gentle soul, especially as she puts up with Arthur's antics, and is kind to Carrie despite the fact that Carrie often mistreats her. Holly was written out of the series at the beginning of season eight, but she later returned, pregnant, for one last appearance in the series finale ("China Syndrome"). Sullivan also appeared in a different role in the season 3 episode "Pregnant Pause".
Sara Spooner (season 1 episodes 1–2, 5–6; mentioned season 3) played by Lisa Rieffel) is Carrie's younger half-sister, an irresponsible aspiring actress. She appears in only four of the first six episodes, and was only mentioned one other time (although not by name) in episode 52 ("Roast Chicken") by Doug as an excuse to his boss to get out of performing a roast. After the show became more popular, Kevin James was asked during an interview to explain what happened to Sara. According to James, the producers could not think of any storylines to develop Rieffel's character, so she was discontinued. During the pilot she was on camera for roughly half the episode. However, in the other episodes in which she was included, her character did not have much to say or do. Subsequent plot lines and dialogue suggest that Sara Spooner never existed, and that Carrie is an only child.
Recurring
Kelly Palmer, Deacon's wife (played by Merrin Dungey) is Carrie's best friend. She has two children with Deacon. Kelly and Deacon experience some serious relationship problems, much more serious than the petty arguments between Doug and Carrie. On one occasion, Deacon mentions being hit in the head with a frying pan. She was absent from the show in 2002 because she needed to take a break from the series; during this period, she and Deacon are separated and engaged in divorce proceedings, and she is involved in a brief affair.
Lou Ferrigno (seasons 3–9; himself) is the actor best known for his role as The Incredible Hulk. He and his wife are the Heffernans' next-door neighbors. A running gag on the series is that the neighbors (including the Heffernans) are fascinated by him, and it gets on his nerves. Lou does not like people telling him Hulk jokes, for instance, and other characters often make reference to that previous role. In one example, Doug is angry, and Lou attempts to calm him down; Doug retorts with the well-known line from the opening of The Incredible Hulk, "Don't make me angry; you wouldn't like me when I'm angry." Also, in the episode "Gym Neighbors", it is revealed that Lou's character suffers from a video-game addiction. Ferrigno's wife Carla makes a number of appearances as herself throughout the series' run.
Supervisor Patrick O'Boyle (seasons 3–9; played by Sam McMurray) is section supervisor for the fictional International Parcel Service. He is Doug's boss and friend throughout most of the show, whom he mostly refers to as "Heffernan". A recovering alcoholic and gambling addict, he appears in many of the IPS scenes throughout the series' run. A character named Supervisor Jack O'Boyle (played by John F. O'Donohue) appears in an episode from season one ("White Collar", 1999).
Raymond "Ray" Barone (seasons 1, 2 & 8; 4 episodes; played by Ray Romano) is Doug's Long Island friend. Romano and James appearing on each other's shows was part of a network program crossover, as CBS aired both Everybody Loves Raymond and The King of Queens. Romano's appearance was successful enough to warrant all other lead characters (Patricia Heaton, Brad Garrett, Doris Roberts, and Peter Boyle) to appear as their respective characters as well. Appropriately, the four episodes featuring Romano contained "Ray" in their titles ("Road Rayge", "Rayny Day", "Dire Strayts", and "Raygin' Bulls").
Doug Pruzan (season 2–6; played by Alex Skuby) is Carrie's boss and a lawyer at a Manhattan law firm.
Veronica Olchin, Spence's mother (season 1; played by Grace Zabriskie, seasons 5–9; played by Anne Meara). She is portrayed by Zabriskie in her first appearance in "S'aint Valentines", but portrayed by Meara for the balance of the series. Veronica has an on-again/off-again relationship with Arthur, who is portrayed by Meara's real-life husband Jerry Stiller. Meara had previously appeared in "S'aint Valentines" as a woman who flirts with Arthur. Arthur and Veronica marry in the series finale, but divorce a year later.
Doug Heffernan's family:
Joe Heffernan, Doug's father (played by Dakin Matthews)
Janet Heffernan, Doug's mother (played by Jenny O'Hara)
Stephanie Heffernan, Doug's sister (played by Ricki Lake)
Stu Heffernan, Doug's uncle (played by Gavin MacLeod)
Series background
Centered on the lives of blue-collar, DINK couple Doug and Carrie Heffernan, The King of Queens debuted on CBS on September 21, 1998. During its run, it brought in solid ratings (usually ranking in the Top 40, and peaking at #19 in its fourth season) for the most part and was a Monday night staple, competing with shows such as the long-running drama 7th Heaven. In 2003, when moved to Wednesday and scheduled against The West Wing and Nanny 911, it began to drop in the ratings. The final episode aired on May 14, 2007. The series was shot at Sony Pictures Studios' Stage 28 in Culver City, California. The character of Arthur was conceived with Jerry Stiller in mind, but he initially turned down the role. Veteran comedian Jack Carter was then cast and a pilot was shot. Soon afterward, Stiller changed his mind and took the part, which required re-shooting of scenes featuring Carter.
The King of Queens was partly inspired by the classic television sitcom The Honeymooners, the characters of Doug and Carrie being loosely based on the Kramden couple, with some similar mannerisms and deadpan expressions. In the 2001 episode "Inner Tube," the show pays homage to The Honeymooners as a distraught Doug dreams that he is Ralph Kramden, Carrie is Alice Kramden, and Deacon is Ed Norton. The sequence was filmed in black and white, and the audio quality (including audience reactions) matches a 1950s style.
Theme song and opening sequences
The season one main opening was a simple eight-second sequence which showed the window of a subway train moving past and then quickly stopping at the original show logo, which then peeled off to reveal the names of the show's creators.
Starting with season two, the show added a new theme song called "Baby All My Life I Will Be Driving Home to You", which was written by series writers Josh Goldsmith and Cathy Yuspa, composed by Jonathan Wolff and Scott Clausen, and performed by Billy Vera and the Beaters. An instrumental version was used as the closing theme during season two, but was replaced in season three with a new closing theme composed by Kurt Farquhar.
The opening credits from seasons two through nine featured an opening shot of Doug climbing aboard an IPS truck, which then cuts to a long shot of his truck driving past the 111th Street elevated subway station, where the show's logo is digitally placed on the exterior. It then cuts to scenes of Doug, Carrie, and Arthur spending time around Queens, including local landmarks such as the Unisphere and Flushing Meadows–Corona Park. In the season two sequence, Kevin James' starring credit was placed over a shot of the Brooklyn Bridge with the Manhattan skyline, but was edited after the September 11 attacks that felled the World Trade Center. Two short versions of the sequence exist: in original airings where the opening was shortened due to time constraints, and in some syndicated airings the opening featured the shot of the IPS truck going under the bridge, then to the final shot of the credits where Doug and Carrie get ices at the Lemon Ice King of Corona on 108th St in Queens. The second version used in U.S. syndicated airings since 2007 simply features the first eight seconds of the full sequence with the opening establishing shots of Queens placed before the truck scene. In syndicated airings of season one episodes that have aired in the U.S. since the fall of 2007, this version replaced the standard season one sequence in all episodes for unknown reasons.
Episodes
Reception
Critical response
During the first season of The King of Queens, on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the series was critiqued by two critics, with an approval rating of 50% based on the two reviews, with an average rating of 7.4/10. Maryann Johnson of Flick Filospher critiqued, "Obvious and distasteful, The King of Queens relies too heavily on class and gender stereotypes to elicit laughs in the same way that one pulls teeth". Clint Morris of FilmThreat lauded the series, praising star Kevin James as "one of the funniest guys to grace the TV tube since Bill Cosby". On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the series has a score of 55 out of 100 based on the reviews of 26 critics, indicating "generally mixed reviews".
Awards and nominations
Primetime Emmy Awards
In 2006, Kevin James received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for his portrayal of Doug Heffernan.
BMI Awards
The King of Queens received BMI Awards in the TV Music category in 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2004. These awards were presented to Kurt Farquhar, Josh Goldsmith, Andrew Gross, and Cathy Yuspa.
Nominations
During its final two seasons, The King of Queens was nominated in the People's Choice Awards' Favorite TV Comedy category for the 2007 and 2008 seasons. In 2004, Scott Heineman and Mark Waters were nominated by the Art Directors' Guild for the Excellence in Production Design Award. Victor Williams was nominated in 2007 for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Comedy Series by the NAACP Image Awards.
Syndication
The show has been in syndication on over-the-air stations in the United States since the early 2000s, and is also a mainstay of cable syndication through the channels of Paramount Global (formerly ViacomCBS) and A&E Networks, including Nick at Nite, TV Land, CMT, FYI, Lifetime, and A&E. It has also streamed on Peacock since the service's debut in the spring of 2020. Previously, it aired on TBS from September 2006 until September 2019. The show has also been a success internationally, both in its original run and in syndication.
Home media
In Region 1, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has released all nine seasons of The King of Queens on DVD in the U.S. and Canada.
In Region 2, Paramount Home Entertainment has released all nine seasons on DVD in the UK. The complete series has also been released in Germany by Koch Media.
In Region 4, Paramount Home Entertainment has released all nine seasons on DVD in Australia.
Blu-ray releases
Seasons two and three were released on Blu-ray disc by Koch Media on November 21, 2008. They are presented with 1080i/25fps VC-1 video, 2.0 DTS audio tracks in both English and German with German subtitles optional. They include the same extras as the DVD releases from Koch Media. Even though they are only released in Germany and Austria, they are not region locked.
On March 26, 2015, Koch Media released the whole series on Blu-ray in HD. The complete box set is distributed for Region B/2.
International versions
The international rights are distributed by CBS Studios International and Sony Pictures Television.
Reunion
In March 2021, a reunion table read was hosted on Facebook in memory of Jerry Stiller. The reunion was held to benefit Henry Street Settlement, a New York City social services, health care, and arts organization where Stiller got his start in theater.
Series stars James, Remini, Williams, Oswalt, Valentine, Sullivan, and guest star Rachel Dratch all reprised their roles in the table read with Weithorn, reciting the 2003 episode "Cowardly Lyin'". The reunion was moderated by Sibley Scoles and also featured a video tribute to Stiller.
See also
Молодожёны (20112012), Russian adaptation of the sitcom The King of Queens.
Kevin Can Wait (20162018), another sitcom starring Kevin James and Leah Remini
References
External links
from Sony Pictures
from CBS
1990s American romantic comedy television series
1990s American sitcoms
1998 American television series debuts
2000s American romantic comedy television series
2000s American sitcoms
2007 American television series endings
CBS original programming
English-language television shows
Television series about families
Television series about marriage
Television series by CBS Studios
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television shows set in Queens
Queens, New York, in fiction | [
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240940 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LeBron%20James | LeBron James | LeBron Raymone James Sr. (; born December 30, 1984) is an American professional basketball player for the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Nicknamed "King James", he is widely considered one of the greatest players in NBA history and is frequently compared to Michael Jordan in debates over the greatest basketball player ever. James is the only player to have won the NBA Finals MVP with three different franchises. James has competed in ten NBA Finals, eight of them consecutively with the Heat and the Cavaliers from 2011 to 2018. His accomplishments include four NBA championships, four NBA MVP awards, four NBA Finals MVP awards, and two Olympic gold medals. During his 18-year career, James holds the record for all-time playoffs points, as well as most combined regular season and playoff points, is third in all-time points, and seventh in career assists. James has been selected to the All-NBA Team a record 17 times (with a record of 13 First Team selections and 11 consecutive First Team selections, the latter of which is shared with Karl Malone), made the NBA All-Defensive First Team five times, and has been named an All-Star 18 times, including three All-Star MVP selections. In 2021, he was selected to the NBA 75th Anniversary Team.
James played basketball for St. Vincent–St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, where he was heavily touted by the national media as a future NBA superstar. A prep-to-pro, he was selected by Cleveland with the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. Named the 2003–04 Rookie of the Year, he soon established himself as one of the league's premier players, winning the NBA MVP Award in 2009 and 2010. After failing to win a championship with Cleveland, James left in 2010 to sign as a free agent with Miami. This move was announced in an ESPN special titled The Decision, and is one of the most controversial free-agent decisions in sports history. James won his first two NBA championships while playing for the Heat in 2012 and 2013; in both of these years, he also earned league MVP and Finals MVP. After his fourth season with the Heat in 2014, James opted out of his contract to re-sign with the Cavaliers. In 2016, he led the Cavaliers to victory over the Golden State Warriors in the NBA Finals by coming back from a 3–1 deficit, delivering the franchise's first championship and ending the 52-year Cleveland sports curse. In 2018, James exercised his contract option to leave the Cavaliers and signed with the Lakers, where he won the 2020 NBA championship and was awarded his fourth Finals MVP. In 2021, James became the first player in NBA history to accumulate $1 billion in earnings as an active player.
Off the court, James has accumulated more wealth and fame from numerous endorsement contracts. He has been featured in books, documentaries (including winning two Sports Emmy Awards as an executive producer), and television commercials. He has hosted the ESPY Awards and Saturday Night Live, and won 19 ESPY Awards himself. He also appeared in films such as Trainwreck and Space Jam: A New Legacy. James has been a part-owner of Liverpool F.C. since 2011, with the club winning the 2018–2019 UEFA Champions League and 2019–2020 Premier League. Having become more involved in philanthropic and activist pursuits later in his career, James's charitable organization, the LeBron James Family Foundation, helped open an elementary school, housing complex, and community center/retail plaza in his hometown of Akron.
Early life
James was born on December 30, 1984, in Akron, Ohio, to Gloria Marie James, who was 16 at the time of his birth. His father Anthony McClelland has an extensive criminal record and was not involved in his life. When James was growing up, life was often a struggle for the family, as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while Gloria struggled to find steady work. Realizing that her son would be better off in a more stable family environment, Gloria allowed him to move in with the family of Frank Walker, a local youth football coach who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old.
James began playing organized basketball in the fifth grade. He later played Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars. The team enjoyed success on a local and national level, led by James and his friends Sian Cotton, Dru Joyce III, and Willie McGee. The group dubbed themselves the "Fab Four" and promised each other that they would attend high school together. In a move that stirred local controversy, they chose to attend St. Vincent–St. Mary High School, a private Catholic school with predominantly white students.
High school career
Basketball
As a freshman, James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for the St. Vincent–St. Mary varsity basketball team. The Fighting Irish went en route to the Division III state title, making them the only boys high school team in Ohio to finish the season undefeated. As a sophomore, James averaged 25.2 points and 7.2 rebounds, with 5.8 assists and 3.8 steals per game. For some home games during the season, played at the University of Akron's 5,492-seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni, fans, as well as college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play. The Fighting Irish finished the season 26–1 and repeated as state champions. For his outstanding play, James was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, becoming the first sophomore to do either.
Before the start of his junior year, James was featured in Slam, an American basketball magazine, and writer Ryan Jones lauded him as possibly "the best high school basketball player in America right now". During the season, James also appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated, becoming the first high school basketball underclassman to do so. With averages of 29 points, 8.3 rebounds, 5.7 assists, and 3.3 steals per game, he was again named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team, and became the first junior to be named male basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year. St. Vincent–St. Mary finished the year with a 23–4 record, ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game. Following the loss, James unsuccessfully petitioned for a change to the NBA's draft eligibility rules in an attempt to enter the 2002 NBA draft. During this time, he used marijuana, which he said was to help cope with the stress that resulted from the constant media attention he was receiving.
Throughout his senior year, James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams, including a game on December 12, 2002, against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2. Time Warner Cable, looking to capitalize on James's popularity, offered St. Vincent–St. Mary's games to subscribers on a pay-per-view basis throughout the season. For the year, James averaged 31.6 points, 9.6 rebounds, 4.6 assists, and 3.4 steals per game, was named Ohio Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All-USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year, and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year. He participated in three year-end high school basketball all-star games—the EA Sports Roundball Classic, the Jordan Capital Classic, and the McDonald's All-American Game—losing his National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) eligibility and making it official that he would enter the 2003 NBA draft.
Also during his senior year, James was the centerpiece of several controversies. For his 18th birthday, he skirted state amateur bylaws by accepting a Hummer H2 as a gift from his mother, who had secured a loan for the vehicle by utilizing James's future earning power as an NBA superstar. This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association (OHSAA) because its guidelines stated that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $100 as a reward for athletic performance. James was cleared of any wrongdoing because he had accepted the luxury vehicle from a family member and not from an agent or any outside source. Later in the season, James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures, officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in him being stripped of his high school sports eligibility. James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two-game suspension, allowing him to play the remainder of the year. The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins, their only official loss that season. In his first game back after the suspension, James scored a career-high 52 points. St. Vincent–St. Mary went on to win the Division II championship, marking their third division title in four years.
Football
As an underclassman, James played wide receiver for St. Vincent–St. Mary's football team. He was recruited by some Division I programs, including Notre Dame. At the conclusion of his sophomore year, he was named first team all-state, and as a junior, he helped lead the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals. He did not play during his senior year because of a wrist injury that he sustained in an AAU basketball game. Some sports analysts, football critics, high school coaches, former and current players have speculated that James could have played in the National Football League.
Professional career
Cleveland Cavaliers (2003–2010)
2003–2004: Rookie season
James was selected by his hometown team, the Cleveland Cavaliers, as the first overall pick of the 2003 NBA draft. In his first regular season game, he scored 25 points against the Sacramento Kings, setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep-to-pro player in his debut performance. At the conclusion of the season, he became the first Cavalier to receive the NBA Rookie of the Year Award, and with final averages of 20.9 points, 5.5 rebounds, and 5.9 assists per game, he also became just the third player in league history to average at least 20 points, 5 rebounds, and 5 assists per game as a rookie. Cleveland ultimately finished the season 35–47, failing to make the playoffs despite an 18-game improvement over the previous year.
2004–2008: Rise to superstardom
James earned his first NBA All-Star Game selection in 2004–05, contributing 13 points, 8 rebounds, and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference. Around the league, teams took note of his rapid development, and Denver Nuggets coach George Karl told Sports Illustrated: "It's weird talking about a 20-year-old kid being a great player, but he is a great player ... He's the exception to almost every rule." On March 20, James scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors, setting Cleveland's new single-game points record. With final averages of 27.2 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.2 assists, and 2.2 steals per game, he was named to his first All-NBA Team. Despite a 30–20 record to start the year, the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs, finishing the season 42–40.
At the 2006 All-Star Game, James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player. Behind final season averages of 31.4 points, 7 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game, he also finished second in overall NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash. Under James's leadership, the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998. In his postseason debut, James recorded a triple-double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards. In Game 3 of the series, he made the first game-winning shot of his career, making another in Game 5. Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round.
In 2006–07, James's averages declined to 27.3 points, 6.7 rebounds, 6 assists, and 1.6 steals per game. Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection, which stemmed from a lack of effort and focus. The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East's second seed. In Game 5 of the Eastern Conference Finals, James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists, scoring 29 of Cleveland's last 30 points, including the game-winning layup with two seconds left in a double-overtime game against the Pistons. After the game, play-by-play announcer Marv Albert called the performance "one of the greatest moments in postseason history" and color commentator Steve Kerr described it as "Jordan-esque". In 2012, ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history. The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first-ever Eastern Conference championship, earning them a matchup with the San Antonio Spurs in the Finals. During the championship round, James struggled, averaging 22 points, 7.0 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on just 35.6 percent shooting, and Cleveland was eliminated in a sweep.
In February of the 2007–08 season, James was named All-Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27-point, 8-rebound, and 9-assist performance. On March 21, he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers' all-time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors, doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty. His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league, marking his first scoring title. Despite his individual accomplishments, Cleveland's record fell from the year before to 45–37. Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs, the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the eventual-champion Boston Celtics in the next round. During the decisive seventh game in Boston, James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a "shootout".
2008–2010: MVP seasons
At the conclusion of the 2008–09 season, James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year Award voting and made his first NBA All-Defensive Team, posting 23 chase-down blocks and a career-high 93 total blocks. He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points, rebounds, assists, steals, and blocks in a single season. Behind his play and the acquisition of All-Star guard Mo Williams, Cleveland went a franchise record 66–16 and fell just one game short of matching the best home record in league history. With final averages of 28.4 points, 7.6 rebounds, 7.2 assists, 1.7 steals, and 1.2 blocks per game, James became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award. Reflecting on James's performance for ESPN, John Hollinger later wrote: "He's having what is arguably the greatest individual season in history, and it's time we gave him his due for it."
In the playoffs, Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a matchup with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals. In Game 1 of the series, James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers. In Game 2, he hit a game-winner to tie the series at 1–1. Cleveland would lose the series in six games, and following the loss in Game 6, James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents, which was an act that many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike. For the series, he averaged 38.5 points, 8.3 rebounds, and 8 assists per game, finishing the postseason with a career playoff-high 35.3 points per game.
In February of the 2009–10 season, James was forced into a temporary point guard role following a series of injuries to players in the Cavaliers' backcourt. Behind his leadership, Cleveland lost no momentum, finishing the year with the best record in the league for the second consecutive season. Due in part to his increased minutes as the Cavaliers' primary ball handler, James increased his statistical production, averaging 29.7 points, 7.3 rebounds, 8.6 assists, 1.6 steals, and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to another MVP Award. To open the playoffs, Cleveland advanced past the Bulls to earn a matchup with the Celtics in the second round. James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series, shooting only 20 percent on 14 shots and scoring 15 points. The team suffered its worst loss in franchise history, and at the conclusion of the game, James walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland's home crowd. The Cavaliers were officially eliminated from the postseason in Game 6, with James posting 27 points, 19 rebounds, 10 assists, and 9 turnovers in the losing effort.
Miami Heat (2010–2014)
The Decision
James became an unrestricted free agent at 12:01 am EDT on July 1, 2010. During this time, he was contacted by several teams, including the Bulls, Los Angeles Clippers, Miami Heat, New York Knicks, New Jersey Nets, and Cavaliers. On July 8, he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat. The telecast was broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich, Connecticut and raised $2.5 million for the charity. An additional $3.5 million was raised from advertising revenue, which was donated to other charities. The day before the special, fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade also announced that they would sign with Miami; reports later arose that back in 2006 the trio had discussed among themselves their upcoming 2010 free agencies. James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the offensive load; he thought that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning an NBA championship than had he stayed in Cleveland. Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade. James would be relieved of the burden of scoring, and he thought he could be the first player since Oscar Robertson to average a triple-double in a season.
Upon leaving the Cavaliers, James drew intense criticism from sports analysts, executives, fans, and current and former players. The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary. Many thought that the prolonged wait for James's choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show. Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland, Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James's actions. Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey. Former NBA players, including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson, were also critical of James, condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as "the man". James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision. As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period, he quickly gained a reputation as one of America's most disliked athletes, which was a radical change from prior years. The phrase "taking my talents to South Beach" became a punch line for critics. In retrospect, James has expressed some regret over his handling of The Decision.
2010–2011: Year of media and fan scrutiny
James officially signed with the Heat on July 10, 2010, through a sign-and-trade deal which sent two second and two first round draft picks to the Cavaliers and gave the team the option to swap first round picks with the Heat in 2012. As part of the first player-created NBA superteam he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982. That evening, the Heat threw a welcome party for their new "big three" at the American Airlines Arena, an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere. During the gathering, James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships. Outside of Miami, the spectacle was not well-received, furthering the negative public perception of James.
Throughout the 2010–11 season, the media and opposing fanbases treated James and the Heat as villains. To begin the year, they struggled to adjust to these new circumstances, going only 9–8 after 17 games. James later admitted that the constant negativity surrounding the team made him play with an angrier demeanor than in years past. On December 2, James faced the Cavaliers in Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent. He scored 38 points and led Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball. The Heat eventually turned their season around and finished as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.7 points, 7.5 rebounds, and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting.
In the Conference Semifinals, James and his teammates found themselves matched up with the Celtics for the second consecutive year. In Game 5, he scored Miami's last ten points to help seal a series-clinching win. After the final buzzer, he famously knelt on the court in an emotional moment, later telling reporters that it was an extremely personal victory for him and the team.
The Heat eventually advanced to the Finals, where they were defeated by the Dallas Mavericks in six games. James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss, averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series. His Finals scoring average of 17.8 points per game signified an 8.9-point drop from the regular season, the largest point drop-off in league history.
2011–2013: Back-to-back championships
The 2011–12 season was delayed by the 2011 NBA lockout. That summer, James worked with Hakeem Olajuwon in order to improve his post up game. Years later, James revealed that during the lockout he received contract offers to play professional football from the Dallas Cowboys and the Seattle Seahawks and that he gave the idea of playing football serious consideration and even began training with it in mind.
Humbled by the Heat's loss to the Mavericks, the experience inspired James to leave behind the villain role that he had been embracing, which helped him regain a sense of joy on the court. Behind James's expanded skillset, Miami began the year with a franchise-best 18–6 record. He was eventually named MVP for the third time, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 7.9 rebounds, 6.2 assists, and 1.9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting.
In the second round of the playoffs, Miami temporarily lost Bosh to an abdominal injury and found themselves trailing the Indiana Pacers 2–1. James responded with a 40-point, 18-rebound, and 9-assist outing in Game 4 to help even the series. To compensate for Bosh's absence, the Heat embraced a small-ball lineup with James at power forward, which they retained even after Bosh's return in the Conference Finals against the Celtics. Facing elimination in Game 6, James recorded 45 points and 15 rebounds to lead the Heat to victory in what The New York Times called a "career-defining performance". Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals, earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder and James's budding rival Kevin Durant. Late in Game 4 of the series, James hit a three-pointer to give the Heat a lead, helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps. In Game 5, he registered a triple-double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second-ever championship and James's first championship. James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28.6 points, 10.2 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. His full postseason run, in which he averaged 30.3 points, 9.7 rebounds, and 5.6 assists per game, was later ranked the second best in modern NBA history by ESPN.
In February of the 2012–13 season, James averaged 29.7 points and 7.8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records. That same month, the Heat also began a 27-game winning streak, which is the third longest in NBA history. Based on these accomplishments, James's performance was described as a "month for the ages" by Sports Illustrated. Miami eventually finished the year with a franchise and league best 66–16 record, and James was named MVP for the fourth time, falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously. His final season averages were 26.8 points, 8 rebounds, 7.3 assists, and 1.7 steals per game on 56.5 percent shooting.
In Game 1 of the Conference Finals, James scored a buzzer-beating layup to give Miami a one-point victory against the Pacers. Throughout the series, his supporting cast struggled significantly, and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his "Cleveland days". Despite these struggles, the Heat advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs, signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier. At the beginning of the series, he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2–3. In Game 6, he recorded his second triple-double of the series, including 16 fourth quarter points, to lead the Heat to a comeback victory. In Game 7, he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory, leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points. He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season, averaging 25.3 points, 10.9 rebounds, 7 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the championship round.
2013–2014: Final season in Miami
On March 3 of the 2013–14 season, James scored a career-high and franchise-record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats. Throughout the year, he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting lineups due to injuries, finishing with averages of 27.1 points, 6.9 rebounds, and 6.4 assists per game on 56.7 percent shooting. In the second round of the playoffs, he tied a career postseason-high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets. In the next round, Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth, becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so. In Game 1 of the Finals, James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps, helping the Spurs take an early series lead. In Game 2, he led the Heat to a series-tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate. San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games, ending Miami's quest for a three-peat. For the Finals, James averaged 28.2 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 2.0 steals per game.
Return to the Cavaliers (2014–2018)
On June 25, 2014, James opted out of his contract with the Heat, and on July 1, he officially became an unrestricted free agent. On July 11, he revealed via a first-person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to return to the Cavaliers. In contrast to The Decision, his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received. On July 12, he officially signed with the team, who had compiled a league-worst 97–215 record in the four seasons following his departure. A month after James's signing, the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves, forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving.
2014–2016: Ending Cleveland's championship drought
In January of the 2014–15 season, James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains, which at the time represented the longest stretch of missed games in his career. In total, he played a career-low 69 games and his final averages were 25.3 points, 6 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game. In the second round of the playoffs, he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2–2 series tie with the Bulls. In the Conference Finals, the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals, making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals. For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors, Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury, giving James more offensive responsibilities. Behind his leadership, the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2–1 lead before being eliminated in six games. Despite the loss, he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award, averaging 35.8 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 8.8 assists per game for the championship round.
During the 2015–16 season, James was criticized for his role in several off-court controversies, including the midseason firing of Cavaliers' coach David Blatt. Despite these distractions, Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East. James's final averages were 25.3 points, 7.4 rebounds, and 6.8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting. In the playoffs, the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals, losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors, who were coming off a record-setting 73-win season.
To begin the series, Cleveland fell behind 3–1, including two blowout losses. James responded by registering back-to-back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6, leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination. In Game 7, he posted a triple-double and made a number of key plays, including "The Block" on Andre Iguodala, as Cleveland emerged victorious, winning the city's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3–1 series deficit in the Finals. James became just the third player to record a triple-double in an NBA Finals Game 7, and behind series averages of 29.7 points, 11.3 rebounds, 8.9 assists, 2.3 blocks, and 2.6 steals per game, he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round, culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection.
2016–2018: End of second stint in Cleveland
The 2016–17 season was marred by injuries and unexpected losses for the Cavaliers; James later described it as one of the "strangest" years of his career. Following a January defeat to the New Orleans Pelicans, he publicly criticized Cleveland's front office for constructing a team that he felt was too "top heavy", for which he received countercriticism. The Cavaliers finished the season as the East's second seed, with James averaging 26.4 points and career highs in rebounds (8.6), assists (8.7), and turnovers (4.1) per game. In Game 3 of the first round of the playoffs, he registered 41 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists against the Pacers, leading Cleveland to a comeback victory after trailing by 25 points at halftime, representing the largest halftime deficit overcome in NBA playoff history. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics, James scored 35 points and surpassed Michael Jordan as the league's all-time postseason scoring leader. The Cavaliers won the game and the series, advancing to the Finals for the third consecutive time against the Warriors, who had signed James's rival Kevin Durant during the off-season. Behind averages of 33.6 points, 12 rebounds, and 10 assists per game, James became the first player to average a triple-double in the Finals, but Cleveland was defeated in five games.
Prior to the start of the 2017–18 season, the Cavaliers overhauled their roster by trading Kyrie Irving to the Celtics, who requested a trade in part because he no longer wanted to play with James. After a slow start to the year, Cleveland rebounded by winning 18 of 19 games in December. Their turnaround began with a victory over the Wizards on November 3 where James scored 57 points, which represented the second-highest point total of his career and tied a franchise record. On November 28, James was ejected for the first time in his career in a game against the Heat when he rushed over to argue with referee Kane Fitzgerald about a no-call on his drive to the basket. Fitzgerald gave James an immediate technical foul before ejecting him with 1:56 remaining in the quarter and the Cavs leading by 23. When asked about the situation, James stated: "I got fouled and showed my frustration to the ref, and he sent me to the locker room. That particular play, I got fouled all the way up the court. That's what it was about. I said what I had to say and I moved on, but he decided I should get (ejected). We got the win, that’s what’s most important." In January, the Cavaliers had a losing record, and James was criticized for his lackluster effort. James won his third NBA All-Star Game MVP award after posting 29 points, 10 rebounds, 8 assists, and several key plays to help Team LeBron win 148–145 over Team Curry. Following another round of trades in February, Cleveland returned to form and James reached a number of historical milestones; on March 30, he set an NBA record with 867 straight games scoring in double digits. James eventually finished the season with averages of 27.5 points, 8.6 rebounds, 9.2 assists, and 4.2 turnovers per game.
In the playoffs, James guided the Cavaliers to another Finals rematch with the Warriors. Along the way, he had some of the most memorable moments of his career, including a game-winning shot against the Pacers and another against the Raptors. In the first game of the Finals, James scored a playoff career-high 51 points, but Cleveland was defeated in overtime. Following the defeat, James injured his hand after punching a wall in the locker room, which hindered his effectiveness for the remainder of the series. The Cavaliers lost the series in four games, with James averaging 34 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 10 assists per game for the Finals.
Los Angeles Lakers (2018–present)
2018–2019: Injury and playoff miss
On June 29, 2018, James opted out of his contract with the Cavaliers and became an unrestricted free agent. On July 1, his management company, Klutch Sports, announced that he would sign with the Los Angeles Lakers; the deal was officially completed on July 9. In an interview with Sports Illustrated, James's agent Rich Paul explained: "In 2010, when he went to Miami, it was about championships. In 2014, when he went back to Cleveland, it was about delivering on a promise. In 2018, it was just about doing what he wants to do." Reaction to the move was more positive than his original departure from the Cavaliers, albeit still mixed, as some onlookers felt that Los Angeles was not his optimal destination.
The Lakers expected James to make them championship contenders again after having missed the playoffs since 2014 and not appearing in the Finals since 2010. Following his signing, the team rounded out their roster with a controversial collection of playmakers and veterans. To begin the 2018–19 season, the team struggled to find effective lineups and recorded only two wins through their first seven games. In November, they began a turnaround, which included two of James's strongest performances of the season. On November 14, he registered 44 points, 10 rebounds, and nine assists in a victory against the Portland Trail Blazers, and four days later, he scored a season-high 51 points in a win over the Heat. After blowing out the Warriors on Christmas Day, Los Angeles improved their record to 20–14, but James suffered a groin injury, the first major injury of his career. He missed a then-career-high 17 consecutive games, and the Lakers fell out of playoff contention without him. The team was unable to recover and failed to qualify for the postseason after a 106–111 loss to the Brooklyn Nets on March 22, 2019, marking the first time that James missed the playoffs since 2005 and the first time he failed to reach the Finals since 2010.
On March 7, 2019, the Lakers announced that James would begin a minutes restriction, and on March 30, he was officially ruled out for the remainder of the season. James's final averages were 27.4 points, 8.5 rebounds, and 8.3 assists per game, and despite his inconsistent campaign, he was ultimately named to the All-NBA Third Team, marking the first time in 12 years that he did not make the All-NBA First Team.
2019–2020: Fourth NBA championship
During the offseason, the Lakers hired Frank Vogel as their new head coach, and traded the majority of their young core to the Pelicans for superstar big man Anthony Davis. James immediately embraced Los Angeles's much-improved roster by transforming his playing style, moving to full-time point guard, and competing with a more consistent defensive effort. Behind James's leadership, the Lakers opened the 2019–20 season with a 17–2 record, matching the best start in franchise history. On January 25, 2020, James passed team legend Kobe Bryant for third on the all-time regular season scoring list, the day before Bryant's death in a helicopter crash. In early March, before the season was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, James led the Lakers to a victory over the Bucks in a matchup of conference leaders, followed by a streak-breaking win against the Clippers. Play resumed in July and concluded in August within the confined NBA Bubble, and James ended the regular season as the league leader in assists for the first time in his career, averaging 10.2 assists per game. James earned a record 16th All-NBA Team selection as part of the First Team, extending his record First Team selections to 13.
The Lakers entered the playoffs as the No. 1 seed in the West and advanced to the Finals convincingly, with only three total losses along the way. In Game 5 of the Conference Finals against the Nuggets, James helped clinch the conference championship by scoring a game-high 38 points, including 16 in the fourth quarter. In the Finals, James and his teammates found themselves matched up with his former team, the Heat, and quickly took control of the series with a 2–0 lead. In Game 5, James had his best statistical performance of the Finals with 40 points, 13 rebounds, and 7 assists in a memorable duel with Miami's star player Jimmy Butler, but Los Angeles was ultimately defeated in a three-point game. The Lakers finally eliminated the Heat in Game 6, which earned James, who averaged 29.8 points, 11.8 rebounds, and 8.5 assists per game during the series, his fourth NBA championship and fourth Finals MVP award. At 35 years and 287 days old, he became the second-oldest player in league history to win the award, and the only player in NBA history to win the award with three different franchises. James and teammate Danny Green also became the third and fourth players in NBA history to win at least one championship with three different teams each.
2020–2021: Back-to-back chase
The 2020–21 season, reduced to 72 games for each team and starting on December 22, 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, began after the shortest offseason in NBA history with a 116–109 loss to the Clippers. On December 31, 2020, James became the first player in NBA history to score 10 points or more in 1,000 consecutive games in a 121–107 win against the Spurs. On February 13, 2021, James recorded 28 points, 9 rebounds, and 8 assists in a 115–105 win, the Lakers's seventh consecutive victory, over the Grizzlies. In a 109–98 loss to the Nets on February 18, James became the third player in NBA history with 35,000 career points, joining Hall of Famers Kareem Abdul-Jabbar and Karl Malone; at 36 years and 50 days, he was the youngest player to reach the milestone. On March 20, James sprained his ankle against the Hawks but was able to hit a three-point shot afterwards to keep his 10-points streak alive before exiting the game. By March, the Lakers were No. 2, two games behind the Jazz, but then went 14–16 without Davis and 6–10 without James, falling to No. 5. James returned on April 30, after missing 20 games, the longest absence of his career.
In May, James was sidelined again after leaving a game against the Raptors but returned for the final two games to finish with averages of 25.0 points, 7.7 rebounds, and 7.8 assists on 51.3 percent shooting in 45 out of 72 games; this was his 17th consecutive season averaging at least 25 points per game, the most in NBA history. In an injury-laden season, the Lakers ended with a 42–30 record, finishing No. 7 due to tiebreakers and facing the No. 8-seed Warriors in the play-in tournament. The Lakers won 103–100 after James scored the go-ahead, three-point shot in the final minute, posting a triple-double with 22 points, 11 rebounds, and 10 assists, along with 2 steals and 1 block. His shot before the shot clock buzzer was his longest basket of the season as well as his longest go-ahead shot in the closing three minutes of a game in his career.
In the first round of the playoffs, the Lakers faced the No. 2 seeded Suns, the first time in James's career that he did not have home court advantage in the opening series. Los Angeles was up 2–1 before Davis suffered a strained groin in Game 4, in which James finished with a game-high 25 points on 10-for-21 shooting, 12 rebounds, and 6 assists. The Lakers lost to the Suns in six games, making it the first time James lost in the first round in his career. James finished the series averaging 23.3 points, his fourth-lowest scoring output for a series over his career and his lowest mark since averaging 22.8 in the 2014 Eastern Conference Finals. James made his 17th consecutive All-NBA Team selection, extending the record for most selections in NBA history, being named for the third time to the All-NBA Second Team.
2021–2022
For the 2021–22 season, James was joined by Carmelo Anthony and Russell Westbrook. On November 19, 2021, James was fined $15,000 for an obscene gesture he made on November 17, after making a shot late in the Lakers' overtime victory against the Indiana Pacers at their homecourt, in which the Lakers won 124–116. He was also warned by the NBA for using profane language during an interview with ESPN after the victory against the Pacers when discussing his previous suspension. In a game against the Detroit Pistons on November 21, James was ejected in the third quarter after getting into a scuffle with Isaiah Stewart during the 121–116 win; it was the second time in his career that James was ejected from a game, and he was suspended for one game due to his actions. In his next 16 games, James averaged 30.4 points, 8.9 rebounds, 6.3 assists, 1.6 steals, and 1.4 blocks on 54 percent shooting, also achieving his 100th triple-double, while becoming the third player in NBA history to surpass 36,000 career points; during this period, he played 35 percent of his minutes at center.
On December 31, in a blowout win against the Portland Trail Blazers, James recorded 40 points, ten rebounds, five three-pointers, and zero turnovers in less than 30 minutes, becoming the second player in NBA history (after Michael Jordan) to post 40 points and zero turnovers at age 35 or older. On January 3, 2022, in a 108–103 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves, James met the minimum criteria for points per game by playing at least 70 percent of his team's games, averaging 28.6 points, and became the oldest player to average 25+ points per game, having already been the youngest to do so, as he averaged 27.6 points per game in his sophomore season at 20 years old. On January 7, in a 134–118 win over the Atlanta Hawks, James became the oldest player in NBA history to record at least 25 points in ten straight games, doing so at 37 years old.
On January 20, in a 104–111 loss to the Pacers, James became the fifth player in NBA history to record at least 30,000 career points and 10,000 career rebounds, and is the first player to record at least 30,000 career points, 10,000 career rebounds, and 9,000 career assists. In the same period, he surpassed Oscar Robertson for 4th all-time free throws made, and Alvin Robertson for 10th all-time in career steals. On February 12, in a 117–115 loss to the Golden State Warriors, James surpassed Kareem Abdul-Jabbar for the most points scored in both the regular season and playoffs. He received praise from Lakers head coach Frank Vogel as well as opponents Stephen Curry, Klay Thompson, and Warriors head coach Steve Kerr. At the 2022 NBA All-Star Game held on February 20 in Cleveland, James was celebrated among the other 74 players for the NBA 75th Anniversary Team. James led all players in fan votes with his 18th All-Star selection, tying Kobe Bryant's and just one behind Abdul-Jabbar; his team achieved its fifth consecutive All-Star win, defeating Team Durant 163–161, with James hitting the game-winning dagger shot in front of his hometown crowd.
National team career
James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens, Greece. He spent the Games mostly on the bench, averaging 14.6 minutes per game with 5.8 points and 2.6 rebounds per game in eight games. Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal, becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding active NBA players to their lineup. James felt his limited playing time was a "lowlight" and believed he was not given "a fair opportunity to play"; his attitude during the Olympics was described as "disrespectful" by columnist Adrian Wojnarowski.
At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan, James took on a greater role for Team USA, averaging 13.9 points, 4.8 rebounds, and 4.1 assists per game as co-captain. The team finished the tournament with an 8–1 record, winning another bronze medal. James's behavior was again questioned, this time by teammate Bruce Bowen, who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members.
Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team, Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude, and he heeded their advice. At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007, he averaged 18.1 points, 3.6 rebounds, and 4.7 assists per game, including a 31-point performance against Argentina in the championship game, the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier. Team USA went 10–0, winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing, China. James credited the team's attitude and experience for their improvement, saying: "I don't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004. We definitely know that now." At the Olympics, Team USA went unbeaten, winning their first gold medal since 2000. In the final game, James turned in 14 points, 6 rebounds, and 3 assists against Spain.
James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London, England. He became the leader of the team, with Bryant, who would soon be 34, stepping back. James facilitated the offense from the post and perimeter, called the defensive sets, and provided scoring when needed. During a game against Australia, he recorded the first triple-double in U.S. Olympic basketball history with 11 points, 14 rebounds and 12 assists. Team USA went on to win their second straight gold medal, again defeating Spain in the final game. James contributed 19 points in the win, becoming the all-time leading scorer in U.S. men's basketball history. He also joined Michael Jordan as the only players to win an NBA MVP award, NBA championship, NBA Finals MVP, and Olympic gold medal in the same year. Afterwards, Krzyzewski said James "is the best player, he is the best leader and he is as smart as anybody playing the game right now."
Player profile
Standing tall and weighing , James has played the majority of his career at the small forward and power forward positions but has also been deployed at the other positions when necessary. His playing style, which is athletic and versatile, has drawn comparisons to Hall of Famers Oscar Robertson, Magic Johnson, and Michael Jordan. Through the 2020–21 season, James's career averages are 27.0 points, 7.4 rebounds, 7.4 assists, 1.6 steals, and 0.7 blocks per game. Since 2011, he has been ranked the best player in the NBA by ESPN and Sports Illustrated.
Offense
As an 18-year-old rookie, James led the Cavaliers in scoring. He holds numerous "youngest to" distinctions, including being the youngest player to score 30,000 career points. During his first stint in Cleveland, he was primarily used as an on-ball point forward, and although his shooting tendencies were perimeter-oriented, he established himself as one of the best slashers and finishers in basketball. His combination of speed, quickness, and size often created matchup problems for opposing teams because he was capable of blowing by larger defenders and overpowering smaller ones. These qualities became more apparent in transition, where he developed a reputation for grabbing defensive rebounds and then beating the defense downcourt for highlight reel baskets. Around this time, James was frequently criticized for not having a reliable jump shot or post game. Teams would try to exploit these weaknesses by giving him space in the half court and forcing him to settle for three-pointers and long two-pointers, a strategy famously used by Spurs coach Gregg Popovich in the 2007 Finals, where James converted on only 36 percent of his field goals in four games.
In Miami, Heat coach Erik Spoelstra changed James's role to a more unconventional one. James spent more time in the post and improved his shot selection and accuracy on jump shots. He also learned how to work as an off-ball cutter in the Heat's "pass-happy" offense. Behind these improvements, James's overall scoring efficiency rose to historically great levels. During this time, ESPN's Tom Haberstroh called James's free-throw shooting his biggest weakness, describing it as "average". Upon returning to the Cavaliers, James began to experience subtle age-related declines in productivity, posting his lowest scoring averages since his rookie season in 2015 and 2016. His shooting also temporarily regressed, and he briefly ranked as the NBA's worst high-volume shooter from outside the paint. Despite these changes, he remained an elite offensive player who beat defenses with body control, strength, and varying attacking speeds.
For most of his career, James has controlled the offense as the primary ball handler on his team. His playmaking ability is generally considered one of his premier skills, and some analysts rank him among the greatest passers in NBA history. By exploiting his size, vision, and the attention he garners from opposing defenses, James creates easy points for his teammates with accurate assists. He executes unconventional passes, including after leaving his feet and through defensive traffic. His uncanny tendency to find the open man has helped force NBA teams to incorporate some elements of zone into their schemes to better cover the weak side of the court and prevent James from passing to open shooters. Early in James's career, he was criticized for overpassing in pressure situations, in particular for passing instead of shooting in the waning seconds of close games; however, as his career progressed, James's clutch performance was viewed more favorably.
Defense
At the beginning of James's NBA career, he was considered a poor defensive player, but he improved steadily through the years. In 2009, he became proficient at the chase-down block, which involves coming in from behind the opposition in transition to block the shot. In Miami, he developed into a more versatile defensive player, and the Heat relied on him to guard all five positions. Along with Shane Battier and Dwyane Wade, Miami used James in an ultra-aggressive defensive scheme, with James cheating off the ball to help out inside or get into rebounding position. Beginning in 2014, some analysts reported a regression in his defensive impact, stemming from a lack of effort and expected age-related declines. During his second stint in Cleveland, his defense progressively declined. After missed drives on offense, he often dawdled back on defense while complaining to the referees; he provided less help off the ball, and was less aggressive in switching. James himself admitted to taking plays off at times, referring to this approach as "chill mode". He eventually developed a reputation for raising his defensive level in the playoffs, which some analysts referred to as "Playoff LeBron".
Legacy
James left high school as one of the most hyped prospects in NBA history. Upon entering the NBA, he made an immediate impact and was voted Rookie of the Year in his debut season. As of June 2021, he has been named to 17 All-NBA Teams, including 13 times to the first-team, which are both NBA records. His four MVP awards are matched only by Michael Jordan, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Wilt Chamberlain, and Bill Russell; James and Russell are the only players to win four MVP awards in a five-year span. James has also won four Finals MVP Awards, which is the second-most all-time, and earned All-Defensive honors every season from 2009 to 2014. While James has never won the Defensive Player of the Year Award, he has finished second in the voting twice and lists it as one of his main goals. His teams have appeared in the Finals ten times and won four championships; his ten Finals appearances are tied for third all-time. Some analysts have criticized him for not having a better Finals record, while others have countered that James usually performed well but his team was defeated by superior competition.
On the basis of his career longevity and on-court performances, sports publications have consistently included James in rankings of the best basketball players in history, and in December 2019, he was named the Associated Press Male Athlete of the Decade for the 2010s. In addition to praising James's on-court accomplishments, analysts have also noted James's influence on player empowerment throughout the NBA, which stemmed from his willingness to change teams during free agency. Ben Golliver of The Washington Post opined that James's move to the Heat in 2010 "defined a decade of player movement", and that he "fundamentally flipped the power balance between stars and their organizations." James's fellow players have also remarked on his influence, such as Warriors forward Draymond Green, who reflected: "We've taken control of our destiny. And I think a lot of people hate that ... . I think the doors that he's opened for athletes and especially basketball players is his biggest accomplishment."
James is also discussed within the context of being the greatest basketball player of all-time, which has resulted in frequent comparisons to Michael Jordan. In a 2016 interview with Sports Illustrated, James acknowledged that his motivation was surpassing Jordan as the greatest. In February 2018, The Ringer spent an entire week devoted to both players, with Bill Simmons ultimately concluding that Jordan was still ahead. In polls, James has ranked second behind Jordan. The results strongly correlate with age, with older voters more commonly choosing Jordan. Davis et al. of Business Insider stated: "The data would suggest that younger, more-engaged NBA fans lean toward James, as he's still playing. Older generations who watched Jordan play and tune in less today lean toward Jordan." Referring to James as the best challenger to Jordan's status as the greatest basketball player of all time, Sam Quinn of CBS Sports stated that "the margin for error where Jordan is involved is overwhelmingly slim" and that "in the rings-obsessed basketball discourse", Jordan having more titles and an "unblemished Finals record holds significant weight."
Off the court
Personal life
James married his high school sweetheart Savannah Brinson on September 14, 2013, in San Diego, California. They have three children: sons Bronny (b. 2004) and Bryce (b. 2007), and daughter Zhuri (b. 2014).
During his stint with the Heat, James resided in Coconut Grove, where he bought a $9 million three-story mansion overlooking Biscayne Bay. In November 2015, James bought a 9,350 square-foot (870 m2) East Coast-style mansion in Brentwood, Los Angeles for about $21 million. James owns another home in Brentwood, Los Angeles, which he purchased for $23 million in December 2017.
In January 2009, doctors at the Cleveland Clinic discovered a growth in the right side of James's jaw. Biopsy results showed that James developed a benign jaw tumor, specifically in his parotid gland which required a 5-hour surgery to remove on June 2 after the end of the Cavaliers' run in the 2009 NBA playoffs.
In a 60 Minutes interview with correspondent Steve Kroft that was broadcast on March 29, 2009, James declared Kobe Bryant the best player in the NBA at that time. In 2015, James spoke with the media about his regrets for not playing against Bryant in the 2009 NBA Finals. James stated: "I didn't hold up my end of the bargain in 2009 for the fans, for us, to meet in the Finals. I know the world wanted to see it. I wanted it, we wanted it. He held up his end and I didn't hold up my end, and I hate that. I hate that that didn't happen."
James rescued fellow basketball player Carmelo Anthony from the water during a boating excursion in the Bahamas with Dwyane Wade and Chris Paul when Anthony was carried away from the boat by the current. Anthony described the incident in an Instagram Live session in March 2020.
James invests heavily in his health, reportedly having spent $1.5 million a year to pay for personal chefs and trainers, as well as physical therapies of recovery. He has a heavy exercise regimen and dietary habits that some consider atypical for a top athlete. Tristan Thompson stated that James eats desserts with every meal, and Kyle Korver says James' fitness routine is unrivaled.
On September 28, 2021, James confirmed that he had received a COVID-19 vaccine.
Public image
By 2015, James was considered by many people, including his fellow NBA players, to be the "face of the NBA". His opinions have yielded significant influence on people who make important league decisions; in 2014, he asked commissioner Adam Silver to increase the duration of the All-Star break, and the request was granted the following season. On February 13, 2015, James was elected the first vice president of the National Basketball Players Association (NBPA).
Throughout his career, James has been ranked by Forbes as one of the world's most influential athletes, and in 2017, he was listed by Time as one of the 100 most influential people in the world. During his first stint with the Cavaliers, he was adored by local fans, and Sherwin-Williams displayed a giant Nike-produced banner of James on its world headquarters. Despite their affection for James, Cleveland fans and critics were frequently annoyed when he sported a Yankees hat when he attended Cleveland Indians baseball games versus the New York Yankees. Following his actions during the 2010 free agency period and The Decision, he was listed as one of most disliked athletes in the United States. By 2013, his image had mostly recovered and he was reported by ESPN as the most popular player in the NBA for the second time in his career. In 2014, he was named the most popular male athlete in America by the Harris Poll. He has led the league in jersey sales six times.
Memorabilia associated with James is highly sought after; two of James's rookie cards are among the most expensive basketball cards ever sold at auction, and one of those cards also briefly held the record for the most expensive modern-day sports card when it sold for $1.8 million at auction in July 2020. A Mike Trout rookie card broke the record for a modern-day card the following month. All jerseys worn in the 2020 NBA All-Star Game were auctioned by the NBA and NBPA to raise funds for charity; James's jersey sold for $630,000, setting a record for a modern-day sports jersey.
In March 2008, James became the first black man, as well as the third man overall after Richard Gere and George Clooney, to appear on the cover of Vogue, when he posed with Gisele Bündchen. In response, ESPN columnist Jemele Hill considered the cover offensive and "memorable for the wrong reasons", describing the demeanor of James and his holding Bündchen as a reference to classic imagery of the movie monster King Kong, a dark savage capturing his fair-skinned love interest.
Media figure and business interests
James is represented by agent Rich Paul of Klutch Sports. His first agent was Aaron Goodwin, whom he left in 2005 for Leon Rose. Rose joined Creative Artists Agency (CAA) in 2007, and he worked with fellow CAA agent Henry Thomas, who represented Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh, to bring James to Miami in 2010. James left CAA for Paul in 2012. James, Paul, Maverick Carter, and Randy Mims—all childhood friends—formed agent and sports-marketing company LRMR after James left Goodwin. LRMR handles James's marketing, including the marketing of The Decision, for which it was criticized.
Throughout his career, James has taken a unique approach to his NBA contracts, usually opting to sign shorter-term deals in order to maximize his earnings potential and flexibility; in 2006, he and the Cavaliers negotiated a three-year, $60 million contract extension instead of the four-year maximum as it allotted him the option of seeking a new contract worth more money as an unrestricted free agent following the 2010 season. This move ultimately allowed James, Dwyane Wade, and Chris Bosh to sign together with the Heat. During his second stint in Cleveland, based on a negotiation strategy devised by NBA agent Mark Termini, who worked with Paul and specialized in contract negotiation and construction, he began opting out and re-signing on new contracts after each season in order to take advantage of higher salaries resulting from the NBA's rising salary cap. In 2016, he signed with the Cavaliers on a three-year deal, becoming the highest-paid player in the league for the first time in his career.
James has signed numerous endorsement contracts; some of the companies that he has done business with are Audemars Piguet, Beats by Dre, Coca-Cola, Dunkin' Brands, McDonald's, Nike, and State Farm. Coming out of high school, he was the target of a three-way bidding war among Nike, Reebok, and Adidas, eventually signing with Nike for approximately $90 million. His signature shoes have performed well for Nike. In 2011, Fenway Sports Group became the sole global marketer of his rights, and as part of the deal, he was granted a minority stake in the English Premier League football club Liverpool, who he has claimed his support for. As a result of James's endorsement money and NBA salary, he has been listed as one of the world's highest-paid athletes. In 2013, he surpassed Kobe Bryant as the highest paid basketball player in the world, with earnings of $56.5 million. In 2014, James realized a profit of more than $30 million as part of Apple's acquisition of Beats Electronics; he had originally struck a deal to get a small stake in the company at its inception in exchange for promoting its headphones. In 2015, he was ranked the sixth highest earning sportsperson, and third highest in 2016 (after Cristiano Ronaldo and Lionel Messi). James has stated that he would like to own an NBA team in the future, albeit in a hands-off capacity. In 2011, James co-founded the designer retail store UNKNWN in Miami, Florida.
James and comedian Jimmy Kimmel co-hosted the 2007 ESPY Awards. In other comedic pursuits, he hosted the 33rd-season premiere of Saturday Night Live. He has also tried his hand at acting, appearing in a cameo role on the HBO series Entourage. In 2015, he played himself in the Judd Apatow film Trainwreck, receiving positive reviews for his performance. That same year, James's digital video company Uninterrupted raised $15.8 million from Warner Bros. Entertainment and Turner Sports to help expand the company's efforts to bring athlete-created content to fans. It is hosted on Bleacher Report and is used by several other athletes including Tampa Bay Buccaneers tight end Rob Gronkowski and cornerback Richard Sherman.
James and his business partner Maverick Carter own production company SpringHill Entertainment, whose first work was the Lions Gate documentary More Than a Game, which was released in 2009 and chronicled James's high school years. Series produced by SpringHill include the NBC game show The Wall, the Disney XD sports documentary show Becoming, the Starz sitcom Survivor's Remorse, and the animated web series The LeBrons. In 2016, CNBC aired an unscripted series hosted by James called Cleveland Hustles, where four up-and-coming Northern Ohio entrepreneurs will be financed on the condition of revitalizing a neighborhood in Cleveland. In the 2017 Toronto International Film Festival, a 60-minute Vince Carter documentary entitled The Carter Effect was executive produced by James and Maverick Carter along with rapper Drake and Future the Prince. In February 2018, it was announced that James's production company will produce a new film in the House Party series with James expected to make a cameo. Later that month, Fox News host Laura Ingraham told James to "shut up and dribble" as a response to his political agendas. This largely contributed to James creating a documentary series looking at the changing role of athletes in the current political and cultural climate, aptly named, Shut Up and Dribble on Showtime. James partnered with Arnold Schwarzenegger in 2018 to found Ladder, a company that developed nutritional supplements to help athletes with severe cramps after dealing with that issue during the 2014 Finals.
In 2012, James, Carter and Paul Wachter made an investment of less than $1 million in the Pasadena-based fast casual chain Blaze Pizza; their investment had grown to $25 million by 2017. James later became a spokesman for the company and began appearing in advertisements after ending his contract with McDonald's.
During the 2019 off-season, James filed for a trademark through a shell company on the term "Taco Tuesday" for use in downloadable audio/visual works, podcasts, social media, online marketing, and entertainment services. This was related to James's use of the term on Instagram for his family's taco dinners. The request was denied by the United States Patent and Trademark Office, stating that Taco Tuesday was "a commonplace term, message or expression widely used by a variety of sources that merely conveys an ordinary, familiar, well-recognized concept or sentiment."
In February 2019, it was revealed that James would executive produce rapper 2 Chainz's new album Rap or Go to the League. A Def Jam press release said the intent of the album is "celebrating black excellence and focusing on the power of education and entrepreneurship." The press release also says the title "challenges the notion that the only way out of the inner city is either to become a rapper or a ball player." As of September 2019, James is the most followed basketball player on Instagram.
In November 2020, James became an angel investor of the tequila and mezcal company Lobos 1707. After personal frustration with comments on the Black Lives Matter movement made by Republican U.S. senator Kelly Loeffler, who at the time was the owner of the WNBA's Atlanta Dream, James assisted Dream player Renee Montgomery in her ultimately successful bid to buy the team in March 2021. Also in 2021, James joined Fenway Sports Group as a partner, making him a part-owner of the Boston Red Sox, New England Sports Network, Roush Fenway Racing, and Liverpool F.C., the latter of which he already owned a two-percent share in individually. The investment made James and Carter the company's first black partners.
Activism
James is an active supporter of non-profit organizations, including After-School All-Stars, Boys & Girls Clubs of America, and Children's Defense Fund. He also has his own charity foundation, the LeBron James Family Foundation, which is based in Akron. Since 2005, the foundation has held an annual bike-a-thon to raise money for various causes. In 2015, James announced a partnership with the University of Akron to provide scholarships for as many as 2,300 children beginning in 2021. In 2016, he donated $2.5 million to the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture to support an exhibit on Muhammad Ali. In 2017, he received the J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award from the NBA for his "outstanding service and dedication to the community." In November of that same year, the Akron School Board approved the "I Promise School", a public elementary school created in a partnership with the LeBron James Family Foundation to help struggling elementary school students stay in school. James later reflected that it was his most important professional accomplishment of his life. The school officially opened on July 30, 2018.
Throughout his career, James has taken stances on controversial issues. On several occasions, he mentioned a feeling of obligation to effect change using his status. Those include the War in Darfur, the killing of Trayvon Martin, the now-former NBA owner Donald Sterling's racist comments in 2014, the Michael Brown verdict, and the death of Eric Garner. Following a racist incident at his Los Angeles home in 2017, James expressed that "being black in America is tough. We got a long way to go for us as a society and for us as African Americans until we feel equal in America." Later on that year, in the aftermath of the Unite the Right rally, James questioned the "Make America Great Again" slogan and said: "It's sad what's going on in Charlottesville. Is this the direction our country is heading? Make America Great Again huh? Our youth deserve better!!" James also called Trump a "bum" after the president rescinded a White House invitation to Stephen Curry. During a 2018 interview with CNN journalist Don Lemon, James accused Trump of attempting to divide the country with sports, suggesting that "sports has never been something that divides people it's always been something that brings someone together." He declared that he would "never sit across from him. I'd sit across from Barack [Obama] though." In response, Trump tweeted: "LeBron James was just interviewed by the dumbest man on television, Don Lemon. He made LeBron look smart, which isn't easy to do." James has supported Colin Kaepernick in the aftermath of his participation in the national anthem protests, saying that he was being blackballed from a new contract in the National Football League, and that he would hire him if he owned a football team. He has worn his clothing in a show of support several times.
In June 2008, James donated $20,000 to a committee to elect Barack Obama as president. Later that year, James gathered almost 20,000 people at the Quicken Loans Arena for a viewing of Obama's 30-minute American Stories, American Solutions television advertisement. The advertisement was shown on a large screen above the stage, where Jay-Z later held a free concert. In November 2016, James endorsed and campaigned for Hillary Clinton for the 2016 presidential election.
During the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests, a statement James made about a now-deleted tweet by Daryl Morey, in which Morey expressed support for the pro-democracy movement in Hong Kong, became the subject of controversy. James said Morey was "misinformed". In february 2022, comedian and political commentator Bill Maher called James hypocritical for not taking a critical stance towards China's human rights abuses. James has taken various other stands on issues regarding sports, such as the Kaepernick controversy and the Houston Astros sign stealing scandal.
In August 2020, James wore a modified MAGA hat that called for the arrest of the police officers involved in the shooting of Breonna Taylor. On August 19, 2020, he announced his intentions to campaign for presidential candidate Joe Biden and his running-mate Kamala Harris in advance of the 2020 presidential election. James spoke in support of the More Than a Vote movement and encouraged members of the African-American community to vote. He said: "People in our community have been just lied to for so many years. We have people that have had convictions in the past, that've been told they cannot vote because they got a conviction. That is voter suppression."
On August 27, James and his Lakers teammates as well as the Milwaukee Bucks began boycotting the 2020 NBA playoffs to protest the shooting of Jacob Blake. In response, senior White House advisor Jared Kushner stated that he was planning to reach out to James regarding the boycott. Following a players' committee to discuss the boycott, James and others reached out to Barack Obama, who reportedly advised them to continue playing and finish that year's NBA season.
On April 21, 2021, in response to the death of Ma'Khia Bryant, James took to Twitter and posted a picture of the police officer who is believed to have fatally shot Bryant, saying: "YOU'RE NEXT #ACCOUNTABILITY." He later deleted the post, explaining: "I'm so damn tired of seeing Black people killed by police. I took the tweet down because its being used to create more hate -This isn't about one officer. it's about the entire system and they always use our words to create more racism. I am so desperate for more ACCOUNTABILITY."
On November 10, 2021, in response to Kyle Rittenhouse having an emotional break down in court, James tweeted "What tears????? I didn't see one. Man knock it off! That boy ate some lemon heads before walking into court." On December 6, 2021, Rittenhouse said in response that "I was a Lakers fan too before he said that" and "I was really pissed off when he said that, because I liked LeBron and then I'm like, you know what fuck you LeBron".
Akron endeavors
Public and charitable initiatives undertaken by James in his hometown of Akron, Ohio, under the LeBron James Family Foundation banner:
I Promise School
I Promise Institute at the University of Akron
I Promise Village (housing complex)
House Three-Thirty (community center/retail plaza)
NBA career statistics
Regular season
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|79||79||39.5||.417||.290||.754||5.5||5.9||1.6||.7||20.9
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|80||80||style="background:#cfecec;"|42.4*||.472||.351||.750||7.4||7.2||2.2||.7||27.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|79||79||42.5||.480||.335||.738||7.0||6.6||1.6||.8||31.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|78||78||40.9||.476||.319||.698||6.7||6.0||1.6||.7||27.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|75||74||40.4||.484||.315||.712||7.9||7.2||1.8||1.1||style="background:#cfecec;"|30.0*
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|81||81||37.7||.489||.344||.780||7.6||7.2||1.7||1.1||28.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|76||76||39.0||.503||.333||.767||7.3||8.6||1.6||1.0||29.7
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|79||79||38.8||.510||.330||.759||7.5||7.0||1.6||.6||26.7
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|62||62||37.5||.531||.362||.771||7.9||6.2||1.9||.8||27.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|76||76||37.9||.565||.406||.753||8.0||7.3||1.7||.9||26.8
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|77||77||37.7||.567||.379||.750||6.9||6.4||1.6||.3||27.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|69||69||36.1||.488||.354||.710||6.0||7.4||1.6||.7||25.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|76||76||35.6||.520||.309||.731||7.4||6.8||1.4||.6||25.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|74||74|| style="background:#cfecec;"| 37.8*||.548||.363||.674||8.6||8.7||1.2||.6||26.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|style="background:#cfecec;"| 82*|| style="background:#cfecec;"|82*||style="background:#cfecec;"| 36.9*||.542||.367||.731||8.6||9.1||1.4||.9||27.5
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers
|55||55||35.2||.510||.339||.665||8.5||8.3||1.3||.6||27.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|†
|style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers
|67||67||34.6||.493||.348||.693||7.8||style="background:#cfecec;"| 10.2*||1.2||.5||25.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|
|style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers
|45||45||33.4||.513||.365||.698||7.7||7.8||1.1||.6||25.0
|- class="sortbottom"
|style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
|1,310||1,309||38.2||.504||.345||.733||7.4||7.4||1.6||.7||27.0
|- class="sortbottom"
|style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|All-Star
|18||18||28.2||.515||.308||.725||6.0||5.8||1.2||.4||22.9
|}
Playoffs
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2006
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|13||13||46.5||.476||.333||.737||8.1||5.8||1.4||.7||30.8
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2007
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|20||20||44.7||.416||.280||.755||8.1||8.0||1.7||.5||25.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2008
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|13||13||42.5||.411||.257||.731||7.8||7.6||1.8||1.3||28.2
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2009
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|14||14||41.4||.510||.333||.749||9.1||7.3||1.6||.9||35.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2010
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|11||11||41.8||.502||.400||.733||9.3||7.6||1.7||1.8||29.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2011
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|21||21||43.9||.466||.353||.763||8.4||5.9||1.7||1.2||23.7
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|2012†
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|23||23||42.7||.500||.259||.739||9.7||5.6||1.9||.7||30.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|2013†
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|23||23||41.7||.491||.375||.777||8.4||6.6||1.8||.8||25.9
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2014
|style="text-align:left;"|Miami
|20||20||38.2||.565||.407||.806||7.1||4.8||1.9||.6||27.4
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2015
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|20||20||42.2||.417||.227||.731||11.3||8.5||1.7||1.1||30.1
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|2016†
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|21||21||39.1||.525||.340||.661||9.5||7.6||2.3||1.3||26.3
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2017
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|18||18||41.3||.565||.411||.698||9.1||7.8||1.9||1.3||32.8
|-
|style="text-align:left;"|2018
|style="text-align:left;"|Cleveland
|22||22||41.9||.539||.342||.746||9.1||9.0||1.4||1.0||34.0
|-
|style="text-align:left;background:#afe6ba;"|2020†
|style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers
|21||21||36.3||.560||.370||.720||10.8||8.8||1.2||.9||27.6
|-
|style="text-align:left"|2021
|style="text-align:left;"|L.A. Lakers
|6||6||37.3||.474||.375||.609||7.2||8.0||1.5||.3||23.3
|- class="sortbottom"
|style="text-align:center;" colspan="2"|Career
| style="background:EOCEF2;"|266|| style="background:EOCEF2;"|266||41.5||.495||.337||.740||9.0||7.2||1.7||.9||28.7
|}
Awards and honors
NBA
4× NBA champion: , , ,
4× NBA Finals Most Valuable Player: , , ,
4× NBA Most Valuable Player: , , ,
18× NBA All-Star: , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,
3× NBA All-Star Game MVP: , ,
17× All-NBA selection:
13× First team: , , , , , , , , , , , ,
3× Second team: , ,
Third team:
6× NBA All-Defensive selection:
5× First Team: , , , ,
Second Team:
NBA Rookie of the Year:
NBA All-Rookie First Team:
NBA scoring leader:
NBA assists leader:
3× NBA minutes leader: , ,
J. Walter Kennedy Citizenship Award:
NBA 75th Anniversary Team
USA Basketball
2× Olympic Gold Medal winner: 2008, 2012
2004 Olympic Bronze Medal winner
2006 FIBA World Championship Bronze Medal winner
2007 FIBA Americas Championship Gold Medal winner
2012 USA Basketball Male Athlete of the Year
Commemorative banner in Miami's American Airlines Arena (for his 2012 gold medal won as a member of the Miami Heat)
High school
2003 National Champion
3× OHSAA Champion: 2000, 2001, 2003
2003 Naismith Prep Player of the Year
2× Mr. Basketball USA: 2002, 2003
2× Gatorade National Player of the Year 2002, 2003
2× USA Today High School Player of the Year 2002, 2003
3× Ohio Mr. Basketball: 2001, 2002, 2003
3× USA Today All-USA First Team: 2001, 2002, 2003
2× PARADE High School Player of the Year: 2002, 2003
2003 McDonald's National Player of the Year
2003 McDonald's High School All-American
2003 McDonald's All-American Game MVP
2003 EA Sports Roundball Classic MVP
2003 Jordan Brand Classic MVP
No. 23 retired by St. Vincent–St. Mary
St. Vincent–St. Mary Hall of Fame (class of 2011)
St. Vincent–St. Mary home basketball court named The LeBron James Arena
Liverpool F.C. (part owner)
2011–12 EFL Cup winner
2018–19 UEFA Champions League winner
2019 UEFA Super Cup winner
2019 FIFA Club World Cup winner
2019–20 Premier League champion
Media
AP Athlete of the Decade (2010s)
4× AP Athlete of the Year (2013, 2016, 2018, 2020)
3× Sports Illustrated Sportsperson of the Year (2012, 2016, 2020)
2012 Sporting News Athlete of the Year
3× Sporting News NBA MVP (2006, 2009, 2010)
2004 Sporting News Rookie of the Year
Sports Illustrated NBA All-Decade First Team (2000s)
2× Hickok Belt winner: 2012, 2013
19× ESPY Award winner in various categories (15 individually, four as part of a team)
2020 Time Athlete of the Year
NAACP Image Awards
2017 Jackie Robinson Award
2021 President's Award
Sports Emmy Awards
2020 Outstanding Long Sports Documentary (as executive producer of What's My Name? – Muhammed Ali Part 1)
2021 Outstanding Edited Sports Series (as executive producer of The Shop: Uninterrupted)
State/Local
6× Cleveland Sports Awards Professional Athlete of the Year: 2004, 2005, 2006, 2009, 2015, 2016
South Main Street in downtown Akron renamed King James Way
Six-story commemorative banner in downtown Akron
Featured on Space Jam inspired mural in Akron near his alma mater (St. Vincent St. Mary) and his I Promise school
Featured on "Cleveland is the Reason" mural in downtown Cleveland (with other notable Cleveland area figures)
Honorary lockers at Ohio State's football and basketball facilities
Filmography
Film
Television
See also
Cleveland Cavaliers draft history
List of most-followed Instagram accounts
List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career games played leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff 3-point scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff assists leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff blocks leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career playoff turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders
List of National Basketball Association career steals leaders
List of National Basketball Association career turnovers leaders
List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders
List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game
List of National Basketball Association season minutes leaders
List of Olympic medalists in basketball
NBA All-Star Game records
NBA post-season records
NBA regular season records
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
1984 births
2006 FIBA World Championship players
21st-century American male actors
African-American basketball players
African-American billionaires
African-American businesspeople
African-American film producers
African-American investors
African-American male actors
African-American television producers
American investors
American film producers
American male film actors
American male television actors
American male voice actors
American men's basketball players
American philanthropists
American soccer chairmen and investors
Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from Akron, Ohio
Basketball players from Los Angeles
Businesspeople from Akron, Ohio
Businesspeople from Los Angeles
California Democrats
Cleveland Cavaliers draft picks
Cleveland Cavaliers players
Film producers from California
Film producers from Ohio
Illeists
Liverpool F.C. chairmen and investors
Living people
Los Angeles Lakers players
McDonald's High School All-Americans
Medalists at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Miami Heat players
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association high school draftees
Olympic bronze medalists for the United States in basketball
Olympic gold medalists for the United States in basketball
Parade High School All-Americans (boys' basketball)
People from Brentwood, Los Angeles
Power forwards (basketball)
Small forwards
Spokespersons
St. Vincent–St. Mary High School alumni
United States men's national basketball team players | [
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240942 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Stiller | Jerry Stiller | Gerald Isaac Stiller (June 8, 1927 – May 11, 2020) was an American actor, author and comedian. He spent many years as part of the comedy duo Stiller and Meara with his wife, Anne Meara, to whom he was married for over 60 years until her death in 2015. Stiller saw a late-career resurgence starting in 1993, playing George Costanza's father Frank on the sitcom Seinfeld, a part which earned him an Emmy nomination. The year Seinfeld went off the air, Stiller began his role as the eccentric Arthur Spooner on the CBS comedy series The King of Queens, another role which garnered him widespread acclaim.
Stiller appeared together with his son Ben Stiller in films such as Zoolander, Heavyweights, Hot Pursuit, The Heartbreak Kid, and Zoolander 2. He also performed voice-over work for films and television, including The Lion King 1½ and Planes: Fire and Rescue. In his later career, Stiller became known for portraying grumpy and eccentric characters who were nevertheless beloved.
Early life
The eldest of four children, Stiller was born on June 8, 1927, at Unity Hospital in Brooklyn, New York, to Bella (née Citron; 1902–1954) and William Stiller (1896–1999), a taxi and bus driver. His family was Jewish. His paternal grandparents immigrated from Galicia (southeast Poland and western Ukraine), and his mother was born in Frampol, Poland. He lived in the Williamsburg and East New York neighborhoods before his family moved to the Lower East Side, where he attended Seward Park High School and played Adolf Hitler in a school production.
Upon his return from service in the U.S. Army during World War II, Stiller attended Syracuse University, earning a bachelor's degree in Speech and Drama in 1950. He also studied drama at HB Studio in Greenwich Village. In the 1953 Phoenix Theater production of Coriolanus (produced by John Houseman), Stiller, along with Gene Saks and Jack Klugman, formed (as told by Houseman in the 1980 memoir Front and Center) "the best trio of Shakespearian clowns that I have ever seen on any stage".
Also in 1953, Stiller met actress-comedian Anne Meara, and they married in 1954. Until Stiller suggested it, Meara had never thought of doing comedy. "Jerry started us being a comedy team," she said. "He always thought I would be a great comedy partner." They joined the Chicago improvisational company The Compass Players (which later became The Second City) and, after leaving, began performing together. In 1961 they were performing in nightclubs in New York City and by the following year were considered a "national phenomenon", said the New York Times.
Stiller and Meara
The comedy team Stiller and Meara, composed of Stiller and his wife, Anne Meara, was successful throughout the 1960s, with numerous appearances on television variety programs, primarily on The Ed Sullivan Show. In 1970, they broke up the live act before it broke up their marriage. They subsequently forged a career in radio commercials, notably the campaign for Blue Nun wine. They also starred in their own syndicated five-minute sketch comedy show on radio, Take Five with Stiller and Meara, from 1977 to 1978.
From 1979 to 1982, Stiller and Meara hosted HBO Sneak Previews, a half-hour show produced monthly on which they described the movies and programs to be featured in the coming month. They also did some comedy sketches between show discussions. The duo had their own 1986 TV sitcom, The Stiller and Meara Show, in which Stiller played the deputy mayor of New York City and Meara portrayed his wife, a TV commercial actress.
Resurgence
Seinfeld
Late in his career, Stiller earned the part of the short-tempered Frank Costanza, father of George Costanza, on the sitcom Seinfeld, a role which Stiller played from 1993 until 1998. Stiller's character as initially envisioned was a "meek" and "Thurberesque" character that required him to wear a bald cap. After a couple of days of rehearsal Stiller realized the character wasn't working and asked Seinfeld co-creator Larry David if he could perform the character in a different way, which was more in line with his final characterization on the show. For his portrayal of Frank, Stiller gained widespread critical and popular acclaim, including being nominated for an Emmy for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series in 1997 and winning an American Comedy Award for Funniest Male Guest Appearance in a TV Series in 1998.
The King of Queens
After Seinfeld ended, Stiller had planned on retiring. However, Kevin James asked him to join the cast of The King of Queens. James, who played the leading role of Doug Heffernan, had told Stiller that he needed him to have a successful show. Stiller agreed and played the role of Arthur Spooner, the father of Carrie Heffernan, from 1998 until 2007. Stiller said that this role tested his acting ability more than any other had, and that, before being a part of The King of Queens, he only saw himself as a "decent actor".
Other appearances
Stiller played himself in filmed skits opening and closing Canadian rock band Rush's 30th Anniversary Tour concerts in 2004. These appearances are seen on the band's DVD R30: 30th Anniversary World Tour, released in 2005. Stiller later appeared in cameos for in-concert films for the band's 2007–08 Snakes & Arrows Tour. Stiller appeared on Dick Clark's $20,000 Pyramid show in the 1970s, and footage of the appearance was edited into an episode of The King of Queens to assist the storyline about his character being a contestant on the show, and, after losing, being bitter about the experience, as he never received his parting gift, a lifetime supply of Rice-a-Roni. He also made several appearances on the game show Tattletales with his wife, Anne Meara.
In the late 1990s, Stiller appeared in a series of Nike television commercials as the ghost of deceased Green Bay Packers head coach Vince Lombardi. He also appeared in various motion pictures, most notably Zoolander (2001) and Secret of the Andes (1999). On February 9, 2007, Stiller and Meara were honored with a joint star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. On October 28, 2010, the couple appeared on an episode of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. Stiller voiced the announcer on the children's educational show Crashbox. Starting in October 2010, Stiller and Meara began starring in Stiller & Meara, a Yahoo web series from Red Hour Digital in which they discussed current topics. Each episode was about two minutes long. Stiller also worked as a spokesman for Xfinity.
Author
Stiller wrote the foreword to the 2005 book Festivus: The Holiday for the Rest of Us () by Allen Salkin. The book discussed Festivus, the fictional holiday promulgated by Stiller's Seinfeld character Frank Costanza.
Stiller also authored a memoir titled Married to Laughter: A Love Story Featuring Anne Meara, which was published by Simon & Schuster ().
Personal life
Stiller was married to Anne Meara for over 60 years, from 1954 until her death on May 23, 2015. The two met in an agent's office. Meara was upset about an interaction with the casting agent, so Stiller took her out for coffee—all he could afford—and they remained together ever since. Meara was Irish Catholic and converted to Judaism before the couple's two children were born. They had two children: actress Amy Stiller (born 1961) and actor-comedian Ben Stiller (born 1965). He had two grandchildren through Ben.
Death
On May 11 2020, Stiller died from natural causes at his home on the Upper West Side of Manhattan, at the age of 92, less than a month before his 93rd birthday. His death was announced by his son, Ben Stiller. Many actors Stiller worked with, including Seinfeld castmates Jerry Seinfeld, Julia Louis-Dreyfus, Jason Alexander, Michael Richards and King of Queens castmates Kevin James and Leah Remini, paid tributes to him on social media.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
Accolades
Awards and nominations
Other
In 2007 Stiller and his wife Anne Meara received a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
References
External links
Jerry Stiller at the Comedy Hall of Fame
1927 births
2020 deaths
Male actors from New York City
American male comedians
American male film actors
American people of Austrian-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
American male television actors
American male voice actors
Jewish American writers
Jewish American male actors
People from the Lower East Side
Syracuse University alumni
People from Williamsburg, Brooklyn
Military personnel from New York City
Comedians from New York City
Jewish American male comedians
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
People from East New York, Brooklyn
Seward Park High School alumni
United States Army personnel of World War II
United States Army soldiers
21st-century American Jews | [
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240945 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Meara | Anne Meara | Anne Meara Stiller (September 20, 1929 – May 23, 2015) was an American actress and comedian. Along with her husband Jerry Stiller, she was one-half of the prominent 1960s comedy team Stiller and Meara. Their son is actor, director, and producer Ben Stiller. She was also featured on stage and television and in numerous films and later became a playwright. During her career, Meara was nominated for four Emmy Awards and a Tony Award, and she won a Writers Guild Award as a co-writer for the television movie The Other Woman.
Early years
Meara was born on September 20, 1929, in Brooklyn, New York, the daughter of parents of Irish descent, Mary (née Dempsey) and Edward Joseph Meara, a corporate lawyer for American Standard. An only child, she was raised in Rockville Centre, New York, on Long Island. When Anne was 11 years old, her mother committed suicide.
When she was 18, Meara spent a year studying acting at the Dramatic Workshop at The New School and at HB Studio under Uta Hagen in Manhattan. The following year, in 1948, she began her career as an actress in summer stock.
Career
Comedy team
Meara met actor-comedian Jerry Stiller in 1953, and they married in 1954. Until he suggested it, she had never thought of doing comedy. "Jerry started us being a comedy team," she said. "He always thought I would be a great comedy partner." They joined the Chicago improvisational company The Compass Players (which later became The Second City) and, after leaving, formed the comedy team of Stiller and Meara. In 1961 they were performing in nightclubs in New York and by the following year were considered a "national phenomenon", said the New York Times.
Their often improvised comedy routines brought many of their relationship foibles to live audiences. Their skits focused on domestic themes, as did Nichols and May, another comedy team during that period from the Chicago Compass Players project. "They were Nichols and May without the acid and with warmth," notes author Lawrence Epstein. They also added a new twist to their comedy act, he adds, by sometimes playing up the fact that Stiller was Jewish and Meara was Catholic. After Nichols and May broke up as a team in 1961, Stiller and Meara were the number-one couple comedy team by the late 1960s. And as Mike Nichols and Elaine May were not married, Stiller and Meara became the most famous married couple comedy team since Burns and Allen.
After some years honing the act, Stiller and Meara became regulars on The Ed Sullivan Show, with 36 appearances, and other TV programs, including The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson. They released their first LP in 1963, Presenting America's New Comedy Sensation: Jerry Stiller and Anne Meara Live at The Hungry I, which became a hit. By 1970, however, they broke up their act because it was affecting their marriage: "I didn't know where the act ended and our marriage began," complained Meara in 1977. Stiller agreed, fearing, "I would have lost her as a wife."
Television, stage, film, video
During the 1970s, Meara and Stiller wrote and performed many radio commercials together for Blue Nun Wine. She had a recurring role on the sitcom Rhoda as airline stewardess Sally Gallagher, one of the title character's best friends. She also had a small role as Mrs. Curry opposite Laurence Olivier in The Boys from Brazil (1978).
In 1975, she starred in her own series, Kate McShane, on CBS. She was nominated for an Emmy Award as Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series in 1976; however, the show was cancelled after 10 episodes.
Also in the 1970s, Meara provided narration for segments of the educational television series Sesame Street consisting of scenes from silent films.
Meara costarred with Carroll O'Connor and Martin Balsam in the early 1980s hit sitcom Archie Bunker's Place, which was a continuation of the influential 1970s sitcom All in the Family. She played the role of Veronica Rooney, the bar's cook, for the show's first three seasons (1979–1982). During that time, she acted in the movie Fame (1980), in which she played English teacher Elizabeth Sherwood. She also appeared as the grandmother in the TV series ALF in the late 1980s. The Stiller and Meara Show, her own 1986 TV sitcom, in which Stiller played the deputy mayor of New York City and Meara portrayed his wife, a television commercial actress, was unsuccessful. From 1999 to 2007, Meara guest starred on The King of Queens (where her husband played Arthur Spooner), first as Mary Finnegan, then as Veronica Olchin (mother of Spence, who was played by Patton Oswalt). Veronica and Arthur were married in the series finale.
Starting in October 2010, Meara and Jerry Stiller began starring in a Yahoo! web series called Stiller & Meara produced by Red Hour Digital, a production company owned by their son Ben Stiller.
She accepted a role in the off-Broadway play Love, Loss, and What I Wore with Conchata Ferrell, AnnaLynne McCord, Minka Kelly, and B. Smith. She taught a technique and scene study class at HB Studio until her death.
Writing and consulting
In 1995, Meara wrote the comedy After-Play, which became an off-Broadway production. In her later years, she portrayed recurring roles on the television shows Sex and the City (as Mary Brady) and The King of Queens (as Veronica Olchin). During the 2004–05 season, she appeared in an episode of Law & Order: Special Victims Unit.
She was the consulting director of J.A.P. – The Jewish American Princesses of Comedy, a 2007 off-Broadway production that featured live stand-up routines by four female Jewish comics juxtaposed with the stories of legendary performers from the 1950s and 1960s: Totie Fields, Jean Carroll, Pearl Williams, Betty Walker, and Belle Barth.
In 2009, Meara wrote her personal life reflections in a New York-focused online blog, titled Mr. Beller's Neighborhood -- New York City Stories. In it, Meara recalled her mother's death and her childhood experiences at Catholic boarding school.
Personal life
Religion
Meara was born, baptised and raised a Roman Catholic. She converted to Judaism six years after marrying Stiller. She insisted that she did not convert at Stiller's request, explaining, "Catholicism was dead to me". She took her conversion seriously and studied the Jewish faith in such depth that her Jewish-born husband quipped, "Being married to Anne has made me more Jewish". They discussed how they met and their early career during a guest appearance on the TV game show What's My Line? in 1968.
Children
Together, Meara and her husband had two children, Amy and Ben.
Death
Meara died on May 23, 2015, at her home in Manhattan at the age of 85, having suffered multiple strokes.
Filmography
Film
Sources: TCM; AllMovie;
Television
Theatre
Radio
I'd Rather Eat Pants, National Public Radio, 2002
Awards and nominations
On February 9, 2007, Meara and Jerry Stiller received stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7018 Hollywood Blvd.
References
External links
Stiller & Meara Yahoo podcast
Production: Anna Christie – Working in the Theatre Seminar video at American Theatre Wing.org, January 1993
Anne Meara at the Comedy Hall of Fame
1929 births
2015 deaths
20th-century American comedians
21st-century American comedians
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actresses from New York City
American film actresses
American people of Irish descent
American Reform Jews
American television actresses
American women comedians
Converts to Judaism from Roman Catholicism
Converts to Reform Judaism
Former Roman Catholics
Jewish American actresses
Jewish American dramatists and playwrights
American stage actresses
American women dramatists and playwrights
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Brooklyn
20th-century American women writers
Comedians from New York City
Jewish American female comedians
People from Rockville Centre, New York
21st-century American Jews | [
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] |
240948 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear%20transformation | Bilinear transformation | Bilinear transformation may refer to:
Bilinear map or bilinear operator
Bilinear transform (signal processing), a type of conformal map used to switch between continuous-time and discrete-time representations
Möbius transformation (complex analysis): a rational function of the form f(z) = (az + b) / (cz + d)
See also
Bilinear (disambiguation) | [
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240949 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markovnikov%27s%20rule | Markovnikov's rule | In organic chemistry, Markovnikov's rule or Markownikoff's rule describes the outcome of some addition reactions. The rule was formulated by Russian chemist Vladimir Markovnikov in 1870.
Explanation
The rule states that with the addition of a protic acid HX or other polar reagent to an asymmetric alkene, the acid hydrogen (H) or electropositive part gets attached to the carbon with more hydrogen substituents, and the halide (X) group or electronegative part gets attached to the carbon with more alkyl substituents. This is in contrast to Markovnikov's original definition, in which the rule is stated that the X component is added to the carbon with the fewest hydrogen atoms while the hydrogen atom is added to the carbon with the greatest number of hydrogen atoms.
The same is true when an alkene reacts with water in an addition reaction to form an alcohol which involve formation of carbocations. The hydroxyl group (OH) bonds to the carbon that has the greater number of carbon–carbon bonds, while the hydrogen bonds to the carbon on the other end of the double bond, that has more carbon–hydrogen bonds.
The chemical basis for Markovnikov's Rule is the formation of the most stable carbocation during the addition process. The addition of the hydrogen ion to one carbon atom in the alkene creates a positive charge on the other carbon, forming a carbocation intermediate. The more substituted the carbocation, the more stable it is, due to induction and hyperconjugation. The major product of the addition reaction will be the one formed from the more stable intermediate. Therefore, the major product of the addition of HX (where X is some atom more electronegative than H) to an alkene has the hydrogen atom in the less substituted position and X in the more substituted position. But the other less substituted, less stable carbocation will still be formed at some concentration, and will proceed to be the minor product with the opposite, conjugate attachment of X.
Anti-Markovnikov reactions
Mechanisms that do not involve a carbocation intermediate may react through other mechanisms that have other regioselectivities not dictated by Markovnikov's rule, such as free radical addition. Such reactions are said to be anti-Markovnikov, since the halogen adds to the less substituted carbon, the opposite of a Markovnikov reaction.
The anti-Markovnikov rule can be illustrated using the addition of hydrogen bromide to isobutylene in the presence of benzoyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide. The reaction of HBr with substituted alkenes was prototypical in the study of free-radical additions. Early chemists discovered that the reason for the variability in the ratio of Markovnikov to anti-Markovnikov reaction products was due to the unexpected presence of free radical ionizing substances such as peroxides. The explanation is that the O-O bond in peroxides is relatively weak. With the aid of light, heat, or sometimes even just acting on its own, the O-O bond can split to form 2 radicals. The radical groups can then interact with HBr to produce a Br radical, which then reacts with the double bond. Since the bromine atom is relatively large, it is more likely to encounter and react with the least substituted carbon since this interaction produces less static interactions between the carbon and the bromine radical. Furthermore, similar to a positive charged species, the radical species is most stable when the unpaired electron is in the more substituted position. The radical intermediate is stabilized by hyperconjugation. In the more substituted position, more carbon-hydrogen bonds are aligned with the radical's electron deficient molecular orbital. This means that there are greater hyperconjugation effects, so that position is more favorable. In this case, the terminal carbon is a reactant that produces a primary addition product instead of a secondary addition product.
A new method of anti-Markovnikov addition has been described by Hamilton and Nicewicz, who utilize aromatic molecules and light energy from a low-energy diode to turn the alkene into a cation radical.
Anti-Markovnikov behaviour extends to more chemical reactions than additions to alkenes. Anti-Markovnikov behaviour is observed in the hydration of phenylacetylene by auric catalysis, which gives acetophenone; although with a special ruthenium catalyst it provides the other regioisomer 2-phenylacetaldehyde:
Anti-Markovnikov behavior can also manifest itself in certain rearrangement reactions. In a titanium(IV) chloride-catalyzed formal nucleophilic substitution at enantiopure 1 in the scheme below, two products are formed – 2a and 2b Due to the two chiral centers in the target molecule, the carbon carrying chlorine and the carbon carrying the methyl and acetoxyethyl group, four different compounds are to be formed: 1R,2R- (drawn as 2b) 1R,2S- 1S,2R- (drawn as 2a) and 1S,2S- . Therefore, both of the depicted structures will exist in a D- and an L-form. :
This product distribution can be rationalized by assuming that loss of the hydroxy group in 1 gives the tertiary carbocation A, which rearranges to the seemingly less stable secondary carbocation B. Chlorine can approach this center from two faces leading to the observed mixture of isomers.
Another notable example of anti-Markovnikov addition is hydroboration.
See also
Zaitsev's rule
References
External links
Khan academy lecture
Physical organic chemistry
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240951 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernadette%20Soubirous | Bernadette Soubirous | Bernadette Soubirous (; ; ; 7 January 184416 April 1879), also known as Saint Bernadette of Lourdes, was the firstborn daughter of a miller from Lourdes (Lorda in Occitan), in the department of Hautes-Pyrénées in France, and is best known for experiencing Marian apparitions of a "young lady" who asked for a chapel to be built at the nearby cave-grotto at Massabielle. These apparitions occurred between 11 February and 16 July 1858, and the woman who appeared to her identified herself as the "Immaculate Conception."
After a canonical investigation, Soubirous's reports were eventually declared "worthy of belief" on 18 February 1862, and the Marian apparition became known as Our Lady of Lourdes. Since her death, Soubirous's body has remained internally incorrupt.
The Marian shrine at Lourdes (Midi-Pyrénées, from 2016 part of Occitanie) went on to become a major pilgrimage site, attracting over five million pilgrims of all denominations each year.
On 8 December 1933, Pope Pius XI, declared Soubirous a saint of the Catholic Church. Her feast day, initially specified as 18 February – the day Mary promised to make her happy, not in this life, but in the other – is now observed in most places on the date of her death, 16 April.
Early stages of her life
Marie Bernarde Soubirous was the daughter of François Soubirous (1807–1871), a miller, and Louise (née Casteròt; 1825–1866), a laundress. She was the eldest of nine children—Bernadette, Jean (born and died 1845), Toinette (1846–1892), Jean-Marie (1848–1851), Jean-Marie (1851–1919), Justin (1855–1865), Pierre (1859–1931), Jean (born and died 1864), and a baby named Louise who died soon after her birth (1866).
Soubirous was born on January 7 1844 and baptized at the local parish church, St. Pierre's, on 9 January, her parents' wedding anniversary. Her godmother was Bernarde Casterot, her mother's sister, a moderately wealthy widow who owned a tavern. Hard times had fallen on France and the family lived in extreme poverty. Soubirous was a very sick child and possibly due to this only measured 1.4 m (4 ft. 7in.) tall. She contracted cholera as a toddler and suffered severe asthma for the rest of her life. Soubirous attended the day school conducted by the Sisters of Charity and Christian Instruction from Nevers. Contrary to a belief popularized by Hollywood films, Soubirous learned very little French, only studying French in school after age 13. At that time she could read and write very little due to her frequent illness. She spoke the language of Occitan, which was spoken by the local population of the Pyrenees region at that time and to a residual degree today (which is similar to Catalan spoken in eastern Spain).
Visions
By the time of the events at the grotto, the Soubirous family's financial and social status had declined to the point where they lived in a one-room basement, formerly used as a jail, called le cachot, "the dungeon", where they were housed for free by her mother's cousin, André Sajoux.
On 11 February 1858, Soubirous, then aged 14, was out gathering firewood with her sister Toinette and a friend near the grotto of Massabielle (Tuta de Massavielha) when she experienced her first vision. While the other girls crossed the little stream in front of the grotto and walked on, Soubirous stayed behind, looking for a place to cross where she wouldn't get her stockings wet. She finally sat down to take her shoes off in order to cross the water and was lowering her stocking when she heard the sound of rushing wind, but nothing moved. A wild rose in a natural niche in the grotto, however, did move. From the niche, or rather the dark alcove behind it, "came a dazzling light, and a white figure". This was the first of 18 visions of what she referred to as aquerò (pronounced ), Gascon Occitan for "that". In later testimony, she called it "a small young lady" (uo petito damizelo). Her sister and her friend stated that they had seen nothing.
On 14 February, after Sunday Mass, Soubirous, with her sister Marie and some other girls, returned to the grotto. Soubirous knelt down immediately, saying she saw the apparition again. When one of the girls threw holy water at the niche and another threw a rock from above that shattered on the ground, the apparition disappeared. On her next visit, 18 February, Soubirous said that "the vision" asked her to return to the grotto every day for a fortnight.
This period of almost daily visions came to be known as la Quinzaine sacrée, "holy fortnight." Initially, Soubirous's parents, especially her mother, were embarrassed and tried to forbid her to go. The supposed apparition did not identify herself until the seventeenth vision. Although the townspeople who believed she was telling the truth assumed she saw the Virgin Mary, Soubirous never claimed it to be Mary, consistently using the word aquerò. She described the lady as wearing a white veil, a blue girdle and with a yellow rose on each foot – compatible with "a description of any statue of the Virgin in a village church".
Soubirous's story caused a sensation with the townspeople, who were divided in their opinions on whether or not she was telling the truth. Some believed her to have a mental illness and demanded she be put in an asylum.
The other contents of Soubirous's reported visions were simple and focused on the need for prayer and penance. On 25 February she explained that the vision had told her "to drink of the water of the spring, to wash in it and to eat the herb that grew there," as an act of penance. To everyone's surprise, the next day the grotto was no longer muddy but clear water flowed. On 2 March, at the thirteenth of the alleged apparitions, Soubirous told her family that the lady said that "a chapel should be built and a procession formed".
Soubirous's 16th claimed vision, which she stated went on for over an hour, was on 25 March. According to her account, during that visitation, she again asked the woman for her name but the lady just smiled back. She repeated the question three more times and finally heard the lady say, in Gascon Occitan, "I am the Immaculate Conception" (Qué soï era immaculado councepcioũ, a phonetic transcription of Que soi era immaculada concepcion). Despite being rigorously interviewed by officials of both the Catholic Church and the French government, she stuck consistently to her story.
Results of her visions
After investigation, Catholic Church authorities confirmed the authenticity of the apparitions in 1862. In the 160 years since Soubirous dug up the spring, 70 cures have been verified by the Lourdes Medical Bureau as "inexplicable" – after what the Catholic Church claims are "extremely rigorous scientific and medical examinations" that failed to find any other explanation. The Lourdes Commission that examined Bernadette after the visions ran an intensive analysis on the water and found that, while it had a high mineral content, it contained nothing out of the ordinary that would account for the cures attributed to it. Bernadette said that it was faith and prayer that cured the sick: "One must have faith and pray; the water will have no virtue without faith".
Soubirous's request to the local priest to build a chapel at the site of her visions eventually gave rise to a number of chapels and churches at Lourdes. The Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes is now one of the major Catholic pilgrimage sites in the world. One of the churches built at the site, the Basilica of St. Pius X, can accommodate 25,000 people and was dedicated by the future Pope John XXIII when he was the Papal Nuncio to France. Close to 5 million pilgrims from all over the world visit Lourdes (population of about 15,000) every year to pray and to drink the miraculous water, believing that they obtain from the Lord healing of the body and of the spirit.
Later years
Disliking the attention she was attracting, Bernadette went to the hospice school run by the Sisters of Charity of Nevers where she had learned to read and write. Although she considered joining the Carmelites, her health precluded her entering any of the strict contemplative orders. On 29 July 1866, with 42 other candidates, she took the religious habit of a postulant and joined the Sisters of Charity at their motherhouse at Nevers. Her Mistress of Novices was Sister Marie Therese Vauzou. The Mother Superior at the time gave her the name Marie-Bernarde in honor of her godmother who was named "Bernarde". As Patricia A. McEachern observes, "Bernadette was devoted to Saint Bernard, her patron saint; she copied long texts related to him in notebooks and on bits of paper. The experience of becoming 'Sister Marie-Bernard' marked a turning point for Bernadette as she realized more than ever that the great grace she received from the Queen of Heaven brought with it great responsibilities."
Soubirous spent the rest of her brief life at the motherhouse, working as an assistant in the infirmary and later as a sacristan, creating beautiful embroidery for altar cloths and vestments. Her contemporaries admired her humility and spirit of sacrifice. One day, asked about the apparitions, she replied:
Soubirous had followed the development of Lourdes as a pilgrimage shrine while she still lived at Lourdes but was not present for the consecration of the Basilica of the Immaculate Conception there in 1876.
Unfortunately, Soubirous's childhood bout of "cholera left...[Bernadette] with severe, chronic asthma, and eventually she contracted tuberculosis of the lungs and bones." For several months prior to her death, she was unable to take an active part in convent life. She eventually died of her long-term illness at the age of 35 on 16 April 1879 (the Wednesday after Easter), while praying the holy rosary. On her deathbed, as she suffered from severe pain and in keeping with the Virgin Mary's admonition of "Penance, Penance, Penance," Bernadette proclaimed that "all this is good for Heaven!" Her final words were, "Holy Mary, Mother of God, pray for me, a poor sinner, a poor sinner". Soubirous's body was laid to rest in the Saint Gildard Convent.
Sainthood
Soubirous was declared blessed on 14 June 1921 by Pope Pius XI. She was canonized by Pius XI on 8 December 1933.
In the spring of 2015, the town of Lourdes lobbied for Soubirous's remains to be returned to Lourdes, a move opposed by the city of Nevers.
Exhumations
Bishop Gauthey of Nevers and the Catholic Church exhumed the body of Soubirous on 22 September 1909, in the presence of representatives appointed by the postulators of the cause, two doctors and a sister of the community. They claimed that although the crucifix in her hand and her rosary had both oxidized, her body appeared incorrupt – preserved from decomposition. This was cited as one of the miracles to support her canonization. They washed and reclothed her body before burial in a new double casket.
The church exhumed the corpse a second time on 3 April 1919, on the occasion of the approval of Bernadette's canonization. Dr. Comte, who examined the body noted, "The body is practically mummified, covered with patches of mildew and quite a notable layer of salts, which appear to be calcium salts. … The skin has disappeared in some places, but it is still present on most parts of the body."
In 1925, the church exhumed the body for a third time. They took relics, which were sent to Rome. A precise imprint of the face was molded so that the firm of Pierre Imans in Paris could make a wax mask based on the imprints and on some genuine photos to be placed on her body. This was common practice for relics in France as it was feared that the blackish tinge to the face and the sunken eyes and nose would be viewed as corruption by the public. Imprints of the hands were also taken for the presentation of the body and the making of wax casts. The remains were then placed in a gold and crystal reliquary in the Chapel of Saint Bernadette at the motherhouse in Nevers.
Three years later in 1928, Doctor Comte published a report on the exhumation of Soubirous in the second issue of the Bulletin de I'Association medicale de Notre-Dame de Lourdes."I would have liked to open the left side of the thorax to take the ribs as relics and then remove the heart which I am certain must have survived. However, as the trunk was slightly supported on the left arm, it would have been rather difficult to try and get at the heart without doing too much noticeable damage. As the Mother Superior had expressed a desire for the Saint's heart to be kept together with the whole body, and as Monsignor the Bishop did not insist, I gave up the idea of opening the left-hand side of the thorax and contented myself with removing the two right ribs which were more accessible. ... What struck me during this examination, of course, was the state of perfect preservation of the skeleton, the fibrous tissues of the muscles (still supple and firm), of the ligaments, and of the skin, and above all the totally unexpected state of the liver after 46 years. One would have thought that this organ, which is basically soft and inclined to crumble, would have decomposed very rapidly or would have hardened to a chalky consistency. Yet, when it was cut it was soft and almost normal in consistency. I pointed this out to those present, remarking that this did not seem to be a natural phenomenon."
Depictions
In 1909 the French short movie Bernadette Soubirous et les Apparitions de Lourdes, directed by Honoré Le Sablais, is the first attempt to tell with the new cinematographic art the story of Bernadette, according to RAI 3 documentary Lourdes. La storia.
In 1924 the French film Le miracle de Lourdes directed by Bernard Simon with Pierrette Lugand in the role of Soubirous.
In 1926 the French film La vie merveilleuse de Bernadette directed by Georges Pallu and starring Alexandra as Soubirous.
In 1935 the Portuguese Georges Pallu directed La Vierge du rocher ("The Virgin of the Rock") with Micheline Masson in the role of Bernadette.
Soubirous's life was given a fictionalized treatment in Franz Werfel's 1941 novel, The Song of Bernadette, which was later adapted by Henry King into a 1943 film of the same name, starring Jennifer Jones as Bernadette and the uncredited Linda Darnell as the Immaculate Conception. Jones won the Best Actress Oscar for this portrayal.
On 13 October 1958, the Westinghouse Desilu Playhouse presented Song of Bernadette on the CBS television network starring Italian-born film and television actress Pier Angeli as Bernadette Soubirous. The cast also featured Marian Seldes and Norman Alden. The program, hosted by Desi Arnaz, was adapted by Ludi Claire from a story by Margaret Gray Blanton. It was directed by both Ralph Alswang and Claudio Guzmán.
In 1961 portrayed Bernadette in Bernadette of Lourdes (French title: or Love is Enough) of Robert Darène.
In 1961 the German TV movie Bernadette Soubirous directed by Hans Quest and starring .
Cristina Galbó portrayed Aquella joven de blanco (A Little Maiden in White), Spain, 1965, directed by León Klimovsky.
In 1967 a French TV movie L'affaire Lourdes directed by Marcel Bluwal and starring as Bernadette.
In 1981 Andrea del Boca portrayed Bernadette in an eponymous Argentine television mini-series directed by her father Nicolás del Boca (4 episodes of 1 hour each).
in 1988 and (The Passion of Bernadette) in 1989 by Jean Delannoy, starring Sydney Penny in the lead role.
In 1990 the musical Bernadette (Hughes and Hughes) ran for three and a half weeks at the Dominion Theatre, Tottenham Court Road, London. It was directed by Ernest Maxin.
In 1990 Fernando Uribe and Steven Hahn directed a short animated film, Bernadette: La Princesa de Lourdes, produced by John Williams and Jorge Gonzalez, available in English since 1991 with the title Bernadette – The Princess of Lourdes.
Angèle Osinsky portrayed Saint Bernadette in the Italian TV movie , 2000, by .
In 2002, the musical Vision by Jonathan Smith and Dominic Hartley, depicting the life of Bernadette, debuted in Liverpool. It has been performed in the UK, France, and Nigeria.
In 2007 the Indian film Our Lady of Lourdes directed by V.R. Gopinath and starring Ajna Noiseux.
In 2009 Bernadette, an opera in three acts by Trevor Jones. First performance 2016 in Gloucestershire, England.
In 2011 the French short movie Grotta profunda, les humeurs du gouffre directed by Pauline Curnier Jardin and starring Simon Fravega.
In 2011 the French film directed by Jean Sagols and starring Katia Cuq (Katia Miran).
In 2013 the French TV movie Une femme nommée Marie, directed by Robert Hossein and Dominique Thiel, starring Manon Le Moal.
In 2013 Bernadette Kaviyam, a book published by Geetham Publications, Chennai. Bernadette's life explained with poetry by Poet C.P.Sivarasan, Mangalakuntu.
Bibliography
Notre Dame de Lourdes (Henri Lasserre), Paris 1870 (French)
Annales de Notre Dame de Lourdes (Missionaries of the Immaculate Conception), Lourdes 1871 (French)
Sadler, Anna T. The Wonders of Lourdes, 1875
Our Lady of Lourdes (Henri Lasserre), 1875 (English)
La Sainte Vierge a Lourdes, 1877 (French)
Bernadette (Henri Lasserre), Paris 1879 (year of Bernadette's death), (French)
Clarke, SJ, Richard. Lourdes: Its Inhabitants, Its Pilgrims, and Its Miracles, 1888
Lourdes (Émile Zola), 1895 (German)
Our Lady of Lourdes (Henri Lasserre), June 1906 (English)
Bernadette of Lourdes (J.H. Gregory), 1914 (1st U.S. book)
The Wonders of Massabielle at Lourdes (Rev. S. Pruvost), 1925
Bernadette of Lourdes, St. Gildard, Nevers, France, 1926
The Wonder of Lourdes (John Oxenham), 1926
Werfel, Franz. The Song of Bernadette, 1941
After Bernadette (Don Sharkey), 1945
"The Miracle Joint at Lourdes", from Essays by Woolsey Teller, Copyright 1945 by The Truth Seeker Company, Inc. Critique of the Lourdes story.
A Queen's Command (Anna Kuhn), 1947
My Witness, Bernadette (J.B. Estrade), 1951
Das Lied von Bernadette (Franz Werfel), 1953 (German)
We Saw Her (B.G. Sandhurst), 1953
Keyes, Frances Parkinson. Bernadette of Lourdes, 1955
St. Bernadette (Leonard Von Matt / Francis Trochu), 1957
St. Bernadette Soubirous: 1844–1879, by Abbe Francois Trochu, TAN Books and Publishers, Inc., 1957
The Miracle of Bernadette (Margaret Gray Blanton), 1958
Bernadette (Marcelle Auclair), 1958
And I Shall Be Healed (Edeltraud Fulda), 1960
Saint Bernadette (Margaret Trouncer), 1964
The Happening at Lourdes (Alan Neame), 1967
Laurentin, Rene. Visage de Bernadette, Lourdes, 1978, (French)
The Story of Bernadette (Rev. J. Lane), 1997
Lourdes (Ruth Harris), 1999
Bernadette Speaks: A Life of Saint Bernadette Soubirous in Her Own Words, René Laurentin, Pauline Books and Media, 2000
A Holy Life: St. Bernadette of Lourdes (Patricia McEachern), 2005
Magazines and articles
L'Illustration Journal Universal: Story covering Bernadette and apparitions from time of apparitions (23 October 1858)
Harpers Weekly: The Last French Miracle (20 November 1858) – Recounts actual happenings at the time of apparitions
The Graphic: A Trip to the Pyrenees (12 October 1872)
Harpers Weekly: French Pilgrims – Romish Superstitions (16 November 1872)
The Graphic: With the Lourdes Pilgrims (7 October 1876)
The Illustrated London News: The Conclave & Election of the Pope (9 March 1878)
L'Opinion Publique: The Funeral of Pope Pius IX (14 March 1878)
St. Paul Dispatch: Throne of St. Peter Made Vacant by the Death of Pope Leo XIII, (21 July 1903)
St. Paul Dispatch: Cardinal Sarto (St. Pope Pius X) of Venice Called to Throne of St. Peter, (5 August 1903)
The Minneapolis Journal: Pope Pius X is Reported Dead; Relapse Caused by Grief Over War (19 August 1914)
The London Illustrated News: The Election of Pope Pius XI (11 February 1922)
See also
"Immaculate Mary", Lourdes hymn
Notes and references
External links
The Body of Saint Bernadette – Includes reports of her exhumation and photographs of her body and tomb.
Notes on the Investigation, including facsimile of notes taken during an interview with Bernadette
Catholic Encyclopedia: Notre-Dame de Lourdes
Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes
1844 births
1879 deaths
People from Hautes-Pyrénées
History of Catholicism in France
19th-century deaths from tuberculosis
19th-century Christian mystics
Marian visionaries
French Roman Catholic religious sisters and nuns
French Roman Catholic saints
Our Lady of Lourdes
People from Lourdes
19th-century Christian saints
Incorrupt saints
Roman Catholic mystics
Christian female saints of the Late Modern era
Occitan people
Beatifications by Pope Pius XI
Canonizations by Pope Pius XI
Sisters of Charity of Nevers
Tuberculosis deaths in France | [
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240952 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik%20Larsson | Henrik Larsson | Edward Henrik Larsson (born 20 September 1971) is a Swedish professional football coach and former player, formerly an assistant manager of Barcelona. Playing as a striker, Larsson began his career with Högaborgs BK. In 1992, he moved to Helsingborg IF where in his first season his partnership up front with Mats Magnusson helped the club win promotion to Allsvenskan after 24 seasons in the lower tiers. He moved to Feyenoord in November 1993, staying for four years before leaving in 1997. During his time in the Dutch Eredivisie, he won two KNVB Cups with Feyenoord. He also broke into the Swedish national football team, and helped them finish in third place at the 1994 World Cup.
Often regarded as the greatest foreign import in Scottish football history, Wim Jansen signed Larsson for Scottish club Celtic in July 1997 for a fee of £650,000. In his first season at the club, he played a crucial role in Celtic winning their first league title in ten years. He suffered a broken leg in a UEFA Cup tie against Lyon in 1999. Larsson came back stronger, scoring 53 goals in a 2000–01 season that saw him win the European Golden Shoe. Larsson won four league titles in his seven years at Celtic. He also helped the team reach the 2003 UEFA Cup Final against Porto, scoring both goals in a 3–2 defeat in extra time. His 242 goals in 315 matches saw Celtic fans nickname him The King of Kings. Larsson joined Barcelona in 2004, where he won two league titles and the 2005–06 UEFA Champions League, providing the assists for both goals in the final. Following the expiration of his contract at Barcelona, Larsson returned to Helsingborg, although he also had a brief spell on loan at Manchester United in early 2007. He announced his retirement from football on 20 October 2009.
Regarded as one of the greatest Swedish players of all time, Larsson played for Sweden in three FIFA World Cups and three UEFA European Championships, winning a bronze medal at the 1994 World Cup, and is a former captain of the national team. He ended his international career with 37 goals in 106 matches. He also won the Golden Ball (Guldbollen), the annual Award for best Swedish footballer twice, first in 1998 and again in 2004, while in 2003 he was named the Greatest Swedish Footballer of the Last 50 Years as part of the UEFA Jubilee Awards. He is also the all-time leading goalscorer in the UEFA Europa League/UEFA Cup.
In 2010, Larsson began his career as a manager at the Superettan club Landskrona BoIS, where he stayed for three seasons. He later managed Falkenberg in Allsvenskan, and he took over at Helsingborg in 2015, where his son, Jordan was one of his players. Helsingborg were relegated to Superettan in 2016 and Larsson left the club. Three years later he made a brief return in the same role at the club. He served Barcelona as assistant to Ronald Koeman from August 2020 until October 2021.
Early life
Edward Henrik Larsson was born on 20 September 1971 in Helsingborg, Scania. His father, Francisco Da Rocha, is from Cape Verde, and his mother, Eva Larsson, is Swedish. His parents, who never married and split up when he was 12, decided that he should take his mother's surname because they felt it would make it easier for their son to be accepted in Sweden. He credits his father for his love of football. His father gave him a football when he was 16 months old and as a child, he was able to practice with brothers and friends on a large field near his home in Helsingborg. He has said of his school years, "I experienced some racism, because back then it was unusual to have a dark kid at school, I was one of the few." He watched English football on television and his parents gave him a video of Pelé's life story, both of which inspired him.
Club career
Early career
Larsson began playing at lower-league Högaborg at age six. This smaller club was known to provide a good education for young players, and since Larsson left he has stressed how important this was not only for his football but also for his adult life in general. He went on to start his professional career playing for their senior team at age 17 while still at school. When he was 18, he had a trial at Benfica, at the time being managed by Larsson's country-mate Sven-Göran Eriksson. On leaving school at 18, Larsson combined a semi-pro football career at Högaborg with work as a fruit packer.
In four years playing at senior level with Högaborg, Larsson scored 23 goals in 74 matches. In 1992, second division side Helsingborg (the main club of his home city) signed Larsson.
Helsingborg
In his first year as a full-time professional, Larsson scored 34 goals for Helsingborg and his partnership up front with veteran striker Mats Magnusson helped the side win promotion to the top Swedish division, the Allsvenskan, the club's return to the top tier after 24 seasons in the lower divisions. His star continued to rise the following year, as he netted 16 goals to help Helsingborg to a respectable mid-table finish.
Feyenoord
In November 1993, Dutch side Feyenoord signed Larsson for a fee of £295,000. He made his league debut on 21 November 1993 as a substitute for Regi Blinker in a 1–1 home draw against Vitesse. Larsson took time to adjust to working and living in a foreign country and could only muster a modest 6 goals in 27 appearances in his first season. His goalscoring record improved in subsequent seasons, but he continued to be unsettled and frustrated by a combination of ever-changing coaches, being played in unfamiliar positions and latterly the club's player-rotation policy which saw him being substituted fifty or sixty minutes into a match even when playing well.
Larsson won his first major winner's medal on 12 May 1994 when he played in the Feyenoord side that defeated NEC 2–1 in the final of the KNVB Cup. The following season, Larsson won his second winner's medal in the same tournament when Feyenoord won 2–1 against Volendam. He did record a hat-trick in a 4–3 win against Werder Bremen in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup in 1994–95.
In 1997, Larsson told manager Arie Haan that he wished to leave the club. A legal dispute then ensued over a clause in his contract that Larsson claimed would allow him to be sold on if a fee of £600,000 was offered. Larsson won his case and in July 1997, he signed for Scottish side Celtic.
Celtic
1997–2000
Following the contract dispute with Feyenoord, Larsson was signed by Celtic manager Wim Jansen in July 1997 for a fee of £650,000. In his first season at Celtic, he played the role of supporting forward alongside Darren Jackson, Simon Donnelly and later Harald Brattbakk.
In Larsson's Celtic debut, against Hibernian at Easter Road, he came on as a late substitute. He inadvertently passed the ball to Hibernian player Chic Charnley, who scored, resulting in a 2–1 defeat for Celtic. He scored an own goal in his first European game, although Celtic did go on to win 6–3 against Austrian side Tirol Innsbruck. He went on to score 19 goals in all competitions, and was Celtic's top scorer for the season. In November 1997, Larsson won his first medal for the club after a 3–0 win over Dundee United at Ibrox Stadium gave Celtic the Scottish League Cup. Larsson scored Celtic's second goal in the match. On the final day of the league season, he scored the opener with a powerful shot from 20 yards out in a 2–0 win against St Johnstone to clinch the championship for Celtic. It was the club's first league championship win since the double winning season 1987–88 and stopped Old Firm rivals Rangers from breaking Celtic's record of nine titles in a row.
Larsson's second season with the club saw a change in management with Jozef Vengloš taking over following Wim Jansen's resignation. Playing in a more advanced striker's role, Larsson scored 38 goals to end the season as both Celtic and Scotland's top goalscorer. During the season, Larsson also scored for the first time in an Old Firm match, with two goals in a 5–1 victory in November, and the equaliser in the 2–2 New Year's Day match at Ibrox. Throughout the season, Larsson forged a prolific partnership with diminutive Slovak playmaker Ľubomír Moravčík. He was also awarded the honours of SPFA Players' Player of the Year, SFWA Footballer of the Year, and Swedish Footballer of the Year. The 1998–99 season ultimately proved disappointing for Celtic, as they finished runners-up to rivals Rangers in both the newly established Scottish Premier League (SPL), and the Scottish Cup.
The 1999–2000 season saw another change in management for Celtic. Former Liverpool and England international winger John Barnes replaced Vengloš to become manager at the club. The season started very brightly for Larsson as he scored eight league goals in nine games for the club. During Celtic's 1–0 defeat in a UEFA Cup tie against Lyon on 21 October 1999, Larsson suffered a career-threatening injury, breaking his leg in two places in a challenge with Serge Blanc. This resulted in him spending eight months on the sidelines, only returning on the last day of the 1999–2000 season. John Barnes cited Larsson's injury as being a significant factor in his sacking by Celtic after only months in the position. It was initially feared that Larsson had suffered a compound leg fracture, an injury which would normally result in an even longer absence – or possibly even end his career – but X-rays soon revealed that the injury was not as serious as originally feared. By the time Larsson had completed his rehabilitation, John Barnes had been sacked and replaced by director of football Kenny Dalglish as interim manager. Larsson made his comeback with a substitute appearance against Dundee United at Celtic Park on the final day of the SPL season.
2000–03
Following the arrival of Martin O'Neill in the summer of 2000, Larsson had his most successful season for Celtic. He began a successful partnership with new arrival Chris Sutton, as he scored 35 league goals in 38 league games to become SPL top goalscorer and to win the European Golden Shoe. The season saw Celtic win the domestic treble of the Scottish League Cup, Scottish Cup and the SPL. Larsson scored a hat-trick in a 3–0 win over Kilmarnock at Hampden Park to win the Scottish League Cup, the first non-Scot to do so in a cup final in Scotland. He also scored twice in the Scottish Cup in a 3–0 win over Hibernian. Other highlights for Larsson included two goals against Rangers in the 6–2 win at Parkhead early in the season, scoring his 50th goal of the season against Rangers at Ibrox in a 3–0 victory towards the end of the season and finishing the season with a total of 53 goals in all competitions. He was again voted SPFA Players' Player of the Year, as well as SFWA Footballer of the Year and FourFourTwo Scottish Player of the Year.
Rangers manager Dick Advocaat said "Larsson is one of the best strikers in Europe, maybe the world. If you watch Batistuta, he is sometimes not seen for 90 minutes but he scores two goals. Larsson has even more, because, besides being a good player and goalscorer, he has a tremendous work rate."
Larsson's fifth season at Celtic yielded a second consecutive SPL title for the club. It also marked the club's first foray into the UEFA Champions League group stage. Larsson scored his first Champions League goal with a penalty in Celtic's opening fixture in a 3–2 defeat to Juventus in Turin. He scored again for Celtic in their Champions League campaign with the only goal in a 1–0 victory over Porto, and again from the penalty spot against Juventus in a thrilling 4–3 victory at Celtic Park. Despite achieving a Scottish record of nine points in the group stage, Celtic failed to qualify for the latter stages and parachuted into the UEFA Cup. The club were drawn against Valencia, with Larsson scoring the second leg goal to take the tie into penalties, which Celtic eventually lost. Larsson once again ended the season as SPL top goalscorer with 29 goals from 33 league appearances.
The 2002–03 season saw the club reach the 2003 UEFA Cup final. After losing out on a place in the Champions League following an away goals defeat to Basel, Celtic dropped into the UEFA Cup. In the first round, Celtic were paired with Lithuanian side Sūduva, with Larsson scoring a hat-trick in the 8–1 first leg victory, as they progressed 10–1 on aggregate after adding a 2–0 away win. The second round saw former Rangers player-manager Graeme Souness' Blackburn Rovers side visit Celtic Park in a matched dubbed "The Battle of Britain". Celtic went into the second leg at Ewood Park 1–0 up courtesy of a late Larsson goal. After comments from the Blackburn players in the media, who felt their team deserved to win, claiming that the tie was "like men against boys", Larsson scored the opening goal in a 2–0 away win. The following rounds saw Celtic beat Celta Vigo 2–2 on away goals, and VfB Stuttgart 5–4 on aggregate. Larsson missed both ties with Stuttgart, following a broken jaw, after a collision with Gustave Bahoken in an SPL match against Livingston, but he returned from injury in time for Celtic's quarter-final clash with 2001 winners Liverpool. Larsson scored the opener in a 1–1 draw at Celtic Park. Celtic followed that up with a 2–0 victory at Anfield to win the tie 3–1 on aggregate,
Celtic met Portuguese side Boavista in the semi-final. Boavista took the advantage on away goals after a 1–1 draw in the first leg, in which Larsson scored the equaliser after missing a penalty. In the second leg, Larsson struck for Celtic after a one-two with John Hartson with ten minutes remaining. The goal sent Celtic through to their first European final since 1970. The final in Seville against Porto saw Larsson equalise twice with two headers, although Celtic eventually lost 3–2 after extra time. Larsson also finished runner-up to Porto's Derlei in the competition's goalscoring charts. Larsson described the pain of the defeat as being the worst moment of his career, including his broken leg in 1999. More disappointment followed, as Celtic finished runners-up to Rangers on the last day of the SPL season, by only a single goal on goal difference. 2003 also saw Larsson voted as the Greatest Swedish Footballer of the Last 50 Years as part of the UEFA Jubilee Awards. He also finished the season again the top SPL goalscorer with 28 goals from 35 games. Larsson ranked 14th (in 2001) and 12th (in 2003) in the final standings for the Ballon d'Or.
2003–04
Larsson's seventh and final season for Celtic saw the club win the Scottish Premier League and Scottish Cup titles.
Larsson scored his only Champions League goal of the season against Anderlecht in a 3–1 win at Celtic Park. He added to his European goal tally with a double in a 3–0 UEFA Cup third round victory over Teplice, and the equaliser in a first leg quarter-final tie at Celtic Park against Villarreal, after earlier having a goal disallowed for handball; the match ended 1–1. It was Larsson's final European goal for Celtic. After parachuting from the Champions League, Celtic reached the UEFA Cup quarter-finals, eliminating Barcelona en route, before losing 3–1 on aggregate to Villarreal.
Celtic defeated Rangers in all five Old Firm fixtures that season. Larsson's final goal against Rangers came in a 1–0 Scottish Cup win at Parkhead. His final competitive game at home for Celtic came in a league match against Dundee United on 16 May 2004, and he scored both goals as Celtic won 2–1. In his last competitive appearance for Celtic, he scored two goals to defeat Dunfermline Athletic on 22 May 2004 at Hampden and win the 2004 Scottish Cup final.
Larsson was also voted Swedish Footballer of the Year for the second time for his performances throughout the 2003–04 season. He was also again a nominee for the Ballon d'Or but received no votes.
After leaving Celtic, Larsson returned to play in testimonial matches three times. In May 2005, he played in Jackie McNamara's testimonial against the Republic of Ireland, In May 2008, Larsson left Sweden's national training camp early to take part in a match played in memory of Larsson's former teammate Phil O'Donnell, who had died in December 2007 while playing in a match for Motherwell. Larsson played as part of Celtic's 1998 championship-winning side against the Motherwell 1991 Scottish Cup-winning side. On 9 August 2011, Larsson played for the Celtic Legends against the Manchester United Legends for John Kennedy's testimonial
Legacy
In his seven years at Celtic, Larsson won four SPL titles, two Scottish League Cups and two Scottish Cups. He was the top goalscorer in the Scottish Premier League for five of the six seasons that he competed in, the only exception being the 1999–2000 season, most of which Larsson missed due to a broken leg. He was the SPL (1998–2013) record goalscorer with 158 goals (Kris Boyd broke his record in 2009).
Larsson was also a consistent goalscorer in European competition. With 35 goals, Larsson is the record goalscorer for Celtic in UEFA competitions. Celtic fans selected Larsson (the only player from outside Scotland) in the greatest ever Celtic team, when a vote was held in 2002.
Larsson played a testimonial match on 25 May 2004 against Sevilla in front of a capacity crowd at Celtic Park. In all, he scored 242 goals for Celtic in 315 matches, and his performances saw fans nickname him The King of Kings.
Barcelona
At the end of the 2003–04 season, Larsson left Celtic on a free transfer and signed a one-year contract with Barcelona with an option for a second year. Larsson's contribution in Barça La Liga win in his first season there was disrupted by serious injury. He scored 3 goals in 12 Liga games and one goal (against his former club Celtic) in four Champions League matches. After the match against Celtic, he said: "It was very difficult for me to celebrate my goal because I had so many great times here." On 20 November 2004, during the 3–0 victory in El Clásico against Real Madrid, Larsson tore the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and meniscus in his left knee. Despite his injury-hit 2004–05 season, playing only 16 games, Barcelona took the option to extend his contract.
In December 2005, Larsson announced that at the end of his contract, which ended in July, he would leave Barcelona and return to Sweden to end his career. He revealed that he had refused an offer by club president Joan Laporta to extend his contract to the end of the next season. On the announcement of his departure, Ronaldinho said:
In Larsson's final match for Barcelona, his substitute introduction was pivotal to win the 2006 Champions League final. Larsson assisted both of Barcelona's goals in a 2–1 win over Arsenal. Thierry Henry paid tribute to Larsson's contribution to Barcelona's win after the match, saying, "People always talk about Ronaldinho, Samuel Eto'o, Ludovic Giuly and everything, but I didn't see them today, I saw Henrik Larsson. He came on, he changed the game, that is what killed the game. Sometimes you talk about Ronaldinho and Eto'o and people like that; you need to talk about the proper footballer who made the difference, and that was Henrik Larsson tonight." Indeed, his ability to give Barcelona the cutting edge required to overcome Arsenal was noted by the international press. In 2005–06, Larsson scored ten goals as Barcelona won La Liga for a second consecutive year.
Return to Helsingborg
After Sweden's elimination from the 2006 FIFA World Cup on 24 June 2006, Larsson joined up with his former club, Helsingborg. He made his second debut for his home town club against Hammarby in the Swedish Cup on 6 July 2006. Helsingborg went on to win the competition, defeating Gefle 2–0 in the final on 11 November 2006, earning Larsson another medal. Larsson's eight league goals in 15 appearances also helped his team to a fourth-place finish in the Allsvenskan. This successful season earned Helsingborg a slot in the following season's UEFA Cup.
Loan to Manchester United
Shortly after rejoining Helsingborg, Larsson was signed on loan by Manchester United from 1 January until 12 March 2007, coinciding with the Allsvenskan's off-season. He scored on his debut against Aston Villa in the FA Cup third round on 7 January 2007 at Old Trafford, facing his former Celtic manager Martin O'Neill. Larsson scored his first ever FA Premier League goal on 31 January in a 4–0 win over Watford.
While United were eager to extend the loan deal, Larsson stated that he had made a promise to his family and his club to return on 12 March. This was confirmed on 20 February, when Larsson announced that he would not be extending his loan period. Despite this, Alex Ferguson praised the striker, who scored 3 goals in 13 matches in all competitions during his three-month stay, saying, "He's been fantastic for us, his professionalism, his attitude, everything he's done has been excellent." "We would love him to stay but, obviously, he has made his promise to his family and Helsingborg and I think we should respect that – but I would have done anything to keep him." Larsson scored Manchester United's only goal in their win against Lille at Old Trafford in the Champions League. He made his final appearance for United on 10 March in an FA Cup sixth round tie away to Middlesbrough, ending in a 2–2 draw.
Manchester United won the Premier League two months after Larsson had left the club, and although he had not played the required quota of ten league games to qualify for a Premier League winners medal, he, alongside Alan Smith, was granted special dispensation by the Premier League after the club requested extra medals for the two. Larsson has since confirmed that he didn't receive a medal.
Larsson's next appearance at Old Trafford in fact came against United, the day after his loan with the club expired, as captain for the Europe XI team in the UEFA Celebration Match. Larsson received a standing ovation from the home fans upon being substituted for Liverpool player Robbie Fowler.
2007–09
After leaving Manchester United in March 2007, Larsson resumed his career with Helsingborg. Larsson helped the club through the preliminary stages of the UEFA Cup, where Larsson scored twice against Estonian side Narva Trans and once against League of Ireland side Drogheda United. The first round proper of the UEFA Cup that season saw a high-scoring tie between Helsingborg and Heerenveen, Larsson's side lost 5–3 in the Netherlands on 20 September 2007, with Larsson scoring twice. The return leg in Sweden on 4 October 2007 saw Helsingborg win 5–1, Larsson again scoring, to win the tie 8–6 on aggregate and qualify for the group stage. Helsingborg progressed from the group stage, with Larsson scoring against Panionios, Austria Wien and Bordeaux, and they qualified for the round of 32, where they lost 1–4 on aggregate to PSV in February 2008. Helsingborg could not match their league performances of the previous year, and finished in eight place in Allsvenskan in 2007. Helsingborg also failed to retain the Swedish Cup, losing 1–2 to BoIS in the fourth round in June 2007.
The 2008 Allsvenskan saw Larsson produce his best league goal-scoring tally since returning to Sweden, with his 14 goals helping Helsingborg to fourth place and qualification in 2009–10 for the rebranded UEFA Europa League, formerly the UEFA Cup.
In July 2009, Larsson scored three goals in the Europa League qualifying ties against Eastern European minnows Mika and Zestaponi. He broke his knee-cap during the first leg of the next qualifying round against Sarajevo on 30 July 2009, and was out for an estimated eight weeks. Some reports at the time suggested that this in fact was the end of his playing career, with this injury also coming on top of the recent death of his younger brother, Robert. He returned to the first team on 16 September 2009, appearing as a substitute in a 1–3 defeat against IFK Göteborg in the Swedish Cup, and then on 24 September 2009 in his first start since returning from injury, he scored two goals (including the winner) against league rivals AIK. He is Helsingborg's record goalscorer in UEFA competitions with 12 goals.
On 20 October 2009, Larsson announced his retirement from playing at the end of the 2009 Allsvenskan. The announcement followed a previous statement from the player declaring his intention to retire from international duty. Larsson had also stated his desire to move into coaching and expressed his intent to study for coaching qualifications in Scotland under the Scottish Football Association system. Larsson also discussed the possibility of taking up floorball on a full-time basis.
Larsson took to the pitch for the final time in Helsingborg's 2–0 Allsvenskan loss to Djurgården on 28 October 2009, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd.
Playing activity after retirement
Larsson participated in the Soccer Aid football match at Old Trafford on 6 June 2010 for the Rest of the World team in aid of UNICEF. Larsson made a promise that at the end of his football career, he would play one season at his first club, Högaborg. When he retired at the end of the 2009 season, that promise was not fulfilled. In August 2010, however, Larsson played with Högaborg's veterans team and scored 16 goals in 5 matches.
In August 2012, Larsson came out of retirement for a brief spell at Swedish fifth division (Division 3) side Råå. He made one appearance, coming on as a substitute in a league match on 22 September 2012, a 1–1 draw against Höganäs. Larsson then registered as a player with Högaborg's senior-recreational side and played games with them. Due to the many injuries, Larsson was included in the first-team squad that beat Tenhult with 4–2 on 19 June 2013. He came off the bench in the 85th minute, and played alongside his son, Jordan. At age 42, Larsson took part in a further league match for Högaborg on 26 October 2013, when he played the first 66 minutes in a 2–0 win over IF Haga. At age 44, Larsson took part in a 7–1 friendly win for Helsingborg over IFK Malmö, in which he scored in the 89th minute.
International career
Larsson scored 37 goals in 106 matches for the Sweden national team. He scored his first international goal in his debut on 13 October 1993, during the World Cup qualifications stage, in a 3–2 win against Finland.
1994 World Cup
Sweden manager Tommy Svensson selected Larsson for his 22-man squad for the 1994 World Cup squad, alongside established forwards such as Tomas Brolin, Kennet Andersson and Martin Dahlin. Larsson began Sweden's first game of the tournament, against Cameroon, on the bench, but came on as a substitute with Sweden trailing 1–2. Larsson struck a fierce, long-range shot against the crossbar, with Dahlin reacting quickly to score the rebound to give their country a 2–2 draw. He then played from the start in the next game, against Brazil, but returned to the substitutes' bench for the matches against Russia and Saudi Arabia. He then came on a substitute in the quarter-final tie against Romania. The match finished 2–2 after extra time, with Sweden winning on penalties, one of which was scored by Larsson. Larsson did not feature in Sweden's 0–1 defeat against Brazil in the semi-final, but did play in the third-place play-off against Bulgaria which Sweden won 4–0, including Larsson's first World Cup goal, latching onto a through-ball from Brolin before rounding Bulgarian goalkeeper Borislav Mikhailov and wrong-footing defender Trifon Ivanov. That win secured third-place at the 1994 World Cup for Sweden, their best showing in a tournament since finishing runner-up to Brazil in 1958.
Euro 1996 and 1998 World Cup qualifiers
Larsson became a regular in the side after that, playing in six of his country's qualifiers for UEFA Euro 1996. He did not score in any of these matches and Sweden failed to qualify for the finals.
He scored one goal in four qualifying games as Sweden also failed to qualify for the 1998 World Cup.
Euro 2000
Sweden succeeded in qualifying for Euro 2000, with Larsson scoring three goals during the qualifying matches. Larsson was selected for the Sweden squad despite having only just recovered from a broken leg sustained playing for Celtic. Euro 2000 was not a great success for Sweden, who went out at the first group stage, but Larsson scored against Italy in a 1–2 defeat.
2002 World Cup and first retirement
Sweden reappeared on the global stage two years later at the 2002 World Cup. Larsson helped guide Sweden out of the group of death and into the knockout round with a 2–1 win over Nigeria in which he scored both goals. He then scored in the round of 16 match against Senegal, though Sweden ended up losing 1–2 in extra time to a golden goal and were eliminated. Larsson chose to retire from international football after the World Cup.
Euro 2004
Larsson's decision to retire from international football was met with dismay in Sweden and there was much clamoring for him to return to the team for their campaign at Euro 2004 in Portugal. Despite initially maintaining his decision to retire, he eventually agreed to return to the national side for Euro 2004. Playing up front alongside Zlatan Ibrahimović, Larsson scored three goals in four matches and lead Sweden to the quarter-finals, where they were defeated in a penalty shoot-out by the Netherlands. Larsson's diving header against Bulgaria was voted best goal of the tournament.
2006 World Cup and second retirement
Larsson also featured at the 2006 World Cup in Germany. He scored in the final minute of the match against England for Sweden to draw the match 2–2 in their final match in the group stages. The goal sealed Sweden's qualification for the second round of the tournament. In Sweden's last 16 game against hosts Germany, Larsson missed a penalty and Sweden went out with the score at 2–0 to Germany.
He retired from international football for the second time on 17 July 2006. "It is time to quit now. It feels right. I'm done with the national team", the 34-year-old Larsson told TV station Canal Plus.
Euro 2008
Sweden boss Lars Lagerbäck managed to lure Larsson out of international retirement once more and on 13 May 2008, the Swedish Football Association officially declared that Larsson had agreed to make a comeback and play for Sweden once again at Euro 2008. Larsson assisted Zlatan Ibrahimovic for a goal against Greece in the first group stage game, but could not help Sweden advance to the quarter-finals.
2010 World Cup qualifying and final retirement
Following former team captain Fredrik Ljungberg's decision to quit the national side after the tournament, Larsson was chosen to become the new captain in a friendly match against France on 20 August 2008, He scored his 37th goal for Sweden in that match, although France ended up winning 3–2. He played his 100th game for Sweden on 6 September 2008, in a 2010 World Cup qualifier against Albania, which ended in a 0–0 draw.
On 11 October 2009, after it was clear that Sweden had failed to qualify for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, Larsson once again decided to retire from the national team.
At the age of 38 years and 20 days, Larsson became the oldest outfield player in the history of the Sweden national team with his last ever appearance against Denmark on 10 October 2009.
Managerial career
Larsson made clear his intentions to take up coaching once his playing career came to an end, having also expressed an interest in returning to Celtic in a coaching capacity.
Landskrona BoIS
On 14 December 2009 Larsson was appointed manager at Landskrona BoIS, a Swedish second division football club, on a one-year contract.
The news that Larsson would take over Landskrona was received with mixed feelings, as his former club Helsingborg traditionally were their main rivals.
The 2010 Superettan, the first season for Larsson as a manager, started off positively for Landskrona. With an aggressively attacking 4–3–3 formation Larsson's club lined up victories and fought for the top positions and promotion to Allsvenskan, until the very end of the season. They finished in fifth place. The Landskrona BoIS board was satisfied with the results, and both Larsson and his assistant manager Hans Eklund renewed their contracts for another year.
On 23 March 2011, Landskrona BoIS announced the recruitment of the Swedish national team qualified midfielder Marcus Lantz from Helsingborg, a solicitation that was largely thanks to Larsson. With the recruitment of Lantz, Henrik Larsson announced a major effort to make the club win Superettan and be promoted to Allsvenskan, from which they were relegated in 2005.
Before the 2011 Superettan season, the managers of the other Superettan clubs had tipped Landskrona as the likely champion. But the season was about to become the club's worst in years. Instead of being in the top of the table, Landskrona was stuck at the bottom more than halfway into the season, with relegation looming. Some fans protested against both the board and Henrik Larsson, sarcastically suggesting that the club had used an impostor instead of the real Larsson. The crisis went so deep within the association that the board wanted Larsson himself to make a comeback as a player. Larsson played for 20 minutes with Landskrona's reserve team in a match against Mjällby AIF, but felt physically unprepared for playing in Superettan, even if the sporting director of Landskrona, Mats Aronsson, believed the opposite. Landskrona and Larsson avoided relegation and finished tenth largely because of the summer signing of goalkeeper Ivo Vazgeč who achieved the best save percentage in the league.
On 21 November 2011, Larsson signed a new one-year contract, making him manager for Landskrona during the 2012 Superettan as well. Landskrona performed better in 2012, but only managed to finish in sixth place instead of achieving the third-place finish which would have meant qualification for a promotion play-off spot. In November 2012, Larsson confirmed he had left his position and would consider any available posts elsewhere.
Falkenberg
On 4 December 2013, Larsson was appointed manager of Falkenberg, signing a one-year rolling contact with the newly promoted club. After securing Falkenberg's position in Allsvenskan, it was announced on 10 November 2014 that he would not manage the club for the 2015 season.
Helsingborg
After leaving Falkenberg, Larsson was appointed manager of Helsingborg. In November 2016, Helsingborg were relegated to Superettan after losing a two-legged play-off against Halmstad. After the final whistle, a minor group of disappointed home fans attacked both Larsson and his son, Jordan. Following the end of the season, Larsson decided to leave the club.
Ängelholms FF
On 3 October 2018, Division 1 club Ängelholms FF announced that Larsson would join the staff as assistant to head coach Alexander Tengryd, whom Larsson had worked together with in Helsingborg. At the time of his appointment, Ängelholm were on 13 place and five matches in a row without a win with six matches left of the season. First match with Larsson in the staff was three days later against Utsiktens BK away. The match ended in a 1-0 win for Ängelholm. Ängelholm would only take two points in their last five matches, including losing 0-4 to Oskarshamns AIK and 0-3 to Tvååkers, and dropped to 15th place which meant immediate relegation. Larsson, along with head coach Alexander Tengryd, left the club at the end of the season.
Return to Helsingborgs IF
On 16 June 2019, Helsingborg announced that Larsson had returned to the club as their new manager.
On 23 August 2019, Helsingborg announced that Larsson had decided to quit as head coach after being verbally assaulted on social media following the club's loss to third tier club Oskarshamns AIK in the qualification to Svenska Cupen group stage.
In September 2019 he began talks with English club Southend United about becoming their manager, but these collapsed when proposed assistant Tommy Johnson accepted another offer.
Barcelona
On 21 August 2020, FC Barcelona announced that Larsson and Alfred Schreuder had joined new head coach Ronald Koeman‘s coaching staff until June 30, 2022. On 27 October 2021, the club confirmed Koeman had been relieved of his duties, which resulted in the departure of Larsson from FC Barcelona's coaching staff.
Floorball career
Larsson also played floorball at a competitive level in 1989. On 23 November 2008, he resumed his floorball career when he played his first Swedish Super League game for Helsingborg. In his second game for the club, he made two assists, and was voted man of the match.
Style of play
A well-rounded striker, Larsson was known for his speed, goalscoring ability, composure, and intelligence on the pitch, as exemplified by his excellent offensive movement and positional sense, which enabled him to lose his markers, find spaces in the defence, and make attacking runs into the penalty area. Although he was not particularly tall for a striker, he possessed significant physical strength and excelled in the air; an elegant player on the ball, he was also gifted with excellent technical skills, and was capable of providing assists to teammates in addition to scoring goals himself, courtesy of his passing, creativity, and awareness. Although naturally right footed, he was a powerful and accurate finisher with either foot from both inside and outside the penalty area, as well as his head; furthermore, he was an accurate free-kick and penalty taker. In addition to his talent and abilities as a footballer, he also stood out for his discipline, professionalism, and work-rate throughout his career.
Personal life
On 21 June 1996, Larsson married Magdalena Spjuth, whom he had met in a restaurant when he was 19 years old. She is the daughter of a politician and an education director at the local municipality. They have a son, professional footballer Jordan Larsson (born 1997 and named after basketball player Michael Jordan), who plays for Spartak Moscow and has represented Sweden at international level, and a daughter, Janelle Larsson (born 2002), a member of the junior Swedish national show jumping team.
On 6 June 2009, before Sweden's 1–0 loss against Denmark, Larsson's younger brother Robert, who had a troubled personal life, was found dead in his flat in their hometown of Helsingborg. Henrik was not told until after the match had concluded. Henrik Larsson also has an elder half-brother, Kim.
Career statistics
Club
Source:
International
Appearances and goals per year
International goals
Scores and results list Sweden's goal tally first.
Managerial statistics
Honours
Feyenoord
KNVB Cup: 1993–94, 1994–95
Celtic
Scottish Premier Division/Scottish Premier League: 1997–98, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2003–04
Scottish Cup: 2000–01, 2003–04
Scottish League Cup: 1997–98, 2000–01
UEFA Cup runner-up: 2002–03
Barcelona
La Liga: 2004–05, 2005–06
Supercopa de España: 2005
UEFA Champions League: 2005–06
Helsingborg
Svenska Cupen: 2006
Manchester United
Premier League: 2006–07
Sweden
FIFA World Cup third place: 1994
Individual
Guldbollen: 1998, 2004
Swedish Forward of the Year: 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004
Scottish Premier League Golden Boot: 1998–99, 2000–01, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2003–04
SFWA Footballer of the Year: 1999, 2001
SPFA Players' Player of the Year: 1999, 2001
Scottish Premier League Player of the Month: September 2000, November 2002
European Golden Boot: 2001
UEFA Euro 2004: Team of the Tournament
UEFA Euro 2004: Goal of the Tournament
UEFA Centurion Award (100 international caps): 2011
Scottish Football Hall of Fame
Victoria Scholarship Award: 2007
Tidernas Guldboll (All-time best Swedish football player): 2005
Orders and special awards
UEFA Golden Player: Greatest Swedish Footballer of the last 50 Years (November 2003, to celebrate UEFA's Jubilee)
Honorary Doctor of the University from the University of Strathclyde: 2005
Honorary MBE (Member of the Order of the British Empire): 2006
See also
List of footballers with 100 or more caps
References
External links
Henrik Larsson at HIF.se
(archive)
(archive)
1971 births
Living people
UEFA Golden Players
1994 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2000 players
2002 FIFA World Cup players
2006 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2004 players
UEFA Euro 2008 players
Allsvenskan players
Celtic F.C. players
Eredivisie players
FC Barcelona players
Feyenoord players
Association football forwards
Helsingborgs IF players
La Liga players
Manchester United F.C. players
Members of the Order of the British Empire
Sportspeople from Helsingborg
Premier League players
Scottish Football Hall of Fame inductees
Scottish Football League players
Scottish Premier League players
Swedish people of Cape Verdean descent
Swedish sportspeople of African descent
European sportspeople of Cape Verdean descent
Swedish footballers
Footballers from Skåne County
Sweden international footballers
Swedish floorball players
FIFA Century Club
Landskrona BoIS managers
Falkenbergs FF managers
Helsingborgs IF managers
Scottish league football top scorers
Högaborgs BK players
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in Scotland
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Swedish expatriate sportspeople in England
UEFA Champions League winning players
Swedish football managers | [
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240953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian%20year | Gaussian year | A Gaussian year is defined as 365.2568983 days. It was adopted by Carl Friedrich Gauss as the length of the sidereal year in his studies of the dynamics of the solar system.
A slightly different value is now accepted as the length of the sidereal year,
and the value accepted by Gauss is given a special name.
A particle of negligible mass, that orbits a body of 1 solar mass in this period, has a mean axis for its orbit of 1 astronomical unit by definition. The value is derived from Kepler's third law as
where
k is the Gaussian gravitational constant.
See also
References
Types of year
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240960 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydration%20reaction | Hydration reaction | In chemistry, a hydration reaction is a chemical reaction in which a substance combines with water. In organic chemistry, water is added to an unsaturated substrate, which is usually an alkene or an alkyne. This type of reaction is employed industrially to produce ethanol, isopropanol, and butan-2-ol.
Organic chemistry
Epoxides to glycol
Several million tons of ethylene glycol are produced annually by the hydration of oxirane, a cyclic compound also known as ethylene oxide:
C2H4O + H2O → HO–CH2CH2–OH
Acid catalysts are typically used.
Alkenes
For the hydration of alkenes, the general chemical equation of the reaction is the following:
RRC=CH2 in H2O/acid → RRC(OH)-CH3
A hydroxyl group (OH−) attaches to one carbon of the double bond, and a proton (H+) adds to the other carbon of the double bond. The reaction is highly exothermic. In the first step, the alkene acts as a nucleophile and attacks the proton, following Markovnikov's rule. In the second step an H2O molecule bonds to the other, more highly substituted carbon. The oxygen atom at this point has three bonds and carries a positive charge (i.e., the molecule is an oxonium). Another water molecule comes along and takes up the extra proton. This reaction tends to yield many undesirable side products, (for example diethyl ether in the process of creating ethanol) and in its simple form described here is not considered very useful for the production of alcohol.
Two approaches are taken. Traditionally the alkene is treated with sulfuric acid to give alkyl sulphate esters. In the case of ethanol production, this step can be written:
H2SO4 + C2H4 → C2H5-O-SO3H
Subsequently, this sulphate ester is hydrolyzed to regenerate sulphuric acid and release ethanol:
C2H5-O-SO3H + H2O → H2SO4 + C2H5OH
This two step route is called the "indirect process".
In the "direct process," the acid protonates the alkene, and water reacts with this incipient carbocation to give the alcohol. The direct process is more popular because it is simpler. The acid catalysts include phosphoric acid and several solid acids.
Here an example reaction mechanism of the hydration of 1-methylcyclohexene to 1-methylcyclohexanol:
Many alternative routes are available for producing alcohols, including the hydroboration–oxidation reaction, the oxymercuration–reduction reaction, the Mukaiyama hydration, the reduction of ketones and aldehydes and as a biological method fermentation.
Hydration of other substrates
Any unsaturated organic compound is susceptible to hydration. Acetylene hydrates to give acetaldehyde: The process typically relies on mercury catalysts and has been discontinued in the West but is still practiced in China. The Hg2+ center binds to C≡C bond, which is then attacked by water. The reaction is:
H2O + C2H2 → CH3CHO
Nitriles undergo hydration to give amides:
H2O + RCN → RC(O)NH2
This reaction is employed in the production of acrylamide.
Aldehydes and to some extent even ketones, hydrate to geminal diols. The reaction is especially dominant for formaldehyde, which, in the presence of water, exists significantly as dihydroxymethane.
Conceptually similar reactions include hydroamination and hydroalkoxylation, which involve adding amines and alcohols to alkenes.
Inorganic and materials chemistry
Hydration is an important process in many other applications; one example is the production of Portland cement by the crosslinking of calcium oxides and silicates that is induced by water. Hydration is the process by which desiccants function.
References
Addition reactions
General chemistry | [
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240961 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tr%C6%B0ng%20sisters | Trưng sisters | The Trưng sisters (, 𠄩婆徵, literally "Two Ladies [named] Trưng",
14 – c. 43) were Vietnamese military leaders who ruled for three years after rebelling in AD 40 against the first Chinese domination of Vietnam. They are regarded as national heroines of Vietnam. Their names were Trưng Trắc (Hán tự: ; Chinese pinyin: Zheng Ce; Wade–Giles: Cheng1 Ts'e2) and Trưng Nhị (Hán tự: ; Chinese pinyin: Zheng Er ; Wade–Giles: Cheng1 Erh4). Trưng Trắc was the first woman to be a Vietnamese monarch, as well as the only queen regnant in the history of Vietnam (Lý Chiêu Hoàng was the second woman to take the reign and is the only empress regnant), and she was accorded the title Queen Trưng (Chữ Quốc ngữ: , Hán tự: ) in Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư.
The sisters were born in Jiaozhi, Vietnamese Giao Chỉ, in rural northern Vietnam, a commandery of the Han dynasty (and in modern Northern Vietnam). The dates of their births are unknown, but Trưng Trắc was older than Trưng Nhị. The exact dates of their deaths are also unknown but both died around CE 43 after battling against the punitive expedition force led by Ma Yuan.
The Trưng sisters were highly educated under the watchful eyes of their father; they excelled in both literature and martial arts. Both were in line to inherit their father's land and titles.
Historical background
The former Qin commander Zhao Tuo established the state of Nanyue in 204 BCE and had conquered Âu Lạc in 180 BCE, incorporating the Vietnamese realm under Han rule. In 112 BCE, Emperor Wu of Han dispatched soldiers against Nanyue and the kingdom was annexed in 111 BCE during the ensuing Han conquest of Nanyue. Nine commanderies were established to administer the region, three of which were located in what is now northern Vietnam. Revolts against the Han began in 40 CE led by the Trưng sisters.
Biography
The Trưng sisters were daughters of a wealthy aristocratic family of Lạc ethnicity. Their father had been a Lạc lord in Mê Linh district (modern-day Mê Linh District, Hanoi). Trưng Trắc's husband was Thi Sách (Shi Suo), was also the Lạc lord of Chu Diên (modern-day Khoái Châu District, Hưng Yên Province). Su Ding, the Chinese governor of Jiaozhi province at the time, is remembered by his cruelty and tyranny. According to the Book of the Later Han, Thi Sách was "of a fierce temperament", and Su Ding attempted to restrain him with legal procedures, literally
to behead him without trial. Trưng Trắc stirred her husband to action and became the central figure in mobilizing the Lạc lords against the Chinese. In March of 40 CE, Trưng Trắc and her younger sister Trưng Nhị, led the Lạc Việt to rise up in rebellion against the Han.
The Book of the Later Han recorded that Trưng Trắc launched the rebellion to avenge the killing of her husband. It began at the Red River Delta, but soon spread to other Lạc and non-Han peoples from an area stretching from Hepu Commandery to Rinan. Chinese settlements were overrun, and Su Ding fled. The uprising gained the support of about sixty-five towns and settlements. Trưng Trắc was proclaimed as queen regnant.
In 42 CE, the Han emperor commissioned general Ma Yuan to suppress the rebellion with 20,000 troops. The rebellion of the two sisters was defeated in the next year as Ma Yuan captured and decapitated Trưng Trắc and Trưng Nhị, then sent their heads to the Han court in Luoyang.
The Song dynasty poet and calligrapher Huang Tingjian (1045–1105) compared the Trưng sisters to Lü Jia, the prime minister of Nanyue who resisted Han Wu Di's army in 112 BCE:
Lü Jia refused treasonous brides;
Trưng Trắc raised her shield to resist oppression
Historiography
The primary historical source for the sisters is the 5th century Book of the Later Han compiled by historian Fan Ye, which covers the history of the Han Dynasty from 6 to CE 189. The secondary source, but the primary popular source, is the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Dai Viet) compiled by Ngô Sĩ Liên under the order of the Emperor Lê Thánh Tông and finished in 1479.
Chinese Sources
The Chinese traditional historical accounts on the Trưng sisters are remarkably brief. They are found in several different chapters of the Book of the Later Han, the history for the Eastern Han Dynasty, against which the Trưng sisters had carried out their uprising.
Book of Later Han; 5th century CE
Chapter eighty-six of the Book of the Later Han, entitled Biographies of the Southern and the Southwestern Barbarians, has this short passage:
In the 16th year of the Jianwu era (40 CE), Jiaozhi (交阯; WD: Chiao-chih) woman Zheng Ce (徵側; SV: Trưng Trắc) and her younger sister Zheng Er (徵貳; SV: Trưng Nhị) rebelled and attacked the commandery['s strongholds]. As for Zheng Ce, she was the daughter of the Luo general of Miling prefecture (麊泠; SV: Mê Linh). She was married as wife to Shi Suo (詩索; SV: Thi Sách), a man in Zhouyuan (朱鳶; SV: Chu Diên). She/he(?) was/They were(?) remarkably heroic and couragerous. Su Ding (蘇定; WD: Su Ting), the administrator of Jiaozhi restrained her (them?) with law; Ce became infuriated, rebelled, and attacked. Thus, the barbarians in Jiuzhen (九眞; WD Chiu-chen), Rinan (日南; WD:Jih-nan), Hepu (合浦; WD: Hop'u) all supported her. All in all, she took sixty-five strongholds and established herself as queen. Jiaozhi's governor and administrators could but defend themselves. (Emperor) Guangwu thus decreed that Changsha (長沙; WD: Ch'ang-sha), Hepu, and Jiaozhi, all must furnish chariots and boats, repair roads and bridges, dredge obstructed waterways, and store foods and provisions. In the 18th year (42 CE), he dispatched Wave-Subduing General Ma Yuan (馬援 ; WD: Ma Yüan), Tower-ship General Duan Zhi (段志 ; WD: Tuan Chih) [and Household General Liu Long (劉隆; WD: Liu Long)], who led over 10,000 troops from Ch'ang-sha, Guiyang (桂陽; SV: Quế Dương); Lingling (零陵; SV: Linh Lăng); Cangwu (蒼梧; SV: Thương Ngô) on a punitive expedition. Summer next year (43 CE), in the fourth month, Ma Yuan devastated Jiaozhi, beheaded Zheng Ce, Zheng Er, and others; the rest all surrendered or scattered. He advanced and attacked the Jiuzhen's rebel Du Yang (都陽; SV: Đô Dương) and others, routing and subduing them. He exiled over 300 rebel leaders to Lingling. Thus the regions beyond the Ridge were entirely pacified.
Chapter twenty-four, the biographies of Ma and some of his notable male descendants, had this parallel description:
Then Jiaozhi woman Zheng Ce and [her] younger sister Zheng Er rebelled; [they] attacked and the commandery was lost. The barbarians in Jiuzhen, Rinan, Hepu all supported [the Zheng sisters]. The rebels captured over sixty strongholds beyond the Ridge; Ce established herself as queen. Then a sealed decree honored Yuan as Wave-Subduing General, assigned Fule Marquis Liu Long as his assistant, dispatched Tower-ship general Duan Zhi, etc. southwards to attack Jiaozhi. When the army reached Hepu, Zhi fell ill and died; [the Emperor] decreed that Yuan command his [Zhi's] soldiers also. Then [Yuan's army] advanced along the coastline and the mountains, opening a path over thousands of li long. In the spring of the 18th [Jianwu] year (40 CE), [Yuan's] army reached up to Langbo (浪泊; SV: Lãng Bạc), fought with the rebels, routed them, decapitated thousands, [and] over tens of thousands surrendered. Yuan chased Zheng Ce to the Forbidden Gorge (禁谿; SV: Cấm Khê); defeated many times, the rebels then scattered and fled. The first month of next year (43 CE), Zheng Ce and Zheng Er were beheaded, their heads sent to Luoyang. Yuan was enfeoffed as Marquis of Xinsi, [his] fief [containing] three-thousand households. Yuan then slaughtered oxen, and distilled wines, and rewarded the soldiers [and] officers [for their] hard work...
Yuan commanded over 2,000 tower-ships big and small, over 20,000 soldiers, advanced and attacked the bandit Zheng Ce's remnants Du Yang (都羊, SV: Đô Dương) et al., from Wugong (無功; SV: Vô Công) to Jufeng (居風, SV: Cư Phong), beheading [or] capturing over 5,000; south of the mountains everywhere [was] pacified. Yuan reported that Xiyu prefecture (西於; SV: Tây Ư) had 32,000 households, its boundaries [were] over thousands of li from the court; he requested that [Xiyu prefecture] be divided into two prefectures: Fengxi (封溪, SV: Phong Khê) and Wanghai (望海; SV: Vọng Hải); [the request] was granted. Yuan immediately seized the momentum, established commanderies and prefectures, repaired the strongholds and ramparts, dredged the irrigation canals, and benefited the people. [Yuan] reported [to the Emperor] Yue law and Han law differed in more than ten rules; towards the Yue people, the old rules were clarified in order to restrain them. Henceforth, the Luoyue (駱越) obeyed General Ma's laws.
Autumn of the 20th year (44 CE), [Ma Yuan] brought the troops back to the capital; the troops had been suffering from miasma and epidemic, four to five died out of ten. Yuan was bestowed a military carriage; in court-meetings, [he] ranked among the Nine Ministers.
Records of Jiao Province's Outer Territories, 4th century CE
An older, yet less-known account, from the now-lost Records of Jiao Province's Outer Territories (交州外域記) was quoted in the 6th-century word Commentary on the Water Classic (水經注) by Northern Wei geographer Li Daoyuan:
Later, the son of Zhouyuan's Luo general, named Shi (詩; SV: Thi), asked the daughter of Ming ling's Luo general, named Zheng Ce (徵側; SV: Trưng Trắc), to be his wife. Ce, as a human being, possessed mettle and courage. Alongsides Shi, she uprose and rebelled, attacking and devastating Jiao Province, as well as reducing the Luo generals into subordination. Zheng Ce made [herself] queen. Starting from Miling prefecture, she occupied two divisions Jiaozhi and Jiuzhen, and for two years taxed the people. Later on, the Han (court) dispatched Wave-Subduing General to lead troops on a punitive expedition. Ce and Shi fled into the Golden Gorge (金溪 SV; Kim Khê). Ma Yuan hunted them down and captured them after three years. Now [from] Western Shu [there were] also troops dispatched on punitive expedition against Ce and Shi and others and all those commanderies and prefectures were pacified; then magistrates were instituted there.
The traditional Chinese accounts differed from Vietnamese traditional accounts in many places: Chinese accounts do not indicate oppression of the Vietnamese population by the Chinese officials and Su Ding's killing of Trưng Trắc's husband. In the Chinese account, the Trưng sisters did not commit suicide. Chinese sources also contradicted accounts in Vietnamese folk history that the Trưng sisters' retainers followed their examples and also committed suicide.
Vietnamese Chronicles
Excerpts from Complete Annals of Đại Việt, 1479
The third book of Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư (Complete Annals of Dai Viet), published in editions between 1272 and 1697, has the following to say about the Trưng Sisters:
Lê Văn Hưu (Trần dynasty's historian) wrote:
Ngô Sĩ Liên (the Complete Annals chief compiler) wrote:
Cultural significance
Nationalism
The Trưng Sisters are highly revered in Vietnam, as they led the first resistance movement against the occupying Chinese after 247 years of domination. Many temples are dedicated to them, and a yearly holiday in February to commemorate their deaths is observed by many Vietnamese. A central district in Hanoi called the Hai Bà Trưng District is named after them, as are numerous large streets in major cities and many schools.
The stories of the Trưng Sisters and of another famous woman warrior, Lady Triệu, are cited by some historians as hints that Vietnamese society before sinicization was a matriarchal one, where there are no obstacles for women in assuming leadership roles.
Even though the Trưng Sisters' revolt against the Chinese was almost 2000 years ago, its legacy in Vietnam remains. The two sisters are considered to be a national symbol in Vietnam. They represent Vietnam's independence. They are often depicted as two women riding two giant war elephants. Many times, they are seen leading their followers into battle against the Chinese. The Trưng sisters were more than two sisters that gave their life up for their country, they are powerful symbols of Vietnamese resistance and freedom.
Temples
Temples to the Trưng Sisters or Hai Bà Trưng Temples were found from as early as the end of the Third Era of Northern Domination. The best known Hai Bà Trưng Temple is in Hanoi near Hoàn Kiếm Lake. The temple was constructed by king Lý Anh Tông (r. 1138–1176) in 1158. According to tradition, in that year a devastating drought occurred in the Red River Delta, and the king ordered a Buddhist monk named Cam Thin to conduct a sacrifices rite and pray for rain at the Trung sisters temple. It rained the following day that saved his kingdom from famine. During one night the king dreamed and saw the two sisters appeared and were riding together on an iron horse. When the king awoke, he ordered the temple to be gloriously decorated and performed a sacrifice ritual to the sisters. Later he had other two temples to worship the sisters, which one was destroyed by river landslide and another one temple which still being today. Other Hai Bà Trưng temples are found in Mê Linh District (Vĩnh Phúc Province), Phúc Thọ District (Hà Tây Province) and Hoàng Hoa Thám Street, Bình Thạnh District, Ho Chi Minh City.
Women's status
One reason for the defeat is desertion by rebels because they did not believe they could win under a woman's leadership. The fact that women were in charge was blamed as a reason for the defeat by historical Vietnamese texts in which the historians ridiculed and mocked men because they did nothing while "mere girls", whom they viewed with revulsion, took up the banner of revolt. The historical poem containing the phrase "mere girls", which related the revolt of the Trung Sisters while the men did nothing, was not intended to praise women nor view war as women's work, as it has been wrongly interpreted.
Music
Lưu Hữu Phước wrote the patriotic song Hát Giang trường hận (Long Hatred on Hát River) between 1942–1943 to dedicate to the Trưng sisters. Later, Phước revised the lyrics in 1946 to create another song (Soul of the Matyred Soldier), which is often used as lament for state funerals, and the lyrics still mentioned the Trưng sisters' rebellion.
See also
Lady Triệu
Phùng Thị Chính
Copper columns of Ma Yuan
Bùi Thị Xuân
Matriarchy
Feminism
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Trưng sisters Tuyet A. Tran & Chu V. Nguyen
12 births
43 deaths
1st-century women rulers
Rebellions in Vietnam
Vietnamese dynasties
Vietnamese monarchs
Vietnamese rebels
Queens regnant
Women in 1st-century warfare
Women in ancient Chinese warfare
Women in war in Vietnam
Sibling duos
Deified Vietnamese people
1st-century Vietnamese people
Han dynasty rebels | [
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240963 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20system | Star system | A star system or stellar system is a small number of stars that orbit each other, bound by gravitational attraction. A large group of stars bound by gravitation is generally called a star cluster or galaxy, although, broadly speaking, they are also star systems. Star systems are not to be confused with planetary systems, which include planets and similar bodies (such as comets).
A star system of two stars is known as a binary star, binary star system or physical double star. If there are no tidal effects, no perturbation from other forces, and no transfer of mass from one star to the other, such a system is stable, and both stars will trace out an elliptical orbit around the barycenter of the system indefinitely. (See Two-body problem). Examples of binary systems are Sirius, Procyon and Cygnus X-1, the last of which probably consists of a star and a black hole.
Multiple star systems
A multiple star system consists of three or more stars that appear from Earth to be close to one another in the sky. This may result from the stars actually being physically close and gravitationally bound to each other, in which case it is a physical multiple star, or this closeness may be merely apparent, in which case it is an optical multiple star Physical multiple stars are also commonly called multiple stars or multiple star systems.
Most multiple star systems are triple stars. Systems with four or more components are less likely to occur. Multiple-star systems are called triple, ternary, or trinary if they contain 3 stars; quadruple or quaternary if they contain 4 stars; quintuple or quintenary with 5 stars; sextuple or sextenary with 6 stars; septuple or septenary with 7 stars. These systems are smaller than open star clusters, which have more complex dynamics and typically have from 100 to 1,000 stars. Most multiple star systems known are triple; for higher multiplicities, the number of known systems with a given multiplicity decreases exponentially with multiplicity. For example, in the 1999 revision of Tokovinin's catalog of physical multiple stars, 551 out of the 728 systems described are triple. However, because of suspected selection effects, the ability to interpret these statistics is very limited.
Multiple-star systems can be divided into two main dynamical classes:
(1) hierarchical systems, which are stable, and consist of nested orbits that don't interact much, and so each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a Two-body problem
or
(2) the trapezia which have unstable strongly interacting orbits and are modelled as an n-body problem, exhibiting chaotic behavior. They can have 2, 3, or 4 stars.
Hierarchical systems
Most multiple-star systems are organized in what is called a hierarchical system: the stars in the system can be divided into two smaller groups, each of which traverses a larger orbit around the system's center of mass. Each of these smaller groups must also be hierarchical, which means that they must be divided into smaller subgroups which themselves are hierarchical, and so on. Each level of the hierarchy can be treated as a two-body problem by considering close pairs as if they were a single star. In these systems there is little interaction between the orbits and the stars' motion will continue to approximate stable Keplerian orbits around the system's center of mass, unlike the unstable trapezia systems or the even more complex dynamics of the large number of stars in star clusters and galaxies.
Triple star systems
In a physical triple star system, each star orbits the center of mass of the system. Usually, two of the stars form a close binary system, and the third orbits this pair at a distance much larger than that of the binary orbit. This arrangement is called hierarchical. The reason for this arrangement is that if the inner and outer orbits are comparable in size, the system may become dynamically unstable, leading to a star being ejected from the system. HR 6819 is an example of a physical hierarchical triple system, which has an outer star orbiting an inner physical binary composed of a star and a stellar black hole
(although the notion that HR 6819 is a triple system has recently been challenged).
Triple stars that are not all gravitationally bound might comprise a physical binary and an optical companion (such as Beta Cephei) or, in rare cases, a purely optical triple star (such as Gamma Serpentis).
Higher multiplicities
Hierarchical multiple star systems with more than three stars can produce a number of more complicated arrangements. These arrangements can be organized by what Evans (1968) called mobile diagrams, which look similar to ornamental mobiles hung from the ceiling. Examples of hierarchical systems are given in the figure to the right (Mobile diagrams). Each level of the diagram illustrates the decomposition of the system into two or more systems with smaller size. Evans calls a diagram multiplex if there is a node with more than two children, i.e. if the decomposition of some subsystem involves two or more orbits with comparable size. Because, as we have already seen for triple stars, this may be unstable, multiple stars are expected to be simplex, meaning that at each level there are exactly two children. Evans calls the number of levels in the diagram its hierarchy.
A simplex diagram of hierarchy 1, as in (b), describes a binary system.
A simplex diagram of hierarchy 2 may describe a triple system, as in (c), or a quadruple system, as in (d).
A simplex diagram of hierarchy 3 may describe a system with anywhere from four to eight components. The mobile diagram in (e) shows an example of a quadruple system with hierarchy 3, consisting of a single distant component orbiting a close binary system, with one of the components of the close binary being an even closer binary.
A real example of a system with hierarchy 3 is Castor, also known as Alpha Geminorum or α Gem. It consists of what appears to be a visual binary star which, upon closer inspection, can be seen to consist of two spectroscopic binary stars. By itself, this would be a quadruple hierarchy 2 system as in (d), but it is orbited by a fainter more distant component, which is also a close red dwarf binary. This forms a sextuple system of hierarchy 3.
The maximum hierarchy occurring in A. A. Tokovinin's Multiple Star Catalogue, as of 1999, is 4. For example, the stars Gliese 644A and Gliese 644B form what appears to be a close visual binary star; because Gliese 644B is a spectroscopic binary, this is actually a triple system. The triple system has the more distant visual companion Gliese 643 and the still more distant visual companion Gliese 644C, which, because of their common motion with Gliese 644AB, are thought to be gravitationally bound to the triple system. This forms a quintuple system whose mobile diagram would be the diagram of level 4 appearing in (f).;
Higher hierarchies are also possible. Most of these higher hierarchies either are stable or suffer from internal perturbations. Others consider complex multiple stars will in time theoretically disintegrate into less complex multiple stars, like more common observed triples or quadruples are possible.
Trapezia
Trapezia are usually very young, unstable systems. These are thought to form in stellar nurseries, and quickly fragment into stable multiple stars, which in the process may eject components as galactic high-velocity stars. They are named after the multiple star system known as the Trapezium Cluster in the heart of the Orion Nebula. Such systems are not rare, and commonly appear close to or within bright nebulae. These stars have no standard hierarchical arrangements, but compete for stable orbits. This relationship is called interplay. Such stars eventually settle down to a close binary with a distant companion, with the other star(s) previously in the system ejected into interstellar space at high velocities. This dynamic may explain the runaway stars that might have been ejected during a collision of two binary star groups or a multiple system. This event is credited with ejecting AE Aurigae, Mu Columbae and 53 Arietis at above 200 km·s−1 and has been traced to the Trapezium cluster in the Orion Nebula some two million years ago.
Designations and nomenclature
Multiple star designations
The components of multiple stars can be specified by appending the suffixes A, B, C, etc., to the system's designation. Suffixes such as AB may be used to denote the pair consisting of A and B. The sequence of letters B, C, etc. may be assigned in order of separation from the component A. Components discovered close to an already known component may be assigned suffixes such as Aa, Ba, and so forth.
Nomenclature in the Multiple Star Catalogue
A. A. Tokovinin's Multiple Star Catalogue uses a system in which each subsystem in a mobile diagram is encoded by a sequence of digits. In the mobile diagram (d) above, for example, the widest system would be given the number 1, while the subsystem containing its primary component would be numbered 11 and the subsystem containing its secondary component would be numbered 12. Subsystems which would appear below this in the mobile diagram will be given numbers with three, four, or more digits. When describing a non-hierarchical system by this method, the same subsystem number will be used more than once; for example, a system with three visual components, A, B, and C, no two of which can be grouped into a subsystem, would have two subsystems numbered 1 denoting the two binaries AB and AC. In this case, if B and C were subsequently resolved into binaries, they would be given the subsystem numbers 12 and 13.
Future multiple star system nomenclature
The current nomenclature for double and multiple stars can cause confusion as binary stars discovered in different ways are given different designations (for example, discoverer designations for visual binary stars and variable star designations for eclipsing binary stars), and, worse, component letters may be assigned differently by different authors, so that, for example, one person's A can be another's C. Discussion starting in 1999 resulted in four proposed schemes to address this problem:
KoMa, a hierarchical scheme using upper- and lower-case letters and Arabic and Roman numerals;
The Urban/Corbin Designation Method, a hierarchical numeric scheme similar to the Dewey Decimal Classification system;
The Sequential Designation Method, a non-hierarchical scheme in which components and subsystems are assigned numbers in order of discovery; and
WMC, the Washington Multiplicity Catalog, a hierarchical scheme in which the suffixes used in the Washington Double Star Catalog are extended with additional suffixed letters and numbers.
For a designation system, identifying the hierarchy within the system has the advantage that it makes identifying subsystems and computing their properties easier. However, it causes problems when new components are discovered at a level above or intermediate to the existing hierarchy. In this case, part of the hierarchy will shift inwards. Components which are found to be nonexistent, or are later reassigned to a different subsystem, also cause problems.
During the 24th General Assembly of the International Astronomical Union in 2000, the WMC scheme was endorsed and it was resolved by Commissions 5, 8, 26, 42, and 45 that it should be expanded into a usable uniform designation scheme. A sample of a catalog using the WMC scheme, covering half an hour of right ascension, was later prepared. The issue was discussed again at the 25th General Assembly in 2003, and it was again resolved by commissions 5, 8, 26, 42, and 45, as well as the Working Group on Interferometry, that the WMC scheme should be expanded and further developed.
The sample WMC is hierarchically organized; the hierarchy used is based on observed orbital periods or separations. Since it contains many visual double stars, which may be optical rather than physical, this hierarchy may be only apparent. It uses upper-case letters (A, B, ...) for the first level of the hierarchy, lower-case letters (a, b, ...) for the second level, and numbers (1, 2, ...) for the third. Subsequent levels would use alternating lower-case letters and numbers, but no examples of this were found in the sample.
Examples
Binary
Sirius, a binary consisting of a main-sequence type A star and a white dwarf
Procyon, which is similar to Sirius
Mira, a variable consisting of a red giant and a white dwarf
Delta Cephei, a Cepheid variable
Epsilon Aurigae, an eclipsing binary
Spica
Trinary
Alpha Centauri is a triple star composed of a main binary yellow dwarf pair (Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B), and an outlying red dwarf, Proxima Centauri. Together, A and B form a physical binary star, designated as Alpha Centauri AB, α Cen AB, or RHD 1 AB, where the AB denotes this is a binary system. The moderately eccentric orbit of the binary can make the components be as close as 11 AU or as far away as 36 AU. Proxima Centauri, also (though less frequently) called Alpha Centauri C, is much farther away (between 4300 and 13,000 AU) from α Cen AB, and orbits the central pair with a period of 547,000 (+66,000/-40,000) years.
Polaris or Alpha Ursae Minoris (α UMi), the north star, is a triple star system in which the closer companion star is extremely close to the main star—so close that it was only known from its gravitational tug on Polaris A (α UMi A) until it was imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope in 2006.
Gliese 667 is a triple star system with two K-type main sequence stars and a red dwarf. The red dwarf, C, hosts between two and seven planets, of which one, Cc, alongside the unconfirmed Cf and Ce, are potentially habitable.
HD 188753 is a triple star system located approximately 149 light-years away from Earth in the constellation Cygnus. The system is composed of HD 188753A, a yellow dwarf; HD 188753B, an orange dwarf; and HD 188753C, a red dwarf. B and C orbit each other every 156 days, and, as a group, orbit A every 25.7 years.
Fomalhaut (α PsA, α Piscis Austrini) is a triple star system in the constellation Piscis Austrinus. It was discovered to be a triple system in 2013, when the K type flare star TW Piscis Austrini and the red dwarf LP 876-10 were all confirmed to share proper motion through space. The primary has a massive dust disk similar to that of the early Solar System, but much more massive. It also contains a gas giant, Fomalhaut b. That same year, the tertiary star, LP 876-10 was also confirmed to house a dust disk.
HD 181068 is a unique triple system, consisting of a red giant and two main-sequence stars. The orbits of the stars are oriented in such a way that all three stars eclipse each other.
Quaternary
Capella, a pair of giant stars orbited by a pair of red dwarfs, around 42 light years away from the Solar System. It has an apparent magnitude of around −0.47, making Capella one of the brightest stars in the night sky.
4 Centauri
Mizar is often said to have been the first binary star discovered when it was observed in 1650 by Giovanni Battista Riccioli, p. 1 but it was probably observed earlier, by Benedetto Castelli and Galileo. Later, spectroscopy of its components Mizar A and B revealed that they are both binary stars themselves.
HD 98800
The Kepler-64 system has the planet PH1 (discovered in 2012 by the Planet Hunters group, a part of the Zooniverse) orbiting two of the four stars, making it the first known planet to be in a quadruple star system.
KOI-2626 is the first quadruple star system with an Earth-sized planet.
Xi Tauri (ξ Tau, ξ Tauri), located about 222 light years away, is a spectroscopic and eclipsing quadruple star consisting of three blue-white B-type main-sequence stars, along with an F-type star. Two of the stars are in a close orbit and revolve around each other once every 7.15 days. These in turn orbit the third star once every 145 days. The fourth star orbits the other three stars roughly every fifty years.
Quintenary
Beta Capricorni
Delta Orionis
HD 155448
KIC 4150611
1SWASP J093010.78+533859.5
Sextenary
Beta Tucanae
Castor
HD 139691
If Alcor is considered part of the Mizar system, the system can be considered a sextuple.
Septenary
Nu Scorpii
AR Cassiopeiae
Octonary
Gamma Cassiopeiae
See also
Exoplanet
Solar System
Footnotes
References
External links
Alpha Centauri, APOD, 2002 April 25
General news on triple star systems, TSN, 2008 April 22
The Double Star Library is located at the U.S. Naval Observatory
Naming New Extrasolar Planets
Individual specimens
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240964 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Rebus | John Rebus | Detective Inspector John Rebus is the protagonist in the Inspector Rebus series of detective novels by the Scottish writer Ian Rankin, ten of which have so far been televised as Rebus. The novels are mostly set in and around Edinburgh. Rebus has been portrayed by John Hannah and Ken Stott for Television, with Ron Donachie playing the character for the BBC Radio dramatisations.
Character
In the books
According to Ian Rankin, John Rebus was born in 1947 and grew up in a pre-fabricated house in Craigmead Terrace, Cardenden, Fife (Rankin's home town), the son of a stage hypnotist. (However, the first Rebus novel, Knots and Crosses, published in 1987, explicitly states that he is 42 years old. There is a second mention later in that novel that he was born before the end of World War II, thereby indicating he was born in 1945.) His grandfather was an immigrant from Poland. He grew up in a terraced house along with his brother, Michael.
He left school at the age of fifteen and joined the Army, one of the few mainstream career options open to young men of the area, the others being coal-mining or working at Rosyth Dockyard, whilst his brother followed in their father's footsteps. After serving in Northern Ireland during The Troubles, he applied to undergo selection for the SAS. After passing selection – where Rebus excelled – he and a colleague were selected for further training for a secretive elite programme, training which eventually prompted Rebus to resign from the SAS and which spurred a nervous breakdown. Following lobbying from the Army, Rebus was given a position with Lothian and Borders Police in order to recover from the trauma. He went to Summerhall as a detective constable in November 1982. In many of his books Rebus works from the St Leonard's Police Station in Edinburgh.
Ian Rankin prefers to leave the physical appearance of his characters to the reader's imagination, although when Rebus is first introduced in Knots and Crosses, we learn that he has brown hair and green eyes, like his brother. His rough lifestyle means that his clothes are often less than immaculate. He has been severely burned, was in a car crash and suffered from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in retirement.
Rebus was raised a Protestant but was indifferent like his father; his mother was a "religious woman" but died young. He went to church every Sunday (Presbyterian or Calvinist guilt?) with his mother, until when he was 12 or 13 she said he could stay home with his father, which he did. After killing a young drug dealer, he considers going to a church in Mayfield with a minister "not overly keen on prying into one’s affairs". He had nothing against Catholics, though mistrusting the "shrine" mentality. He works for a bigot, Chief Inspector Lauderdale, who he winds up whenever he can and calls him "the Clockwork Orangeman" behind his back. His best pre-school playmate had been Miles Skelly a Catholic - until they went to different schools, his first lesson in "the divide". He once said "I don't believe in heaven", although he has also confessed to a priest.
He was married, but divorced sometime in the 1980s. His ex-wife, Rhona, and his daughter, Samantha, appear frequently in the novels. Since the series takes place in real time, Samantha grows from a child to a young woman then a woman with a daughter Carrie.
In Knots and Crosses, Rebus is a Detective Sergeant, but is promoted to Detective Inspector sometime before the start of Hide and Seek, four years later. He has not been promoted since, although he has turned down a promotion on at least one occasion. His advancing years and retirement mean that he is unlikely to receive another chance.
Rebus is for the most part apolitical – in Strip Jack it is revealed that he has only voted three times in his adult life, once for Labour, once for the Conservatives and once for the SNP. His general ambivalence towards politics is tempered by a dislike of sectarianism, resulting from his experiences as a soldier in Northern Ireland. He also reveals that he abstained on the Scottish devolution referendum in 1979 with suggested occasional guilt pangs when he later befriends an independence advocate. He voted against independence in the 2014 Scottish independence referendum. Many plots feature nascent political independence or devolution as backdrop with reference and settings including Scottish parliament.
Influences
Rebus can be said to belong to a long tradition of paternal Scottish hard men. A natural leader whose gruff exterior and fierce will to succeed in his field belies a benevolent nature. The character owes as much to the likes of Jock Stein and Bill Shankly as it does to a more obvious relation, Jim Taggart. The post-war upbringing on a Scottish housing scheme amidst the decline of heavy industry, a fondness for alcohol, an identification with those who struggle against adversity, a distrust of authority, stubbornness and an intimidating personal manner. He sees things in black and white and classifies people as either good or bad. For example, in Dead Souls he outs a convicted child sex offender who has been released after serving time and is trying to reform. The paedophile dies and Rebus shows little remorse. In Trip Trap he realises that George Gallagher did not fall down the stairs but was pushed by her bullied and abused wife Grace; he felt "vindicated" and that he was being right and fair; but at the same time "felt a complete and utter bastard … as though he’d just sentenced his own mother."
He has a strong love for books and music, owns an extensive record collection and drives a Saab 900. Rebus is a smoker and heavy drinker and often orders a pint of beer (generally IPA) and a whisky (generally Bells). The traits that keep him strong are also the traits that drive those closest to him away. It is the pervasive image of Rebus as the noble loner that wins the sympathy of readers.
Rebus does have a string of romantic liaisons, but apart from his marriage to Rhona none last very long. He has been linked with DI Gill Templer. He has a strong platonic relationship with his understudy and protégée, Detective Inspector Siobhan Clarke. His longest relationship has been with Patience Aitken which spanned several novels. Either his relationships are improper and unsuitable – with women personally linked to the cases Rebus is working on, or else they find that Rebus is 'married' to his job, and cannot be fully committed to a relationship.
In an Independent on Sunday interview Rankin said that he drew "some of his inspiration" for the character from the "sixth Stone", Ian Stewart. Three of the Inspector Rebus novels are named after Stones albums: Black and Blue, Let It Bleed and Beggars Banquet.
Retirement
In a 2007 interview with BBC Radio Scotland, Rankin corrected his interviewer in the description of Exit Music as not the last Rebus novel, but Rebus's retirement novel. Rankin expects to revisit the Edinburgh he created in fiction, with Clarke as his central police officer character. In the same interview, Rankin suggests several reasons for his creation's popularity, despite the policeman's unlikeability. First, Rebus is an outsider, and many people can feel as though they do not fit in as well as they think they should; secondly, Rebus is a curmudgeon, and there is a pleasure in such characters; and finally, he does not just solve cases, he also has the intention of doing some greater good as well.
On the 13 December 2009 edition of the BBC Radio Scotland programme Shereen, Rankin admitted that he knows where Rebus is in retirement: working on cold cases at police headquarters as a civilian. Rankin said it was possible that his new character, Inspector Fox, may either bump into Rebus or end up on an investigation that has something to do with a skeleton in Rebus's closet. However, including Rebus in a novel currently would mean that Scottish Television would have the right to produce the novel, so Rankin admitted that he might hold off on that plot for some time.
In 2012, Rebus returned in Standing in Another Man's Grave, where he is indeed working for the police, as a civilian, on cold cases. Rebus also has a chance to rejoin the police as retirement age has been increased. According to Ian Rankin, rights have reverted to him regarding the Rebus character.
In 2017 Rankin said initially he aged Rebus in real time but since retirement he has slowed down Rebus aging. Rebus was 40 in the first book "Knots and Crosses" (1987) and should, therefore, be 70 in 2017; but, in Rankin's mind, Rebus is still in his mid-60s.
Other media
TV
Plans were afoot in the late 1980s and early '90s to bring Rebus to television in an adaptation of Knots and Crosses with Leslie Grantham in the lead but this came to nothing. Ian Rankin believes that it was likely they would have made Rebus English or relocated the entire story to London.
Rankin has revealed the BBC were also keen to cast Robbie Coltrane as Rebus in a mooted adaptation of the series in the 1990s. Rankin smiled a bit, imagining flashbacks to Rebus's SAS training with Private Robbie Coltrane running over the assault course!
In the Rebus television adaptations he was played by John Hannah in the first series, a casting decision in which Hannah felt he was forced. It was his production company behind the series and his original suggestion was Peter Mullan. However, he claimed the corporation would not commission a relatively unknown actor. In the later series, following Hannah and his production team's exit, the role was taken over by Ken Stott.
A lot of Rebus's character foibles are glossed over in the adaptations, for example his large LP collection and the frequent popular music references and thoughts that Ian Rankin weaves into the stories. However, Rebus' reliance on alcohol is evident and he is often seen drinking in the Oxford Bar. Also, in the television series Rebus is portrayed as being a supporter of Hibernian (like Siobhan Clarke). This is not found in Ian Rankin's books, he having stated outside the books that Rebus is a Raith Rovers supporter. Rebus's Fife accent is softened as well; in the novel Tooth and Nail, London Metropolitan Police colleagues find it difficult to understand his speech.
BBC Radio
Alexander Morton played Rebus in a 1999 BBC Radio 4 adaptation of Let It Bleed.
Ron Donachie starred as Rebus in BBC Radio 4's dramatizations of The Falls (2008), Resurrection Men (2008), Strip Jack (2010), The Black Book (2012), Black and Blue (2013) and "Rebus Set in Darkness" (2014).
BBC Radio has also broadcast abridged readings of Ian Rankin's "Rebus" novels, including Let It Bleed read by Alexander Morton, Death Is Not the End read by Douglas Henshall and Beggar's Banquet read by James MacPherson.
Stage
Rankin, with Rona Munro wrote the stage play Rebus: Long Shadows, which premiered at the Birmingham Repertory Theatre in September 2018. Northern Irish actor Charles Lawson played Rebus. Ron Donachie, who had frequently played the character for BBC Radio, took over the role for the 2019 run, after Lawson suffered a minor stroke.
Short film
Brian Cox plays an older Rebus in the short film Rebus: The Lockdown Blues for BBC Scotland's Scenes for Survival, which is set in a locked down Edinburgh during the COVID-19 pandemic. The film was written by Ian Rankin for the National Theatre of Scotland.
See also
Areas of Edinburgh
References
External links
Ian Rankin
Rebus TV Series IMDB
Rebus and Rankin at Scotsman.com
Rampant Scotland Article
Unofficial Oxford bar Forum
Fictional detectives
Fictional police detectives
Fictional British police detectives
Fictional Scottish people
Ian Rankin characters | [
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240965 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winterthur%20Museum%2C%20Garden%20and%20Library | Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library | Winterthur Museum, Garden and Library is an American estate and museum in Winterthur, Delaware. , it houses one of the most important collections of Americana in the United States of America. It was the former home of Henry Francis du Pont (1880–1969), a renowned antiques collector and horticulturist. Until recently, it was known as the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum.
History
Estate
Winterthur is located in northwestern Delaware. The land where Winterthur sits was first purchased by Éleuthère Irénée du Point (E.I. duPont) between 1810 and 1818 and was used for farming and sheep-raising. In 1837, E.I duPont's heirs sold 445 acres of the land to Antoine Bidermann and his wife Evelina Gabrielle duPont for the purpose of establishing their estate. Evelina was the second daughter of E.I. DuPont's seven children. Between 1839 and 1842, the couple built a twelve-room Greek revival manor house on the property and named their estate Winterthur after Bidermann's ancestral home in Switzerland. The Bidermanns also added expansive gardens, livestock, and pastures.
After Bidermann's 1866 death, the property passed to his son, James Irenee, who then sold it to his uncle, Henry duPont. Henry purchased the property for his son, Colonel Henry Algernon duPont. Henry Algernon and his wife, (Mary) Pauline, settled at Winterthur in 1876 and enlarged the estate's existing home. Upon his father's 1889 death, Henry Algernon officially inherited the property and converted its main home to a French-style manor house. Between 1885 and 1925, Henry Algernon and Pauline added 900 acres to the property, which included a grazing area for Holstein cattle. After Pauline's 1902 death and the election of Henry Algernon to Congress, their son, Henry Francis (H.F.) du Pont, assumed the role of estate manager. H.F., a horticulturalist, began managing the estate's grounds in 1909.
H.F. married Ruth Wales in 1916. In 1923, the couple traveled to Vermont to student a cattle-breeding operation of W. Seward Webb. During the trip, they visited the home of Webb's daughter-in-law, a collector of American decorative arts. H.F. later stated that this was the moment at which he became interested in collecting American antiques. During the same trip, the duPonts also visited interior decorator, Henry Davis Sleeper. Sleeper's home was decorated with American antiques and interiors taken from other homes. This, too, inspired H.F. start his own collection of Americana.
Henry Algernon died at the end of 1926 and H.F. officially inherited Winterthur in 1927. At the time, the estate consisted of 90 buildings and over 2,600 acres. H.F. and Ruth renovated Winterthur's manor tripling its size. H.F. outfitted the home with architectural elements salvaged from 17th, 18th, and 19th century American homes. Rooms in the home were themed by time-period.
H.F. contracted landscape architect, Marian Cruger Coffin, to assist with the design of 70 acres of the estate's gardens and a model 2400-acre farm. The estate had twelve temperature controlled greenhouses, a 23-acre orchard, a 5.5-acre vegetable garden, and a 4-acre cutting garden. It also had a butcher shop, a saw mill, a tannery, and a dairy where duPont continued to breed and raise award-winning Holstein cattle.
Museum
H.F. became a highly prominent collector of American decorative arts. He established Winterthur's main building as a public museum in 1951 and moved to a smaller building on the estate. By 1959, the museum has been enlarged to accommodate a library, lecture halls, and additional period rooms. The museum ultimately consisted of 200 rooms and held H.F.'s collection, conservation laboratories, and administrative offices. By the time of his death in 1969, H.F. had amassed a collection of between 50,000 and 70,000 objects.
A pavilion building, separate from the main house, was built in the 1960's to welcome growing crowds. It consisted of a cafeteria, museum shop, and an adjacent parking lot.
Winterthur has been called the "largest and richest museum of American furniture and decorative arts in the world".
Present day
Museum
Today, Winterthur is situated on , near Brandywine Creek, with of naturalistic gardens.
The museum has 175 period-room displays and approximately 90,000 objects. Most rooms are open to the public on small, guided tours. The collection spans more than two centuries of American decorative arts, notably from 1640 to 1860, and contains some of the most important pieces of American furniture and fine art.
In 1992, additional galleries opened in a new building adjacent to the main house. The galleries host special rotating and permanent exhibits.
Library
The Winterthur Library includes more than 87,000 volumes and approximately 500,000 manuscripts and images, mostly related to American history, decorative arts, and architecture. The facility also houses extensive conservation, research, and education facilities.
Gardens and grounds
In 2002, Winterthur donated acreage to the Brandywine Conservation Trust. The donation ensured that the land would never be developed.
University of Delaware
In 1952, Winterthur and the University of Delaware launched a joint graduate programs in American material culture and art conservation. The partnership continues today.
Display facilities
Main museum (period rooms and offices),
The Cottage (home of H. F. du Pont after opening of the museum),
The Galleries , display area
Research Building
Visitors Center
See also
Largest Historic Homes in the United States
List of botanical gardens in the United States
List of museums in Delaware
Hagley Museum and Library
Nemours Mansion and Gardens
Longwood Gardens
National Register of Historic Places listings in Wilmington, Delaware
References
Further reading
John A. H. Sweeney, The Treasure House of Early American Rooms, W W Norton & Co, New York, .
Cooper, Wendy A., An American Vision : Henry Francis du Pont's Winterthur Museum, Washington, D.C. : National Gallery of Art, 2002.
Fleming, E. McClung (Edward McClung), Accent on Artist and Artisan: The Winterthur Program in Early American Culture, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970
Bruce, Harold., The Gardens of Winterthur in All Seasons, Photos by Gottlieb and Hilda Hampfler. Foreword by Henry Francis du Pont, New York, Viking Press [1968]
Eversmann, Pauline K., Guide to Winterthur Museum & Country Estate, Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum, 2005.
External links
Karp, Walter, "Henry Francis Du Pont And The Invention Of Winterthur", American Heritage, April/May 1983
Winterthur Museum Iron Gates, Route 52, Wilmington vicinity, New Castle, DE at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)
Winterthur Farms, Intersection State Routes 92 & 100, Intersection State Routes 92 & 100, Winterthur, New Castle, DE at HABS
Houses completed in 1837
Botanical gardens in Delaware
Historic house museums in Delaware
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
Du Pont family residences
Brandywine Museums & Gardens Alliance
Museums in New Castle County, Delaware
Museums established in 1951
Decorative arts museums in the United States
Art museums and galleries in Delaware
Geography of New Castle County, Delaware
Libraries in Delaware
Houses in New Castle County, Delaware
Former private collections in the United States
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Delaware
National Register of Historic Places in New Castle County, Delaware
Georgian Revival architecture in Delaware | [
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240966 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagley%20Museum%20and%20Library | Hagley Museum and Library | The Hagley Museum and Library is a nonprofit educational institution in unincorporated New Castle County, Delaware, near Wilmington. Covering more than along the banks of the Brandywine Creek, the museum and grounds include the first du Pont family home and garden in the United States, the powder yards, and a 19th-century machine shop. On the hillside below the mansion lies a Renaissance-revival garden, with terraces and statuary, created in the 1920s by Louise Evalina du Pont Crowninshield (1877–1958).
History
In 1802, French immigrant Eleuthère Irénée du Pont founded black powder mills on the banks of Brandywine Creek after purchasing the property in 1801 for $6,700. He chose the location for the river's tumble over the Fall Line which provided power, timber and willow trees (used to produce quality charcoal required for superior black powder), the proximity to the Delaware River (on which other ingredients of the powder – sulfur and saltpeter – could be shipped); and the quarries of gneiss which would provide building materials for the mills. The E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company's black powder factory became the largest in the world.
In 1921, the mills along the Brandywine closed and parcels of the property were sold. Plans for a museum were established 31 years later, on the occasion of the DuPont Company's 150th anniversary in 1952.
Origin of the name
Hagley historians only know that the name was already in use well before E.I. du Pont expanded downstream from Eleutherian Mills in 1813 by purchasing the land that became the Hagley Yards. An 1813 document refers to the land as Hagley and it had been called Hagley as early as 1797, when its owner, Philadelphia Quaker merchant Rumford Dawes, applied for insurance on buildings that were said to be located in a place called Hagley on the Brandywine. Dawes had acquired the property in 1783. Since the name Hagley did not appear on the documents transferring ownership at that time, it seems likely that Dawes gave this name to the Brandywine location.
It seems likely that Delaware's Hagley was named for an English estate, Hagley Hall that was well known in the second half of the eighteenth century. It is likely that Dawes chose the name based on an English narrative poem entitled The Seasons by James Thomson. Hagley Hall was the seat of Thomson's patron the Baron Lyttelton, and the poem's description of a sylvan dale is strikingly reminiscent of the Brandywine Valley. The Seasons was popular in Philadelphia at the time that Rumford Dawes acquired and named Hagley. The English Hagley estate is located in the West Midlands countryside about ten miles southwest of Birmingham. Perhaps coincidentally, Delaware's Hagley is about 8 miles south of Chadds Ford Township, officially known as Birmingham Township before 1996.
At about the same time, Hagley Plantation on the Waccamaw River in South Carolina got its name when the owners, who were admirers of English culture, chose the name Hagley to remind them of the well-known parkland of that name near London.
Operations
Opened in 1957, the Hagley Museum features exhibits and demonstrations that show the connections between early industrial technology and early American history, focusing on the histories of the du Pont family, DuPont company, explosives and gunpowder, and innovation (through a large collection of American Patent models). There are indoor and outdoor exhibitions, along with restored mills, a workers community, and the original home of the du Pont family with an attached garden.
The Museum also explores personal stories of the 19th-century DuPont Company employees, how they lived, and how their lifestyles changed along with new machinery and new production methods. Visitors can ride a narrated bus tour, through the Powder Yard Trail and is the only way to the home.
Library
The Eleutherian Mills Historical Library was dedicated on October 7, 1961. It was renamed as the Hagley Library in 1984.
Hagley's library houses a major research collection of manuscripts, archives, photographs, pamphlets, and books documenting the history of American business and technology. A member of the Independent Research Libraries Association, the library serves scholars from this country and abroad. Holdings include 37,000 linear feet in the Manuscripts and Archives Department, 290,000 printed volumes in the Imprints Department, 2 million visual items in the Pictorial Department, and more than 300,000 digital images and pages in the Digital Archives Department. The library and archival collections owned by Hagley are open to the public for research; a catalog and partial digital archive are available online.
The library includes Hagley's intellectual heart: the Center for the History of Business, Technology, and Society, which coordinates Hagley's interactions with the world of scholarship in the fields of American economic, business, and technological history. The center offers a scholar-in-residence program and competitive fellowships, and organizes seminars and historical conferences.
E. I. du Pont residence complex
On the property is the home of Eleuthère Irénée du Pont who built the Georgian-style home and surrounding buildings and gardens to serve as a center for familiar and business life. The home was inhabited by five generations of the du Pont family, with many pieces of furniture, American folk art, and family pieces brought from France still on view. Other buildings that are a part of the complex are a barn, the "First Office" of the company, Lammot du Pont Workshop, and the garden.
The estate home was the first residence of the du Pont family in the United States.
Grounds and plants
Located on the property are multiple national and state ranked trees. One, an Osage orange tree, was named a Co-National Champion Tree in 2011 and featured in the Delaware Forestry Service's "Big Trees of Delaware" but was partially felled by a storm in August 2020. The tree was speculated to have been over 300 years-old or planted via seeds brought back from the Lewis and Clark expedition. Two other trees felled during the storm were state champions including a 90-foot tall sugar maple and a 62-foot tall shingle oak.
Depiction in media
The Museum was featured on Mysteries at the Museum television show.
Timeline
November 1952: The Eleutherian Mills-Hagley Foundation, a non-profit, educational corporation received its charter from the State of Delaware.
May 1957: Hagley Museum was dedicated with the opening of the Henry Clay Mill building.
1961: The Longwood Library, founded in 1953 by Pierre S. duPont, merged with Hagley Museum and opened at the site of the original DuPont Company's powder works at Hagley.
1962: Eleutherian Mills, the du Pont family's ancestral home, was opened to the public.
1966: Designation of museum property as a National Historic Landmark.
1969: Restoration of the first DuPont company office was completed.
1971: Restoration of the E.I. du Pont Garden began.
1982: Workers' Hill opened. First fireworks show produced for Hagley members in honor of the museum's 25th anniversary. The annual fireworks continues on two weekends in June.
1984: Hagley Museum and Library was designated as the official name of the institution. (Eleutherian Mills-Hagley Foundation continues as the legal corporation name of the organization.)
1996: Hagley's first car show, 100 Years of Cars, held to honor 100 years of America's automotive heritage. The annual car show continues on the third Sunday in September.
1999: The kitchen in Hagley's Eleutherian Mills opens to visitors.
2002: Two new exhibits, "DuPont Science and Discovery" and "DuPont: The Explosives Era," open at Hagley in honor of the DuPont corporation's 200th anniversary.
2007: Accessible entrance to Visitors Center welcomes visitors to the museum's 50th anniversary exhibit, "Hagley at Fifty: Exploding with History."
Gallery
See also
List of botanical gardens in the United States
List of museums in Delaware
Winterthur Museum
Nemours Mansion and Gardens
Longwood Gardens
Delaware Historical Society
David A. Hounshell, historian and academic who started his career at the Hagley Museum
Breck's Mill Area
References
External links
Hagley Museum and Library
Brandywine 10
History of DuPont
Collection of DuPont Company powder yards on the Brandywine Creek photographs at Hagley Museum and Library
Historic districts in Delaware
Libraries in Delaware
Institutions accredited by the American Alliance of Museums
DuPont
Brandywine Museums & Gardens Alliance
Museums in Delaware
History museums in Delaware
Du Pont family residences
Museums established in 1957
Houses in New Castle County, Delaware
Houses completed in 1803
1957 establishments in Delaware
Historic American Buildings Survey in Delaware
Special collections libraries
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in Delaware
National Register of Historic Places in Delaware | [
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240971 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen%20addition%20reaction | Halogen addition reaction | A halogen addition reaction is a simple organic reaction where a halogen molecule is added to the carbon–carbon double bond of an alkene functional group.
The general chemical formula of the halogen addition reaction is:
C=C + X2 → X−C−C−X
(X represents the halogens bromine or chlorine, and in this case, a solvent could be CH2Cl2 or CCl4). The product is a vicinal dihalide.
This type of reaction is a halogenation and an electrophilic addition.
Reaction mechanism
The reaction mechanism for an alkene bromination can be described as follows. In the first step of the reaction, a bromine molecule approaches the electron-rich alkene carbon–carbon double bond. The bromine atom closer to the bond takes on a partial positive charge as its electrons are repelled by the electrons of the double bond.
The atom is electrophilic at this time and is attacked by the pi electrons of the alkene [carbon–carbon double bond]. It forms for an instant a single sigma bond to both of the carbon atoms involved. The bonding of bromine is special in this intermediate, due to its relatively large size compared to carbon, the bromide ion is capable of interacting with both carbons which once shared the π-bond, making a three-membered ring. The bromide ion acquires a positive formal charge. At this moment the halogen ion is called a "bromonium ion" or "chloronium ion", respectively.
When the first bromine atom attacks the carbon–carbon π-bond, it leaves behind one of its electrons with the other bromine that it was bonded to in Br2. That other atom is now a negative bromide anion and is attracted to the slight positive charge on the carbon atoms. It is blocked from nucleophilic attack on one side of the carbon chain by the first bromine atom and can only attack from the other side. As it attacks and forms a bond with one of the carbons, the bond between the first bromine atom and the other carbon atoms breaks, leaving each carbon atom with a halogen substituent.
In this way the two halogens add in an anti addition fashion, and when the alkene is part of a cycle the dibromide adopts the trans configuration. For maximum overlap of the C–Br σ* antibonding molecular orbital (the LUMO, shown to the right in red) and the nucleophile (X−) lone pair (the HOMO, shown to the right below in green), X− must attack the bromonium ion from behind, at carbon.
This reaction mechanism was proposed by Roberts and Kimball in 1937. With it they explained the observed stereospecific trans-additions in brominations of maleic acid and fumaric acid. Maleic acid with a cis-double bond forms the dibromide as a mixture of enantiomers:
while the trans-isomer fumaric acid forms a single meso compound:
The reaction is even stereospecific in alkenes with two bulky tert-butyl groups in a cis position as in the compound cis-di-tert-butylethylene. Despite the steric repulsion present in the chloronium ion, the only product formed is the anti-adduct.
β-Halocarbocations
In an alternative reaction scheme depicted below the reactive intermediate is a β-bromocarbocation or β-bromocarbonium ion with one of the carbon atoms a genuine carbocation.
For reactions taking place through this mechanism no stereospecificity is expected and indeed not found.
Roberts and Kimball in 1937 already accounted for the fact that brominations with the maleate ion resulted in cis-addition driven by repulsion between the negatively charged carboxylic acid anions being stronger than halonium ion formation. In alkenes such as anetholes and stilbenes the substituents are able to stabilize the carbocation by donating electrons at the expense of the halonium ion.
Halonium ions can be identified by means of NMR spectroscopy. In 1967 the group of George A. Olah obtained NMR spectra of tetramethylethylenebromonium ions by dissolving 2,3-dibromo-2,3-dimethylbutane in magic acid at −60 °C. The spectrum for the corresponding fluorine compound on the other hand was consistent with a rapidly equilibrating pair of β-fluorocarbocations.
See also
Example of bromination in the Auwers synthesis
References
Electrophilic addition reactions
Halogenation reactions | [
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240972 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20hole | White hole | In general relativity, a white hole is a hypothetical region of spacetime and singularity that cannot be entered from the outside, although energy-matter, light and information can escape from it. In this sense, it is the reverse of a black hole, which can be entered only from the outside and from which energy-matter, light and information cannot escape. White holes appear in the theory of eternal black holes. In addition to a black hole region in the future, such a solution of the Einstein field equations has a white hole region in its past. This region does not exist for black holes that have formed through gravitational collapse, however, nor are there any observed physical processes through which a white hole could be formed.
Supermassive black holes (SBHs) are theoretically predicted to be at the center of every galaxy and that possibly, a galaxy cannot form without one. Stephen Hawking and others have proposed that these SBHs spawn a supermassive white hole/Big Bang.
Overview
Like black holes, white holes have properties like mass, charge, and angular momentum. They attract matter like any other mass, but objects falling towards a white hole would never actually reach the white hole's event horizon (though in the case of the maximally extended Schwarzschild solution, discussed below, the white hole event horizon in the past becomes a black hole event horizon in the future, so any object falling towards it will eventually reach the black hole horizon).
Imagine a gravitational field, without a surface. Acceleration due to gravity is the greatest on the surface of any body. But since black holes lack a surface, acceleration due to gravity increases exponentially, but never reaches a final value as there is no considered surface in a singularity.
In quantum mechanics, the black hole emits Hawking radiation and so it can come to thermal equilibrium with a gas of radiation (not compulsory). Because a thermal-equilibrium state is time-reversal-invariant, Stephen Hawking argued that the time reversal of a black hole in thermal equilibrium results in a white hole in thermal equilibrium (each absorbing and emitting energy to equivalent degrees). Consequently, this may imply that black holes and white holes are the same structure, wherein the Hawking radiation from an ordinary black hole is identified with a white hole's emission of energy and matter. Hawking's semi-classical argument is reproduced in a quantum mechanical AdS/CFT treatment, where a black hole in anti-de Sitter space is described by a thermal gas in a gauge theory, whose time reversal is the same as itself.
Origin
The possibility of the existence of white holes was put forward by Russian cosmologist Igor Novikov in 1964. White holes are predicted as part of a solution to the Einstein field equations known as the maximally extended version of the Schwarzschild metric describing an eternal black hole with no charge and no rotation. Here, "maximally extended" refers to the idea that the spacetime should not have any "edges": for any possible trajectory of a free-falling particle (following a geodesic) in the spacetime, it should be possible to continue this path arbitrarily far into the particle's future, unless the trajectory hits a gravitational singularity like the one at the center of the black hole's interior. In order to satisfy this requirement, it turns out that in addition to the black hole interior region that particles enter when they fall through the event horizon from the outside, there must be a separate white hole interior region, which allows us to extrapolate the trajectories of particles that an outside observer sees rising up away from the event horizon. For an observer outside using Schwarzschild coordinates, infalling particles take an infinite time to reach the black hole horizon infinitely far in the future, while outgoing particles that pass the observer have been traveling outward for an infinite time since crossing the white hole horizon infinitely far in the past (however, the particles or other objects experience only a finite proper time between crossing the horizon and passing the outside observer). The black hole/white hole appears "eternal" from the perspective of an outside observer, in the sense that particles traveling outward from the white hole interior region can pass the observer at any time, and particles traveling inward, which will eventually reach the black hole interior region can also pass the observer at any time.
Just as there are two separate interior regions of the maximally extended spacetime, there are also two separate exterior regions, sometimes called two different "universes", with the second universe allowing us to extrapolate some possible particle trajectories in the two interior regions. This means that the interior black-hole region can contain a mix of particles that fell in from either universe (and thus an observer who fell in from one universe might be able to see light that fell in from the other one), and likewise particles from the interior white-hole region can escape into either universe. All four regions can be seen in a spacetime diagram that uses Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates (see figure).
In this spacetime, it is possible to come up with coordinate systems such that if you pick a hypersurface of constant time (a set of points that all have the same time coordinate, such that every point on the surface has a space-like separation, giving what is called a 'space-like surface') and draw an "embedding diagram" depicting the curvature of space at that time, the embedding diagram will look like a tube connecting the two exterior regions, known as an "Einstein-Rosen bridge" or Schwarzschild wormhole. Depending on where the space-like hypersurface is chosen, the Einstein-Rosen bridge can either connect two black hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the black hole region of the spacetime), or two white hole event horizons in each universe (with points in the interior of the bridge being part of the white hole region). It is impossible to use the bridge to cross from one universe to the other, however, because it is impossible to enter a white hole event horizon from the outside, and anyone entering a black hole horizon from either universe will inevitably hit the black hole singularity.
Note that the maximally extended Schwarzschild metric describes an idealized black hole/white hole that exists eternally from the perspective of external observers; a more realistic black hole that forms at some particular time from a collapsing star would require a different metric. When the infalling stellar matter is added to a diagram of a black hole's history, it removes the part of the diagram corresponding to the white hole interior region. But because the equations of general relativity are time-reversible – they exhibit Time reversal symmetry – general relativity must also allow the time-reverse of this type of "realistic" black hole that forms from collapsing matter. The time-reversed case would be a white hole that has existed since the beginning of the universe, and that emits matter until it finally "explodes" and disappears. Despite the fact that such objects are permitted theoretically, they are not taken as seriously as black holes by physicists, since there would be no processes that would naturally lead to their formation; they could exist only if they were built into the initial conditions of the Big Bang. Additionally, it is predicted that such a white hole would be highly "unstable" in the sense that if any small amount of matter fell towards the horizon from the outside, this would prevent the white hole's explosion as seen by distant observers, with the matter emitted from the singularity never able to escape the white hole's gravitational radius.
Big Bang/Supermassive White Hole
A view of black holes first proposed in the late 1980s might be interpreted as shedding some light on the nature of classical white holes. Some researchers have proposed that when a black hole forms, a Big Bang may occur at the core/singularity, which would create a new universe that expands outside of the parent universe. See also Fecund universes.
The Einstein–Cartan–Sciama–Kibble theory of gravity extends general relativity by removing a constraint of the symmetry of the affine connection and regarding its antisymmetric part, the torsion tensor, as a dynamical variable. Torsion naturally accounts for the quantum-mechanical, intrinsic angular momentum (spin) of matter.
According to general relativity, the gravitational collapse of a sufficiently compact mass forms a singular black hole. In the Einstein–Cartan theory, however, the minimal coupling between torsion and Dirac spinors generates a repulsive spin–spin interaction that is significant in fermionic matter at extremely high densities. Such an interaction prevents the formation of a gravitational singularity. Instead, the collapsing matter on the other side of the event horizon reaches an enormous but finite density and rebounds, forming a regular Einstein–Rosen bridge. The other side of the bridge becomes a new, growing baby universe. For observers in the baby universe, the parent universe appears as the only white hole. Accordingly, the observable universe is the Einstein–Rosen interior of a black hole existing as one of possibly many inside a larger universe. The Big Bang was a nonsingular Big Bounce at which the observable universe had a finite, minimum scale factor.
A 2012 paper argues that the Big Bang itself is a white hole. It further suggests that the emergence of a white hole, which was named a 'Small Bang', is spontaneous—all the matter is ejected at a single pulse. Thus, unlike black holes, white holes cannot be continuously observed; rather, their effects can be detected only around the event itself. The paper even proposed identifying a new group of gamma-ray bursts with white holes.
In 2014, the idea of the Big Bang being produced by a supermassive white hole explosion was explored in the framework of a five dimensional vacuum by Madriz Aguilar, Moreno and Bellini.
See also
Arrow of time
Big Bounce
Black hole
Black hole cosmology
Conformal cyclic cosmology
Dark matter
Exotic matter
Naked Singularity
Negative mass
Planck star
Quantum mechanics
Spacetime
Star
Wormhole
References
External links
Embedding of the inverted Schwarzschild Solution 2d plot White hole in Google
Schwarzschild Wormholes
Schwarzschild Wormhole animation
Shockwave cosmology inside a Black Hole
Michio Kaku: Mr Parallel Universe
End of Black Hole Is Starting of Big Bang – Discussed in Newsgroup in 1999
Forward to the Future 1:Trapped in Time!
Forward to the Future 2:Back to the Past, with Interest...
Black holes
Hypothetical astronomical objects
General relativity | [
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240980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Basketball%20League%20%28United%20States%29 | National Basketball League (United States) | The National Basketball League (NBL) was a professional basketball league in the United States established in 1937. After the 1948–49 season, its twelfth, it merged with the Basketball Association of America (BAA) to create the National Basketball Association (NBA). Five current NBA teams trace their history back to the NBL: the Atlanta Hawks, the Detroit Pistons, the Los Angeles Lakers, the Philadelphia 76ers, and the Sacramento Kings.
History
The predecessor of this league was the Midwest Basketball Conference (MBC) in 1935. It changed its name in 1937 in an attempt to attract a larger audience. The league was created by three corporations: General Electric, Firestone and Goodyear. It was primarily made up of Great Lakes area small-market and corporate teams.
The league began rather informally. Scheduling was left to the discretion of each of the teams, as long as the team played at least ten games and four of them were on the road. Games played increased yearly as the popularity of professional basketball and the NBL grew in America. Games consisted either of four ten-minute quarters or three fifteen-minute periods. The choice was made by the home team. Some of the teams were independent, while others were owned by companies that also found jobs for their players.
Chicago newspaper sports editor Leo Fischer acted as president of the NBL from 1940–44.
In 1946, the Basketball Association of America (BAA) incorporated resulting in a three-year battle with the NBL to win both players and fans. The BAA played its games in larger cities and venues. However, NBL tended to have the bigger stars. NBL teams dominated the World Professional Basketball Tournament, an annual invitational tournament held in Chicago and sponsored by the Chicago Herald American; won seven out of ten editions of the tournament.
On August 3, 1949, representatives from the 12-year-old NBL and 3 year old BAA met at the BAA offices in New York's Empire State Building to finalize a merger. Maurice Podoloff was elected head of the new league. The new National Basketball Association (NBA) was made up of 17 teams that represented both small towns and large cities across the country. The NBA claims the BAA's history as its own and considers the 1949 deal as an expansion, not a merger. For example, at NBA History online, its table of one-line "NBA Season Recaps" begins 1946–47 without comment. It celebrated "NBA at 50" in 1996, with announcement of its 50 Greatest Players among other things.
The NBA does not recognize NBL records and statistics except under certain circumstances. As such, the records and statistics of the BAA and NBL prior to the merger in 1949 are considered in official NBA history only if a player, coach, or team participated in the newly formed NBA after 1949 for one or more seasons.
The history of the NBL falls into three eras, each contributing significantly to the growth of professional basketball and the emergence of the NBA. The first dynasty centered on the Oshkosh All-Stars and their center Leroy "Cowboy" Edwards. The middle years saw the emergence of the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons, who were later instrumental in the survival of the NBA during its infancy. The final period of note during the NBL's existence centered on George Mikan and the emergence of the big man in basketball.
Early years
The Oshkosh All-Stars appeared in the championship series for five consecutive years (1938–42). They won two titles, they were led by a rugged 6' 4" (1.93 m) center named Leroy "Cowboy" Edwards. Edwards was a consensus NCAA "All American" and Helms Foundation "College Player of the Year" as a member of the 1934–35 University of Kentucky Wildcats. He left Kentucky after two years to pursue a professional basketball career, which was unheard of at the time. He led the NBL in scoring for three consecutive seasons, 1937-1940. He set numerous NBL and professional basketball scoring records and is generally credited with the introduction of the "3 second rule" in basketball which is still in existence today. Edwards played in all 12 NBL seasons with the Oshkosh All-Stars, and retired just prior to its merger with the BAA to form the NBA.
Middle years
The Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons—so nicknamed because they were owned by Fred Zollner, whose company made pistons for engines—were led by tough veteran Bobby McDermott. The Pistons finished second in 1942 and 1943 and won the league title in 1944 and 1945. Like many teams of that era, it was not uncommon for Fort Wayne to play its games in taverns, armories, high-school gyms or ballrooms.
Under Zollner, the Pistons would eventually play an important role in the survival and growth of the NBA. Zollner's financial support of the NBA helped the league stay afloat during its tumultuous formative years.
Challenging the Zollner Pistons and Oshkosh for supremacy were the Sheboygan Red Skins. Beginning in 1941, the season before Fort Wayne joined the NBL, Sheboygan appeared in five of six championship series. They lost to Oshkosh in the 1941 finals, beat Fort Wayne for the title in 1943 but lost to the Zollner Pistons in 1944 and 1945, and were swept in the 1946 finals by the league's newest member, the powerhouse Rochester Royals, who boasted Hall of Famers Al Cervi, Bob Davies and Red Holzman.
Later years
The NBL's third era was dominated by Mikan, the 6'10" (2.08 m), three-time NCAA "All-American" center from DePaul University in Chicago. As a rookie, he led the Chicago American Gears to the 1947 NBL title, but before the next season, owner Maurice White pulled his team out of the league and formed his own 24-team circuit called the Professional Basketball League of America. That venture quickly failed, and Mikan was signed by the NBL's Minneapolis Lakers, where he teamed with the versatile Jim Pollard to win the 1948 championship.
After the 1947–48 season, Mikan's Lakers quit the League to join the Basketball Association of America (BAA), along with three other NBL clubs: Rochester, Fort Wayne, and Indianapolis.
The NBL added an all-black team in December of its final season, when one of its replacement clubs folded, the Detroit Vagabond Kings. That franchise was awarded to a famous barnstorming team, the New York Rens, composed entirely of African Americans, to play out the season in Dayton, Ohio, as the Dayton Rens. In 1949, after a three-year battle with the BAA for fans and players, the NBL was absorbed by the BAA and became the NBA.
Legacy
The NBL contributed significantly to the foundation of the NBA, but it also had major accomplishments in other areas, most notably in offering opportunities for African-American players. In the 1942–43 season, with many players in the armed forces, two NBL clubs, the Toledo Jim White Chevrolets and the Chicago Studebakers, filled their rosters by signing African-Americans—five years before Jackie Robinson would break baseball's color barrier with the Brooklyn Dodgers. Neither team fared well. Toledo signed several black players to start the season, including Bill Jones, who had starred at the University of Toledo, but the team lost its first four games and folded due to financial difficulties. Chicago stocked its roster with several members of the Harlem Globetrotters, who worked during the week at the Studebaker plant, but it also folded after compiling an 8–15 record.
Five current NBA teams trace their history back to the NBL. Three teams joined the BAA in 1948: the Minneapolis Lakers (now the Los Angeles Lakers), the Rochester Royals (now the Sacramento Kings), and the Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons (now the Detroit Pistons). Two more teams were part of the merger that created the NBA in 1949: the Buffalo Bisons/Tri-Cities Blackhawks (now the Atlanta Hawks), and the Syracuse Nationals (now the Philadelphia 76ers).
Five former NBA teams also trace their history back to the NBL: the Anderson Packers, Denver Nuggets, Indianapolis Jets (as the Kautskys), Sheboygan Red Skins and Waterloo Hawks played in the NBL/BAA/NBA. The Jets played in the BAA for the 1948–49 season only; the remaining teams for the 1949–50 season only. Anderson, Sheboygan, and Waterloo joined the National Professional Basketball League in 1950.
The NBL also created the Indianapolis Olympians for the 1949–50 NBL season. When the NBL and BAA merged, this team joined the NBA without playing a single NBL game.
Also still surviving are the Akron Goodyear Wingfoots, the initial NBL Champion in 1938. The Wingfoots suspended operations for World War II and were not included in the NBL/BAA merger. Instead, they remained in the National Industrial Basketball League (NIBL), which in 1961 became the National AAU Basketball League (NABL). The Wingfoots are still an AAU Elite team in the NABL.
Teams
Note: * denotes a team currently playing in the NBA (7 ancestors of 5 NBA clubs).
Akron Firestone Non-Skids (1937–41)
Akron Goodyear Wingfoots (1937–42)
Anderson Duffey Packers became Anderson Packers (1946–49)
Buffalo Bisons (1937–38)
Buffalo Bisons became Tri-Cities Blackhawks (1946–49)*
Chicago American Gears (1944–47)
Chicago Bruins (1939–42)
Chicago Studebaker Flyers (1942–43)
Cincinnati Comellos (1937–38)
Cleveland Chase Brassmen (1943–44)
Cleveland Allmen Transfers (1944–46)
Columbus Athletic Supply (1937–38)
Dayton Metropolitans (1937–38)
Denver Nuggets (1948–49)
Detroit Eagles (1939–41)
Detroit Gems (1946–47)*
Detroit Vagabond Kings/Dayton Rens (1948–49)
Flint Dow A.C.'s/Midland Dow A.C.'s (1947–48)
Fort Wayne General Electrics (1937–38)
Fort Wayne Zollner Pistons (1941–48)*
Hammond Ciesar All-Americans (1938–41)
Hammond Calumet Buccaneers (1948–49)
Indianapolis Kautskys (1937–48)
Kankakee Gallagher Trojans (1937–38)
Minneapolis Lakers (1947–48)*
Oshkosh All-Stars (1937–49)
Pittsburgh Pirates (1937–39)
Pittsburgh Raiders (1944–45)
Richmond King Clothiers became Cincinnati Comellos (1937–38)
Rochester Royals (1945–48)*
Sheboygan Red Skins (1938–49)
Syracuse Nationals (1946–49)*
Toledo Jim White Chevrolets (1941–43)
Toledo Jeeps (1946–48)
Warren Penns (1937–38)
Warren Penns/Cleveland White Horses (1938–39)
Waterloo Hawks (1948–49)
Whiting Ciesar All-Americans (1937–38)
Youngstown Bears (1945–47)
Arenas
Season leaders, awards, and championships
List of NBL champions
List of NBL season scoring leaders
List of NBL career scoring leaders
List of NBL Most Valuable Players
List of NBL Rookies of the Year
List of NBL Coaches of the Year
References
External links
Complete National Basketball League History 1937–49
National Basketball League at Basketball-Reference.com
Abstracts of open papers, NASSH 2002 – including "The NBA Began in Akron!? The Midwest Basketball Conference, 1935–37"], Murry Nelson, Pennsylvania State University
1937 establishments in the United States
1949 disestablishments in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1937
Sports leagues disestablished in 1949
Defunct basketball leagues in the United States | [
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240985 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste%20Kerckhoffs | Auguste Kerckhoffs | Auguste Kerckhoffs (19 January 1835 – 9 August 1903) was a Dutch linguist and cryptographer who was professor of languages at the École des Hautes Études Commerciales in Paris in the late 19th century.
Kerckhoffs was born in Nuth, the Netherlands, as Jean Guillaume Auguste Victor François Hubert Kerckhoffs, son of Jean Guillaume Kerckhoffs, mayor of the village of Nuth, and Jeanette Elisabeth Lintjens. Kerckhoffs studied at the University of Liège. After a period of teaching in schools in the Netherlands and France, he became a professor of German at the Parisian École des Hautes Études Commerciales and the École Arago.
He is best known today for two essays he published in 1883 in le Journal des Sciences Militaires (Journal of Military Science) entitled La Cryptographie Militaire (Military Cryptography). These articles surveyed the then state-of-the-art in military cryptography, and made a plea for considerable improvements in French practice. They also included many pieces of practical advice and rules of thumb, including six principles of practical cipher design:
The system should be, if not theoretically unbreakable, unbreakable in practice.
The design of a system should not require secrecy, and compromise of the system should not inconvenience the correspondents (Kerckhoffs's principle).
The key should be memorable without notes and should be easily changeable.
The cryptograms should be transmittable by telegraph.
The apparatus or documents should be portable and operable by a single person.
The system should be easy, neither requiring knowledge of a long list of rules nor involving mental strain.
The best-known is the second of his six principles, also known as Kerckhoffs's principle. It can be understood as the idea that the security of a cryptosystem must depend only on the key, and not on the secrecy of any other part of the system.
Volapük
In 1885, Dr. Kerckhoffs became interested in the constructed language Volapük, and for several years was a leading member of the Volapük movement, and Director of the Academy of Volapük. He published several books on the subject and introduced the movement to France, Spain, and Scandinavia through a series of public lectures.
References
External links
La Cryptographie Militaire — French original and translations into English
Electronic Birth Record of Auguste Kerckhoffs
1835 births
1903 deaths
Pre-computer cryptographers
Dutch cryptographers
People from Nuth
University of Liège alumni
Volapük
Volapükologists | [
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240986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxymercuration%20reaction | Oxymercuration reaction | The oxymercuration reaction is an electrophilic addition organic reaction that transforms an alkene into a neutral alcohol. In oxymercuration, the alkene reacts with mercuric acetate (AcO–Hg–OAc) in aqueous solution to yield the addition of an acetoxymercury (HgOAc) group and a hydroxy (OH) group across the double bond. Carbocations are not formed in this process and thus rearrangements are not observed. The reaction follows Markovnikov's rule (the hydroxy group will always be added to the more substituted carbon) and it is an anti addition (the two groups will be trans to each other).
Oxymercuration followed by reductive demercuration is called an oxymercuration–reduction reaction or oxymercuration–demercuration reaction. This reaction, which is almost always done in practice instead of oxymercuration, is treated at the conclusion of the article.
Mechanism
Oxymercuration can be fully described in three steps (the whole process is sometimes called deoxymercuration), which is illustrated in stepwise fashion to the right. In the first step, the nucleophilic double bond attacks the mercury ion, ejecting an acetoxy group. The electron pair on the mercury ion in turn attacks a carbon on the double bond, forming a mercuronium ion in which the mercury atom bears a positive charge. The electrons in the highest occupied molecular orbital of the double bond are donated to mercury's empty 6s orbital and the electrons in mercury's dxz (or dyz) orbital are donated in the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital of the double bond.
In the second step, the nucleophilic water molecule attacks the more substituted carbon, liberating the electrons participating in its bond with mercury. The electrons collapse to the mercury ion and neutralizes it. The oxygen in the water molecule now bears a positive charge.
In the third step, the negatively charged acetoxy ion that was expelled in the first step attacks a hydrogen of the water group, forming the waste product HOAc. The two electrons participating in the bond between oxygen and the attacked hydrogen collapse into the oxygen, neutralizing its charge and creating the final alcohol product.
Regioselectivity and stereochemistry
Oxymercuration is very regioselective and is a textbook Markovnikov reaction; ruling out extreme cases, the water nucleophile will always preferentially attack the more substituted carbon, depositing the resultant hydroxy group there. This phenomenon is explained by examining the three resonance structures of the mercuronium ion formed at the end of the step one.
By inspection of these structures, it is seen that the positive charge of the mercury atom will sometimes reside on the more substituted carbon (approximately 4% of the time). This forms a temporary tertiary carbocation, which is a very reactive electrophile. The nucleophile will attack the mercuronium ion at this time. Therefore, the nucleophile attacks the more substituted carbon because it retains a more positive character than the lesser substituted carbon.
Stereochemically, oxymercuration is an anti addition. As illustrated by the second step, the nucleophile cannot attack the carbon from the same face as the mercury ion because of steric hindrance. There is simply insufficient room on that face of the molecule to accommodate both a mercury ion and the attacking nucleophile. Therefore, when free rotation is impossible, the hydroxy and acetoxymercuri groups will always be trans to each other.
Shown below is an example of regioselectivity and stereospecificity of the oxymercuration reaction with substituted cyclohexenes. A bulky group like t-butyl locks the ring in a chair conformation and prevents ring flips. With 4-t-butylcyclohexene, oxymercuration yields two products – where addition across the double bond is always anti – with slight preference towards acetoxymercury group trans to the t-butyl group, resulting in slightly more cis product. With 1-methyl-4-t-butylcyclohexene, oxymercuration yields only one product – still anti addition across the double bond – where water only attacks the more substituted carbon. The reason for anti addition across the double bond is to maximize orbital overlap of the lone pair of water and the empty orbital of the mercuronium ion on the opposite side of the acetoxymercury group. Regioselectivity is observed to favor water attacking the more substituted carbon, but water does not add syn across the double bond which implies that the transition state favors water attacking from the opposite side of the acetomercury group.
Oxymercuration–reduction
In practice, the mercury adduct product created by the oxymercuration reaction is almost always treated with sodium borohydride (NaBH4) in aqueous base in a reaction called demercuration. In demercuration, the acetoxymercury group is replaced with a hydrogen in a stereochemically insensitive reaction known as reductive elimination. The combination of oxymercuration followed immediately by demercuration is called an oxymercuration–reduction reaction.
Therefore, the oxymercuration-reduction reaction is the net addition of water across the double bond. Any stereochemistry set up by the oxymercuration step is scrambled by the demercuration step, so that the hydrogen and hydroxy group may be cis or trans from each other. Oxymercuration reduction is a popular laboratory technique to achieve alkene hydration with Markovnikov selectivity while avoiding carbocation intermediates and thus the rearrangement which can lead to complex product mixtures.
Other applications
Oxymercuration is not limited to an alkene reacting with water to add hydroxyl and mercury groups. The carbon–mercury structure can undergo spontaneous replacement of the mercury by hydrogeon, rather than persisting until a separate reduction step. In this manner, the effect is for mercury to be a Lewis acid catalyst. For example, using an alkyne instead of an alkene yields an enol, which tautomerizes into a ketone. Using an alcohol instead of water yields an ether. In both cases, Markovnikov's rule is observed.
Using a vinyl ether in the presence of an alcohol allows the replacement of one alkoxy group (RO–) for another by way of an acetal intermediate. An allyl alcohol and a vinyl ether under the conditions of oxymercuration–reaction can give R–CH=CH–CH2–O–CH=CH2, which is suitable for a Claisen rearrangement.
See also
Hydroboration–oxidation reaction
Mukaiyama hydration
References
Addition reactions
Carbon-heteroatom bond forming reactions | [
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240988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran | Tetrahydrofuran | Tetrahydrofuran (THF), or oxolane, is an organic compound with the formula (CH2)4O. The compound is classified as heterocyclic compound, specifically a cyclic ether. It is a colorless, water-miscible organic liquid with low viscosity. It is mainly used as a precursor to polymers. Being polar and having a wide liquid range, THF is a versatile solvent.
Production
About 200,000 tonnes of tetrahydrofuran are produced annually. The most widely used industrial process involves the acid-catalyzed dehydration of 1,4-butanediol. Ashland/ISP is one of the biggest producers of this chemical route. The method is similar to the production of diethyl ether from ethanol. The butanediol is derived from condensation of acetylene with formaldehyde followed by hydrogenation. DuPont developed a process for producing THF by oxidizing n-butane to crude maleic anhydride, followed by catalytic hydrogenation. A third major industrial route entails hydroformylation of allyl alcohol followed by hydrogenation to 1,4-butanediol.
Other methods
THF can also be synthesized by catalytic hydrogenation of furan. This allows certain sugars to be converted to THF via acid-catalyzed digestion to furfural and decarbonylation to furan, although this method is not widely practiced. THF is thus derivable from renewable resources.
Applications
Polymerization
In the presence of strong acids, THF converts to a linear polymer called poly(tetramethylene ether) glycol (PTMEG), also known as polytetramethylene oxide (PTMO):
n C4H8O → −(CH2CH2CH2CH2O)n−
This polymer is primarily used to make elastomeric polyurethane fibers like Spandex.
As a solvent
The other main application of THF is as an industrial solvent for polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and in varnishes. It is an aprotic solvent with a dielectric constant of 7.6. It is a moderately polar solvent and can dissolve a wide range of nonpolar and polar chemical compounds. THF is water-miscible and can form solid clathrate hydrate structures with water at low temperatures.
THF has been explored as a miscible co-solvent in aqueous solution to aid in the liquefaction and delignification of plant lignocellulosic biomass for production of renewable platform chemicals and sugars as potential precursors to biofuels. Aqueous THF augments the hydrolysis of glycans from biomass and dissolves the majority of biomass lignin making it a suitable solvent for biomass pretreatment.
THF is often used in polymer science. For example, it can be used to dissolve polymers prior to determining their molecular mass using gel permeation chromatography. THF dissolves PVC as well, and thus it is the main ingredient in PVC adhesives. It can be used to liquefy old PVC cement and is often used industrially to degrease metal parts.
THF is used as a component in mobile phases for reversed-phase liquid chromatography. It has a greater elution strength than methanol or acetonitrile, but is less commonly used than these solvents.
THF is used as a solvent in 3D printing when using PLA plastics. It can be used to clean clogged 3D printer parts, as well as when finishing prints to remove extruder lines and add a shine to the finished product.
Recently THF is used as co-solvent for lithium metal batteries, helping to stabilize the metal anode.
Laboratory use
In the laboratory, THF is a popular solvent when its water miscibility is not an issue. It is more basic than diethyl ether and forms stronger complexes with Li+, Mg2+, and boranes. It is a popular solvent for hydroboration reactions and for organometallic compounds such as organolithium and Grignard reagents. Thus, while diethyl ether remains the solvent of choice for some reactions (e.g., Grignard reactions), THF fills that role in many others, where strong coordination is desirable and the precise properties of ethereal solvents such as these (alone and in mixtures and at various temperatures) allows fine-tuning modern chemical reactions.
Commercial THF contains substantial water that must be removed for sensitive operations, e.g. those involving organometallic compounds. Although THF is traditionally dried by distillation from an aggressive desiccant, molecular sieves are superior.
Reaction with hydrogen sulfide
In the presence of a solid acid catalyst, THF reacts with hydrogen sulfide to give tetrahydrothiophene.
Lewis basicity
THF is a Lewis base that bonds to a variety of Lewis acids such as I2, phenols, triethylaluminum and bis(hexafloroacetylacetonato)copper(II). THF have been classified in the ECW model and it has been shown that there is no one order of base strengths. Many complexes are of the stoichiometry MCl3(THF)3.
Precautions
THF is a relatively nontoxic solvent, with the median lethal dose (LD50) comparable to that for acetone. Reflecting its remarkable solvent properties, it penetrates the skin, causing rapid dehydration. THF readily dissolves latex and thus should be handled with nitrile rubber gloves. It is highly flammable.
One danger posed by THF is its tendency to form the explosive compound 2-hydroperoxytetrahydrofuran upon reaction with air:
To minimize this problem, commercial supplies of THF are often stabilized with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT). Distillation of THF to dryness is unsafe because the explosive peroxides can concentrate in the residue.
Related compounds
Tetrahydrofurans
The tetrahydrofuran ring is found in diverse natural products including lignans, acetogenins, and polyketide natural products. Diverse methodology has been developed for the synthesis of substituted THFs.
Oxolanes
Tetrahydrofuran is one of the class of pentic cyclic ethers called oxolanes. There are seven possible structures, namely,
Monoxolane, the root of the group, synonymous with tetrahydrofuran
1,3-dioxolane
1,2-dioxolane
1,2,4-trioxolane
1,2,3-trioxolane
tetroxolane
pentoxolane
See also
Polytetrahydrofuran
2-Methyltetrahydrofuran
Trapp mixture
Other cyclic ethers: oxirane (), oxetane (), oxane ()
References
General reference
External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0578
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
U.S. OSHA info on THF
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240989 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yao%20Ming | Yao Ming | Yao Ming (; born September 12, 1980) is a Chinese basketball executive and former professional player. He played for the Shanghai Sharks of the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA) and the Houston Rockets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Yao was selected to start for the Western Conference in the NBA All-Star Game eight times, and was named to the All-NBA Team five times. During his final season, he was the tallest active player in the NBA, at .
Yao, who was born in Shanghai, started playing for the Sharks as a teenager, and played on their senior team for five years in the CBA, winning a championship in his final year. After negotiating with the CBA and the Sharks to secure his release, Yao was selected by the Rockets as the first overall pick in the 2002 NBA draft. He reached the NBA playoffs four times, and the Rockets won the first-round series in the 2009 postseason, their first playoff series victory since 1997. In July 2011, Yao announced his retirement from professional basketball because of a series of foot and ankle injuries which forced him to miss 250 games in his last six seasons. In eight seasons with the Rockets, Yao ranks sixth among franchise leaders in total points and total rebounds, and second in total blocks.
Yao is one of China's best-known athletes, with sponsorships with several major companies. His rookie year in the NBA was the subject of a documentary film, The Year of the Yao, and he co-wrote, along with NBA analyst Ric Bucher, an autobiography titled Yao: A Life in Two Worlds. Known in China as the "Yao Ming Phenomenon" and in the United States as the "Ming Dynasty", Yao's success in the NBA, and his popularity among fans, made him a symbol of a new China that was both more modern and more confident.
In April 2016, Yao was elected into the Basketball Hall of Fame, alongside Shaquille O'Neal and Allen Iverson. In February 2017, Yao was unanimously elected as chairman of the Chinese Basketball Association.
Early life
Yao is the only child of Yao Zhiyuan and Fang Fengdi, both of whom were former professional basketball players. At , Yao weighed more than twice as much as the average Chinese newborn. When Yao was nine years old, he began playing basketball and attended a junior sports school. The following year, Yao measured and was examined by sports doctors, who predicted he would grow to .
Professional career
Shanghai Sharks (1997–2002)
Yao first tried out for the Shanghai Sharks junior team of the Chinese Basketball Association (CBA) when he was 13 years old, and practiced ten hours a day for his acceptance. After playing with the junior team for four years, Yao joined the senior team of the Sharks, where he averaged 10 points and 8 rebounds a game in his rookie season. His next season was cut short when he broke his foot for the second time in his career, which Yao said decreased his jumping ability by four to six inches (10 to 15 cm). The Sharks made the finals of the CBA in Yao's third season and again the next year, but lost both times to the Bayi Rockets. When Wang Zhizhi left the Bayi Rockets to become the first NBA player from China the following year, the Sharks finally won their first CBA championship. During the playoffs in his final year with Shanghai, Yao averaged 38.9 points and 20.2 rebounds a game, while shooting 76.6% from the field, and made all 21 of his shots during one game in the finals.
Houston Rockets (2002–2011)
Yao was pressured to enter the NBA draft in 1999 by Li Yaomin, the deputy general manager of the Shanghai Sharks. Li also influenced Yao to sign a contract for Evergreen Sports Inc. to serve as his agent. The agreement entitled Evergreen to 33% of Yao's earnings, but the contract was later determined to be invalid.
As American attention on Yao grew, Chinese authorities also took interest. In 2002, the Chinese government released new regulations that would require him and other Chinese players to turn over half of any NBA earnings to the government and China's national basketball association, including endorsements as well as salaries.
When Yao decided to enter the 2002 NBA draft, a group of advisers was formed that came to be known as "Team Yao". The team consisted of Yao's negotiator, Erik Zhang; his NBA agent, Bill Duffy; his Chinese agent, Lu Hao; University of Chicago economics professor John Huizinga; and the vice president for marketing at BDA Sports Management, Bill Sanders. Yao was widely predicted to be picked number one overall. However, some teams were concerned about Yao's NBA eligibility because of uncertainty over whether the CBA would let Yao play in the United States.
Shortly after Wang Zhizhi refused to return to China to play for the national team and was subsequently banned from playing for China, the CBA stipulated that Yao would have to return to play for the national team. They also said they would not let him go to the United States unless the Houston Rockets would take him first overall. After assurances from Team Yao that the Rockets would draft Yao with their number one pick, the CBA gave permission on the morning of the draft for Yao to play in the U.S. When the Rockets selected Yao with the first pick of the draft, he became the first international player ever to be selected first overall without having previously played U.S. college basketball.
Beginning years (2002–2005)
Yao did not participate in the Rockets' pre-season training camp, instead playing for China in the 2002 FIBA World Championships. Before the season, several commentators, including Bill Simmons and Dick Vitale, predicted that Yao would fail in the NBA, and Charles Barkley said he would "kiss Kenny Smith's ass" if Yao scored more than 19 points in one of his rookie-season games. Yao played his first NBA game against the Indiana Pacers, scoring no points and grabbing two rebounds, and scored his first NBA basket against the Denver Nuggets. In his first seven games, he averaged only 14 minutes and 4 points, but on November 17, he scored 20 points on a perfect 9-of-9 from the field and 2-of-2 from the free-throw line against the Lakers. Barkley made good on his bet by kissing the buttock of a donkey purchased by Smith for the occasion (Smith's "ass").
In Yao's first game in Miami on December 16, 2002, the Heat passed out 8,000 fortune cookies, an East Asian cultural stereotype. Yao was not angry with the promotion because he was not familiar with American stereotypes of Chinese. In an earlier interview in 2000, Yao said he had never seen a fortune cookie in China and guessed it must have been an American invention.
Before Yao's first meeting with Shaquille O'Neal on January 17, 2003, O'Neal said, "Tell Yao Ming, ching chong-yang-wah-ah-soh", prompting accusations of racism. O'Neal denied that his comments were racist, and said he was only joking. Yao also said he believed O'Neal was joking, but he said a lot of Asians would not see the humor. In the game, Yao scored the Rockets' first six points of the game and blocked O'Neal twice in the opening minutes as well as altering two other shots by O'Neal, all 4 of those attempts coming right at the rim, and made a game-sealing dunk with 10 seconds left in overtime. Yao finished with 10 points, 10 rebounds, and 6 blocks; O'Neal recorded 31 points, 13 rebounds, and 0 blocks. O'Neal later expressed regret for the way he treated Yao early in his career.
The NBA began offering All-Star ballots in three languages—English, Spanish and Chinese—for fan voting of the starters for the 2003 NBA All-Star Game. Yao was voted to start for the West over O'Neal, who was coming off three consecutive NBA Finals MVP Awards. Yao received nearly a quarter million more votes than O'Neal, and he became the first rookie to start in the All-Star Game since Grant Hill in 1995.
Yao finished his rookie season averaging 13.5 points and 8.2 rebounds per game, and was second in the NBA Rookie of the Year Award voting to Amar'e Stoudemire, and a unanimous pick for the NBA All-Rookie First Team selection. He was also voted the Sporting News Rookie of the Year, and won the Laureus Newcomer of the Year award.
Before the start of Yao's sophomore season, Rockets' head coach Rudy Tomjanovich resigned because of health issues, and long-time New York Knicks head coach Jeff Van Gundy was brought in. After Van Gundy began focusing the offense on Yao, Yao averaged career highs in points and rebounds for the season, and had a career-high 41 points and 7 assists in a triple-overtime win against the Atlanta Hawks in February 2004. He was also voted to be the starting center for the Western Conference in the 2004 NBA All-Star Game for the second straight year. Yao finished the season averaging 17.5 points and 9.0 rebounds a game. The Rockets made the playoffs for the first time in Yao's career, claiming the seventh seed in the Western Conference. In the first round, however, the Los Angeles Lakers eliminated Houston in five games. Yao averaged 15.0 points and 7.4 rebounds in his first playoff series.
In the summer of 2004, the Rockets acquired Tracy McGrady from the Orlando Magic in a seven-player trade that also sent Steve Francis and Cuttino Mobley to Orlando. Although Yao said that Francis and Mobley had "helped [him] in every way [his] first two seasons", he added, "I'm excited about playing with Tracy McGrady. He can do some amazing things." After the trade, it was predicted that the Rockets would be title contenders. Both McGrady and Yao were voted to start in the 2005 NBA All-Star Game, and Yao broke the record previously held by Michael Jordan for most All-Star votes, with 2,558,278 total votes. The Rockets won 51 games and finished fifth in the West, and made the playoffs for the second consecutive year, where they faced the Dallas Mavericks. The Rockets won the first two games in Dallas, and Yao made 13 of 14 shots in the second game, the best shooting performance in the playoffs in Rockets history. However, the Rockets lost four of their last five games and lost Game 7 by 40 points, the largest Game 7 deficit in NBA history. Yao's final averages for the series were 21.4 points on 65% shooting and 7.7 rebounds.
Injury-plagued seasons (2005–2011)
After missing only two games out of 246 in his first three years of NBA play, Yao endured an extended period on the inactive list in his fourth season after developing osteomyelitis in the big toe on his left foot, and surgery was performed on the toe on December 18, 2005. Despite missing 21 games while recovering, Yao again had the most fan votes to start the 2006 NBA All-Star Game.
In 25 games after the All-Star break, Yao averaged 25.7 points and 11.6 rebounds per game, while shooting 53.7% from the field and 87.8% at the free-throw line. His final averages in 57 games were 22.3 points and 10.2 rebounds per game. It was the first time that he ended the season with a so-called "20/10" average. However, Tracy McGrady played only 47 games in the season, missing time because of back spasms. Yao and McGrady played only 31 games together, and the Rockets did not make the playoffs, winning only 34 games. With only four games left in the season, Yao suffered another injury in a game against the Utah Jazz on April 10, 2006, which left him with a broken bone in his left foot. The injury required six months of rest.
Early into his fifth season, Yao was injured again, this time breaking his right knee on December 23, 2006, while attempting to block a shot. Up to that point he had been averaging 26.8 points, 9.7 rebounds and 2.3 blocks per game, and had been mentioned as an MVP candidate. Yao was unable to play in what would have been his fifth All-Star game; he was medically cleared to play on March 4, 2007, after missing 32 games.
Despite Yao's absence, the Rockets made the playoffs with the home court advantage against the Utah Jazz in the first round. The Rockets won the first two games, but then lost four of five games and were eliminated in Game 7 at home; Yao scored 29 points—15 in the fourth quarter. Although he averaged 25.1 points and 10.3 rebounds for the series, Yao said afterwards "I didn't do my job". At the end of the season, Yao was selected to the All-NBA Second Team for the first time in his career, after being selected to the All-NBA Third Team twice.
On May 18, 2007, only weeks after the Rockets were eliminated from the playoffs, Jeff Van Gundy was dismissed as head coach. Three days later, the Rockets signed former Sacramento Kings coach Rick Adelman, who was thought to focus more on offense than the defensive-minded Van Gundy.
On November 9, 2007, Yao played against fellow Chinese NBA and Milwaukee Bucks player Yi Jianlian for the first time. The game, which the Rockets won 104–88, was broadcast on 19 networks in China, and was watched by over 200 million people in China alone, making it one of the most-watched NBA games in history. In the 2008 NBA All-Star Game, Yao was once again voted to start at center for the Western Conference. Before the All-Star weekend, the Rockets had won eight straight games, and after the break, they took their win streak to 12 games. On February 26, 2008, however, it was reported that Yao would miss the rest of the season with a stress fracture in his left foot. He missed the 2008 NBA playoffs, but he did not miss the 2008 Summer Olympics at Beijing, China in August. After Yao's injury, the Rockets stretched their winning streak to 22 games, at the time the second-longest such streak in NBA history. Yao underwent a successful operation on March 3, which placed screws in his foot to strengthen the bone, and recovery time was estimated at four months. Yao's final averages in 55 games were 22.0 points, 10.8 rebounds, and 2.0 blocks a game.
The next season, Yao played 77 games, his first full season since the 2004–05 season, and averaged 19.7 points and 9.9 rebounds, while shooting 54.8% from the field, and a career-high 86.6% from the free throw line. Despite McGrady suffering a season-ending injury in February, the Rockets finished with 53 wins and the fifth seed in the Western Conference. Facing the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round, Yao finished with 24 points on 9-of-9 shooting in the first game, and the Rockets won 108–81, in Portland. The Rockets won all their games in Houston, and advanced to the second round of the playoffs for the first time since 1997, and the first time in Yao's career.
The Rockets faced the Lakers in the second round, and Yao scored 28 points, with 8 points in the final four minutes, to lead the Rockets to a 100–92 win in Los Angeles. However, the Rockets lost their next two games, and Yao was diagnosed with a sprained ankle after Game 3. A follow-up test revealed a hairline fracture in his left foot, and he was ruled out for the remainder of the playoffs. In reaction, Yao said the injury, which did not require surgery, was "better than last year". However, follow-up analysis indicated that the injury could be career threatening. The Yao-less Rockets went on to win Game 4 against the Lakers to even the series 2–2. The Rockets eventually lost the series in seven games.
In July 2009, Yao discussed the injury with his doctors, and the Rockets applied for a disabled player exception, an exception to the NBA salary cap which grants the injured player's team money to sign a free agent. The Rockets were granted the exception, and used approximately $5.7 million on free agent Trevor Ariza. After weeks of consulting, it was decided that Yao would undergo surgery in order to repair the broken bone in his left foot. He did not play the entire 2009–10 season.
For the 2010–11 season, the Rockets said they would limit Yao to 24 minutes a game, with no plan to play him on back-to-back nights. Their goal was to keep Yao healthy in the long term. On December 16, 2010, it was announced that Yao had developed a stress fracture in his left ankle, related to an older injury, and would miss the rest of the season. In January 2011, he was voted as the Western Conference starting center for the 2011 All-Star Game for the eighth time in nine seasons. Injured All-Stars are usually required to attend the All-Star functions and to be introduced at the game, but Yao was not in Los Angeles because of his rehabilitation schedule after his surgery. Yao's contract with the Rockets expired at the end of the season, and he became a free agent.
Retirement
On July 20, 2011, Yao announced his retirement from basketball in a press conference in Shanghai. He cited injuries to his foot and ankle, including the third fracture to his left foot sustained near the end of 2010. His retirement sparked over 1.2 million comments on the Chinese social-networking site Sina Weibo. Reacting to Yao's retirement, NBA commissioner David Stern said Yao was a "bridge between Chinese and American fans" and that he had "a wonderful mixture of talent, dedication, humanitarian aspirations and a sense of humor." Shaquille O'Neal said Yao "was very agile. He could play inside, he could play outside, and if he didn't have those injuries he could've been up there in the top five centers to ever play the game."
Yao was nominated by a member of the Chinese media for the Naismith Basketball Hall of Fame as a contributor to the game. He would have been eligible for induction as early as 2012, but Yao felt it was too soon and requested that the Hall of Fame delay consideration of the nomination. The Hall granted Yao's request, and said it was Yao's decision when the process would be restarted.
On September 9, 2016, Yao was inducted into the Hall of Fame along with 4-time NBA champion Shaquille O'Neal and Allen Iverson. Continuing with the honours, on February 3, 2017, Yao's Number 11 jersey was retired by the Houston Rockets.
National team career
2000 and 2004 Olympics
Yao first played for China in the 2000 Summer Olympics, and he was dubbed, together with teammates Wang Zhizhi and Mengke Bateer, "The Walking Great Wall". During the 2004 Athens Olympics, Yao carried the Chinese flag during the opening ceremony, which he said was a "long dream come true". He then vowed to abstain from shaving his beard for half a year unless the Chinese national team made it into the quarter-finals of the 2004 Olympics. After Yao scored 39 points in a win against New Zealand, China lost 58–83, 57–82, and 52–89 against Spain, Argentina and Italy respectively. In the final group game, however, a 67–66 win over the reigning 2002 FIBA World Champions Serbia and Montenegro moved them into the quarterfinals. Yao scored 27 points and had 13 rebounds, and he hit two free throws with 28 seconds left that proved to be the winning margin. He averaged 20.7 points and 9.3 rebounds per game while shooting 55.9% from the field.
Asian Cup
Yao led the Chinese national team to three consecutive FIBA Asia Cup gold medals, winning the 2001 FIBA Asian Championship, the 2003 FIBA Asian Championship, and the 2005 FIBA Asian Championship. He was also named the MVP of all three tournaments.
2006 World Championship
Yao's injury at the end of the 2005–06 NBA season required a full six months of rest, threatening his participation in the 2006 FIBA World Championship. However, he recovered before the start of the tournament, and in the last game of the preliminary round, he had 36 points and 10 rebounds in a win against Slovenia to lead China into the Round of 16. In the first knockout round, however, China was defeated by eventual finalist Greece. Yao's final averages were 25.3 points, the most in the tournament, and 9.0 rebounds a game, which was fourth overall.
2008 Olympics
After having surgery to repair his fractured foot, Yao stated if he could not play in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, "It would be the biggest loss in my career to right now." He returned to play with the Chinese national team on July 17, 2008. On August 6, Yao carried the Olympic flame into Tiananmen Square, as part of the Olympic torch relay. He also carried the Chinese flag and led his country's delegation during the opening ceremony. Yao scored the first basket of the game, a three-pointer, in China's opening 2008 Olympics Basketball Tournament game against the eventual gold medal-winning United States.
"I was just really happy to make that shot", Yao said after the Americans' 101–70 victory. "It was the first score in our Olympic campaign here at home and I'll always remember it. It represents that we can keep our heads up in the face of really tough odds."
Following an overtime defeat to Spain, Yao scored 30 points in a win over Angola, and 25 points in a three-point win against Germany, which clinched China's place in the quarterfinals. However, China lost to Lithuania in the quarterfinals by 26 points, eliminating them from the tournament. Yao's 19 points a game were the second-highest in the Olympics, and his averages of 8.2 rebounds and 1.5 blocks per game were third overall.
Career statistics
CBA statistics
NBA statistics
Regular season
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 82* ||72||29.0||.498||.500||.811||8.2||1.7||.4||1.8||13.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| style="background:#cfecec;"| 82*|| style="background:#cfecec;"|82*||32.8||.522||.000||.809||9.0||1.5||.3||1.9||17.5
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 80||80||30.6||.552||.000||.783||8.4||.8||.4||2.0||18.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 57||57||34.2||.519||.000||.853||10.2||1.5||.5||1.6||22.3
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 48||48||33.8||.516||.000||.862||9.4||2.0||.4||2.0||25.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 55||55||37.2||.507||.000||.850||10.8||2.3||.5||2.0||22.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 77||77||33.6||.548||1.000||.866||9.9||1.8||.4||1.9||19.7
|-
| style="text-align:left;"|
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 5||5||18.2||.486||.000||.938||5.4||.8||.0||1.6||10.2
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career
| 486||476||32.5||.524||.200||.833||9.2||1.6||.4||1.9||19.0
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| All-Star
| 6||6||17.0||.500||.000||.667||4.0||1.3||.2||.3||7.0
Playoffs
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2004
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 5||5||37.0||.456||.000||.765||7.4||1.8||.4||1.4||15.0
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2005
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 7||7||31.4||.655||.000||.727||7.7||.7||.3||2.7||21.4
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2007
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 7||7||37.1||.440||.000||.880||10.3||.9||.1||.7||25.1
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 2009
| style="text-align:left;"| Houston
| 9||9||35.9||.545||.000||.902||10.9||1.0||.4||1.2||17.1
|- class="sortbottom"
| style="text-align:center;" colspan=2| Career
| 28||28||35.3||.519||.000||.833||9.3||1.0||.3||1.5||19.8
Awards and achievements
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame: Class of 2016
8× NBA All-Star: 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2011
5× All-NBA Team:
Second Team: 2007, 2009
Third Team: 2004, 2006, 2008
NBA All-Rookie First Team: 2003
NBA Rookie All-Star Game: 2004
Gold medal winner with Team China at the 2001, 2003, and 2005 FIBA Asia Cups
MVP of the 2001, 2003, 2005 FIBA Asia Cups
FIBA Diamond Ball Top Scorer: 2004
All-Tournament Team, FIBA World Cup: 2002
Chinese Basketball Association Champion: 2001–02
Rebounding leader in CBA in 2001–02
2003 Sporting News Rookie of the Year
2003 Laureus Newcomer of the Year
2005 Proletarian Award, issued by the Chinese Communist Party
Personal life
After Yao announced that he would enter the 2002 NBA draft, he told one American journalist that he had been studying English for two years, and that he liked the movie Star Wars but disliked hip hop. He was sometimes accompanied during interviews in Shanghai by one of his parents, whose basketball careers were derailed by the 1966–76 Cultural Revolution, and who came to his Shanghai Sharks games on bicycles.
Yao met Chinese female basketball player Ye Li when he was 17 years old. Ye was not fond of Yao at first, but finally accepted him after he gave her the team pins he had collected during the 2000 Summer Olympics. She is the only woman he has ever dated. Their relationship became public when they appeared together during the 2004 Olympics closing ceremony. On August 6, 2007, Yao and Ye married in a ceremony attended by close friends and family and closed to the media. On May 21, 2010, the couple's daughter Yao Qinlei (whose English name is Amy) was born in Houston, Texas.
In 2004, Yao co-wrote an autobiography with ESPN sportswriter Ric Bucher, entitled Yao: A Life in Two Worlds. In the same year, he was also the subject of a documentary film, The Year of the Yao, which focuses on his NBA rookie year. The film is narrated by his friend and interpreter, Colin Pine. In 2005, former Newsweek writer Brook Larmer published a book entitled Operation Yao Ming, in which he said that Yao's parents were convinced to marry each other so that they would produce a dominant athlete, and that during Yao's childhood, he was given special treatment to help him become a great basketball player. In a 2015 AMA post on Reddit, Yao stated that this was not true and that he started playing basketball for fun at age 9. In 2009, Yao provided the voice for a character of a Chinese animated film, The Magic Aster, released on June 19.
Yao enrolled at the Antai College of Economics & Management of Shanghai Jiao Tong University in 2011. He took a tailored degree program with mostly one-on-one lectures to avoid being a distraction on campus. Yao completed his studies in July 2018, graduating with a degree in economics after 7 years of study.
In 2016, Yao opened a winery called Yao Family Wines in Napa Valley, California, which serves Cabernet Sauvignon blends and "the kind of rich-but-balanced luxury reds he'd come to enjoy in Houston steakhouses." American wine critic Robert M. Parker Jr. of The Wine Advocate gave Yao's wine a ranking of 96 points and wrote: "I am aware of all the arguments that major celebrities lending their names to wines is generally a formula for mediocrity, but... the two Cabernets are actually brilliant, and the reserve bottling ranks alongside just about anything made in Napa."
Other activities
Commercial engagements
Yao is one of China's most recognizable athletes, along with Liu Xiang. As of 2009, he had led Forbes' Chinese celebrities list in income and popularity for six straight years, earning US$51 million (CN¥357 million) in 2008. A major part of his income comes from his sponsorship deals, as he is under contract with several major companies to endorse their products. He was signed by Nike until the end of his rookie season. When Nike decided not to renew his contract, he signed with Reebok. He also had a deal with Pepsi, and he successfully sued Coca-Cola in 2003 when they used his image on their bottles while promoting the national team. He eventually signed with Coca-Cola for the 2008 Olympics. His other deals include partnerships with Visa, Apple, Garmin, and McDonald's.
On July 16, 2009, Yao bought his former club team, the Shanghai Sharks, which were on the verge of not being able to play the next season of the Chinese Basketball Association because of financial troubles.
Philanthropy
Yao has also participated in many charity events during his career, including the NBA's Basketball Without Borders program. In the NBA's offseason in 2003, Yao hosted a telethon, which raised US$300,000 to help stop the spread of SARS. In September 2007, he held an auction that raised US$965,000 (CN¥6.75 million), and competed in a charity basketball match to raise money for underprivileged children in China. He was joined by fellow NBA stars Steve Nash, Carmelo Anthony, and Baron Davis, and Hong Kong actor Jackie Chan. After the 2008 Sichuan earthquake, Yao donated $2 million to relief work and created the Yao Ming Foundation to help rebuild schools destroyed in the earthquake.
Yao has also been a dedicated supporter of Special Olympics. He serves as Global Ambassador and member of the International Board of Directors.
Conservation work
In August 2012, Yao started filming a documentary about the northern white rhinoceros. He is also an ambassador for elephant conservation. In 2014, he was also part of the documentary The End of the Wild about elephant conservation. Yao has filmed a number of public service announcements for elephant and rhino conservation for the "Say No" campaign with partners African Wildlife Foundation and WildAid.
Politics
On March 3, 2013, Yao attended the First Session of the 12th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference as one of its 2,200 members. He was a member of the CPPCC from 2013 to 2018. While he is involved in Chinese politics, he is not a member of the Chinese Communist Party, although he has been awarded the Proletarian Award by the party for his spreading of literacy and socialist ideologies.
See also
List of celebrities who own wineries and vineyards
List of tallest players in National Basketball Association history
References
External links
The Yao Ming Foundation official website
1980 births
Living people
2002 FIBA World Championship players
2006 FIBA World Championship players
Asian Games medalists in basketball
Asian Games silver medalists for China
Basketball players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2002 Asian Games
Basketball players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
Basketball players at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Basketball players from Shanghai
Centers (basketball)
Chinese Basketball Association executives
Chinese expatriate basketball people in the United States
Chinese men's basketball players
Chinese philanthropists
Houston Rockets draft picks
Houston Rockets players
Laureus World Sports Awards winners
Medalists at the 2002 Asian Games
Members of the 12th Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees
National Basketball Association All-Stars
National Basketball Association players from China
Olympic basketball players of China
Shanghai Jiao Tong University alumni
Shanghai Sharks players | [
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240990 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroboration%E2%80%93oxidation%20reaction | Hydroboration–oxidation reaction | Hydroboration–oxidation reaction is a two-step hydration reaction that converts an alkene into an alcohol. The process results in the syn addition of a hydrogen and a hydroxyl group where the double bond had been. Hydroboration–oxidation is an anti-Markovnikov reaction, with the hydroxyl group attaching to the less-substituted carbon. The reaction thus provides a more stereospecific and complementary regiochemical alternative to other hydration reactions such as acid-catalyzed addition and the oxymercuration–reduction process. The reaction was first reported by Herbert C. Brown in the late 1950s and it was recognized in his receiving the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1979.
The general form of the reaction is as follows:
Tetrahydrofuran (THF) is the archetypal solvent used for hydroboration.
Mechanism and scope
Hydroboration step
In the first step, borane (BH3) adds to the double bond, transferring one of the hydrogen atoms to the carbon adjacent to the one that becomes bonded to the boron. This hydroboration is repeated two additional times, successively reacting each B–H bond so that three alkenes add to each BH3. The resulting trialkylborane is treated with hydrogen peroxide in the second step. This process replaces the B-C bonds with HO-C bonds. The boron reagent is converted to boric acid. The reaction was originally described by H.C. Brown in 1957 for the conversion of 1-hexene into 1-hexanol.
Knowing that the group containing the boron will be replaced by a hydroxyl group, it can be seen that the initial hydroboration step determines the regioselectivity. Hydroboration proceeds in an anti-Markovnikov manner. The reaction sequence is also stereospecific, giving syn addition (on the same face of the alkene): the hydroboration is syn-selective and the oxidation replaces the boron with hydroxyl having the same geometric position. Thus 1-methylcyclopentene reacts with diborane predominantly to give trans-1-hydroxy-2-methylcyclopentane—the newly added H and OH are cis to each other.
Until all hydrogens attached to boron have been transferred away, the boron group BH2 will continue adding to more alkenes. This means that one mole of hydroborane will undergo the reaction with three moles of alkene. Furthermore, it is not necessary for the hydroborane to have more than one hydrogen. For example, reagents of the type R2BH are commonly used, where R can represents the remainder of the molecule. Such modified hydroboration reagents include 9-BBN, catecholborane, and disiamylborane.
Oxidation step
In the second step of the reaction sequence, the nucleophilic hydroperoxide anion attacks the boron atom. Alkyl migration to oxygen gives the alkyl borane with retention of stereochemistry (in reality, the reaction occurs via the trialkyl borate B(OR)3, rather than the monoalkyl borinic ester BH2OR).
The 'H' atom in the reaction comes from B2H6, the 'O' atom comes from hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) whereas the O attached 'H' atom comes from the solvent (refer mechanism).
Alkyne hydroboration
A hydroboration reaction also takes place on alkynes. Again the mode of action is syn and secondary reaction products are aldehydes from terminal alkynes and ketones from internal alkynes. In order to prevent hydroboration across both the pi-bonds, a bulky borane like disiamyl (di-sec-iso-amyl) borane is used.
Alternative oxidations
Use of other oxidants instead of hydrogen peroxide can lead to carbonyl products rather than alcohols from alkenes. N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide with catalytic tetrapropylammonium perruthenate converts the alkylborane into a carbonyl, thus a ketone or aldehyde product depending on what other groups were attached to that carbon in the original alkene. Various dichromates or related chromium(VI) reagents give ketones as well, but give carboxylic acids instead of aldehydes for terminal alkenes.
References
External links
Organic Chemistry Portal. Hydroboration (including recent literature). https://www.organic-chemistry.org/namedreactions/brown-hydroboration.shtm
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240991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-box | S-box | In cryptography, an S-box (substitution-box) is a basic component of symmetric key algorithms which performs substitution. In block ciphers, they are typically used to obscure the relationship between the key and the ciphertext, thus ensuring Shannon's property of confusion. Mathematically, an S-box is a vectorial Boolean function.
In general, an S-box takes some number of input bits, m, and transforms them into some number of output bits, n, where n is not necessarily equal to m. An m×n S-box can be implemented as a lookup table with 2m words of n bits each. Fixed tables are normally used, as in the Data Encryption Standard (DES), but in some ciphers the tables are generated dynamically from the key (e.g. the Blowfish and the Twofish encryption algorithms).
Example
One good example of a fixed table is the S-box from DES (S5), mapping 6-bit input into a 4-bit output:
Given a 6-bit input, the 4-bit output is found by selecting the row using the outer two bits (the first and last bits), and the column using the inner four bits. For example, an input "011011" has outer bits "01" and inner bits "1101"; the corresponding output would be "1001".
The eight S-boxes of DES were the subject of intense study for many years out of a concern that a backdoor (a vulnerability known only to its designers) might have been planted in the cipher. The S-box design criteria were eventually published (in ) after the public rediscovery of differential cryptanalysis, showing that they had been carefully tuned to increase resistance against this specific attack. Biham and Shamir found that even small modifications to an S-box could significantly weaken DES.
Analysis and properties
There has been a great deal of research into the design of good S-boxes, and much more is understood about their use in block ciphers than when DES was released.
Any S-box where any linear combination of output bits is produced by a bent function of the input bits is termed a perfect S-box.
S-boxes can be analyzed using linear cryptanalysis and differential cryptanalysis in the form of a Linear Approximation Table (LAT) or Walsh transform and Difference Distribution Table (DDT) or autocorrelation table and spectrum. Its strength may be summarized by the nonlinearity (bent, almost bent) and differential uniformity (perfectly nonlinear, almost perfectly nonlinear).
See also
Bijection, injection and surjection
Boolean function
Nothing-up-my-sleeve number
Permutation box (P-box)
Permutation cipher
Rijndael S-box
Substitution cipher
References
Further reading
External links
A literature survey on S-box design
John Savard's "Questions of S-box Design"
"Substitution Box Design based on Gaussian Distribution"
Cryptographic algorithms | [
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240992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korn%20Ferry | Korn Ferry | Korn Ferry is a management consulting firm headquartered in Los Angeles, California. It was founded in 1969 and as of 2019, operates in 111 offices in 53 countries and employs 8,198 people worldwide. Korn Ferry operates through four business segments: Consulting, Digital, Executive Search, and RPO and Professional Search.
History
Korn Ferry was founded in 1969 by Lester Korn and Richard Ferry. The two first met in 1962, when they worked for Los Angeles accounting firm Peat, Marwick, Mitchell.
In 1969 the firm went public with an initial public offering (IPO), but in 1974 reacquired all outstanding shares to become private again. In 1973 Korn Ferry formed Tokyo, Japan-based Korn Ferry International Japan. With the opening in 1975 of Korn Ferry International Singapore, the company had 41 offices in 20 countries. In 1977 they acquired the Mexico City firm Hazzard & Associados. In 1978 they opened offices in Malaysia and Hong Kong, and acquired the UK firm John Stork. In 1979 they acquired Australian-based Guy Pease Associates.
In 1981 the company became the largest executive search firm in the world, with Lester Korn serving as Chairman and CEO. In 1987 the firm opened an office in Bangkok, Thailand. They then had 37 offices in fifteen countries servicing around 1,250 client corporations and organizations. In 1989, the firm's revenues exceeded $100 million for the first time.
In May 1991 Lester Korn retired as chairman and Richard Ferry, the president and CEO, assumed the additional role of chairman. Following this, the firm initiated several office closures. In 1992 Korn Ferry implemented a video-conferencing system for screening job candidates. In 1993, the firm acquired Carre Orban and Partners and merged its European operations into a firm branded in Europe as Korn/Ferry Carre/Orban International. In the next five years, the firm opened their first offices in India (1994), China (1995), Indonesia (1996), and South Korea (1998).
In August 1998, Korn Ferry partnered with The Wall Street Journal to start Futurestep.com, aimed at the middle management level. By 2001 Futurestep had been rolled out to 22 countries; it incurred worldwide losses of $60 million through January 31, 2001.
In 1999 Korn Ferry acquired the German firm Hofman Herbold and the Australian firm Amrop International. In 2000 it acquired the London-based PA Consulting Group for an estimated $35M. In 2000 it purchased Boston-based financial services search firm Westgate Group, and Canada-based Pratzer & Partners Inc.
During an executive-search industry contraction, Korn Ferry's 2001 redundancies were "more dramatic than those of competitors who aren't publicly traded" such as Spencer Stuart and Russell Reynolds Associates. This was reported and attributed to having "expanded so heavily during the technology boom" coupled with Korn Ferry's new CEO Paul C. Reilly choosing to "send a message to shareholders."
In 2001 Korn Ferry purchased Levy Kerson, Helstrom Turner & Associates, and Pearson, Caldwell, and Farnworth. In 2005 the firm moved its regional head office to Shanghai, China, and had a total of 73 offices in forty countries. In 2006 Korn Ferry acquired leadership development tools firm Lominger Limited of Golden Valley for $24M.
In 2006 the company acquired Lominger International, and in 2007 Gary Burnison became the company's new CEO. That year the company acquired LeaderSource. In 2008 they acquired Lore International Institute, and in June 2009, they acquired the London-based Whitehead Mann. In 2010 they acquired Sensa Solutions, in 2013 Korn Ferry completed its acquisition of Minneapolis-based PDI Ninth House for $80M; in 2015 they acquired Pivot Leadership and Hay Group.
In 2018 Korn Ferry took a one-time, non-cash intangible asset impairment charge of $106 million, or $79 million on an after-tax basis, to account for rebranding its entire business simply as "Korn Ferry," and sunsetting all the Company's sub-brands, including Futurestep, Hay Group, and Lominger.
Whitehead Mann
Whitehead Mann was a London-based executive search firm was acquired by Korn/Ferry International in June 2009.
Whitehead Engineering was founded by Clive Whitehead, who on marriage merged his firm with that of his wife's, the psychologist Anna Mann (Mann Recruitment), to form Whitehead Mann in the 1970s. The firm listed on the AIM part of FTSE in 1997. By 2003 the company had market capitalisation of £33 million mainly through acquisition, with offices in London, Paris, Frankfurt, Hong Kong and New York; together with training and advisory divisions.
During the dot.com boom, the firm's fortunes climbed and fell. After strategy disagreements with new CEO Gerard Clery-Melin, in 2003 Mann announced her decision to leave the firm, subsequently setting up MWM Consulting in 2004. In 2006, the company was subject of a £26 million management buyout, financed by investor Palladian Investors, a division of Och-Ziff. Carol Leonard subsequently took a six-month sabbatical as head of search, and then left the firm in February 2009.
Litigation
In 2005 Korn Ferry accused one of its former star recruiters, David Nosal, of stealing confidential client data to establish his own competing firm. In 2008 Nosal was charged under the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA). In 2016 the US 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled, in United States v Nosal, that Nosal's was a criminal act under CFAA." In 2018 Nosal was ordered to prison.
Sponsorship
On June 19, 2019, the PGA Tour and Korn Ferry announced they had entered a 10-year agreement making Korn Ferry the Umbrella Sponsor of the newly named Korn Ferry Tour, the developmental tour for the PGA. In replacing Web.com, Korn Ferry's sponsorship will extend through the 2028 season. The Korn Ferry Tour will continue to award PGA Tour membership to the Tour's 50 leading players, including the top 25 from the Regular Season points list and the top 25 from the three-event Korn Ferry Tour Finals points list.
References
External links
Consulting
International management consulting firms
Management consulting firms of the United States
Executive search firms
Companies based in Los Angeles
Companies listed on the New York Stock Exchange
Consulting firms established in 1969
1969 establishments in California | [
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240994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Basketball%20League%20%281961%E2%80%931962%29 | American Basketball League (1961–1962) | The American Basketball League played one full season, 1961–1962, and part of the next season until the league folded on December 31, 1962. The ABL was the first basketball league to have a three-point field goal for shots scored far away from the goal. Other rules that set the league apart were a 30-second shooting clock and a wider free throw lane of 18 feet instead of the standard 12.
Formation
The league was formed when Harlem Globetrotters owner Abe Saperstein was not awarded the Los Angeles National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise he felt he had been promised in return for his years of supporting the NBA with doubleheader games featuring his highly popular Trotters.
When Minneapolis Lakers owner Bob Short was permitted to move the Lakers to Los Angeles, Saperstein reacted by convincing National Alliance of Basketball Leagues (NABL) team owner Paul Cohen (Tuck Tapers) and Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) National Champion Cleveland Pipers owner George Steinbrenner to take the top NABL and AAU teams and players and form a rival league.
Saperstein was secretly planning the new league since 1959 but it is unclear whether he would have abandoned these plans were he granted the NBA franchise. In reality, Saperstein and Cohen each secretly made arrangements with local promoters in the other cities to finance those teams so there would be an eight-team league.
Saperstein placed the Los Angeles Jets to take on the transplanted Lakers. He got Bill Sharman as coach and signed former NBA players Larry Friend and George Yardley to give the team instant credibility. The idea backfired; the Jets did not last the season.
George Steinbrenner
In Cleveland, Steinbrenner's coach was John McLendon, who became the first African-American coach of a major pro basketball team. He was hired by Pipers' general manager, Mike Cleary, later the Executive Director of the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics. McLendon had several of his star players from Tennessee State such as John Barnhill and Ben Warley, plus several former Akron Wingfoots, such as Johnny Cox and Jimmy Darrow, who had won the AAU National Championship the year before. In a game against the Hawaii Chiefs, Steinbrenner sold player Grady McCollum to the Chiefs at halftime. McLendon chafed at Steinbrenner's interference and quit in midseason, following the team's return from playing in Hawaii. Steinbrenner immediately named Sharman, from the recently defunct Jets, as his coach, and the Pipers went on to win the only ABL title in the league's brief history.
Jerry Lucas
Steinbrenner signed All-American Jerry Lucas to a contract worth $40,000. With the Lucas signing, Steinbrenner had a secret deal with NBA commissioner Maurice Podoloff. The Pipers would merge with the Kansas City Steers and join the NBA. A schedule was printed for the 1963–64 NBA season with the Pipers playing the New York Knicks in the first game. The gambit worked, but the ABL sued to block the move, and as a result Steinbrenner had a team and no league. Instead of returning to the ABL, Steinbrenner folded his tent. This chicanery masked a series of other ABL moves.
Relocation
The Hawaii Chiefs drew well, but other teams felt the cost of air travel was prohibitive, resulting in scheduling that saw the Eastern teams playing all of their games in Hawaii within a 5-6 day period and vice versa. After that first season, the Chiefs relocated to Long Beach, California. The San Francisco Saints escaped head-to-head competition with the newly relocated San Francisco Warriors by heading to Oakland. Paul Cohen, who secretly owned the Pittsburgh team as well as officially owning the Tapers, moved the Tapers again from New York, where they had been an NABL powerhouse for years, to Philadelphia, where he hoped to fill the void of the move of the Warriors (with Wilt Chamberlain) from Philadelphia to San Francisco.
The radical changes, combined with uneven attendance (although some teams, such as the Kansas City Steers, drew well), and no fresh capital from new owners, caused Saperstein and Cohen to decide to throw in the towel with the close of 1962 on December 31. The league that pioneered the three-point shot and the wider foul line (both eventually adopted by the rest of the basketball world) was gone. After the ABL folded, Steinbrenner had $125,000 in debts and personal losses of $2 million.
Teams
Chicago Majors (1961–62, 1962–63)
Cleveland Pipers (1961–62)
Kansas City Steers (1961–62, 1962–63)
Long Beach Chiefs (1962–63 as Hawaii Chiefs in 1961–62)
Los Angeles Jets (1961–62, disbanded during season)
Oakland Oaks (1962–63 as San Francisco Saints in 1961–62)
Philadelphia Tapers (1962–63, as Washington Tapers in 1961–62; moved to New York during 1961–62 season; as New York Tapers in 1961–62)
Pittsburgh Rens (1961–62, 1962–63)
Champions
Year | Winner | Result | Runner-up
1961–62 Cleveland Pipers 3 games to 2 games Kansas City Steers
1962–63 Kansas City Steers declared champions
Notable players
ABL players included the following:
Jack Adams
Dick Barnett
Sylvester "Sy" Blye
Bucky Bolyard
Bill Bridges
Frank Burgess
Jeff Cohen
Kelly Coleman
Gene Conley
Johnny Cox
Connie Dierking
Bevo Francis
Connie Hawkins
Tony Jackson
Roger Kaiser
Maurice King
Herb Lee
Walt Mangham
Nick Mantis
Phil Rollins
Fred Sawyer
Ken Sears
Larry Siegfried
Bill Spivey
Bruce Spraggins
Larry Staverman
John F. Sullivan
Dan Swartz
Roger Taylor
Gene Tormohlen
Herschell Turner
Ben Warley
Win Wilfong
George Yardley
Wayne Yates
Rebirth
The Philadelphia Tapers, Kansas City Steers, Hawaii Chiefs, Cleveland Pipers, and the Los Angeles Jets eventually returned to their NABL roots, where they continue as AAU Elite teams.
References
External links
Association for Professional Basketball Research History of the American Basketball League
Defunct basketball leagues in the United States
Sports leagues established in 1961
Sports leagues disestablished in 1962
1961 establishments in the United States
1962 disestablishments in the United States | [
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240995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blancmange%20%28band%29 | Blancmange (band) | Blancmange () are an English synth-pop band formed in Harrow, London, in 1979. The band were a duo for much of their career, composed of Neil Arthur (vocals) and Stephen Luscombe (keyboards). They came to prominence in the early 1980s, releasing four UK top-20 singles: "Living on the Ceiling", "Waves", "Blind Vision" and "Don't Tell Me". They released three albums during that decade: Happy Families (1982), Mange Tout (1984) and Believe You Me (1985).
The duo amicably parted in 1986 but reformed in the late 2000s, and in 2011 released their fourth album, Blanc Burn. Luscombe left following the release due to ill health, and since then Arthur alone has continued to perform under the Blancmange name, releasing nine new studio albums along with a re-recording of the band's debut album, titled Happy Families Too.... He has also been involved in a further three collaborative albums as Fader (with Benge) and Near Future (with Jez Bernholz).
Biography
Formation
Blancmange was formed in Harrow, London, in 1979 by singer Neil Arthur (born 15 June 1958, Darwen, Lancashire), instrumentalists Stephen Luscombe (born 29 October 1954, Hillingdon, Middlesex) and Laurence Stevens. Stevens left shortly after the band was formed, and Arthur and Luscombe continued as a duo. The group's name derived from the dessert of the same name. The duo released their first EP, Irene and Mavis, the following year, but their first real exposure came via the track "Sad Day" on the Some Bizzare Album compilation, alongside acts such as Soft Cell and Depeche Mode. This led to them signing a recording contract with London Records. In December 1981 they supported Japan on their "Visions of China" UK tour.
Success
The duo found minor success with their 1982 double A-sided single, "God's Kitchen"/"I've Seen the Word", which peaked at no. 65 in the UK. This was followed by "Feel Me", which peaked at no. 46. Later that year, they broke through with "Living on the Ceiling", which reached no. 7 on the UK Singles Chart and was an international hit. Their debut album, Happy Families (which featured a sleeve painting in the style of Louis Wain and of the cover artwork of Enid Blyton's books), also reached the top 30.
Further hits followed with "Waves" (no. 19), "Blind Vision" (no. 10), "That's Love, That It Is" (no. 33) and "Don't Tell Me" (no. 8), while their second album Mange Tout (1984) also reached no. 8 in the UK Albums Chart. The album featured a cover version of ABBA's "The Day Before You Came", which reached no. 22 in the UK (slightly higher than Abba's original less than two years earlier). However, after this, the band's fortunes declined. Their 1985 single "What's Your Problem" only reached no. 40, and the subsequent album Believe You Me spent only two weeks in the UK Albums Chart, peaking at no. 54. The duo announced they were splitting in June 1986 after a Greenpeace concert at London's Royal Albert Hall.
Luscombe released an album of Indian-influenced music, New Demons, with Pandit Dinesh, Peter Culshaw, Priya Khajuria and Asha Bhosle under the name West India Company, in 1989. Meanwhile, Arthur released a solo album, Suitcase, in 1994, which spawned the charting single "I Love I Hate" (UK No. 50). In 2008, Edsel re-released the three studio albums as expanded versions.
Reformed
Following a gap of a quarter of a century, Blancmange reunited and released their fourth studio album, Blanc Burn, in March 2011. After suffering from an abdominal aneurysm, Luscombe was forced to leave the band. Since then Arthur elected to continue recording and performing as Blancmange, with the assistance of session players.
Blancmange performed a UK tour in November 2013, during which they played their 1982 debut album (Happy Families) in its entirety at each show. They also released a new album, Happy Families Too..., featuring updated recordings of the original tracks from their 1982 debut album. Initially the new album was only available to buy on the tour, but a digital download followed and a physical CD was released on 7 April 2014 which included four brand new remixes.
On 2 December 2014, the official Blancmange website announced details of a new studio album for release on 23 March 2015 on Cherry Red Records. The album, Semi Detached, contains ten tracks. On 9 March 2015, the first single from Semi Detached, "Paddington", was released as a digital download. The second single from the album, "Useless", was announced for release on 11 May 2015.
On 23 April 2015, Blancmange announced a new album of instrumental music titled Nil by Mouth. This release was initially only available for purchase at the band's two shows at London's Red Gallery in May 2015. It subsequently became available as a CD through the official Blancmange website on 25 September 2015. On 29 May 2015, Blancmange announced the release of their cover of Can's "I Want More" as a limited edition 12" record for Record Store Day, making it the third single from Semi Detached.
Commuter 23, a studio album containing 14 tracks, was released on 11 March 2016. On 20 March 2017, the band announced on their website that a new album, Unfurnished Rooms, would be released on 22 September 2017. On 23 June 2017, Fader, a new musical project between Neil Arthur and Benge, released their debut studio album, "First Light". It was preceded by a single, "I Prefer Solitude", on 7 June 2017. In August 2017, Edsel released the 9-CD boxset The Blanc Tapes that expanded each of the three 1980s albums over three discs with additional material and liner notes by Neil Arthur.
In February 2018, Near Future, another side project comprising Neil Arthur and Jez Bernholz (from Gazelle Twin), announced they will release their debut studio album, Ideal Home, on 25 May 2018. In April 2018, Blancmange announced a forthcoming studio album, Wanderlust, and a UK tour in November. In July 2019, In Shadow, the second album by the Fader project (Neil Arthur and Benge), was announced for release on 18 October 2019.
An instrumental album by Blancmange, Nil by Mouth II, was released on 22 November 2019 as a limited-edition run of 1000 copies. The album was released on a larger scale on cd in June 2020. A new album, titled Mindset, preceded by a single with the same title in February, was released in June 2020.
Discography
Happy Families (1982)
Mange Tout (1984)
Believe You Me (1985)
Blanc Burn (2011)
Happy Families Too... (2013)
Semi Detached (2015)
Nil by Mouth (2015)
Commuter 23 (2016)
Unfurnished Rooms (2017)
Wanderlust (2018)
Nil by Mouth II (2019)
Mindset (2020)
Nil by Mouth III (2021)
Commercial Break (2021)
References
Alternative dance musical groups
Musical groups established in 1979
1979 establishments in England
Musical groups disestablished in 1987
1987 disestablishments in England
Musical groups reestablished in 2006
British synth-pop new wave groups
English new wave musical groups
English musical duos
New wave duos
Male musical duos
Musical groups from the London Borough of Harrow
London Records artists
Sire Records artists
Warner Records artists
Proper Records artists | [
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240998 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAST-128 | CAST-128 | In cryptography, CAST-128 (alternatively CAST5) is a symmetric-key block cipher used in a number of products, notably as the default cipher in some versions of GPG and PGP. It has also been approved for Government of Canada use by the Communications Security Establishment. The algorithm was created in 1996 by Carlisle Adams and Stafford Tavares using the CAST design procedure.
Another member of the CAST family of ciphers, CAST-256 (a former AES candidate) was derived from CAST-128. According to some sources, the CAST name is based on the initials of its inventors, though Bruce Schneier reports the authors' claim that "the name should conjure up images of randomness".
CAST-128 is a 12- or 16-round Feistel network with a 64-bit block size and a key size of between 40 and 128 bits (but only in 8-bit increments). The full 16 rounds are used when the key size is longer than 80 bits.
Components include large 8×32-bit S-boxes based on bent functions, key-dependent rotations, modular addition and subtraction, and XOR operations. There are three alternating types of round function, but they are similar in structure and differ only in the choice of the exact operation (addition, subtraction or XOR) at various points.
Although Entrust holds a patent on the CAST design procedure, CAST-128 is available worldwide on a royalty-free basis for commercial and non-commercial uses.
See also
PGP
GPG
AES
References
External links
The CAST-128 Encryption Algorithm
Free ciphers
Feistel ciphers | [
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240999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D.%20Boon | D. Boon | Dennes Dale Boon (April 1, 1958 – December 22, 1985) was an American singer, songwriter, and guitarist. Boon was best known as the guitarist and vocalist of the American punk rock trio Minutemen. In 1985, he was killed in a van crash at the age of 27.
Biography
Youth
Dennes Boon was born in San Pedro, California, on April 1, 1958. His father, a navy veteran, worked installing radios in Buick cars, and the Boons lived in former World War II barracks that had been converted into public housing.
According to childhood friend and future bandmate Mike Watt, Boon was unfamiliar with popular music and had grown up listening to Buck Owens and Creedence Clearwater Revival. Watt introduced Boon to Blue Öyster Cult and The Who. Urged by Boon's mother, Boon and Watt began to learn to play instruments.
They learned to play by copying songs from their favorite bands' records. Boon took a few lessons from local teacher Roy Mendez Lopez who taught him rock as well as flamenco and classical.
As a teenager, Boon began painting and signed his works "D. Boon," partly because "D" was his slang for cannabis, partly after Daniel Boone, but mostly because it was similar to E. Bloom, Blue Öyster Cult's vocalist and guitarist.
The Reactionaries
Boon formed his first band, The Reactionaries, with Watt in 1978. The band's members were lead vocalist Martin Tamburovich, Boon on guitar, bassist Watt, and drummer George Hurley. The Reactionaries existed for most of 1978 and 1979, practicing regularly but rarely if ever performing live.
After only seven months, Boon and Watt broke the band up feeling that the traditional frontman-style band was "bourgeois."
Minutemen
Boon formed Minutemen in January 1980 with Mike Watt on bass and Frank Tonche on drums. Tonche was soon replaced by former Reactionaries drummer George Hurley. Their best-known album is Double Nickels on the Dime.
Death
The Minutemen continued until December 22, 1985, when Boon was killed in a van accident in the Arizona desert on Interstate 10. Because he had been sick with fever, Boon was lying down in the rear of the van without a seatbelt when the rear axle broke and the van ran off the road. Boon was thrown out the back door of the van and died instantly from a broken neck. He was 27 years old. Boon’s death caused the band to immediately dissolve, though Watt and Hurley would form the band Firehose soon after. The live album Ballot Result was released in 1987, two years after Boon's death.
Musical style
Boon's guitar style is very distinctive; he rarely used distortion and frequently set the equalization on his amplifier so that only the treble frequencies were heard – the bass and midrange frequencies would be turned off completely. His style had a heavy funk/blues feel which was very different from other hardcore punk bands in the 1980s.
Artwork
Boon is responsible for the writing and composition of the Minutemen's most anthemic songs (in contrast to Watt's stream of consciousness lyrics), including "This Ain't No Picnic," "Corona," "The Price of Paradise," and "Courage." A lifelong artist, Boon also created drawings or paintings for the Minutemen releases Joy, The Punch Line, The Politics of Time, Project: Mersh and 3-Way Tie (For Last).
Legacy
Since the first Firehose album, Mike Watt has dedicated every record he has worked on – be it Firehose, solo, or otherwise – to D. Boon's memory. A song on Watt's semi-autobiographical 1997 album Contemplating the Engine Room, "The Boilerman," is about D. Boon; on the recording itself, guitarist Nels Cline plays one of Boon's last Telecaster guitars, which Watt is in possession of. Watt also mentions his fallen friend in Firehose's "Disciples of the 3-Way" (Mr. Machinery Operator) and his own "Burstedman" (The Secondman's Middle Stand).
Boon has been paid tribute by American alternative band Stigmata-A-Go-Go with the song "D. Boon," from its 1994 album It's All True, Uncle Tupelo with a different song "D. Boon" from its 1991 album Still Feel Gone, and Centro-matic's song "D.Boon-Free (A Ninth Grade Crime)" off The Static vs. The Strings Vol. 1. His story is also told in the documentary We Jam Econo.
In 2003, former D. Boon roommate Richard Derrick released the CD D. Boon and Friends, a collection of jam session tapes he recorded with D. Boon, and rare Boon solo performances, as the first release on his Box-O-Plenty Records label. Mike Watt authorized the release and provided technical assistance and liner notes.
He is #89 on Rolling Stone'''s list of the 100 greatest guitarists of all time: David Fricke's Picks.
In his review of the band's last album, music critic Robert Christgau described the death of Boon as "a rock death that for wasted potential has Lennon and Hendrix for company," adding that "after seven fairly amazing years he was just getting started. Shit, shit, shit."
DiscographyD. Boon and Friends''
See also
27 Club
References
External links
Minutemen (band) members
American punk rock singers
American punk rock guitarists
Songwriters from California
1958 births
1985 deaths
Lead guitarists
Road incident deaths in Arizona
The Reactionaries members
20th-century American singers
20th-century American guitarists
People from San Pedro, Los Angeles
Guitarists from California
American male guitarists
20th-century American male musicians
American male songwriters | [
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] |
241000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carcharhiniformes | Carcharhiniformes | Carcharhiniformes , the ground sharks, with over 270 species, are the largest order of sharks. They include a number of common types, such as catsharks, swellsharks, and the sandbar shark.
Members of this order are characterized by the presence of a nictitating membrane over the eye, two dorsal fins, an anal fin, and five gill slits.
The families in the order Carcharhiniformes are expected to be revised; recent DNA studies show that some of the conventional groups are not monophyletic.
Families
According to FishBase, the eight families of ground sharks are:
Carcharhinidae (requiem sharks)
Hemigaleidae (weasel sharks)
Leptochariidae (barbeled houndshark)
Proscylliidae (finback catsharks)
Pseudotriakidae (false catsharks)
Scyliorhinidae (catsharks)
Sphyrnidae (hammerhead sharks)
Triakidae (houndsharks)
Timeline of genera
References
Further references
Froese, Rainer, and Daniel Pauly, eds. (2013) Fish Identification: Ground sharks in FishBase. March 2013 version.
External links
Order Carcharhiniformes
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Cartilaginous fish orders
Taxa named by Leonard Compagno
Extant Albian first appearances | [
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241002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzhou | Fuzhou | Fuzhou (; , Fuzhounese: Hokchew, Hók-ciŭ), alternately romanized as Foochow, is the capital and one of the largest cities in Fujian province, China. Along with the many counties of Ningde, those of Fuzhou are considered to constitute the Mindong (lit. Eastern Fujian) linguistic and cultural area.
Fuzhou lies on the north (left) bank of the estuary of Fujian's largest river, the Min River. All along its northern border lies Ningde, and Ningde's Gutian County lies upriver. Its population was 7,115,370 inhabitants as of the 2010 census, of whom 4,408,076 inhabitants are urban representing around 61.95%, while rural population is at 2,707,294 representing around 38.05%. As of 31 December 2018, the total population was estimated at 7,740,000 whom 4,665,000 lived in the built-up (or metro) area made of 5 urban districts plus Minhou County.
In 2015, Fuzhou was ranked as the 10th fastest growing metropolitan area in the world by Brookings Institution.
Fuzhou is listed as No. 20 in China
Integrated City Index 2016's total ranking, a study conducted by National Development and Reform Commission.
Fuzhou is also a major city for scientific research, appearing in the global top 100 cities as tracked by the Nature Index. The city is home to several major universities, notably Fuzhou University, one of China's key universities and other public universities, including Fujian Normal University and Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University.
Names
Fuzhou in Chinese is "" (), meaning "a city with good luck". The Yuanhe Maps and Records of Prefectures and Counties, a Chinese geographical treatise published in the 9th century, says that Fuzhou's name came from Mount Futo a mountain northwest of the city. The mountain's name was then combined with -zhou, meaning "settlement" or "prefecture", in a manner similar to many other Chinese cities. During the Warring States period, the area of Fuzhou was sometimes referred to as Ye (), and Fuzhou was incorporated into China proper during Qin dynasty. The city's name was changed numerous times between the 3rd and 9th centuries before finally settling on Fuzhou in 948. In Chinese, the city is sometimes referred to by the poetic nickname Rongcheng (; Foochow Romanized: ), .
In older English publications, the name is variously romanized as Foochow, Foo-Chow, Fuchow, Fūtsu, Fuh-Chow, Hock Chew, and Hokchew.
History
Pre-Qin history (before 221 BC)
The remains of two Neolithic cultures—the Huqiutou Culture (), from around 5000 BC, and the Tanshishan Culture (), from around 3000 BC—have been discovered and excavated in the Fuzhou area. During the Warring States period (c. 475–221 BC), Chinese began referring to the modern Fujian area as Min Yue (), suggesting that the native inhabitants of the area were a branch of the Yue peoples, a diverse population of non-Chinese tribes who once inhabited most of southern China. In 306 BC, the Yue Kingdom (present-day Zhejiang) fell to the state of Chu. Han Dynasty historian Sima Qian wrote that the surviving members of the Yue royal family fled south to what is now Fujian, where they settled alongside the native Yue people, joining Chinese and Yue culture to create Minyue. Their major centre was not at Fuzhou's modern location, but further up the Min watershed near Wuyishan City.
Qin and Han dynasties (221 BC – AD 206)
The First Emperor of Qin unified ancient China in 221 BC and desired to bring the southern and southeast regions under Chinese rule. The Qin dynasty organized its territory into "Commanderies" ()—roughly equivalent to a province or prefecture—and the Fujian area was organized as Minzhong Commandery (). The area seems to have continued mostly independent of Chinese control for the next century. The Han dynasty followed the short-lived Qin, and Emperor Gaozu of Han declared both Minyue and neighboring Nanyue to be autonomous vassal kingdoms. In 202 BC, Emperor Gaozu enfeoffed a leader named Wuzhu (; Old Chinese: ) as King of Minyue, and a walled city called Ye (; Old Chinese: ; literally: Beautiful) was built. The founding of Ye in 202 BC has become the traditional founding date of the city of Fuzhou.
In 110 BC, the armies of Emperor Wu of Han defeated the Minyue kingdom's armies during the Han–Minyue War and annexed its territory and people into China. Many Minyue citizens were forcibly relocated into the Jianghuai area, and the Yue ethnic group was mostly assimilated into the Chinese, causing a sharp decline in Ye's inhabitants. The area was eventually re-organized as a county in 85 BC.
Three Kingdoms to Sui dynasty (200–618)
During the Three Kingdoms Period, southeast China was nominally under the control of Eastern Wu, and the Fuzhou area had a shipyard for the coastal and Yangtze River fleets. In 282, during the Jin dynasty, two artificial lakes known simply as the East Lake and West Lake were constructed in Ye, as well as a canal system. The core of modern Fuzhou grew around these three water systems, though the East and West Lakes no longer exist. In 308, during the War of the Eight Princes at the end of the Jin dynasty, the first large-scale migration of Chinese immigrants moved to the south and southeast of China began, followed by subsequent waves during later periods of warfare or natural disaster in the Chinese heartland. The administrative and economic center of the Fujian area began to change to the Ye area during the Sui dynasty (581–618).
Tang to the ten kingdoms era (618–960)
In 725, the city was formally renamed "Fuzhou". Throughout the mid-Tang dynasty, Fuzhou's economic and cultural institutions grew and developed. The later years of the Tang saw a number of political upheavals in the Chinese heartland such as the An Lushan Rebellion and Huang Chao Rebellion, prompting another wave of northerners to immigrate to the modern-day Northern Min and Eastern Min areas. In 879, a large part of the city was captured by the army of Huang Chao during their rebellion against the Tang government. In 893, the warlord brothers Wang Chao and Wang Shenzhi captured Fuzhou in a rebellion against the Tang dynasty, successfully gaining control of the entire Fujian Province and eventually proclaiming their founding of an independent kingdom they called the Min Kingdom in 909. The Wang brothers enticed more immigrants from the north, though their kingdom only survived until 945. In 978, Fuzhou was incorporated into the newly founded Song dynasty, though their control of the mountainous regions was tenuous.
Fuzhou prospered during the Tang dynasty. Buddhism was quickly adopted by citizens who quickly built many Buddhist temples in the area.
Song era (960–1279)
Fuzhou underwent a major dramatic surge in its refined culture and educational institutions throughout the Song Dynasty as Fuzhou produced 10 Fuzhounese zhuangyuan scholars (scholar who is ranked the top first place in the imperial examinations), a large number for a small city in the country during that dynasty.
The "Hualin" Temple (, not to be confused with the temple of the same name in Guangzhou), founded in 964, is one of the oldest and surviving wooden structures in China. New city walls were built in 282, 901, 905, and 974, so the city had many layers of walls – more so than the Chinese capital. Emperor Taizong of the Song dynasty ordered the destruction of all the walls in Fuzhou in 978 but new walls were rebuilt later. The latest was built in 1371. During the Southern Song dynasty, Fuzhou became more prosperous; many scholars came to live and work. Among them were Zhu Xi, the most celebrated Chinese philosopher after Confucius, and Xin Qiji, the greatest composer of the ci form of poetry.
Marco Polo, an Italian guest of the Emperor Kubilai, transcribed, after the conventions of Italian orthography, the place name as Fugiu. This was not the local Min pronunciation but that of the mandarin administrative class.
According to Odoric of Pordenone, Fuzhou had the biggest chickens in the world.
Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
Between 1405 and 1433, a fleet of the Ming Imperial navy under Admiral Zheng He sailed from Fuzhou to the Indian Ocean seven times; on three occasions the fleet landed on the east coast of Africa. Before the last sailing, Zheng erected a stele dedicated to the goddess Tian-Fei (Matsu) near the seaport.
The Ming government gave a monopoly over Philippine trade to Fuzhou, which at times was shared with Quanzhou.
Galeote Pereira, a Portuguese soldier and trader, was taken prisoner during the pirate extermination campaign of 1549 and imprisoned in Fuzhou. Later transferred to a form of internal exile elsewhere in the province, Pereira escaped to Langbaijiao in 1553. The record of his experiences in the Ming Empire, logged by the Jesuits at Goa in 1561, was the first non-clerical account of China to reach the West since Marco Polo.<ref>Spence, Jonathan D., The Chan's Great Continent: China in Western Minds, 1999, W. W. Norton & Company, , pp.20–21</ref>
The Ryukyu Kingdom established an embassy in Fuzhou.
Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
In 1839, Lin Zexu, who himself was a Fuzhou native, was appointed by the Daoguang Emperor to enforce the imperial ban on the opium trade in Canton. His unsuccessful actions, however, precipitated the disastrous First Opium War with Great Britain, and Lin, who had become a scapegoat for China's failure in war, was exiled to the northwestern section of the empire. The Treaty of Nanjing (1842), which put an end to the conflict, made Fuzhou (then known to Westerners as Foochow) one of five Chinese treaty ports, and it became completely open to Western merchants and missionaries.
Fuzhou was one of the most important Protestant mission fields in China. On January 2, 1846, the first Protestant missionary, Rev. Stephen Johnson (missionary) from ABCFM, entered the city and soon set up the first missionary station there. ABCFM was followed by the Methodist Episcopal Missionary Society that was led by Revs. M. C. White and J. D. Collins, who reached Fuzhou in early September 1847. The Church Missionary Society also arrived in the city in May 1850. These three Protestant agencies remained in Fuzhou until the communist revolution in China in the 1950s, leaving a rich heritage in Fuzhou's Protestant culture. They supported the creation of hospitals and schools, including the Woolston Memorial Hospital, run by the American-trained Hü King Eng.
On August 23, 1884, the Battle of Fuzhou broke out between the French Far East Fleet and the Fujian Fleet of the Qing dynasty. As the result, the Fujian Fleet, one of the four Chinese regional fleets, was destroyed completely in Mawei Harbor.
Republic of China
On November 8, 1911, revolutionaries staged an uprising in Fuzhou. After an overnight street battle, the Qing army surrendered.
Revolutionary Republic
On November 22, 1933, Eugene Chen and the leaders of the National Revolutionary Army's 19th Army set up the short-lived People's Revolutionary Government of Republican China. Blockaded by Chiang Kai-shek and left without support from the nearby Soviet Republic of China, the PRGRC collapsed within two months.
Japanese occupation
With the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, hostilities commenced in Fujian Province. Xiamen (Amoy) fell to a Japanese landing force on May 13, 1938. The fall of Amoy instantly threatened the security of Fuzhou. On May 23, Japanese ships bombarded Mei-Hua, Huang-chi and Pei-Chiao while Japanese planes continued to harass the Chinese forces. Between May 31 and June 1, Chinese gunboats Fu-Ning, Chen-Ning and Suming defending the blockade line in the estuary of the Min River were successively bombed and sunk. Meanwhile, the Chinese ship Chu-Tai berthed at Nan-Tai was damaged. The Chinese Navy's Harbor Command School, barracks, shipyard, hospital and marine barracks at Ma-Wei were successively bombed. Fuzhou is recorded as having fallen to Japanese forces in 1938.
The extent of Japanese command and control of the city of Fuzhou itself as opposed to the port at Mawei and the Min River Estuary is uncertain. By 1941 (5/7), the city is recorded as having returned to Nationalist control. The British Consulate in Fuzhou is noted as operational from 1941 to 1944 after the United Kingdom Declaration of War on Japan in December 1941. Western visitors to Fuzhou in the period 1941–1944 include the Australian journalist Wilfred Burchett in 1942 and the British scientist Joseph Needham in May 1944. Both visitors record the presence of a British Consul and a Fuzhou Club comprising western businessmen.
In The Man Who Loved China: The Fantastic Story of the Eccentric Scientist Who Unlocked the Mysteries of the Middle Kingdom, author Simon Winchester relates the visit of Dr Needham in 1944. Needham encountered the American government agent (John Caldwell) and the British SIS agent (Murray MacLehose working undercover as the British Vice-Consul in Fuzhou) involved in aid to the Nationalist resistance to Japanese forces in Fujian Province.
As part of Operation Ichi-Go (1944), the last large-scale Japanese offensive in China in World War II, the Japanese intended to isolate Fuzhou and the Fujian Province corridor to Nationalist forces in western China and the wartime capital of Chongqing. One account of the Japanese re-taking of Fuzhou city itself is narrated by American naval officer, Houghton Freeman. The date is given as October 5, 1944.
Fuzhou remained under Japanese control until the surrender of Japan and its armed forces in China in September 1945.
Following the restoration of Republic control (1946), the administration divisions of Fuzhou were annexed, and administration level was promoted from county-level to city-level officially.
People's Republic of China
Fuzhou was occupied by the People's Liberation Army with little resistance on 17 August 1949.
In the 1950s, the city was on the front line of the conflict with the KMT in Taiwan, as hostile KMT aircraft frequently bombed the city. The bombing on 20 January 1955 was the most serious one, killing hundreds of people.
Fuzhou was also involved in violent mass chaos during the Cultural revolution. Different groups of Red Guards fought with each other using guns on the streets of the city, and even attacking the People's Liberation Army.
Under the reform and opening policy since the late 1970s, Fuzhou has developed rapidly. In 1982, Fuzhou became the first city in China where the stored program control was introduced, which marked a milestone in the history of telecommunications in China. In 1984, Fuzhou was chosen as one of the first branches of Open Coastal Cities by the Central Government.
On December 13, 1993, a raging fire swept through a textile factory in Fuzhou and claimed the lives of 60 workers.
On October 2, 2005, floodwaters from Typhoon Longwang swept away a military school, killing at least 80 paramilitary officers.
Geography
Fuzhou is located in the northeast coast of Fujian province, connects jointly northwards with Ningde and Nanping, southwards with Quanzhou and Putian, westwards with Sanming respectively.
Climate
Fuzhou has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cfa) influenced by the East Asian Monsoon; the summers are long, very hot and humid, and the winters are short, mild and dry. In most years, torrential rain occurs during the monsoon in the second half of May. Fuzhou is also liable to typhoons in late summer and early autumn. The monthly 24-hour average temperature ranges from in January to in July, while the annual mean is . With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 24 percent in March to 54 percent in July, the city receives 1,607 hours of bright sunshine annually. Extremes since 1951 have ranged from on 25 January 2016 to on 26 July 2003.
Snow is very rare, having covered the ground last times in February 1957, December 1975 and December 1991.
Administrative divisions
The administrative divisions of Fuzhou have been changed frequently throughout history. From 1983, the Fuzhou current administrative divisions were formed officially, namely, 5 districts and 8 counties. In 1990 and 1994, Fuqing (Foochow Romanized: ) and Changle (Foochow Romanized: ) counties were promoted to county-level cities; Changle became a district in 2017. Despite these changes, the administrative image of "5 districts and 8 counties" is still held popularly among local residents. Fuzhou's entire area only covers 9.65 percent of Fujian Province.
The city of Fuzhou has direct jurisdiction over 6 districts, 1 county-level city, and 6 counties:
Culture
The City of Banyans is distinct from the mainstream inland cultures of central China, and in details vary from other areas of the Chinese coast
Language and art
Besides Mandarin Chinese, the majority local residents of Fuzhou (Fuzhou people) also speak Fuzhou dialect (), the prestige form of Eastern Min.
Min opera, also known as Fuzhou drama, is one of the major operas in Fujian Province. It enjoys popularity in the Fuzhou area and in neighboring parts of Fujian such as the northeast and northwest areas where the Fuzhou dialect is spoken, as well as in Taiwan and the Malay Archipelago. It became a fixed opera in the early 20th century. There are more than 1,000 plays of Min opera, most of which originate from folk tales, historical novels, or ancient legends, including such traditional plays as "Making Seal", "The Purple Jade Hairpin" and "Switching Fairy Peach with Litchi".
Architecture
Religion
The two traditional mainstream religions practiced in Fuzhou are Mahayana Buddhism and Taoism. Traditionally, many people practice both religions simultaneously. The city is also home to many Buddhist monasteries, Taoist temples and Buddhist monks.
Apart from mainstream religions, a number of religious worship sites of various local religions are situated in the streets and lanes of Fuzhou.
The origins of local religion can be dated back centuries. These diverse religions incorporated elements such as gods and doctrines from other religions and cultures, such as totem worship and traditional legends. For example, Monkey King, originated to monkey worship among local ancients, gradually came to embody the God of Wealth in Fuzhou after the novel Journey to the West was issued in Ming dynasty.
As the most popular religion in the Min River Valley, the worship of Lady Linshui is viewed as one of the three most influential local religions in Fujian, the other two being the worship of Mazu and Baosheng Dadi ().
Local cuisine
Fuzhou cuisine is most notably one of the four traditional cooking styles of Fujian cuisine, which in turn is one of the eight Chinese regional cuisines. Dishes are light but flavorful, with particular emphasis on umami taste, known in Chinese cooking as xianwei (), as well as retaining the original flavor of the main ingredients instead of masking them. In Fuzhou cuisine, the taste is light compared to that of some other Chinese cooking styles, and often have a mixed sweet and sour taste. Soup, served as an indispensable dish in meals, is cooked in various ways with local seasonal fresh vegetables and seafood and often added with local cooking wine ().
Fuzhou is famous for its street food and snacks. Some notable street food dishes include Fuzhou fish balls (), meat-pastry dumplings (), oyster cake (海蛎饼), rice scroll soup (), guong bian (; a kind of mildly savory pastry), and pork floss (). Many of these street food dishes have a long history and their own local legend; an example would be the oyster cake, according Fuzhou local folklore, in the early Qing dynasty, there was a young man who inherited his father's dim sum business, despite all his hard works, he only managed to earn enough money to feed himself, not enough to raise and feed a family of his own. One night, he dreamt of a silver-haired elderly man, who told him that he has very good fortune, the young man then asked him what he can do to obtain good luck, the elderly man then floated away. That's when the young man notice the setting moon, and after the moon sank under the clouds, rose from the east a golden sun, he was inspired by the dream and invented oyster cake, which is white like the moon before being lowered into hot grease and coming out golden as the morning sun. According to the legend, after the young man made a fortune out of his invention and his oyster cake was imitated by many others, which was passed down till this day. another example of a Fuzhou street food with a long history is rice scroll soup, which became popular in Fuzhou in the early part of the Qing dynasty. As more Fuzhou residents settled overseas, Fuzhou dishes spread to Taiwan, Southeast Asia and the U.S.. For example, one is able to find guong bian and Fuzhou fish balls in Sitiawan in Ipoh, Malaysia while Fuzhou fish balls, meat-pastry dumplings and rice scroll soup can be found in New York's Chinatown.
Fuzhou residents also enjoy eating festival foods during traditional Chinese holidays. For example, red and white rice cakes () are served over Chinese New Year, stuffed yuanxiao () during the Lantern Festival, zongzi () during the Dragon Boat Festival, and sweet soy bean powder-covered plain yuanxiao over the winter solstice.
Special crafts
Bodiless lacquerware (), paper umbrellas and horn combs () are the "Three Treasures" of Fuzhou traditional arts. In addition, bodiless lacquerware, together with cork pictures () and Shoushan stone sculptures () are called "Three Superexcellences" of Fuzhou.
MediaFuzhou Evening News (), Strait Metropolitan Post and Southeast Express () are the three most primary newspapers in the city. Fuzhou Daily () is the official newspaper of the Fuzhou Committee of Communist Party of China. FZTV, the local municipal television station has four channels. As the capital, the provincial state-owned Fujian Media Group, Fujian Daily Newspaper Group and Straits Publishing & Distributing Group also headquarter here.
Transportation
Airports
The city is served by Fuzhou Changle International Airport, which replaces Fuzhou Yixu Airport, the old airfield. The former is its main international airport and an air-hub in southeast China, while the latter was turned into a PLA airbase after 1997.
Railways
Fuzhou is a railway hub in northern Fujian. The Wenzhou–Fuzhou and Fuzhou–Xiamen Railways form part of the Southeast Coast High-Speed Rail Corridor and can accommodate high-speed trains at speeds of up to .
The Hefei–Fuzhou High-Speed Railway links the city to Beijing through its nearby inner land province Jiangxi at speeds up to .
The Nanping–Fuzhou Railway and Xiangtang–Putian Railway provide rail access inland. The latter line can carry trains at speeds of . The regional Fuzhou-Mawei Cargo Railway runs from the Fuzhou Railway Station eastward to the port in Mawei District. Fuzhou has two main railway stations, Fuzhou and Fuzhou South. Fuzhou station is often just referred to as Fuzhou station given its central location.
Metro
Fuzhou Metro is the first rapid transit system in Fujian province, has two metro lines in operation, the first line opened linking the south of the city and the north above the Min River, and five lines under construction.
Line 1 links the two railway stations of the city. The Fuzhou railway station is located north of the city center, near the North Second Ring Road. Fuzhou South Railway Station, located in Cangshan district, is a key landmark of the New City development scheme, begun in 2007 and completed in 2010. Line 1 was opened on May 18, 2016.
Line 2 runs in the east–west direction of the city, linking the university city and Fuzhou High-Tech Zone in Minhou county, Jinshan Industrial Zone in Cangshan district, and Gushan mountain in Jin'an district. Line 2 was opened on 26 April 2019.
Seaport
Passenger liners regularly sail between ROC's Matsu Islands and the port in Mawei District.
A high-speed ferry sails across Taiwan Strait between the port in Pingtan County, the mainland's closest point to Taiwan, to Taipei and Taichung, a trip that takes about 3 hours.
History of Fuzhou port
In 1867 the Fuzhou seaport was the site of one of China's first major experiments with Western technology, when the Fuzhou Navy Yard was established. A shipyard and an arsenal were built under French guidance and a naval school was opened. A naval academy was also established at the shipyard, and it became a center for the study of European languages and technical sciences. The academy, which offered courses in English, French, engineering, and navigation, produced a generation of Western-trained officers, including the famous scholar-reformer Yan Fu (1854–1921).
The yard was established as part of a program to strengthen China in the wake of the country's disastrous defeat in the Second Opium War (1856–1860). Most talented students nonetheless continued to pursue a traditional Confucian education, and by the mid-1870s the government began to lose interest in the shipyard, which had trouble securing funds and declined in importance. Fuzhou remained essentially a commercial center and a port until World War II; it had relatively little industry. The port was occupied by the Japanese during 1940–1945.
Since 1949, Fuzhou has grown considerably. Transportation has been improved by the dredging of the Min River for navigation by medium-sized craft upstream to Nanping. In 1956 the railway linking Fuzhou with the interior of the province and with the main Chinese railway system began operation. The port has also been improved; Fuzhou itself is no longer accessible to seagoing ships, but Luoxingta anchorage and the outer harbor at Guantou on the coast of the East China Sea have been modernized and improved. The chief exports are timber, fruits, paper, and foodstuffs.
Economy
Industry is supplied with power by a grid running from the Gutian hydroelectric scheme in the mountains to the northwest. The city is a center for commercial banking, designer brands and timber-working, engineering, papermaking, printing, and textile industries. A small iron and steel plant was built in 1958. In 1984 Fuzhou was designated one of China's "open" cities in the new open-door policy inviting foreign investments. Handicrafts remain important in the rural areas, and the city is famous for its lacquer and wood products.
Its GDP was ¥75,614 (c. US$12,140) per capita in 2015, ranked no. 52 among 659 Chinese cities.
Fuzhou is undoubtedly the province's political, economic and cultural center as well as an industrial center and seaport on the Min River. In 2008, Fuzhou's GDP amounted to ¥228.4 billion, an increase of 13 percent.
Manufactured products include chemicals, silk and cotton textiles, iron and steel, and processed food. Among Fuzhou's exports are fine lacquerware and handcrafted fans and umbrellas. The city's trade is mainly with Chinese coastal ports. Its exports of timber, food products, and paper move through the harbor at Guantou located about downstream.
In 2008, exports reached US$13.6 billion, a growth of 10.4 percent while imports amounted to US$6.8 billion. Total retail sales for the same period came to ¥113.4 billion and per capita GDP grew to ¥33,615. During the same period, Fuzhou approved 155 foreign-invested projects. Contracted foreign investment amounted to US$1.489 billion, while utilized foreign investment increased by 43 percent to US$1.002 billion.
Economic and technological zones
Fuzhou Economic & Technological Development Zone
The Fuzhou Economic & Technological Development Zone was established in January 1985 by the State Council, with a total planning area of and now has built. It is located close to Fuzhou Changle International Airport and Fuzhou Port. Industries encouraged in the zone include electronics assembly and manufacturing, telecommunications equipment, trading and distribution, automobile production/assembly, medical equipment and supplies, shipping/warehousing/logistics, and heavy industry.
Fuzhou Export Processing Zone
The Fuzhou Export Processing Zone was founded on June 3, 2005, with the approval of the State Council and enjoys all the preferential policies. It is located inside the Chang'an Investment Zone of the Fuzhou Economic and Technical Development Zone (FETDZ) with a planned land area of .
Fuzhou Free Trade Zone
The Fuzhou Free Trade Zone was established in 1992 by the State Council, with a planning area of . Industries encouraged in the free trade zone include electronics assembly and manufacturing, heavy industry, instruments and industrial equipment production, shipping/warehousing/logistics, telecommunications equipment, trading, and distribution.
Fuzhou High-Tech Industrial Development Zone
Fuzhou High-tech Development Zone was set up in 1988 and approved by the State Council in March 1991. In 1995, the Fuzhou municipal government decided to build Baiyi Electronic Information City, which covers in the zone, making it the lead electronic industrial zone in Fuzhou. The Administrative Commission of Mawei High-tech Park was set up in the zone in 1999. It covers an area of , and is in the area between Gushan Channel and Mawei Channel, Jiangbin Road and Fuma Road.
Fuzhou Science and Technology Park
The Fuzhou Science and Technology Park was established in 1988 and was approved to be a national-level zone by the State Council in 1991. The planned area is and is divided into 3 parts: the Mawei portion, the Cangshan portion, and the Hongshan portion. The main industries are electronics, information technology, and biotechnology. The zone is away from the China National Highway 316 and away from the Fuzhou Changle International Airport.
Fuzhou Taiwan Merchant Investment Area
The Fuzhou Taiwan Merchants Development Zone was approved to be established in May 1989 by the State Council. The zone is located in the Fuzhou Economic and Technological Development Zone. The zone is a commercial base for Taiwan-related development. The current area is . The main industries are IT, metallurgy, food processing, and textiles. The zone is away from the 316 National Highway and away from Fuzhou Changle International Airport.
Cityscape
Tourist attractions
Historical / cultural
Sanfang Qixiang () "Three Lanes and Seven Alleys" is a cluster of ancient residential buildings dating from the late Jin dynasty now features a pedestrian zone with shops along the street. Situated at the centre of the city at Gulou District, it is the most popular touristic destination in the city. Many buildings were revitalized recently to increase tourism.
Lin Zexu Memorial Hall () (Aomen Rd)
West Lake () (An artificial landscape-style lake built in 282)
Hualin Temple () (Built in 964, Song dynasty) Its main hall is known as the oldest surviving wooden building in south China and was confirmed as an important heritage site under state protection in 1982.
Dizang Temple (The Temple of Sacrificing Guardian of the Earth, founded in 527)
Xichan Temple () (Founded in 867)
Wu Ta () "Black Pagoda" (Originally built in 799, rebuilt in 936)
Bai Ta () "White Pagoda" (On the top of Mount Yu, originally built in 905, 67 m in height, collapsed in 1534, rebuilt in 1548, 41 m in height)
Yongquan Temple () (Founded in 915, and located on the top of Mount Gu)
Mount Gu (), the tallest mountain in the area. Attracts many residents, especially in the weekends for hiking trips.
Mount Qi () (In Nanyu, Minhou County.)
Luoxing Tower () (In Mawei District and built in the Song dynasty. Was called "China Tower")
Tanshishan cultural relics () (In Ganzhe, Minhou County)
Saint Dominic's Cathedral (福州圣多明我主教座堂)
St. John's Church, Fuzhou
Recreational
Fujian Museum () (Near West Lake)
Wulongjiang Shidi Park () (A wetland park. However, the park is in distress due to ineffective environmental protection and construction)
Beach Park ()
Chating Park ()
Zuohai Park ()
Minjiang Park () (On the two banks of the Min River)
Pingshan Park ()
Mount Jinniu Park () (Near the Fuzhou West Long-Distance Bus Station)
Mount Jinji Park ()
Fuzhou National Forest Park ()
Sandiejing Forest Park ()
Fuzhou Hot Spring Park ()
Fuzhou Zoo () (This new zoo was built in 2008 after moving from its old location by West Lake)
Notable people
Sa Zhenbing (, 1859–1952), high-ranking naval officer of Mongolian origin
Go Seigen (, 1914–2014), Weiqi/Go player, considered by many players to be the greatest player of the game in the 20th century and one of the greatest of all time
Lin Changmin (, 1876–1925), a high-rank governor in the Beiyang Government
Lin Huiyin (, 1904–1955), architect and writer
Lin Juemin (, 1887–1911), one of 72 Revolutionary Martyrs at Huanghuagang, Guangzhou
Murong Shenxing (, 1934–2018), neuroscientist, researcher and doctor
Ingen (, 1592–1673), well known Buddhist monk, poet and calligrapher who lived during Ming Dynasty
Baizhang Huaihai (, 720–814), an influential master of Zen Buddhism during the Tang Dynasty
Huangbo Xiyun (, died 850), an influential master of Zen Buddhism during the Tang Dynasty
Chen Youding (, 1330–1368), a prominent military leader during the Yuan Dynasty
Gao Bing (, 1350–1423), an author and poetry theorist during the Ming Dynasty
Zhang Jing (, 1492–1555), a prominent military leader during the Ming Dynasty
Zheng Xiaoxu (, 1860–1938), statesman, diplomat and calligrapher
Liang Hongzhi (, 1882–1946), a high-rank governor in the Beiyang Government
Chen Baochen (, 1848–1935), scholar and loyalist to the Qing dynasty
Chih-Tang Sah (, born 1932), Chinese-American engineer of Mongolian origin
Chen Shaokuan (, 1889–1969), Fleet Admiral who served as the senior commander of naval forces of the National Revolutionary Army
Bing Xin (, 1900–1999), writer
Zheng Zhenduo (, 1898–1958), journalist and literary scholar
Zou Taofen (, 1895–1944), journalist, media entrepreneur, and political activist
Zhan Shi Chai (, 1840s–1893), entertainer as "Chang the Chinese Giant"
Huang Naishang (, 1849–1924), Christian scholar, and founding father of Malaysian town of Sibu, in the state of Sarawak
Lin Shu (, 1852–1924), scholar and translator, most famous for his translation of Alexandre Dumas' La Dame aux Camélias Yan Fu (, 1854–1921), scholar and translator, best known for introducing western ideas such as Darwinian evolution
Huang Jun (, 1890–1937), writer
Lin Sen (, 1868–1943), President of the Republic of China from 1931 to 1943
Sa Shijun (, 1896–1938), high-ranking naval officer of Mongolian origin
Liu Buchan (, 1852–1895), naval officer of the Beiyang Fleet, the most prominent of China's naval units in the late Qing Dynasty
Lin Zexu (, 1785–1850), scholar and official, considered a national hero for his strong opposition to the trade of opium before the First Anglo-Chinese War
Hsien Wu (, 1893–1959), protein scientist
Shen Baozhen (, 1820–1879), Viceroy of Liangjiang from 1875 to 1879
Hou Debang (, 1890–1974), chemical engineer
Lu Yin (廬隱, 1898–1934), writer
Hu Yepin (胡也頻, 1903–1931), writer
Zhu Qianzhi (, 1899–1972), intellectual, translator and historian
Zhang Yuzhe (, 1902–1986), astronomer and director of the Purple Mountain Observatory
Shu Chun Teng (, 1902–1970), mycologist
Fan Tchunpi, painter and ceramicist
Watchman Nee (, 1903–1972), Christian author and church leader
Deng Tuo (, 1911–1966), poet, intellectual and journalist
Xiao Guangyan (, 1920–1968), chemical engineer
Wu Mengchao (, 1922–2021), medical scientist
Chen Jingrun (, 1933–1996), mathematician who made significant contributions to number theory
Chen Zhangliang (, born 1962), biologist, elected as vice-governor of Guangxi in 2007
Lin Jiaqiao (林家翹, 1916–2013), well-known mathematician
Shen-su Sun (, 1943–2005), geochemist
Chen Kaige (, born 1952), film director
Chen Pao-yu (, born 1958), Chief of Staff of the Taiwanese Army
Vanessa Shih (, born 1962), Taiwanese diplomat
Chen Haomin (, 1969–present), Hong Kong actor and singer
Kelly Lin (, born 1973), Taiwanese actress and model
Lin Chi-ling (, born 1974), Taiwanese actress and model
Jimmy Lin (, born 1974), Taiwanese singer, actor, and race car driver
Chiang Tsu-ping (, born 1978), Taiwanese actress and television host
Yao Jinnan (, born 1995), artistic gymnast who represented China at the London 2012 Olympic Games
Eugene A. Coffin (1888–1972), rear admiral in the United States Coast Guard
Zhou Zihe (周子和, 1874–1926), possible shifu of Uechi Kanbun, founder of Uechi Ryū
Sister Ping (, real name: Cheng Chui Ping, 郑翠萍/鄭翠萍, 1949–2014), Chinese convicted human smuggler and snakehead
Ludi Lin (, born 1987), Chinese-Canadian actor and model
Jony J (, born 1989), rapper and songwriter
Xu Bin (, born 1989), actor and singer
Education
Colleges and universities
Fujian Normal University (; founded in 1907)
Fuzhou University (; founded in 1958)
Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (; founded in 1958)
Three Universities above take the leading position in the province, and they are supported by Fujian Government to build High-level University.
Fujian Medical University
Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
Minjiang University
Fujian University of Technology
Fujian Police College
Fujian Commercial College
Note: Institutions without full-time bachelor programs are not listed.
High schools
Fuzhou No.8 Middle School ()
Fuzhou Foreign Language School ()
Fuzhou Gezhi High School ()
Fuzhou No.1 Middle School ()
Fuzhou No.3 Middle School ()
Fuzhou Senior High School ()
Fuzhou No.4 Middle School ()
Fuzhou No.2 Middle School ()
The Affiliated High School Of Fujian Normal University ()
Fuzhou Pingdong Middle School ()
See also
Nantai Island
List of cities in the People's Republic of China by population
List of twin towns and sister cities in China
Fuzhounese people
Fuzhou dialect
Fujian
References
Sources
A Brief History of The Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), Hu Pu-yu, (Chung Wu Publishing Co. Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China, 1974) pg 142.
China at War 1901–1949, Edward L. Dreyer, (Longman, London and New York, 1995) pg 235.
Australia's China, Changing Perceptions from the 1930s to the 1990s, Lachlan Strachan, (Cambridge University Press 1996) pg 107.
Bomb, Book & Compass, Joseph Needham and the Great Secrets of China, Simon Winchester, (Penguin *Group Australia, Camberwell, Victoria) pp 143–151.
op.cit.
wesleyan.edu
indiana.edu
politics.people.com.cn
External links
Fuzhou Government website
Introduction to Fuzhou and local news on China Daily'' website
Fuzhou Places to visit.
Fuzhou News Net
Fuzhou Municipal Television Station
An early history of Fujian and Fuzhou
Maritime Art – On the River Min
Fuzhou Daily, Fuzhou Evening News and its Overseas Edition, the local newspapers
Historic US Army map of Fuzhou, 1945
Cities in Fujian
Prefecture-level divisions of Fujian
Provincial capitals in China | [
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241008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliomonadida | Heliomonadida | The Heliomonadida (formerly Dimorphida) are a small group of heliozoan amoeboids that are unusual in possessing flagella throughout their life cycle.
Classification
Genetic studies place them among the Cercozoa, a group including various other flagellates that form filose pseudopodia. This order has recently been placed into the new class of naked filose cercozoans called Granofilosea.
There are two genera in this order:
Heliomorpha, a tiny organism found in freshwater
the larger Tetradimorpha, which is distinguished by having four rather than two flagella.
Morphology
Bundles of microtubules, typically in square array, arise from a body near the flagellar bases and support the numerous axopods that project from the cell surface.
Dimorphids have a single nucleus, and mitochondria with tubular cristae.
References
Granofilosea
Cercozoa orders
Amoeboids
Taxa named by Thomas Cavalier-Smith | [
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241010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibrinolysis | Fibrinolysis | Fibrinolysis is a process that prevents blood clots from growing and becoming problematic. Primary fibrinolysis is a normal body process, while secondary fibrinolysis is the breakdown of clots due to a medicine, a medical disorder, or some other cause.
In fibrinolysis, a fibrin clot, the product of coagulation, is broken down. Its main enzyme plasmin cuts the fibrin mesh at various places, leading to the production of circulating fragments that are cleared by other proteases or by the kidney and liver.
Physiology
Plasmin is produced in an inactive form, plasminogen, in the liver. Although plasminogen cannot cleave fibrin, it still has an affinity for it, and is incorporated into the clot when it is formed.
Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) and urokinase are the agents that convert plasminogen to the active plasmin, thus allowing fibrinolysis to occur. t-PA is released into the blood slowly by the damaged endothelium of the blood vessels, such that, after several days (when the bleeding has stopped), the clot is broken down. This occurs because plasminogen became entrapped within the clot when it formed; as it is slowly activated, it breaks down the fibrin mesh. t-PA and urokinase are themselves inhibited by plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-2 (PAI-1 and PAI-2). In contrast, plasminogen further stimulates plasmin generation by producing more active forms of both tissue plasminogen activator (tPA) and urokinase.
Alpha 2-antiplasmin and alpha 2-macroglobulin inactivate plasmin. Plasmin activity is also reduced by thrombin-activatable fibrinolysis inhibitor (TAFI), which modifies fibrin to make it more resistant to the tPA-mediated plasminogen.
Measurement
Plasmin breaks down fibrin into soluble parts called fibrin degradation products (FDPs). FDPs compete with thrombin, and thus slow down clot formation by preventing the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin. This effect can be seen in the thrombin clotting time (TCT) test, which is prolonged in a person that has active fibrinolysis.
FDPs, and a specific FDP, the D-dimer, can be measured using antibody-antigen technology. This is more specific than the TCT, and confirms that fibrinolysis has occurred. It is therefore used to indicate deep-vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, DIC and efficacy of treatment in acute myocardial infarction. Alternatively, a more rapid detection of fibrinolytic activity, especially hyperfibrinolysis, is possible with thromboelastometry (TEM) in whole blood, even in patients on heparin. In this assay, increased fibrinolysis is assessed by comparing the TEM profile in the absence or presence of the fibrinolysis inhibitor aprotinin. Clinically, the TEM is useful for near real-time measurement of activated fibrinolysis for at-risk patients, such as those experiencing significant blood loss during surgery.
Testing of overall fibrinolysis can be measured by a euglobulin lysis time (ELT) assay. The ELT measures fibrinolysis by clotting the euglobulin fraction (primarily the fibrinolytic factors fibrinogen, PAI-1, tPA, alpha 2-antiplasmin, and plasminogen) from plasma and then observing the time required for clot dissolution. A shortened lysis time indicates a hyperfibrinolytic state and bleeding risk. Such results can be seen in peoples with liver disease, PAI-1 deficiency or alpha 2-antiplasmin deficiency. Similar results are also seen after administration of DDAVP or after severe stress.
Role in disease
Few congenital disorders of the fibrinolytic system have been documented. Nevertheless, excess levels of PAI and alpha 2-antiplasmin have been implicated in metabolic syndrome and various other disease states.
However, acquired disturbance of fibrinolysis (hyperfibrinolysis), is not uncommon. Many trauma patients suffer from an overwhelming activation of tissue factor and thus massive hyperfibrinolysis. Hyperfibrinolysis may occur in other disease states. It could lead to massive bleeding if not diagnosed and treated early enough.
The fibrinolytic system is closely linked to control of inflammation, and plays a role in disease states associated with inflammation. Plasmin, in addition to lysing fibrin clots, also cleaves the complement system component C3, and fibrin degradation products have some vascular permeability inducing effects.
Pharmacology
In a process called thrombolysis (the breakdown of a thrombus), fibrinolytic drugs are used. They are given following a heart attack to dissolve the thrombus blocking the coronary artery; experimentally after a stroke to allow blood flow back to the affected part of the brain; and in the event of pulmonary embolism.
Thrombolysis refers to the dissolution of the thrombus due to various agents while fibrinolysis refers specifically to the agents causing fibrin breakdown in the clot.
Antifibrinolytics, such as aminocaproic acid (ε-aminocaproic acid) and tranexamic acid are used as inhibitors of fibrinolysis. Their application may be beneficial in patients with hyperfibrinolysis because they arrest bleeding rapidly if the other components of the haemostatic system are not severely affected. This may help to avoid the use of blood products such as fresh frozen plasma with its associated risks of infections or anaphylactic reactions.
Fibrinolytic enzymes
Anistreplase
Desmoteplase
Streptokinase
Nattokinase
Lumbrokinase
Serrapeptase
Papain
DNase
Bromelain
Honokiol
References
External links
Graphical representation of the fibrinolytic pathway (site not available)
Fibrinolytic system | [
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241014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catshark | Catshark | Catsharks are ground sharks of the family Scyliorhinidae. They are one of the largest families of sharks with around 160 species placed in 17 genera. Although they are generally known as catsharks, some species can, also, be called dogfish due to previous naming. However, a dogfish may generally be distinguished from a catshark as catsharks lay eggs while dogfish have live young. Like most bottom feeders, catsharks feed on benthic invertebrates and smaller fish. They are not harmful to humans.
Genera
The family includes 17 genera and over 150 species, making it the largest family of sharks.
Apristurus Garman, 1913
Asymbolus Whitley, 1939
Atelomycterus Garman, 1913
Aulohalaelurus Fowler, 1934
Bythaelurus Compagno, 1988
Cephaloscyllium T. N. Gill, 1862
Cephalurus Bigelow and Schroeder, 1941
Figaro Whitley, 1928
Galeus Rafinesque, 1810
Halaelurus T. N. Gill, 1862
Haploblepharus Garman, 1913
Holohalaelurus Fowler, 1934
Parmaturus Garman, 1906
Pentanchus H. M. Smith and Radcliffe in Smith, 1912
Poroderma A. Smith, 1838
Schroederichthys A. Smith, 1838
Scyliorhinus Blainville, 1816
Cladogram
Scyliorhinidae
Scyliorhininae
Galeinae
Pentanchini
Galeini
Galeina
Halelaelurina
Atelomycterininae
Schroedericthyinae
Anatomy and appearance
Catsharks may be distinguished by their elongated, cat-like eyes and two small dorsal fins set far back. Most species are fairly small, growing no longer than 80 cm (31 in); a few, such as the nursehound (Scyliorhinus stellaris) can reach 1.6 m (5.2 ft) in length. Most of the species have a patterned appearance, ranging from stripes to patches to spots.
Characteristics of genus Apristurus are mostly dark bodies, and having a long anal fin that ends in front of where the lower caudal fin begins. The snouts of the species of Apristurus are flat. They also present upper and lower labial furrows.
The sonic hedgehog dentition expression is first found as a bilateral symmetrical pattern and is found in certain areas of the embryonic jaw. Sonic hedgehog (a secreted protein that, in humans, is encoded by the SHH gene) is involved in the growth and patterning of different organs. Every 18–38 days the teeth are replaced as is a common characteristic of the developmental process of sharks.
The "swell sharks" of the genus Cephaloscyllium have the curious ability to fill their stomachs with water or air when threatened, increasing their girth by a factor of one to three.
Some catsharks, such as the chain catshark are biofluorescent.
Distribution
Catsharks are found around seabeds in temperate and tropical seas worldwide, ranging from very shallow intertidal waters to depths of 2,000 m (6,600 ft) or more, such as the members of genus Apristurus The red-spotted catshark lives in the shallower rocky waters ranging from Peru to Chile and migrates to deeper waters during the winter. They are usually restricted to small ranges. Juvenile and adult chain dogfish live on the soft or rocky bottom of the Atlantic from Massachusetts to Nicaragua. Adults tend to live on the soft, sandy bottoms possibly due to their need of egg deposition sites.
Behaviour
Some catsharks do not undergo long distance migrations because they are poor swimmers. Due to being nocturnal, some species sleep close together in crevices throughout the day and then go hunting at night. Some species such as the small spotted catshark, Scyliorhinus canicula, are sexually monomorphic and exhibit habitat segregation, where males and females live in separate areas; males tend to live in open seabeds, while females tend to live in caves. Some species of catsharks may deposit egg cases in structured habitats, which may also act as nurseries for the newly hatched sharks.
Reproduction
Many species of catsharks, like the chain dogfish, are oviparous and lay eggs in tough egg cases with curly tendrils at each end, known as "mermaid's purses", for protection, onto the seabed. Almost a year is needed for a catshark to hatch from the egg. Instead of laying the eggs and letting them sit for a year, some species of catsharks hold onto the eggs until a few months before the shark hatches. Some catsharks exhibit ovoviviparity, aplacental viviparous, by holding onto the embryos until they are completely developed and then give live birth. Some species of catsharks mate by biting and holding the female’s pectoral fins and wrestle her into a mating position.
Aquaria
The Australian marbled catshark, Atelomycterus macleayi, is a favored type for home aquaria, because it rarely grows to more than in length. The coral catshark, however, is the most common scyliorhinid in home aquaria.
References
External links
FishBase entry for Scyliorhinidae
Animal Diversity Web entry for Scyliorhinidae
Mikko's Phylogeny Archive - Scyliorhinidae
Scyliorhinidae
Extant Late Jurassic first appearances
Taxa named by Theodore Gill | [
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241017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrenergic%20receptor | Adrenergic receptor | The adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors are a class of G protein-coupled receptors that are targets of many catecholamines like norepinephrine (noradrenaline) and epinephrine (adrenaline) produced by the body, but also many medications like beta blockers, beta-2 (β2) agonists and alpha-2 (α2) agonists, which are used to treat high blood pressure and asthma, for example.
Many cells have these receptors, and the binding of a catecholamine to the receptor will generally stimulate the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The SNS is responsible for the fight-or-flight response, which is triggered by experiences such as exercise or fear-causing situations. This response dilates pupils, increases heart rate, mobilizes energy, and diverts blood flow from non-essential organs to skeletal muscle. These effects together tend to increase physical performance momentarily.
History
By the turn of the 19th century, it was agreed that the stimulation of sympathetic nerves could cause different effects on body tissues, depending on the conditions of stimulation (such as the presence or absence of some toxin). Over the first half of the 20th century, two main proposals were made to explain this phenomenon:
There were (at least) two different types of neurotransmitters released from sympathetic nerve terminals, or
There were (at least) two different types of detector mechanisms for a single neurotransmitter.
The first hypothesis was championed by Walter Bradford Cannon and Arturo Rosenblueth, who interpreted many experiments to then propose that there were two neurotransmitter substances, which they called sympathin E (for 'excitation') and sympathin I (for 'inhibition').
The second hypothesis found support from 1906 to 1913, when Henry Hallett Dale explored the effects of adrenaline (which he called adrenine at the time), injected into animals, on blood pressure. Usually, adrenaline would increase the blood pressure of these animals. Although, if the animal had been exposed to ergotoxine, the blood pressure decreased. He proposed that the ergotoxine caused "selective paralysis of motor myoneural junctions" (i.e. those tending to increase the blood pressure) hence revealing that under normal conditions that there was a "mixed response", including a mechanism that would relax smooth muscle and cause a fall in blood pressure. This "mixed response", with the same compound causing either contraction or relaxation, was conceived of as the response of different types of junctions to the same compound.
This line of experiments were developed by several groups, including DT Marsh and colleagues, who in February 1948 showed that a series of compounds structurally related to adrenaline could also show either contracting or relaxing effects, depending on whether or not other toxins were present. This again supported the argument that the muscles had two different mechanisms by which they could respond to the same compound. In June of that year, Raymond Ahlquist, Professor of Pharmacology at Medical College of Georgia, published a paper concerning adrenergic nervous transmission. In it, he explicitly named the different responses as due to what he called α receptors and β receptors, and that the only sympathetic transmitter was adrenaline. While the latter conclusion was subsequently shown to be incorrect (it is now known to be noradrenaline), his receptor nomenclature and concept of two different types of detector mechanisms for a single neurotransmitter, remains. In 1954, he was able to incorporate his findings in a textbook, Drill's Pharmacology in Medicine, and thereby promulgate the role played by α and β receptor sites in the adrenaline/noradrenaline cellular mechanism. These concepts would revolutionise advances in pharmacotherapeutic research, allowing the selective design of specific molecules to target medical ailments rather than rely upon traditional research into the efficacy of pre-existing herbal medicines.
Categories
There are two main groups of adrenoreceptors, α and β, with 9 subtypes in total:
α are divided to α1 (a Gq coupled receptor) and α2 (a Gi coupled receptor)
α1 has 3 subtypes: α1A, α1B and α1D
α2 has 3 subtypes: α2A, α2B and α2C
β are divided to β1, β2 and β3. All 3 are coupled to Gs proteins, but β2 and β3 also couple to Gi
Gi and Gs are linked to adenylyl cyclase. Agonist binding thus causes a rise in the intracellular concentration of the second messenger (Gi inhibits the production of cAMP) cAMP. Downstream effectors of cAMP include cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), which mediates some of the intracellular events following hormone binding.
Roles in circulation
Epinephrine (adrenaline) reacts with both α- and β-adrenoreceptors, causing vasoconstriction and vasodilation, respectively. Although α receptors are less sensitive to epinephrine, when activated at pharmacologic doses, they override the vasodilation mediated by β-adrenoreceptors because there are more peripheral α1 receptors than β-adrenoreceptors. The result is that high levels of circulating epinephrine cause vasoconstriction. However, the opposite is true in the coronary arteries, where β2 response is greater than that of α1, resulting in overall dilation with increased sympathetic stimulation. At lower levels of circulating epinephrine (physiologic epinephrine secretion), β-adrenoreceptor stimulation dominates since epinephrine has a higher affinity for the β2 adrenoreceptor than the α1 adrenoreceptor, producing vasodilation followed by decrease of peripheral vascular resistance.
Subtypes
Smooth muscle behavior is variable depending on anatomical location. Smooth muscle contraction/relaxation is generalized below. One important note is the differential effects of increased cAMP in smooth muscle compared to cardiac muscle. Increased cAMP will promote relaxation in smooth muscle, while promoting increased contractility and pulse rate in cardiac muscle.
{| class="wikitable"
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Receptor
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Agonist potency order
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Agonist action
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Mechanism
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Agonists
! scope="col" style="width: 125px;" | Antagonists
|-
| α1: A, B, D
| Norepinephrine > epinephrine >> isoprenaline
| Smooth muscle contraction, mydriasis, vasoconstriction in the skin, mucosa and abdominal viscera & sphincter contraction of the GI tract and urinary bladder
| Gq: phospholipase C (PLC) activated, IP3, and DAG, rise in calcium
|
(Alpha-1 agonists)
Noradrenaline
Phenylephrine
Methoxamine
Cirazoline
Xylometazoline
Midodrine
Metaraminol
Chloroethylclonidine
Adrenoswitches (photoswitchable agonists)
| (Alpha-1 blockers)
Acepromazine
Alfuzosin
Doxazosin
Phenoxybenzamine
Phentolamine
Prazosin
Tamsulosin
Terazosin
Trazodone
(TCAs)
Clomipramine
Doxepin
Trimipramine
Typical and atypical antipsychotics
Antihistamines (H1 antagonists)
Hydroxyzine
|-
| α2: A, B, C
|Epinephrine = norepinephrine >> isoprenaline
| Smooth muscle mixed effects, norepinephrine (noradrenaline) inhibition, platelet activation
| Gi: adenylate cyclase inactivated, cAMP down
|(Alpha-2 agonists)Agmatine
Dexmedetomidine
Medetomidine
Romifidine
Clonidine
Chloroethylclonidine
Brimonidine
Detomidine
Lofexidine
Xylazine
Tizanidine
Guanfacine
Amitraz
| (Alpha-2 blockers)Phenoxybenzamine
Phentolamine
Yohimbine
Idazoxan
Atipamezole
Trazodone
Typical and atypical antipsychotics
|-
| β1
| Isoprenaline > norepinephrine > epinephrine
| Positive chronotropic, dromotropic and inotropic effects, increased amylase secretion
| Gs: adenylate cyclase activated, cAMP up
| (β1-adrenergic agonist)Dobutamine
Isoprenaline
Noradrenaline
| (Beta blockers)Metoprolol
Atenolol
Bisoprolol
Propranolol
Timolol
Nebivolol
Vortioxetine
|-
| β2
| Isoprenaline > epinephrine > norepinephrine
| Smooth muscle relaxation (bronchodilation for example)
| Gs: adenylate cyclase activated, cAMP up (also Gi, see α2)
| (β2-adrenergic agonist)Salbutamol (Albuterol in USA)
Bitolterol mesylate
Formoterol
Isoprenaline
Levalbuterol
Metaproterenol
Salmeterol
Terbutaline
Ritodrine
| (Beta blockers)Butoxamine
Timolol
Propranolol
ICI-118,551
Paroxetine
|-
| β3
| Isoprenaline > norepinephrine = epinephrine
| Enhance lipolysis, promotes relaxation of detrusor muscle in the bladder
| Gs: adenylate cyclase activated, cAMP up (also Gi, see α2)
| (β3-adrenergic agonist)L-796568
Amibegron
Solabegron
Mirabegron
| (Beta blockers)SR 59230A
|}
α receptors
α receptors have actions in common, but also individual effects. Common (or still receptor unspecified) actions include:
vasoconstriction
decreased flow of smooth muscle in gastrointestinal tract
Subtype unspecific α agonists (see actions above) can be used to treat rhinitis (they decrease mucus secretion). Subtype unspecific α antagonists can be used to treat pheochromocytoma (they decrease vasoconstriction caused by norepinephrine).
α1 receptor
α1-adrenoreceptors are members of the Gq protein-coupled receptor superfamily. Upon activation, a heterotrimeric G protein, Gq, activates phospholipase C (PLC). The PLC cleaves phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2), which in turn causes an increase in inositol triphosphate (IP3) and diacylglycerol (DAG). The former interacts with calcium channels of endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum, thus changing the calcium content in a cell. This triggers all other effects, including a prominent slow after depolarizing current (sADP) in neurons.
Actions of the α1 receptor mainly involve smooth muscle contraction. It causes vasoconstriction in many blood vessels, including those of the skin, gastrointestinal system, kidney (renal artery) and brain. Other areas of smooth muscle contraction are:
ureter
vas deferens
hair (arrector pili muscles)
uterus (when pregnant)
urethral sphincter
urothelium and lamina propria
bronchioles (although minor relative to the relaxing effect of β2 receptor on bronchioles)
blood vessels of ciliary body (stimulation causes mydriasis)
Actions also include glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis from adipose tissue and liver; secretion from sweat glands and Na+ reabsorption from kidney.
α1 antagonists can be used to treat:
hypertension – decrease blood pressure by decreasing peripheral vasoconstriction
benign prostate hyperplasia – relax smooth muscles within the prostate thus easing urination
α2 receptor
The α2 receptor couples to the Gi/o protein. It is a presynaptic receptor, causing negative feedback on, for example, norepinephrine (NE). When NE is released into the synapse, it feeds back on the α2 receptor, causing less NE release from the presynaptic neuron. This decreases the effect of NE. There are also α2 receptors on the nerve terminal membrane of the post-synaptic adrenergic neuron.
Actions of the α2 receptor include:
decreased insulin release from the pancreas
increased glucagon release from the pancreas
contraction of sphincters of the GI-tract
negative feedback in the neuronal synapses - presynaptic inhibition of norepinephrine release in CNS
increased platelet aggregation (increased blood clotting tendency)
decreases peripheral vascular resistance
α2 agonists (see actions above) can be used to treat:
hypertension – decrease blood pressure-raising actions of the sympathetic nervous system
α2 antagonists can be used to treat:
impotence – relax penile smooth muscles and ease blood flow
depression – enhance mood by increasing norepinephrine secretion
β receptors
Subtype unspecific β agonists can be used to treat:
heart failure – increase cardiac output acutely in an emergency
circulatory shock – increase cardiac output thus redistributing blood volume
anaphylaxis – bronchodilation
Subtype unspecific β antagonists (beta blockers) can be used to treat:
heart arrhythmia – decrease the output of sinus node thus stabilizing heart function
coronary artery disease – reduce heart rate and hence increasing oxygen supply
heart failure – prevent sudden death related to this condition, which is often caused by ischemias or arrhythmias
hyperthyroidism – reduce peripheral sympathetic hyper-responsiveness
migraine – reduce number of attacks
stage fright – reduce tachycardia and tremor
glaucoma – reduce intraocular pressure
β1 receptor
Actions of the β1 receptor include:
increase cardiac output by increasing heart rate (positive chronotropic effect), conduction velocity (positive dromotropic effect), stroke volume (by enhancing contractility – positive inotropic effect), and rate of relaxation of the myocardium, by increasing calcium ion sequestration rate (positive lusitropic effect), which aids in increasing heart rate
increase renin secretion from juxtaglomerular cells of the kidney
increase renin secretion from kidney
increase ghrelin secretion from the stomach
β2 receptor
Actions of the β2 receptor include:
smooth muscle relaxation throughout many areas of the body, e.g. in bronchi (bronchodilation, see salbutamol), GI tract (decreased motility), veins (vasodilation of blood vessels), especially those to skeletal muscle (although this vasodilator effect of norepinephrine is relatively minor and overwhelmed by α adrenoceptor-mediated vasoconstriction)
lipolysis in adipose tissue
anabolism in skeletal muscle
uptake of potassium into cells
relax non-pregnant uterus
relax detrusor urinae muscle of bladder wall
dilate arteries to skeletal muscle
glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
stimulates insulin secretion
contract sphincters of GI tract
thickened secretions from salivary glands
inhibit histamine-release from mast cells
involved in brain - immune communication
β2 agonists (see actions above) can be used to treat:
asthma and COPD – reduce bronchial smooth muscle contraction thus dilating the bronchus
hyperkalemia – increase cellular potassium intake
preterm birth – reduce uterine smooth muscle contractions
β3 receptor
Actions of the β3 receptor include:
increase of lipolysis in adipose tissue
relax the bladder
β3 agonists could theoretically be used as weight-loss drugs, but are limited by the side effect of tremors.
See also
Beta adrenergic receptor kinase
Beta adrenergic receptor kinase-2
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Alpha receptors illustrated
The Adrenergic Receptors
Adrenoceptors - IUPHAR/BPS guide to pharmacology
Basic Neurochemistry: α- and β-Adrenergic Receptors
Theory of receptor activation
Desensitization of β1 receptors
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] |
241018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saadi | Saadi | Saadi, Sa'adi, Sadi, or SADI may refer to:
Given name
Saadi
Saadi Shirazi (1210–1292), major Persian-language poet
Al-Saadi Gaddafi, Libyan professional soccer player
Saadi Al Munla (1890–1975), Lebanese politician
Saadi Simawe, Iraqi-American author, teacher, and translator
Saadi Yacef (1928–2021), Algerian politician
Saadi Youssef, Iraqi writer and publisher
Sadi
Sadi Gülçelik (1929–1980), Turkish basketball player, civil engineer and entrepreneur
Sadi Irmak (1904–1990), Turkish academic, politician and former Prime Minister
Sadi Jalali (born 1995), Indian-born Canadian professional soccer player
Middle names
Marie François Sadi Carnot (1837-1894), president of France 1887-1894 (nephew of Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot)
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (1796-1832), French physicist and thermodynamicist
Surnames
Saadi dynasty, a dynasty of Morocco
Dheyaa al-Saadi, Iraqi lawyer
Ramón Saadi, Argentine politician, son of Vicente Saadi
Suhayl Saadi, Scottish author
Vicente Saadi (1913-1988), Argentine politician
Youcef Saadi, Algerian professional soccer player
Amir Hamudi Hasan al-Sadi (or al-Saadi), Iraqi chemical engineer and weapons developer
Marie François Sadi Carnot, former president of France
Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, French physicist
Saïd Sadi, Algerian political activist
Fictional characters
Sadi, a eunuch in The Belgariad and The Malloreon series of novels
Places
Sədi, village in Azerbaijan
Sadi, East Azerbaijan, a village in Iran
Sadi, Marand, a village in Iran
Sadi, Kerman, a village in Iran
Sadi, Khuzestan, a village in Iran
Sadi, Nepal
Science, Medicine, and Technology
SADI, Semantic Automated Discovery and Integration
SADI-S, a type of bariatric surgery
See also
Saadia
Saudi (disambiguation) | [
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241020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scyliorhinus | Scyliorhinus | Scyliorhinus is a genus of catsharks in the family Scyliorhinidae. This genus is known in the fossil records from the Cretaceous period, late Albian age to the Pliocene epoch.
Species
There are currently 16 recognized species in this genus:
Scyliorhinus boa Goode & T. H. Bean, 1896 (boa catshark)
Scyliorhinus cabofriensis K. D. A. Soares, U. L. Gomes & M. R. de Carvalho, 2016
Scyliorhinus canicula (Linnaeus, 1758) (small-spotted catshark)
Scyliorhinus capensis (J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838) (yellowspotted catshark)
Scyliorhinus cervigoni Maurin & M. Bonnet, 1970 (West African catshark)
Scyliorhinus comoroensis L. J. V. Compagno, 1988 (Comoro catshark)
Scyliorhinus garmani (Fowler, 1934) (brownspotted catshark)
Scyliorhinus haeckelii (A. Miranda-Ribeiro, 1907) (freckled catshark)
Scyliorhinus hesperius S. Springer, 1966 (whitesaddled catshark)
Scyliorhinus meadi S. Springer, 1966 (blotched catshark)
Scyliorhinus retifer (Garman, 1881) (chain catshark)
Scyliorhinus stellaris (Linnaeus, 1758) (nursehound)
Scyliorhinus tokubee Shirai, S. Hagiwara & Nakaya, 1992 (Izu catshark)
Scyliorhinus torazame (S. Tanaka (I), 1908) (cloudy catshark)
Scyliorhinus torrei Howell-Rivero, 1936 (dwarf catshark)
Scyliorhinus ugoi K. D. A. Soares, Gadig & U. L. Gomes, 2015 (dark freckled catshark)
Extinct species
†Scyliorhinus ambliatlanticus Lautiro Mora, 1999
†Scyliorhinus angustus (Münster, 1843)
†Scyliorhinus antiquus (Agassiz, 1843)
†Scyliorhinus arambourgi Cappetta, 1980
†Scyliorhinus arlingtonensis Cappetta & Case, 1999
†Scyliorhinus biddlei Halter, 1995
†Scyliorhinus biformis Reinecke, 2014
†Scyliorhinus bloti Cappetta, 1980
†Scyliorhinus brumarivulensis Underwood & Ward, 2008
†Scyliorhinus cepaeformis Halter, 1990
†Scyliorhinus coupatezi Herman, 1974
†Scyliorhinus dubius (Woodward, 1889)
†Scyliorhinus elongatus (Davis, 1887)
†Scyliorhinus entomodon Noubhani & Cappetta, 1997
†Scyliorhinus fossilis (Leriche, 1927)
†Scyliorhinus ivagrantae Case & Cappetta, 1997
†Scyliorhinus joleaudi Cappetta, 1970
†Scyliorhinus kannenbergi Leder, 2015
†Scyliorhinus kasenoi Karasawa, 1989
†Scyliorhinus luypaertsi Halter, 1995
†Scyliorhinus malembeensis Dartevelle & Casier, 1959
†Scyliorhinus monsaugustus Guinot, Underwood, Cappetta & Ward, 2013
†Scyliorhinus moosi Herman, 1975
†Scyliorhinus muelleri Guinot, Underwood, Cappetta & Ward, 2013
†Scyliorhinus musteliformis Herman, 1977
†Scyliorhinus ptychtus Noubhani & Cappetta, 1997
†Scyliorhinus reyndersi Halter, 1995
†Scyliorhinus suelstorfensis Reinecke, 2014
†Scyliorhinus sulcidens Noubhani & Cappetta, 1997
†Scyliorhinus taylorensis Cappetta & Case, 1999
†Scyliorhinus tensleepensis Case, 1987
†Scyliorhinus trifolius Adnet, 2006
†Scyliorhinus wardi Halter, 1990
†Scyliorhinus woodwardi Cappetta, 1976
References
Extant Albian first appearances
Shark genera
Taxa named by Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville | [
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241023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common%20chaffinch | Common chaffinch | The common chaffinch or simply the chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs) is a common and widespread small passerine bird in the finch family. The male is brightly coloured with a blue-grey cap and rust-red underparts. The female is more subdued in colouring, but both sexes have two contrasting white wing bars and white sides to the tail. The male bird has a strong voice and sings from exposed perches to attract a mate.
The chaffinch breeds in much of Europe, across the Palearctic to Siberia and in northwestern Africa. The female builds a nest with a deep cup in the fork of a tree. The clutch is typically four or five eggs, which hatch in about 13 days. The chicks fledge in around 14 days, but are fed by both adults for several weeks after leaving the nest. Outside the breeding season, chaffinches form flocks in open countryside and forage for seeds on the ground. During the breeding season, they forage on trees for invertebrates, especially caterpillars, and feed these to their young. They are partial migrants; birds breeding in warmer regions are sedentary, while those breeding in the colder northern areas of their range winter further south.
The eggs and nestlings of the chaffinch are taken by a variety of mammalian and avian predators. Its large numbers and huge range mean that chaffinches are classed as of least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature.
Taxonomy
The common chaffinch was described by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae under its current binomial name. Fringilla is the Latin word for finch, while caelebs means unmarried or single. Linnaeus remarked that during the Swedish winter, only the female birds migrated south through Belgium to Italy.
The English name comes from the Old English ceaffinc, where ceaf is "chaff" and finc "finch". Chaffinches were likely given this name because after farmers thresh their crops, these birds sometimes spend weeks picking through heaps of discarded chaff for grain. The chaffinch is one of the many birds depicted in the marginal decoration of the 15th-century English illuminated manuscript the Sherborne Missal. The English naturalist William Turner described the common chaffinch in his book on birds Avium praecipuarum, published in 1544. Although the text is in Latin, Turner gives the English name as chaffinche and lists two folk names: sheld-appel and spink. The word sheld is a dialectal word meaning pied or multicoloured (as in shelduck). Appel may be related to Alp, an obsolete word for a bullfinch. The name spink is probably derived from the bird's call note. The names spink and shell apple are among the many folk names listed for the common chaffinch by Reverend Charles Swainson in his Provincial Names and Folk Lore of British Birds (1885).
The Fringillidae are all seed-eaters with stout conical bills. They have similar skull morphologies, nine large primaries, 12 tail feathers and no crop. In all species, the female builds the nest, incubates the eggs, and broods the young. Finches are divided into two subfamilies, the Carduelinae, containing around 28 genera with 141 species and the Fringillinae containing a single genus, Fringilla, with four species: the common chaffinch (F. coelebs), the Gran Canaria blue chaffinch (F. polatzeki), the Tenerife blue chaffinch (F. teydea), and the brambling (F. montifringilla). Fringilline finches raise their young almost entirely on arthropods, while the cardueline finches raise their young on regurgitated seeds.
Subspecies
A number of subspecies of the common chaffinch have been described, based principally on the differences in the pattern and colour of the adult male plumage. The subspecies can be divided into three groups: the "coelebs group" that occurs in Europe and Asia, the "spondiogenys group" in North Africa, and the "canariensis group" on the Canary Islands. The subspecies from Madeira and the Azores are placed either in the "canariensis group" or in the "spondiogenys group". Genetic studies indicate that members of the "coelebs group" and the "spondiogenys group" are more closely related to each other than they are to members of the "canariensis group".
Within the "spondiogenys group", the gradual clinal variation over the large geographic range and the extensive intergradation means that the geographical limits and acceptance of the various subspecies varies between authorities. The International Ornithologists' Union lists 11 subspecies from this group, whereas Peter Clement in the Birds of the World lists seven and considers the features of the subspecies balearica (Mallorca), caucasica (the southern Caucasus), schiebeli (southern Greece, Crete and western Turkey), and tyrrhenica (Corsica) to fall within the variation of the nominate subspecies. He also suggests that the subspecies alexandrovi, sarda, solomkoi, and syriaca may represent variations of the nominate subspecies.
The authors of a 2009 molecular phylogenetic study on the three subspecies that were recognised on the Canary Islands concluded that they are sufficiently distinct in both genotype and phenotype to be considered as separate species within the genus Fringilla. They also proposed a revised distribution of the subspecies on the islands in which the birds on La Palma (palmae) and El Hierro (ombrioso) are grouped together as a single subspecies, while the current canariensis subspecies is split into two, with one subspecies occurring only on Gran Canaria and the other on La Gomera and Tenerife. The results of a study published in 2018 confirmed the earlier findings. The authors formerly described the Gran Canaria variety as a subspecies and coined the trinomial name Fringilla coelebs bakeri.
coelebs group
F. c. alexandrovi Zarudny, 1916 – northern Iran
F. c. caucasica Serebrovski, 1925 – Balkans and northern Greece to northern Turkey, central and eastern Caucasus and northwestern Iran
F. c. coelebs Linnaeus, 1758 (nominate subspecies) – Eurasia, from western Europe and Asia Minor to Siberia
F. c. balearica von Jordans, 1923 – Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands
F. c. gengleri O. Kleinschmidt, 1909 – British Isles
F. c. sarda Rapine, 1925 – Sardinia
F. c. schiebeli Erwin Stresemann, 1925 – southern Greece, Crete and western Turkey
F. c. solomkoi Menzbier & Sushkin, 1913 – Crimean Peninsula and southwestern Caucasus
F. c. syriaca J. M. Harrisson, 1945 – Cyprus, southeastern Turkey to northern Iran and Jordan
F. c. transcaspia Zarudny, 1916 – northeastern Iran and southwestern Turkmenistan
F. c. tyrrhenica Schiebel, 1910 – Corsica
spondiogenys group
F. c. africana J. Levaillant, 1850 – Morocco to northwestern Tunisia, northeastern Libya
F. c. spodiogenys Bonaparte, 1841 – Eastern Tunisia and northwestern Libya: Atlas chaffinch
canariensis group
F. c. canariensis Vieillot, 1817 – central Canary Islands (La Gomera and Tenerife and Gran Canaria)
F. c. bakeri Illera et al., 2018 – central Canary Islands (Gran Canaria)
F. c. maderensis Sharpe, 1888 – Madeira: Madeiran chaffinch
F. c. moreletti Pucheran, 1859 – Azores
F. c. ombriosa Hartert, 1913 – El Hierro, Canary Islands
F. c. palmae Tristram, 1889 – La Palma, Canary Islands: La Palma chaffinch
Description
The common chaffinch is about long, with a wingspan of and a weight of . The adult male of the nominate subspecies has a black forehead and a blue-grey crown, nape and upper mantle. The rump is a light olive-green; the lower mantle and scapulars form a brown saddle. The side of head, throat and breast are a dull rust-red merging to a pale creamy-pink on the belly. The central pair of tail feathers are dark grey with a black shaft streak. The rest of the tail is black apart from the two outer feathers on each side which have white wedges. Each wing has a contrasting white panel on the coverts and a buff-white bar on the secondaries and inner primaries. The flight feathers are black with white on the basal portions of the vanes. The secondaries and inner primaries have pale yellow fringes on the outer web whereas the outer primaries have a white outer edge.
After the autumn moult, the tips of the new feathers have a buff fringe that adds a brown cast to the coloured plumage. The ends of the feathers wear away over the winter so that by the spring breeding season the underlying brighter colours are displayed. The eyes have dark brown irises and the legs are grey-brown. In winter the bill is a pale grey and slightly darker along the upper ridge or culmen, but in spring the bill becomes bluish-grey with a small black tip.
The male of the subspecies resident in the British Isles (F. c. gengleri) closely resembles the nominate subspecies, but has a slightly darker mantle and underparts. The males of the two North African subspecies F. c. africana and F. c. spodiogenys have a blue-grey crown and nape that extends down to the sides of the head and neck, a black forehead and lore, a broken white eye-ring, a bright olive-green saddle and a pink-buff throat and breast. The males of F. c. canariensis and F. c. palmae in the Canary Islands have deep slate-blue upperparts and lack a contrasting mantle. Male chaffinches in Madeira (F. c. maderensis) and the Azores (F. c. moreletti) are similar in appearance to F. c. canariensis, but have a bright green mantle.
The adult female is much duller in appearance than the male. The head and most of the upperparts are shades of grey-brown. The underparts are paler. The lower back and rump are a dull olive green. The wings and tail are similar to those of the male. The juvenile resembles the female.
Voice
Males typically sing two or three different song types, and there are regional dialects also.
The acquisition by the young common chaffinch of its song was the subject of an influential study by British ethologist William Thorpe. Thorpe determined that if the young common chaffinch is not exposed to the adult male's song during a certain critical period after hatching, it will never properly learn the song. He also found that in adult common chaffinches, castration eliminates the song, but injection of testosterone induces such birds to sing even in November, when they are normally silent.
Distribution and habitat
The common chaffinch breeds in wooded areas where the July isotherm is between . The breeding range includes northwestern Africa and most of Europe and extends eastwards across temperate Asia to the Angara River and the southern end of Lake Baikal in Siberia. There are also a number of distinctive subspecies on the Azores, the Canary Islands and the Madeira Islands in the Atlantic Ocean. The common chaffinch was introduced from Great Britain into several of its overseas territories in the second half of the 19th century. In New Zealand, the common chaffinch had colonised both the North and South Islands by 1900 and is now one of the most widespread and common passerine species. In South Africa, a very small breeding colony in the suburbs of Constantia, Hout Bay, Pinelands and Camps Bay in Cape Town is the only remnant of another such introduction.
This bird is not migratory in the milder parts of its range, but vacates the colder regions in winter. It forms loose flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixed with bramblings. It occasionally strays to eastern North America, although some sightings may be escapees.
Behaviour
Breeding
Common chaffinches first breed when they are 1 year old. They are mainly monogamous and the pair-bond for residential subspecies such as gengleri sometimes persists from one year to the next. The date for breeding is dependent on the spring temperature and is earlier in southwest Europe and later in the northeast. In Great Britain, most clutches are laid between late April and the middle of June. A male attracts a female to his territory through song.
Nests are built entirely by the female and are usually located in the fork of a bush or a tree several metres above the ground. The nest has a deep cup and is lined with a layer of thin roots and feathers. The outside is covered with a layer of lichen and spider silk over an inner layer of moss and grass. The eggs are laid in early morning at daily intervals until the clutch is complete. The clutch is typically 4–5 eggs, which are smooth and slightly glossy, but very variable in colour. They range from pale-blueish green to light red with purple-brown blotches, spots or steaks. The average size of an egg is with a weight of . The eggs are incubated for 10–16 days by the female. The chicks are altricial, hatching nearly naked with closed eyes, and are fed by both parents but mainly by the female, who broods them for around six days. They are mainly fed caterpillars. The nestlings fledge 11–18 days after hatching and disperse. The young birds are then assisted with feeding by both parents for a further three weeks. The parents only very rarely start a second brood, but when they do so it is always in a new nest. Juveniles undergo a partial moult at around five weeks of age in which they replace their head, body and many of their covert feathers, but not their primary and secondary flight feathers. After breeding adult birds undergo a complete annual moult which lasts around ten weeks.
In a study carried out in Britain using ring-recovery data, the survival rate for juveniles in their first year was 53 per cent, and the adult annual survival rate was 59 per cent. From these figures the typical lifespan is only 3 years, but the maximum age recorded is 15 years and 6 months for a bird in Switzerland.
Feeding
Outside the breeding season, common chaffinches mainly eat seeds and other plant material that they find on the ground. They often forage in open country in large flocks. Common chaffinches seldom take food directly from plants and only very rarely use their feet for handling food. During the breeding season, their diet switches to invertebrates, especially defoliating caterpillars. They forage in trees and also occasionally make short sallies to catch insects in the air. The young are entirely fed with invertebrates which include caterpillars, aphids, earwigs, spiders and grubs (the larvae of beetles).
Predators and parasites
The eggs and nestlings of the common chaffinch are predated by crows, Eurasian red and eastern grey squirrels, domestic cats and probably also by stoats and weasels. Clutches begun later in the spring suffer less predation, an effect that is believed to be due to the increased vegetation making nests more difficult to find. Unlike the case for the closely related brambling, the common chaffinch is not parasitised by the common cuckoo.
The protozoal parasite Trichomonas gallinae was known to infect pigeons and raptors, but beginning in Great Britain in 2005, carcasses of dead European greenfinches and common chaffinches were found to be infected with the parasite. The disease spread and in 2008, infected carcasses were found in Norway, Sweden and Finland and a year later in Germany. The spread of the disease is believed to have been mediated by common chaffinches, as large numbers of the birds breed in northern Europe and winter in Great Britain. In Great Britain, the number of infected carcasses recovered each year declined after a peak in 2006. There was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches but no significant decline in the overall number of common chaffinches. A similar pattern occurred in Finland where, after the arrival of the disease in 2008, there was a reduction in the number of European greenfinches, but only a small change in the number of common chaffinches.
Common chaffinches can develop tumors on their feet and legs caused by the Fringilla coelebs papillomavirus. The size of the papillomas range from a small nodule on a digit to a large growth involving both the foot and the leg. The disease is uncommon: in a 1973 study undertaken in the Netherlands, of around 25,000 common chaffinches screened, only 330 bore papillomas.
Status
The common chaffinch has an extensive range, estimated at 7 million square kilometres (3.7 million square miles) and a large population including an estimated 130–240 million breeding pairs in Europe. Allowing for the birds breeding in Asia, the total population lies between 530 and 1,400 million individuals. There is no evidence of any serious overall decline in numbers, so the species is classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being of Least Concern.
The endemic subspecies on the Macaronesian islands in the Atlantic are vulnerable to the loss of habitat, especially F. c. ombriosa on El Hierro in the Canary Islands, where the breeding population is between 1,000 and 5,000 pairs.
Relationship to humans
The common chaffinch was once popular as a caged songbird and large numbers of wild birds were trapped and sold. At the end of the 19th century, trapping even depleted the number of birds in London parks. In 1882, the English publisher Samuel Orchart Beeton issued a guide on the care of caged birds and included the recommendation: "To parents and guardians plagued with a morose and sulky boy, my advice is, buy him a chaffinch." Competitions were held where bets were placed on which caged common chaffinch would repeat its song the greatest number of times. The birds were sometimes blinded with a hot needle in the belief that this encouraged them to sing. This practice is the subject of the poem The Blinded Bird by the English author Thomas Hardy, which contrasts the cruelty involved in blinding the birds with their zestful song. In Great Britain, the practice of keeping common chaffinches as pets declined after the trapping of wild birds was outlawed by the Wild Birds Protection Acts of 1880 to 1896.
The common chaffinch is still a popular pet bird in some European countries. In Belgium, the traditional sport of vinkenzetting pits male common chaffinches against one another in a contest for the most bird calls in an hour.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Internet Bird Collection
Ageing and sexing (PDF; 3.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze
Feathers of Common Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs)
Vocalisations on Xeno-canto
Sonagrams of Chaffinch songs (Fringilla coelebs)
Birds described in 1758
Birds of Europe
Fringilla
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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241025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shadow%20of%20the%20Hegemon | Shadow of the Hegemon | Shadow of the Hegemon (2000) is a science fiction novel by American writer Orson Scott Card, the second novel in the Ender's Shadow series (often called the Bean Quartet). It is also the sixth novel in the Ender's Game series. It is told mostly from the point of view of Bean, a largely peripheral character in the original novel Ender's Game but the central protagonist of the parallel narrative Ender's Shadow. Shadow of the Hegemon was nominated for a Locus Award in 2002.
Plot summary
In Shadow of the Hegemon, all of the Battle School graduates, except Ender, return to Earth in 2197 A.D., where Ender's brother Peter, using his online pseudonym Locke, arranges for Ender to be returned to Earth; but Valentine, under the pseudonym Demosthenes, uses Peter's violent past against him to keep Ender exiled. Shortly after their return, the members of the unit Ender commanded (called his Jeesh, an Arabic word meaning 'army'), with the exception of Bean, are seized as strategists in an upcoming struggle for world dominance, by Achilles de Flandres (ah-SHEEL), who subjects them to solitary confinement. Bean having imprisoned Achilles in the previous novel, Achilles attempts (unsuccessfully) to kill Bean. The Delphikis go into hiding, while Bean joins forces with Sister Carlotta. After he discovers an encoded message sent by Petra confirming that the Russians are Achilles' backers, he works to free her and the others, while helping Peter come to power.
When Peter publishes under the 'Locke' pseudonym that Achilles is a murderer, the Battle School graduates are released, excepting Petra, whom Achilles brings to India. From there, he requests plans for an invasion of Burma and then Thailand, for which Indian Battle School graduates, including Sayagi and Virlomi, develop plans for brute-force attacks involving long supply lines. Petra arranges a different plan of stripping India's garrisons along the Indo-Pakistani border, which she expects will never happen, until a meeting with Pakistan's prime minister, in which Achilles encourages the two nations to make peace among themselves and declare war on other neighbors; secretly giving China the opportunity to annihilate the Indian army.
Petra finds an ally in Virlomi, who reveals to Bean that Petra is a prisoner, and eventually escapes the military compound to bring rescue. Courtesy of Bean's and Sister Carlotta's assets, "Locke" is nominated publicly for the position of Hegemon, allowing Peter to unmask himself. Meanwhile, Bean enters the Thai military under the patronage of Suriyawong (Suri), a fellow Battle School graduate and (nominal) head of Thailand's planning division, and trains 200 Thai soldiers against India. When the Thai Commander-in-Chief betrays Suriyawong and Bean, Bean hides himself and Suri in the barracks of his troops, and sends word for rescue, while Thailand prepares for war. Sister Carlotta's airplane, en route to Bean's location, is destroyed by a Chinese SAM, and Bean receives an earlier-recorded message, in which she describes the relationship between Anton's Key and Bean's brilliance, but also informs him that his life expectancy will be drastically reduced as a result.
Bean and Suriyawong use the troops Bean has trained to halt Indian supply lines. While striking a bridge, they meet Virlomi, who defects to their side. With the aid of Bean's soldiers and Locke's distinguished connections, they move on Hyderabad, where Bean rescues Petra. Furthermore, "Locke" publishes an essay detailing the Chinese betrayal just as it is happening, and on the basis of this prescience (and other miracles over the years) Peter Wiggin is elected Hegemon over the world.
Characters
Julian "Bean" Delphiki
Petra Arkanian
Achilles de Flandres
Sister Carlotta
Peter Wiggin
Hyrum Graff
Suriyawong
Virlomi
John Paul Wiggin
Theresa Wiggin
History
Card accredits two books in particular as being profoundly influential in the writing of this novel: Thailand: A Short History by David K. Wyatt and Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India by Lawrence James. In addition to these two books he was also inspired by Phillip Absher, who was one of the readers of the first draft. Phillip suggested that the Petra arc of the novel was anticlimactic. Upon hearing this criticism, Card rethought this entire book and decided to split it into two books. At the time of publication, Card thought the Bean series (Shadow series) of the Enderverse would only be four books long.
Reception
The book has a rating of 3.9 out of 5, with 60,000 votes on Goodreads.
See also
List of Ender's Game characters
List of works by Orson Scott Card
Insignia Trilogy - science-fiction series featuring both young recruits training in space and similar geopolitics
References
External links
About the novel Shadow of the Hegemon from Card's website
Shadow of the Hegemon at Worlds Without End
2001 American novels
American science fiction novels
Ender's Game series books
Tor Books books | [
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241026 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up%20quark | Up quark | The up quark or u quark (symbol: u) is the lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a major constituent of matter. It, along with the down quark, forms the neutrons (one up quark, two down quarks) and protons (two up quarks, one down quark) of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of + e & a bare mass of . Like all quarks, the up quark is an elementary fermion with spin , and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the up quark is the up antiquark (sometimes called antiup quark or simply antiup), which differs from it only in that some of its properties, such as charge have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
Its existence (along with that of the down and strange quarks) was postulated in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig to explain the Eightfold Way classification scheme of hadrons. The up quark was first observed by experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.
History
In the beginnings of particle physics (first half of the 20th century), hadrons such as protons, neutrons and pions were thought to be elementary particles. However, as new hadrons were discovered, the 'particle zoo' grew from a few particles in the early 1930s and 1940s to several dozens of them in the 1950s. The relationships between each of them were unclear until 1961, when Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman (independently of each other) proposed a hadron classification scheme called the Eightfold Way, or in more technical terms, SU(3) flavor symmetry.
This classification scheme organized the hadrons into isospin multiplets, but the physical basis behind it was still unclear. In 1964, Gell-Mann and George Zweig (independently of each other) proposed the quark model, then consisting only of up, down, and strange quarks. However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of three more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the quark model).
At first people were reluctant to describe the three bodies as quarks, instead preferring Richard Feynman's parton description, but over time the quark theory became accepted (see November Revolution).
Mass
Despite being extremely common, the bare mass of the up quark is not well determined, but probably lies between 1.8 and . Lattice QCD calculations give a more precise value: .
When found in mesons (particles made of one quark and one antiquark) or baryons (particles made of three quarks), the 'effective mass' (or 'dressed' mass) of quarks becomes greater because of the binding energy caused by the gluon field between each quark (see mass–energy equivalence). The bare mass of up quarks is so light, it cannot be straightforwardly calculated because relativistic effects have to be taken into account.
See also
Down quark
Isospin
Quark model
Quantum Mechanics
References
Further reading
Quarks
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241027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Down%20quark | Down quark | The down quark or d quark (symbol: d) is the second-lightest of all quarks, a type of elementary particle, and a major constituent of matter. Together with the up quark, it forms the neutrons (one up quark, two down quarks) and protons (two up quarks, one down quark) of atomic nuclei. It is part of the first generation of matter, has an electric charge of − e and a bare mass of . Like all quarks, the down quark is an elementary fermion with spin , and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the down quark is the down antiquark (sometimes called antidown quark or simply antidown), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
Its existence (along with that of the up and strange quarks) was postulated in 1964 by Murray Gell-Mann and George Zweig to explain the Eightfold Way classification scheme of hadrons. The down quark was first observed by experiments at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center in 1968.
History
In the beginnings of particle physics (first half of the 20th century), hadrons such as protons, neutrons, and pions were thought to be elementary particles. However, as new hadrons were discovered, the 'particle zoo' grew from a few particles in the early 1930s and 1940s to several dozens of them in the 1950s. The relationships between each of them was unclear until 1961, when Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne'eman (independently of each other) proposed a hadron classification scheme called the Eightfold Way, or in more technical terms, SU(3) flavor symmetry.
This classification scheme organized the hadrons into isospin multiplets, but the physical basis behind it was still unclear. In 1964, Gell-Mann and George Zweig (independently of each other) proposed the quark model, then consisting only of up, down, and strange quarks. However, while the quark model explained the Eightfold Way, no direct evidence of the existence of quarks was found until 1968 at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Deep inelastic scattering experiments indicated that protons had substructure, and that protons made of three more-fundamental particles explained the data (thus confirming the quark model).
At first people were reluctant to identify the three-bodies as quarks, instead preferring Richard Feynman's parton description, but over time the quark theory became accepted (see November Revolution).
Mass
Despite being extremely common, the bare mass of the down quark is not well determined, but probably lies between 4.5 and . Lattice QCD calculations give a more precise value: .
When found in mesons (particles made of one quark and one antiquark) or baryons (particles made of three quarks), the 'effective mass' (or 'dressed' mass) of quarks becomes greater because of the binding energy caused by the gluon field between quarks (see mass–energy equivalence). For example, the effective mass of down quarks in a proton is around . Because the bare mass of down quarks is so small, it cannot be straightforwardly calculated because relativistic effects have to be taken into account.
See also
Up quark
Isospin
Quark model
References
Further reading
Quarks
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241028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charm%20quark | Charm quark | The charm quark, charmed quark or c quark (from its symbol, c) is the third most massive of all quarks, a type of elementary particle. Charm quarks are found in hadrons, which are subatomic particles made of quarks. Examples of hadrons containing charm quarks include the J/ψ meson (), D mesons (), charmed Sigma baryons (), and other charmed particles.
It, along with the strange quark, is part of the second generation of matter, and has an electric charge of + e and a bare mass of . Like all quarks, the charm quark is an elementary fermion with spin , and experiences all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. The antiparticle of the charm quark is the charm antiquark (sometimes called anticharm quark or simply anticharm), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The existence of a fourth quark had been speculated by a number of authors around 1964 (for instance by James Bjorken and Sheldon Glashow), but its prediction is usually credited to Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani in 1970 (see GIM mechanism). Glashow is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world." The first charmed particle (a particle containing a charm quark) to be discovered was the J/ψ meson. It was discovered in 1974 by a team at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), led by Burton Richter, and one at the Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL), led by Samuel Ting.
The 1974 discovery of the (and thus the charm quark) ushered in a series of breakthroughs which are collectively known as the November Revolution.
Hadrons containing charm quarks
Some of the hadrons containing charm quarks include:
D mesons contain a charm quark (or its antiparticle) and an up or down quark.
mesons contain a charm quark and a strange quark.
There are many charmonium states, for example the particle. These consist of a charm quark and its antiparticle.
Charmed baryons have been observed, and are named in analogy with strange baryons (e.g. ).
See also
Quark model
References
Further reading
Quarks
Elementary particles | [
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241029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20quark | Top quark | The top quark, sometimes also referred to as the truth quark, (symbol: t) is the most massive of all observed elementary particles. It derives its mass from its coupling to the Higgs Boson. This coupling is very close to unity; in the Standard Model of particle physics, it is the largest (strongest) coupling at the scale of the weak interactions and above. The top quark was discovered in 1995 by the CDF and DØ experiments at Fermilab.
Like all other quarks, the top quark is a fermion with spin and participates in all four fundamental interactions: gravitation, electromagnetism, weak interactions, and strong interactions. It has an electric charge of + e. It has a mass of , which is close to the rhenium atom mass. The antiparticle of the top quark is the top antiquark (symbol: , sometimes called antitop quark or simply antitop), which differs from it only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign.
The top quark interacts with gluons of the strong interaction and is typically produced in hadron colliders via this interaction. However, once produced, the top (or antitop) can decay only through the weak force. It decays to a W boson and either a bottom quark (most frequently), a strange quark, or, on the rarest of occasions, a down quark.
The Standard Model determines the top quark's mean lifetime to be roughly . This is about a twentieth of the timescale for strong interactions, and therefore it does not form hadrons, giving physicists a unique opportunity to study a "bare" quark (all other quarks hadronize, meaning that they combine with other quarks to form hadrons and can only be observed as such).
Because the top quark is so massive, its properties allowed indirect determination of the mass of the Higgs boson (see below). As such, the top quark's properties are extensively studied as a means to discriminate between competing theories of new physics beyond the Standard Model. The top quark is the only quark that has been directly observed due to the fact that it decays faster than the hadronization time.
History
In 1973, Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa predicted the existence of a third generation of quarks to explain observed CP violations in kaon decay. The names top and bottom were introduced by Haim Harari in 1975, to match the names of the first generation of quarks (up and down) reflecting the fact that the two were the "up" and "down" component of a weak isospin doublet.
The proposal of Kobayashi and Maskawa heavily relied on the GIM mechanism put forward by Sheldon Glashow, John Iliopoulos and Luciano Maiani, which predicted the existence of the then still unobserved charm quark. (The other second generation quark, the strange quark, was already detected in 1968.) When in November 1974 teams at Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) simultaneously announced the discovery of the J/ψ meson, it was soon after identified as a bound state of the missing charm quark with its antiquark. This discovery allowed the GIM mechanism to become part of the Standard Model. With the acceptance of the GIM mechanism, Kobayashi and Maskawa's prediction also gained in credibility. Their case was further strengthened by the discovery of the tau by Martin Lewis Perl's team at SLAC between 1974 and 1978. The tau announced a third generation of leptons, breaking the new symmetry between leptons and quarks introduced by the GIM mechanism. Restoration of the symmetry implied the existence of a fifth and sixth quark.
It was in fact not long until a fifth quark, the bottom, was discovered by the E288 experiment team, led by Leon Lederman at Fermilab in 1977. This strongly suggested that there must also be a sixth quark, the top, to complete the pair. It was known that this quark would be heavier than the bottom, requiring more energy to create in particle collisions, but the general expectation was that the sixth quark would soon be found. However, it took another 18 years before the existence of the top was confirmed.
Early searches for the top quark at SLAC and DESY (in Hamburg) came up empty-handed. When, in the early 1980s, the Super Proton Synchrotron (SPS) at CERN discovered the W boson and the Z boson, it was again felt that the discovery of the top was imminent. As the SPS gained competition from the Tevatron at Fermilab there was still no sign of the missing particle, and it was announced by the group at CERN that the top mass must be at least . After a race between CERN and Fermilab to discover the top, the accelerator at CERN reached its limits without creating a single top, pushing the lower bound on its mass up to .
The Tevatron was (until the start of LHC operation at CERN in 2009) the only hadron collider powerful enough to produce top quarks. In order to be able to confirm a future discovery, a second detector, the DØ detector, was added to the complex (in addition to the Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) already present). In October 1992, the two groups found their first hint of the top, with a single creation event that appeared to contain the top. In the following years, more evidence was collected and on April 22, 1994, the CDF group submitted their article presenting tentative evidence for the existence of a top quark with a mass of about . In the meantime, DØ had found no more evidence than the suggestive event in 1992. A year later, on March 2, 1995, after having gathered more evidence and reanalyzed the DØ data (which had been searched for a much lighter top), the two groups jointly reported the discovery of the top at a mass of .
In the years leading up to the top-quark discovery, it was realized that certain precision measurements of the electroweak vector boson masses and couplings are very sensitive to the value of the top-quark mass. These effects become much larger for higher values of the top mass and therefore could indirectly see the top quark even if it could not be directly detected in any experiment at the time. The largest effect from the top-quark mass was on the T parameter, and by 1994 the precision of these indirect measurements had led to a prediction of the top-quark mass to be between and . It is the development of techniques that ultimately allowed such precision calculations that led to Gerardus 't Hooft and Martinus Veltman winning the Nobel Prize in physics in 1999.
Properties
At the final Tevatron energy of 1.96 TeV, top–antitop pairs were produced with a cross section of about 7 picobarns (pb). The Standard Model prediction (at next-to-leading order with ) is 6.7–7.5 pb.
The W bosons from top quark decays carry polarization from the parent particle, hence pose themselves as a unique probe to top polarization.
In the Standard Model, the top quark is predicted to have a spin quantum number of and electric charge +. A first measurement of the top quark charge has been published, resulting in approximately 90% confidence limit that the top quark charge is indeed +.
Production
Because top quarks are very massive, large amounts of energy are needed to create one. The only way to achieve such high energies is through high-energy collisions. These occur naturally in the Earth's upper atmosphere as cosmic rays collide with particles in the air, or can be created in a particle accelerator. In 2011, after the Tevatron ceased operations, the Large Hadron Collider at CERN became the only accelerator that generates a beam of sufficient energy to produce top quarks, with a center-of-mass energy of 7 TeV. There are multiple processes that can lead to the production of top quarks, but they can be conceptually divided in two categories: top-pair production, and single-top production.
Top-quark pairs
The most common is production of a top–antitop pair via strong interactions. In a collision, a highly energetic gluon is created, which subsequently decays into a top and antitop. This process was responsible for the majority of the top events at Tevatron and was the process observed when the top was first discovered in 1995. It is also possible to produce pairs of top–antitop through the decay of an intermediate photon or Z-boson. However, these processes are predicted to be much rarer and have a virtually identical experimental signature in a hadron collider like Tevatron.
Single top quarks
The production of single top quarks via weak interaction is a distinctly different process. This can happen in several ways (called channels): Either an intermediate W-boson decays into a top and antibottom quarks ("s-channel") or a bottom quark (probably created in a pair through the decay of a gluon) transforms to a top quark by exchanging a W boson with an up or down quark ("t-channel"). A single top quark can also be produced in association with a W boson, requiring an initial-state bottom quark ("tW-channel"). The first evidence for these processes was published by the DØ collaboration in December 2006, and in March 2009 the CDF and DØ collaborations released twin articles with the definitive observation of these processes. The main significance of measuring these production processes is that their frequency is directly proportional to the component of the CKM matrix.
Decay
The only known way the top quark can decay is through the weak interaction, producing a W boson and a bottom quark. Because of its enormous mass, the top quark is extremely short-lived, with a predicted lifetime of only . As a result, top quarks do not have time before they decay to form hadrons as other quarks do. The absence of a hadron surrounding the top quark provides physicists with the unique opportunity to study the behavior of a "bare" quark.
In particular, it is possible to directly determine the branching ratio . The best current determination of this ratio is . Since this ratio is equal to according to the Standard Model, this gives another way of determining the CKM element , or in combination with the determination of from single top production provides tests for the assumption that the CKM matrix is unitary.
The Standard Model also allows more exotic decays, but only at one loop level, meaning that they are extremely rare. In particular, it is conceivable that a top quark might decay into another up-type quark (an up or a charm) by emitting a photon or a Z-boson. However, searches for these exotic decay modes have produced no evidence that they occur, in accordance with expectations of the Standard Model. The branching ratios for these decays have been determined to be less than 5.9 in 1000 for photonic decay and less than 2.1 in 1000 for Z boson decay at 95% confidence.
Mass and coupling to the Higgs boson
The Standard Model generates fermion masses through their couplings to the Higgs boson. This Higgs boson acts as a field filling space. Fermions interact with this field in proportion to their individual coupling constants , which generates mass. A low-mass particle, such as the electron has a minuscule coupling , while the top quark has the largest coupling to the Higgs, . These couplings are usually called the Higgs–Yukawa couplings, and they vary slowly as the energy scale at which they are measured is varied, due to a quantum effect called the renormalization group.
In the Standard Model, all of the quark and lepton Higgs–Yukawa couplings are small compared to the top-quark Yukawa coupling. This hierarchy in the fermion masses remains a profound and open problem in theoretical physics. Higgs–Yukawa couplings are not fixed constants of nature, as their values vary slowly as the energy scale (distance scale) at which they are measured. This dynamics of Higgs–Yukawa couplings, called "running coupling constants", is due to a quantum effect called the renormalization group.
The Higgs–Yukawa couplings of the up, down, charm, strange and bottom quarks are hypothesized to have small values at the extremely high energy scale of grand unification, 1015 GeV. They increase in value at lower energy scales, at which the quark masses are generated by the Higgs. The slight growth is due to corrections from the QCD coupling. The corrections from the Yukawa couplings are negligible for the lower-mass quarks.
One of the prevailing views in particle physics is that the size of the top-quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling is determined by a unique nonlinear property of the renormalization group equation that describes the running of the large Higgs–Yukawa coupling of the top quark. If a quark Higgs–Yukawa coupling has a large value at very high energies, its Yukawa corrections will evolve downward in mass scale and cancel against the QCD corrections. This is known as a (quasi-) infrared fixed point, which was first predicted by B. Pendleton and G.G. Ross and by C.T. Hill. No matter what the initial starting value of the coupling is, if sufficiently large, it will reach this fixed-point value. The corresponding quark mass is then predicted.
The top-quark Yukawa coupling lies very near the infrared fixed point of the Standard Model. The renormalization group equation is:
where is the color gauge coupling, is the weak isospin gauge coupling, and is the weak hypercharge gauge coupling. This equation describes how the Yukawa coupling changes with energy scale . Solutions to this equation for large initial values cause the right-hand side of the equation to quickly approach zero, locking to the QCD coupling .
The value of the top quark fixed point is fairly precisely determined in the Standard Model, leading to a top-quark mass of 220 GeV. This is about 25% larger than the observed top mass and may be hinting at new physics at higher energy scales.
The quasi-infrared fixed point subsequently became the basis of top quark condensation theories of electroweak symmetry breaking, in which the Higgs boson is composite at extremely short distance scales, composed of a pair of top and antitop quarks. The predicted top-quark mass comes into improved agreement with the fixed point if there are additional Higgs scalars beyond the standard model and may be indicating that a rich spectroscopy of new Higgs fields lies at energy scales that can be probed with the LHC and its upgrades.
See also
CDF experiment
Quark model
Top quark condensate
Topcolor
Topness
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
Top quark on arxiv.org
Tevatron Electroweak Working Group
Top quark information on Fermilab website
Logbook pages from CDF and DZero collaborations' top quark discovery
Scientific American article on the discovery of the top quark
Public Homepage of Top Quark Analysis Results from DØ Collaboration at Fermilab
Public Homepage of Top Quark Analysis Results from CDF Collaboration at Fermilab
Harvard Magazine article about the 1994 top quark discovery
1999 Nobel Prize in Physics
Elementary particles
Quarks
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241030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom%20quark | Bottom quark | The bottom quark or b quark, also known as the beauty quark, is a third-generation heavy quark with a charge of − e.
All quarks are described in a similar way by electroweak and quantum chromodynamics, but the bottom quark has exceptionally low rates of transition to lower-mass quarks. The bottom quark is also notable because it is a product in almost all top quark decays, and is a frequent decay product of the Higgs boson.
Name and history
The bottom quark was first described theoretically in 1973 by physicists Makoto Kobayashi and Toshihide Maskawa to explain CP violation. The name "bottom" was introduced in 1975 by Haim Harari.
The bottom quark was discovered in 1977 by the Fermilab E288 experiment team led by Leon M. Lederman, when collisions produced bottomonium. Kobayashi and Maskawa won the 2008 Nobel Prize in Physics for their explanation of CP-violation.
While the name "beauty" is sometimes used, "bottom" became the predominant usage by analogy of "top" and "bottom" to "up" and "down".
Distinct character
The bottom quark's "bare" mass is around – a bit more than four times the mass of a proton, and many orders of magnitude larger than common "light" quarks.
Although it almost exclusively transitions from or to a top quark, the bottom quark can decay into either an up quark or charm quark via the weak interaction. CKM matrix elements and specify the rates, where both these decays are suppressed, making lifetimes of most bottom particles (~10−12 s) somewhat longer than those of charmed particles (~10−13 s), but shorter than those of strange particles (from ~10−10 to ~10−8 s).
The combination of high mass and low transition rate gives experimental collision byproducts containing a bottom quark a distinctive signature that makes them relatively easy to identify using a technique called "B-tagging". For that reason, mesons containing the bottom quark are exceptionally long-lived for their mass, and are the easiest particles to use to investigate CP violation. Such experiments are being performed at the BaBar, Belle and LHCb experiments.
Hadrons containing bottom quarks
Some of the hadrons containing bottom quarks include:
B mesons contain a bottom quark (or its antiparticle) and an up or down quark.
and mesons contain a bottom quark along with a charm quark or strange quark respectively.
There are many bottomonium states, for example the meson and χb(3P), the first particle discovered in LHC. These consist of a bottom quark and its antiparticle.
Bottom baryons have been observed, and are named in analogy with strange baryons (e.g. ).
See also
Quark model
B-factory
B meson
References
Further reading
External links
History of the discovery of the bottom quark / Upsilon meson
Elementary particles
Quarks | [
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241033 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muon%20neutrino | Muon neutrino | The muon neutrino is an elementary particle which has the symbol () and zero electric charge. Together with the muon it forms the second generation of leptons, hence the name muon neutrino. It was discovered in 1962 by Leon Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger. The discovery was rewarded with the 1988 Nobel Prize in Physics.
Properties
Muon neutrino can have three types of mass. Mass 1 : Muon neutrino having 66.7% mass of neutrino and others having 16.7% mass, mass 2 : each particle having 33.3% , mass 3 : Electron and tau neutrino having 49% mass and Muon neutrino having 2% mass.
Discovery
The muon neutrino or "neutretto" was hypothesized to exist by a number of physicists in the 1940s. The first paper on it may be Shoichi Sakata and Takesi Inoue's two-meson theory of 1942, which also involved two neutrinos.
In 1962 Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz and Jack Steinberger proved the existence of the muon neutrino in an experiment at the Brookhaven National Laboratory. This earned them the 1988 Nobel Prize.
Speed
In September 2011 OPERA researchers reported that muon neutrinos were apparently traveling at faster than light speed. This result was confirmed again in a second experiment in November 2011. These results were viewed skeptically by the scientific community at large, and more experiments investigated the phenomenon. In March 2012 the ICARUS team published results directly contradicting the results of OPERA.
Later, in July 2012, the apparent anomalous super-luminous propagation of neutrinos was traced to a faulty element of the fibre optic timing system in Gran-Sasso. After it was corrected the neutrinos appeared to travel with the speed of light within the errors of the experiment.
See also
Electron neutrino
Neutrino oscillation
PMNS matrix
Tau neutrino
References
Further reading
Neutrinos
Leptons
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241034 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron%20neutrino | Electron neutrino | The electron neutrino () is an elementary particle which has zero electric charge and a spin of . Together with the electron, it forms the first generation of leptons, hence the name electron neutrino. It was first hypothesized by Wolfgang Pauli in 1930, to account for missing momentum and missing energy in beta decay, and was discovered in 1956 by a team led by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines (see Cowan–Reines neutrino experiment).
Proposal
In the early 1900s, theories predicted that the electrons resulting from beta decay should have been emitted at a specific energy. However, in 1914, James Chadwick showed that electrons were instead emitted in a continuous spectrum.
→ +
The early understanding of beta decay
In 1930, Wolfgang Pauli theorized that an undetected particle was carrying away the observed difference between the energy, momentum, and angular momentum of the initial and final particles.
Pauli's version of beta decay
Pauli's letter
On 4 December 1930, Pauli wrote a letter to the Physical Institute of the Federal Institute of Technology, Zürich, in which he proposed the electron "neutron" [neutrino] as a potential solution to solve the problem of the continuous beta decay spectrum. A translated excerpt of his letter reads:
Dear radioactive ladies and gentlemen,
As the bearer of these lines [...] will explain more exactly, considering the 'false' statistics of N-14 and Li-6 nuclei, as well as the continuous β-spectrum, I have hit upon a desperate remedy to save the "exchange theorem" of statistics and the energy theorem. Namely [there is] the possibility that there could exist in the nuclei electrically neutral particles that I wish to call neutrons, which have spin and obey the exclusion principle, and additionally differ from light quanta in that they do not travel with the velocity of light: The mass of the neutron must be of the same order of magnitude as the electron mass and, in any case, not larger than 0.01 proton mass. The continuous β-spectrum would then become understandable by the assumption that in β decay a neutron is emitted together with the electron, in such a way that the sum of the energies of neutron and electron is constant.
[...]
But I don't feel secure enough to publish anything about this idea, so I first turn confidently to you, dear radioactives, with a question as to the situation concerning experimental proof of such a neutron, if it has something like about 10 times the penetrating capacity of a γ ray.
I admit that my remedy may appear to have a small a priori probability because neutrons, if they exist, would probably have long ago been seen. However, only those who wager can win, and the seriousness of the situation of the continuous β-spectrum can be made clear by the saying of my honored predecessor in office, Mr. Debye, [...] "One does best not to think about that at all, like the new taxes." [...] So, dear radioactives, put it to test and set it right. [...]
With many greetings to you, also to Mr. Back,
Your devoted servant,
W. Pauli
A translated reprint of the full letter can be found in the September 1978 issue of Physics Today.
Discovery
The electron neutrino was discovered by Clyde Cowan and Frederick Reines in 1956.Electron neutrino can have three types of mass. Mass 1 : Electron neutrino having 66.7% mass of neutrino and others having 16.7% mass, mass 2 : each particle having 33.3% , mass 3 : Muon and tau neutrino having 49% mass and electron neutrino having 2% mass.
Name
Pauli originally named his proposed light particle a neutron. When James Chadwick discovered a much more massive nuclear particle in 1932 and also named it a neutron, this left the two particles with the same name. Enrico Fermi, who developed the theory of beta decay, introduced the term neutrino in 1934 (it was jokingly coined by Edoardo Amaldi during a conversation with Fermi at the Institute of physics of via Panisperna in Rome, in order to distinguish this light neutral particle from Chadwick's neutron) to resolve the confusion. It was a pun on neutrone, the Italian equivalent of neutron: the -one ending can be an augmentative in Italian, so neutrone could be read as the "large neutral thing"; -ino replaces the augmentative suffix with a diminutive one.
Upon the prediction and discovery of a second neutrino, it became important to distinguish between different types of neutrinos. Pauli's neutrino is now identified as the electron neutrino, while the second neutrino is identified as the muon neutrino.
Electron antineutrino
The electron neutrino has a corresponding antiparticle, the electron antineutrino (), which differs only in that some of its properties have equal magnitude but opposite sign. One major open question in particle physics is whether or not neutrinos and anti-neutrinos are the same particle, in which case it would be a Majorana fermion, or whether they are different particles, in which case they would be Dirac fermions. They are produced in beta decay and other types of weak interactions.
Notes
See also
PMNS matrix
Muon neutrino
Tau neutrino
References
Further reading
Neutrinos
Leptons
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241035 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medb | Medb | Medb (), later spelled Meadhbh (), Méibh() and Méabh (), and often anglicised as Maeve ( ), is queen of Connacht in the Ulster Cycle of Irish mythology. Her husband in the core stories of the cycle is Ailill mac Máta, although she had several husbands before him who were also kings of Connacht. She rules from Cruachan (now Rathcroghan, County Roscommon). She is the enemy (and former wife) of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, and is best known for starting the Táin Bó Cúailnge ("The Cattle Raid of Cooley") to steal Ulster's prize stud bull Donn Cúailnge.
Medb is strong-willed, ambitious, cunning and promiscuous, and is an archetypal warrior queen. She is believed by some to be a manifestation of the sovereignty goddess. Medb of Connacht is probably identical with Medb Lethderg, the sovereignty goddess of Tara, and may also be linked with the Morrígan. She may be the inspiration for the fairy Queen Mab found in William Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet and other media.
Name
In Old Irish her name is ; in Middle Irish, ; in early modern Irish, or ; and in modern Irish Méabh or Méibh. This is generally believed to come from the Proto-Celtic *medu- ("mead") or *medua ("intoxicating"), and the meaning of her name has thus been interpreted as "mead-woman" or "she who intoxicates". This is thought to reflect her role as sovereignty goddess. In ancient and medieval Ireland, the drinking of mead was a key part of a king's inauguration ceremony. In myth, a supernatural woman representing the sovereignty of the land chooses a king by offering him an alcoholic drink, thus bestowing sovereignty upon him. However, it is also suggested that the name comes from Proto-Celtic ("the ruler").
The name has been Anglicised as Maeve, Maev, Mave or Maiv. There are several place names in Ireland containing the name Medb. According to Kay Muhr of the Ulster Place-Name Society, some of these names suggest Medb was also an earth and fertility goddess. They include Ballypitmave (Baile Phite Méabha, "townland of Medb's vulva") in County Antrim and Sawel Pitmave (Samhail Phite Méabha, "likeness to Medb's vulva") in County Tyrone, both in northern Ulster. Other placenames include Maeve's Cairn in County Sligo, Barnavave (Bearna Mhéabha, "Medb's gap") in County Louth, Boveva (Boith Mhéabha, "Medb's huts") in County Londonderry, Knockmaa (Cnoc Meá, "Medb's hill") in County Galway, Meskanmave (Meascán Mhéabha, "Medb's lump") in County Donegal, Milleen Meva (Millín Mhéabha, "Medb's knoll") at Rathcroghan in County Roscommon, and Rath Meave at Tara in County Meath.
Description
Medb is described as a fair haired wolf queen, whose form was so beautiful that it robbed men of two-thirds of their valor upon seeing her.
Marriages and rise to power
How Medb came to power in Connacht and married Ailill mac Máta is told in the tale Cath Bóinde ("The Battle of the Boyne"), also known as Ferchuitred Medba ("Medb's man-share"). Her father, Eochaid Feidlech, the High King of Ireland, married her to Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, because he had killed Conchobar's purported father, the former High King Fachtna Fáthach, in battle. She bore him a son, Glaisne, but the marriage was a bad one and she left him. Eochaid gave Conchobar another of his daughters, Eithne (or Clothru), but Medb murdered her while she was pregnant; her son Furbaide was born by posthumous caesarian section.
Eochaid deposed the then-king of Connacht, Tinni mac Conri, and installed Medb in his place. However, Tinni regained a share of the throne when he and Medb later became lovers. Conchobar raped Medb after an assembly at Tara, and war ensued between the High King and Ulster. Tinni challenged Conchobar to single combat, and lost. Eochaid Dála of the Fir Domnann, who had been Tinni's rival for the kingship, protected the Connacht army as it retreated, and became Medb's next husband and king of Connacht. Medb demanded her husband satisfy her three criteria—that he be without fear, meanness, or jealousy. The last was particularly important, as she had many lovers. While married to Eochaid Dála, she took Ailill mac Máta, chief of her bodyguard, as her lover. Eochaid discovered the affair, challenged Ailill to single combat, and lost. Ailill then married Medb and became king of Connacht.
Medb's children
Medb and Ailill had seven sons, all called Maine. They originally all had other names, but when Medb asked a druid which of her sons would kill Conchobar, he replied, "Maine". She did not have a son called Maine, so she renamed all her sons as follows:
Fedlimid became Maine Athramail ("like his father")
Cairbre became Maine Máthramail ("like his mother")
Eochaid became Maine Andoe ("the swift") and was also known as Cich-Maine Andoe or Cichmuine
Fergus became Maine Taí ("the silent")
Cet became Maine Mórgor ("of great duty")
Sin became Maine Mílscothach ("honey-speech")
Dáire became Maine Móepirt ("beyond description")
The prophecy was fulfilled when Maine Andoe went on to kill Conchobar, son of Arthur, son of Bruide — not Conchobar, son of Fachtna
Fathach, as Medb had assumed the druid meant. Medb and Ailill also had a daughter, Findabair.
Cattle Raid of Cooley
Medb insisted that she be equal in wealth with her husband, and started the Cattle Raid of Cooley when she discovered that Ailill was one powerful stud bull richer than her. She discovered that the only rival to Ailill's bull, Finnbennach, was Donn Cúailnge, owned by Dáire mac Fiachna, a vassal of Conchobar's. She sent messengers to Dáire, offering wealth, land and sexual favours in return for the loan of the bull, and Dáire initially agreed. But when a drunken messenger declared that, if he had not agreed, the bull would have been taken by force, Dáire withdrew his consent, and Medb prepared for war.
An army was raised including contingents from all over Ireland. One was a group of Ulster exiles led by Conchobar's estranged son Cormac Cond Longas and his foster-father Fergus mac Róich, former king of Ulster and one of Medb's lovers. It is reported that it took thirty men to satisfy her, or Fergus once. Medb's relationship with Fergus is alluded to in the early poem Conailla Medb míchuru ("Medb has entered evil contracts") by Luccreth moccu Chiara (c. 600); it asserts that Medb wrongly seduced Fergus into turning against Ulster "because he preferred the buttocks of a woman to his own people".
Because of a divine curse on the Ulstermen, the invasion was opposed only by the teenage Ulster hero Cúchulainn, who held up the army's advance by demanding single combat at fords. Medb and Ailill offered their daughter Findabair in marriage to a series of heroes as payment for fighting Cúchulainn, but all were defeated. Nevertheless, Medb secured the bull. However, after a final battle against Conchobar's assembled army, she was forced to retreat. Donn Cúailnge was brought back to Cruachan, where it fought Ailill's bull, Finnbennach, killing him, but dying of his wounds.
Also, throughout the Táin Bó Cúailnge Medb has several encounters with Cúchulainn in which he kills either her pets or handmaidens and the place in which they were killed is then named after them, which illustrates the importance of landscape throughout the text of the Táin Bó Cúailnge. Examples of this occur when Cúchulainn "slung a stone and killed a pet stoat as it sat on Medb's shoulder by her neck, south of the ford. Hence the name Meithe Togmaill, Stoat Neck" and when he kills Medb's handmaid: “He slung a stone at her from the heights of Cuincu and killed her on the flat place that bears her name, Reid Locha, Locha’s Level, in Cualinge.” Medb's behaviour further illustrates the importance of the landscape when she goes to great lengths to permanently alter it to show her contempt for Ulster. ”She preferred to cross the mountain by leaving a track that would show forever her contempt for Ulster… to make the Pass of the Cualinge Cattle.”
Later years
Out of jealousy for his affair with Medb, Ailill had Fergus killed. In his old age, after Conchobar's death, the Ulster hero Conall Cernach came to stay with Ailill and Medb, as they were the only household capable of supporting him. Medb tasked him to keep an eye on Ailill, who was seeing other women. Finding Ailill in flagrante, she ordered Conall to kill him, which he was happy to do in revenge for Fergus. However, the dying Ailill sent his men after him, and he was killed while trying to escape.
Death
In her later years, Medb often went to bathe in a pool on Inchcleraun (Inis Cloithreann), an island on Lough Ree, near Knockcroghery. Furbaide sought revenge for the death of his mother. He took a rope and measured the distance between the pool and the shore, and practised with his sling until he could hit an apple on top of a stake Medb's height from that distance. The next time he saw Medb bathing he put his practice to good use and killed her with a piece of cheese. She was succeeded to the throne of Connacht by her son Maine Athramail.
According to legend, Medb is buried in Miosgán Médhbh, a high stone cairn on the summit of Knocknarea (Cnoc na Ré in Irish) in County Sligo. Supposedly, she is buried upright facing her enemies in Ulster. Her home in Rathcroghan, County Roscommon is also a potential burial site, with a long low slab named 'Misgaun Medb' being given as the most likely location.
Interpretations
Robin Melrose has suggested that Medb "was probably originally a sovereignty goddess, whom a king would ritually marry as part of his inauguration." Medb Lethderg, who performs a similar function in Tara, is probably identical with or the inspiration for this Medb. Her name is said to mean 'she who intoxicates', and is cognate with the English word 'mead'; it is likely that the sacred marriage ceremony between the king and the goddess would involve a shared drink. Medb's "pillow talk" argument with her consort contains suggestions of matrilineality, as does Ailill's taking his name from his mother Máta Muirisc. Recently, Irish and Irish-American poets have explored Medb as an image of woman's power, including sexuality, as in "Labhrann Medb" ("Medb Speaks") by Irish-language poet Nuala Ní Dhomhnaill and "Intoxication" by Irish-American poet Patricia Monaghan.
The name "Connacht" is an apparent anachronism: the stories of the Ulster Cycle are traditionally set around the time of Christ, but the Connachta, after whom the province is named, were said to have been the descendants of Conn Cétchathach, who is supposed to have lived several centuries later. Later stories use the name Cóiced Ol nEchmacht as an earlier name for the province of Connacht to get around this problem. But the chronology of early Irish historical tradition is an artificial attempt by Christian monks to synchronise native traditions with classical and biblical history, and it is possible that the cycle has been chronologically misplaced.
See also
Maeve (Irish name)
Irish mythology in popular culture
References
External links
Ghosts between the Pages: The Devolution of Medb from Sovereignty Goddess to Comic Book Villainess and the Potential Dangers of the Transcription of Oral Tales
Medb's Men, or the Battle of the Boyne
Carn Furbaide from the Metrical Dindshenchas Vol 4
Bricriu's Feast
The Dream of Óengus
The Cattle Raid of Fráech
The Cattle Raid of Regamon
The Raid for Dartaid's Cattle
The Driving of Flidais's Cattle
The Adventures of Nera
The Cattle Raid of Cooley, recension 1
The Cattle Raid of Cooley, recension 2
The Death of Fergus mac Róich
The Death of Cú Chulainn
The Violent Death of Medb
Ancient Goddess and Sovereign Queen Of the Celtic People, The White Moon Gallery
Fertility goddesses
Mythological queens
Irish goddesses
Ulster Cycle
Legendary Irish monarchs
Kings of Connacht
Characters in Táin Bó Cúailnge
Irish-language feminine given names | [
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241038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Boxing%20Federation | International Boxing Federation | The International Boxing Federation (IBF) is one of four major organizations recognized by the International Boxing Hall of Fame (IBHOF) which sanctions professional boxing bouts, alongside the World Boxing Association (WBA), World Boxing Council (WBC) and World Boxing Organization (WBO).
History
The IBF was preceded by the United States Boxing Association (USBA), a regional championship organization like the North American Boxing Federation (NABF). In 1983, at the WBA's annual convention, held in Puerto Rico, Robert W. "Bobby" Lee, Sr., president of the USBA, lost in his bid to become WBA president against Gilberto Mendoza. Lee and others withdrew from the convention after the election, and decided to organize a third, world-level organization, to co-exist with the WBA and the WBC. Formed as USBA-International, the fledgling organization was later renamed the International Boxing Federation, based in New Jersey, where its main offices remain.
Bobby Lee had also been a New Jersey boxing commissioner until 1985, when, according to news reports, "he was suspended and fined by the Ethical Standards Commission for accepting contributions from fight promoters and casino executives."
The IBF's first world champion was Marvin Camel, a former WBC world cruiserweight champion who won the IBF's belt in the same division. During its first year of existence the IBF remained largely obscure, but by 1984 it decided to recognize Larry Holmes, Aaron Pryor, Marvin Hagler and Donald Curry, already established champions from other organizations, as IBF world champions. In Holmes' case, he relinquished his WBC title to accept the IBF's recognition. It established the IBF as the third sanctioning body, and a legitimate organization.
IBF men's world championship belts are red, whereas women's world championship belts are light blue.
20th-century bribery scandal
Despite achieving an appearance of legitimacy, subsequent to a three-year investigation started by 1996 charges levied by former heavyweight champion Michael Moorer; IBF's reputation was ruined in 1999 with founder Lee's indictment for racketeering and other violations for taking bribes in exchange for high boxer rankings. Indicted on federal racketeering and racketeering conspiracy charges were "president, Robert W. Lee, 65; his son and IBF liaison, Robert Lee Jr., 38; former IBF executive and Virginia boxing commissioner Donald William Brennan, 86; and South American IBF representative Francisco Fernandez." Lee was subsequently convicted of money-laundering and tax evasion in August 2000, then sentenced, in 2001, to 22 months in prison and fined $25,000.
In 2000, citing extortion, boxing promoter Bob Arum voluntarily testified to having paid IBF president Bobby Lee $100,000 in two installments in 1995, as the first half of a $200,000 bribe, through "middleman, Stanley Hoffman", adding that Lee had first demanded $500,000 to approve the Schulz-Foreman fight, but had settled for the lesser amount of $200,000 (half of which was never paid). Arum was sanctioned and fined $125,000 by the Nevada State Athletic Commission. Boxing promoters Cedric Kushner and Dino Duva also admitted to making similar payments to Lee.
21st-century management
The IBF was under federal observation from Lee's conviction through September 2004. Former Michigan Boxing Commissioner, WBA vice-president, boxing safety advocate and IBF interim president Hiawatha Knight (October 22, 1929 – October 22, 2014) became president following Lee's conviction, and was the first woman president of any world governing boxing organization. In 2001, Marian Muhammad assumed the presidency, followed by Daryl J. Peoples, who remained president as of 2018.
The IBF ran the "1st Annual Convention of IBF Muaythai" in Bangkok on 20–21 December 2017. Daryl Peoples, IBF president, attended the convention. The new champions of IBF Muay Thai were crowned in three weight divisions.
Current IBF world title holders
As of February 6, 2022
Male
Female
Muay Thai World champions
See also
List of boxing organisations
Don King
Transition of IBF titles
List of IBF world champions
List of IBF Muay Thai world champions
References
External links
All-time IBF World champions - Reference book
Professional boxing organizations
Sports organizations established in 1983
Springfield Township, Union County, New Jersey
1983 establishments in the United States | [
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241040 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenerife%20blue%20chaffinch | Tenerife blue chaffinch | The Tenerife blue chaffinch (Fringilla teydea) is a species of passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. It is endemic to Tenerife in Spain's Canary Islands. This bird is the natural symbol of this island, together with the Canary Islands dragon tree.
Taxonomy
Until 2015, the species Fringilla teydea was classified into two subspecies: Fringilla teydea polatzeki from Gran Canaria and Fringilla teydea teydea from Tenerife. However, a study published in March 2016 showed that a classification as different species, Fringilla polatzeki and Fringilla teydea, is justified.
Description
Tenerife blue chaffinches resemble common chaffinches, but they are noticeably larger, and have a thicker bill. They are characteristically more uniform in their plumage, and they lack a dark cap. Females are a dull grey-brown, but can be distinguished from chaffinches by their weaker wing bars. Breeding males are unmistakable, with the namesake largely blue plumage and a grey bill.
Distribution
This bird is found only in the highlands of Tenerife.
The species' primary habitat is mountain Canary Island pine (Pinus canariensis) forest. It is most common in coniferous forest areas with dense undergrowth, but it is also found in laurel and pine woodland, tree-heath, and scrub.
It prefers habitat at around , but it will descend in bad weather.
Behaviour
The Tenerife blue chaffinch's song is shorter and weaker than that of the common chaffinch, and the flight call is croakier. It primarily eats Canary Island pine seeds. Like the common chaffinch, but unlike most other finches, its young are fed extensively on insects. Breeding from the end of April to late July or early August, it builds a nest from pine needles and broom branches, and lays two eggs. This bird is not migratory. Individuals may form small flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes associating with common chaffinches and other finches.
See also
Gran Canaria blue chaffinch
List of animal and plant symbols of the Canary Islands
References
External links
Tenerife blue chaffinch
Birds of the Canary Islands
Tenerife
Tenerife blue chaffinch
1841 in Spain | [
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241041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joachim%20Heer | Joachim Heer | Joachim Heer (25 September 1825 – 1 March 1879) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1875–1878).
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 10 December 1875 and handed over office on 31 December 1878. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party of Switzerland. During his office time he held the following departments:
Department of Posts and Telegraph (1876)
Political Department (1877)
Department of Railway and Trade (1878)
He was President of the Confederation in 1877.
Dr. Joachim-Heer-Strasse in Glarus is named for him.
External links
1825 births
1879 deaths
People from Glarus
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
Ambassadors of Switzerland to Germany
University of Zurich alumni | [
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241042 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melchior%20Josef%20Martin%20Kn%C3%BCsel | Melchior Josef Martin Knüsel | Melchior Josef Martin Knüsel (16 November 1813 – 15 January 1889) was a Swiss politician from Lucerne, member of the Swiss Federal Council (1855-1875).
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 14 July 1855, representing the Canton of Lucerne, and handed over office on 31 December 1875. He was affiliated with the Radicals. While in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1855 - 1856)
Department of Trade and Customs (1857)
Department of Justice and Police (1858)
Department of Trade and Customs (1859 - 1860)
Political Department (1861) as President of the Swiss Confederation
Department of Finance (1862 - 1863)
Department of Justice and Police (1864 - 1865)
Political Department (1866) as President of the Swiss Confederation
Department of Justice and Police (1867 - 1873)
Department of Home Affairs (1874 - 1875)
He was President of the Confederation twice, in 1861 and 1866.
References
External links
1813 births
1889 deaths
People from Lucerne
Swiss Roman Catholics
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland) | [
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] |
241043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef%20Munzinger | Josef Munzinger | Martin Josef Munzinger (11 November 1791 – 6 February 1855) was a Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 16 November 1848, as one of the first seven Councilors. While in office he held the following departments:
Department of Finance (1848–1850)
Political Department (1851)
Department of Finance (1852)
Department of Posts and Construction (1853–1854)
Department of Trade and Customs (1855)
and was President of the Confederation in 1851.
Munzinger died in office on 6 February 1855.
References
Hans Haeflinger: Bundesrat Josef Munzinger, 1953
External links
Hans-Rudolf Merz: Bundesrat Munzinger: Der Vater des Schweizerfrankens, 2005
1791 births
1855 deaths
People from Olten
Swiss Roman Catholics
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Foreign ministers of Switzerland
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland) | [
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241044 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River%20Boyne | River Boyne | The River Boyne ( or Abhainn na Bóinne) is a river in Leinster, Ireland, the course of which is about long. It rises at Trinity Well, Newberry Hall, near Carbury, County Kildare, and flows towards the Northeast through County Meath to reach the Irish Sea between Mornington, County Meath, and Baltray, County Louth.
Salmon and trout can be caught in the river, which is surrounded by the Boyne Valley. It is crossed just west of Drogheda by the Boyne River Bridge, which carries the M1 motorway, and by the Boyne Viaduct, which carries the Dublin-Belfast railway line to the east. The catchment area of the River Boyne is 2,695 km2.
The long term average flow rate of the River Boyne is per second.
Despite its short course, the Boyne has historical, archaeological and mythical connotations. The Battle of the Boyne, a major battle in Irish history, took place along the Boyne near Drogheda in 1690 during the Williamite war in Ireland. It passes through the ancient town of Trim, Trim Castle, the Hill of Tara (the ancient capital of the High King of Ireland), Navan, the Hill of Slane, Brú na Bóinne (a complex of megalithic monuments), Mellifont Abbey, and the medieval town of Drogheda. In the Boyne Valley can also be found other historical and archaeological monuments, including Loughcrew, Kells, Celtic crosses, and castles.
This river has been known since ancient times. The Greek geographer Ptolemy drew a map of Ireland in the 2nd century which included the Boyne, which he called (Bouwinda) or (Boubinda). During the High Middle Ages, Giraldus Cambrensis called it the Boandus. In Irish mythology it is said that the river was created by the goddess Boann and Boyne is an anglicised form of the name. In other legends, it was in this river where Fionn mac Cumhail captured Fiontán, the Salmon of Knowledge. The Meath section of the Boyne was also known as Smior Fionn Feidhlimthe (the 'marrow of Fionn Feilim'). The tidal estuary of the Boyne, which extends inland as far as the confluence with the Mattock River, 'the curly hole', had a number of names in Irish literature and was associated as a place of departure and arrival in the ancient legends and myths, such as The Tragedy of the Sons of Tuireann, Togail Bruidne Dá Derga, &c. In the Acallam na Senórach the estuary has the name Inber Bic Loingsigh, abounding in ships. Inber Colpa or Inber Colptha was the principal name for the mouth of the Boyne in early medieval times. The townlands and civil parish of Colp, or Colpe on its southern shore preserve the name. It was associated in myth with Colpa of the Sword, a son of Míl Espáine, in the Milesian origin of the Irish, who drowned in the attempt to land there and is by tradition buried in the ringfort behind Colpe church. An alternative Dindsenchas tradition associates the name with the Máta, a massive aquatic creature, which having been killed was dismembered at Brú na Bóinne was thrown in the Boyne. Its shinbone (colptha) reached the estuary giving name to Inber Colptha.
Boyne Canal
The Boyne Navigation is a series of canals running roughly parallel to the main river from Oldbridge near Drogheda to Navan. Owned by An Taisce and mostly derelict, the Inland Waterways Association of Ireland are restoring the navigation to navigable status. The canal at Oldbridge which runs through the battle of the Boyne Site was the first to be restored.
Prehistoric art
A rock with indications of being Prehistoric art was found in August 2013. Cliadh O’Gibne reported through the Archaeological Survey of Ireland that a boulder with geometric carvings had been found in Donore, County Meath.
Ancient log-boat
The Boyne Fishermen's Rescue and Recovery Service (BFRRS), near Drogheda, County Louth, were doing one of their regular operations to remove shopping trolleys from the Boyne, in May 2013, when they discovered an ancient log boat, which experts believe may be 5000 years old. Initial examination by an underwater archaeologist, suggests it could be very rare because, unlike other log-boats found here, it has oval shapes on the upper edge which could have held oars. Investigations were on-going as of 2013.
Viking ship
In 2006, the remains of a Viking ship were found in the river bed in Drogheda during dredging operations. The vessel is to be excavated as it poses a hazard to navigation.
Annalistic references
AI770.2 The battle of Bolg Bóinne [gained] against the Uí Néill, by the Laigin.
Gallery
See also
Anthony Holten, author of The River Boyne: Hidden Legacies, History and Lore Explored on Foot and by Boat ()
References
External links
Salmon fishing on the River Boyne, from Salmon Ireland
A canoeing and kayaking guide to the River Boyne, from Irish Whitewater
Boyne
Boyne
Boyne
Tourist attractions in County Meath
Drogheda | [
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241047 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon%20tetrachloride | Carbon tetrachloride | Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (such as tetrachloromethane, also recognised by the IUPAC, carbon tet in the cleaning industry, Halon-104 in firefighting, and Refrigerant-10 in HVACR) is an organic compound with the chemical formula CCl4. It is a colourless liquid with a "sweet" smell that can be detected at low levels. It is practically not flammable at lower temperatures. It was formerly widely used in fire extinguishers, as a precursor to refrigerants and as a cleaning agent, but has since been phased out because of environmental and safety concerns. Exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride (including vapor) can affect the central nervous system and degenerate the liver and kidneys. Prolonged exposure can be fatal.
Properties
In the carbon tetrachloride molecule, four chlorine atoms are positioned symmetrically as corners in a tetrahedral configuration joined to a central carbon atom by single covalent bonds. Because of this symmetric geometry, CCl4 is non-polar. Methane gas has the same structure, making carbon tetrachloride a halomethane. As a solvent, it is well suited to dissolving other non-polar compounds such as fats, and oils. It can also dissolve iodine. It is somewhat volatile, giving off vapors with a smell characteristic of other chlorinated solvents, somewhat similar to the tetrachloroethylene smell reminiscent of dry cleaners' shops.
Solid tetrachloromethane has two polymorphs: crystalline II below −47.5 °C (225.6 K) and crystalline I above −47.5 °C. At −47.3 °C it has monoclinic crystal structure with space group C2/c and lattice constants a = 20.3, b = 11.6, c = 19.9 (.10−1 nm), β = 111°.
With a specific gravity greater than 1, carbon tetrachloride will be present as a dense nonaqueous phase liquid if sufficient quantities are spilled in the environment.
History and synthesis
Carbon tetrachloride was originally synthesized by the French chemist Henri Victor Regnault in 1839 by the reaction of chloroform with chlorine, but now it is mainly produced from methane:
CH4 + 4 Cl2 → CCl4 + 4 HCl
The production often utilizes by-products of other chlorination reactions, such as from the syntheses of dichloromethane and chloroform. Higher chlorocarbons are also subjected to "chlorinolysis":
C2Cl6 + Cl2 → 2 CCl4
Prior to the 1950s, carbon tetrachloride was manufactured by the chlorination of carbon disulfide at 105 to 130 °C:
CS2 + 3Cl2 → CCl4 + S2Cl2
The production of carbon tetrachloride has steeply declined since the 1980s due to environmental concerns and the decreased demand for CFCs, which were derived from carbon tetrachloride. In 1992, production in the U.S./Europe/Japan was estimated at 720,000 tonnes.
Safety
Carbon tetrachloride is one of the most potent hepatotoxins (toxic to the liver), so much so that it is widely used in scientific research to evaluate hepatoprotective agents. Exposure to high concentrations of carbon tetrachloride (including vapor) can affect the central nervous system and degenerate the liver and kidneys, and prolonged exposure may lead to coma or death. Chronic exposure to carbon tetrachloride can cause liver and kidney damage and could result in cancer. See safety data sheets.
The effects of carbon tetrachloride on human health and the environment have been assessed under REACH in 2012 in the context of the substance evaluation by France.
In 2008, a study of common cleaning products found the presence of carbon tetrachloride in "very high concentrations" (up to 101 mg/m3) as a result of manufacturers' mixing of surfactants or soap with sodium hypochlorite (bleach).
Carbon tetrachloride is also both ozone-depleting and a greenhouse gas. However, since 1992 its atmospheric concentrations have been in decline for the reasons described above (see atmospheric concentration graphs in the gallery). CCl4 has an atmospheric lifetime of 85 years.
At high temperatures in air, it decomposes or burns to produce poisonous phosgene.
Toxicological studies
Carbon tetrachloride is a suspected human carcinogen based on sufficient evidence of carcinogenicity from studies in experimental animals. World Health Organization reports, carbon tetrachloride can induce hepatomas and hepatocellular carcinomas in mice and rats. The doses inducing hepatic tumours are higher than those inducing cell toxicity. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified this compound in Group 2B, possibly carcinogenic to humans.
Uses
In organic chemistry, carbon tetrachloride serves as a source of chlorine in the Appel reaction.
One specialty use of carbon tetrachloride is in stamp collecting, to reveal watermarks on postage stamps without damaging them. A small amount of the liquid is placed on the back of a stamp, sitting in a black glass or obsidian tray. The letters or design of the watermark can then be seen clearly.
Historical uses
Carbon tetrachloride was widely used as a dry cleaning solvent, as a refrigerant, and in lava lamps. In the last case, carbon tetrachloride is a key ingredient that adds weight to the otherwise buoyant wax.
Solvent
It once was a popular solvent in organic chemistry, but, because of its adverse health effects, it is rarely used today. It is sometimes useful as a solvent for infrared spectroscopy, because there are no significant absorption bands above 1600 cm−1. Because carbon tetrachloride does not have any hydrogen atoms, it was historically used in proton NMR spectroscopy. In addition to being toxic, its dissolving power is low. Its use in NMR spectroscopy has been largely superseded by deuterated solvents. Use of carbon tetrachloride in determination of oil has been replaced by various other solvents, such as tetrachloroethylene. Because it has no C–H bonds, carbon tetrachloride does not easily undergo free-radical reactions. It is a useful solvent for halogenations either by the elemental halogen or by a halogenation reagent such as N-bromosuccinimide (these conditions are known as Wohl–Ziegler bromination).
Fire suppression
In 1910, the Pyrene Manufacturing Company of Delaware filed a patent to use carbon tetrachloride to extinguish fires. The liquid was vaporized by the heat of combustion and extinguished flames, an early form of gaseous fire suppression. At the time it was believed the gas simply displaced oxygen in the area near the fire, but later research found that the gas actually inhibits the chemical chain reaction of the combustion process.
In 1911, Pyrene patented a small, portable extinguisher that used the chemical. The extinguisher consisted of a brass bottle with an integrated hand-pump that was used to expel a jet of liquid toward the fire. As the container was unpressurized, it could easily be refilled after use. Carbon tetrachloride was suitable for liquid and electrical fires and the extinguishers were often carried on aircraft or motor vehicles. However as early as 1920, there were reports of fatalities caused by the chemical when used to fight a fire in a confined space.
In the first half of the 20th century, another common fire extinguisher was a single-use, sealed glass globe known as a "fire grenade", filled with either carbon tetrachloride or salt water. The bulb could be thrown at the base of the flames to quench the fire. The carbon tetrachloride type could also be installed in a spring-loaded wall fixture with a solder-based restraint. When the solder melted by high heat, the spring would either break the globe or launch it out of the bracket, allowing the extinguishing agent to be automatically dispersed into the fire.
A well-known brand of fire grenade was the "Red Comet", which was variously manufactured with other fire-fighting equipment in the Denver, Colorado area by the Red Comet Manufacturing Company from its founding in 1919 until manufacturing operations were closed in the early 1980s.
Refrigerants
Prior to the Montreal Protocol, large quantities of carbon tetrachloride were used to produce the chlorofluorocarbon refrigerants R-11 (trichlorofluoromethane) and R-12 (dichlorodifluoromethane). However, these refrigerants play a role in ozone depletion and have been phased out. Carbon tetrachloride is still used to manufacture less destructive refrigerants. Carbon tetrachloride made from heavy chlorine-37 has been used in the detection of neutrinos.
Fumagant
Carbon tetrachloride was widely used as an fumigant to kill insect pests in stored grain. It was employed in a mixture known as 80/20, that was 80% carbon tetrachloride and 20% Carbon disulfide. The United States Environmental Protection Agency banned its use in 1985.
Gallery
References
External links
IARC Monograph: "Carbon Tetrachloride"
Toxicological profile for carbon tetrachloride
Environmental health criteria for carbon tetrachloride
Carbon tetrachloride MSDS at Hazardous Chemical Database
Substance profile at ntp.niehs.nih.gov
ChemSub Online: Carbon tetrachloride
Chloroalkanes
Halomethanes
Nonmetal halides
Greenhouse gases
Hazardous air pollutants
Organochloride insecticides
Refrigerants
Halogenated solvents
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Dry cleaning
Hepatotoxins
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241052 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Man%20Who%20Wasn%27t%20There%20%282001%20film%29 | The Man Who Wasn't There (2001 film) | The Man Who Wasn't There is a 2001 American crime film written, directed, and produced by Joel and Ethan Coen. It stars Billy Bob Thornton, Frances McDormand, Michael Badalucco, Richard Jenkins, Scarlett Johansson, Jon Polito, Tony Shalhoub, and James Gandolfini. The plot is set in 1949 and tells the story of Ed Crane, a withdrawn barber who leads an ordinary life in a small California town with his wife, who he suspects is having an affair with his boss. Crane's situation changes when a stranger comes to the barbershop and offers him the opportunity to join him as a partner in a promising new business, in exchange for an investment of ten thousand dollars. Drawn to the idea, Crane plans to blackmail his wife's lover for the money.
The film is in black-and-white and contains voiceover narration, reflecting elements of classic film noir. At the same time, it differs from it by including classical music, setting the plot in a small town, and having a protagonist outside the criminal underworld. The Coens began developing the idea from a 1940s haircut poster they saw while filming The Hudsucker Proxy. The plot was heavily influenced by James M. Cain's crime novels, primarily Double Indemnity, The Postman Always Rings Twice, and Mildred Pierce. Aesthetically, The Man Who Wasn't There was inspired by films from the 1940s and 1950s—including Shadow of a Doubt—and even science fiction films and documentaries of those decades.
Filming took place on location in California and was originally shot in color, later converted to black and white. The film premiered and participated in the official selection at the 2001 Cannes Film Festival, where Joel Coen won the award for best director. Upon its theatrical release, it was lukewarm at the box office. However, it was well-received by film critics, who praised Roger Deakins' cinematography and the performances, especially the titular character played by Thornton. Some media critics such as The Guardian, the BBC, and The Austin Chronicle referred to it as one of the best films of the year. In the same way, the National Board of Review included it among its top ten films of the year and gave Thornton the award for best actor. Deakins received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Cinematography and the film achieved multiple nominations and awards from other organizations.
Plot
In 1949, Ed Crane is a low-key barber in the town of Santa Rosa, California. He is married to Doris, a bookkeeper with a drinking problem, and works in a barbershop that is owned by his brother-in-law, Frank. A customer named Creighton Tolliver tells Ed that he is a businessman looking for investors to put up $10,000 in a new technology called dry cleaning. Ed decides to collect money by anonymously blackmailing Doris's boss, "Big Dave" Brewster, who he suspects is having an affair with her. Brewster embezzles money from his department store to pay the blackmail. However, Brewster soon pieces together the scheme and beats Tolliver to death after he implicates Ed. Brewster confronts Ed at the store and attempts to kill him, but Ed fatally stabs Brewster with a cigar knife in self-defense.
After irregularities in the store's books are found, the police arrest Doris on the assumption that she embezzled the money and murdered Brewster. Ed is persuaded to hire Freddy Riedenschneider, a defense attorney from Sacramento, who arrives and takes up residence in the most expensive hotel in town. He proceeds to live lavishly on Doris's defense fund, which Frank obtained by mortgaging the barbershop. It is all for nothing because on the morning of the trial Doris hangs herself in her cell. It is later revealed that she was pregnant when she hanged herself but had not had sex with Ed for many years. Riedenschneider leaves town while Frank, now deeply in debt, starts drinking heavily. Ed regularly visits Rachel "Birdy" Abundas, a friend's teenage daughter, to hear her play the piano. Tormented by loneliness, he imagines helping her start a musical career and becoming her manager. The fantasy is crushed when a music teacher tells him that Abundas has no talent. On the way back from visiting the teacher, Abundas makes a pass at Ed and attempts to perform oral sex on him, causing Ed to lose control of the car and crash.
Ed wakes up in a hospital bed and two police officers arrest him for murder. Tolliver's beaten body has been found with Ed's investment contract. The police speculate that Ed coerced Doris into embezzling the investment money, and killed Tolliver when he found out. Ed mortgages his house and hires Riedenschneider for his defense. During Riedenschneider's opening statement, Frank attacks Ed, and a mistrial is declared. With no means left for his defense, Ed throws himself at the mercy of the court. The tactic fails, and the judge sentences him to death. While waiting on death row, Ed writes his story to sell to a pulp magazine. Shortly before his execution, Ed sees a UFO outside the jailhouse. As Ed is electrocuted, he reflects on his fate, regretting none of his decisions and hoping to see Doris in the afterlife, both of them free of the mortal world's imperfections.
Cast
Billy Bob Thornton as Ed Crane
Frances McDormand as Doris Crane
Michael Badalucco as Frank Raffo
Richard Jenkins as Walter Abundas
Scarlett Johansson as Rachel "Birdy" Abundas
Jon Polito as Creighton Tolliver
Tony Shalhoub as Freddy Riedenschneider
James Gandolfini as Big Dave Brewster
Katherine Borowitz as Ann Nirdlinger Brewster
Christopher Kriesa as Officer Persky
Brian Haley as Officer Krebs
Jack McGee as P.I. Burns
Background
The idea of writing a film starring a barber was inspired by a poster that the Coen brothers saw while filming The Hudsucker Proxy (1994). "We filmed a scene in a barbershop, and there was a poster on the wall showing all the different 1940s-style haircuts," recalled Joel Coen. "It was a fixture on the set, and we were always looking at it. So we started thinking about the guy who actually did the haircuts, and the story began to take shape. It really evolved from that haircut poster." The directors took the title of the film from the 1899 poem written by William Hughes Mearns entitled "Antigonish" and they chose it in reference to the character of the barber, to reflect his emotional emptiness.
Set in 1949, the plot—according to Joel Coen—"is heavily influenced" by the work of writer James M. Cain, in particular, the novels Double Indemnity, The Postman Always Rings Twice, and Mildred Pierce. Despite being a criminal neo-noir story, the Coens replaced the underworld setting where such stories often unfold and set the plot in a typical American town with ordinary people. "The criminal element here is sort of inadvertent. The hero sort of stumbles into it," Ethan Coen explained. This storytelling device was an homage to the literary work of Cain, whose stories would usually use common characters with conventional jobs who, motivated by need or greed, ended up involved in a crime. Similarly, other conventions popularized by the writer's crime novels were also present in The Man Who Wasn't There, such as the plan to get money quickly, sexual misadventures, and coincidences of fate. The failure of a "perfect plan" to raise money appears in Double Indemnity and The Postman Always Rings Twice, both novels narrated by down-and-out working-class men during the Great Depression in the 1930s.
The Coens named Shadow of a Doubt as a reference to the film and had in mind to some extent the science fiction genre of the 1950s. In fact, in terms of aesthetics, the filmmakers said the film was largely influenced by science fiction cinema and "cheap documentaries of the '50s". Cinematographer Roger Deakins drew inspiration for his work from the 1940s and 1950s films such as This Gun for Hire, The Blue Dahlia, Kiss Me Deadly, and Touch of Evil. Likewise, The Atlantic Christopher Orr compared the voiceover and the reserved character of Ed Crane with the character of Robert Mitchum in the film Out of the Past (1947). The Coens also referred to other works through the names used in the film, as is the case of the department store Nirdlinger or Dietrichson —surnames used by characters in the novel and film adaptation of Double Indemnity—Riedenschneider —the surname of a character from The Asphalt Jungle — or the name of Tolliver's hotel, "The Hobart Arms", an homage to the novel The Big Sleep by Raymond Chandler.
In addition to the Cain novels and film noir, to a lesser extent, the story borrowed its ideas from existentialist literature, such as Albert Camus's The Stranger. In addition to noting the similarities in the narrative of both works, some authors and critics compared the disconnection with reality and the little expressive attitude of Ed with that of the protagonist of Camus's novel. Through his main character, The Man Who Wasn't There explores the existentialist view of despair, a theme reminiscent of the theologian Søren Kierkegaard. Authors Jean-Pierre Boulé and Enda McCaffrey compared Ed Crane's attempt to escape from his routine life with Jean-Paul Sartre's idea of a "search for transcendence", in the case of the film represented by the protagonist's relationship with the dry cleaning business, Abundas, and UFOs. Although The Man Who Wasn't There, cataloged as postmodern, inherited thematic and narrative elements of classic film noir, at the same time it moved away from it and explored concepts of the post World War II period, portraying the early postwar years in America. The story was contextualized by citing events related to the time such as the peak of popularity of UFOs, references to the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Werner Heisenberg's reflections on humanity, and the idea of succeeding in an age of opportunity. The plot alludes to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle through the character of defense attorney Riedenschneider, who refers to the said principle on more than one occasion.
Production
Development
The Coen brothers began writing the script in the mid-1990s, taking a break in between to film The Big Lebowski. Again available, the brothers moved to Ireland — where Frances McDormand was working—to continue writing. Once the script was written, the Coens sent it to producers Eric Fellner and Tim Bevan of Working Title; they intended to start production in 1999 but taking advantage of the availability of George Clooney, they dedicated themselves to another project: O Brother, Where Art Thou? After production wrapped, the directors continued with The Man Who Wasn't There. The project was financed independently by Working Title, who raised an approximate budget of $20 million.
The Coens wrote the characters of Doris —Ed Crane's wife— and Frank —the owner of the barbershop— for McDormand and Michael Badalucco, respectively. The directors allowed an actor with whom they had not worked before, Billy Bob Thornton, to star in the title role. He accepted the proposal to play the barber before reading the script: "I knew that it would be good. There are certain people you know you can't go wrong with." For the role of Doris' boss and lover, the Coens convinced James Gandolfini, who according to them was "perfect for the character". Jon Polito and Tony Shalhoub, two other actors already known to the Coens, also joined the cast, followed by Adam Alexi-Malle, Katherine Borowitz, Richard Jenkins, and the teenaged Scarlett Johansson. Jenkins initially declined the opportunity to star because he had been rejected from three previous productions of the Coens. However, the directors eventually chose him for the role. Bill Murray was considered for the role that would ultimately be Thornton's.
Filming
Filming began on June 26, 2000, in California and ended on September 1, after ten weeks of filming. Deakins' cinematography was simple and traditional. Most of the shots were taken with the camera at eye level, with normal lenses and a long depth of field. Compared to older American film noirs, Deakins used a wide range of grays 31 and attempted to create low contrast without many strong shadows, using fewer and larger lights. Despite being set in the past, he used contemporary technologies and wanted The Man Who Wasn't There to reflect the era in which it was being made: "we're not trying to make an old movie", said Deakins. It was filmed in 35 mm format in color and converted to black and white during post-production. This procedure was due, in part, to technical reasons since in recent decades the availability of black and white film rolls was very scarce. However, due to contractual and marketing requirements, it was released in color in some countries. "The film was made to be seen in color", stated Joel Coen, mentioning that in color it would look "horribly out of place" due to grayscale neutralizing colors outside the time frame of the plot.
The set and costume design by Dennis Gassner and Mary Zophres, respectively, had to adapt to the absence of color, avoiding high contrasts that would distract attention. Black and white also affected the actors, intensifying some elements: "Just a close-up is very striking because of the shadows and the sense of depth," said McDormand. However, the team did not lose sight of the color version and designed the locations avoiding bright colors and preferring browns and grays. Ed Crane's clothing consisted of sports jackets and gabardine and rayon shirts. Typical of those years, her stockings had no elastic at the top, and — like the extras — she used garters to hold them up. Women's clothing included seamed stockings, girdles, and pointy bras. Defense attorney Freddy Riedenschneider's peaked lapel double-breasted suit was inspired by Salvador Dalí, according to costume designer Mary Zophres: "It's a bit unusual for the time and suggests opulence."
To compose his character's look, Thornton looked at images of figures from that decade and borrowed some elements from Raymond Burr and Frank Sinatra. The actor commented on the matter that "once you get the right look, everything in your attitude changes". When Ed appears on screen, he is almost always seen smoking a Chesterfield, a detail of the time. In addition, professional barbers trained Thornton and Badalucco.
Locations
Filming began in the abandoned Lincoln Heights Jail in Los Angeles to set a Santa Rosa city jail cell. Later, the team moved to East Los Angeles and then to the Musso & Frank Grill restaurant on Hollywood Boulevard, where Ed Crane meets his attorney for the first time. Filming continued in Thousand Oaks for two days to shoot the country wedding scenes. Before his scenes, Michael Badalucco had to practice on pigs for the scene where he rides one. The production then returned to Los Angeles to film in a Presbyterian church on Wilshire Boulevard and in Downtown Los Angeles, where it was filmed in an apartment complex that was used to make the hotel lobby scenes. An abandoned Bank of America located also in the center was used for the scenes where Ed goes to the bank. The Nirdlingers building, where Doris works as an accountant, was created from an abandoned furniture store located in Glendale, production designer Dennis Gassner recalled:
A significant portion of the filming took place over a day in the city of Orange, which was used to represent the exteriors of the town of Santa Rosa, where the majority of the film is set. Although only one day was shot in Orange, the team worked for more than two weeks setting the streets according to the year 1949: traffic signs were replaced, facades were modified and minor street repairs were made. The exterior scenes of Ed Crane's house were filmed in the Pasadena neighborhood of Bungalow Heaven, a popular and affordable location in the mid-twentieth century. The Coens chose the house with the lower ceiling to achieve the impression of a smaller space and thus represent the economic situation of the barber. The scenes in the piano teacher's room were also shot in Pasadena, exactly in the Green Hotel building complex. Locations were used to film almost the entire film except for a few scenes, such as the barbershop scenes—the last ones before the end of filming—on a set built by Gassner at Paramount Studios.
Music
The film's soundtrack consists of classical music, primarily piano sonatas by Ludwig van Beethoven, interspersed with seven new compositions by Carter Burwell. In addition to Beethoven, the soundtrack included a Mozart composition, "Sull'aria ... che soave zeffiretto". The inclusion of classical music is a resource that distinguishes the film from others in the noir genre. Music editor Todd Kasow was tasked with selecting suitable sonatas for the soundtrack while Burwell began work on a "pianocentric" composition. Some of the compositions feature "cyclical" structures that symbolize the situation the protagonist finds himself in and his difficulty in freeing himself from it, but at the same time, the Coens felt it was essential to the character that the music suggests "a vague longing". Journalist Dan Goldwasser described Burwell's work as "dark and solemn" and wrote that the main composition, "The Trial of Ed Crane", has "a kind of romanticism with just a hint of hope". The Man Who Wasn't There was the ninth film on which Burwell collaborated with the Coen brothers. The Decca Records label released the soundtrack album on October 30, 2001.
Release
Premiere
The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 13, 2001. After Cannes, the film reached other European film festivals that year such as Edinburgh, Flanders, Warsaw, and Vienna. The distributor USA Films was in charge of its release in the United States, although its screening was limited to select theaters. On October 31, 2001, it premiered in Los Angeles and New York. It was the first Coen film to be released in black and white, something the directors had tried unsuccessfully with Blood Simple (1984) and The Hudsucker Proxy (1994) in the face of the advantages of color distribution.
Home media
The first home edition was available on DVD released by USA Home Entertainment in 2002. DVD extras included commentary by the Coen brothers and Thornton, a sixteen-minute making-of, an interview with Deakins, five deleted scenes, a photo gallery, and promotional videos. The Coens and Thornton share behind-the-scenes anecdotes, including the story about the haircut poster that inspired the idea for the film. In an in-depth interview with Deakins, the cinematographer discusses the pros and cons of shooting in black and white, his aesthetic influences, and his experience working with the Coens. Reviewing the DVD, the site DVD Talk wrote that the black-and-white photography "is brilliantly captured, evoking film-noir history while remaining immaculately clean. The blacks are deep and solid, giving the image an enchanted look." In September 2002, a three-disc DVD edition was released in France: the first with the film in black and white, the second with the color version, and the last with the extras, which as a novelty included a documentary of almost fifty minutes entitled "The Film Noir Universe". In 2015 Universal Home Video released a regular version on Blu-ray.
Reception
Box office
The Man Who Wasn't There grossed $7.5 million in the United States and Canada, and $11.4 million in other territories, for a worldwide total of $18.9 million against its $20 million budget. The film was the Coen Brothers' worst-performing film at the box office since The Hudsucker Proxy (1994). Some authors speculated that the result of this failure was due, in part, to the lack of enthusiasm of the mass public towards black and white film. In its opening weekend in the United States, it grossed $664,404 from thirty-nine theaters.
Critical response
Many critics praised the film for both its technique and its performances. Richard Schickel of Time wrote: "The ability to show no emotion isn't a highly prized quality in movie leads, but Thornton, that splendid actor, does it perfectly as Ed Crane, a taciturn small-town barber, circa 1949". Other critics also praised Thornton's leading role, such as Emanuel Levy, who opined that Thornton "beautifully absolves himself in a challenging role that demands more reaction than action" and added, "he comes across as a tormented Montgomery Clift". Variety magazine wrote that the film's protagonist "sets new standards of opacity and passivity".
Jonathan Rosenbaum of the Chicago Reader noted that "Joel and Ethan Coen stay true to their penchant for bumbling, neo-noir heroes, and their firm belief that life normally turns out lavishly horrific." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times commented, "The film is effective and confident in its style, so loving and so intense that if you see it as often, it will be like a party." In the same way, Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine named it one of the best films of the year and expressed that it is "devilishly funny" and highlighted the photography and performances. Travers included The Man Who Wasn't There at number eight on his list of the ten best indie films of 2001. Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian stated, "It's the best American film of the year" and Philip French, in another review for The Guardian, also claimed that it was the best film of the year up to that point. Likewise, Marc Savlov of Austin Chronicle announced that it was "the most beautiful film of the year" and added that "Billy Bob Thornton's performance represents a dazzling rough diamond". The BBC Critic Nev Pierce also described it as "one of the best films of the year" and added about its viewing that it was "a unique, peculiar, captivating experience."
Deakins's black-and-white photography was singled out by several critics. The Chicago Reader compared the photograph to Federico Fellini's 8½ 8 and reviewer Matthew Turner of View London commented that black and white "hasn't looked this splendid since the 1940s". Despite writing a lukewarm review, Variety's Todd McCarthy praised Deakins' work, Dennis Gassner's sets, and Mary Zophres' costumes to create a "superior representation of the post-war period in a small town". Concerning the rural setting, the historian José María Caparrós pointed out: "Few times has American cinema appeared in such a subtle and forceful way to testify the deep existential emptiness and the mediocrity of deep America". The film did not convince Michael Sragow of The Baltimore Sun, who said: "The Man Who Wasn't There is an intellectualized, stylized, completely empty period production. Despite its lavish, claustrophobically controlled black-and-white look, it packs the punch of a toy gun."
Awards and nominations
After its premiere at the Cannes Film Festival, Joel Coen took home Best Director No. 3 and shared the award with David Lynch for Mulholland Drive. The film was also nominated for the Palme d'Or, the festival's highest honor, but Nanni Moretti's Son's Room won the prize. Also, the film was part of the selection of the ten best of the year by the National Board of Review.
The film was nominated for a statuette at the 74th Academy Awards in the category of Best Cinematography (Deakins), although the award ultimately went to Andrew Lesnie for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring. Also, the film received three nominations for the Golden Globe Awards in the categories of best dramatic film, best screenplay, and best dramatic actor (Thornton), but failed to win any.
Deakins won the Best Cinematography award at the BAFTA Awards. Additionally, Deakins received multiple accolades from other organizations, including the American Society of Cinematographers, the Boston Society of Film Critics, the Los Angeles Film Critics Association, the New York Film Critics Online, the Society Film Critics Online, and the Satellite Awards, among others.
Notes
References
External links
2001 films
2001 crime drama films
American films
American crime drama films
BAFTA winners (films)
2000s English-language films
Italian-language films
French-language films
Films directed by the Coen brothers
American black-and-white films
Films about capital punishment
Films set in 1949
Films set in the San Francisco Bay Area
Films shot in California
American neo-noir films
Working Title Films films
Focus Features films
2001 soundtrack albums
Crime film soundtracks
Carter Burwell albums
Decca Records albums
Films scored by Carter Burwell
Gramercy Pictures films
USA Films films | [
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241054 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20John%27s%20University%20%28New%20York%20City%29 | St. John's University (New York City) | St. John's University is a private Catholic university in New York City. The school was founded in 1870 by the Congregation of the Mission (C.M., the Vincentian Fathers) with a mission to provide a growing immigrant population with quality higher education. Originally located in the Brooklyn borough of New York City, the flagship campus was moved to its current location in the Queens borough during the 1950s. St. John's has additional New York City campuses in Staten Island and Manhattan, as well as the Long Island Graduate Center in Hauppauge, New York. Additionally, the university has international campuses located in Rome, Italy, Paris, France, and Limerick, Ireland. The university is under the patronage of Saint John the Baptist.
St. John's is organized into five undergraduate schools and six graduate schools offering more than 100 bachelor, master, and doctoral degree programs as well as professional certificates. In 2019, the university had 17,088 undergraduate and 4,633 graduate students. The student body represents 46 states, District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and 119 countries. As of 2020, St. John's alumni total more than 190,000 worldwide.
History
Foundations
St. John's University was founded in 1870, by the Vincentian Fathers of the Roman Catholic Church in response to an invitation by the first Bishop of Brooklyn, John Loughlin, to provide the underprivileged youth of the city with an intellectual and moral education. Originally established as the College of St. John the Baptist, the first campus was located at 75 Lewis Avenue, in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn. Ground was broken for St. John's College Hall, the university's first building, on May 28, 1868. The cornerstone was laid on July 25, 1869. and opened for educational purposes on September 5, 1870.
Founding principles
St. John's Vincentian values stem from the ideals and works of St Vincent de Paul (1581–1660), who is the patron saint of Christian charity. Following the Vincentian tradition, the university seeks to provide an education that encourages greater involvement in social justice, charity, and service. The Vincentian Center for Church and Society, located on the university's Queens campus serves as "a clearinghouse for and developer of Vincentian information, poverty research, social justice resources, and as an academic/cultural programming Center."
The St. John's University Seal bears one phrase in Latin and one in Greek. The Latin phrases "Sigillum Universitatis Sti Joannis Neo Eboraci" translates in English to "St. John's University, New York". The Greek phrase translates to "A lamp, burning, and shining", a reference to the way Jesus describes St. John the Baptist in John 5:35. The University Crest bears the Latin phrase "Educatio Christiana Animae Perfectio", which translates to "A Christian education perfects the soul".
As a Catholic school run by the Vincentians, clergy can be found in positions within the administration, faculty, and spiritual staff. Crosses adorn many rooms and buildings throughout the campus, and the university maintains close ties to the Catholic Church.
Growth
Beginning with the law school in 1925, St. John's began establishing other graduate and undergraduate schools, and became a university in 1933. In April 1936, St. John's bought the Hillcrest Golf Club's of land for about $500,000, with the intention of eventually moving the school to the new site. Under the terms of the sale, the golf club continued to operate on the site for a few years. On February 11, 1954, St. John's officially broke ground on a new campus in Hillcrest, Queens, on the former site of the Hillcrest Golf Club. During the official groundbreaking ceremony, the shovel used was the same shovel that had broken ground on the original campus in 1868. The following year, the original school of the university, St. John's College, moved from Bedford-Stuyvesant to the new campus. The high school, now St. John's Prep, took over its former buildings and later moved to its present location in the Hillcrest-Jamaica sections in Queens.
Over approximately the next two decades, the other schools of the university, which were located at a separate campus at 96 Schermerhorn Street in Downtown Brooklyn, moved out to the new campus in Queens. The last of the schools to relocate to Queens moved there in 1972, bringing an end to the Downtown Brooklyn campus of the university. In 1959, the university established a Freedom Institute to provide lectures and programs that would, in the words of university president Rev. John A. Flynn, focus "attention on the dangers of communism threatening free institutions here and abroad," with Arpad F. Kovacs of the St. John's history department as its director. (A volume of lectures given at the Freedom Institute was edited by Kovacs and published in 1961 as Let Freedom Ring.) The university also hired the noted historian Paul Kwan-Tsien Sih to establish an Institute of Asian Studies in that same year, and similarly set up a Center for African Studies under the directorship of the economic geographer Hugh C. Brooks.
The university received praise from Time Magazine in 1962 for being a Catholic university that accepted Jews with low household income. Time also ranked St. John's as "good−small" on a list of the nation's Catholic universities in 1962.
On January 27, 1971, the New York State Board of Regents approved the consolidation of the university with the former Notre Dame College (New York), a private women's college, and the Staten Island campus of St. John's University became a reality. Classes began in the fall of 1971, combining the original Notre Dame College with the former Brooklyn campus of St. John's, offering undergraduate degrees in liberal arts, business and education.
Further expansion (1999-Present)
Circa 1989, according to Steve Fishman of New York Magazine, "St. John’s was essentially a commuter school" but that changed after Father Donald Harrington became the president of the university that year, replacing Father Joseph Cahill. Under Harrington the school increased its infrastructure and international profile. By 1990 the tuition and fees at St. John's was less than half of that at schools like NYU and Columbia. Moreover, in 1999, the university completed the first residence halls on the main Queens campus, making it easier for out-of-state and international students to attend the flagship campus. The University is now entering a new chapter under the leadership of Father Brian Shanley. Fr. Shanley is the former president of Providence College and is credited in bringing much growth to the college.
Beginning in 1995, the university began a series of acquisitions lasting for the following 22 years and establishing new locations throughout New York and the world.
Rome Campus. In 1995 St. John's establishes its first international campus in Rome, Italy. The campus offers both undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Oakdale Campus. The university acquired 175 acres in 1999 near Oakdale, NY to provide both undergraduate and graduate programs in eastern Long Island. The land was previously the home of the LaSalle Military Academy. The property was eventually sold to Amity University in 2017 when St. John's opened a second graduate center on Long Island.
Manhattan Campus. St. John's acquired The College of Insurance in Manhattan, in 2001. The school was converted to the School of Risk Management and added several programs to the St. John's academic portfolio, including Actuarial Science. The campus also included additional dormitories in downtown Manhattan.
Paris Location. In 2008 the university established a location in Paris, France, with residential accommodations and multiple programs. The locations purpose allowing students to complete a portion of their studies under St. John's faculty in France while being exposed to the cultural offerings of the city.
Long Island Graduate Center. After selling the Oakdale campus, St. John's established the Long Island Graduate Center in 2017 in Hauppauge, NY (Long Island). The campus offers programs at the master, advanced certificate, and doctoral levels.
Other notable events
The St. John's University strike of 1966-1967 was a protest by faculty at the university which began on January 4, 1966, and ended in June 1967. The strike began after 31 faculty members were dismissed in the fall of 1965 without due process, dismissals which some felt were a violation of the professors' academic freedom. The strike ended without any reinstatements, but led to the widespread unionization of public college faculty in the New York City area. In 1970 arbitrators ruled that the university had not acted improperly.
In 2010 federal prosecutors arrested Dr. Cecilia Chang, dean of the school's Institute of Asian Studies, and charged her with embezzling money from the university, bribing students with scholarships in exchange for forced labor, tax evasion, and false statements to federal agents. Chang, a graduate student alumna from Taiwan who naturalized in 1989, began directing the Asian Center and acted as a fundraiser in 1977. On Monday November 5, 2012, she testified in her own trial and committed suicide at age 59 the next day. Anne Hendershot of Crisis Magazine wrote that the information revealed that described Chang giving material benefits to other members of the administration was "even more damaging to the reputation of St. John’s University."
Organization and administration
St. John's University is a Roman Catholic non-profit organization controlled by privately appointed board of trustees which is chosen by the Vincentian order. The Very Rev. Brian J. Shanley, O.P., is the 18th and current president of the university, and the Very Rev. Bernard M. Tracey, C.M. is the executive vice president.
Prior Presidents include:
The Very Rev. Fr. John T. Landry, C.M. 1870 – 1875
The Very Rev. Fr. Patrick M. O’Regan, C.M. 1875 – 1877
The Very Rev. Fr. Aloysius J. Meyer, C.M. 1877 – 1882
The Very Rev. Fr. Jeremiah A. Hartnett, C.M. 1882 – 1897
The Very Rev. Fr. James J. Sullivan, C.M. 1897 – 1901
The Very Rev. Fr. Patrick McHale, C.M. 1901 – 1906
The Very Rev. Fr. John W. Moore, C.M. 1906 – 1925
The Very Rev. Fr. John J. Cloonan, C.M. 1925 – 1931
The Very Rev. Fr. Thomas F. Ryan, C.M. 1931 – 1935
The Very Rev. Fr. Edward J. Walsh, C.M. 1935 – 1942
The Very Rev. Fr. William J. Mahoney, C.M. 1942 – 1947
The Very Rev. Fr. John A. Flynn, C.M. 1947 – 1961
The Very Rev. Fr. Edward J. Burke, C.M. 1961 – 1965
The Very Rev. Fr. Joseph T. Cahill, C.M. 1965 – 1989
The Very Rev. Fr. Donald J. Harrington, C.M. 1989 – 2013
The Very Rev. Fr. Joseph L. Levesque, C.M. 2013 – 2014
Conrado Gempesaw, Ph.D. 2014 – 2021
The Very Rev. Fr. Brian J. Shanley, O.P. 2021–present
Per the university's statutes, presidents must be priests from the Congregation of the Mission (Vincentians). The trustees waived this requirement due to the limited number of candidates. In 2014, Conrado Gempesaw, became the first ever lay person to be appointed President of St. John's University and in 2021, Brian Shanley became the first non-Vincentian Catholic priest appointed President. Shanley is a member of the Dominican Order.
Academics
St. John's is a large doctoral/research university. The school is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education and has 13 specialized accreditations.
Colleges
The university is organized into six colleges and schools:
St. John's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences
School of Education
Peter J. Tobin College of Business
College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences
The Lesley H. and William L. Collins College of Professional Studies (St. Vincent's College)
St. John's University School of Law
Student body
Size: In fall 2019, St. John's student body numbered 21,721 students (17,088 undergraduates and 4,633 graduate students). In 2019, there were 3,135 new undergraduates—the largest freshman class at any US Catholic college or university. Students came from 46 states, the District of Columbia, Guam, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, and 119 countries. The freshman retention rate was 84 percent. In 2016, the university conferred more than 4,000 undergraduate and graduate degrees.
Admission: In 2019, St. John's received 27,000 applications for freshman admission, with an anticipated enrollment of more than 3,000 students. With an admission rate of 72%, St. John's is considered 'more selective' by U.S. News & World Report. Half the applicants admitted had SAT scores between 1080 and 1300.
Diversity: St. John's University is considered one of the most diverse colleges in the United States. 27% of the students are minorities; there is a scholarship fund promoting diversity of over $1.6 million. St. John's operates an Equity & Inclusion Council, the Office of Multicultural Affairs, the Academic Center for Equity and Inclusion, Inclusivity Resource Center, Academic Center for Equity and Inclusion, Respond and Partner to Engage our Community Team (RESPECT), as well as providing a resource division for LGBTQ+ students. The school actively promotes homeless student enrollment and in general has an emphasis on enrolling students from less favorable financial circumstances. Committed to its mission of providing affordable education, in 2019 St. John's offered 100% of incoming students scholarships averaging $23,546 per student.
Faculty
St. John's employs 1,471 full-time and part-time faculty members, more than 92 percent of whom possess a doctorate or other terminal degree in their field. The student-to-faculty ratio is 17:1; five University faculty members were featured in The Princeton Review’s “Best 300 Professors.” Although the majority of the faculty and staff of St. John's are non-clergy academics, the school does have a significant number of priests, religious brothers and sisters who are professors/academics in various fields. Although a Catholic institution, the university also employs a number of non-Catholic faculty.
Rankings and reputation
In the 2021 U.S. News & World Report ranking of "National Universities", St. John's undergraduate program was ranked tied for 170th overall in the nation, tied for 39th out of 389 in "Top Performers on Social Mobility", tied for 124th out of 142 in "Best Colleges for Veterans", and 142nd out of 180 in "Best Value Schools".
The School of Law was ranked tied for 74th and the School of Education ranked tied for 105th in the U.S. by U.S. News & World Report for 2021.
Forbes ranked St. John's 407th on its "America's Top Colleges" list in 2019 out of the 650 best private and public colleges, universities and service academies. In order to be considered for the rankings, the school had to qualify as one of the top 15% of the 4,300 degree-granting postsecondary institutions in the US.
Student life
Though a Roman Catholic institution, the students are of all faiths. St. John's offers and funds, through the Student Government, more than 180 academic, professional, and recreational student organizations, as well as the St. John's Bread and Life program which is dedicated to serving the poor by providing food, services, and support resources. Mass is held on the Queens Campus three times daily and the sacrament of confession is available daily. There are many devotions held at the University as well, such as Adoration, the Rosary and Miraculous Medal Novena. The Student Government also works to host many notable guest speakers throughout the academic year.
Although no rail station directly serves the campus, numerous stops offer one bus connections via MTA. For the subway, these stations include Kew Gardens/Union Turnpike as well as 169th Street and Main Street Flushing. The LIRR's Jamaica Station also provides direct bus service to campus. The St. John's Campus Shuttle runs non stop from Jamaica Station to the Queens Campus Monday through Friday.
Fraternities and sororities
St. John's doesn't allow fraternity and sorority residences like most schools, rather offering them as clubs.
Fraternities
Alpha Phi Alpha
Alpha Phi Delta
Iota Nu Delta
Kappa Alpha Psi
Kappa Sigma
Pi Kappa Phi
Pi Lambda Phi
Sigma Chi Beta (local)
Sigma Iota Epsilon
Tau Kappa Epsilon
Phi Beta Sigma
Phi Delta Chi
Phi Delta Psi
Phi Delta Theta
Phi Iota Alpha
Omega Psi Phi
Sigma Pi
Sororities
Lambda Pi Upsilon, Latinas Poderosas Unidas, Inc.
Gamma Phi Beta
Phi Sigma Sigma
Alpha Kappa Alpha
Delta Sigma Theta
Sigma Gamma Rho
Zeta Phi Beta
Kappa Beta Gamma
Gamma Eta
Phi Eta Chi (local)
Kappa Phi Lambda
Lambda Phi (Local)
Theta Phi Alpha
Delta Phi Epsilon
Alpha Sigma Alpha
There are 32 recognized fraternity and sorority chapters at St. John's.
Cathedral Seminary House of Formation
The Cathedral Seminary serves as the Catholic minor seminary for the Archdiocese of New York, Diocese of Brooklyn, and Diocese of Rockville Centre. The seminary is partnered with St. John's University offering undergraduate studies to the minor seminarians, which they must complete before moving on to major seminary. All seminarians must major in philosophy as per Catholic Church guidelines on the education of those studying for the Priesthood. The seminarians studying for their undergraduate degree live off campus at the seminary in Douglaston, NY, however attend classes at St. John's alongside regular students from the university and are active in student life on campus. Those who enter the seminary after already having completed an undergraduate degree, study in a two year pre-theology program that is run in partnership with St. John's, but administered at the seminary.
Media
The Torch is the official student-run newspaper of St. John's University. Founded in 1922, the paper has shifted in and out of the control of the university, but has been financially independent since 1980. In 1988, The Torch was inducted into the Associated Collegiate Press Hall of Fame after being awarded a number of awards from various collegiate newspaper organizations.
WREDtv is the official television station of St. John's University. Founded in 1970, the station is completely student-run and creates original programming centered on Student Life at the university; ranging from news and sports programs to various comedy and general interest shows. Shows are produced and shot in the television studio in the school's TV center, as well as productions shot around the St. John's campus and New York City.
Rho Chi Post is the official student-run newsletter of the St. John's University College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences. The newsletter accepts articles from students from all majors and contributors do not have to be a member of Rho Chi Society to submit their work. All articles are peer-reviewed.
The Storm Front is the official student-run newspaper of St. John's University Staten Island Campus. It was organized in 2005 and succeeded The Arrow as the campus newspaper after The Arrow was later seen as a throw-back to the university's former Redmen theme.
Proteus is the literary magazine of the Staten Island Campus. It is released as a compilation of student-submitted works through the St. John's University Creative Expression's Guild.
WSJU Radio, which opened in 1974, is the official radio station of St. John's University; the staff and crew consists of St. John's University students. The broadcasts are played in Marillac Cafeteria and simulcast on the internet. WSJU is an official member of The National Association of College Broadcasters (NACB) and the Intercollegiate Broadcasting System (IBS).
Sequoya is an independent and student-run literary magazine at St. John's University in New York City. Its mission is to showcase talents of St. John's students in the fields of literature and arts. The magazine is published annually by a collaboration of Departments of English and Fine Arts.
Performing arts
The St. John's University Jazz Band has been the Queen's campus' jazz ensemble since 1987. The band performs at numerous on-campus events and holds performances both as headliners and alongside the other performing arts groups. Their repertoire spans the many different incarnations of jazz music, and the group contains some of the university's most elite musicians. They are not to be confused with the pep band, which performs at the Red Storm sporting events.
The St. John's University Mixed Chorus has been a part of the university's tradition since 1911, and is one of the two sanctioned vocal groups under performing arts. The group performs both on and off campus, as well as abroad. Their repertoire includes many classical and traditional songs, and songs with pertinence to the school's history, with recent forays into popular music.
The Voices of Victory Gospel Choir has been the Queens campus' premier gospel music group since 1988, and is one of the two sanctioned vocal groups under performing arts. The group is known for their dramatic and impassioned performances both on and off campus, and abroad. Their repertoire contains history's many different embodiments of spiritual music in both traditional and contemporary respects.
The Chappell Players Theater Group has been the Queen campus' dramatic arts organization since the 1930s. The group is known for their stage plays and musicals put on throughout the academic year and their hands-on approach to both on-stage performance and behind the scenes tech.
The Chamber Music Society is a newer organization to St. John's. This group is made up of instrumentalists including violinists, violists, and cellists, singers, and composers who form small ensembles to perform at the semester concerts. CMS has performed at several events on the Queens campus such as Accepted Students Day, the investiture for Dr. Gempesaw, Women's History Month, Presidential Donor dinners, and Skull & Circle Convocation.
Art exhibitions
Founded in 1994, the Dr. M.T. Geoffrey Yeh Art Gallery is the university's art exhibition space. The Yeh Art Gallery partners with international contemporary artists to create exhibitions and learning opportunities for the university community and public. Dr. Owen Duffy is the gallery's director. Recent exhibitions include Fevzi Yazici: DARK WHITE, the first art exhibition by the imprisoned Turkish journalist, which was featured in The Washington Post.
Campuses
St. John's University locations:
Jamaica, Queens:
Hillcrest, Queens – The main campus of St. John's University is located in the residential Hillcrest section of the borough of Queens of New York City. This campus houses several academic buildings, 8 residence halls, athletic facilities, and the St. Augustine Library. The Queens campus features stone buildings and student residence halls. Facilities include laboratory and classroom buildings, the main collections of its 1.7 million-volume library; and athletic facilities for students and St. John's Division I athletic teams. The University Center is the 127,000 square foot, five story D'Angelo Center, which features banquet space, classrooms, club space, a food court, game rooms, lecture halls, and a first floor lounge.
Branch campuses:
Staten Island – Originally Notre Dame College, today the Staten Island Campus has expanded to include serving over 2,000 students who are enrolled in undergraduate and graduate degree programs. The campus features lawns, apartment-style student residences, and architectural styles that range from red-brick colonial to the modern. The campus is located in the residential Grymes Hill section of Staten Island.
Manhattan – St. John's Manhattan campus houses St. John's School of Risk Management, a division of The Peter J. Tobin College of Business. It is located at 101 Astor Place in the East Village area of New York City. The campus occupies 71,000-square-feet on the first three floors of the 12-story, 400,000-square-foot building. The campus is close to other major institutions of higher education, including The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Art and Science, New York University, and The New School. The facility was dedicated and blessed on October 9, 2014, after relocating from an awarded vertical campus at 101 Murray Street on Manhattan's lower West Side.
Rome, Italy – St. John's University - Rome functions as a graduate degree-granting institution and supports undergraduate study-abroad programs. Study abroad programs on the Rome campus are offered on the undergraduate level for fall, winter, spring and summer terms in several academic fields. The campus also offers graduate programs leading to a Master of Arts or Master of Business Administration degree. The campus is located on a city block in the rione of Prati and houses both academic, residential and administrative space on four floors. On-campus dormitory housing is available to all accepted undergraduate and graduate students. The campus was founded with the help of the Catholic University of America and helps to keep close ties between the university and the Vatican.
Paris, France – In 2008, St. John's announced the formation of full-time and semester-abroad programs at a new academic location in Paris, France. The location is situated within the Vincentian Motherhouse in Paris.
Hauppauge – St. John's University's Long Island Graduate Center is home to graduate programs in The School of Education and St. John's College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. The campus is centrally located at 120 Commerce Drive.
Campus renovations
In 2008, St. John's University broke ground for the new University Center/Academic Building, one of the largest and most comprehensive construction projects in St. John's recent history. Located between Sullivan Hall and the Taffner Field House on the site that currently serves as stadium seating for lacrosse and track and field events, the 110,000 square feet (10,000 m2) complex has been designed to significantly enhance student life on campus. Now completed, the building, rises dramatically over the upper campus, contains 14 technologically sophisticated, state-of-the-art classrooms with approximately 800 seats. In addition, it includes a café, lounge, recreation and entertainment spaces, student organization offices and conference and meeting rooms devoted exclusively to student use. The building is named "The D'Angelo Center" after board of trustees member Peter D'Angelo '78 MBA, and his wife Peg D'Angelo '70 Ed.
In 2005, St. John's constructed Taffner Field house, and dramatically renovated Carnesecca Arena (formerly Alumni Hall) and the University Center. Renovations to Carnesecca Hall included a . Health Center, for use by Student Life and athletics, including weight training equipment, aerobic and dance studios, and a student lounge. The University Center renovations consisted of reconfigured office and meeting space for Student Life and academic clubs, and the addition of audio/visual rooms for all varsity athletic teams. Taffner Athletic Field House was $23 million initiative. The two-story, . structure adjacent to Carnesecca Hall includes four basketball courts, academic classrooms and locker rooms.
The 2004–2005 academic years saw $35 million in capital projects, including the completion of St. Thomas More church, the DaSilva building, Carnesecca Hall Fitness Center, and Belson Stadium. In 2005, the science labs and student life facilities were the target of an additional $60 million in capital enhancements. In regards to its expansion plans, the university has had a contentious relationship with the surrounding community in the past. In 2007, however, it was discovered that the university was planning to lease a building under construction by a separate company for an off-campus dormitory. Residents argue that such a plan goes against the school's pledge of being a "good neighbor" towards the community. The university, however, contends that it did not break the pledge for it was only leasing the structure not building it. Nevertheless, opponents, including state Senator Frank Padavan, argue that such an explanation is "disingenuous". St. Vincent Hall was also converted from a Vincentian and clergy residence to student dormitories. The Vincentian fathers and other clergy moved to the Father John Murray Hall built for them on campus were they now live.
The university has seen much growth on its campuses in order to attract students from outside the New York area. In 1999, the first dormitory was completed on the Queens campus. As of 2008, the campus now contains seven dorms and a townhouse complex.
In 2018 Bent Hall home of the Tobin College of Business underwent extensive renovations. Originally Bent Hall was home to Tobin College and Collins College of Professional Studies. After the renovations Collins College was relocated to the second floor of St. Augustine Hall which was also renovated for the College. In 2021 Father Shanley announced that the College of Pharmacy will be relocated to a new Health Sciences Center that is slated to be built on the location of the former St. Vincent's Hall.
Athletics
St. John's University fields 16 NCAA Division I teams in various sports, while also providing intramural and club sports. The Division 1 sports include;
Men's Programs: Baseball, Basketball, Fencing, Golf, Lacrosse, Soccer, and Tennis
Women's Programs: Basketball, Cross Country, Fencing, Golf, Soccer, Softball, Tennis, Track & Field, and Volleyball
St. John's sports teams are called the Red Storm. Though not official, the moniker “Johnnies” is also commonly used by fans. Prior 1994, St. John's went by the nickname “Redmen”, which referenced the red uniforms worn by the university in competition. However, the name was interpreted as a Native American reference in the 1960s, and was changed to the Red Storm after mounting pressure on colleges and universities to adopt names more sensitive to Native American culture. The Redmen name still remains popular among fans.
Conference affiliation
St. John's NCAA Division I teams compete in the Big East Conference, with the exception of the fencing team, which competes in the ECAC.
From 1979 to 2013, St. John's was a charter member of the Original Big East Conference. In 2013 the Big East Conference split into two different conferences. St. John's and the other six non-FBS schools in the original Big East broke away to form the current Big East, while the remaining FBS schools formed the American Athletic Conference.
Men’s basketball
The men's basketball team has reached the NCAA Tournament twenty-eight (28) times, boasts two John R. Wooden Award winners, 11 consensus All-Americans, 6 members of the College Basketball Hall of Fame, and has sent 59 players to the NBA. The school is also the 9th winningest team in all of college basketball.
Even though the program has yet to win the NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship, the school boast many other accolades, including the 1911 Helms Athletic Foundation National Championship and the 1943 and 1944 NIT National Championships (primary championship of the era) It also was runner-up in the 1952 National Championship game (prior to tournament structure). With its 28 NCAA Tournament appearances, St. John's has made appearances in 2 Final Fours and 7 Sweet Sixteens.
The Red Storm play most of their home games at Madison Square Garden, "The World's Most Famous Arena", while their early non-conference games are held at Carnesecca Arena on the St. John's campus in Queens. St. John's University holds the second best winning percentage for a New York City school in the NCAA basketball tournament (second to City College of New York – which won one NCAA Div 1 Championships as the CCNY Beavers men's basketball) St. John's has the most NIT appearances with 27, the most championship wins with 6, although they were stripped of one due to an NCAA infraction. In 2008, St. John's celebrated its 100th year of college basketball.
Men’s soccer
The St. John's men's soccer program has appeared in 15 consecutive NCAA tournaments, advancing to the Sweet 16 in each of the last ten seasons, and the Final Four on 3 occasions. They have captured 11 Big East Championships, including the 2006 season title as well as the 2009 season title, and in 1996, St. John's won the NCAA National Championship. Their home games are hosted at Belson Stadium, a state-of-the-art 2,300-seat stadium on the university campus. In 2006, the men's soccer team became the first American soccer team to be invited to play in Vietnam. The team played against several Vietnam Football Federation squads as well as participating in community service.
Men's baseball
The St. John's baseball team has been to the College World Series six times, recorded 26 NCAA appearances, 6 Big East Championships and have sent over 70 players on to professional baseball careers, most recently 2014 World Series Champion Joe Panik of the San Francisco Giants. The 3,500-seat "Ballpark at St. John's" was renamed "Jack Kaiser Stadium" in 2007 after the Hall of Fame Coach and former St. John's Athletic Director. The stadium is one of the largest college baseball stadiums in the northeast, and is a featured venue on the EA Sports MVP NCAA Baseball video game. The stadium had been conceived out of a deal between the university and the Giuliani administration, wherein the latter wanted to find a location for a single-A team that would be affiliated with the New York Mets. Expressing concern about quality of life issues and the spending of public money for a private religious institution, surrounding neighborhood civic groups and local politicians protested the plan. In order to placate their concerns, however, the Mets offered to open it up to the communities for local high school games and youth programs, and the stadium was built amid many large-scale protests by community residents and by State Senator Frank Padavan, while also using city financing. The Red Storm played the first ever game at the Mets' new ballpark, Citi Field, on March 29, 2009.
Men's fencing
The St. John's fencing program, coached for nearly three decades by Yury Gelman, has also attained national prominence including Olympians Keeth Smart and Ivan Lee. In 2001, St. John's won the NCAA Fencing Championship. The team has ranked in the top five each of the last 10 years, and finished 2nd in the NCAA during 1995, 2000, 2002, 2007, and 2010 seasons. In addition to team accolades, St. John's has won 22 NCAA Individual National Championship titles. On April 12, 2016, St. John's alumni Daryl Homer and Dagmar Wozniak were both named to the 2016 U.S. Olympic Fencing Team, marking the second time that each has been selected as a member of the U.S squad.
Women's athletics
The women's programs at St. John's University have also enjoyed a tremendous amount of success. The women's volleyball, soccer, tennis, basketball & softball teams have combined to win 9 Big East Championships and appear in 17 NCAA Tournaments since the 1980s.
Volleyball - the women's volleyball team at St. John's have won 3 Big East Regular Season Championships (2006, 2007 & 2008) and won the Big East Championship in 2007 and 2019 - and appeared in the Women's Volleyball NCAA Tournament in 2006, 2007 and 2019.
Basketball - along with the St. John's Fencing program, the women's basketball program at St. John's has been one of the most successful women's programs at the university. The Red Storm women's program are 4 time Big East Champions (1983, 1984, 1988 & 2016) and have appeared in 10 NCAA Women's Basketball Tournaments, including 7 appearances since 2006. On February 18, 2012, the St. John's women's team defeated perennial national power the UConn Lady Huskies 57–56, in Connecticut, to end the Lady Huskies 99 game home court winning streak.
Soccer - the women's soccer program at St. John's won the 1994 Big East Championship and appeared in the NCAA Women's Soccer Tournament in 2009 and 2013.
Softball - the 2015 campaign for the St. John's softball team was a historic one for the program. The Red Storm softball team won their first ever Big East Championship in 2015 and appeared in the 2015 NCAA Softball Tournament for the first time in program history.
Controversy
In the early 1960s, in one of the biggest point shaving scandals in the school's history, three St. John's athletes were accused of having taken bribes.
The 1990 St. John's lacrosse team rape case involved five members of the St. John's University Lacrosse team who were acquitted of charges. One student pleaded guilty to second degree sexual abuse. Another member pleaded guilty to sexual assault and a third to two counts of sexual misconduct and unlawful imprisonment.
In 2000, St. John's was criticized by the NCAA for misrepresenting facts in an NCAA investigation.
In 2003, it was revealed that Abe Keita, a basketball player, was given a $300 monthly allowance and free school books to be on the team which violated NCAA standards. Expecting NCAA penalties, the university announced a self-imposed two-year ban on postseason play.
Rivalries
Seton Hall University
Georgetown University
Fordham University
Syracuse University
DePaul University
Notable alumni
St. John's has over 170,000 alumni, 82% of whom reside in the Greater New York Metropolitan Area. Some of the most recognized alumni are former New York Governors Hugh L. Carey and Mario M. Cuomo, former California Governor George Deukmejian, New York City Police Commissioner Raymond Kelly, former secretary of the U.S. Department of Commerce Ronald H. Brown, Queen's Borough President Melinda Katz, and Grammy Award-winning artist and producer J. Cole. There is many more notable alumni of St. John's University, more specifically in public service, business and the Catholic Church. Among the graduates of St. John's includes cardinals, bishops, priests and nuns.
Anthony Bevilacqua, Catholic Prelate, Archbishop of Philadelphia, having previously served as Bishop of Pittsburgh.
Mariah the Scientist, singer-songwriter
Robert J. Brennan, Catholic Prelate, Bishop of Brooklyn (the diocese which St. John's is based in) and previous Bishop of Columbus, Ohio and auxiliary Bishop of the Diocese of Rockville Centre.
Kevin J. Sweeney, Catholic Prelate, Bishop of Paterson, New Jersey, and previous vocations director for the Diocese of Brooklyn.
Richard G. Henning. Catholic Prelate, Auxiliary Bishop of Rockville Centre.
Mike Korzemba Very popular YouTuber with 1.66 Million subscribers.
References
Further reading
Hueppe, Frederick E., "The Radiant Light: a history of St. John's College presented in the Vincentian," 1955, (St. John's University Archives).
Morris, Barbara L., "To Define A Catholic University: the 1965 Crisis at St. John's" (Ed. D. thesis, Columbia University Teachers College, 1977)
External links
St. John's Athletics website
1870 establishments in New York (state)
Big East Conference schools
Educational institutions established in 1870
Universities and colleges in New York City
Universities and colleges in Queens, New York
Universities and colleges in Staten Island
Catholic universities and colleges in New York (state)
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
Universities and colleges on Long Island
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241060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society%20of%20Saint%20Vincent%20de%20Paul | Society of Saint Vincent de Paul | The Society of St Vincent de Paul (SVP or SVdP or SSVP) is an international voluntary organization in the Catholic Church, founded in 1833 for the sanctification of its members by personal service of the poor.
Innumerable Catholic parishes have established "conferences", most of which affiliate with a diocesan council. Among its varied efforts to offer material help to the poor or needy, the Society also has thrift stores which sell donated goods at a low price and raise money for the poor. There are a great variety of outreach programs sponsored by the local conferences and councils, addressing local needs for social services.
France
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded in 1833 to help impoverished people living in the slums of Paris, France. The primary figure behind the Society's founding was Blessed Frédéric Ozanam, a French lawyer, author, and professor in the Sorbonne. Frédéric collaborated with Emmanuel Bailly, editor of the Tribune Catholique, in reviving a student organization which had been suspended during the revolutionary activity of July 1830. Ozanam was 20 years old when he founded the Society. He was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1997. Emmanuel Bailly was chosen as the first President.
The Society took Saint Vincent de Paul as its patron under the influence of Sister Rosalie Rendu, DC. Sister Rosalie, beatified in November 1999 by Pope John Paul II, was a member of the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul, earlier known for her work with people in the slums of Paris. She guided Frédéric and his companions in their approach towards those in need.
SVP gradually expanded outside Paris in the mid-19th century and received benefactors in places such as Tours where figures such as the Venerable Leo Dupont, known as the Holy Man of Tours, became collaborators.
The Society is part of the Vincentian Family which also includes two congregations founded by St. Vincent de Paul – the Congregation of the Mission with Vincentian priests and brothers and the Ladies of Charity – along with the Sisters of Charity in the Setonian tradition and several others, including some religious groups that are part of the Anglican Communion like the Company of Mission Priests.
England and Wales
Servant of God Fr. Ignatius Spencer from London came to know the Society in visits to Paris. Parisian Monsieur Baudon, who would assume the presidency of SVDP in 1847, visited London in 1842 and persuaded Spencer to write about the Society in the Catholic Magazine. Then in January 1844 M. Pagliano, a London restaurateur and recent convert to Catholicism, gathered 13 Catholic men and the first English SVP conference was founded. Early initiatives included the formation of the Catholic Shoe Black Brigade, providing boys with gainful employment and the first home of "the Rescue Society" which under various names still offers child care in many dioceses.
In 2013 there were more than 10,000 members in more than 1,000 Conferences in the United Kingdom, making over 500,000 recorded visits annually to more than 100,000 people.
United States
The Society's first Conference in the United States was established in 1845 in St. Louis, Missouri, at the Basilica of St. Louis King of France, or "Old Cathedral". Fr. John Timon, CM, had learned of the Society while visiting with his Vincentian superiors in Paris. From Dublin, Ireland, he brought to St. Louis copies of the SVP Rule. On 16 November 1845, Bishop Peter Richard Kenrick dedicated the new St. Vincent de Paul church on South Eighth Street and invited Timon to preach. Timon discussed the Society in his sermon, in the presence of prominent laymen who took hold of the idea and held an organizational meeting on 20 November 1845. The Conference included Dr. Moses Linton, founder of the St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal, and as chair Judge Bryan Mullanphy who would become mayor of St. Louis. Bishop Kenrick appointed Fr. Ambrose Heim as spiritual advisor to the Conference.
Australia
Gerald Ward was born in London in 1806 and was recruited for the Melbourne mission by the pioneering father, later bishop, Patrick Geoghegan. Ward was familiar with SVP from London and, observing the plight of the poor after the Victorian gold rush, established the Society in Australia in 1854. Ward served as its first president and helped establish the SVP orphanage in South Melbourne.
New Zealand
Fr. Chataigner, SM, established the first Conference in New Zealand in July 1867, but did not affiliate with the Council-General in Paris. The first to affiliate was the Wellington Conference founded in 1908 by Fr. Petitjean, SM, and Charles O'Neill, followed by other Conferences out of Wellington.
Scotland
Charles O'Neill was born in Glasgow in 1828. He graduated as a member of the Institution of Civil Engineers. Upon graduation he had joined the Society of St Vincent de Paul. He was secretary at Dumbarton in 1851. He led the St Vincent de Paul Society in the Western Districts of Scotland between 1859 and 1863. By 1863 he was president of the Superior Council of Glasgow and a member of the Council-General in Paris.
India
The Society was first introduced in India by the French Missionaries at Pondicherry during the Year 1852-53 as a non-aggregated Conference. The Society was officially started in India in 1863 when some conferences in Bombay were aggregated and the Bombay Particular Council was instituted. Then onwards the Society continued to grow in India. On 09.11.1953 the Superior Council of India was established and instituted with the Council General International. The Superior Council of India was renamed as National Council of India on 06.08.1973. The National Council of India has its Headquarters in Mumbai and the present President’s secretariat is at Chennai, Tamil Nadu with the election of Bro. S. Jude ZR Mangalraj as the 14th National President of India with effect from 28th February 2021.
The National Council of India is registered under the Income Tax Act 1961 with exemption under Sec 80G, FCRA under the ministry of Home Affairs and Societies Regn. Act and Bombay Public Trust Act 1950.
Today
The Society numbers about 800,000 members in some 140 countries worldwide, whose members operate through "conferences". A Conference may be based out of a church, school, community center, hospital, etc., and is composed of Catholic volunteers who pursue their own Christian growth in the service of the poor. Some Conferences exist without affiliating with any local Council, and so are not counted in statistics. Non-Catholics may join and the Society serves all regardless of their personal beliefs.
Ireland
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was founded in Dublin on 16 December 1844. It is now the largest voluntary charitable organisation in Ireland, making It one of Ireland's best known and most widely supported organisations of social concern and action. It has over 11,500 volunteers, active in every county in Ireland. During its history it has helped people in need through a famine, a civil war, a war of independence, two world wars, and several economic recessions.
Australia
In Australia, "Vinnies" workers and volunteers number about 58,000. Works include Conferences, Special Works, and Vinnies shops, assisting over 2,200,000 people in Australia each year.
In 2018, the St Vincent de Paul Society Queensland was named as one of the Queensland Greats by Queensland Premier Annastacia Palaszczuk in a ceremony at the Queensland Art Gallery on 8 June 2018.
New Zealand
In New Zealand, SVP operates in 23 regions with over 50 shops which serve as centres for welfare service, including food banks and food trucks. Most Catholic schools have Young Vinnies who help with fundraising and with training for dealing directly with the poor. The work is varied, following the Vinnie motto: "No act of charity is foreign to the society."
United States
The national headquarters is in St. Louis. Membership in the United States in 2015 exceeded 97,000 in 4,400 communities. Expenditures to people in poverty were $473,821,563. Programs include visits to homes, prisons, and hospitals, housing assistance, disaster relief, job training and placement, food pantries, dining halls, clothing, transportation and utility costs, care for the elderly, and medicine. Revenue is raised through a large network of thrift stores.
One of the working companies is Aurora Glass Foundry that recycles scrap glass and turns it into various decorative glass products for sale.
Monaco
The first Conference of the Society of Saint Vincent de Paul in Monaco was created in 1876.
The Conference of the immaculate Conception of Monaco-City whose commemorative plaque is on the Place de la Visitation, thanks among others to Monsieur Thheuret, Apostolic Protonotary in Monaco and to Mr Gastaldi, Mayor of Monaco. Mr. Theuret was appointed first Honorary President. The Vice-President of Honor being the Marquis de la Riva, first Chambellan of the Sovereign Prince.
The first active President was Lieutenant Plati. The Sovereign Prince, Prince Charles III, was one of the first benefactors. At the time, the Immaculate Conception Conference was attached to the Particular Council of the Nice Conferences.
St. Vincent de Paul Society in Monaco is located on 32 Rue Grimaldi, in the Condamine neighbourhood.
St. Vincent de Paul Charity Shop
The St. Vincent de Paul Society runs charity shops in many countries including Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Ireland, and Canada, as seen from websites for some in the US: St. Louis area with 9 such stores, Cincinnati area with 7, Omaha with 3, Dayton with 2, Des Moines with 2, Florida with 35, California with 26, Pennsylvania with 24, Western Oregon with 15, Georgia with 12, Arizona with 10, and Idaho. Items from clothing to automobiles are sold for a small price, often with home pick-up for large items. Money, and many times donated items, are distributed to the poor.
References
External links
International Confederation Society of Saint-Vincent-de-Paul
History of Society
SSVP Canada
SVP – Ireland
SVP – England & Wales
St Vincent de Paul Society Australia
National Council of the United States Society of St. Vincent de Paul
National Council of New Zealand St Vincent de Paul Society
Society of Saint Vincent, National Council Of Belgium in ODIS – Online Database for Intermediary Structures
Archives of the Society of Saint Vincent, National Council Of Belgium in ODIS – Online Database for Intermediary Structures
Religious organizations established in 1833
International volunteer organizations
International charities
1833 establishments in France
Catholic lay organisations
Charity shops
Mutual organizations
Former members of Fimcap
Welfare and service organizations
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241062 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1%2C4-Dichlorobenzene | 1,4-Dichlorobenzene | 1,4-Dichlorobenzene (1,4-DCB, p-DCB, or para-dichlorobenzene, sometimes abbreviated as PDCB or para) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4Cl2. This colorless solid has a strong odor. The molecule consists of a benzene ring with two chlorine atoms (replacing hydrogen atoms) on opposing sites of the ring.
It is used as a disinfectant, pesticide, and deodorant, most familiarly in mothballs in which it is a replacement for the more traditional naphthalene because of naphthalene's greater flammability (though both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating). It is also used as a precursor in the production of the chemically and thermally resistant polymer poly(p-phenylene sulfide).
Production
p-DCB is produced by chlorination of benzene using ferric chloride as a catalyst:
C6H6 + 2 Cl2 → C6H4Cl2 + 2 HCl
The chief impurity is the 1,2 isomer. The compound can be purified by fractional crystallization, taking advantage of its relatively high melting point of 53.5 °C; the isomeric dichlorobenzenes and chlorobenzene melt well below room temperature.
Uses
Disinfectant, deodorant, and pesticide
p-DCB is used to control moths, molds, and mildew. It also finds use as a disinfectant in waste containers and restrooms and is the characteristic smell associated with urinal cakes. Its usefulness for these applications arises from p-DCB's low solubility in water and its relatively high volatility: it sublimes readily near room temperature.
Precursor to other chemicals
Nitration gives 1,4-dichloronitrobenzene, a precursor to commercial dyes and pigments. The chloride sites on p-DCB can be substituted with hydroxylamine and sulfide groups. In a growing application, p-DCB is the precursor to the high performance polymer poly(p-phenylene sulfide):
Environmental and health effects
p-DCB is poorly soluble in water and is not easily broken down by soil organisms. Like many hydrocarbons, p-DCB is lipophilic and will accumulate in fatty tissues if consumed by a person or animal.
The United States Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) and the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) have determined that p-DCB may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen. This has been indicated by animal studies, although a full-scale human study has not been done.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set a target maximum contaminant level of 75 micrograms of p-DCB per liter of drinking water (75 μg/L), but publishes no information on the cancer risk. p-DCB is also an EPA-registered pesticide. The United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set a maximum level of 75 parts of p-DCB per million parts air in the workplace (75 ppm) for an 8-hour day, 40-hour workweek.
Under California's Proposition 65, p-DCB is listed as "known to the State to cause cancer". A mechanism for the carcinogenic effects of mothballs and some types of air fresheners containing p-DCB has been identified in roundworms.
See also
Air freshener
Camphor
Dichlorobenzene
Mothball
References
External links
Mothball sniffing warning issued, BBC News, 27 July 2006
NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Organochloride insecticides
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Chloroarenes | [
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241064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elisabeth%20Kopp | Elisabeth Kopp | Elisabeth Kopp (born 16 December 1936, in Zürich) is a Swiss politician and the first woman elected to the Swiss Federal Council (1984–1989).
Biography
Elisabeth Kopp grew up in Bern. After finishing her law studies in 1960, she married Hans W. Kopp (1931–2009). In 1969, she was elected to the district council (Gemeinderat) of Zumikon and, from 1972, she served on the education council (Erziehungsrat) of the canton of Zürich. She was president of Zumikon from 1974 until her election as a federal councillor in 1984. As a member of the Free Democratic Party, she served in the National Council of Switzerland from 1979 to 1984.
In 1984, Rudolf Friedrich resigned from his office for health reasons. The Free Democratic Party then nominated Elisabeth Kopp and Bruno Hunziker as Friedrich's successor. After this nomination, the Swiss media started a campaign against Elisabeth Kopp, focusing mainly on her husband Hans W. Kopp. But shortly before the Federal Council held the election, the tides turned with some journalists insisting that Elisabeth Kopp should not be held liable for the faults of her husband.
On 2 October 1984, she was elected to the Federal Council as the first woman ever in that office. She got elected with the first ballot, receiving 124 votes of 244. During her time in office, she held the Federal Department of Justice and Police and was Vice-President of the Confederation shortly in 1989.
Her husband Hans W. Kopp was member of many company boards. He was vice president of Shakarchi Trading AG, among others. In September 1988, Jacques-André Kaeslin made a note about the connection of Shakarchi Trading AG with international crime. Keaslin delivered the note to Renate Schwob, an employee of the Federal Department of Justice and Police, under circumstances which are not entirely clear. In October, Katharina Schoop, a personal assistant of Elisabeth Kopp, was allowed to see the note. The information was then relayed to Kopp, who phoned her husband, telling him to retire from his work at Shakarchi Trading AG. Shakarchi Trading AG was later proven to be innocent of any criminal involvement.
On 9 December 1988, the Swiss newspaper Le Matin wrote about that phone call. Elisabeth Kopp then confessed her involvement, which led to the Swiss media demanding her resignation. On 12 December 1988, Kopp announced that she would resign at the end of February 1989, insisting that she was without guilt in the matter. Pressure was raised again and Kopp finally announced her immediate resignation on 12 January 1989.
Literature
Elisabeth Kopp (1991). Briefe (Letters). Benteli Verlag.
Film
: (A Winters Journey – Switzerlands first female Minister)'', documentary, 85 min., Topic Film, January 2007
References
External links
Der Fall Kopp
afz.ethz.ch
|-
|-
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
1936 births
Living people
People from Zürich
Women members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Women members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
20th-century Swiss politicians
20th-century Swiss women politicians
20th-century women rulers
Female justice ministers | [
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241066 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mothball | Mothball | Mothballs are small balls of chemical pesticide and deodorant, sometimes used when storing clothing and other articles susceptible to damage from mold or moth larvae (especially clothes moths like Tineola bisselliella).
Composition
Older mothballs consisted primarily of naphthalene, but due to naphthalene's flammability, many modern mothball formulations instead use 1,4-dichlorobenzene. The latter formulation may be somewhat less flammable, although both chemicals have the same NFPA 704 rating for flammability. The latter chemical is also variously labeled as para-dichlorobenzene, p-dichlorobenzene, pDCB, or PDB, making it harder to identify unless all these acronyms are known to a potential purchaser. Both of these formulations have the strong, pungent, sickly-sweet odor often associated with mothballs. Both naphthalene and 1,4-dichlorobenzene undergo sublimation, meaning that they transition from a solid state directly into a gas; this gas is toxic to moths and moth larvae.
Due to the health risks of 1,4-dichlorobenzene, and flammability of naphthalene, other substances like camphor are sometimes used.
Uses
Mothballs are stored in air-tight bags made of a non-reactive plastic such as polyethylene or polypropylene (other plastics may be degraded or softened). The clothing to be protected should be sealed within airtight containers; otherwise the vapors will tend to escape into the surrounding environment. Manufacturer's instructions regularly warn against using mothballs for any purpose other than those specified by the packaging, as such uses are not only harmful and noxious, they are also frequently considered illegal.
Although occasionally used as snake repellent, mothball use as a rodent, squirrel, or bat repellent is illegal in many areas, and tends to cause more annoyance and hazard to humans than to the target pest. However, mothballs continue to be advertised as squirrel repellent and are an ingredient in some commercial vermin and snake repellent products.
Health risks
The US Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) has determined that 1,4-dichlorobenzene "may reasonably be anticipated to be a carcinogen". This has been indicated by animal studies, although a full-scale human study has not been done. The National Toxicology Program (NTP), the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) and the state of California consider 1,4-dichlorobenzene a carcinogen.
Exposure to naphthalene mothballs can cause acute hemolysis (anemia) in people with glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency. IARC classifies naphthalene as possibly carcinogenic to humans and other animals (see also Group 2B). IARC points out that acute exposure causes cataracts in humans, rats, rabbits, and mice. Chronic exposure to naphthalene vapors is reported to also cause cataracts and retinal hemorrhage. Under California's Proposition 65, naphthalene is listed as "known to the State to cause cancer".
Research at the University of Colorado at Boulder revealed a probable mechanism for the carcinogenic effects of mothballs and some types of air fresheners.
In addition to their cancer risks, mothballs are known to cause liver and kidney damage.
1,4-Dichlorobenzene is a neurotoxin. It has been abused as an inhalant, causing a variety of neurotoxic effects.
Mothballs containing naphthalene have been banned within the EU since 2008.
Alternatives
As discussed in more detail at Tineola bisselliella, alternatives to mothballs to control clothes moths include dry cleaning, freezing, thorough vacuuming, and washing in hot water. Camphor is also used as a moth repellent, particularly in China. Unlike naphthalene and dichlorobenzene, camphor has medicinal applications and is not regarded as a carcinogen, though it is toxic in large doses. Red cedar wood and oil is also used as an alternative moth repellent.
Pheromone traps are also an effective diagnostic tool and can sometimes be an effective control tool to protect valuable clothing.
In popular culture
As a verb, "mothball" has a metaphorical usage, meaning "to stop work on an idea, plan, or job, but leaving it in such a way that work can continue in the future". It is also the common phrase for when ships are anchored for long periods, but not sent for scrapping.
See also
Urinal deodorizer block – some types contain similar chemicals to mothballs
References
External links
Mothballs (Naphthalene and Paradichlorobenzene) - National Pesticide Information Center
Mothball effectiveness - Argonne National Laboratory Ask A Scientist
Insect repellents
Pesticides
Household chemicals | [
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] |
241067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf%20Friedrich | Rudolf Friedrich | Rudolf Friedrich (4 July 1923 – 15 October 2013) was a Swiss politician, lawyer and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1982–1984). He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 8 December 1982 and, for health reason, resigned his office on 20 October 1984. He is affiliated to the Free Democratic Party. During his office time he held the Federal Department of Justice and Police.
References
External links
1923 births
2013 deaths
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
People from Winterthur | [
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241070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seton%20Hall%20University | Seton Hall University | Seton Hall University (SHU) is a private Catholic research university in South Orange, New Jersey. Founded in 1856 by then-Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley and named after his aunt, Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, Seton Hall is the oldest diocesan university in the United States.
Seton Hall consists of 11 schools and colleges, with an undergraduate enrollment of about 5,800 students and a graduate enrollment of about 4,400. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".
The university is particularly known nationally for its successful men's basketball team, which has appeared in 13 NCAA Division I Men's Basketball Tournaments and achieved national renown after making it to the final of the 1989 tournament and losing 80–79 in overtime to the Michigan Wolverines. The basketball success and increased national television exposure has led to a sharp jump in applications from potential students and attendance at games.
History
Early history
Like many Catholic universities in the United States, Seton Hall arose out of the Plenary Council of American Bishops, held in Baltimore, Maryland, in 1844, with the goal of bringing Catholicism to higher education in order to help propagate the faith. The Diocese of Newark had been established by Pope Pius IX in 1853, just three years before the founding of the college, and it necessitated an institution for higher learning. Seton Hall College was formally founded on September 1, 1856, by Newark Bishop James Roosevelt Bayley, a first cousin of James Roosevelt I, father of president Franklin Roosevelt. Bishop Bayley named the institution after his aunt, Mother Elizabeth Ann Seton, who was later named the first American-born Catholic saint.
The main campus was originally in Madison, New Jersey. Reverend Bernard J. McQuaid served as the first college president (1856–1857, 1859–1868) and directed a staff of four diocesan clergy including Reverend Alfred Young, vice-president; Reverend Daniel Fisher (the second college president, 1857–1859) and five lay instructors. Initially, Seton Hall had only five students – Leo G. Thebaud, Louis and Alfred Boisaubin, Peter Meehan and John Moore. By the end of the first year, the student body had grown more than tenfold to 60. The college moved to its current location in 1860.
By the 1860s, Seton Hall College was continuing its rapid growth and began to enroll more and more students each year. However, among other difficulties, several fires on campus slowed down the growth process. The first of several strange fires in the university's history occurred in 1867 which destroyed the college's first building. Two decades later on March 9, 1886, another fire destroyed the university's main building. In the 20th century, another campus fire burned down a classroom as well as several dormitory buildings in 1909.
During the 19th century, despite setbacks, financially tight times and the American Civil War, the college continued to expand. Seton Hall opened a military science department (forerunner to the ROTC program) during the summer of 1893, but this program was ultimately disbanded during the Spanish–American War. Perhaps one of the most pivotal events in the history of Seton Hall came in 1897 when Seton Hall's preparatory (high school) and college (undergraduate) divisions were permanently separated. By 1937, Seton Hall established a University College. This marked the first matriculation of women at Seton Hall. Seton Hall became fully coeducational in 1968. In 1948, Seton Hall was given a license by the FCC for WSOU-FM.
The college was organized into a university in 1950 following an unprecedented growth in enrollment. The College of Arts and Sciences and the schools of business, nursing and education comprised the university; the School of Law opened its doors in 1951, with Miriam Rooney as the first woman dean of law in the United States.
College of Medicine and Dentistry
The Seton Hall College of Medicine and Dentistry was established in 1954 as the first medical school and dental school in New Jersey. It was located in Jersey City, adjacent to the Jersey City Medical Center, which was used for clinical education. Although the college, set up under the auspices of the Archdiocese of Newark, was a separate legal entity from the university, it had an interlocking board of trustees. The first class was enrolled in 1956 and graduated in 1960. The dental school also awarded its first degrees in 1960. From 1960 to 1964, 348 individuals received an M.D. degree. The college was sold to the state of New Jersey in 1965 for $4 million after the archdiocese could not support mounting school debt and renamed the New Jersey College of Medicine and Dentistry (which became the New Jersey Medical School, part of the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey). That entity became part of the Rutgers University system in 2013 and now exists as the Rutgers New Jersey Medical School. Seton Hall established a new School of Medicine in partnership with Hackensack University Health Network in 2015; however, in 2020, the medical school formally separated from Seton Hall becoming the independent Hackensack Meridian School of Medicine.
Modernization period
Beginning in the late 1960s and continuing in the next two decades, the university saw the construction and modernization of a large number of facilities and the construction of the library, science building, residence halls and the university center. Many new programs and majors were inaugurated, as were important social outreach efforts. New ties were established with the private and industrial sectors, and a growing partnership developed with federal and state governments in creating programs for the economically and educationally disadvantaged.
The 1970s and 1980s continued to be a time of growth and renewal. New business and nursing classroom buildings and an art center were opened. In 1984, the Immaculate Conception Seminary returned to Seton Hall, its original home until 1926, when it moved to Darlington (a section of Mahwah centered on a grand mansion and estate). The Recreation Center was dedicated in 1987. With the construction of four new residence halls between 1986 and 1988, and the purchase of an off-campus apartment building in 1990, the university made significant changes to account for a larger number of student residents. Seton Hall is recognized as a residential campus, providing living space for about 2100 students.
The physical development of the campus continued in the 1990s. The $20 million Walsh Library opened in 1994, and its first-class study and research resources marked the beginning of a technological transformation of Seton Hall. The university dedicated its newest academic center in 1997, originally named Kozlowski Hall for Dennis Kozlowski, former CEO of Tyco International. Renamed Jubilee Hall following Kozlowski's criminal conviction in 2005, the building is a clear example of Seton Hall's commitment to expanding the role of information technology in higher education. All classrooms in this six-story, 126,000 square foot (12,000 m2) building are wired for network and Internet connections, and many of the lecture halls are equipped with distance-learning technology. Its recreation center was originally named after Robert Brennan, but he was found guilty of securities fraud in 1994. It has since been renamed for long-time athletic director Richie Regan.
A new School of Law building and parking garage were also constructed in the 1990s as part of the revitalization of downtown Newark. Seton Hall continues to be a leader in technology in education, as well as in distance learning, with its renowned Seton World Wide program. In 1998, all incoming full-time, first-year students were issued laptop computers as part of the university's innovative and nationally recognized mobile computing program.
The Boland Hall fire
On January 19, 2000, an arson fire killed three and injured 54 students in Boland Hall, a freshman residence hall on the campus in South Orange. The incident, one of the deadliest in recent US history, occurred at 4:30 am, when most students were asleep. After a three-and-a-half year investigation, a 60-count indictment charged two freshmen students, Sean Ryan and Joseph LePore, with starting the fire and felony murder for the deaths that resulted. LePore and Ryan pleaded guilty to third-degree arson and were sentenced to five years in a youth correctional facility with eligibility for parole 16 months after the start of their prison terms. Consequently, the student body dedicated an area in front of Boland Hall to those that suffered from the fire called "The Remember Seal" and stronger university fire safety precautions were instituted.
Sesquicentennial
On the 150th anniversary (1856–2006) of the university's founding, Seton Hall initiated the Ever Forward capital campaign to raise a total of $150 million. The campaign was the most prestigious building campaign in the university's long history. The funds were directed to many areas throughout the university, however a majority went toward building and reconstructing campus facilities and historic sites.
In fall 2007, the university opened the new $35 million Science and Technology Center, completing one of the major campaign priorities ahead of schedule. On December 17, 2007, the university announced that the campaign's fund raising goals had been met and exceeded more than two weeks ahead of the campaign's scheduled closing date.
2010–present
The university has completed a host of campus renovations and new construction while attracting more students. An initial round of improvements totaling nearly $100 million concluded in 2014 with the opening of a new fitness center(now open), academic building, parking garage and expanded Aquinas Hall dormitory(now open). A second round of construction is planned for 2016 and beyond, which will adds Visitors Hall
Seton Hall announced the formation of two additional academic units in 2015 – the School of Medicine and the College of Communication and the Arts. The medical school was established in partnership with Hackensack Meridian Health, welcoming its first class in 2018. The College of Communication and the Arts was a department in the College of Arts and Sciences before being elevated in the summer of 2015.
Governance
The university, legally incorporated as "Seton Hall University, an educational corporation of New Jersey", is governed by a 16-member board of trustees. Eleven members of the board serve on it as a virtue of their positions within the university or Archdiocese of Newark. The Archbishop of Newark, who serves as the president of the board, retains the power to appoint the remaining five members of the body. Appointed members of the board serve three-year terms, until their respective successor is appointed. The board of trustees exclusively maintains the property rights of the university and provides selection of title, scope, and location of the schools and colleges of the university.
The governance of the university includes a board of regents, which is charged with the management of the university. The board has a membership of between 25 and 39 members. Six of the members are ex-officio; the board of trustees maintains the right to elect up to thirty more. Regents maintain the exclusive hiring authority over the president of the university. Previous by-laws of the university stipulated that the president must be a Roman Catholic priest.
Campus
Main campus
The main campus of Seton Hall University is situated on 58 acres (23 ha) of suburban land on South Orange Avenue. It is home to nine of the 10 schools and colleges of the university. The South Orange Village center is just ½ mile (0.8 km) west of the main campus. Directly across from the main campus to the northwest are scenic Montrose Park and the Montrose Park Historic District, which is listed in the National Register of Historic Places. The Eugene V. Kelly Carriage House, on the campus itself, is also NRHP-listed. The village itself dates back to 1666 preceding the establishment of Seton Hall College. Also since the beginning of the college, the South Orange Rail Station has served as an integral means to campus commuters. The main campus combines architectural styles including Roman, neo-gothic and modern. The South Orange campus became a gated community during the university's Modernization Period.
Buildings
The original centerpieces of the campus were made up of three buildings built in the 19th century. Presidents, Stafford and Marshall Halls were built when the college moved from Madison to South Orange. Some of the more notable buildings on campus are:
Presidents Hall – One of the oldest buildings on campus and a flagship of the university, Presidents Hall was completed in 1867. Located at the epicenter of the main campus, Presidents Hall is a neo-gothic structure dressed in brownstone. It originally served as a seminary but now houses the university's administration including the Office of the University President. The halls are lined with portraits of past University presidents and include a large stained glass depicting Saint Elizabeth Ann Seton, which was commissioned in 1866 by President Bayley.
Chapel of the Immaculate Conception – The handsome Gothic Revival brownstone building was designed by architect Jeremiah O'Rourke, who later designed the Cathedral of Newark. The chapel was built in 1863 and dedicated in 1870. Major renovations were completed in 1972 and most recently in 2008. The 2008 renovation was a primary component of Seton Hall's comprehensive Ever Forward fundraising campaign. In 2013, the chapel landed at No. 24 on Buzzfeed's survey of "31 Insanely Beautiful Colleges You Can Get Married At" and was ranked at No. 28 the following year on Collegeranker's list of "The 50 Most Beautiful College Campus Wedding Venues.
Stafford Hall – In 2014, a new academic building rose on the site of the former Stafford Hall, an outdated structure that had been a campus fixture since the 19th century. Bearing the name of its predecessor, the new Stafford Hall features 12 classrooms of multiple sizes, nine of which can accommodate 35 students each, while the remaining rooms include two large classrooms that can hold 70 and 50 students apiece and one smaller room for 25 students.
Fitness Center – A new fitness center opened in January 2014 as part of the Richie Regan Recreation and Athletic Center. The center occupies three levels of the building and includes spa-like locker rooms, various weight-training stations, 75 cardio machines and two dance studios, where more than 30 fitness classes—Zumba, spinning, body combat, Pilates, aerobics and yoga—take place weekly. Each of the cardio stations features a personal HDTV monitor with internet access that can sync up with a mobile device, and a wide selection trail workouts set in locations around the world.
McQuaid Hall – Built around 1900, it was named for Bishop Bernard J. McQuaid, Seton Hall's first president from 1856 to 1857 and 1859 to 1867. McQuaid Hall was both a boarding house for students and a convent for nuns before serving its present purpose as the home of the School of Diplomacy and International Relations as well as the Seton Hall University School of Health and Medical Sciences.
Jubilee Hall houses the W. Paul Stillman School of Business in addition to the largest auditorium at the university. There are several computer labs, state-of-the-art classrooms and a Stock Exchange research room. The building was originally named Kozlowski Hall after Dennis Kozlowski, Seton Hall Alumni and former CEO of Tyco International. Following Kozlowski's conviction for securities fraud the building was renamed at his request to Jubilee Hall in honor of the Papal Jubilee. Built in 1997, it is one of the newer additions to the main campus.
Walsh Gymnasium is a multi-purpose arena for University Sports. The arena opened in 1939 and can seat 2,600 people. It was home to the Seton Hall University Pirates men's basketball team before they moved to Continental Airlines Arena and then the Prudential Center. Currently, the arena hosts the women's basketball and volleyball teams, and is part of the Richie Regan Recreation and Athletic Center. The building, like the school's main library, is named for Thomas J. Walsh, Fifth Bishop of Newark and former president of the board of trustees.
McNulty Hall – Named for Msgr. John L. McNulty, president of the university from 1949 to 1959, McNulty Hall was built as the university's technology and research center in 1954. One of the most famous features of the building is the "Atom Wall" a relief artwork originally located on outer façade. Following renovations completed in the summer of 2007, the Atom Wall, depicting the gift of scientific knowledge from God to man, can be seen in the glass atrium of the building. McNulty also houses a large amphitheater and observatory for the chemistry, physics and biology departments.
Fahy Hall – Built in 1968, the building houses the classrooms and faculty offices of the College of Arts and Sciences. The building was named after Monsignor Thomas George Fahy who served as president of the university from 1970 to 1976. Fahy Hall includes several student resources and facilities, including two television studios, two amphitheaters and laboratories for computing, language learning, and statistics.
Arts and Sciences Hall and The Nursing Building – Originally built to house the Stillman School of Business in 1973, with the creation of Jubilee Hall in 1997, the building is now home to the College of Arts and Sciences in the West wing and the Caroline D. Schwartz College of Nursing in the East Wing. The College of Nursing has advanced teaching facilities including hospital beds, demonstration rooms and multi-purpose practice areas.
Bethany Hall – The most recent addition to the campus, Bethany Hall, also known as the Welcome Center, opened in February 2018. It has event space that can hold 500–700 people and holds admissions offices.
Sustainability
Seton Hall's extensive recycling program is one of the highlights in the college's sustainability programming. Recycling is mandatory on campus as per New Jersey state laws. Additionally, Seton Hall celebrated Earth Day 2010, marking the event with demonstrations about composting and rainwater collection, a group hike, and an outdoor screening of the environmental documentary "HOME."
On the College Sustainability Report Card 2011, Seton Hall earned a grade of "B-". Lack of endowment transparency and green building initiatives hurt the grade, while the recycling programs were a plus.
Newark Campus
A satellite of the main campus, the Newark Campus is home to the university's School of Law. Located at One Newark Center, the Law School and several academic centers of the university are housed in a modern 22-story skyscraper building. It is at the corner of Raymond Boulevard and McCarter Highway in the business and high-tech heart of downtown Newark, New Jersey and was completed in 1991. The Newark Campus building provides and an additional of library to the university.
The Seton Hall University School of Law was founded in 1951. It is accredited by the American Bar Association (ABA) since 1951 and is also a member of the Association of American Law Schools (AALS). Seton Hall is one of two law schools in the state of New Jersey. Seton Hall Law was founded by a woman, Miriam T. Rooney, who served as dean from 1951 to 1961. She was not only Seton Hall's first female dean, but was the first woman dean at an ABA-accredited law school in the United States. Dean Kathleen M. Boozang, who assumed the role in July 2015, is the third woman dean of Seton Hall Law.
Academics
Seton Hall University confers undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate degrees in as many as 70 academic fields. The school's academic programs are divided into 11 academic units:
Rankings
Seton Hall University was ranked by U.S. News & World Report for 2021 as tied for 133rd in the National Universities category. Seton Hall University School of Law was ranked tied at 62nd best in the U.S. in 2021. The Stillman School of Business was ranked 65th of 114 undergraduate business schools in the nation by Bloomberg Businessweek in 2016.
Student life
Greek life
Twenty-four recognized fraternity and sorority chapters are chartered at Seton Hall. About 15 percent of the student body are members of a Greek-letter organization.
Fraternities at Seton Hall include
Alpha Chi Rho
Alpha Sigma Phi
Alpha Kappa Psi
Alpha Phi Alpha
Alpha Phi Omega
Delta Upsilon
Lambda Theta Phi
Pi Kappa Phi
Phi Beta Sigma
Phi Delta Theta
Phi Gamma Delta
Phi Kappa Theta
Psi Sigma Phi
Sororities include
Alpha Delta Chi
Alpha Gamma Delta
Alpha Kappa Alpha
Alpha Omicron Pi
Alpha Phi
Alpha Sigma Tau
Chi Upsilon Sigma
Delta Phi Epsilon
Delta Sigma Theta
Lambda Tau Omega
Lambda Theta Alpha
Mu Sigma Upsilon
Omega Phi Chi
Zeta Phi Beta
Zeta Tau Alpha
In fall 2005, a group of students purporting to be an unrecognized chapter of Tau Kappa Epsilon made headlines when it was discovered that a pledge had been kidnapped and beaten for alerting university administration of the group's existence.
A cappella groups
The Gentlemen of the Hall (all male)
Pretty S#arp (all female)
Seton Notes (co-ed)
Student media
The school's principal newspaper is The Setonian. The paper has school news, an entertainment section called "Pirate Life", sports, editorials, and an opinion section. The staff consists of undergraduates and publishes weekly on Thursday. The Stillman Exchange is the Stillman Business school's newspaper. Its stories cover ethical issues, business, and athletic stories. The Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations is a bi-annually published journal composed of writings by international leaders in government, the private sector, academia, and nongovernmental organizations. Undergraduate students studying Diplomacy and International Relations publish The Diplomatic Envoy, an international news and analysis paper that releases both weekly online and monthly print editions. The Liberty Bell, is the only political and independent newspaper on campus. Founded in 2007, it is published monthly and features news and op-ed articles about university, local, national, and international news with a focus on personal freedom. The Liberty Bell won the Collegiate Network's 2008–2009 award for Best New Paper, an award given to student newspapers no older than three years.
The Galleon Yearbook ceased publishing in the early 2000s. Prior to its demise, it had a significant university publication that covered topics such as events, current events and sports. In the late 80s the book won several accolades including first place in the annual Columbia Scholastic competition and its publishers national sample list. It was a mix of color and black and white for over 300 pages. It most famously captured concerts like Fleetwood Mac and Springsteen; politics including presidential candidates; and sports achievements such as the NCAA finals in 1989. Books are archived in the library and found electronically at https://scholarship.shu.edu/yearbooks/. The original name of the Seton Hall University yearbook was The White and Blue: 1924-1942, with the exception of the 1940 yearbook, which was titled The 1940 Galleon. No yearbooks were published from 1934-1938, due to the Great Depression or from 1943-1946 due to World War II. Seton Hall University resumed publication of its yearbook in 1947 under the title The Galleon but ceased publication with the 2006 issue. This last issue is a compilation of the years 2002-2006 and published by alumni.
WSOU is a non-commercial, college radio station, broadcasting at 89.5 MHz FM. The station broadcasts from the campus of Seton Hall University in South Orange, New Jersey. It is a student run station with General Manager Mark Maben at helm as a full-time faculty member. WSOU currently broadcasts in HD-RADIO. In 2007, the Princeton Review rated WSOU as the eighth-best college radio station in the nation. Industry magazine also ranked WSOU to be the top Metal format station in the nation in 2007, and Rolling Stone Magazine ranked WSOU to be one of the top 5 rock stations in the nation in 2008.
Seton Hall's television station, Pirate-TV, is located in the basement of Fahy Hall. Programming includes a daily news show and weekly sports talk and fashion/entertainment shows
Traditions
University seal
The university seal combines attributes from the Bayley coat of arms and the Seton family crest. The Seton crest dates back as early as 1216 and symbolizes Scottish nobility. Renowned crest-maker, William F. J. Ryan designed the current form of the Seton Hall crest, which is notable for its three crescents and three torteau. The motto on the seal Hazard Zet Forward (Hazard Zit Forward on some versions) is a combination of Norman French and archaic English meaning at whatever risk, yet go forward. Part custom and part superstition, students avoid stepping on an engraving of the seal in the middle of the university green. It is said that students who step on the seal will not graduate on time.
Alma mater
The Seton Hall University Alma Mater was adopted as the official song of Seton Hall University. Charles A. Byrne of the class of 1937 wrote the original lyrics in 1936 and the university adopted the alma mater during the 1937 school year when the dean first read it to the student body. Some students participate in the tradition of saying "blue and white" more loudly than the rest of the alma mater.
Fight song
"Onward Setonia" is Seton Hall's fight song and it is played by the University Pep Band at all home Men's and Women's basketball games, usually as the team comes onto the court and at the end of the first half and at the end of the game.
Athletics
The school's sports teams are called the Pirates. They participate in the NCAA's Division I and in the Big East Conference. The college established its first basketball squad in 1903.
Seton Hall athletics is best known for its men's basketball program, which won the 1953 National Invitation Tournament (NIT); were the 1989 NCAA Tournament national runners-up following a defeat to Michigan in the final, 80–79 in overtime; and are New Jersey's most successful representative during March Madness by number of wins. Seton Hall also fields varsity teams in baseball, women's basketball, men's and women's cross country running, men's and women's golf, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming & diving, women's tennis, and women's volleyball.
Seton Hall also has club programs participating in ice hockey, rugby union, lacrosse, and men's volleyball and soccer. All Seton Hall sports have their home field on the South Orange campus except for the men's basketball team which currently plays at the Prudential Center in Newark after previously calling the Meadowlands home, and the club ice hockey team which plays at Richard J. Codey Arena in West Orange.
Seton Hall fielded its first varsity football program from 1882 until cancellation in 1932. The university later fielded a club football team from 1965 through 1972. In 1972, the football team won a national club championship. The next year, 1973, it was reinstated as a varsity program competing at the Division III level as the university aligned its other varsity teams with the original Big East Conference in 1979. Football was ultimately canceled in permanence after the 1981 season. During this final period of varsity football sponsorship, the team was coached by Ed Manigan.
Notable faculty and alumni
References
External links
Seton Hall Athletics website
Catholic universities and colleges in New Jersey
Big East Conference schools
South Orange, New Jersey
Educational institutions established in 1856
Association of Catholic Colleges and Universities
1856 establishments in New Jersey | [
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] |
241071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSHA | OSHA | OSHA or Osha may refer to:
Work
Occupational Safety and Health Administration, a federal agency of the United States that regulates workplace safety and health
Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States) of 1970, a federal law in the United States, the act that created the Occupational Safety and Health Administration mentioned above
Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, a national law of Malaysia
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work, an agency of the European Union
The Division of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) of the California Department of Industrial Relations, a California state government agency better known as Cal/OSHA
Other
Osha River, a river in Russia
Osha (herb), a perennial herb
Osha (character), a character in George R. R. Martin's fictional A Song of Ice and Fire fantasy series
See also
Occupational Health and Safety Act (disambiguation)
Usha, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel | [
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241073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet%20Speculative%20Fiction%20Database | Internet Speculative Fiction Database | The Internet Speculative Fiction Database (ISFDB) is a database of bibliographic information on genres considered speculative fiction, including science fiction and related genres such as fantasy fiction and horror fiction. The ISFDB is a volunteer effort, with both the database and wiki being open for editing and user contributions. The ISFDB database and code are available under Creative Commons licensing.
Purpose
The ISFDB database indexes authors, novels, short stories, publishers, awards, and magazines. Additionally, it supports author pseudonyms, series, awards, and cover art plus interior illustration credits which is combined into integrated author, artist, and publisher bibliographies. An ongoing effort is verification of publication contents and secondary bibliographic sources against the database with the goals being data accuracy and to improve the coverage of speculative fiction to 100%. The current database statistics are available online. ISFDB was the winner of the 2005 Wooden Rocket Award in the Best Directory Site category.
While the ISFDB is primarily a bibliographic research database it also contains biographic data for books, authors, series, and publishers.
In 1998, Cory Doctorow wrote in Science Fiction Age: "The best all-round guide to things science-fictional remains the Internet Speculative Fiction Database". In April 2009, Zenkat wrote on Freebase "...it is widely considered one of the most authoritative sources about Science Fiction, Fantasy, and Horror literature available on the Internet."
, Quantcast estimates that the ISFDB is visited by over 32,000 people monthly.
As a real-world example of a non-trivial database, the schema and MySQL files from the ISFDB have been used in a number of tutorials. ISFDB schema and data were used throughout Chapter 9 of the book Rails For Java Developers. It was also used in a series of tutorials by Lucid Imagination on Solr, an enterprise search platform.
History
Several speculative fiction author bibliographies were posted to the USENET newsgroup rec.arts.sf.written from 1984 to 1994 by Jerry Boyajian, Gregory J. E. Rawlins and John Wenn. A more or less standard bibliographic format was developed for these postings. Many of these bibliographies can still be found at The Linköping Science Fiction Archive. In 1993, a searchable database of awards information was developed by Al von Ruff. In 1994, John R. R. Leavitt created the Speculative Fiction Clearing House (SFCH). In late 1994, he asked for help in displaying awards information, and von Ruff offered his database tools. Leavitt declined, because he wanted code that could interact with other aspects of the site. In 1995, Al von Ruff and "Ahasuerus" (a prolific contributor to rec.arts.sf.written) started to construct the ISFDB, based on experience with the SFCH and the bibliographic format finalized by John Wenn. The ISFDB went live in September 1995, and a URL was published in January 1996.
The ISFDB was first located at an ISP in Champaign Illinois, but it suffered from constrained resources in disk space and database support, which limited its growth. In October 1997 the ISFDB moved to SF Site, a major SF portal and review site. Due to the rising costs of remaining with SF Site, the ISFDB moved to its own domain in December 2002. The site was quickly shut down by the hosting ISP due to high resource usage.
In March 2003, after having been offline since January, the ISFDB began to be hosted by The Cushing Library Science Fiction and Fantasy Research Collection and Institute for Scientific Computation at Texas A&M University. In 2007, after resource allocation problems with Texas A&M, the ISFDB became independently hosted on a hired server at the URL listed above.
The ISFDB was originally edited by a limited number of people, principally Al von Ruff and Ahasuerus. However, in 2006 editing was opened to the general public on an Open Content basis. Changed content must be approved by one of a limited number of moderators, in an attempt to protect the accuracy of the content.
Both the source code and content of the ISFDB are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution license. This was done on 27 February 2005.
References
External links
Sources of Bibliographic Information (isfdb.org)
American book websites
Bibliographic databases and indexes
Library 2.0
Online databases
Speculative fiction websites
Internet properties established in 1995
1995 establishments in the United States | [
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241074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich%20Time%20Signal | Greenwich Time Signal | The Greenwich Time Signal (GTS), popularly known as the pips, is a series of six short tones broadcast at one-second intervals by many BBC Radio stations. The pips were introduced in 1924 and have been generated by the BBC since 1990 to mark the precise start of each hour. Their utility in calibration is diminishing as digital broadcasting entails time lags.
Structure
There are six pips (short beeps) in total, which occur on each of the 5 seconds leading up to the hour and on the hour itself. Each pip is a 1 kHz tone (about a fifth of a semitone above musical B5) the first five of which last a tenth of a second each, while the final pip lasts half a second. The actual moment when the hour changes – the "on-time marker" – is at the very beginning of the last pip.
When a leap second occurs (exactly one second before midnight UTC), it is indicated by a seventh pip. In this case the first pip occurs at 23:59:55 (as usual) and there is a sixth short pip at 23:59:60 (the leap second) followed by the long pip at 00:00:00. The possibility of an extra pip for the leap second thus justifies the final pip being longer than the others, so that it is always clear which pip is on the hour. Before leap seconds were conceived, the final pip was the same length as the others. Although "negative" leap seconds can also be used to make the year shorter, this has never happened in practice.
Although normally broadcast only on the hour by BBC domestic radio, BBC World Service use the signal at other times as well. The signal is generated at each quarter-hour and has on occasion been broadcast in error.
Up to 1972, the pips were of equal length and confusion arose as to which was the final pip, hence the last pip is now of extended length.
Usage
The pips are available to BBC radio stations every 15 minutes but except in rare cases, they are only broadcast on the hour, usually before news bulletins or news programmes. Normally, BBC Radio 4 broadcast the pips every hour except at 18:00 and 00:00 and at 22:00 on Sundays (at the start of the Westminster Hour) when they were replaced by the Westminster chimes of Big Ben at the Palace of Westminster. However, the chimes have been suspended temporarily for the duration of the refurbishment of the clock mechanism. No time signal is broadcast at 15:00 on Saturdays and at 10:00 and 11:00 on Sundays. This is caused by the scheduling of the afternoon play on Saturday and the omnibus edition of The Archers on Sunday. On BBC Radio 2, the pips are used at 07:00, 08:00 and 17:00 on weekdays, at 07:00 and 08:00 on Saturdays and at 08:00 and 09:00 on Sundays.
The pips were used on BBC Radio 1 during The Chris Moyles Show at 06:30 just after the news, 09:00 as part of the Tedious Link feature, 10 am (at the end of the show) and often before Newsbeat. As most stations only air the pips on the hour, The Chris Moyles Show was the only show where the pips were broadcast on the half-hour. Chris Moyles continues to use the pips at the beginning of his show on Radio X. Zane Lowe's Masterpieces, the playing of an album in its entirety, is begun with pips, and they also feature at 19:00 on Fridays to signify the start of the weekend. The Weekend Breakfast Show with Dev begins with the pips at 06:00, and they sometimes feature on the hour at other points during the show, and Gemma Cairney's Early Breakfast Show begins with the pips. Dev's previous Early Breakfast Show also featured the pips at the beginning, and on the half-hour/hour at other points, particularly at 06:00 before or after the "I'm Here All Week" track. The pips are also used at 19:00 on Saturday evenings at the start of Radio 1's 12-hour simulcast with digital station BBC Radio 1Xtra.
BBC Radio 3 and BBC Radio 5 Live do not currently broadcast the pips.
The BBC World Service broadcasts the pips every hour.
Pips were also heard on many BBC Local Radio stations until the introduction of a new presentation package in 2020. A rare quarter-hour Greenwich Time Signal was heard at 05:15 weekdays on Wally Webb's programme on six BBC Local Radio stations in the east of England until it ended in March 2020, as part of his "synchronised cup of tea" feature.
In 1999, pip-like sounds were incorporated into the themes written by composer David Lowe to introduce BBC Television News programmes. They are still used today on BBC One, BBC World News and BBC News.
The BBC does not allow the pips to be broadcast except as a time signal. Radio plays and comedies which have fictional news programmes use various methods to avoid playing the full six pips, ranging from simply fading in the pips to a version played on On the Hour in which the sound was made into a small tune between the pips. The News Quiz also featured a special Christmas pantomime edition where the pips went missing, and the problem was avoided there by only playing individual pips and not the whole set. The 2012 project Radio Reunited, however, did use the pips not as a time signal, but simply to commemorate 90 years of BBC Radio.
Accuracy
The pips for national radio stations and some local radio stations are timed relative to UTC, from an atomic clock in the basement of Broadcasting House synchronised with the National Physical Laboratory's Time from NPL and GPS. On other stations, the pips are generated locally from a GPS-synchronised clock.
The BBC compensates for the time delay in both broadcasting and receiving equipment, as well as the time for the actual transmission. The pips are timed so that they are accurately received on long wave as far as from the Droitwich AM transmitter, which is the distance to Central London.
As a pre-IRIG and pre-NTP time transfer and transmission system, the pips have been a great technological success. In modern times, however, time can be transferred to systems with CPUs and operating systems by using BCD or some Unix Time variant.
Newer digital broadcasting methods have introduced even greater problems for the accuracy of use of the pips. On digital platforms such as DVB, DAB, satellite and the Internet, the pips—although generated accurately—are not heard by the listener exactly on the hour. The encoding and decoding of the digital signal causes a delay, of usually between 2 and 8 seconds. In the case of satellite broadcasting, the travel time of the signal to and from the satellite adds about another 0.25 seconds.
History
The pips have been broadcast daily since 5 February 1924,
and were the idea of the Astronomer Royal, Sir Frank Watson Dyson, and the head of the BBC, John Reith. The pips were originally controlled by two mechanical clocks located in the Royal Greenwich Observatory that had electrical contacts attached to their pendula. Two clocks were used in case of a breakdown of one. These sent a signal each second to the BBC, which converted them to the audible oscillatory tone broadcast.
The Royal Greenwich Observatory moved to Herstmonceux Castle in 1957 and the GTS equipment followed a few years later in the form of an electronic clock. Reliability was improved by renting two lines for the service between Herstmonceux and the BBC, with a changeover between the two at Broadcasting House if the main line became disconnected.
The tone sent on the lines was inverted: the signal sent to the BBC was a steady 1 kHz tone when no pip was required, and no tone when a pip should be sounded. This let faults on the line be detected immediately by automated monitoring for loss of audio.
The Greenwich Time Signal was the first sound heard in the handover to the London 2012 Olympics during the Beijing 2008 Olympics closing ceremony.
The pips were also broadcast by the BBC Television Service, but this practice was discontinued by the 1960s.
To celebrate the 90th birthday of the pips on 5 February 2014, the Today programme broadcast a sequence that included a re-working of the Happy Birthday melody using the GTS as its base sound.
Crashing the pips
The BBC discourages any other sound being broadcast at the same time as the pips; doing so is commonly known as "crashing the pips". This was most often referred to on Terry Wogan's Radio 2 Breakfast show, although usually only in jest since the actual event happened rarely. Different BBC Radio stations approach this issue differently. Both BBC Radio 1 and Radio 2 generally take a more laid-back approach with the pips, usually playing them over the closing seconds of a song or a jingle "bed" (background music from a jingle), followed by their respective news jingles. Many BBC local radio stations also played the pips over the station's jingle before the 2020 rebrand. BBC Radio 4 is stricter, as it is an almost entirely speech-based network.
As a contribution to Comic Relief's 2005 Red Nose Day, the BBC developed a "pips" ring-tone which could be downloaded.
Bill Bailey's BBC Rave includes the BBC News theme, which incorporates a variant of the pips (though not actually broadcast exactly on the hour). The footage can be seen on his DVD Part Troll.
In the late 1980s Radio 1 featured the pips played over a station jingle during Jakki Brambles' early show and Simon Mayo's breakfast show. This was not strictly crashing the pips as they were not intended to be, or mistaken for, an accurate time signal.
Technical problems
At 8 am on 17 September 2008, to the surprise of John Humphrys, the day's main presenter on the Today programme, and Johnnie Walker, who was standing in for Terry Wogan on Radio 2, the pips went adrift by 6 seconds, and broadcast seven pips rather than six. This was traced to a problem with the pip generator, which was rectified by switching it off and on again. Part of Humphrys' surprise was probably because of his deliberate avoidance of crashing the pips with the help of an accurate clock in the studio.
A sudden total failure in the generation of the audio pulses that constitute the pips was experienced on 31 May 2011 and silence was unexpectedly broadcast in place of the 17:00 signal. The problem was traced to the power supply of the equipment which converts the signal from the atomic clocks into an audible signal. Whilst repairs were underway the BBC elected to broadcast a "dignified silence" in place of the pips at 19:00. By 19:45 the same day the power supply was repaired and the 20:00 pips were broadcast as normal.
Similar time signals elsewhere
Many radio broadcasters around the world use the Greenwich Time Signal, or a variant thereof, as a means to mark the start of the hour. The pips are used in both domestic and international commercial and public broadcasting. Many radio stations use six tones similar to those used by the BBC World Service; some shorten it to five, four, or three tones. On some broadcasters the final pip is of a different pitch.
Argentina – all news/talk stations (Radio Nacional, Radio Mitre, Radio Continental, Radio 10, Cadena 3, etc.) air the six pips similar to the BBC every hour, and 3 pips for every half-hour similar to Catalonia. Also some online radios like Comucosas Radio, plays the pips.
Australia – pips are used on ABC Radio National and ABC Local Radio at the top of every hour, as well as on Fairfax Media talkback stations- 2UE, 3AW, 4BC and 6PR. In Australia, the news pips are closer to 735 Hz and each of the six pips lasts for half a second. After each pip, there is half a second of silence.
Brazil - Some news stations, like the national station Radio Bandeirantes, and the regional stations Radio Guaíba and Radio Gaúcha broadcasts a similar time signal every 15 minutes. In Radio Bandeirantes, there is 5-pips signal (called as "fifth signal"), broadcast every 15 minutes. In Radio Gaúcha, a 4-pips signal with 3 tones in 920 Hz and the last in 1360 Hz is broadcast every 15 minutes. The musical radio network Atlântida FM, which broadcasts to the states of Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina transmits an audible signal every 15 minutes, composed by the first four notes of the song "Here Comes the Sun".
Bulgaria - on all BNR radio stations, the pips are broadcast on the hour. 5 short pips and a long pip is broadcast between :55 and :00. The time signal broadcast at 15:00 EET is from Bulgarian Institute of Metrology.
Canada – the National Research Council Time Signal is broadcast daily on Ici Radio-Canada Première at 12:00 EST/EDT and on CBC Radio One at 13:00 EST/EDT. It is Canada's longest running radio feature and has been broadcast every day since 5 November 1939.
China – China National Radio and all local radio stations use a similar 6-pip time signal on the hour. 5 short lower-pitched (0.25 s, 800 Hz) pips are played to count down the final 5 seconds of the old hour, and a longer, higher-pitched (0.5 s, 1600 Hz) pip is played to mark the beginning of the new hour.
Czech Republic - The pips are broadcast on Czech Public Radio Český Rozhlas on ČRo Radiožurnál, ČRo Dvojka, ČRo Plus and on the Regional Stations (3 little pips and 1 long pipe). The pips are not played at special programs and Transmission.
Egypt - Nile FM broadcasts pips similar to the BBC at 16:00hrs daily at the start of the Drive Show.
Finland – on YLE's radio services the pips are broadcast on the hour.
France – the station France Inter broadcasts four very short pips every hour, which are almost invariably crashed. The last pip, which is as long as the other ones, marks the top of the hour. Some local stations of the France Bleu network also air four pips that are a little longer than Inter's.
Germany – Deutschlandfunk broadcasts three beeps every hour, the last one being longer than the others; between 05:00 and 18:00 on weekdays they are broadcast every half-hour and sometimes omitted at 21:00 when there is no news programme scheduled. The sister station, Deutschlandfunk Kultur omitted Pips altogether with their rebrand in 2017.
Hong Kong – a six-pip time signal is used on RTHK's radio channels. The signals, which are provided by the Hong Kong Observatory, are broadcast every half-hour during the day and on the hour at night, immediately before the news headline reports.
Hungary – the national radio channel Kossuth broadcasts five stereophonic pips at the top of every hour, the fifth being longer than the others.
India – six pips are used by All India Radio before starting its Delhi news bulletins.
Ireland – six pips are broadcast before news bulletins at 07:00, 13:00 and 24:00 on RTÉ Radio 1.
Israel – On Israeli Public Broadcasting Corporation hourly radio news, 5 tones (part of a recording of Kol Israel's original beeps) play counting down to the hour. Right as the hour starts, a jingle starts playing, the end of which includes the IPBC's sonic ident and an a cappella singing the name of the broadcaster "Kan". This jingle replaced the original 6 tones that played on Kol Israel's hourly newscasts - six tones, with the sixth tone being longer. As of 2017 (when public broadcaster IBA got shut down and replaced by the IPBC or "Kan"), the intro got changed and added a jingle.
Italy – The National Italian Radio "Rai" uses 6 tones to signal exact time in all its stations. They differ in the timing: Rai Radio 1 tells the hour. Rai Radio 2 tells on the half hour (at 6:30, 7:30, 8:30, 10:30, 12:30, 13:30, 17:30, 19:30, 21:30 and 23:30). Rai Radio 3 signals the 45 minute of selected hours (at 6:45, 8:45, 13:45 and 18:45) All the signals come from the Istituto Metrologico di Torino, the national study centre for measure and time. Also on Rai Radio 2 and Rai Radio 3 tells at 6 o'clock on start the new day.
Japan – NHK Television formerly used three short pips played at :57 to :59 of the clock ident and a longer three-second pip from :00 to :03 just before the start of news programmes. The longer three-second pip can however be crashed shortly after the :00 mark on certain special events or if there was time constraints.
Latvia - Latvijas Radio stations LR-1, LR-2 and LR-4 used to play the pips (5 pips and 1 beep) at 9:00, 12:00 and 15:00. The pips are not played on LR-3 Klasika. In present, the pips are no longer played.
Lithuania – All lithuanian public & commercial radio stations broadcasting every hour, but LRT Radijas and LRT Klasika non broadcasting at midnight (after the National Anthem) and midday (with a bells from Vilniaus' Cathedral before Midday News), and on special transmissions, before and after mass.
Malaysia – RTM radio stations use the pips hourly before the news broadcast but only the top-of-the-hour pip is sounded. Until late 2012, the time signal is simply a short pip on the 59th second before the hour and a longer pip on the top of the hour. In a news report in The Star on 1 January 1982, the pips were used to sound similar to the BBC's.
Netherlands – only three pips (two pips and one beep) were used from 1991 to 2018. Broadcast of the pips has stopped with the last transmission at 7:00 on 2 October 2018.
New Zealand – the equivalent of BBC Radio 4, Radio New Zealand National, plays the six pips at the top of every hour.
North Korea the pips are heard on Voice of Korea before its startup at 17:00.
Poland - The main radio broadcaster using the pips is Polish Radio. Polish Radio broadcasts 5 pips and 1 beep before the hour from the Laboratory of Time and Frequency of the Central Office of Measures in Warsaw. Polskie Radio Jedynka does not broadcast the pips on Sundays, 3 May (Polish Constitution Day), 15 August (Polish Armed Forces Day) and 11 November (Polish Independence Day) at 9:00 in the morning, due to the broadcasts of The Holy Mass and the Special Presentation. Polskie Radio 24 does not broadcast the pips on special reports and presentations. The pips are not being broadcast on Polskie Radio Czwórka, Polskie Radio dla Zagranicy and other digital radio stations. The pips in commercial radio are broadcast on RMF FM (5 little pips (since 2001 to 2003) and 4 little pips (since 2003 to now)) before newscast in each hour, but before 2001, the pips broadcasting only at midnight (5 little pips) on 31 December/1 January each New Year. In 1990-2002 they were used on Radio ZET before newscast and welcoming the year. The pips were also used on Radio Plus in 1992 to 2004 before the newscast and while welcoming new year. Since 12 September 2002 to 20 October 2014 the pips were broadcast on former commercial radio station Radio PiN at from 06:00 to 18:00 (2 little pips at :58 and :59 and 1 beep at :00) before the newscast.
Romania - Romanian state radio channel Radio România Actualități broadcasts 6 little beeps before each news bulletin. On Radio Cluj, it broadcasts 5 short beeps and 1 beep before local news. Radio Iași uses 16 beeps before local news. Pips were also used on regional stations before Radiojurnal when relaying Radio România Actualități.
Russia - Russia's state radio channels broadcast 6 tones (5 little pips and 1 short beep). The duration of the 6th pip depends on the current hour: it's 100 ms at midnight (00:00) Moscow time (UTC+3) and increases by 20 ms every hour, up to 560 ms at 23:00 UTC+3 (the first 5 pips always are 100 ms long). Russia's state television Channel One broadcasts 6 tones too (at the end of a short melody) before newscasts and Vremya (the primetime news program).
Slovenia - on RTV Slo radio stations, 5 low-pitched short beeps and 1 high-pitched short beep is broadcast before the news and the information programmes at 5:30, 7:00, 13:00, 15:30, 18:30 (formerly at 19:00) and 22:00.
Sindh The Sindhi language news channel KTN News plays 5 pips at the start of each news hour.
Spain – the signal is broadcast by almost all radio stations, even by music stations, but depends on the frequency: music stations usually use pips on the hour, but most of the non-musical stations broadcast the signal every 30 minutes. Los 40 Principales, the most important music radio in Spain, broadcast a different version of GTS: two first pips sound and then a music is added on the background, using the rhythm to create the corporative jingle of the radio. This station in particular uses only 4 pips, typically the two last using two different frequencies (resulting in a modern rhythm). Other musical radios like Máxima FM and M80 Radio, both owned by PRISA, and Europa FM use a similar effect.
Catalonia, Spain – dance music station Flaix FM and Hot AC station Ràdio Flaixbac, both owned by the same media group, broadcast every half-hour a very short sequence of two very short tones followed by a longer one, the whole lasting not more than one and a half seconds. Els 40 Principals, the Catalan edition of Spanish radio Los 40 Principales, use the same jingle, using a mix of GTS and corporative music.
Sri Lanka – Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation uses GTS pips on their radio channels to mark the start of the hour at each main newscast just after playing the news theme music. Other stations do not use pips.
United States – the pips can be heard on the Middlebury College radio station WRMC. CBS News Radio broadcasts a single tone on the hour before the hourly news broadcasts. This is also the case for all-news radio stations such as WINS in New York.
former Yugoslavia – JRT broadcast the six pips before the news (on the hour) on radio as well as on television, before the start of the TV Dnevnik at 8:00 pm. The broadcast on TV was stopped in 1974 because the TV Dnevnik was moved to its current term at the bottom of the hour (7:30 pm).
See also
Time from NPL
National Research Council Time Signal – A CBC Radio One indicator for 1300 ET
References
External links
The Greenwich Time Signal
BBC World Service programmes
Time signal radio stations
International broadcasting
Time in the United Kingdom
Telecommunications-related introductions in 1924 | [
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] |
241075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek%20Anthology | Greek Anthology | The Greek Anthology () is a collection of poems, mostly epigrams, that span the Classical and Byzantine periods of Greek literature. Most of the material of the Greek Anthology comes from two manuscripts, the Palatine Anthology of the 10th century and the Anthology of Planudes (or Planudean Anthology) of the 14th century.
The earliest known anthology in Greek was compiled by Meleager of Gadara in the first century BC, under the title Anthologia, or "Flower-gathering." It contained poems by the compiler himself and forty-six other poets, including Archilochus, Alcaeus, Anacreon, and Simonides. In his preface to his collection, Meleager describes his arrangement of poems as if it were a head-band or garland of flowers woven together in a tour de force that made the word "Anthology" a synonym for a collection of literary works for future generations.
Meleager's Anthology was popular enough that it attracted later additions. Prefaces to the editions of Philippus of Thessalonica and Agathias were preserved in the Greek Anthology to attest to their additions of later poems. The definitive edition was made by Constantine Cephalas in the 10th century, who added a number of other collections: homoerotic verse collected by Straton of Sardis in the 2nd century AD; a collection of Christian epigrams found in churches; a collection of satirical and convivial epigrams collected by Diogenianus; Christodorus' description of statues in the Byzantine gymnasium of Zeuxippos; and a collection of inscriptions from a temple in Cyzicus.
The scholar Maximus Planudes also made an edition of the Greek Anthology, which while adding some poems, primarily deleted or bowdlerized many of the poems he felt were too explicit. His anthology was the only one known to Western Europe (his autograph copy, dated 1301 survives; the first edition based on his collection was printed in 1494) until 1606 when Claudius Salmasius found in the library at Heidelberg a fuller collection based on Cephalas. The copy made by Salmasius was not, however, published until 1776, when Richard François Philippe Brunck included it in his Analecta. The first critical edition was that of F. Jacobs (13 vols. 1794–1803; revised 1813–17).
Since its transmission to the rest of Europe, the Greek Anthology has left a deep impression on its readers. In a 1971 article on Robin Skelton's translation of a selection of poems from the Anthology, a reviewer for the Times Literary Supplement wrote, "The time of life does not exist when it is impossible to discover in it a masterly poem one had never seen before." Its influence can be seen on writers as diverse as Propertius, Ezra Pound and Edgar Lee Masters. Since full and uncensored English translations became available at the end of the 20th century, its influence has widened still further.
Literary history
The art of occasional poetry had been cultivated in Greece from an early period, being used to commemorate remarkable individuals or events, on funerary monuments and votive offerings. These compositions were termed epigrams, i.e. inscribed poems. Such a composition must necessarily be brief, and as a result, conciseness of expression, pregnancy of meaning, purity of diction and singleness of thought are the indispensable conditions of excellence in the epigrammatic style. The term was soon extended to any piece by which these conditions were fulfilled.
About 60 BC, the sophist and poet Meleager of Gadara undertook to combine the choicest effusions of his predecessors into a single body of fugitive poetry. Collections of monumental inscriptions, or of poems on particular subjects, had previously been formed by Polemon Periegetes and others; but Meleager first gave the principle a comprehensive application. His selection, compiled from forty-six of his predecessors, and including numerous contributions of his own, was entitled The Garland (); in an introductory poem each poet is compared to some flower, fancifully deemed appropriate to his genius. The arrangement of his collection was alphabetical, according to the initial letter of each epigram.
In the age of the emperor Tiberius (or Trajan, according to others) the work of Meleager was continued by another epigrammatist, Philippus of Thessalonica, who first employed the term "anthology". His collection, which included the compositions of thirteen writers subsequent to Meleager, was also arranged alphabetically, and contained an introductory poem. It was of inferior quality to Meleager's. Somewhat later, under Hadrian, another supplement was formed by the sophist Diogenianus of Heracleia (2nd century AD), and Straton of Sardis compiled his elegant Μοῦσα παιδική (Musa Puerilis) from his productions and those of earlier writers. No further collection from various sources is recorded until the time of Justinian, when epigrammatic writing, especially of an amatory character, experienced a great revival at the hands of Agathias of Myrina, the historian, Paulus Silentiarius, and their circle. Their ingenious but mannered productions were collected by Agathias into a new anthology, entitled The Circle (Κύκλος); it was the first to be divided into books, and arranged with reference to the subjects of the pieces.
These and other collections made during the Middle Ages are now lost. The partial incorporation of them into a single body, classified according to the contents in 15 books, was the work of a certain Constantinus Cephalas, whose name alone is preserved in the single MS. of his compilation extant, but who probably lived during the literary revival under Constantine Porphyrogenitus, at the beginning of the 10th century. He appears to have merely made excerpts from the existing anthologies, with the addition of selections from Lucillius, Palladas, and other epigrammatists, whose compositions had been published separately. His arrangement is founded on a principle of classification, and nearly corresponds to that adopted by Agathias. His principle of selection is unknown. The next editor was the monk Maximus Planudes (AD 1320), who removed some epigrams from Cephalas' anthology, added some verses of his own, and preserved epigrams on works of art, which are not included in the only surviving transcript of Cephalas.
The Planudean Anthology (in seven books) was the only recension of the anthology known at the revival of classical literature, and was first published at Florence, by Janus Lascaris, in 1494. It long continued to be the only accessible collection, for although the Palatine manuscript known as the Palatine Anthology, the sole extant copy of the anthology of Cephalas, was discovered in the Palatine library at Heidelberg, and copied by Saumaise (Salmasius) in 1606, it was not published until 1776, when it was included in Brunck's Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum (Crumbs of the Ancient Greek Poets). The manuscript itself had frequently changed its quarters. In 1623, having been taken in the sack of Heidelberg in the Thirty Years' War, it was sent with the rest of the Palatine Library to Rome as a present from Maximilian I of Bavaria to Pope Gregory XV, who had it divided into two parts, the first of which was by far the larger; thence it was taken to Paris in 1797. In 1816 it went back to Heidelberg, but in an incomplete state, the second part remaining at Paris. It is now represented at Heidelberg by a photographic facsimile.
Brunck's edition was superseded by the standard one of Friedrich Jacobs (1794–1814, 13 vols.), the text of which was reprinted in a more convenient form in 1813–1817, and occupies three pocket volumes in the Tauchnitz series of the classics. The best edition for general purposes is perhaps that of Dubner in Didot's Bibliotheca (1864–1872), which contains the Palatine Anthology, the epigrams of the Planudean Anthology not collected in the former, an appendix of pieces derived from other sources, copious notes, a literal Latin prose translation by Jean François Boissonade, Bothe, and Lapaume and the metrical Latin versions of Hugo Grotius. A third volume, edited by E. Cougny, was published in 1890. The best edition of the Planudean Anthology is the splendid one by van Bosch and (1795–1822). There is also an incomplete edition of the text by Hugo Stadtmüller in the Teubner series, 3 vols., which stops at IX 563 due to Stadtmüller's death. More recent editions are one in the Collection des Universités de France series, 13 vols., started by Pierre Waltz and continued by other scholars, and one edited by Hermann Beckby, 4 vols., in the Tusculum series. The most recent edition is by Fabrizio Conca, Mario Marzi and Giuseppe Zanetto, 3 vols., published by UTET.
Arrangement
The Palatine MS., the archetype of the present text, was transcribed by different persons at different times, and the actual arrangement of the collection does not correspond with that signalized in the index. It is as follows: Book 1. Christian epigrams; 2. Christodorus's description of certain statues; 3. Inscriptions in the temple at Cyzicus; 4. The prefaces of Meleager, Philippus, and Agathias to their respective collections; 5. Amatory epigrams; 6. Votive inscriptions; 7. Epitaphs; 8. The epigrams of Gregory of Nazianzus; 9. Rhetorical and illustrative epigrams; 10. Ethical pieces; 11. Humorous and convivial; 12. Strato's Musa Puerilis; 13. Metrical curiosities; 14. Puzzles, enigmas, oracles; 15. Miscellanies. The epigrams on works of art, as already stated, are missing from the Codex Palatinus, and must be sought in an appendix of epigrams only occurring in the Planudean Anthology. The epigrams hitherto recovered from ancient monuments and similar sources form appendices in the second and third volumes of Dübner's edition. The Liddell Scott Greek Lexicon divides the Anthologia Graeca sources into Anthologia Palatina, Planudea (1864-1968), then Appendix nova epigrammatum (1890 onward).<ref>Liddell Scott Greek Lexicon "(Names of epigrammatists, where found in codd., are added in brackets.) Anthologia Palatina, Planudea, ed. F. Dübner, Paris (D.) 1864–72; ed. H. Stadtmüller, vols. i, ii (1), iii (1) (all published), Leipzig (T.) 1894–1906, H. Beckby, Munich [1965–8]2 (4 vols.; I–XV = Anthologia Palatina, XVI = Appendix Planudea) [AP, APl.] Appendix nova epigrammatum, ed. E. Cougny, Paris (D.) 1890. [App.Anth.]; A. S. F. Gow, D. L. Page, The Greek Anthology 1: Hellenistic Epigrams, Cambridge 1965 (2 vols.) [HE .. G.-P.]; 2: The Garland of Philip and Some Contemporary Epigrams, Cambridge 1968 [Garl. .. G.-P.]; Epigrammata Graeca, D. L. Page, OCT 1975 [EG .. P.]; Further Greek Epigrams. Epigrams before A.D. 50 from the Greek Anthology and Other Sources, D. L. Page (revised by R. D. Dawe, J. Diggle), Cambridge 1981 [FGE .. P.]; Sch.AP = Scholia ad epigrammata arithmetica in Anthologia Graeca (scholia recentiora), in Diophanti Alexandri opera omnia, P. Tannery, vol. 2 Teubner (Leipzig) 1895 [(S) 1974]."</ref>
Style
The poems in the anthology represent different periods. Four stages may be indicated:
The Hellenic proper, of which Simonides of Ceos (c. 556 – 469 BC), the author of most of the sepulchral inscriptions on those who fell in the Persian wars, is representative. Nearly all the pieces of this era are actual inscriptions or addresses to real personages, whether living or deceased.
The epigram received a great development in its second or Alexandrian era, when its range was extended to include anecdote, satire, and amorous longing; when epitaphs and votive inscriptions were composed on imaginary persons and things. The modification has a representative in Leonidas of Tarentum, a contemporary of Pyrrhus of Epirus, and closes with Antipater of Sidon, about 140 BC (or later). Callimachus, one of the Alexandrian poets, affects stern simplicity in his epigrams.
Meleager of Gadara was a Syrian; his pieces are usually erotic, with far-fetched conceits. His gaiety and licentiousness are imitated and exaggerated by his somewhat later contemporary, the Epicurean Philodemus, and his fancy reappears in Philodemus's contemporary, Zonas, in Crinagoras of Mytilene, who wrote under Augustus, and in Marcus Argentarius, of uncertain date. At a later period of the empire another genre, was developed, the satirical. Lucillus of Tarrha, who flourished under Nero, and Lucian, display a talent for shrewd, caustic epigram. The same style obtains with Palladas, an Alexandrian grammarian of the 4th century, the last of the strictly classical epigrammatists. His literary position is that of an indignant but despairing opponent of Christianity.
The fourth or Byzantine style of epigrammatic composition was cultivated at the court of Justinian. The diction of Agathias and his compeers is ornate.
Translations and imitations
Latin renderings of select epigrams by Hugo Grotius were published in Bosch and Lennep's edition of the Planudean Anthology, in the Didot edition, and in Henry Wellesley's Anthologia Polyglotta. Imitations in modern languages have been copious, actual translations less common. F. D. Dehèque's 1863 translation was in French prose. The German language admits of the preservation of the original metre, a circumstance exploited by Johann Gottfried Herder and Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Jacobs.
Robert Bland, John Herman Merivale, and their associates (1806–1813), produced efforts that are often diffuse. Francis Wrangham's (1769–1842) versions, Poems (London, 1795), are more spirited; and John Sterling translated the inscriptions of Simonides. John Wilson in Blackwood's Magazine 1833–1835, collected and commented on the labours of these and other translators, including indifferent attempts of William Hay.
In 1849 Henry Wellesley, principal of New Inn Hall, Oxford, published his Anthologia Polyglotta, a collection of the translations and imitations in all languages, with the original text. In this appeared versions by Goldwin Smith and Merivale, which, with the other English renderings extant at the time, accompany the literal prose translation of the Public School Selections, executed by the Rev. George Burges for Bohn's Classical Library (1854).
In 1864 Major R. G. Macgregor published Greek Anthology, with notes critical and explanatory, an almost complete but mediocre translation of the Anthology. Idylls and Epigrams, by Richard Garnett (1869, reprinted 1892 in the Cameo series), includes about 140 translations or imitations, with some original compositions in the same style.
Further translations and selections include:
Robert Bland, John Herman Merivale, Translations chiefly from the Greek Anthology (London, 1806)
——— Collections from the Greek Anthology, &c. (London; John Murray, 1813)
George Burges, The Greek Anthology, as selected for the use of Westminster, Eton, &c. (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1855)
Richard Garnett, Idylls and Epigrams chiefly from the Greek Anthology (London: Macmillan, 1869)
——— A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1892)
Fydell Edmund Garrett, Rhymes and Renderings (Cambridge; Bowes & Bowes, 1887)
Andrew Lang, Grass of Parnassus: Rhymes Old and New (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1888)
——— Grass of Parnassus: First and Last Rhymes (London: Longmans, Green, & Co., 1892)
Graham R. Tomson, ed., Selections from the Greek Anthology (London: Walter Scott, 1889)
H. C. Beeching, Love in Idleness: A Volume of Poems (London: Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1883)
——— In a Garden, and Other Poems (London: John Lane; New York: Macmillan, 1895)
Walter Headlam, Fifty Poems of Meleager (London: Macmillan, 1890)
——— A Book of Greek Verse (Cambridge UP, 1907)
J. W. Mackail, Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology (with text, introduction, notes, and prose translation; London, 1890, revised 1906)
L. C. Perry, From the Garden of Hellas (New York: John W. Lovell, 1891)
W. R. Paton, Anthologiae Graecae Erotica: The Love Epigrams or Book V of the Palatine Anthology (edited, and partly rendered into English verse, London, 1898)
Jane Minot Sidgwick, Sicilian Idylls and Other Verses Translated from the Greek (Boston: Copeland & Day, 1898)
W. H. D. Rouse, An Echo of Greek Song (London, 1899)
Evelyn Baring, Translations and Paraphrases from the Greek Anthology (London: Macmillan, 1903)
J. A. Pott, Greek Love Songs and Epigrams from the Anthology (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., 1911)
Herbert Kynaston; Edward Daniel Stone, ed., Herbert Kynaston: a short memoir with selections from his occasional writings (London: Macmillan, 1912)
G. B. Grundy, ed., Ancient Gems in Modern Settings; being Versions of the Greek Anthology in English Rhyme by Various Writers (Oxford: Blackwell, 1913)
James G. Legge, Echoes from the Greek Anthology (London: Constable & Co., 1919)
Alfred J. Butler, Amaranth and Asphodel: Songs from the Greek Anthology (London: Basil Blackwell & Mott, Ltd., 1922)
F. W. Wright, The Girdle of Aphrodite: The Complete Love Poems of the Palatine Anthology (London: G. Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1923)
——— The Poets of the Greek Anthology: A Companion Volume to The Girdle of Aphrodite (London: G. Routledge & Sons, Ltd., 1924)
Norman Douglas, Birds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology (Florence: Tipografia Giuntina, 1927)
Robert Allason Furness, Translations from the Greek Anthology (London: Jonathan Cape, Ltd., 1931)
J. M. Edmonds, Some Greek Poems of Love and Beauty (Cambridge UP, 1937)
——— Some Greek Poems of Love and Wine (Cambridge UP, 1939)
C. M. Bowra, T. F. Higham, eds., The Oxford Book of Greek Verse in Translation (Oxford UP, 1938)
F. L. Lucas, A Greek Garland: A Selection from the Palatine Anthology (text of 149 poems, introduction, notes, and verse translations; Oxford, 1939)
——— Greek Poetry for Everyman (New York: Macmillan, 1951)
Dudley Fitts, Poems from the Greek Anthology (New York: New Directions, 1956)
Kenneth Rexroth, Poems from the Greek Anthology (Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1962)
Andrew Sinclair, Selections from the Greek Anthology: The Wit and Wisdom of the Sons of Hellas (selection and translation; New York: Macmillan, 1967)
Robin Skelton, Two Hundred Poems from The Greek Anthology (Seattle: U of Washington P, 1971)
Peter Jay, The Greek Anthology and Other Ancient Greek Epigrams (Allen Lane, 1973; reprinted in Penguin Classics, 1981)
Daryl Hine, Puerilities: Erotic Epigrams of The Greek Anthology (Princeton UP, 2001)
Peter Constantine, Rachel Hadas, Edmund Keeley, and Karen Van Dyck, eds., The Greek Poets: Homer to the Present (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009)
George Theodoridis, 2010,
A small volume on the Anthology, edited and with some original translations by Lord Neaves, is one of W. Lucas Collins's series Ancient Classics for Modern Readers, The Greek Anthology (Edinburgh & London: William Blackwood & Sons, 1874)
Two critical contributions to the subject are the Rev. James Davies's essay on Epigrams in the Quarterly Review (vol. cxvii.), illustrating the distinction between Greek and Latin epigram; and the disquisition in J. A. Symonds's Studies of the Greek Poets (1873; 3rd ed., 1893).
List of poets to whom epigrams are attributed in the Greek Anthology
See also
List of anthologies of Greek epigrams
Notes
References
External links
Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology by J. W. Mackail (Project Gutenberg)
The Greek Anthology, W. R. Paton (ed.), 5 vol., London: William Heinemann; New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1927-28: vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5.
Greek Anthology English translation by W. R. Paton, arranged by poet rather than by book, at attalus.org Select Epigrams from the Greek Anthology by J. W. Mackail, edited with excerpts in Greek (unicode) and a search engine
Plaintext of Vol. 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol. 4, and Vol. 5 on Google Books.
Epigrams by Women from the Greek Anthology from Diotima
Maximus Planudes from William Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'' (1867), v. 3, pp. 384–390; includes a detailed "Literary History of the Greek Anthology"
Read Birds and Beasts of the Greek Anthology by Norman Douglas at Project Gutenberg Australia
Greek Anthology
Ancient Greek poets
Greek literature (post-classical)
ru:Греческая антология | [
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] |
241076 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Chuard | Ernest Chuard | Ernest Chuard (31 July 1857, in Corcelles-près-Payerne – 9 November 1942) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1919–1928).
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 11 December 1919 and handed over office on 31 December 1928. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his office time he held the Department of Home Affairs and he was President of the Confederation in 1924.
External links
1857 births
1942 deaths
People from Broye-Vully District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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241077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camille%20Decoppet | Camille Decoppet | Camille Decoppet (4 June 1862, in Suscévaz – 14 January 1925) was a Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Council (1912–1919).
He was elected to the Federal Council on 17 July 1912 and handed over office on 31 December 1919. He was affiliated to the Free Democratic Party.
During his office time he held the following departments:
Department of Home Affairs (1912)
Department of Justice and Police (1913)
Military Department (1914–1919)
He was President of the Confederation in 1916.
External links
1862 births
1925 deaths
People from Jura-North Vaudois District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Members of the National Council (Switzerland)
Presidents of the National Council (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni | [
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241078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackhawk%20%28Tornado%29 | Blackhawk (Tornado) | Blackhawk was a comic strip appearing on the British magazine Tornado, created by Gerry Finley-Day. It was one of three strips to transfer from Tornado to 2000 AD after the two merged.
Plot synopsis
At the time of the Roman Empire a Nubian slave rises up against his captors and leads a rebellion. However his bravery is recognised by a Roman General and he is commissioned as a Roman Centurion. Blackhawk took his name from a Hawk that he adopted and assembled a crack platoon from hardened prisoners and other slaves. As with other Finley-Day war stories the basic plot was borrowed from The Dirty Dozen with Blackhawk's squad being singled out for the hardest missions.
In 2000 AD he is taken from his Roman captors by an alien species only to be entered into their own intergalactic gladiatorial events against other alien species. Blackhawk adopts a Wookiee type alien as a sidekick (ironically the Hawk that gave him his name was left behind on earth). Blackhawk manages to escape but ends up stranded on a planet orbiting a black hole. Here a creature called "The SoulSucker" removes Blackhawks soul and he pursues the SoulSucker relentlessly, eventually regaining it shortly before the end of the series run.
Eventually, Tharg the Mighty's race were written in, as a robotic "Kwark" created by the "Thargians", and the whole cast were sucked into a black hole. They are later seen in Tharg's desk drawer, full of other dead or discarded characters, where Blackhawk complains how long they have been waiting as Ace Garp is selected for a revival.
In the 2000 AD Yearbook 1994 it was acknowledged by the editor that this was a poor series, and Alan Grant had written himself into a corner.
Characters
Blackhawk
Ursa
Batak
Zog
Bibliography
"Blackhawk" (with Gerry Finley-Day and Azpiri, in Tornado #4-22, 1979)
"Blackhawk" (with Alan Grant/Kelvin Gosnell as "Alvin Gaunt" and Alan Grant (2-34); Massimo Belardinelli, Ramon Sola (5, 16, 17), Joe Staton (6) and Greg Guler (17), in 2000 AD #127-161, 1979)
"Blackhawk" (Tornado Annual 1981)
"Death-Dive" (2000AD Annual 1981)
"The Longest Walk" (with Alan Grant and Joe Staton, 2000AD Sci-Fi Special 1982)
Collected editions
All the stories are collected in one trade paperback:
Blackhawk (288 pages, November 2011, )
Notes
References
Blackhawk at Barney
Comics characters introduced in 1979 | [
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241081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marc-%C3%89mile%20Ruchet | Marc-Émile Ruchet | Marc-Émile Ruchet (14 September 1853, in Bex – 13 July 1912, in Bex) was a French-speaking Swiss politician.
He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on 14 December 1899 and resigned on 9 July 1912, only four days before his death. He was affiliated with the Free Democratic Party.
While in office he held the following departments:
Department of Home Affairs (1900 –1903)
Department of Finance (1904)
Political Department (1905)
Department of Home Affairs (1906–1910)
Political Department (1911)
Department of Home Affairs (1912)
He was President of the Confederation twice, in 1905 and 1911.
References
External links
1853 births
1912 deaths
People from Aigle District
Swiss Calvinist and Reformed Christians
Free Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians
Members of the Federal Council (Switzerland)
Finance ministers of Switzerland
Members of the Council of States (Switzerland)
University of Lausanne alumni
Foreign ministers of Switzerland | [
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