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244811 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grise%20Fiord | Grise Fiord | Grise Fiord (; ) is an Inuit hamlet on the southern tip of Ellesmere Island, in the Qikiqtaaluk Region in the territory of Nunavut, Canada. It is one of three settlements on the island; despite its low population (129 residents as of the Canada 2016 Census), it is the largest community (and only public community) on Ellesmere Island. The settlement at Grise Fiord, created by the Canadian Government in 1953 through a relocation of Inuit families from Inukjuak, Quebec, is the northernmost public community in Canada. It is also one of the coldest inhabited places in the world, with an average yearly temperature of .
History
Settlement
This settlement (and that of Resolute) was created by the Canadian government in 1953, partly to assert sovereignty in the High Arctic during the Cold War. Eight Inuit families from Inukjuak, Quebec (on the Ungava Peninsula), were relocated after being promised homes and game to hunt, but the relocated people discovered no buildings and very little familiar wildlife. They were told that they would be returned home after a year if they wished, but this offer was later withdrawn, for it would have damaged Canada's claims to sovereignty in the area; the Inuit were forced to stay. Eventually, the Inuit learned the local beluga whale migration routes and were able to survive in the area, hunting over a range of each year.
In 1993, the Canadian government held hearings to investigate the relocation program. The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples issued a report entitled The High Arctic Relocation: A Report on the 1953–55 Relocation, recommending a settlement. The government paid CAD10 million to the survivors and their families, and gave a formal apology in 2010.
In 2009, artist and Grise Fiord resident Looty Pijamini was commissioned by Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated to build a monument to commemorate the Inuit who sacrificed so much as a result of the Government's forced relocation programme of 1953 and 1955. Pijamini's monument, located in Grise Fiord, depicts a woman with a young boy and a husky, with the woman sombrely looking out towards Resolute Bay. Amagoalik's monument, located in Resolute, depicts a lone man looking towards Grise Fiord. This was meant to show separated families, and depicting them longing to see each other again. The Grise Fiord monument was unveiled by John Duncan, at the time, Minister of Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development and Federal Interlocutor for Métis and Non-Status Indians, on September 10, 2010.
Grise Fiord was the location for a 1995 BBC documentary entitled Billy Connolly: A Scot in the Arctic, in which the comedian Billy Connolly camped alone for a week on the pack ice near to the settlement, armed with a rifle to protect him from polar bears.
Geography
Located at the southern tip of Ellesmere Island, Grise Fiord is one of three permanent settlements on the island; further north on the island Environment Canada has a permanent weather station at Eureka, and at Alert there is a permanent Canadian Forces Base (CFS Alert) and weather station. Grise Fiord lies north of the Arctic Circle, and is the northernmost civilian settlement in Canada.
Grise Fiord is cradled by the Arctic Cordillera mountain range.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Grise Fiord recorded a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Community and fiord names
Just to the north of the community is the actual fiord, Grise Fiord. It means "pig inlet" in Norwegian. Otto Sverdrup from Norway named it so during an expedition around 1900 because he thought the walrus in the area sounded like pigs.
The Inuktitut name is (), which means "place that never thaws".
Living conditions
The houses are wooden and built on platforms to cope with the freezing and thawing of the permafrost. Hunting is still an important part of the lifestyle of the mostly Inuit population. Quota systems allow the villagers to supply many of their needs from populations of seals, walruses, narwhal and beluga whales, polar bears and muskox. Ecotourism is developing as people come to see the northern wildlife found on Ellesmere and surrounding islands.
Transportation
There are no connecting roads on Ellesmere Island, so Grise Fiord is connected to the rest of the world by a small airstrip (Grise Fiord Airport), in length. Surrounded by mountains, it has one of the most difficult approaches for aircraft; it is cautioned that only very experienced pilots of Pilatus PC-12, DHC-6 Twin Otter, and DHC-7 aircraft attempt the approach.
For local travel needs, the villagers use all-terrain vehicles in the summer and snowmobiles in the winter. During the winter months travel is limited to the town site and a small patch of land to the east called Nuvuk due to mountains and ice fields that cut the town off from the rest of the island. Small boats are used in summer to reach hunting grounds, or hunting sea mammals on the ocean. Once a year large ships (sealift) arrive with supplies and fuel.
Economy, development, and sustainability
The local co-operative is the main place to purchase supplies. There are local guide and outfitting operations, which are an important source of income for many families. Carving, traditional clothing and other Inuit crafts are also important sources of income. Due to the extreme location, the economy is subsistence-based. Because of the potential for avalanches and falling rocks from mountains, there is no room for expansion.
Communications
In 1970, Bell Canada established what was then the world's most northerly telephone exchange (operated since 1992 by Northwestel). It is in the 867 area code (formerly 819 before October 1997) with its only exchange code of 980.
The community has been served by the Qiniq network since 2005. Qiniq is a fixed wireless service to homes and businesses, connecting to the outside world via a satellite backbone. The Qiniq network is designed and operated by SSI Micro. In 2017, the network was upgraded to 4G LTE technology, and 2G-GSM for mobile voice. In 2019, Bell Mobility became available to Grise Fiord.
Crime and safety
A Simon Fraser University study of Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) activity in the Baffin Region states that Grise Fiord had the lowest rate of criminal offences of all communities examined in 1992, and cites a 1994 Statistics Canada survey that gives the highest perception of personal safety.
Climate
Grise Fiord has a tundra climate (ET) with very short but cool summers and long, cold winters lasting almost the entire year.
See also
List of municipalities in Nunavut
Florin Fodor, a Romanian who was arrested trying to illegally enter Canada via Grise Fiord in September 2006.
References
External links
Hamlet of Grise Fiord
Grise Fiord Inuit Co-operative Limited
Pictures from 2001–2006
Arctic Cordillera
Ellesmere Island
Populated places in Arctic Canada
Hamlets in the Qikiqtaaluk Region
Road-inaccessible communities of Nunavut | [
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244817 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukio%20Tsuda%20%28professor%29 | Yukio Tsuda (professor) | is Professor Emeritus in the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of Tsukuba and Director of the Institute of Peace Linguistics. He is also Professor in the Department of English at Matsuyama University.
Education and career
Tsuda was born in Kanagawa, Japan in 1950. He majored in English and graduated from Yokohama National University in 1973. He received his M.A. in TEFL (Teaching English as a Foreign Language) in 1978 and his Ph.D. in Speech Communication in 1985 from Southern Illinois University at Carbondale.
Tsuda held several faculty positions in his academic career. He was associate professor in the Faculty of Economics at Nagasaki University from 1986 to 1988. He then moved to Nagoya University where he was associate professor in the Institute of Languages and Cultures from 1988 to 1993 and Professor in the Department of International Communication and in the Graduate School of International Development from 1993 to 2001.
Tsuda had been Professor in the Doctoral Program in Modern Cultures and Public Policies in the Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences at the University of Tsukuba since 2001. He retired from the University of Tsukuba and founded the Institute of Peace Linguistics in Ibaraki Prefecture in 2014. He is currently Professor in the Department of English at Matsuyama University in Ehime Prefecture.
Tsuda was Visiting Professor at the International Research Center for Japanese Studies in Kyoto in 1996 and at the College of San Mateo in California in 2007. He was also Braj Kachru Fellow in the "Internationalization Forum" program in 1996 and Visiting Fellow in 1999 at the East-West Center in Honolulu, Hawaii.
Tsuda's academic interests include language policy, cross-cultural psychoanalysis, and international and intercultural communication. Among his publications are Language Inequality and Distortion in Intercultural Communication: A Critical Theory Approach (John Benjamins, 1986), Language, Education, and Intercultural Communication (Nagasaki University, 1988), Eigo Shihai-no Kouzou [The Structure of the Dominance of English] (Daisan Shokan, 1990), Shinryaku-suru Eigo, Hangeki-suru Nihongo [The Invading English, The Counter-Attacking Japanese] (PHP Institute, 1996), and Eigo Shihai-to Kotoba-no Byoudou [The Hegemony of English and Linguistic Equality] (Keio University Press, 2006).
The Ecology of Language Paradigm
Tsuda is well known as a critic of the hegemony of English and as an advocate of linguistic and cultural pluralism. He believes that the domination of English is tantamount to linguicism and linguicide, and that addressing the problem of linguistic hegemony is crucial to the development of human and cultural security. In an article in The San Matean, a San Mateo Community College newspaper, dated March 19, 2007, Tsuda was quoted to say: "It is more important to be students learning other languages than being a teacher only teaching one." He proposed the "ecology of language" paradigm as opposed to the "diffusion of English" paradigm.
Tsuda urges international and intercultural communication scholars to recognize the hegemony of English as a subject of academic inquiry in the fields especially in the English-speaking countries. He also suggests that English-language teaching professionals incorporate the ecology of language paradigm into the contents and methods of teaching as well as teacher education. Finally, he insists that both native speakers and non-native speakers of English learn the philosophy of the ecology of language so that they will become more sensitive to the ethical aspects of international and intercultural communication.
Publications
Tsuda, Y. (1992). The dominance of English and linguistic discrimination. Media Development, 34(1), 32–34.
Tsuda, Y. (1993). Communication in English: Is it anti-cultural? Journal of Development Communication, 4(1), 69–78.
Tsuda, Y. (1994). The diffusion of English: Its impact on culture and communication. Keio Communication Review, 16, 49–61.
Tsuda, Y. (1997). Hegemony of English vs. Ecology of Language: Building equality in international communication. In L. E. Smith & M. L. Forman (Eds.), World Englishes 2000: Selected essays (pp. 21–31). Honolulu, HI: College of Language, Linguistics and Literature, University of Hawaii and the East-West Center.
Tsuda, Y. (1998). Critical studies on the dominance of English and the implications for international communication. Japan Review, 10, 219–236.
Tsuda, Y. (2000). Envisioning a democratic linguistic order. TESL Reporter, 33(1), 32–38.
Tsuda, Y. (2000). The maintenance of the Korean language and identity in Japan. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, 30(1), 219–227.
Tsuda, Y. (2001). "World Englishes" as critical theory or ideology? Keio Communication Review, 23, 3-19.
Tsuda, Y. (2002). The hegemony of English: Problems, opposing views, and communication rights. In G. Mazzaferro (Ed.), The English language and power (pp. 19–31). Alessandria, Italty: Edizionoi dell’Orso.
Tsuda, Y. (2008). English hegemony and English divide. China Media Research, 4(1), 47–55.
Tsuda, Y. (2010). Speaking against the hegemony of English: Problems, ideologies, and solutions. In T. K. Nakayama & R. T. Halualani (Eds.), The handbook of critical intercultural communication (pp. 248–269). West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Tsuda, Y. (2014). The hegemony of English and strategies for linguistic pluralism: Proposing the Ecology of Language Paradigm. In M. K. Asante, Y. Miike, & J. Yin (Eds.), The global intercultural communication reader (2nd ed., pp. 445–456). New York, NY: Routledge.
See also
Ecolinguistics
References
External links
Institute of Peace Linguistics
The Hegemony of English and Strategies for Linguistic Pluralism: Proposing the Ecology of Language Paradigm
Envisioning a Democratic Linguistic Order
A Critique of English as a Common Language for APEC: Three Perspectives
English as an International Language: Convenience or Equality?
Critical Studies on the Dominance of English and the Implications for International Communication
Democratization of Language Choice in Intercultural Communication
Language Discrimination and the Right to Language in Intercultural Communication
The Maintenance of the Korean Language and Identity in Japan
1950 births
Living people
University of Tsukuba faculty
Matsuyama University faculty
Communication theorists
Linguists from Japan
Linguistic rights | [
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244825 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello%20I%20Must%20Be%20Going | Hello I Must Be Going | Hello, I Must Be Going may refer to:
Film and TV
Film
Hello I Must Be Going (2012 film), a 2012 film directed by Todd Louiso
Hello I Must Be Going (2014 film), a 2014 film directed by Courteney Cox
TV
Hello, I Must Be Going (Casualty), the 2016 episode (Series 30, Episode 34) of the British medical drama Casualty.
Music
"Hello, I Must Be Going" (song), a song by Bert Kalmar and Harry Ruby, made famous by Groucho Marx
Hello, I Must Be Going! (album), a 1982 album by Phil Collins
Books
Hello, I Must Be Going! (book), a biography of Groucho Marx by Charlotte Chandler | [
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244827 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No%20Jacket%20Required | No Jacket Required | No Jacket Required is the third solo studio album by English drummer and singer-songwriter Phil Collins. It was originally released on 25 January 1985 or 18 February 1985 on Virgin (UK and Ireland), Atlantic (US and Canada), and WEA (rest of the world). It features guest backing vocalists, including Helen Terry, Peter Gabriel and Sting. Some of the songs, like "Don't Lose My Number" and "Sussudio", were based around improvisation. Other songs, like "Long Long Way to Go", had a political message. "One More Night", "Sussudio", "Don't Lose My Number" and "Take Me Home" were released as singles, with corresponding music videos. All four singles were top-ten hits on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, with "Sussudio" and "One More Night" reaching number one. The three singles that were released in the UK all reached the top 20 on the UK charts. Many of the songs, including "Take Me Home" and "Long Long Way to Go", have been featured in episodes of Miami Vice and Cold Case, and "The Man with the Horn" was re-written and re-recorded for the episode "Phil the Shill". "We Said Hello Goodbye" was remixed for the film Playing for Keeps.
Upon its release, the album was received favourably by the majority of music critics and won three Grammy Awards including for Album of the Year in 1986. Stephen Holden of The New York Times wrote that Collins was "quietly revolutionising and expanding the role of the drums in pop record making". Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke wrote that, "Like his '81 and '82 outings, Face Value and Hello, I Must Be Going!, No Jacket Required is not an album that waits to be liked". Collins' most commercially successful solo album, it reached number one in several countries, including the US (where it was at the top of the charts for seven weeks), the UK and Canada. According to the RIAA, the album sold over twelve million copies in the US, and in the UK, it sold over two million copies, and was certified 6× Platinum. It was the second-best-selling album of 1985 in the UK, beaten to first place by Dire Straits' Brothers in Arms. Worldwide, the album has sold over 25 million copies, making it one of the best-selling albums of all time. No Jacket Required was ranked No. 74 on the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's "Definitive 200" list. It was also among ten albums nominated for the best British album of the previous 30 years by the Brit Awards in 2010, ultimately losing to (What's the Story) Morning Glory? by Oasis.
Following the release of the album Collins embarked on the successful No Jacket Required World Tour. At the end of that tour, Collins performed at both the London and Philadelphia Live Aid concerts on 13 July 1985. During the tour, Collins recorded the song "Separate Lives" with Marilyn Martin for the movie White Nights, which was a number-one hit in the US and a top-ten hit in the UK. Remixes of six songs from the album were later included on the 12"ers compilation album, released in 1987.
Production and recording
Shortly after the completion of work on Eric Clapton's album Behind The Sun in mid 1984, Collins turned his attention to his third solo album. According to his 2016 autobiography Not Dead Yet, the sessions for what would become No Jacket Required was a conscious attempt to move to a more uptempo sound - "I have a notion of what I want to do: break out of this "love song" box that I've found myself in. I'll make a dance album. Or, at least, an album with a couple of uptempo tracks."
Some of the songs from the album emerged from Collins' improvisations with a drum machine, including the singles "One More Night" and "Sussudio". Collins started singing "one more night" to an attempt of making a beat similar to The Jacksons, and improvised "sus-sussudio" in another. Collins tried to replace the lyric with another phrase but decided to keep that way, leading to lyrics about a schoolboy crush on a girl at his school. Another song created mostly through improvisation, "Don't Lose My Number", was described by Collins as having been written mostly during the recordings for his first solo album, Face Value. Collins added that he does not fully understand the meaning of the lyrics, described by reviewer Stephen Holden of The New York Times as "vague, sketching the outlines of a melodrama but withholding the full story".
Other songs were written with a more personal message. "Long Long Way to Go" is often considered one of Collins' more popular songs never to be released as a single and was at that point in his career his most political song. Former Police lead vocalist Sting provided backing vocals for the song. Sting and Collins first met through Band Aid, and would later perform together in Live Aid. Collins was working on a song, and thought that Sting, having participated in Band Aid, would relate to it very easily. Collins asked Sting to help him provide vocals for this song, and Sting accepted.
"Doesn't Anybody Stay Together Anymore" is another song in which Collins was making a personal message. The song was made in response to everyone around him getting a divorce, including his manager, friends and himself years before. Collins later said that he sang this at Charles, Prince of Wales' 40th-birthday party, not knowing that the Prince's divorce from his wife, Diana, Princess of Wales, would happen a short time later. The Phil Collins Big Band played this live on tour. In later years, Collins performed a re-arranged version of the song as a ballad as part of his Seriously, Live! World Tour, differing considerably from the original up-beat album version. The opening drum fill of the song would be later used on the Eric Clapton track "Hold On", on which Collins played drums and produced for Clapton's album August one year later.
"Take Me Home" is another song in which the meaning was originally very vague. At first listening, it appears that the song is about going home, but this is not true. Collins has stated that the song lyrics refer to a patient in a mental institution, and that it is based on the novel One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest. Peter Gabriel, Helen Terry and Sting all provide backing vocals. The music video (shot during the NJR tour) features Collins in multiple cities around the world, including London, New York City, Tokyo, Moscow, Sydney, Paris, Chicago, St. Louis, Los Angeles (Hollywood), San Francisco, and Memphis (Graceland). At the end of the music video, Collins arrives home and hears a woman (presumably his wife) from inside the house asking him where he has been. He replies by saying he has been to some of the cities mentioned above. The woman replies "You've been down at the pub, haven't you?", as Collins grins at the camera.
"We Said Hello Goodbye" appeared as a B-side to "Take Me Home" and "Don't Lose My Number" originally, and as an "extra track" on the CD release of the album. Producer Arif Mardin composed the beginning portion of the song. A remix of the song with additional guitars and without an orchestra was released the following year (1986) on the soundtrack for the movie, Playing for Keeps. This remixed version received some radio airplay around the time of the soundtrack's release (which coincided with the No Jacket Required period), though it did not chart. Collins has mused that the song is unfairly classed as a "second class citizen", stating that the song would have been looked at differently if it were added to the album. According to The New York Times reviewer Caryn James, the song is "a straightforward comment on leaving home".
"The Man with the Horn" was originally recorded during sessions for Collins' second solo album Hello, I Must Be Going! in 1982. However, the song was not released until it appeared as the B-side to "Sussudio" in the UK, and as the B-side to "One More Night" in the United States. Collins has said that he has "no emotional attachment" to the song. Music by The Jackson 5 inspired Collins to write the song "I Like the Way", which also did not appear on the album, originally appearing as the B-side to "One More Night" in the UK and "Sussudio" in the US. He called the song "dodgy" and has cited it among his least favourite of his songs.
Title and cover
The album is named after an incident at The Pump Room restaurant in Chicago, Illinois. Collins, entering the restaurant with former Led Zeppelin lead vocalist Robert Plant, was denied admittance because he did not meet the restaurant's dress code of "jacket required" for dinner, while Plant was allowed in. Collins was wearing a jacket and argued about it. The maître d'hôtel argued that the jacket was not "proper". Collins said in an interview with Playboy that, at that point, he was as angry as he had ever been.
After the incident, Collins often appeared on shows such as Late Night with David Letterman and The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson, denouncing the restaurant and telling his story. The management of the restaurant later sent him a complimentary sport coat and an apology letter, stating that he could come to the restaurant wearing whatever he wanted.
The cover image of No Jacket Required (a continuation of the 'facial close-up' theme begun with Face Value) of Collins' face lit by red/orange light was to emphasise the "hot", up-tempo nature of the album. Collins stated in his autobiography Not Dead Yet, that glycerin was sprayed onto his forehead during the photography session to give the illusion of perspiration. In the photography for the album's inner sleeve and subsequent publicity materials, Collins appeared to lampoon the incident by wearing a suit that was several sizes too big.
Release and commercial performance
No Jacket Required was released on 18 February 1985. The lead singles were "Sussudio" in the UK and "One More Night" in the US. Both songs had music videos that were shot at a London pub owned by Richard Branson, featuring Collins playing both before and after the building closes.
In the first week of March, shortly after Collins won a Grammy for "Against All Odds", the album debuted at the top spot of the UK Albums Chart and 24th in the Billboard 200. It also got to tenth in the German charts and 15th in Canada. By the end of the month, it had climbed to number one in America as well. Collins had become the 15th British artist to top both the album and single Billboard charts, as "One More Night" was leading the Billboard Hot 100 that same week. The same thing was happening in the UK, where Collins' duet with Philip Bailey, "Easy Lover", was the UK Singles Chart number one. No Jacket Required was number one on the US charts for seven weeks, and on the British chart for five.
"Sussudio" was the first track to be released as a single in the UK, and the second to be released in the US. In the UK the song reached number 12 on the UK charts. In the US, the song entered frequent rotation on MTV in May, and by 6 July, both the single and the album had reached number one on their respective US Billboard charts. "One More Night" was Collins's second US number-one single, following "Against All Odds", and was his fourth single to reach the top ten in the UK, peaking at number four on the singles chart. Its B-side in the UK was "I Like the Way", while the US version featured "The Man with the Horn".
Meanwhile, "Don't Lose My Number", a single that Collins only released in the US, peaked at number four on the Billboard Hot 100 charts during late September 1985, and the B-side of the single was "We Said Hello Goodbye". Collins had difficulty conceptualising a plot for the corresponding music video. He decided to create a gag video based on this difficulty. In the video, he talks to clients and directors, all giving him crazy conceptual ideas. Collins parodies several other videos, including those by Michael Jackson, David Lee Roth, Elton John, The Cars, and The Police. The singer also filmed parodies of Mad Max, western films, and samurai movies.
"Take Me Home", the final single released from the album, is often considered to be one of Collins's most well-known songs, and has been a part of all of his tours since The No Jacket Required World Tour. It reached number seven on the US Billboard charts, and number 19 on the UK charts. The song was not slated for a single release, but the label decided to do so after it became an airplay hit on several US radio stations who decided to play the track. "Take Me Home" also got a video where Collins sung in various locations around the world.
One song from the album would not reach chart success until it was released later. "Who Said I Would" was not released as a single from this album. However, a live version was released as a single from the Serious Hits... Live! album in the US, reaching number 73 on the Billboard Hot 100. A music video of the original version was filmed, for the No Jacket Required home video. It featured Collins playing the song in a concert. Some of the songs that were not released as singles still charted on Billboard charts. "Inside Out" went to number nine on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart. "The Man with the Horn", though not released as a single (nor was it included on the album), charted at number 38 on the Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks.
No Jacket Required remains Collins's highest-selling album, having sold over 12 million copies as of 2001 in the US, where it was certified diamond status. Twenty years after its release, No Jacket Required remains among the 50 highest-selling albums in the US. In the UK, the album was certified 6× platinum, selling over 1.8 million copies. It has also sold over 20 million copies worldwide. A video produced by Atlantic Video in 1986 was also released, and included the four original music videos of the four released singles, and a live performance of "Who Said I Would". Alternate versions of six songs from No Jacket Required were included on the remix album 12"ers, released in January 1988.<ref name=AMGER>{{cite web |url=|title=allmusic (((12ers > Overview)))|access-date=12 November 2008 |publisher=AllMusic}}</ref>
The album was re-released and remastered by Steve Hoffman for the Audio Fidelity label in 2011. It was reissued as a deluxe edition on CD, vinyl and digital on 15 April 2016, including a new second disc with bonus tracks.
No Jacket Required EP (home video)
In 1985 Collins also released a home video called No Jacket Required EP consisting of the music videos "Sussudio", "One More Night", "Who Said I Would", "Don't Lose My Number" and "Take Me Home". It was originally available on Video Home System (VHS) and LaserDisc (LD).
Critical reception
The reception for the album was mostly positive. Geoff Orens of AllMusic, in a retrospective review, said that while some of the songs are "dated", the album contains "standout tracks". He describes "Long Long Way to Go" as "one of Collins' most effective ballads", and "Take Me Home" as "pulsating". Orens went on to say "It's not a completely satisfying recording, but it is the best example of one of the most dominating and influential styles of the 1980s." Lori E. Pike of the Los Angeles Times said that "Collins' recipe of tense vocals spiced with saucy horns and splashy electro-jitterbugging synthesisers often leaves little room for real feeling to squeeze through. When he slows down and lets his smoldering moodiness take over, the effect is magical."
Stephen Holden of The New York Times said that the album was "refreshing", and that Collins was "adept" at setting a suspenseful or menacing mood. Holden described "Only You Know and I Know" as an "angry love song" that had some sampling of Motown-style music mixed in. "In 'One More Night', Mr. Collins's recent number-one hit, a ticking snare drum injects a whisper of lurking fear into a song that suggests a sweeter, tenderer reprise of 'Against All Odds'", says Holden. Holden concluded by saying "On the surface, No Jacket Required, is an album bursting with soulful hooks and bright peppy tunes. But beneath its shiny exterior, Mr. Collins's drums and his voice carry on a disjunctive, enigmatic dialogue between heart and mind, obsession and repression."Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke said "Phil Collins' sudden transformation from the balding bantam drummer for a prosperous British art-rock group into a mainstream pop heartthrob might seem one of the Eighties' most improbable success stories. But judging from the sly craft and warm, low-key humour of his solo records and his successful productions for Philip Bailey and Frida, Collins' newfound fame was inevitable." Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times originally disliked the song "One More Night", but later praised the song, saying that "Collins' soulful but polite vocal style is also capable of capturing the pain of going through yet one more night without her." The Dallas Morning News writer Lennox Samuels said that "No Jacket Required (Atlantic) is what fans have come to expect from Phil Collins—lots of horns and syncopation, heavy rhythm."
Even those who were not normally fans of Collins' work liked the album. Michael R. Smith of The Daily Vault wrote "Anomaly or not, it is indeed the album that Phil deserves to be remembered for." Stephen Williams of Newsday said that the album was "loaded with musical hooks and textured arrangements… it also lacks the tense edge that was part of Collins' work with Genesis." Keegan Hamilton of the Riverfront Times said that the album was "The 80's Dance Pop Special: A smooth synthesiser groove, with an order of keyboards, drum machines, and horns on the side," adding that "Sussudio" was the best track on the album, saying that it's "catchy gibberish." Hamilton says that "One More Night" was the worst song on the album, saying that "The album's introspective slow jam wallows in self-pity."
On the negative side, Marty Racine of the Houston Chronicle said that "I Don't Wanna Know" and "Take Me Home" were the only songs to "rise above the crowd", and that Collins focused too much on his singing and less on his drumming, "which can be captivating". Racine also added that the album makes the listener feel a little "cold", but admired that the singer was "playing the game as well as anyone".
Writing an article in defence of Collins in 2010, Gary Mills of The Quietus described the album as "determined dross" which Collins did not deserve to have his career judged by. In 2013, music critic Tom Service of The Guardian was similarly scathing, saying the album had not stood the test of time and was "unlistenable to today", singling out "Sussudio" for particular criticism, arguing: "the production, the drum machine, the inane sincerity of the lyrics; there's no colder or more superficial sound in popular music, precisely because it takes itself so seriously." He also compared it unfavourably with the enduring appeal of Collins's 1980s contemporaries such as the Human League and—in particular—the Pet Shop Boys, saying the latter were "geniuses by comparison".
At the 28th Annual Grammy Awards, Collins was nominated in five categories. The album won the award for Album of the Year, and Collins won Best Pop Vocal Performance, Male. Collins shared the Producer of the Year (Non-Classical) award with co-producer of the album, Hugh Padgham. The home video No Jacket Required EP received a nomination for Best Music Video, Short Form. In 1986 the album received two American Music Award nominations for Favorite Pop/Rock Album and Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist. At the Brit Awards in 1986 the album received two awards for British Album and British Male Artist, while co-producer Hugh Padgham was nominated for British Producer.
Influence and legacy
At the Brit Awards in 2010, the album was one of ten nominees for Brits Album of 30 Years in a poll of BBC Radio 2 listeners; the winner was (What's the Story) Morning Glory? by Oasis. "Sussudio" is one of Collins' most famous songs and is referenced in many different media, including books, stand-up comedy acts and television shows. He has said that this is the song people most often sing to him when they spot him on the street. In the book and film adaptation of American Psycho, main character Patrick Bateman briefly discusses it, amongst other work by Collins. The synthesiser riff was heavily criticised for sounding too much like Prince's 1982 song "1999", a similarity that Collins does not deny, citing that he is a big fan of Prince's work.
Three songs recorded during the No Jacket Required sessions aired on episodes of the television show Miami Vice. "Take Me Home" appeared in "The Prodigal Son", the premiere of the second season. "Long Long Way to Go" was played in the closing scene of the Season 2 finale "Sons and Lovers", during the funeral for Ricardo Tubbs' girlfriend and son. "The Man with the Horn" was re-written for an episode of Vice in which Collins guest-starred as a con artist who gets in trouble with cocaine distributors. The re-written version was titled "Life Is a Rat Race".
"Take Me Home" was the closing theme song for the World Wrestling Federation's television show, Saturday Night's Main Event for several years in the late 1980s. In 2003, the hip-hop group Bone Thugs-n-Harmony based their song "Home" on this single. That version of the song featured the original song's chorus, and hit number 19 on the UK charts.
"Take Me Home" was also featured in the first episode of the second season of Mr. Robot.
As years went on, Collins became unhappy with the album and grew to dislike it. In a 2016 interview with Rolling Stone, he said in retrospect that it is among his least favourite records he had made: "At the time, I wasn't being me. I've grown up a bit now and much prefer to play songs that are me. I only play a bit part in that one."
Tour
The album was followed by a concert tour in 1985 named The No Jacket Required World Tour. For the tour, Collins retained his usual cast of musicians, including Chester Thompson, Leland Sklar and Daryl Stuermer. The band was nicknamed the "Hot Tub Club". A television special was recorded in Dallas and aired on HBO, titled "No Jacket Required... Sold Out". Another television special was recorded for Cinemax for a show titled "Album Flash", taped in London, England at the Royal Albert Hall.
Reception for the tour was positive as well. Rick Kogan of the Chicago Tribune said that "After hearing and observing Collins' eminently satisfying and frequently spectacular two-hour performance, one is left not with a series of niggling questions about his popularity but rather with renewed admiration for the forcefulness of well-crafted songs played in a straightforward manner."
In interviews during the tour, it was remarked by interviewers that the singer appeared similar to actors Bob Hoskins and Danny DeVito. Collins joked that all three of them could play the Three Bears from the story Goldilocks and the Three Bears. DeVito heard the idea, and contacted Collins and Hoskins about making a film. Collins researched bears, and a script was planned. Kim Basinger reportedly wished to play the role of "Goldilocks". However, problems arose (mostly involving the script), and all three actors abandoned the film.
While on the No Jacket Required tour, Collins recorded a song for the movie White Nights, titled "Separate Lives". The song, which was written by Collins's friend Stephen Bishop, was a duet that Collins performed with Marilyn Martin. In the US, the song went to number one on the Billboard Hot 100, and it reached number four on the UK charts.
Live Aid
The No Jacket Required World Tour ended with Collins performing at both the Wembley Stadium and JFK Stadium Live Aid concerts. Collins claims that it all happened by accident, and that both he and Power Station were going to attend both Live Aid shows as well, but "they all chickened out." "By default, I was the only one who did it," he later claimed. Bob Geldof, the organiser of Live Aid, originally asked Collins to be part of Geldof's first charity effort, Band Aid. Collins played the drums and performed backing vocals for Band Aid's UK number one hit in 1984, "Do They Know It's Christmas?".
Collins first performed with Sting at Wembley, and together they performed "In the Air Tonight", "Against All Odds", "Long Long Way to Go" and "Every Breath You Take", accompanied by saxophonist Branford Marsalis. After Collins finished performing, he flew on Concorde to the Live Aid show in Philadelphia. On the plane, he met Cher, and convinced her to be a part of the event. Once there he met Robert Plant, who had asked him if he would perform with him, Jimmy Page and Tony Thompson in a Led Zeppelin "reunion" of sorts. He first played drums on "Layla", "White Room" and "She's Waiting" for his friend Eric Clapton. Then, Collins performed "Against All Odds" and "In the Air Tonight", and finished the night playing drums for Led Zeppelin's aforementioned act. The band has claimed that the performance was unspectacular, and critics place the blame on Collins. However, Collins says that "I would pledge to my dying day that it wasn't me," and that Thompson was racing through some of the performance. Collins later remarked, "… I remember in the middle of the thing, I actually thought, How do I get out of here?" Stephen Williams of Newsday commented that Collins' performance of "In the Air Tonight" in Philadelphia "was one of the more moving moments of the day". Live Aid raised $69 million in its effort. Collins later recalled the event as "extraordinary".
Track listing
Notes
"We Said Hello Goodbye" was released as a bonus track on the CD version of No Jacket Required. It was not available on the original vinyl or cassette releases, and was not included on the 2016 vinyl reissue of the album, but was included on the 2016 CD and digital download/streaming reissue. A different mix of the song was released on the Playing for Keeps'' soundtrack album.
Personnel
Adapted from Phil Collins' official website.
Musicians
Phil Collins – vocals, backing vocals, drums, Roland TR-909 (1, 10), bass (2), LinnDrum (2, 6, 8), keyboards (2, 3, 5–11), Roland TR-808 (3, 5), Simmons electronic drums (credited on 2016 release as 'Simmonds') (3, 7), vocoder (7), kalimba (7)
Daryl Stuermer – guitars (1–11), keyboards (4)
David Frank – keyboards (1, 6, 7), Minimoog bass (1, 7), Oberheim DMX (1)
Nick Glennie-Smith – keyboards (11)
Lee Sklar – bass guitar (3–6, 8–11), Piccolo bass (3, 10)
The Phenix Horns, arranged by Tom Tom 84 – horns (1, 2, 7)
Gary Barnacle – saxophone (4, 7)
Don Myrick – saxophone (5, 9)
Arif Mardin – string arrangement (5), orchestral introduction (11)
Sting – backing vocals (3, 10)
Peter Gabriel – backing vocals (10)
Helen Terry – backing vocals (10)
Production
Phil Collins – producer, mixing, album design
Hugh Padgham – producer, mixing, engineer
Steve Chase – assistant engineer
Strings recorded by John Jacobs at Air Studios, London.
Peter Ashworth – cover photography
Charts
Certifications
See also
List of best-selling albums
List of best-selling albums in Germany
List of best-selling albums in the United States
References
1985 albums
Phil Collins albums
Grammy Award for Album of the Year
Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance
Brit Award for British Album of the Year
Albums produced by Phil Collins
Albums produced by Hugh Padgham
Virgin Records albums
Atlantic Records albums
Warner Music Group albums
Albums recorded in a home studio | [
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] |
244828 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don%20Budge | Don Budge | John Donald Budge (June 13, 1915 – January 26, 2000) was an American tennis player. He is most famous as the first player — male or female, and still the only American male — to win the four tournaments that comprise the Grand Slam of tennis in a single year. Budge was the second man to win the Career Grand Slam after Fred Perry, and is still the youngest to achieve that feat. He won ten majors, of which six were Grand Slam events (consecutively, a men's record) and four Pro Slams, the latter achieved on three different surfaces. Budge is considered to have the best backhand in the history of tennis, with most observers rating it better than that of later player Ken Rosewall. He is also the only man to have achieved the Triple Crown (winning singles, men's doubles and mixed doubles at the same tournament) on three separate occasions (Wimbledon in 1937 and 1938, and the US Open in 1938), and the only man to have achieved it twice in one year. Budge was World number one amateur in 1937 and 1938 and World number one professional in 1939, 1940 and 1942.
Early life
Budge was born in Oakland, California, the son of Scottish immigrant and former soccer player John "Jack" Budge, who had played several matches for the Rangers reserve team before emigrating to the United States, and Pearl Kincaid Budge. Growing up, he played a variety of sports before taking up tennis at age 13 at the urging of his older brother, Lloyd, who played tennis for the University of California team. He also had an older sister. He was red-headed, tall and slim, and his height would eventually help what is still considered one of the most powerful serves of all time. Budge studied at the University of California, Berkeley in late 1933 but left to play tennis with the U.S. Davis Cup auxiliary team.
Amateur career
Accustomed to hard-court surfaces in his native California, Budge had difficulty playing on the grass courts in the east. However, a good instructor and hard work changed that
1932
Budge reached the semi finals of the West Canada championships in July, where he lost in five sets to Henry Prusoff. "The Oakland youngster carried brawny Hank Prusoff of Seattle to five sets, surprising most of the onlookers, including the tournament favorite from Puget Sound. The scores were 6-2, 3-6, 6-3, 2-6, 6-2, with Budge playing a calm and collected game all the way and letting the hardhitting Prusoff make the errors. The chop stroke of the Seattle man worked to perfection, particularly In the last set, and he always seemed to have something in reserve."
1933
At the Del Monte championships in May, Budge beat Wallace Bates in straight sets in final. In July, Budge beat John Murio in the final of the California State championship. "Tennis fans will be talking for days of the men's singles event and of Budge, whom the experts candidly admit "has everything." Not only has he the strokes of a champion, but the presence and strategy of one far beyond his years. Murio's most burning drives failed to ruffle one of the flaming red hairs on his head". In the final of the Colorado championships in Denver in July, Budge beat Jack Tidball in five sets.
1934
Budge beat Ed Chandler in the final in five sets to retain his California State championship title in June. "Chandler went to the net often throughout the match, while Budge elected to play a baseline game almost exclusively, going to the webbing only when forced to by chop or cross court shots; Chandler, exhausted after his gruelling five-set match with John Murio in the semi-final on Saturday, fought largely on his nerve against the Champion, and at the end of yesterday's strenuous competition again was completely exhausted."
1935
Budge beat Gene Mako in the final of the Palm Springs tournament in April. Budge beat Frank Shields in the final of the Newport Casino tournament in August. In the final of the Pacific Southwest tournament in September, Budge was leading 2 sets to 1 against Roderich Menzel, when Menzel retired, in order to preserve his energy for a mixed doubles match. Budge beat Bobby Riggs in the final of the Pacific Coast championships in October.
1936
In January, Budge beat Walter Senior in the final of the Northern California indoor event.
In April Budge won the North and south tournament at Pinehurst beating Hal Surface in three-straight sets for the loss of just one game with a "superb exhibition of speed and control". In June, Budge beat Dave Jones in the final of Queen's club tournament. Budge beat Riggs in the final of the Eastern championships in August. Budge beat Perry in the final of the Pacific Southwest tournament in September.
In October, Budge beat Walter Senior in the final of the Pacific Coast championships. In December Budge beat Riggs in the final of the Southern California midwinter tournament.
1937
In February, Budge beat Bryan Grant in the final of the Miami tournament.
In June, Budge beat Bunny Austin in the final at Queen's club tournament. "Seldom has a star of Austin's standing absorbed so crushing a defeat in full view of the public." Budge swept Wimbledon, winning the singles (beating Gottfried von Cramm in straight sets in the final), the men's doubles title with Gene Mako, and the mixed doubles crown with Alice Marble. In August, Budge beat Riggs in the final of the Newport Casino tournament. Budge beat von Cramm in the U. S. Championships final which "was a strange see-saw affair in which Budge twice lapsed from his normally brilliant genius guided game". Budge beat von Cramm again in the final of the Pacific Southwest tournament in September. Budge beat Riggs in the final of the Pacific Coast tournament in October. In December Budge won the Victorian championships beating John Bromwich in the final in a match in which "the hot, humid weather proved trying for the players". Budge gained the most fame for his match that year against von Cramm in the Davis Cup inter-zone finals against Germany. Trailing 1–4 in the final set, he came back to win 8–6. His victory allowed the US team to advance and to then win the Davis Cup for the first time in 12 years. For his efforts, he was named Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year and he became the first tennis player ever to be voted the James E. Sullivan Award as America's top amateur athlete. Budge was ranked World No. 1 amateur by A. Wallis Myers of The Daily Telegraph, Mervyn Weston, Daily Telegraph (Sydney), Pierre Gillou, Ned Potter, The Times, Harry Hopman, Alfred Chave, The Telegraph (Brisbane) and Pierre Goldschmidt, L'Auto.
1938
In 1938, Budge dominated amateur tennis defeating John Bromwich in the Australian final, Roderick Menzel in the French final, Henry "Bunny" Austin at Wimbledon, where he never lost a set (he also won the doubles and mixed doubles), and Gene Mako in the U.S. Championships final (winning doubles and mixed doubles also), to become the first person ever to win the Grand Slam in tennis. He also is the youngest man in history to complete the "Career Grand Slam" (the four majors in one's career). He completed that on June 11, 1938, in winning the French singles, two days before his 23rd birthday. Budge beat Ladislav Hecht in the final of the Czech championships in Prague in July. Budge beat Sidney Wood in the final of the Newport Casino tournament in August. Budge was ranked World No. 1 amateur by Ray Bowers, A. Wallis Myers of The Daily Telegraph, Pierre Gillou, Ned Potter, Pierre Goldschmidt, L'Auto, The Times (London), F. Gordon Lowe of The Scotsman, Dr. G. H. McElhone of The Sydney Morning Herald, "International" of The Referee,Mervyn Weston, Daily Telegraph (Sydney), Jack Crawford and Alfred Chave, The Telegraph (Brisbane).
Professional career
1939
Budge turned professional in October 1938 after winning the Grand Slam, and thereafter played mostly head-to-head matches. In 1939, he beat the two reigning kings of professional tennis, Ellsworth Vines, 22 matches to 17, and Fred Perry, 28 matches to 8. That year, he also won two major pro tournaments, the French Pro Championship over Vines and the Wembley Pro tournament over Hans Nüsslein. He also finished in first place on the European tour in the summer that also featured Vines, Tilden and Stoefen. Budge was ranked World No. 1 pro by Bowers, Didier Poulain of L'Auto and Alfred Chave, The Telegraph (Brisbane).
1940
There was no World series professional tour in 1940 but seven principal tournaments. Budge kept his world crown by winning four of these events: the Southeastern Pro at Miami Beach (beating Perry in the final), the North & South Pro at Pinehurst (beating Dick Skeen in the final), the National Open at White Sulphur Springs (beating Bruce Barnes in the final) and the United States Pro Championship (beating Perry in the final). Budge was ranked World No. 1 pro by Bowers.
1941
In 1941, Budge played another major tour beating the 48-year-old Bill Tilden, the final outcome being 47–6 plus one tie. Budge (who had only recently left hospital) lost his opening match in the U. S. Pro championships to John Faunce. "You see, Don was in the hospital a couple of weeks ago fell down some stairs and banged up his nose and left ear. He didn't have his court legs today and naturally that was my cue to make him run and. believe me, I never hit better drop shots in my life than I hit today. I could put that ball on a dime!" said Faunce afterwards.
1942
In 1942, Budge won his last major tour over Bobby Riggs, Frank Kovacs, Perry and Les Stoefen. He also won the U.S. Pro at Forest Hills, crushing Riggs 6–2, 6–2, 6–2 in the final. The crowd booed when Riggs was denied a request to wear spiked shoes. After that many of the top pros, including Budge, became involved in World War 2. Budge was ranked World No. 1 pro by Bowers and by the USPLTA.
Military service
In 1942, Budge joined the United States Army Air Forces to serve in World War II. At the beginning of 1943, in an obstacle course, he tore a muscle in his shoulder. In his book 'A Tennis Memoir' page 144 he said:
This permanently hindered his playing abilities. During his wartime duty he played some exhibitions for the troops in particular during the summer 1945 with the war winding down, Budge played in a US Army (Budge-Frank Parker) – US Navy (Riggs – Wayne Sabin) competition under the Davis Cup format: the main confrontations were the Budge-Riggs meetings knowing that both Americans were the best players in the world in 1942 just before being enlisted in the U.S. Armed Forces and again when they came back to the professional circuit in 1945. In the first match, on the island of Guam, Budge trounced Riggs 6–2, 6–2. On the island of Peleliu, Budge won again 6–4, 7–5. Riggs won the next two matches against Budge, 6–1, 6–1 (island of Ulithi) and 6–3, 4–6, 6–1 (island of Saipan). Budge confided in Parker his disbelief at losing two matches in a row to Riggs. In the fifth and final match on the island of Tinian, scheduled for the first week of August 1945, Riggs defeated Budge 6–8, 6–1, 8–6. This was the first time Budge had been beaten by Riggs in a series (Riggs also won three matches out of five against the amateur Parker, both holder and future titlist of the U.S. Amateur Nationals at Forest Hills) thereby giving Riggs an important psychological edge in their forthcoming peacetime tours.
Post war
1946
In 1946, Budge lost narrowly to Riggs in their U.S. tour, 24 matches to 22. Riggs thereby established himself as the world No. 1. According to Kramer,
The hierarchy was confirmed at the U.S. Pro, held at Forest Hills where Riggs easily defeated Budge in the last round. There was a tournament circuit in 1946. Budge won events at Memphis in June (beating Riggs in the final), Richmond in June (beating Riggs in the final), Philadelphia in July (beating Van Horn in the final) and San Francisco in October (beating Riggs in the final). Budge finished second in the points table behind Riggs.
1947
In 1947 Budge beat Riggs in two European tours, one early in the year and one in the summer. According to Riggs, Budge still had a very powerful, very deadly overhead and rather than winning outright very many points with his lobbing, he actually achieved two other goals: his constant lobbing led Budge to play somewhat deeper at the net than he would have otherwise, thereby making it easier for Riggs to hit passing shots for winners; and the constant lobbing helped to wear Budge down by forcing him to run back to the backline time after time. Riggs stayed the pro king by defeating Budge in the U.S. Pro final in five sets, so Riggs would face Kramer on the big tour in 1948.
1948-1961
Budge reached two more U.S. Pro finals, losing in 1949 at Forest Hills to Riggs and in 1953 in Cleveland to Pancho Gonzales. In 1954, Budge recorded his last significant victory in a North American tour with Pancho Gonzales, Pancho Segura, and Frank Sedgman when, in Los Angeles, he defeated Gonzales, by then the best player in the world. In April 1955 Budge won the U. S. Pro Clay Court Championships at Fort Lauderdale beating Riggs in the final. Budge was playing very infrequently by now. He continued playing until 1961, when he lost in the Southern Pro final to Jack Arkinstall in straight sets. "He still hits a wonderful backhand, but he's five years older than I am and I guess I just got around too fast for him," said Arkinstall.
Later years and honors
He appeared on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1948 and the Steve Allen Plymouth Show in 1951. He appeared as himself in the 1953 film Pat and Mike.
After retiring from competition, Budge turned to coaching and conducted tennis clinics for children. According to Riggs' 1949 autobiography as of that writing, Budge owned a laundry in New York with Sidney Wood as well as a bar in Oakland. A gentleman on and off the court, he was much in demand for speaking engagements and endorsed various lines of sporting goods. With the advent of the Open era in tennis, in 1968 he returned to play at Wimbledon in the Veteran's doubles. In 1973, at the age of 58, he and former champion Frank Sedgman teamed up to win the Veteran's Doubles Championship at Wimbledon before an appreciative crowd.
Budge was the resident tennis pro at the Montego Bay Racquet Club in Jamaica in 1977. In October 1978 he became the tennis pro at the Cambridge Towers Hotel in Las Vegas. After a few months he was terminated but he sued the owner for breach of his five-year contract and was awarded $455,041.
Budge was inducted into the National Lawn Tennis Hall of Fame, now the International Tennis Hall of Fame, at Newport, Rhode Island, in 1964. He was elected to the Bay Area Sports Hall of Fame in 1992. The once-gravel tennis courts at Bushrod Park in north Oakland, which he played on as a youth, are named for him.
He is referenced in the 1977 Broadway musical Annie in the song "I Think I'm Gonna Like It Here." When Annie says she's never picked up a tennis racket, Daddy Warbucks' secretary tells an underling: "Have an instructor here at noon. Oh, and get that Don Budge fellow if he's available." The reference is technically an anachronism, as the story is set in 1933, at which time Budge was an undergraduate at Berkeley and had not yet achieved prominence.
Personal life
He wed Deirdre Conselman (1922-1978), the daughter of screenwriter and cartoonist William Conselman, at St. Chrysostom's Episcopal Church in Chicago on June 2, 1941.
In his later years he lived in Dingman's Ferry, Pennsylvania, with his second wife, Loriel.
In December 1999, Budge was injured in an automobile accident from which he never fully recovered. He died on January 26, 2000, at a nursing home in Scranton, Pennsylvania, aged 84.
He had two sons, David and Jeffrey.
Assessment
Budge is a consensus pick for being one of the greatest players of all time. He had a graceful, overpowering backhand that he hit with a slight amount of topspin and that, combined with his quickness and his serve, made him the best player of his time. E. Digby Baltzell wrote in 1994 that Budge and Laver "have usually been rated at the top of any all-time World Champions list, Budge having a slight edge." Will Grimsley wrote in 1971 that Budge "is considered by many to be foremost among the all-time greats." Paul Metzler, in his analysis of ten of the all-time greats, singles out Budge as the greatest player before World War II, and gives him second place overall behind Jack Kramer. In 1978, Ellsworth Vines ranked his all time top 10 in Tennis Myth and Method and rated Budge number one.
Jack Kramer himself has written that Budge was, in the long run, the greatest player who ever lived although Ellsworth Vines topped him when at the height of his game. Kramer said:
In his 1979 autobiography, Kramer considered the best player ever to have been either Don Budge (for consistent play) or Ellsworth Vines (at the height of his game). The next four best were, chronologically, Bill Tilden, Fred Perry, Bobby Riggs, and Pancho Gonzales. All of these sources were written, after Rod Laver completed his second, and Open, Grand Slam in 1969.
In early 1986 Inside Tennis, a magazine edited in Northern California, devoted parts of four issues to a lengthy article called "Tournament of the Century", an imaginary tournament to determine the greatest of all time. 25 players in all were named by the 37 experts in their lists of the ten best. The magazine then ranked them in descending order by total number of points assigned. The top eight players in overall points, with their number of first-place votes, were: Rod Laver (9), John McEnroe (3), Don Budge (4), Jack Kramer (5), Björn Borg (6), Pancho Gonzales (1), Bill Tilden (6), and Lew Hoad (1). McEnroe was still an active player and Laver and Borg had only recently retired. In the imaginary tournament, Laver beat McEnroe in the finals in five sets.
More recently, an Associated Press poll conducted in 1999 ranked Budge fifth, following Laver, Pete Sampras, Tilden, and Borg. Even more recently, in 2006, a panel of former players and experts was asked by TennisWeek to assemble a draw for a fantasy tournament to determine who was the greatest of all time. The top eight seeds were Roger Federer, Laver, Sampras, Borg, Tilden, Budge, Kramer, and McEnroe.
Major finals
Grand Slam tournaments
Singles: 7 (6 titles, 1 runner-up)
Doubles: 7 (4 titles, 3 runner-ups)
Pro Slam tournaments
Singles: 8 (4 titles, 4 runner-ups)
Performance timelineDon Budge joined professional tennis in 1939 and was unable to compete in the Grand Slam tournaments.
Single titles
Amateur era
Singles (1934–1938) : 26 titles
Records
These records were attained in pre-Open Era of tennis.
Records in bold indicate peer-less achievements.
See also
All-time tennis records – men's singles
Open Era tennis records – men's singles
References
Sources
Sporting Gentlemen: Men's Tennis from the Age of Honor to the Cult of the Superstar, (1994), E. Digby Baltzell
Tennis: Its History, People and Events, (1971), Will Grimsley
Tennis Styles and Stylists, (1969), Paul Metzler
The Game, My 40 Years in Tennis (1979), Jack Kramer with Frank Deford ()
Tennis Is My Racket, (1949), Bobby Riggs
Further reading
Fisher, Marshall Jon (2009). A Terrible Splendor: Three Extraordinary Men, a World Poised for War and the Greatest Tennis Match Ever Played.
External links
American male tennis players
American people of Scottish descent
American tennis coaches
Australian Championships (tennis) champions
California Golden Bears men's tennis players
French Championships (tennis) champions
International Tennis Hall of Fame inductees
James E. Sullivan Award recipients
Sportspeople from Oakland, California
Tennis commentators
Tennis people from California
United States National champions (tennis)
Wimbledon champions (pre-Open Era)
World No. 1 tennis players
1915 births
2000 deaths
Road incident deaths in Pennsylvania
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's singles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in mixed doubles
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in men's doubles
Professional tennis players before the Open Era
United States Army Air Forces personnel of World War II | [
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244829 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Greenstreet | Sydney Greenstreet | Sydney Hughes Greenstreet (December 27, 1879 – January 18, 1954) was a British actor. While he did not begin his career in films until the age of 61, he had a run of significant motion pictures in a Hollywood career lasting through the 1940s. He is best remembered for his Warner Bros. films with Humphrey Bogart and Peter Lorre, including The Maltese Falcon (1941), Casablanca (1942), and Passage to Marseille (1944). He portrayed Nero Wolfe on radio during 1950 and 1951. He became a United States citizen in 1925.
Early life
Greenstreet was born on December 27, 1879, in Sandwich, Kent, the son of Ann (née Baker) and John Jarvis Greenstreet, a tanner. He had seven siblings. He left home at the age of 18 to make his fortune as a Ceylon tea planter, but drought forced him out of business. He began managing a brewery, and to escape boredom, took acting lessons.
Career
Greenstreet's stage debut was as a murderer in a 1902 production of a Sherlock Holmes story at the Marina Theatre, Ramsgate, Kent. He toured Britain with Ben Greet's Shakespearean company, and in 1905 made his New York City debut in Everyman. He appeared in such plays as a revival of As You Like It (1914). He appeared in numerous plays in Britain and America, working through most of the 1930s with Alfred Lunt and Lynn Fontanne at the Theatre Guild. His stage roles ranged from musical comedy to Shakespeare, and years of such versatile acting on two continents led to many offers to appear in films. He refused until he was 61.
In 1941, Greenstreet began working for Warner Bros. His debut film role was as Kasper Gutman ("The Fat Man") co-starring with Humphrey Bogart in The Maltese Falcon. In Casablanca (1942), Greenstreet played crooked club owner Signor Ferrari (for which he received a salary of $3,750 per week—equivalent to $60,179.91 in 2020 dollars—for seven weeks' work). He also appeared in Background to Danger (1943), with George Raft; Passage to Marseille (1944), reuniting with Casablanca stars Bogart, Peter Lorre and Claude Rains; The Mask of Dimitrios (1944); The Conspirators (1944) with Hedy Lamarr and Paul Henreid; Hollywood Canteen (1944); Conflict (1945), again with Bogart; Three Strangers (1946); and The Verdict (1946). In the last two, and The Mask of Dimitrios, he received top billing. He had dramatic roles, such as William Makepeace Thackeray in Devotion (1946), and witty performances in screwball comedies, such as Alexander Yardley in Christmas in Connecticut (1944). Near the end of his film career, he played opposite Joan Crawford in Flamingo Road (1949).
After little more than eight years, Greenstreet's film career ended with Malaya (also 1949), in which he was billed third, after Spencer Tracy and James Stewart. In those years, he worked with stars ranging from Clark Gable to Ava Gardner to Joan Crawford. Author Tennessee Williams wrote his one-act play The Last of My Solid Gold Watches with Greenstreet in mind, and dedicated it to him. During 1950–1951, Greenstreet played Nero Wolfe on the radio program The New Adventures of Nero Wolfe, based loosely on the rotund detective genius created by Rex Stout.
Death and legacy
Greenstreet suffered from diabetes and Bright's disease, a kidney disorder. Five years after leaving films, he died in 1954 in Hollywood owing to complications from both conditions. He is interred at Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, in the Utility Columbarium area of the Great Mausoleum, inaccessible to the public. He was survived by his only child, John Ogden Greenstreet (1920–2004), from his marriage to Dorothy Marie Ogden. Actor Mark Greenstreet is his great-nephew.
Academy Award nomination
Filmography
References
Further reading
– Contains a chapter on the professional friendship between Greenstreet and Peter Lorre.
External links
1879 births
1954 deaths
20th-century English male actors
British expatriate male actors in the United States
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Deaths from diabetes
Deaths from kidney disease
English male film actors
English male radio actors
English male stage actors
Male actors from Kent
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Nero Wolfe
People from Sandwich, Kent
Warner Bros. contract players | [
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244831 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan%20Blondell | Joan Blondell | Joan Blondell (born Rose Joan Bluestein; August 30, 1906 – December 25, 1979) was an American actress who performed in film and television for half a century.
Blondell began her career in vaudeville. After winning a beauty pageant, she embarked on a film career, establishing herself as a Pre-Code staple of Warner Bros. Pictures in wisecracking, sexy roles, appearing in more than 100 films and television productions. She was most active in film during the 1930s and early 1940s, and during that time co-starred with Glenda Farrell, a colleague and close friend in nine films. Blondell continued acting on film and television for the rest of her life, often in small, supporting roles. She was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in The Blue Veil (1951).
Near the end of her life, Blondell was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in Opening Night (1977). She was featured in two more films, the blockbuster musical Grease (1978) and Franco Zeffirelli's The Champ (1979), which was released shortly before her death from leukemia.
Early life
Rose Joan Blondell was born in New York to a vaudeville family; she gave her birthdate as August 30, 1906. Her father, Levi Bluestein, a vaudeville comedian known as Ed Blondell, was born in Poland in 1866. He toured for many years starring in Blondell and Fennessy's stage version of The Katzenjammer Kids. Blondell's mother was Catherine (known as "Kathryn" or "Katie") Caine, born in Brooklyn, Kings County, New York (later Brooklyn, New York City) on April 13, 1884, to Irish-American parents. Joan's younger sister, Gloria Blondell, also an actress, was briefly married to film producer Albert R. Broccoli. Joan also had a brother, Ed Blondell, Jr.
Joan's cradle was a property trunk as her parents moved from place to place. She made her first appearance on stage at the age of four months when she was carried on in a cradle as the daughter of Peggy Astaire in The Greatest Love. Her family comprised a vaudeville troupe, the Bouncing Blondells.
Joan had spent a year in Honolulu (1914–15) and six years in Australia and had seen much of the world by the time her family stopped touring and settled in Dallas, Texas when she was a teenager. Using the name Rosebud Blondell, she won the 1926 Miss Dallas pageant, was a finalist in an early version of the Miss Universe pageant in May 1926, and placed fourth for Miss America 1926 in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in September of that year. She attended Santa Monica High School, where she acted in school plays and edited the school yearbook. While there, she gave her name as Rosebud Blondell, and when she attended North Texas State Teacher's College (now the University of North Texas) in Denton in 1926–1927 where her mother was a local stage actress.
Career
Around 1927, she returned to New York, worked as a fashion model, a circus hand, a clerk in a store, joined a stock company to become an actress, and performed on Broadway. In 1930, she starred with James Cagney in Penny Arcade on Broadway. Penny Arcade lasted only three weeks, but Al Jolson saw it and bought the rights to the play for $20,000. He then sold the rights to Warner Bros., with the proviso that Blondell and Cagney be cast in the film version, named Sinners' Holiday (1930). Placed under contract by Warner Bros., she moved to Hollywood, where studio boss Jack L. Warner wanted her to change her name to "Inez Holmes", but Blondell refused. She began to appear in short subjects and was named as one of the WAMPAS Baby Stars in 1931.
Blondell was paired several more times with James Cagney in films, including The Public Enemy (1931) and Footlight Parade (1933), and was one-half of a gold-digging duo with Glenda Farrell in nine films. During the Great Depression, Blondell was one of the highest-paid individuals in the United States. Her stirring rendition of "Remember My Forgotten Man" in the Busby Berkeley production of Gold Diggers of 1933, in which she co-starred with Dick Powell and Ruby Keeler, became an anthem for the frustrations of unemployed people and the government's failed economic policies. In 1937, she starred opposite Errol Flynn in The Perfect Specimen. By the end of the decade, she had made nearly 50 films. She left Warner Bros. in 1939.
In 1943, Blondell returned to Broadway as the star of Mike Todd's short-lived production of The Naked Genius, a comedy written by Gypsy Rose Lee. She was well received in her later films, despite being relegated to character and supporting roles after 1945, when she was billed below the title for the first time in 14 years in Adventure, which starred Clark Gable and Greer Garson. She was also featured prominently in A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (1945) and Nightmare Alley (1947). In 1948, she left the screen for three years and concentrated on theater, performing in summer stock and touring with Cole Porter's musical, Something for the Boys. She later reprised her role of Aunt Sissy in the musical version of A Tree Grows in Brooklyn for the national tour and played the nagging mother, Mae Peterson, in the national tour of Bye Bye Birdie.
Blondell returned to Hollywood in 1950. Her performance in her next film, The Blue Veil (1951), earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress in a Supporting Role. She played supporting roles in The Opposite Sex (1956), Desk Set (1957), and Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter? (1957). She received considerable acclaim for her performance as Lady Fingers in Norman Jewison's The Cincinnati Kid (1965), garnering a Golden Globe nomination and National Board of Review win for Best Supporting Actress. John Cassavetes cast her as a cynical, aging playwright in his film Opening Night (1977). Blondell was widely seen in two films released not long before her death – Grease (1978), and the remake of The Champ (1979) with Jon Voight and Rick Schroder. She also appeared in two films released after her death – The Glove (1979), and The Woman Inside (1981).
Blondell also guest-starred in various television programs, including three 1963 episodes as the character Aunt Win in the CBS sitcom The Real McCoys, starring Walter Brennan and Richard Crenna.
Also in 1963, Blondell was cast as the widowed Lucy Tutaine in the episode, "The Train and Lucy Tutaine", on the syndicated anthology series, Death Valley Days, hosted by Stanley Andrews. In the story line, Lucy sues a railroad company, against great odds, for causing the death of her cow. Noah Beery Jr., was cast as Abel.
In 1964, she appeared in the episode "What's in the Box?" of The Twilight Zone. She guest-starred in the episode "You're All Right, Ivy" on Jack Palance's circus drama, The Greatest Show on Earth, which aired on ABC in the 1963–64 television season. Her co-stars in the segment were Joe E. Brown and Buster Keaton. In 1965, she was in the running to replace Vivian Vance as Lucille Ball's sidekick on the hit CBS television comedy series The Lucy Show. Unfortunately, after filming her second guest appearance as Joan Brenner (Lucy's new friend from California), Blondell walked off the set right after the episode had completed filming when Ball humiliated her by harshly criticizing her performance in front of the studio audience and technicians.
Blondell continued working on television. In 1968, she guest-starred on the CBS sitcom Family Affair, starring Brian Keith. She replaced Bea Benaderet, who was ill, for one episode on the CBS series Petticoat Junction. In that installment, Blondell played FloraBelle Campbell, a lady visitor to Hooterville, who had once dated Uncle Joe (Edgar Buchanan) and Sam Drucker (Frank Cady). That same year, Blondell co-starred in all 52 episodes of the ABC Western series Here Come the Brides, set in the Pacific Northwest of the 19th century. Her co-stars included singer Bobby Sherman and actor-singer David Soul. Blondell received two consecutive Emmy nominations for outstanding continued performance by an actress in a dramatic series for her role as Lottie Hatfield.
In 1971, she followed Sada Thompson in the off-Broadway hit The Effect of Gamma Rays on Man-in-the-Moon Marigolds, with a young Swoosie Kurtz playing one of her daughters.
In 1972, she had an ongoing supporting role in the NBC series Banyon as Peggy Revere, who operated a secretarial school in the same building as Banyon's detective agency. This was a 1930s period action drama starring Robert Forster in the title role. Her students worked in Banyon's office, providing fresh faces for the show weekly. The series was replaced midseason.
Blondell has a motion pictures star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contributions to the film industry. Her star is located at 6311 Hollywood Boulevard. In December 2007, the Museum of Modern Art in New York City mounted a retrospective of Blondell's films in connection with a new biography by film professor Matthew Kennedy, and theatrical revival houses such as Film Forum in Manhattan have also projected many of her films recently.
She wrote a novel titled Center Door Fancy (New York: Delacorte Press, 1972), which was a thinly disguised autobiography with veiled references to June Allyson and Dick Powell.
Personal life
Blondell was married three times, first to cinematographer George Barnes in a private wedding ceremony on January 4, 1933, at the First Presbyterian Church in Phoenix, Arizona. They had one child, Norman Scott Barnes, who became an accomplished producer, director, and television executive known as Norman Powell. Joan and George divorced in 1936.
On September 19, 1936, she married Dick Powell, an actor, director, and singer. They had a daughter, Ellen Powell, who became a studio hair stylist, and Powell adopted her son by her previous marriage under the name Norman Scott Powell. Blondell and Powell were divorced on July 14, 1944. Blondell was less than friendly with Powell's next wife, June Allyson, although the two women would later appear together in The Opposite Sex (1956).
On July 5, 1947, Blondell married producer Mike Todd. Her marriage to Todd was an emotional and financial disaster that ended in divorce in 1950. She once accused him of holding her outside a hotel window by her ankles. He was also a heavy spender who lost hundreds of thousands of dollars gambling (high-stakes bridge was one of his weaknesses) and went through a controversial bankruptcy during their marriage. An often-repeated myth is that Mike Todd left Blondell for Elizabeth Taylor, when in fact, she had left Todd of her own accord years before he met Taylor.
Blondell died of leukemia in Santa Monica, California, on Christmas Day, 1979, with her children and her sister at her bedside. She was cremated and her ashes interred in a columbarium at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park Cemetery in Glendale, California.
Filmography
Feature films
Short films
Television
Radio broadcasts
Gallery
References
Further reading
Oderman, Stuart. Talking to the Piano Player 2. BearManor Media, 2009.
Grabman, Sandra. Plain Beautiful: The Life of Peggy Ann Garner. BearManor Media, 2005.
External links
Photographs of Joan Blondell
Joan Blondell Q&A with Biographer Matthew Kennedy
1906 births
1979 deaths
20th-century American actresses
Actresses from Santa Monica, California
Actresses from New York City
American beauty pageant winners
Female models from California
American film actresses
American people of Irish descent
Jewish American actresses
American stage actresses
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)
Deaths from cancer in California
Deaths from leukemia
Miss America 1920s delegates
Vaudeville performers
Warner Bros. contract players
Ziegfeld girls
California Republicans
Female models from New York (state)
Models from New York City
New York (state) Republicans
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244832 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20Ce | Sun Ce | Sun Ce () () (175–200), courtesy name Bofu, was a Chinese military general, politician, and warlord who lived during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He was the eldest child of Sun Jian, who was killed during the Battle of Xiangyang when Sun Ce was only 16. Sun Ce then broke away from his father's overlord, Yuan Shu, and headed to the Jiangdong region in southern China to establish his own power base there. With the help of several people, such as Zhang Zhao and Zhou Yu, Sun Ce managed to lay down the foundation of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period.
In 200, when the warlord Cao Cao was at war with his rival Yuan Shao in the Battle of Guandu, Sun Ce was rumoured to be planning an attack on Xuchang, Cao Cao's base. However, he was assassinated before he could carry out the plan. Sun Ce was posthumously honoured as "Prince Huan of Changsha" (長沙桓王) by his younger brother Sun Quan when the latter became the founding emperor of Eastern Wu.
Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi) describes Sun Ce as a handsome man who was full of laughter. He was also a generous and receptive man who employed people according to their abilities. As such, his subjects were willing to risk their lives for him. One detractor named Xu Gong, in a letter to Emperor Xian, compared Sun Ce to Xiang Yu, the warrior-king who overthrew the Qin dynasty. As a result, Sun Ce was also referred to as the "Little Conqueror" in popular culture. Sun Ce is depicted in the Wu Shuang Pu (無雙譜, Table of Peerless Heroes) by Jin Guliang.
Early life and career
Born in 175, Sun Ce was the eldest son of Sun Jian, a military general serving under the Eastern Han dynasty. In 190, a year after Emperor Ling died, the warlord Dong Zhuo usurped power, placing in the throne the puppet Emperor Xian. Regional warlords in eastern China then launched a campaign against Dong Zhuo. Sun Jian rendered his service to Yuan Shu, one of the leaders of the coalition. The attempt to oust Dong Zhuo soon failed and China slid into a series of massive civil wars. In the next year, Sun Jian was sent by Yuan Shu to attack Liu Biao, governor of Jing Province, but he was killed in an ambush.
Sun Ce brought his father's body to Qu'e (曲阿; present-day Danyang, Jiangsu) for burial and settled his mother down before heading for Danyang, where his maternal uncle Wu Jing was the governor. There he raised a small militia a few hundred in strength. This small force was far from sufficient for him to establish his own power so in 194 Sun Ce went to Yuan Shu. Yuan Shu was very impressed with Sun Ce and often lamented that he had no son like him. He also returned Sun Jian's former division of troops to Sun Ce.
Initially, Yuan Shu promised to appoint Sun Ce the governor of Jiujiang but eventually gave the governorship to Chen Ji (陳紀). Later, when Yuan Shu was denied a large loan of grains from the governor of Lujiang, he sent Sun Ce to attack the latter, promising to make Sun Ce the governor of Lujiang should he succeed. When Sun Ce did, however, Yuan Shu again went back on his words and appointed someone else instead. The disappointed Sun Ce then began to contemplate leaving.
Meanwhile, Liu Yao, who was by imperial decree the governor of Yang Province, occupied Qu'e as the regional seat Shouchun was already occupied by Yuan Shu. He then forced Wu Jing back west across the Yangtze River to Liyang (歷陽; present-day He County, Anhui). However, Yuan Shu claimed to be the rightful governor and sent Wu Jing and Sun Ce's cousin Sun Ben to attack Liu Yao. After they were unable to break down Liu Yao's defences for more than a year, Sun Ce requested to lead forces to assist the effort.
Conquest of Wu territory
Though Yuan Shu knew Sun Ce intended to leave, he believed the latter would not be able to defeat Liu Yao. Thus he deployed the young general off with merely a thousand odd troops and a tiny cavalry force. Along with a few hundred more willing followers, Sun Ce proceeded to Liyang, where he boosted his strength to more than 5,000. He then launched an offensive across the Yangtze River and successfully occupied the strategic position of Niuzhu (牛渚; southwest of present-day Ma'anshan, Anhui) in 195.
Two of Liu Yao's allies then came south from Pengcheng and Xiapi respectively to aid him. Sun Ce chose to first attack one of them, Ze Rong, who made camp south of Moling. After suffering initial defeat in the hands of the aggressor, Ze Rong fell back in defence and refused to engage in battle. Sun Ce then marched further north and attacked Xue Li (薛禮) in Moling. Although Xue Li soon gave up the city and escaped, Liu Yao's subordinate Fan Neng (樊能) and others had regrouped their forces and launched a renewed attack on Niuzhu. Turning back, Sun Ce defeated Fan Neng and secured Niuzhu. He then began a second offensive against Ze Rong. However, he was struck by a stray arrow in the thigh. Returning to Niuzhu, he sent out false words that he was killed in battle. The exulted Ze Rong then sent a force to attack. Sun Ce led the enemies into an ambush and annihilated them. When Ze Rong heard that Sun Ce was still alive, he further reinforced his defences.
Sun Ce then temporarily gave up attacking Ze Rong and focused his forces on Qu'e. After all the surrounding areas were taken over by Sun Ce, Liu Yao gave up the city and escaped south to Nanchang, capital of Yuzhang Commandery, where he died later. Hua Xin, administrator of Yuzhang, joined Sun's forces. As Sun Ce implemented strict discipline among his troops, he won the instant support of the local people and gathered many talented men, such as Chen Wu, Zhou Tai, Jiang Qin, Zhang Zhao, Zhang Hong, Qin Song, and Lü Fan. He then pushed his force deeper into Yang Province and conquered Kuaiji along the southern shore of Hangzhou Bay, whose governor Wang Lang surrendered. Sun Ce made Kuaiji his base city and struck out at the wandering bandit army led by Yan Baihu. Yan Baihu sent his younger brother Yan Yu (嚴輿) to offer Sun Ce a position alongside Yan Baihu, but Sun Ce showed no mercy and personally slew the emissary. As Yan Yu was known among Yan Baihu's men as a fierce warrior, his death struck fear into their hearts and they were soon defeated. Sun Ce then appointed his relatives and a trusted subject to govern Danyang and Yuzhang, from which he divided a new commandery named Luling (廬陵). His campaign, from the occupation of Niuzhu to the conquest of the entire region southeast of the Long River, took less than a year. He then defeated and received the services of Zu Lang (祖郎), the Chief of Danyang, and Taishi Ci, the leader of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces; he then urged the surrender of Hua Xin, another one of the remnants of Liu Yao's forces. Thus, with the exception of the scattered but still numerous army of Yan Baihu, the lands south of the Yangtze were mostly pacified.
The barbarians of Shanyue tribe, however, were not easily dealt with. To counter the frequent rebellions of the Shanyue (who would continue to rebel for many years), Sun Ce appointed He Qi to a military rank with orders to subdue the Shanyue. He Qi became a highly successful general later; truly, his appointment by Sun Ce was the first important step to Wu's eventual subjugation of the Shanyue.
Later life
In 197, Yuan Shu declared himself emperor – an act deemed treasonous against the Han dynasty. In a letter to Yuan Shu, Sun Ce denounced the move and broke ties with the former. In an effort to garner support from Sun Ce, the rising warlord Cao Cao then recommended him to be appointed General Who Attacks Rebels (討逆將軍) and enfeoffed as the Marquis of Wu (吳侯). In 199 Yuan Shu died of sickness along with his short-lived Zhong Dynasty. His cousin Yuan Yin (袁胤) feared Cao Cao and gave up Shouchun. Bringing along Yuan Shu's coffin and his former troops, he headed to Wan County (皖縣; present-day Qianshan County, Anhui) to seek refuge under Liu Xun (劉勳). As Liu Xun had insufficient food supplies in his realm to support the additional troops, he led a force south to pillage Haihun (海昏; east of present-day Yongxiu County, Jiangxi).
Sun Ce was en route to attack Huang Zu in Xiakou when he received the news. He then turned back and captured the poorly-defended Wan County, taking over all of Yuan Shu's 30,000 former troops. Hearing that his base city had been taken, Liu Xun headed west and sought help from Huang Zu, who sent a 5,000-strong naval force to assist him. Sun Ce pressed forward and defeated Liu Xun, who escaped north to Cao Cao. Sun Ce annexed more than 2,000 former troops and 1,000 ships of his enemy and came upon Huang Zu. Despite reinforcements from Liu Biao, Huang Zu was utterly defeated. During the battle, Sun Ce slew Liu Biao's officer, Han Xi (韓希), and completely routed Huang Zu's son, Huang She (黃射).
The victorious Sun Ce in 199 looked poised to take over the entire southern China. As he was threatened by rival Yuan Shao in the north and could not divide his attention, Cao Cao attempted to further reinforce the alliance with Sun Ce by marrying the daughter of his relative Cao Ren to Sun Ce's youngest brother Sun Kuang. Sun Ce in turn agreed to marry Sun Ben's daughter to Cao Cao's son Cao Zhang.
The former administrator of Wu Commandery, Xu Gong, had long opposed Sun Ce. Xu Gong wrote to Emperor Xian, recommending the emperor to summon Sun Ce to the capital as he deemed Sun Ce to be a hero comparable to Xiang Yu and too dangerous to be allowed to occupy a territory. However, the letter was intercepted by an official loyal to Sun Ce, who attacked and then had Xu Gong executed. Xu Gong's former servants then kept a low profile and waited for chance to revenge.
In the year 200, Cao Cao engaged in the decisive Battle of Guandu with Yuan Shao along the shores of the Yellow River, leaving the capital and his base city Xuchang poorly guarded. Sun Ce is said to have then plotted to attack Xuchang under the banner of rescuing Emperor Xian, who was a figurehead under Cao Cao's control. Preparations were underway for the military excursion when Sun Ce ran into three former servants of Xu Gong during a solo hunting trip. One of them managed to plant an arrow into Sun Ce's cheek before Sun Ce's men arrived and slew the assassins. Many differing accounts of Sun Ce's death exist (see below). One generally accepted scenario is that he died that same night.
Another possible scenario has Sun Ce living for quite some time. The physician told Sun Ce to rest still for a hundred days to allow the wound to heal, but Sun Ce looked into the mirror one day and, seeing his scar, became so enraged that he slammed his table. The large movement caused the wound to break and he died in the same night. Although he was survived by one son, Sun Ce passed his legacy to his younger brother, Sun Quan. When Sun Quan declared himself emperor of the state of Eastern Wu in 222, he honoured Sun Ce with the posthumous title "Prince Huan of Changsha" (長沙桓王).
Sun Ce was succeeded by a posthumous son, Sun Shao (孫紹), as well as at least two (possibly three) daughters, married to Gu Shao and later Zhu Ji (朱紀), and Lu Xun respectively. Sun Shao bore one son, Sun Feng (孫奉), who was executed by Sun Hao for alleged treason due to his popularity.
Dispute over cause of death
Sun Sheng (孫盛) in his Exposition on Disparities and Similarities (異同評) discounted the theory that Sun Ce made plans to attack Xuchang. He believed that although Sun Ce was a rising power, he was threatened in the west by Huang Zu, who was defeated but not eliminated, in the north by Chen Deng, governor of Guangling Commandery, and in the south by indigenous tribes yet to be assimilated. These prevented Sun Ce from striking far out at Xuchang and moving the emperor to southeastern China. He further argued that Sun Ce died on the fifth day in the fourth month of 200, before the Battle of Guandu even took place.
Pei Songzhi, who annotated the Records of the Three Kingdoms, rebutted Sun Sheng, arguing that Huang Zu was newly broken and had yet to recollect his forces while the indigenous tribes were scattered and not much of a threat. Pei Songzhi believed that the first objective of Sun Ce's planned northward excursion was to attack Chen Deng, which would provide a platform for capturing Xuchang. On the other hand, Cao Cao and Yuan Shao had been engaging in skirmishes and small-scale battles before Sun Ce's death. Thus there was in fact no discrepancy in timing.
A historically implausible legend regarding Sun Ce's death involves a popular Taoist priest of his time, Gan Ji (干吉), whom he regarded as a sorcerer. Despite petitions from his subjects and his own mother, Sun Ce ordered Gan Ji's execution. According to In Search of the Supernatural (搜神記) by Gan Bao (干竇), a compilation largely based on legends and hearsay, Sun Ce began to see apparitions of Gan Ji ever since the execution of the latter. After he was injured by assassins, Sun Ce was told by the physician to rest still to allow the wound to heal. However, he looked into the mirror one day and saw Gan Ji's face, whereupon he let out a cry and slammed the mirror. His wound broke and he died shortly. This version was adopted and further dramatised in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, in which Gan Ji's name was taken to be "Yu Ji" (于吉).
Family
In popular culture
Chinese opera
In Peking opera, Sun Ce's role is usually that of a hero or tragic hero, while his brother, Sun Quan is usually portrayed as a villain at worst or self-seeking at best. Several operas even toy with the idea that Sun Quan had Sun Ce assassinated so that he could take control of the warlord state, though there is no historical evidence to support this view. In the opera Fenghuang Er Qiao, Sun Ce borrows 3,000 troops from Yuan Shu and allies with the Qiao army, which is led by the Two Qiaos. Sun Ce, the protagonist of the opera, eventually gains Da Qiao's hand in marriage through a martial arts contest with the help of Zhou Yu and Xiao Qiao.
Film and television
In the 1983 Shaw Brothers Studio film The Weird Man, Sun Ce has Yu Ji executed and the sorcerer becomes a vengeful ghost. In this film Sun Ce is portrayed as the anti-hero and Yu Ji as the hero due to the controversy between them in the novel. The 1993 Hong Kong film Ninja in Ancient China is also adapted from this story except Yu Ji's apprentices try to avenge him.
Sha Yi portrayed Sun Ce in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms.
Comics and anime
In the anime Yokoyama Mitsuteru Sangokushi, Sun Ce fights alongside his father against Dong Zhuo and is befriended by Liu Bei, Guan Yu, and Zhang Fei, with whom he trains to become a hero.
The protagonist of the manga/anime Ikki Tousen, Sonsaku Hakufu, is loosely based on the historical figure Sun Ce ("Sonsaku Hakufu" being the Japanese reading of Sun Ce's name and courtesy name). Her guardian, Shuuyu Koukin, bears the same name and personality as Zhou Yu.
In the anime Kōtetsu Sangokushi, Sun Ce is portrayed as a once kind-hearted and virtuous hero who was corrupted by the power of the Imperial Seal, causing him to kill its protector.
In the Chinese manhua The Ravages of Time, Sun Ce is a cunning, ruthless and manipulative character.
Video games
Sun Ce appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series.
Sun Ce is featured as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors video game series, as well as Warriors Orochi, a crossover between Dynasty Warriors and Samurai Warriors.
Sun Ce is also a legendary character in Creative Assembly's Total War: Three Kingdoms, the newest part of the Total War video games series which was released on May 23, 2019.
Sun Ce is also a playable character in the fighting game Sango Fighter 2.
Card games
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering there is a card named "Sun Ce, Young Conqueror", in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Eastern Wu family trees
Notes
References
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
175 births
200 deaths
Assassinated Chinese politicians
Chinese Confucianists
Chinese duellists
Deaths by arrow wounds
Han dynasty warlords
Politicians from Hangzhou
Political office-holders in Zhejiang
Family of Sun Quan
Yuan Shu and associates
Legendary Chinese people
Wu Shuang Pu | [
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244835 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geraint%20Wyn%20Davies | Geraint Wyn Davies | Geraint Wyn Davies (, 20 April 1957) is a Welsh-American stage, film and television actor-director. Educated in Canada, he has worked in the United Kingdom, Canada and the United States. His most famous role as the vampire-turned police detective Nick Knight in the Canadian television series Forever Knight.
Early life and training
Geraint Wyn Davies was born on 20 April 1957 in Swansea, Wales, the son of a Congregationalist Christian preacher and a school teacher. At the age of 7 he moved with his family from Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire to Canada, where he attended Upper Canada College. He first acted at age 12, appearing in a school production of Lord of the Flies. He went on to study at the University of Western Ontario, where he studied economics before dropping out to pursue an acting career.
His professional stage debut was in 1976 in Quebec City, when at 19 he appeared in The Fantasticks, Red Emma, and A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Stage career
Davies moved from Quebec to London's Centre Stage theatre company, and later played the lead in The Last Englishman with the British Actors Theatre Company. He spent two seasons with Theatr Clwyd, touring Britain in Enemy of the People and Hamlet (for which he received the Regional Theatre Best Actor award), and a season with the Chichester Festival, in Henry VIII. In Canada, he appeared over several seasons with the Shaw Festival and Stratford Festival of Canada. He gained a reputation for his performances in The Music Cure, Candida, Cyrano de Bergereac, The Vortex, Goodnight Disgrace, Henry V, and The Three Musketeers. He sang his way through the Rodgers and Hart musical The Boys from Syracuse.
Other performances include My Fat Friend in Los Angeles and Sleuth with Patrick Macnee in Toronto. In 2004, he appeared in Washington, D.C. in the title roles of Cyrano de Bergerac .
In April 1996, Davies appeared as Petruchio in Shakespeare's The Taming of The Shrew, directed by Patrick Tucker of the Original Shakespeare Company. This three-performance run was presented as Shakespeare's own players may have done—with sparse rehearsal, eclectic costuming, and rotating roles. In Spring 1998, he appeared in the Moises Kaufmann production Gross Indecency: The Three Trials of Oscar Wilde at the Mark Taper Forum in Los Angeles. Gross Indecency earned the Garland Award for "Best Ensemble Cast from Backstage West" that year.
In August 1999, Davies starred in Leon Pownall's one-man show An Evening with Dylan Thomas at the Atlantic Theatre Festival in Nova Scotia, Canada. The following summer he returned to the Atlantic Theatre Festival in Pownall's Dylan Thomas and Shakespeare: In the Envy of Some Greatness. August 2001 saw the completion of Pownall's Dylan Thomas trilogy with Stranger in Paradise. In mid-2002, he returned to the Stratford Festival Theatre's main stage in My Fair Lady, as Henry Higgins, a role he alternated with Colm Feore. He reprised the role of Dylan Thomas at the Festival's Studio Theatre, and returned to the Atlantic Theatre Festival in August 2003 to perform Hughie (a one-act play by Eugene O'Neill). The evening was topped off by a presentation of The Sermon by David Mamet.
2004 saw Davies appear at the Lincoln in New York as Edmund to Christopher Plummer's King Lear.
In the summer of 2004, he starred in the title role of Cyrano in Barry Kornhauser's adaptation of Cyrano de Bergerac at The Shakespeare Theatre in Washington, D.C., for which he won the Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Resident Play.
The next year, in 2005, he was Dylan Thomas for seven weeks in Do Not Go Gentle at the Arclight Theatre in New York City. While there, he did a reading of Tennessee Williams's letters at the New York Public Library, and performed in a reading of Eugene O'Neill's Days Without End. In September 2005, he joined in a reading of R. L. Stevenson's Treasure Island in Washington, D.C., and in October, took part in a staged reading of a new play by Austin Pendleton entitled H6R3, which blends Shakespeare's plays Henry VI and Richard III.
In 2006, he returned to The Shakespeare Theatre in Washington, D.C. to perform Don Armado in Michael Kahn's 1960s version of Shakespeare's Love's Labor's Lost. Following the American run, the play moved to the Royal Shakespeare Company at Stratford-Upon-Avon in the UK for a limited run. He was nominated but did not win The Helen Hayes Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor, Resident Play for Don Armado.
While in D.C., he participated in a reading of London Assurance by Dion Boucicault.
Early in 2007, Davies headlined as Richard III by Shakespeare at The Shakespeare Theatre in Washington, D.C. He, along with friend Brent Carver, opened Toronto's CanStage production of The Elephant Man in mid-October. In 2008, he returned to Ontario's Stratford Festival to appear in Hamlet (as Polonius) and Fuente Ovejuna (as the King). He followed the Stratford season playing the Duke at the Red Bull Theater (NYC) production of Women Beware Women. He returned to Stratford in 2009, playing Duncan in Macbeth, Caesar in Julius Caesar and Bottom in A Midsummer Night’s Dream. For the 2010 Stratford Festival season, he portrayed King Arthur in Camelot and Falstaff in Merry Wives of Windsor. The 2011 season featured him again in a singing role as King Arthur.
For the Stratford Festival's 60th season in 2013, Davies portrayed Duke Vincentio in Measure for Measure and the Earl of Leicester in Mary Stuart. The following year, he continued at the Stratford Festival, portraying Antony in Antony & Cleopatra and the Cook in Mother Courage. For the 2015 season, he portrayed Claudius in Hamlet, and Johann Wilhelm Mobius in The Physicists.
He played Prospero in The Tempest in the 2014-2015 season of The Shakespeare Theatre of Washington, D.C.
He has voiced two audio books, Great American Suspense: Five Unabridged Classics and Great Classic Hauntings: Six Unabridged Stories.
Filmography
Davies made his film debut in Deadly Harvest in 1977, and has since appeared in many films, among them RoboCop: Prime Directives (2000). In 2007 he appeared in a cameo in Nancy Drew and filmed a made-for-TV movie, Post Mortem for Lifetime.
Deadly Harvest (1977) - Michael Franklin
D.O.A. (1978) - Jon
A Paid Vacation (1979) - Rick Jarrell
The Boys from Syracuse (1986) - Antipholus of Syracuse
Learning to Fly (1986) - Young pilot
Daughters of the Country (1987) - Angus
The Taming of the Shrew (1988) - Hortensio
Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman (1989) - Allan Devlin
(1992) - Anton/Tony
Hush Little Baby (1993) - Dr. Martin Nolan
Other Women's Children (1993) - Matt Stewart
Ghost Mom (1993) - Martin Mallory
Dancing in the Dark (1995) - Dr. Lambert
The Conspiracy of Fear (1996) - Timothy Straker
Trilogy of Terror II (1996) - Ben
One of the Hollywood Ten (2000) - Michael Wilson
Trudeau (2002) - Premier William G. Davis
American Psycho II: All American Girl (2002) - Daniels
Cube 2: Hypercube (2002) - Simon Grady
The Wild Dogs (2002) - Colin
Some Things That Stay (2004) - Mr. Murphy
I Know What I Saw (2007) - Detective Morgan
Pavane (2008) - Phil
Antony and Cleopatra (2015) — Antony
Television
Davies was a regular in the cast of To Serve and Protect. Since Forever Knight he has appeared in several series. He has guest-starred in episodes of Katts and Dog, Highlander: The Series, Kung Fu: The Legend Continues, The Outer Limits, RoboCop: The Series, Diamonds, Sweating Bullets, 1-800-Missing, among others.
Hangin' In (1982) as Drake/Jonathan (2 episodes)
The Littlest Hobo (1982–83) as Adam Coulter/David Barrington (3 episodes)
The Judge (1986) as Allan Pearson (6 episodes)
Airwolf (1987) as Major Mike Rivers (24 episodes)
Dracula: The Series (1990–91) as Klaus Helsing (5 episodes)
Forever Knight (1992–96) as Det. Nicholas 'Nick' Knight/Nicholas de Brabant (70 episodes)
Black Harbour (1996–99) as Nick Haskell (34 episodes)
The Outer Limits (1996–2001) as David / Sheriff Grady Markham (2 episodes)
Robocop: Prime Directives (2001) (TV Mini-Series) as Kaydick (4 episodes)
Tracker (2001–2002) as Zin (12 episodes)
Slings and Arrows (2005) as Henry Breedlove (5 episodes)
24 (2006) as James Nathanson (6 episodes)
ReGenesis (2007–2008) as Carleton Riddlemeyer (18 episodes)
Murdoch Mysteries (2008 & 2013) as Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (3 episodes)
Frankie Drake Mysteries (2021) as Ned Drake (one episode)
Directing
Davies has directed several episodes of Forever Knight, Black Harbour, Pit Pony, Power Play and North of 60.
Music
In Forever Knight, Wyn Davies played the piano in the loft and co-wrote a song for the "Baby Baby" episode; he was featured in one of the selections on the first Forever Knight CD. He has appeared in several musicals, notably as Henry Higgins in My Fair Lady in Stratford, Ontario.
Wyn Davies produced a CD of his own works, Bar Talk, which is sold through his fan club with the proceeds going to a variety of charities such as Alex's Lemonade Stand Foundation, Children's Hospital Foundation in Washington D.C., the Atlantic Theatre Festival of Wolfville and The Stratford Festival's Shakespeare School (Stratford, Ontario).
Personal life
Wyn Davies was married to Canadian artist Alana Guinn from 1985 to 2006. They have two children, daughter Pyper and son Galen.
On 13 June 2006, Wyn Davies became an American citizen, having been sworn in by Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg.
In August 2011, he married actress Claire Lautier.
References
External links
1957 births
Living people
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
American people of Welsh descent
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male stage actors
Canadian male television actors
Welsh emigrants to Canada
People from Haverfordwest
Male actors from Swansea
Upper Canada College alumni
Canadian expatriate male actors in the United States
Canadian male Shakespearean actors
20th-century Canadian male actors
21st-century Canadian male actors | [
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244839 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zev%20Bellringer | Zev Bellringer | Zev or Xev is a fictional character from the sci-fi television series Lexx. The character of Zev was portrayed by three actresses during the series' run and the character of Zev has had three incarnations. Zev's character was originally played by Lisa Hynes, after which she was portrayed by Eva Habermann and Xenia Seeberg. Habermann portrayed Zev for the first six episodes of the series, after which the character was renamed Xev and portrayed by Seeberg.
Background
The character was born on the planet B3K, where she was sold by her parents to the Wife Bank. During her initial years Zev was raised by computers that taught her to become a perfect wife. As a result, the character became overweight and was rejected by her bridegroom. Zev was then sentenced to become a love slave by being run through a device called the Lusticon, intended to transform her into a beautiful and brainless servant. Before the process could be successfully completed, a carnivorous reptile called a cluster lizard attempted to eat her but was fused to her DNA in the process. This enabled Zev to free herself. She then substituted the detached robot head of a 790 robot in the machine to be subjected to brainwashing. This prompted the robot to fall in love with her.
Zev's character died early in the second season in the episode "Terminal", but was re-animated in the next episode by the character Lyekka as a present for Stanley Tweedle. The character was renamed Xev (the pronunciation remaining the same) and was thereafter portrayed by a different actress, Xenia Seeberg. During the series' run the character has had feelings for Kai, which remained unrequited throughout the series. Seeberg has described the character as being one of the more moral characters of the show, but that her aspect as a potential love slave still factored heavily into the character's motivations.
Cluster lizard
As Zev and Xev, the character has the ability to transform into a cluster lizard and shares many similarities with the fictional creature. Cluster Lizards are portrayed as being very vicious reptilian creatures resembling centipedes that can curl up into a wheel-like shape and travel at considerable speeds. Otherwise they resemble by appearance a small Sandworm. They reproduce in mating cycles every seven years and are used as a form of capital punishment by His Divine Shadow.
In other media
An adult performer has been using the name Xev Bellringer since at least 2012.
References
Lexx
Science fiction television characters
Fictional shapeshifters | [
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244840 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Montagu%2C%204th%20Earl%20of%20Sandwich | John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich | John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS (13 November 1718 – 30 April 1792) was a British statesman who succeeded his grandfather Edward Montagu, 3rd Earl of Sandwich as the Earl of Sandwich in 1729, at the age of ten. During his life, he held various military and political offices, including Postmaster General, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Secretary of State for the Northern Department. He is also known for the claim that he was the eponymous inventor of the sandwich.
Biography
Early years
John Montagu was born in 1718, the son of Edward Montagu, Viscount Hinchingbrooke. His father died when John was four, leaving him as his heir. His mother soon remarried and he had little further contact with her. He succeeded his grandfather as Earl of Sandwich in 1729, at the age of ten. He was educated at Eton and at Trinity College, Cambridge, and spent some time travelling, initially going on the Grand Tour around Continental Europe before visiting the more unusual destinations of Greece, Turkey, and Egypt which were then part of the Ottoman Empire. This led him later to found a number of Orientalist societies. On his return to England in 1739, he took his seat in the House of Lords as a follower of the Duke of Bedford, one of the wealthiest and most powerful politicians of the era. He became a Patriot Whig and one of the sharpest critics of the Walpole government, attacking the government's strategy in the War of the Austrian Succession. Like many Patriot Whigs, Lord Sandwich was opposed to Britain's support of Hanover and strongly opposed the deployment of British troops on the European Continent to protect it, instead arguing that Britain should make greater use of its naval power. He gained attention for his speeches in parliament. His oratory earned him a reputation for clearly setting out his argument even if he lacked natural eloquence.
Political career
In 1744, the Duke of Bedford was invited to join the government, now headed by Henry Pelham, taking the post of First Lord of the Admiralty. Sandwich joined him as one of the commissioners of the Admiralty, in effect serving as deputy under Bedford. The experienced Admiral Lord Anson also joined the Admiralty board and was an influential figure. Bedford spent much of his time at his country estate, and much of the day-to-day running of the Admiralty fell to Sandwich and Anson. Anson had control of the training and discipline of the navy, while Sandwich focused on the administration. Following a proposal by Admiral Edward Vernon, the concept of a Western Squadron was pioneered, which proved very successful. This marked a radical shift in British naval strategy, and led to British success at the Battles of Cape Finisterre.
The following year, Sandwich took a commission as a colonel in the British Army as part of the response to the Jacobite rising and the prospect of a French invasion. In order to boost the relatively small British army, a number of units were raised by prominent figures, and Sandwich served in the regiment formed by Bedford. While serving in The Midlands, he fell seriously ill with fever and nearly died. After his recovery, he returned to his duties at the admiralty. He remained an army officer for the rest of his life, remaining on the half-pay list and eventually rising to the rank of general, even though he took no further active part in the army.
Congress of Breda
In 1746 he was sent as a plenipotentiary to the Congress of Breda, and he continued to take part in the negotiations for peace until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was concluded in 1748. Sandwich was also made ambassador to the Dutch Republic during the talks. Using the resources of the British secret service, Sandwich was able to outmanoeuvre his French counterpart by intercepting the latter's secret correspondence. His service at Breda drew him to the attention of the influential Thomas Pelham-Holles, 1st Duke of Newcastle, who lobbied for him to be given high office when he returned home.
It is possible that during his time at Breda, he played a role in the 1747 Dutch Revolution which brought William IV, Prince of Orange wider powers, something supported by Britain as they hoped the Prince would improve the Dutch Republic's military performance in the ongoing war in the Low Countries. However, there is no firm evidence of this.
First Lord of the Admiralty (first and second spells)
In February 1748 he became First Lord of the Admiralty, retaining this post until June 1751. By 1751 Newcastle, who had previously admired Sandwich for his forthright and hardline views, had increasingly begun to distrust him and his relationship with The Duke of Bedford whom Newcastle regarded as a rival. Newcastle engineered the dismissal of both of them, by sacking Sandwich. Bedford resigned in protest, as Newcastle had calculated, allowing him to replace them with men he considered more loyal personally to him.
For the next few years Sandwich spent time at his country estate, largely avoiding politics, though he kept in close contact with both Bedford and Anson and Britain's participation in the Seven Years' War. Partly thanks to naval reforms pioneered by Anson and Sandwich the Royal Navy enjoyed a series of successes and was able to blockade much of the French fleet in port.
In 1763 he returned to the Admiralty in the government of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute, and encouraged a major rebuilding programme for the Royal Navy. Bute was a Tory who wished to bring the war to an end, which he did with the Treaty of Paris. It was during this time that Sandwich first met Martha Ray who became his long-standing mistress. He was soon dismissed from the office, but was offered the influential position of Ambassador to Madrid.
Northern Secretary
In August 1763 Sandwich became Secretary of State for the Northern Department, in the government of George Grenville who had replaced Bute. While filling this office he took a leading part in the successful prosecution of the radical M.P. John Wilkes for obscene libel. Although he had been allegedly associated with Wilkes in the notorious Hellfire Club (also known as the Monks of Medmenham), recent scholarship has suggested that the two had a more distant but cordial relationship than the friendship which was popularly portrayed at the time. John Gay's The Beggar's Opera was played in Covent Garden shortly thereafter, and the similarity of Sandwich's conduct to that of Jemmy Twitcher, betrayer of Macheath in that play, permanently attached to him that appellation. Wilkes was eventually expelled from the House of Commons.
He held the post of Northern Secretary until July 1765. His departure from the post coincided with the end of George Grenville's term as prime minister. He hoped to return to office swiftly, provided a united opposition could be formed.
Sandwich was postmaster general from 1768 to 1771 and briefly secretary of state again from December 1770 to January 1771.
First Lord of the Admiralty (third spell)
Sandwich served again as First Lord of the Admiralty in Lord North's administration from 1771 to 1782. He replaced the distinguished Admiral Sir Edward Hawke in the post. His appointment to the post followed the Falklands Crisis which had nearly seen Britain go to war with Spain over the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean after the Capture of Port Egmont by Spanish forces. War had only been averted when Louis XVI of France refused to back the Spanish over the dispute. Both France and Spain resented what they considered British hegemony following the Seven Years' War, and desired to overturn the imbalance of power; war was widely expected to break out between the nations in the near future.
In 1774, only three years into his third term, Sandwich commissioned a series of ship models and a model of Chatham Dockyard as a gift to George III in an attempt to interest his king in naval matters. However, Sandwich's overall administration of the navy in the lead up to and during the American War of Independence was traditionally portrayed as being incompetent, with insufficient ships being ready for the outbreak of war with France in 1778. In 1775, Sandwich spoke vociferously in opposition to a plan for British America put forth by Benjamin Franklin and the Earl of Chatham. When Britain and France went to war, Sandwich advocated a strategy of concentrating the British fleet in European waters to deter invasion in opposition to his colleague, Lord Germain, who pushed for more ships to be sent to North America. The cabinet largely followed Sandwich's policy, retaining footholds on the American coast which could be used as naval bases, while retaining the bulk of the fleet at home. Sandwich's problems increased when Spain entered the war on France's side in 1779 giving the Bourbon fleets a numerical advantage over the Royal Navy.
Prior to 1778 Keppel failed to persuade Sandwich to ignore technical difficulties and "copper sheath only a few ships"; he was later possibly unfairly to make political capital out of this in The London Magazine, March 1781. He had remarked that coppering "gave additional strength to the navy" and he reproached Lord Sandwich with having "refused to sheath only a few ships with copper" at his request, when he had since ordered the whole navy to be sheathed. The lack of coppering the navy was one of the key reasons leading to Britain losing the Thirteen Colonies.
In 1778 the new Navy Board Controller Charles Middleton, who had the major problem at the time with supplying over 100 ships for the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), compounded that year by French opportunism in declaring war on Britain to support the American rebels, effectively turned what was a local civil war into a global conflict. Others followed: Spain in 1779 and the Netherlands in 1780. Middleton took the view that Britain was "outnumbered at every station", and the navy was required to "extricate us from present danger". He understood that coppering allowed the navy to stay at sea for much longer without the need for cleaning and repairs to the underwater hull, making it a very attractive, if expensive, proposition. On 21 January 1779 he wrote to the Admiralty, and petitioned King George directly. The King backed him for what was an expensive process for an untested technology, and in May 1779 he placed orders at the Portsmouth Docks for coppering a total 51 ships within a year.
During 1779 a combined Franco-Spanish fleet was able to sail into the English Channel to threaten the coast of Cornwall in the initial stage of a Franco-Spanish invasion of Britain. Sandwich was criticised for the failure of the smaller British Channel Fleet to prevent this, although the invasion never materialised.
After 1778, the primary objective in the war was maintaining control over the sugar-rich West Indian archipelago The lucrative sugar trade in the Caribbean was reckoned at the time as being of more importance to British interests than the 13 colonies. The sugar trade was paying for the costs of the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and the Anglo-French War (1778–1783). The Royal Navy's newly coppered ships as yet untested were used successfully by Rodney in defeating the French at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica in February 1782.
By the time Sandwich's administration ended, he would take full credit for coppering the fleet as one of his great achievements when defending his record in office in January 1782.
Personal life
For several years Sandwich had as a mistress Fanny Murray, the subject of John Wilkes' An Essay on Woman (1763), but he eventually married Dorothy Fane, daughter of the 1st Viscount Fane, by whom he had a son, John, Viscount Hinchingbrooke (1743 – 1814), who later succeeded as 5th Earl. Sandwich's first personal tragedy was his wife's deteriorating health and eventual insanity. During his wife's decline, Sandwich started an affair with the talented opera singer Martha Ray. During their relationship, Ray bore him at least five and perhaps as many as nine children, including Basil Montagu (1770 – 1851), writer, jurist and philanthropist. Tragedy was to strike again in April 1779 when Ray was murdered in the foyer of the Royal Opera House at Covent Garden by a jealous suitor, James Hackman, Rector of Wiveton. Sandwich never recovered from his grief. The events surrounding Ray's murder were depicted in the popular novel Love and Madness (1780) by Herbert Croft.
In a famous exchange with the actor Samuel Foote, Sandwich declared, "Foote, I have often wondered what catastrophe would bring you to your end; but I think, that you must either die of the pox, or the halter." "My lord", replied Foote instantaneously, "that will depend upon one of two contingencies; – whether I embrace your lordship's mistress, or your lordship's principles." This retort is often misattributed to John Wilkes.
Sandwich retired from public duty in 1782, and lived another ten years in retirement at what was then the family seat, Hinchingbrooke House, Huntingdonshire, dying on 30 April 1792. His title of Earl of Sandwich passed to his eldest son, John Montagu, 5th Earl of Sandwich, who was 48 at the time.
Sandwich was buried in All Saints' Church in Barnwell, Northamptonshire, of which only the chancel survives, kept to preserve the Montagu tombs.
Legacy
Sandwich retired in 1782. Despite holding a number of important posts during his career, Sandwich's incompetence and corruption were legendary, inspiring the saying: "Seldom has any man held so many offices and accomplished so little."
Recently, some historians have begun to suggest that Lord Sandwich was not perhaps as incompetent as suggested, but that previous historians have placed too much emphasis on sources from his political enemies.
The sandwich
The modern sandwich is named after Lord Sandwich, but the exact circumstances of its invention and original use are still the subject of debate. A rumour in a contemporaneous travel book called Tour to London by Pierre-Jean Grosley formed the popular myth that bread and meat sustained Lord Sandwich at the gambling table but Sandwich had many bad habits, including the Hellfire Club, and any story may be a creation after the fact. Lord Sandwich was a very conversant gambler, the story goes, and he did not take the time to have a meal during his long hours playing at the card table. Consequently, he would ask his servants to bring him slices of meat between two slices of bread, a habit well known among his gambling friends. Other people, according to this account, began to order "the same as Sandwich!", and thus the "sandwich" was born. The sober alternative to this account is provided by Sandwich's biographer N. A. M. Rodger, who suggests that Sandwich's commitments to the navy, to politics, and to the arts mean that the first sandwich was more likely to have been consumed at his work desk.
Islands named after Sandwich by Capt James Cook
Lord Sandwich was a great supporter of Captain James Cook. As First Lord of the Admiralty, Sandwich approved Admiralty funds for the purchase and fit-out of the Resolution, Adventure and Discovery for Cook's second and third expeditions of exploration in the Pacific Ocean. He also arranged an audience with the King, which was an unusual privilege for a lower ranking officer. In honour of Sandwich, Cook named the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii) after him, as well as Montague Island off the south east coast of Australia, the South Sandwich Islands in the Southern Atlantic Ocean and Montague Island in the Gulf of Alaska. Hinchinbrook Island was named for the House owned by the Montagu family. Lord Sandwich donated the various items given him by Cook to Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He also met the young Ra'iatean Omai, whom Cook had brought to Europe, and took him to his country estate for a week, presenting him with a suit of armour.
Cricket
Like his friends John Russell, 4th Duke of Bedford and George Montagu-Dunk, 2nd Earl of Halifax, Sandwich was keen on cricket. The earliest surviving record of his involvement in the sport comes from 1741 when, as the patron and captain of the Huntingdonshire county team, Sandwich and Halifax formed the Northamptonshire & Huntingdonshire team which twice defeated Bedfordshire, first at Woburn Park and then at Cow Meadow, Northampton.
Music
After his naval career, Sandwich turned his energy toward music. He became a great proponent of "ancient music" (defined by him as music more than two decades old). He was the patron of the Italian violinist Felice Giardini, and created a "Catch Club", where professional singers would sing "ancient" and modern catches, glees, and madrigals. He also put on performances of George Frideric Handel's oratorios, masques, and odes at his estate. Sandwich was instrumental in putting together the Concert of Ancient Music, the first public concert to showcase a canonic repertory of old works.
Chronology
1718 The 4th Earl of Sandwich is born on 13 November 1718
1729 Succeeds his grandfather, Edward Montague, 3rd Earl of Sandwich, in the earldom
1729 Educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge
1740/41 (old style/new style), 14 March, marries The Hon. Dorothy Fane at St James's, Westminster
1746 Sent as plenipotentiary to the congress at Breda, and continues to take part in the negotiations for peace until the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle is signed in 1748
1748–1751 First term as First Lord of the Admiralty
1749–56 Bailiff of the Bedford Level Corporation
1763 Becomes one of the principal secretaries of state
1763 Second term as First Lord of the Admiralty
1768 Appointed Postmaster General
1770 Becomes Secretary of State
1771–1782 Third and last term as First Lord of the Admiralty (during this term: the American Revolutionary War, 1775–1783)
1779 His mistress Martha Ray, mother of five of his children, murdered by her admirer James Hackman in Covent Garden
1782 Retires in March
1792 Dies on 30 April
In popular media
Actor Bill Nighy was cast as Lord Sandwich in the TV series, Longitude in 2000.
See also
Secretary of State (England)
Secretary of State for the Northern Department
List of the First Lords of the Admiralty
Postmaster General of the United Kingdom
References
Bibliography
External links
Guide to the papers of Lord Sandwich, 1718–1792 held and digitised by the National Library of Australia
Smithsonian Magazine article on the Earl's Love Triangle
The Lives & Times of the Hell-Fire Club
1718 births
1792 deaths
Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge
Ambassadors of Great Britain to the Netherlands
British Army generals
British officials in the American Revolution
English cricketers of 1701 to 1786
English cricketers
Montagu, John
Fellows of the Royal Society
Lords of the Admiralty
Members of the Privy Council of Great Britain
John Montagu, 04th Earl of Sandwich
People educated at Eton College
Secretaries of State for the Northern Department
United Kingdom Postmasters General
Cricket patrons
Earls of Sandwich
18th-century philanthropists | [
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244841 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felis | Felis | Felis is a genus of small and medium-sized cat species native to most of Africa and south of 60° latitude in Europe and Asia to Indochina. The genus includes the domestic cat. The smallest Felis species is the black-footed cat with a head and body length from . The largest is the jungle cat with a head and body length from .
Genetic studies indicate that the Felinae genera Felis, Otocolobus and Prionailurus diverged from a Eurasian progenitor of the Felidae about 6.2 million years ago, and that Felis species split off 3.04 to 0.99 million years ago.
Etymology
The generic name Felis is derived from Classical Latin fēlis meaning "cat, ferret".
Taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus considered Felis to comprise all cat species known until 1758. Later taxonomists split the cat family into different genera. In 1917, the British zoologist Reginald Innes Pocock revised the genus Felis as comprising only the ones listed in the following table. Estimated genetic divergence times of the listed species are indicated in million years ago (Mya), based on analysis of autosomal, xDNA, yDNA and mtDNA gene segments.
Pocock accepted the Pallas's cat as the only member of the genus Otocolobus. Other scientists consider it also a Felis species.
Several scientists consider the Chinese mountain cat a subspecies of F. silvestris.
Phylogeny
The phylogenetic relationships of living Felis species are shown in the following cladogram:
Fossil Felis species
Fossil Felis species include:
Felis attica (Wagner, 1857)
Felis lunensis (Martelli, 1906)
Characteristics
Felis species have high and wide skulls, short jaws and narrow ears with short tufts, but without any white spots on the back of the ears. Their pupils contract to a vertical slit.
A black cat from Transcaucasia described in 1904 as F. daemon by Satunin turned out to be a feral cat, probably a hybrid of wildcat and domestic cat.
The Kellas cat is a hybrid between domestic cat and European wildcat occurring in Scotland.
The Corsican wildcat is considered to have been introduced to Corsica before the beginning of the 1st millennium. A genetic study of a dozen individuals showed that they are closely related to the African wildcat originating in the Middle East.
References
External links
Mammal genera
Messinian first appearances
Extant Miocene first appearances
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
Felines | [
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244844 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songkhla%20province | Songkhla province | Songkhla (, , ) is one of the southern provinces (changwat) of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from east clockwise) Satun, Phatthalung, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Pattani, and Yala. To the south it borders Kedah and Perlis of Malaysia.
In contrast to most other provinces, the capital Songkhla is not the largest city in the province. The much newer city of Hat Yai, with a population of 359,813, is considerably larger, with twice the population of Songkhla (163,072). This often leads to the misconception that Hat Yai is the provincial capital.
Geography
The province is on the Malay Peninsula, on the coast of the Gulf of Thailand. The highest elevation is Khao Mai Kaeo at 821 meters.
In the north of the province is Songkhla Lake, the largest natural lake in Thailand. This shallow lake covers an area of 1,040 km2, and has a south–north extent of 78 kilometers. At its mouth on the Gulf of Thailand, near the city of Songkhla, the water becomes brackish. A small population of Irrawaddy dolphins live in the lake, but are in danger of extinction due to accidental capture by the nets of the local fishing industry.
Songkhla province hosts two national parks. San Kala Khiri covers 214 km2 of mountain highlands on the Thai-Malay border. Khao Nam Khang, is also in the boundary mountains. The total forest area is or 11.2 percent of provincial area. Chinese Communist guerrillas inhabited this region until the 1980s.
Within the boundaries of the city of Songkhla is Cape Samila Beach, the most popular beach in the province. The famous mermaid statue can be found here. The two islands Ko Nu and Ko Maew (Mouse and Cat Islands), not far from the beach, are also popular landmarks, and a preferred fishing ground. According to a local folk tale, a cat, mouse and dog were traveling on a Chinese ship, when they attempted to steal a crystal from a merchant. While trying to swim ashore, both the cat and the mouse drowned and became the two islands; the dog reached the beach, then died and become the hill Khao Tang Kuan. The crystal turned into the white sandy beach.
Toponymy
The name Songkhla is actually the Thai corruption of Singgora (Jawi: سيڠڬورا); its original name means "the city of lions" in Malay (not to be confused with Singapura). This refers to a lion-shaped mountain near the city of Songkhla.
History
Songkhla was the seat of an old Malay Kingdom with heavy Srivijayan influence. In ancient times (200–1400 CE), Songkhla formed the northern extremity of the Malay Kingdom of Langkasuka. The city-state then succeeded as the Sultanate of Singgora, it later became a tributary of Nakhon Si Thammarat, suffering damage during several attempts to gain independence.
In Arabic-Persian merchant’s record from 1450-1550, Songkhla was firstly known as Singor or Singora.
Archaeological excavations on the isthmus between Lake Songkhla and the sea reveal that in the 10th through the 14th century this was a major urbanized area, and a center of international maritime trade, in particular with Quanzhou in China. The long Sanskrit name of the state that existed there has been lost; its short Sanskrit name was Singhapura ("Lion City") (not to be confused with Singapura), a city state. The short vernacular name was Satingpra, coming from the Mon-Khmer sting/steng/stang (meaning "river") and the Sanskrit pura ("city"). The ruins of the important port city of Satingpra are just few kilometres north of Songkhla city.
During 1619-1680, Songkhla Town beside Red Hill was very prosperous in trading with other countries by Malay governors migrating from Indonesia. They escaped from Dutch’s monopoly tradefor free trade in Songkhla which was supported by England. At the first period, during 1619-1642 the governor of Songkhla was Muslim. Later, In 1642-1680 the governor of Songkhla rebelled to Ayutthaya so the town was suppressed by King Narai and left carelessly. Then, Phatthalung took control of it. From 1699 to 1776, Songkhla reformed at the new location in Laemson called Songkhla Town at Laemson Side which is opposite to the current location of Songkhla town.
In 1836, King Rama III instructed Phraya Vichiankiri (Tianseng) to build the city wall fortress. During the construction of the wall, Tuanku Ahmadsa-adtogether with the rulers from Syburi, Pattani and 7 other provinces, attacked Songkhla. After their conquering all the rebellion, the fortress and the city wall were carried on. Also, the city pillar was set up and the town of Songkhla was moved to the east of Laem Son called Bo Yang District, which is now in the area of Songkhla Municipality.
Since the 18th century, Songkla has been firmly under Thai suzerainty. In 1909, Songkhla was formally annexed by Siam as part of Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909, negotiated with the British Empire, in which Siam gave up its claim to Kelantan in return for Britain recognizing Siam's right to the provinces north of that.
In the 18th century many Chinese immigrants, especially from Guangdong and Fujian, came to the province. Quickly rising to economic wealth, one of them won the bidding for the major tax farm of the province in 1769, establishing the Na Songkhla (from Songkhla) family as the most wealthy and influential. In 1777 the family also gained political power, when the old governor was dismissed and Luang Inthakhiri (Yiang, Chinese name Wu Rang (呉譲)) became the new governor. In 1786 the old governor started an uprising, which was put down after four months. The position was thereafter inherited in the family and was held by eight of his descendants until 1901, when Phraya Wichiankhiri (Chom) was honorably retired as part of the administrative reforms of Prince Damrong Rajanubhab. The family's former home was converted into the Songkhla National Museum in 1953.
In 1932, Monthon Thesaphiban or the administrative subdivisions was dissolved and changed to provincial administration, Songkhla then becomes one of the provinces in the south of Thailand.
Songkhla was the scene of heavy fighting when the Imperial Japanese Army invaded Thailand on 8 December 1941 and parts of the city were destroyed.
Demographics
Buddhists make up two-thirds to three-fourths of the population, most of whom are of native Thai or Thai Chinese descent. One-fourth to one-third of the population are Muslim, most of them belong to a Thai-speaking Muslim group, called Sam-Sam ( 'mixed' ). People claiming to be of Malay ethnicity make up a minority among the Muslim populace. The Songkhla Malays are very similar in ethnicity and culture to the Malays of Kelantan, Malaysia. They speak the Patani Malay language, which differs from Bahasa Melayu in vocabulary and pronunciation.
Symbols
The provincial seal shows a conch shell on a Phan (tray) with glass decorations. The origin of the conch shell is unclear, but the most widely adopted interpretation is that it was a decoration on the jacket of the Prince of Songkhla.
The provincial tree is the Sa-dao-thiam (Azadirachta excelsa).
Administrative divisions
Provincial government
Songkhla is divided into 16 districts (amphoe), which are further subdivided into 127 subdistricts (tambon) and 987 villages (muban).
The districts of Chana (Malay: Chenok), Thepa (Malay: Tiba) were detached from Mueang Pattani and transferred to Songkhla during the Thesaphiban reforms around 1900.
Local government
As of 26 November 2019 there are: one Songkhla Provincial Administration Organisation () and 48 municipal (thesaban) areas in the province. Songkhla and Hat Yai have city (thesaban nakhon) status. Further 11 have town (thesaban mueang) status and there are 35 subdistrict municipalities (thesaban tambon). The non-municipal areas are administered by 92 Subdistrict Administrative Organisations - SAO (ongkan borihan suan tambon).
Health
Songkhla is served by a larger number of public hospitals than private hospitals. The main hospitals for Songkhla province is Hatyai Hospital and Songkhla Hospital, both operated by the Ministry of Public Health. Songklanagarind Hospital is also another major hospital located in Hat Yai, but is operated by the Faculty of Medicine, Prince of Songkla University which is the largest medical school in the South of Thailand.
Economy
Songkhla province is an energy hub. It earns 100 billion baht each year from a gas separation plant, power generation, and oil. The gas separation plant sells 35 billion baht worth of gas per year to EGAT. Power generation accounts for 45 billion baht. Offshore oil rigs in the vicinity of Ko Nu produce 20,000 barrels of oil per day worth 30 billion baht per year. If a proposed coal-fired electrical generation plan in Thepha District goes ahead, energy earnings could rise to 300 billion baht per year.
Transport
Road
Phetkasem Road, running all the way from Bangkok, ends at the border crossing to Malaysia in Sadao. Asian highway 2 and 18 also run through the province. Of note is the Tinsulanond Bridge, which crosses Songkhla Lake to connect the narrow land east of the lake at the coast with the main southern part of the province. With a length of 2.6 km it is the longest concrete bridge in Thailand. Built in 1986, the bridge consists of two parts. The southern 1,140 m connects Mueang district with the island Ko Yo, and the northern part of 1,800 m to Ban Khao Khiao.
Kanchanawanit Road, which runs from Songkhla town, though Hat Yai, and all the way to the Malaysian border at Sadao District, is considered the unofficial dividing line separating the Thai south from its deep south, Muslim-majority region.
Rail
The southern railway operated by the State Railway of Thailand runs through the province, and continues on into Malaysia, with Hat Yai Junction being the main railway station. It is a junction for the railway link to Malaysia through Padang Besar Town, where there are two stations: Padang Besar (Thai) on the Thai side and Padang Besar on the Malay side. Immigration is done on the Malay side. The other route from Hat Yai Junction goes further south to Pattani (Khok Pho), Yala, Tanyong Mat and Su-ngai Kolok. In the past, a railway line connected the town of Songkhla with Hat Yai, but it was closed in 1978 and is now partly dismantled and partly overgrown.
Air
Songkhla is served by Hat Yai International Airport in Khlong Hoi Khong District.
Human achievement index 2017
Since 2003, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) in Thailand has tracked progress on human development at sub-national level using the Human achievement index (HAI), a composite index covering all the eight key areas of human development. National Economic and Social Development Board (NESDB) has taken over this task since 2017.
Culture
The most important Buddhist temple of the province is Wat Matchimawat (also named Wat Klang), on Saiburi road in the city of Songkhla itself.
On the island Ko Yo within Songkhla lake, since being easily accessible via the Tinsulanond Bridge, the residents have started to sell the hand-woven fabric named Phathor Ko Yo. Also famous for the island is the local jackfruit variant named Jampada.
Held in the first night of October, the Chak Phra tradition is a Buddhist festival specific to the south of Thailand. It is celebrated with Buddha boat processions or sports events like a run up Khao Tang Kuan hill.
In September or October at the Chinese Lunar festival the Thai-Chinese present their offerings to the moon or Queen of the heavens in gratitude for past and future fortunes.
Military rule
Songkhla was not initially affected by the outbreak of Pattani Separatism, which began in 2004. However, bombs planted in 2005 and 2007 stoked fears the insurgency might spread to Songkhla province.
, the provisions of Thailand's Internal Security Act remain imposed on the districts of Chana, Na Thawi, Saba Yoi, and Thepha for reasons of national security. All but Chana share a border with Malaysia or Pattani province (Malay majority). Internal security restrictions, maintained by Thailand's Internal Security Operations Command (ISOC) can result in curfews, prohibited entry, or prohibited transport of goods. It is considered one step below the imposition of full martial law.
Sport
Football
Songkhla football club participates in Thai League 4 Southern Region, the 4th tier of Thai football league system. The Samila Mermaid (Thai:เงือกสมิหลา) plays their home matches at Tinsulanon Stadium.
References
External links
Provincial website (Thai)
Provinces of Thailand
Southern Thailand
Gulf of Thailand | [
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244847 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fire%20blight | Fire blight | Fire blight, also written fireblight, is a contagious disease affecting apples, pears, and some other members of the family Rosaceae. It is a serious concern to apple and pear producers. Under optimal conditions, it can destroy an entire orchard in a single growing season.
The causal pathogen is Erwinia amylovora, a Gram-negative bacterium in the order Enterobacterales. Pears are the most susceptible, but apples, loquat, crabapples, quinces, hawthorn, cotoneaster, Pyracantha, raspberry and some other rosaceous plants are also vulnerable. The disease is believed to be indigenous to North America, from where it spread to most of the rest of the world.
Fire blight is not believed to be present in Australia though it might possibly exist there. It has been a major reason for a long-standing embargo on the importation of New Zealand apples to Australia. Japan was likewise believed to be without the disease, but it was discovered in pears grown in northern Japan. Japanese authorities are, however, still denying its existence, and the Japanese scientist who discovered it is believed to have committed suicide after his name was leaked to affected farmers. In Europe it is listed as a quarantine disease, and has been spreading along Hawthorn (Crataegus) hedges planted alongside railways, motorways and main roads.
History
In the early 1800s, E. amylovora was the first bacterium that could be used in experiments to demonstrate that it did indeed cause disease in plants. It is accepted that this destructive crop bacterium had initially originated in North America. Today, E. amylovora can currently be found in all the provinces of Canada, as well as in some parts of the United States of America; states include Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Illinois, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia and Wisconsin. In the Americas it also occurs in other countries including, but not limited to, Mexico and Bermuda. On the African continent, E. amylovora has been confirmed in Egypt.
It is believed that the pathogen was first introduced into Northern Europe through bacterial ooze from fruit containers in the 1950s, imported from the USA. During the 1950s-1960's, E. amylovora had spread through much of Northern Europe, yet leaving large areas of Germany and France seemingly untouched by the disease of which the bacteria cause a devastating disease known as "fireblight". This was short lived, as the disease and E. amylovora were discovered in the later 1990s in Germany. Nonetheless by the 1980s the E. amylovora bacteria had been found in the Eastern Mediterranean, although its appearance in this region is thought to be an isolated appearance and not as a result of local transmission. Finally from the years 1995-1996 cases of fireblight had begun to be reported in countries such as Hungary, Romania, Northern Italy and Northern Spain.
Dissemination
Erwinia amylovora overwinter in cankers formed during the previous season, serving as the primary inoculum. Bacteria exude from ooze in the spring when temperatures support optimal development. The factors that determine whether or not cankers become active are not well known, but it is thought that cankers found on larger tree limbs are more likely to become active. It is also thought that age may be a factor. Honeybees and other insects are attracted to bacterial ooze and can spread bacteria to susceptible tissue, such as flower stigmata. Birds, rain and wind can also transmit the bacterium to susceptible tissue. Upon reaching the stigma further colonisation will be heavily decided by temperature. is most favourable. Rain or heavy dew will allow procession further into the nectaries this is the microscopic cause of the macroscopic blossom blight symptom. Flowers one to three days old are more susceptible than are those five to eight days old. See Curry 1987 for the source and further review of this subject.
Injured tissue is also highly susceptible to infection, including punctures and tears caused by plant-sucking or biting insects. Hailstorms can infect an entire orchard in a few minutes, and growers do not wait until symptoms appear, normally beginning control measures within a few hours.
Once deposited, the bacterium enters the plant through open stomata and causes blackened, necrotic lesions, which may also produce a viscous exudate. This bacteria-laden exudate can be distributed to other parts of the same plant or to susceptible areas of different plants by rain, birds or insects, causing secondary infections. The disease spreads most quickly during hot, wet weather and is dormant in the winter when temperatures drop. Infected plant tissue contains viable bacteria, however, and will resume production of exudate upon the return of warm weather in the following spring. This exudate is then the source for new rounds of primary infections.
The pathogen spreads through the tree from the point of infection via the plant's vascular system, eventually reaching the roots and/or graft junction of the plant. Once the plant's roots are affected, the death of the plant often results. Over pruning and over fertilization (especially with nitrogen) can lead to water sprout and other midsummer growth that leave the tree more susceptible.
Erwinia amylovora typically makes its entry into its host xylem or cortical parenchyma. It can also enter through stomata, lenticels and hydathodes. It is dispersed by rain and or insects naturally, but this mode of dispersal is very ineffective and can only be effective for local transmission of the pathogen. Aerosols are also suspected in playing a role in its transmission due to the detection of E. amylovora in Mediterranean regions. In composition the pathogen is composed of short rods with rounded ends made motile by many peritrichous flagellae. E. amylovara is a gram negative bacterium (as stated above).
Fire blight microorganisms are spread through different effectively means also, for example, downpour or water sprinkling, bugs, and winged animals, other tainted plants, and unclean cultivating instruments. The most extreme danger of presentation to this bacterium is pre-summer or late-spring as it rises up out of dormancy. Shockingly, there is no solution for fire blight; in this way, the best fire blight cures are standard pruning and expulsion of any tainted stems or branches. It might likewise assist with staying away from the overhead water system, as water sprinkling is one of the most well-known approaches to spread the disease. There should be cautious attention towards the digging tools, particularly those that have been exposed to the microscopic organisms. The tools should be disinfected in an alcohol solution containing three parts denatured alcohol to one part water. Diluted household bleach (one part bleach to nine parts water) can likewise be utilized. Continuously make a point to altogether dry the tools to forestall corrosion. It can also help with assisting to oil them down also.
The fly Delia platura has been observed visiting fire blight wounds to feed but was unconfirmed as an effective vector. Eventually it was demonstrated that D. platura does successfully transmit fire blight to already damaged apple shoots. Fire blight exopolysaccharide also served as the adhesive to attach propagated cells to D. platura. D. platura shed fire blight at a constant rate - and did not suffer from doing so - for at least five days.
Pathogenesis
Pathogenicity depends on many different factors such as the production of the siderophore desferrioxamine, metalloproteases, plasmids, and histone-like proteins. However, some essential factors of pathogenicity are variations in the synthesis of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) and the mechanism of type III secretion system and its associated proteins. EPS helps bacterial pathogens avoid plant defenses, “clog” the host’s vascular system, protect bacteria against desiccation and attach to both surfaces and one another. One EPS is amylovoran, a polymer of pentasaccharide repeating units. If a strain of E. amylovora can not produce amylovoran it is not pathogenic and can not spread in plants. Levan is another EPS, and a lack of it will slow development of symptoms. Type III secretion systems are used for exporting and delivering effector proteins into the cytosol of host plants. This system mainly consists of Hrc proteins. Motility is another major virulence factor. Since E. amylovora is not an obligate biotroph, it is able to survive outside the host which allows it to spread in many ways such as rain.
Symptoms
Tissues affected by the symptoms of Erwinia amylovora include blossoms, fruits, shoots, and branches of apple (Pomoideae), pear, and many other rosaceous plants. All symptoms are above ground and are typically easy to recognize. Symptoms on blossoms include water soaking of the floral receptacle, ovary, and peduncles. This results in a dull, gray-green appearance at 1–2 weeks after petal fall, and eventually tissues will shrivel and turn black. The base of the blossom and young fruit show similar symptoms as infection spreads. Opaque white- or amber-colored droplets of bacterial ooze can be seen on the infected tissue when the environment is high in humidity. Shoots show similar symptoms but develop much more rapidly. A “Shepherd's Crook” can be seen when the tip of the shoot wilts, and diseased shoot leaves typically have blackening along the mid-vein and then die. In number, diseased shoots give the tree a blighted appearance. Initial infection of blossoms and shoots can spread to larger tree limbs. Branches will darken and become water soaked. Advanced infection develops cracks in bark and a sunken surface. Wood under the bark will become streaked with black discoloration. Immature fruit forms water-soaked lesions and later turned black. Bacterial ooze can be found on these lesions. Severe infections result in fruit turning entirely black and shriveling.
Management
Spraying plants with either streptomycin, copper sulfate or both have been used in some parts of the world, such as the USA, in an attempt to prevent new infections, but being only effective into slowing or temporarily stopping growth in already diseased plants. The widespread use of streptomycin spray has led to antibiotic resistance in some areas, such as California and Washington. Certain biological controls consisting of beneficial bacteria or yeast can also prevent fire blight from infecting new trees. The only effective treatment for plants already infected is to prune off the affected branches and remove them from the area. Plants or trees should be inspected routinely for the appearance of new infections. The rest of the plant can be saved if the blighted wood is removed before the infection spreads to the roots. There is no known cure; prevention is the key.
Methods to predict the likelihood of an outbreak so that control measures can be best targeted, were introduced from the 1980s following the work of Eve Billings at East Malling Research Station, UK. These were based on temperature and rainfall, and have been developed further by Billings and others.
E. amylovora generally needs to be destroyed externally, before it enters the cell. This is because once it enters the host, it spreads during the endophytic phase of pathogenesis. Once this happens external control methods become ineffective. The ideal control method is to apply copper and antibiotics to the plant externally. This is the only effective method and it is indeed preventative. Currently it has been noted that E. amylovora has developed a resistance to the antibiotic streptomycin, as do most bacteria due to their flexible ability to transfer preferential genes promoting resistance to antibiotics horizontally from species to species.
New research conducted by John C. Wise out of Michigan State University shows that E. amylovora can be controlled with relative efficacy through tree trunk injection of either streptomycin, potassium phosphites (PH), or acibenzolar-S-methyl (ASM). PH and ASM both work through gene inductions of PR-1, PR-2, and PR-8 in the leafy material. Oxytetracycline Hydrochloride (OTC) was also tested and found to greatly reduce the activity of the bacteria within the tree. These new control methods are still being researched and have not been approved for fruit crop production by the EPA.
Phytosanitary measures have been employed as the best sanitary measures against E. amylovora dispersal. High risk countries are encouraged not to import plants susceptible to the pathogen into their territory because, once the bacteria become established in an area it is nearly impossible to eradicate the disease. Nurseries and orchards in such regions are placed on strict phytosanitary surveillance measures and well-monitored. Imported and infected crops are destroyed as soon as they are noticed since the bacteria spreads very rapidly and eradication methods are usually costly and inefficient.
Current fire blight strategies depend upon phytosanitary measures to lessen inoculum in the plantation and the utilization of splash medicines to forestall contamination, particularly blossom infections. Decreasing essential inoculum in the plantation by removing remainder holdover cankers during winter pruning is a set up as a basic method of control fire blight disease.
In seriously influenced plantations, social practices that moderate the development pace of the tree will likewise slow the pace of canker improvement. This incorporates retaining irrigation water, nitrogen fertilizer, and agriculture. Also, practices that decrease tree injuring and bacterial development can diminish auxiliary disease. This incorporates controlling bugs, for example, plant bugs and psylla, constraining utilization of appendage spreaders in youthful plantations, and avoiding use of overhead sprinklers.
Cultural control options include selecting resistant cultivars, however most commercially successful apple cultivars lack fire blight resistance. Breeders have developed fire blight resistant rootstocks, but resistance is not conferred to the grafted scion.
Prohexadione calcium (BASF brand name Apogee in the United States) is a plant growth inhibitor which is recommended for shoot blight. Since fire blight relies on gibberellin-dependent growth for much of its own life cycle, prohexadione's gibberellin synthesis inhibition effect also suppresses blight. Not effective in blossom blight.
Importance
Besides the historical importance of being the first bacterium proven to be a plant pathogen, it is extremely economically important. Control and loss costs are estimated approximately $100 million a year in the USA. Specifically, in Michigan in the year 2000, $42 million in losses is estimated because of the removal of about 400,000 apple trees. Warm, humid, and wet weather in May resulted in this epidemic. While approximately $68 million is estimated in losses in Washington and northern Oregon. E. amylovora is spread all through the USA and worldwide causing severe damage although it is unlikely to cause severe damage in northern Europe. As long as E. amylovora is not introduced to Central Asia where wild apple trees still grow, it will not modify any ecosystems. Biodiversity is not impacted either, as no plant species are threatened with extinction due to this pathogen. Growing pears in Emilia-Romagna in Italy is a traditional activity for some families, and fire blight threatens this tradition that has been passed down for several generations. In southern Germany apple and pear trees have been a part of the landscape for a long time, and are difficult to protect. The decline of apple and pear trees from their landscape can be expensive to replace and could have a negative effect on tourism. In the long-run, fire blight is a very important factor of economy and society.
A predetermined number of apple cultivars are answerable for an enormous extent of yearly creation. Shoppers and general stores prize these cultivars for their appearance, quality, flavor, and storability, while cultivators additionally esteem their plantation attributes and prepared market coming about because of purchaser request. To hold the desirable qualities of a fruiting cultivar while presenting malady opposition qualities through ordinary reproducing techniques is for all intents and purposes unimaginable due to apple's heterozygosity, long age time, and self-incongruence. Hereditary designing offers an appealing option since it can possibly give quicker outcomes, resistance qualities can be acquired from numerous sources, the statement of local apple qualities can be altered, and the attractive characteristics of the changed cultivar or rootstock can be safeguarded.
References
External links
Type strain of Erwinia amylovora at BacDive - the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
Images of symptoms (973) and database, UC Berkeley
Bacterial tree pathogens and diseases
Apple tree diseases
Pear tree diseases
Bacteria described in 1882
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244851 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis%20%26%20Clark%20College | Lewis & Clark College | Lewis & Clark College is a private liberal arts college in Portland, Oregon. Originally chartered in 1867 as the Albany Collegiate Institute in Albany, Oregon, the college was relocated to Portland in 1938 and in 1942 adopted the name Lewis & Clark College after the Lewis and Clark Expedition. Contemporarily, it has an undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences, a School of Law, and a Graduate School of Education and Counseling.
Lewis & Clark is a member of the Annapolis Group of colleges with athletic programs competing in the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III Northwest Conference. Just over 2,000 students attend the undergraduate College of Arts and Sciences, with a student body from more than 50 countries across six continents as well as most U.S. states. The School of Law is best known for its environmental law program, while the Graduate School of Education & Counseling is active in community engagement and social justice.
Today, the three schools and their supporting offices occupy the campus, centered on the M. Lloyd Frank Estate on Palatine Hill in the Collins View neighborhood of Southwest Portland.
History
Like many modern universities, the institution that would eventually become Lewis & Clark was initially intended to provide secondary as well as higher education for a specific religious community, in this case Presbyterian pioneers in Oregon's Willamette Valley. To this end the Presbyterian church incorporated Albany Academy in 1858, making Lewis & Clark one of four Oregon colleges with foundations predating Oregon's statehood (along with Willamette University, Pacific University, and Linfield University).
Within a decade of its founding, Albany Academy began to focus more exclusively on higher education, changing its official name to the Albany Collegiate Institution in 1866. Lewis & Clark's official founding date comes from the current charter, which has been legally valid since the Presbyterian church reincorporated the Albany Collegiate Institution as Albany College in 1867. Unlike most Oregon colleges of the pioneer era, the college has been coeducational since the first class, which graduated in 1873. The early campus of in Albany was situated on land donated by the Monteith family. In 1892, the original school building was enlarged, and in 1925 the school relocated south of Albany, where it remained until 1937.
Albany College established a junior college to the north in Portland in 1934, with the entire school moving to Portland in 1939. The former campus grounds later became home to the federal government's Albany Research Center. In 1942 the college trustees acquired the Lloyd Frank (of the historic Portland department store Meier & Frank) "Fir Acres" estate in southwest Portland, and the school name was changed to Lewis & Clark College. The original school mascot, the Pirates, was changed to the Pioneers in 1946.
Academics
The three schools of the college include the College of Arts and Sciences (CAS), the Law School, and the Graduate School of Education and Counseling.
CAS departments include Art, Art History, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biology, Chemistry, Chinese, Classics, Computer Science, Dance, East Asian Studies, Economics, English, Environmental Studies, Ethnic Studies, Foreign Languages, French Studies, Gender Studies, German Studies, Hispanic Studies, History, International Affairs, Japanese, Latin American Studies, Mathematics, Music, Neuroscience, Philosophy, Physics, Political Economy, Political Science, Psychology, Religious Studies, Rhetoric and Media Studies, Russian, Sociology and Anthropology, and Theatre.
Lewis & Clark offers approximately 36 study abroad programs in various countries, and since the 1960s, more than 60% of all Lewis & Clark undergraduates have studied abroad.
Admissions profile
For the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Lewis & Clark received 6,139 applications, admitted 4,528 (73.8%), and enrolled 562 students. For the freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 1230–1390, the ACT Composite range was 27–31, and the average high school grade point average was 3.90.
Rankings
The 2020 annual ranking of U.S. News & World Report categorizes Lewis & Clark as "more selective" and ranks it tied for the 72nd best liberal arts college in the U.S.; U.S. News & World Report also ranked it tied for 51st in undergraduate teaching and 89th for "Best Value" among liberal arts colleges. Forbes in 2019 rated it 184th in its America's Top Colleges ranking, which includes 650 military academies, national universities, and liberal arts colleges and 69th among liberal arts colleges. Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Lewis & Clark at 66th in its 2019 ranking of 149 best value liberal arts colleges in the United States. Money magazine ranked Lewis & Clark 585th out of 744 in its "Best Colleges For Your Money 2019" report.
Campus
Campus overview
Lewis & Clark's forested campus sits atop Palatine Hill in the Collins View neighborhood of Portland and is contiguous with the Tryon Creek State Natural Area. Campus buildings include an award-winning environmentally sustainable academic building (John R. Howard Hall), as well as notable historic architecture such as the Frank Manor House (designed by Herman Brookman) and Rogers Hall (formerly Our Lady of Angels convent of The Sisters of St. Francis).
Due in large part to the college's natural environment, Lewis & Clark was named one of America's top ten "Most Beautiful Campuses" by the Princeton Review,
Travel+Leisure
as well as an independent architecture blog.
Residence halls
All students are required to live on campus for the first two years, unless already a Portland resident. Residence halls include SOA (Stewart-Odell-Akin), Forest (Alder, Manzanita, Juniper, Spruce, and Ponderosa), Hartzfeld, Holmes, Platt-Howard, Copeland and also include East, Roberts, and West, the on-campus apartments.
Lewis & Clark College residence halls are co-ed. While individual rooms generally house one gender, students may opt otherwise under the college's gender-neutral housing policy.
Student life
Sustainability
Wind power provides 100% of the college's total electricity, and LEED-"certified" level must be met for all of the college's projects.
Athletics
Lewis & Clark maintains 9 male and 10 female varsity sports teams, and athletic facilities including Pamplin Sports Center and Griswold Stadium.
Lewis & Clark athletic teams are called the Pioneers, and team colors are orange and black. The Pioneers compete mainly in the Northwest Conference against eight other NCAA Division III institutions in the Pacific Northwest. One in five undergraduates are officially designated student athletes.
Recent accomplishments in varsity athletics include the men's rowing team winning its conference, women's swim team winning third in conference, and men's and women's basketball both earning third in conference.
In the 2011 season, the women's cross-country team placed seventh at West regionals, with the men's team placing 13th.
The 2011-2012 men's basketball team lost in the NWC semifinals putting them in 4th place in the conference.
Additionally, the women's team of that same year placed second in the NWC and made an appearance in the NCAA DIII National tournament. The volleyball and basketball teams play in Pamplin Sports Center. The football, soccer and track and field events take place at Griswold Stadium.
A large number of smaller club and intramural sports such as Rugby, Ultimate Frisbee,
and Boffing enjoy broad participation. Lewis & Clark students have invented several intramural competitive sports, including Ninja and Wolvetch, which are popular at Lewis & Clark but seldom played elsewhere. While some varsity athletic events are well attended, there has long been tension between varsity athletes and non-athletes regarding perceived social and cultural differences, as well as the substantial financial support varsity sports teams enjoy.
Food
Lewis and Clark has two on-campus dining halls: Fields Dining Room and the Trail Room. Meal services are provided by Bon Appétit Management Company. Fields Dining room is often referred to as "The Bon." Additionally, there are two cafés on campus: Maggie's Café on the residential side and The Dovecote on the academic side.
Transportation
Throughout the year the college operates a shuttle bus between campus and downtown Portland, the Pioneer Express (also referred to as the "Pio Express" or just, "the Pio"). TriMet line 39 operates between the college and the Hillsdale neighborhood, where students can transfer to buses to downtown Portland. First-year students are not permitted to have cars on campus.
Notable faculty, staff, and trustees
Stephen Dow Beckham, historian
John F. Callahan, Morgan S. Odell Professor of Humanities and literary executor of Ralph Ellison's estate
Rev. Elbert Nevius Condit (1846-1900), Presbyterian minister, early president (1879-?) when it was known as Albany Collegiate Institute.
Fitzhugh Dodson, Presbyterian minister, psychologist, taught religion
Bob Gaillard - basketball coach
Robert B. Pamplin, Jr., entrepreneur, philanthropist, trustee
Vern Rutsala, poet
Kim Stafford, writer
William Stafford, poet
Anthony Swofford, former adjunct professor of humanities, author of Jarhead
Mary Szybist, poet
Notable alumni
Penn Badgley (2004), actor
Matt Biondi (2000), American swimmer
Earl Blumenauer (1970, J.D. 1976), U.S. Representative
Don Bonker (1964), former U.S. Representative
Kate Brown (1985), 38th and current Governor of Oregon
Heidi Heitkamp (1983), former U.S. Senator, ND Attorney General, ND Tax Commissioner
Larry Campbell (1953), former Speaker of the Oregon House of Representatives
Ever Carradine (1996), actress
Ted Gaines (1981), California State Senator, First Senate District
Gordon Gilkey (1933 from Albany College), artist; Dean of Liberal Arts, Oregon State University; curator of prints and drawings at the Portland Art Museum
Haben Girma, (2010), disability rights advocate
Genevieve Gorder (1996), television personality
Jeanne Holm (1956), former brigadier general in the U.S. Air Force and Major General in the United States armed forces
Marcia S. Krieger (1975), judge on the United States District Court for the District of Colorado
Monica Lewinsky (1995), White House intern and party to the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal
Jake Longstreth (1999), artist and radio personality
Ronald A. Marks (1978), former CIA official
Natalie Mering, singer-songwriter (attended 2006; no degree issued)
Muhammad bin Nayef, deputy Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia (no degree issued)
Mark V. Olsen, (1977), co-creator of HBO series Big Love
Markie Post (1975), actress known for Night Court and other TV shows
Ahmed Ali Al Sayegh (1983), Minister of State in the United Arab Emirates
Pete Ward (1962), Major League Baseball player
References
External links
Official website
Official athletics website
Liberal arts colleges in Oregon
Education in Portland, Oregon
Educational institutions established in 1867
Universities and colleges accredited by the Northwest Commission on Colleges and Universities
1867 establishments in Oregon
Universities and colleges in Portland, Oregon
Private universities and colleges in Oregon | [
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] |
244858 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islandia | Islandia | Islandia may refer to:
Iceland, Latin name for "Iceland"
Islandia, a 1942 novel by Austin Tappan Wright
Islandia, a 1983 video game by Julian Gollop
Islandia, Florida, a community in the United States
Islandia, New York, a village in the United States | [
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244860 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie%20Falconer%2C%20Baron%20Falconer%20of%20Thoroton | Charlie Falconer, Baron Falconer of Thoroton | Charles Leslie Falconer, Baron Falconer of Thoroton, (born 19 November 1951), is a British Labour peer and barrister who served as Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice under Prime Minister Tony Blair from 2003 to 2007.
Born in Edinburgh, Falconer read law at Queens' College, Cambridge and then worked as a barrister in London. During his time as a barrister, he was a flatmate of Tony Blair. Although Blair went into politics, Falconer focused on his legal career and became a Queen's Counsel. After Blair was elected as Prime Minister, Falconer was created a life peer and made Solicitor General for England and Wales. Later, he served as Minister of State for the Cabinet Office, Minister of State for Housing, Planning and Regeneration and Minister of State for Criminal Justice, Sentencing and Law Reform respectively.
Falconer became the Lord Chancellor and the first Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs in 2003 under Prime Minister Tony Blair, and would go on to become the first Secretary of State for Justice in a 2007 reorganisation and enlargement of the portfolio of the Department for Constitutional Affairs. He held this role for over a month until Gordon Brown became Prime Minister in June 2007. Falconer was named Shadow Justice Secretary under the acting leadership of Harriet Harman in 2015, and continued in this role after the election of Jeremy Corbyn as leader of the party, until he resigned on 26 June 2016. He was appointed as Shadow Attorney General in the Shadow Cabinet of Keir Starmer on 6 April 2020.
Early life and career
Charles Leslie Falconer was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on 19 November 1951, the son of John Leslie Falconer, a solicitor, and his wife Anne Mansel. His paternal grandfather was John Ireland Falconer, a former Lord Provost of Edinburgh. Falconer was educated at the Edinburgh Academy and Trinity College, Glenalmond. He read law at Queens' College, Cambridge.
Falconer became a flatmate of Tony Blair when they were both young barristers in London in the late 1970s in Wandsworth, having first met as pupils at rival Scottish schools in the 1960s. While Blair went into politics, Falconer concentrated on his legal career. He practised from Fountain Court Chambers in London, and became a Queen's Counsel in 1991.
Falconer applied to be the Labour candidate for the safe seat of Dudley North ahead of the 1997 general election, but he "fluffed" his interview with the Labour constituency committee by refusing to take his four children out of public schools. Barrister Ross Cranston was selected instead and won the seat, holding it from 1997 to 2005. Cranston succeeded Falconer as Solicitor General for England and Wales, serving from 1998 to 2001.
Ennoblement and junior ministerial career
On 14 May 1997, just after Blair became Prime Minister, Falconer was created a life peer as Baron Falconer of Thoroton, of Thoroton in the County of Nottinghamshire. He was the first peer created on the new Prime Minister's recommendation, and immediately joined the government as Solicitor General.
Falconer became Minister of State at the Cabinet Office in 1998, taking over responsibility for the Millennium Dome following the resignation of Peter Mandelson. He acquired the nickname of "Dome Secretary" (a play on the position of Home Secretary) over time. He was heavily criticised for the failure of the Dome to attract an audience, but resisted calls for his resignation. This was in contrast to the sacking of Dome chief executive Jennie Page just one month after the fiasco of the New Millennium eve opening night.
After the 2001 election, Falconer joined the Department for Transport, Local Government and the Regions as Minister for Housing, Planning and Regeneration. He moved on to the Home Office in 2002, being given responsibility for criminal justice, sentencing and law reform. He reportedly annoyed some of his fellow lawyers by suggesting that their fees were too high.
Cabinet minister, 2003–2007
In 2003 Falconer joined the Cabinet as the Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, becoming also Lord Chancellor "for the interim period" before the office was planned to be abolished. The government argued that the position of a cabinet minister as a judge and head of the judiciary was no longer appropriate and would not be upheld by the European Convention on Human Rights.
The announcement was generally seen as a rushed "back-of-an-envelope" plan. There had been no Green paper discussions nor White paper proposals; and it became something of a shock to realise that the proposed abolition of the office of Lord Chancellor would require primary legislation. The policy of removing the Lord Chancellor's judicial role was said to be disliked by Lord Irvine of Lairg, the previous Lord Chancellor.
The post of Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs took over the remaining responsibilities of the Lord Chancellor, and also became the sponsoring department for the Secretary of State for Wales and the Secretary of State for Scotland. Falconer announced his intention not to use the Lord Chancellor's power to sit as a judge and stopped wearing the traditional robe and wig of office. Falconer hoped to be the last to hold the title, ending 1,400 years of tradition.
However, in 2006 Falconer told the House of Lords Constitution Committee that he regretted campaigning for the abolition of the role of Lord Chancellor and was glad the title had been reserved. In his opinion, the office "still had a role to play in defending the independence of the courts."
Freedom of Information Act
In his role as Secretary of State for Constitutional Affairs, Falconer sought to make it easier for government bodies to refuse to release documents under the Freedom of Information Act (2000), on the grounds that they are too expensive and too time-consuming for civil servants to find. The legislation allowed requests for information to be refused if the cost they would incur exceeded £600 for Whitehall and £450 for other public bodies. Falconer proposed changes that would make no difference to this level, but would expand the number of activities whose cost would be included in the totals, thus making it easier for government parties to refuse requests for information. At the end of March 2007, Falconer's department announced that it would not introduce the proposals to parliament, but would instead have a second three-month consultation with the public (the previous consultation, also of three months, ended three weeks previous to this). Media elements reported this change as a 'backtracking', and Maurice Frankel, director of the Campaign for Freedom of Information, was quoted as saying "This raises the strong possibility that the government will decide to leave the current arrangements untouched".
Later parliamentary career, 2007–
Falconer was replaced in his ministerial posts by Jack Straw in Gordon Brown's inaugural cabinet reshuffle, with Straw becoming the first non-Member of the House of Lords to take up the historic office of Lord Chancellor.
In February 2008, Falconer told a BBC radio programme that the government should require certain news articles to be removed from online archives during sensitive trials. This move was questioned as the articles were readily available in printed newspapers and other physical media, presenting a possible misunderstanding of the internet as a medium.
On 7 June 2009, while being interviewed by the BBC Politics Show, Falconer called for an urgent debate on Gordon Brown's leadership, as Labour braced itself for "terrible" election results at the 2009 European Parliament Elections, following being "humiliated" at the 2009 County Council elections. He said he was "not sure" Labour could unite while Brown remained leader, arguing "can we get unity under the current leadership? I am not sure that we can and we need to debate it urgently and I think probably it will need a change in leader." He said he admired Gordon Brown "greatly" but said he had an "inability to hold the party together".
In 2014, Falconer proposed the Assisted Dying Bill to the House of Lords, which seeks to legalise euthanasia in the UK for those who have less than six months to live, building on the experience of the Oregon Death with Dignity Act.
Falconer was named Shadow Secretary of State for Justice under the acting leadership of Harriet Harman in 2015, and continued in this role after the election of Jeremy Corbyn as leader of the party, until—along with dozens of his colleagues—he resigned on 26 June 2016. He was appointed as Shadow Attorney General in the Starmer Shadow Cabinet on 6 April 2020.
In 2018, he apologised for his role as Lord Chancellor in the war on drugs, and now thought drug prohibition had been a "tragic disaster" for the poor worldwide. He thought governments should take control of drug supply, thus reducing the involvement of violent gangs, and proposed that the legal regulation of drug production and supply should be in the next Labour manifesto.
Extraparliamentary activities
Since leaving office, Falconer has gone on to hold various positions outside Parliament. On 22 May 2008, it was announced that he had been appointed as Chairman of the AmicusHorizon Group Limited, a Registered Social Landlord.
On 8 July 2008, Falconer joined US law firm Gibson, Dunn & Crutcher as a senior counsel, where he remained as late as April 2021. At this time the Greensill scandal dragged him into the mire over his advice to extramural firms in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic in the UK, which he once called "the gift that keeps on giving" for lawyers although he regretted that slip of the tongue.
Personal life
He married Marianna Hildyard, also a barrister, in 1985. She became a QC in 2002. Her father, Sir David Henry Thoroton Hildyard, was the British Ambassador to Chile. They have four children: Hamish, William "Rocco", Rosie and Johnny. Falconer placed his three sons at independent Westminster School and St Paul's School, and his daughter at South Hampstead School. In the lead-up to the 1997 election, as he attempted to be selected for the seat of Dudley East, it proved to be an electoral problem for Falconer. He intended to keep his children at Westminster if selected, which caused the local selection panel to drop him from the selection procedure.
He and his family own a house and a basement flat in Islington. They also own a country retreat in Thoroton, Nottinghamshire. Falconer's father used to live in the village, and they rent out his old home.
Falconer was chair of Cambridge University Amnesty International between 2006 and 2007, and is the director of Sudan Divestment. He is chair of the board for a social enterprise set up at Pentonville Prison, Liberty Kitchen.
Falconer lost over five stone between 2012 and 2014, consuming only Diet Coke and apples apart from dinner, eschewing tea, coffee and alcohol, and jogging for 45 minutes a day.
Arms
Notelist
References
External links
Lord Falconer of Thoroton. They Work For You
Lord Falconer National Portrait Gallery Photo
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1951 births
Alumni of Queens' College, Cambridge
British Queen's Counsel
Scottish barristers
Falconer of Thoroton
Living people
Lord Chancellors of Great Britain
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
People educated at Edinburgh Academy
People educated at Glenalmond College
Secretaries of State for Constitutional Affairs
Secretaries of State for Justice
Falconer of Thoroton
People associated with Gibson Dunn
Ministers of State for Housing (UK) | [
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244862 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA%20Women%27s%20World%20Cup | FIFA Women's World Cup | The FIFA Women's World Cup is an international association football competition contested by the senior women's national teams of the members of Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's international governing body. The competition has been held every four years and one year after the FIFA World Cup since 1991, when the inaugural tournament, then called the FIFA Women's World Championship, was held in China. Under the tournament's current format, national teams vie for 31 slots in a three-year qualification phase. The host nation's team is automatically entered as the 32nd slot. The tournament proper, alternatively called the World Cup Finals, is contested at venues within the host nation(s) over a period of about one month.
The eight FIFA Women's World Cup tournaments have been won by four national teams. The United States have won four times, and are the current champions after winning it at the 2019 tournament in France. The other winners are Germany, with two titles, and Japan and Norway with one title each.
Six countries have hosted the Women's World Cup. China and the United States have each hosted the tournament twice, while Canada, France, Germany, and Sweden have each hosted it once.
Format
Qualification
Qualifying tournaments are held within the six FIFA continental zones (Africa, Asia, North and Central America and Caribbean, South America, Oceania, Europe), and are organised by their respective confederations: Confederation of African Football (CAF), Asian Football Confederation (AFC), Confederation of North, Central America, and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF), South American Football Confederation (CONMEBOL), Oceania Football Confederation (OFC), and Union of European Football Associations (UEFA). For each tournament, FIFA decides beforehand the number of berths awarded to each of the continental zones, based on the relative strength of the confederations' teams. The hosts of the World Cup receive an automatic berth in the finals. Since the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, the number of finalists increased from 16 to 24 and now 32.
Final tournament
The final tournament has featured between 12 and 24 national teams competing over about one month in the host nation(s). There are two stages: the group stage followed by the knockout stage.
In the group stage, teams are drawn into groups of four teams each. Each group plays a round-robin tournament, in which each team is scheduled for three matches against other teams in the same group. The last round of matches of each group is scheduled at the same time to preserve fairness among all four teams. In the 2015 24-team format, the two teams finishing first and second in each group and the four best teams among those ranked third qualified for the round of 16, also called the knockout stage. Points are used to rank the teams within a group. Since 1994, three points have been awarded for a win, one for a draw and none for a loss (before, winners received two points).
The ranking of each team in each group is determined as follows:
Greatest number of points in group matches
Greatest goal difference in group matches
Greatest number of goals scored in group matches
If more than one team remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined as follows:
Greatest number of points in head-to-head matches among those teams
Greatest goal difference in head-to-head matches among those teams
Greatest number of goals scored in head-to-head matches among those teams
If any of the teams above remain level after applying the above criteria, their ranking will be determined by the drawing of lots
The knockout stage is a single-elimination tournament in which teams play each other in one-off matches, with extra time and penalty shootouts used to decide the winners if necessary. It begins with the round of 16. This is followed by the quarter-finals, semi-finals, the third-place match (contested by the losing semi-finalists), and the final.
History
The first instance of a Women's World Cup dates back to 1970, with the first international tournament taking place in Italy in July 1970. This was followed by another unofficial tournament the following year in Mexico, where Denmark won the title after defeating Mexico in the final. In the mid-1980s, the Mundialito was held in Italy across four editions with both Italy and England winning two titles.
Several countries lifted their ban on women's football in the 1970s, leading to new teams being established across Europe and North America. After the first international women's tournaments were held in Asia in 1975 and Europe in 1984, Ellen Wille declared that she wanted better effort from the FIFA Congress in promoting the women's game. This came in 1988 in the form of an invitational tournament in China as a test to see if a global women's World Cup was feasible. Twelve national teams took part in the competition – four from UEFA, three from AFC, two from CONCACAF, and one each from CONMEBOL, CAF and OFC. After the opening match of the tournament between China and Canada was attended by 45,000 people, the tournament was deemed a success, with crowds averaging 20,000. Norway, who was the European champion, defeated Sweden, 1–0, in the final, while Brazil clinched third place by beating the hosts in a penalty shootout. The competition was deemed a success and on 30 June FIFA approved the establishment of an official World Cup, which was to take place in 1991 again in China. Again, twelve teams competed, this time culminating in the United States defeating Norway in the final, 2–1, with Michelle Akers scoring two goals.
The 1995 edition in Sweden saw the experiment of a time-out concept throughout the tournament which was later tightened mid-tournament to only occur after a break in play. The time-out only appeared in the one tournament which saw it scrapped. The final of the 1995 edition saw Norway, who scored 17 goals in the group stage, defeat Germany, 2–0, to capture their only title.
In the 1999 edition, one of the most famous moments of the tournament was American defender Brandi Chastain's victory celebration after scoring the Cup-winning penalty kick against China. She took off her jersey and waved it over her head (as men frequently do), showing her muscular torso and sports bra as she celebrated. The 1999 final in the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, had an attendance of 90,185, a world record for a women's sporting event.
The 1999 and 2003 Women's World Cups were both held in the United States; in 2003 China was supposed to host it, but the tournament was moved because of SARS. As compensation, China retained their automatic qualification to the 2003 tournament as host nation, and was automatically chosen to host the 2007 FIFA Women's World Cup. Germany hosted the 2011 FIFA Women's World Cup, as decided by vote in October 2007. In March 2011, FIFA awarded Canada the right to host the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup. The 2015 competition saw the field expand from 16 to 24 teams.
During the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, both Formiga of Brazil and Homare Sawa of Japan appeared in their record sixth World Cup, a feat that had never been achieved before by either female or male players. Christie Pearce is the oldest player to ever play in a Women's World Cup match, at the age of 40 years. In March 2015, FIFA awarded France the right to host the 2019 FIFA Women's World Cup over South Korea.
Trophy
The current trophy was designed in 1998 for the 1999 tournament, and takes the form of a spiral band, enclosing a football at the top, that aims to capture the athleticism, dynamism, and elegance of international women's football. In the 2010s, it was fitted with a cone-shaped base. Underneath the base, the name of each of the tournament's previous winners is engraved. The trophy is tall, weighs and is made of sterling silver clad in 23-karat yellow and white gold, with an estimated value in 2015 of approximately $30,000. By contrast, the men's World Cup trophy is fabricated in 18-karat gold and has a precious metal value of $150,000. However, a new Winner's Trophy is constructed for each women's champion to take home, while there is only one original men's trophy which is retained by FIFA with each men's champion taking home a replica trophy.
Since 2007, the winners are also awarded the FIFA Champions Badge, which is worn on the jerseys of the winning team until the winners of the next tournament has been decided.
Hosts
Attendance
Notes:
The 2003 Women's World Cup was originally planned to be hosted by China, but was awarded to the United States in May 2003 after a major SARS outbreak.
The 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup set a new attendance record for all FIFA competitions besides the men's FIFA World Cup.
Results
No extra time was played.
In all, 36 nations have played in at least one Women's World Cup. Of those, four nations have won the World Cup. With four titles, the United States is the most successful Women's World Cup team and is one of only seven nations to play in every World Cup. They have also had the most top four finishes (8), medals (8), and final appearances (5), including the longest streak of three consecutive finals in 2011, 2015, and 2019.
Teams reaching the top four
* = hosts
Best performances by confederations
, four of the six FIFA confederations have made it to a Women's World Cup final, the only exceptions being CAF (Africa) and the OFC (Oceania). CONMEBOL is the only confederation to have made a World Cup final without winning, following Brazil's defeat in the 2007 final. The farthest advancing African team was Nigeria, who were eliminated in the quarter finals in 1999. Oceania has sent two teams, Australia and New Zealand, to the World Cup, but Australia did not advance from the group stage until after the country's football association moved to the Asian Football Confederation, and New Zealand (which remains in the OFC) has never advanced to the knockout rounds.
The United States and Norway are the only teams to have won the tournament in their own confederations, with the U.S. winning in 1999 (at home) and 2015 (in Canada), and Norway in 1995 (in Sweden). The United States are also the only team that has won the tournament in every continent was played: Asia (in 1991), Europe (in 2019) and in North America (in 1999 and in 2015). Germany has won in Asia (in 2007) and in North America (in 2003), Japan has won in Europe (in 2011).
Broadcasting and revenue
, the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup Final was the most watched football match in American history with nearly 23 million viewers, more than the 2015 NBA Finals and Stanley Cup. It was also the most watched Spanish-language broadcast in tournament history. More than 750 million viewers were reported to have watched the tournament worldwide.
The 2015 Women's World Cup generated almost $73 million. By comparison, the 2018 men's tournament generated an estimated $6.1 billion in revenue.
Awards
At the end of each World Cup, awards are presented to select players and teams for accomplishments other than their final team positions in the tournament. There are currently seven awards:
The Golden Ball for the best player, determined by a vote of media members (first awarded in 1991); the Silver Ball and the Bronze Ball are awarded to the players finishing second and third in the voting respectively.
The Golden Boot (also known as the Golden Shoe) for the top goalscorer (first awarded in 1991). The Silver Boot and the Bronze Boot have been awarded to the second and third top goalscorers respectively.
If two or more players finish the tournament with the same number of goals, tiebreakers are used in the following order:
Most assists.
Fewest minutes played.
The Golden Glove Award for the best goalkeeper, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group. First awarded in 2007 as "Best Goalkeeper"; current award name adopted in 2011.
The Best Young Player Award for the best player no older than age 21 as of 1 January of the year of the final tournament, decided by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first awarded in 2011).
The FIFA Fair Play Award for the team with the best record of fair play, according to the points system and criteria established by the FIFA Fair Play Committee (first awarded in 1991).
The All-Star Team, consisting of the best players of the tournament as determined by the FIFA Technical Study Group (first selected in 1999).
The Dream Team, consisting of the best players of the tournament as chosen by users of fifa.com (first selected in 2015).
Another award is presented a week after the final match:
The Goal of the Tournament, consisting of the tournament's best goal, as chosen by users of fifa.com from a shortlist of 12 goals selected by FIFA's web administrators (first awarded in 2015).
One past award is no longer presented:
The Most Entertaining Team Award for the team that has entertained the public the most during the World Cup, determined by a poll of the general public (awarded in 2003 and 2007).
Records and statistics
Boldface indicates a player still playing.
Top goalscorers
Individual
Country
All-time table for champions
See also
FIFA Women's Club World Cup
FIFA U-20 Women's World Cup
FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup
References
External links
, FIFA.com
UEFA's page on the FIFA Women's World Cup, UEFA.com
RSSSF's pages, RSSSF.com
Women's World Cup
Recurring sporting events established in 1991
Women's world championships
Women's | [
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244863 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshimichi%20Hara | Yoshimichi Hara | Yoshimichi Hara (原嘉道) (February 18, 1867 – August 7, 1944) was a Japanese statesman and the president of the Japanese privy council during World War II, from June 1940 until his death.
Hara was always reluctant to use military force. In particular, he protested against the outbreak of the Pacific war at Gozen Kaigi.
Historian Charles Kupfer contradicts this statement in Indomitable Will: Turning Defeat into Victory from Pearl Harbor to Midway, Hara recognized the growing threat of American influence in the pacific region prior to American involvement in World War II, and was a key advocate for the attack on Pearl Harbor. Hara was of the opinion that the longer Japan waited to engage the United States, the weaker its position would become thus subjugating the island nation to the will of American dominance in the region. Indeed, Hara as president of the privy council, had very little political control, since almost all political power was concentrated in war cabinets. Hara did, however, act as the voice for Emperor Hirohito in the privy counsel and delivered the Emperor's decision to go to war on December 1, 1941, stating that to yield to American demands would threaten the existence of the Empire of Japan.
After his death, Hara was decorated with the posthumous title of Imperial . He was the last commoner to become part of the Japanese aristocracy.
References
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1867 births
1944 deaths
Kazoku | [
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244870 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group%20of%20Seven%20%28artists%29 | Group of Seven (artists) | The Group of Seven, once known as the Algonquin School, was a group of Canadian landscape painters from 1920 to 1933, originally consisting of Franklin Carmichael (1890–1945), Lawren Harris (1885–1970), A. Y. Jackson (1882–1974), Frank Johnston (1888–1949), Arthur Lismer (1885–1969), J. E. H. MacDonald (1873–1932), and Frederick Varley (1881–1969). Later, A. J. Casson (1898–1992) was invited to join in 1926, Edwin Holgate (1892–1977) became a member in 1930, and LeMoine FitzGerald (1890–1956) joined in 1932.
Two artists commonly associated with the group are Tom Thomson (1877–1917) and Emily Carr (1871–1945). Although he died before its official formation, Thomson had a significant influence on the group. In his essay "The Story of the Group of Seven", Harris wrote that Thomson was "a part of the movement before we pinned a label on it"; Thomson's paintings The West Wind and The Jack Pine are two of the group's most iconic pieces. Emily Carr was also associated with the Group of Seven, though never an official member.
Believing that a distinct Canadian art could be developed through direct contact with nature, the Group of Seven is best known for its paintings inspired by the Canadian landscape, and initiated the first major Canadian national art movement. The Group was succeeded by the Canadian Group of Painters in 1933, which included members from the Beaver Hall Group who had a history of showing with the Group of Seven internationally.
Collections
Large collections of work from the Group of Seven are located at the Art Gallery of Ontario in Toronto, the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa as well as the Ottawa Art Gallery (home to The Firestone Collection of Canadian Art) and the McMichael Canadian Art Collection in Kleinburg, Ontario. The National Gallery, under the directorship of Eric Brown, was an early institutional supporter of artists associated with the Group, purchasing art from some of their early exhibitions before they had identified themselves officially as the Group of Seven. The Art Gallery of Ontario, in its earlier incarnation as the Art Gallery of Toronto, was the site of their first exhibition as the Group of Seven in 1920. The McMichael Canadian Art Collection was founded by Robert and Signe McMichael, who began collecting paintings by the Group of Seven and their contemporaries in 1955.
History
Tom Thomson, J. E. H. MacDonald, Arthur Lismer, Frederick Varley, Frank Johnston and Franklin Carmichael met as employees of the design firm Grip Ltd. in Toronto. In 1913, they were joined by A. Y. (Alexander Young) Jackson and Lawren Harris. They often met at the Arts and Letters Club of Toronto to discuss their opinions and share their art.
This group received monetary support from Harris (heir to the Massey-Harris farm machinery fortune) and Dr. James MacCallum. Harris and MacCallum jointly built the Studio Building in 1914 in the Rosedale ravine to serve as a meeting and working place for the new Canadian art movement. MacCallum owned an island on Georgian Bay and Thomson worked as a guide in nearby Algonquin Park, both places where he and the other artists often travelled for inspiration.
The informal group was temporarily split up during World War I, during which Jackson and Varley became official war artists. Jackson enlisted in June 1915 and served in France from November 1915 to 1917, at which point he was seriously injured. Harris enlisted in 1916 and taught musketry at Camp Borden. He was discharged in May 1918 after suffering a nervous breakdown. Carmichael, MacDonald, Thomson, Varley and Johnston remained in Toronto and struggled in the depressed wartime economy. A further blow to the group came in 1917 when Thomson died mysteriously while canoeing in Algonquin Park. The circumstances of his death remain unclear.
The seven who formed the original group reunited after the war. They continued to travel throughout Ontario, especially the Muskoka and Algoma regions, sketching the landscape and developing techniques to represent it in art. In 1919, they decided to make themselves into a group devoted to a distinct Canadian form of art which did not exist yet, and began to call themselves the Group of Seven. It is unknown who specifically chose these seven men, but it is believed to have been Harris or Harris in combination with MacDonald. By 1920, they were ready for their first exhibition thanks to the constant support and encouragement of Eric Brown, the director of the National Gallery at that time. Reviews for the 1920 exhibition were mixed, but as the decade progressed the Group came to be recognized as pioneers of a new, Canadian, school of art.
After Frank Johnston moved to Winnipeg in the fall of 1921, Percy James Robinson is claimed to have been invited to fill the open spot. Robinson participated in the group's 3rd exhibition at the Art Gallery of Ontario. In 1926, A. J. Casson was invited to join. Franklin Carmichael had taken a liking to him and had encouraged Casson to sketch and paint for many years.
The Group's champions during its early years included Barker Fairley, a co-founder of Canadian Forum magazine, and the warden of Hart House at the University of Toronto, J. Burgon Bickersteth.
The members of the Group began to travel elsewhere in Canada for inspiration, including British Columbia, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and the Arctic. After Samuel Gurney Cresswell and other painters on Royal Navy expeditions, these were the first artists of European descent who depicted the Arctic. Soon, the Group made the decision that to be called a "national school of painters" there should be members from outside Toronto. As a result, in 1930 Edwin Holgate from Montreal, Quebec became a member, followed by LeMoine FitzGerald from Winnipeg, Manitoba in 1932.
The Group's influence was so widespread by the end of 1931, and after J. E. H. MacDonald's death in 1932, they no longer found it necessary to continue as a group of painters. They announced that the Group had been disbanded and that a new association of painters would be formed, known as the Canadian Group of Painters. The Canadian Group—which eventually consisted of the majority of Canada's leading artists—held its first exhibition in 1933, and continued to hold exhibitions almost every year as a successful society until 1967.
Legacy
The Group of Seven has received criticism for its reinforcement of terra nullius presenting the region as pristine and untouched by humans when in fact the areas depicted have been lived in for many centuries. This sentiment was expressed by Jackson, who in his 1958 autobiography wrote,
In 1966, the Legislative Assembly of Ontario incorporated the McMichael Canadian Art Collection, an art gallery with an institutional focus on the Group of Seven, along with "their contemporaries and on the aboriginal peoples of Canada". In addition to housing a collection of works by the Group of Seven, the museum property also contains the burial ground for six members of the group, including A.Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, Frederick Varley, Lawren Harris, Frank Johnston, and A.J. Casson; along with four of the artists' wives. The McMichael cemetery is situated in the small patch of consecrated land bordered by trees, with graves marked by large chunks of the Canadian Shield. The idea to use the property as a burial ground for the group was first proposed to the institution by Jackson in 1968.
In 1995, the National Gallery of Canada compiled a Group of Seven retrospective show, for which they commissioned the Canadian rock band Rheostatics to write a musical score. That score was released on album as Music Inspired by the Group of Seven.
Contemporary painter Rae Johnson was inspired by Tom Thomson and the Group of Seven in the themes of some of her works and her choice of painting place, as were many other artists.
Shows of Group of Seven members or single paintings in some combination are a perennial favorite of the Canadian exhibition world, particularly of the National Gallery of Canada. The Group still receives criticism, usually for what it left out of the narrative. In 2016, for instance, a publication criticized it for its paintings of empty landscapes which helped to forge a fictitious national identity that celebrated the land as open for ownership and extraction. This concept was explored by Canadian artist Will Kwan in his show, Terra Economicus, of 2021, held at the Robert McLaughlin Gallery, Oshawa. Other omissions are noted. But usually the Group is simply regarded as part of Canadian art history and explored in depth, as, for instance, for the centenary, the Kelowna Art Gallery in 2020 organized Northern Pine: Watercolours and Drawings by the Group of Seven from the McMichael Canadian Art Collection curated by Ian M. Thom. The National Gallery of Canada also organized shows for the centenary, such as the Magnetic North: Imagining Canada in Painting, 1910-1940, shown at the Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt in 2021. For the centenary as well, the National Gallery`s Philip Dombowsky of the Library and Archives at the Gallery organized a show titled Group of Seven: Graphic Design.
Recognition
On September 18, 1970, Canada Post issued 'The Group of Seven', designed by Allan Robb Fleming and based on a painting, "Isles of Spruce" (1922), by Arthur Lismer and held in the Hart House Permanent Collection, University of Toronto. The 6¢ stamps are perforated 11, and were printed by Ashton-Potter Limited.
On June 29, 1995, Canada Post issued 10 stamps, each based on a painting of a member of the group (7 original members and 3 additional members):
Francis Hans Johnston, Serenity, Lake of the Woods
Arthur Lismer, A September Gale, Georgian Bay
James Edward Hervey MacDonald, Falls, Montreal River
Frederick Horsman Varley, Open Window
Franklin Carmichael, October Gold
Lawren Stewart Harris, North of Lake Superior
Alexander Young Jackson, Evening, Les Éboulements
Alfred Joseph Casson, Mill Houses
Lionel LeMoine FitzGerald, Pembina Valley
Edwin Headley Holgate, The Lumberjack
On May 7, 2020, Canada Post honoured the centennial of the Group's first exhibition, at the Art Gallery of Toronto (May 7, 1920), by issuing seven stamps, featuring paintings by each of the original members. The stamps were produced in a booklet of seven self-adhesives, and on a souvenir sheet of seven gummed stamps. First day ceremonies were cancelled, due to the Covid-19 pandemic, so designs were unveiled online on May 6, via the social media accounts of the postal service and several galleries across the country which own the works featured on the stamps:
In the Nickel Belt (1928), by Franklin Carmichael
Miners’ Houses, Glace Bay (circa 1925), by Lawren S. Harris
Labrador Coast (1930), by A.Y. Jackson
Fire-swept, Algoma (1920), by Frank H. Johnston
Quebec Village (1926), by Arthur Lismer
Church by the Sea (1924), by J.E.H. MacDonald
Stormy Weather, Georgian Bay (1921), by F.H. Varley
In 2012–2013, the Royal Canadian Mint issued seven pure silver one-ounce coins, collectively reproducing one painting by each original member:
F.H. Varley Stormy Weather, Georgian Bay (April 2012)
Arthur Lismer Nova Scotia Fishing Village (July 2012)
Franklin Carmichael Houses, Cobalt (October 2012)
Lawren S. Harris Toronto Street, Winter Morning (January 2013)
Franz Johnston The Guardian of the Gorge (March 2013)
J.E.H. MacDonald Sumacs (June 2013)
A.Y. Jackson Saint-Tite-des-Caps (September 2013)
See also
Indian Group of Seven (Canadian First Nations Artists)
Metcalf Chateau (Japanese-American Artists)
References
Footnotes
References
Further reading
External links
CBC Digital Archives – The Group of Seven: Painters in the Wilderness
The Canadian Encyclopedia, The Group of Seven
Group of Seven Gallery – McMichael Gallery
Canadian artist groups and collectives
History of art in Canada
1920 establishments in Canada | [
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244876 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disadvantaged | Disadvantaged | The "disadvantaged" is a generic term for individuals or groups of people who:
Face special problems such as physical or mental disability
Lack money or economic support
Economically disadvantaged
In common usage "the disadvantaged" is a generic term for those "from lower-income backgrounds" or "the Disadvantaged Poor".
The "economically disadvantaged" is a term used by government institutions in for example allocating free school meals to "a student who is a member of a household that meets the income eligibility guidelines for free or reduced-price meals (less than or equal to 185% of Federal Poverty Guidelines)" or business grants.
The "disadvantaged" is often applied in a third world context and typically relate to women with reduced "upward mobility" suffering social exclusion and having limited access to natural resources and economic opportunities. They are often landless or marginal farmers operating on the most unproductive land.
According to Paul Krugman in an October 2002 article titled "about the distribution of wealth", there is even more of a divide between the classes today than in the 1920s, meaning that the disadvantaged are becoming more economically disadvantaged.
Disadvantaged area
Many governments use Disadvantaged area as a designation for various "problem" areas. In the UK "disadvantaged area" is a term used for an area where there is a need "to stimulate the physical, economic and social regeneration" by attracting development and encouraging the purchase of properties. in special provisions for Stamp Tax relief and for areas where health is an issue. In the United States The "Nursing Relief for Disadvantaged Areas Act" allowed qualifying hospitals to employ temporary foreign workers as Registered Nurses.
Disadvantaged child
Disadvantaged pupil
Political correctness
Poverty
Destitute
Disabled
Social exclusion
Social vulnerability
References
Measurements and definitions of poverty | [
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244877 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver%20Hall%20Group | Beaver Hall Group | The Beaver Hall Group refers to a Montreal-based group of Canadian painters who met in the late 1910s while studying art at a school run by the Art Association of Montreal.
The Group is notable for its equal inclusion of men and women artists, as well as for its embrace of Jazz Age modernism. They painted a variety of subjects, including portraits, landscapes, urban scenes and still lifes, in a mix of Modernist and traditional styles.
Members
The ten female artists who are together known as the Beaver Hall Group were:
Nora Collyer
Emily Coonan
Prudence Heward (Although she never showed in any of the group`s exhibitions, she was allied with them in her aesthetic aims and through friendships.)
Mabel Lockerby
Mabel May
Kathleen Morris
Lilias Torrance Newton
Sarah Robertson
Anne Savage
Ethel Seath
All ten of the group's participants had studied under William Brymner (1855–1925), a prominent Canadian artist who encouraged them to explore new modernistic approaches to painting. In an era when women artists were viewed as little more than hobbyists and were left out of the mainstream world of professional art, the Beaver Hall Group was the first Canadian artists association in which women played a central role.
History
The group was formally founded in May 1920, inaugurated through the efforts of Randolph Stanley Hewton, Edwin Holgate, Mabel May and Lilias Torrance Newton. The group's name derives from 305 Beaver Hall Hill, the location of the downtown Montreal studio where its members shared space. It counted among the founding members eleven men and eight women. In addition to Hewton, Holgate, May and Newton, original members included Mabel Lockerby, Anne Savage, Albert H. Robinson and President of the group, A.Y. Jackson.
The first Beaver Hall exhibition took place January 17, 1921. In his opening speech, Jackson emphasized the right of the artist to paint what they feel "with utter disregard for what
has hitherto been considered requisite to the acceptance of the work at the recognized art exhibitions in Canadian centres. 'Schools' and 'isms' do not trouble us," Jackson stressed, "individual expression is our chief concern". He identified its goals as being those of the Group of Seven, and over the years Jackson maintained the contact between Toronto and Montreal, supporting and stimulating the Montreal artists through regular visits and correspondence. He kept them informed of events in Toronto and arranged for their works to be included in the Group of Seven exhibitions. Both the Montreal Gazette and La Presse gave generous coverage to the vernissage.
The association only survived for two years, during which time they held only four exhibitions with many different artists exhibiting among them. In 1924, the Beaver Hall Group gave up their rented studio but maintained their working studios at home. Many of the women from the Beaver Hall Group exhibited with the all-male Group of Seven internationally. When the Group of Seven formally disbanded in 1932, the women of the Beaver Hall Group helped establish the Canadian Group of Painters in 1933, to provide exhibition opportunities. Nevertheless, Group artists maintained an information association into the early 1960s.
The current understanding of the Beaver Hall Group as a group of Montreal-based women painters can be traced back to Nora McCullough's (National Gallery of Canada liaison to Western Canada) 1966 traveling exhibition "The Beaver Hall Hill Group". Until that time, the ten women who had continued their informal network after the disbanding of the formal Beaver Hall Group had not had a name for their association. McCollough's aim was to expose the talent of Quebec's women artists to western Canada. Anne Savage and A.Y. Jackson had told her about the original Beaver Hall Group and the name of the group became somehow confused with the name of the street, which is how the exhibition got its name.
More recently, curators have discovered a new dimension of Canadian modernism in the Beaver Hall Group. In contrast to the familiar modernist icons of the Toronto-based Group of Seven, the Montreal Beaver Hall painters were occupied with distinctly urban subjects: industry, fashion, and city life. Commenting on a recent exhibition, 1920s Modernism in Montreal: The Beaver Hall Group at the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, co-curator Brian Foss said, "As fascinating and important as the Group of Seven was, it wasn't the only word on Canadian Modernism. Hopefully visitors will be struck by the extraordinary vibrancy, diversity and sheer quality of the art, and will come away with enhanced admiration for the real contributions Montreal artists made to Modernist art in this country."
References
Further reading
Des Rochers, Jacques and Brian Foss (2015). The Beaver Hall Group: 1920s Modernism in Montreal. Black Dog Publishing.
Meadowcroft, Barbara (1999). Painting friends: the Beaver Hall women painters. Véhicule Press.
Prakash, A. K. (2008). Independent Spirit: Early Canadian Women Artists. Firefly Books.
Walters, Evelyn (2017). The Beaver Hall Group and Its Legacy, Dundurn Press,
External links
Pepita Ferrari (1994). By Woman's Hand, produced by the National Film Board of Canada. This documentary chronicles the Beaver Hall Hill Group, featuring Prudence Heward, Sarah Robertson and Anne Savage.
The Beaver Hall Exhibition. Montreal Museum of Fine Arts.
Canadian artist groups and collectives
Canadian women painters
Artists from Montreal
Anglophone Quebec people
Culture of Montreal
History of art in Canada
Modern art
Arts organizations based in Canada
Art societies
20th-century Canadian women artists | [
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244878 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter%20storm | Winter storm | A winter storm is an event in which wind coincides with varieties of precipitation that only occur at freezing temperatures, such as snow, mixed snow and rain, or freezing rain. In temperate continental climates, these storms are not necessarily restricted to the winter season, but may occur in the late autumn and early spring as well. A snowstorm with strong winds and other conditions meeting certain criteria is called a blizzard.
Formation
Winter storms are formed when moist air rise up into the atmosphere, creating a low pressure near the ground and clouds up in the air. The air can also be pushed upwards by hills or large mountains. The upward motion is called lift. The moisture is collected by the wind from large bodies of water, such as a big lake or the ocean. If temperature is below freezing, , near the ground and up in the clouds, precipitation will fall as snow, ice, rain and snow mixed (sleet), ice pellets or even graupel (soft hail). Since cold air can not hold as much moisture as warm air, the total precipitation will be less than at higher temperature.
Winter storm warnings will be issued if:
Snow accumulation is or more in 12 hours, or or more in 24 hours.
Blowing snow is reducing visibility in large areas at winds less than .
Ice accumulations on surfaces are or more.
Ice pellets larger than are formed.
Wind chill index is less than for more than 3 hours and sustained wind speed of at least .
Snowstorms with wind speed of more than and reduced visibility for 3 hours or more, are called blizzards.
Terminology
Severe winter weather conditions called "winter storms", can be local weather fulfilling the criteria for 24 hours, or large storm systems covering part of a continent for several days. With large, massive winter storms, weather in any part of the area covered by the extreme weather is usually called "storm"; even if meteorological criteria for winter storms are not met everywhere. An example of this is the February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm with snowfall and below freezing temperatures as far south as Texas and the Gulf of Mexico.
Snowstorm
Snowstorms are storms where large amounts of snow fall. of snow is enough to create serious disruptions to traffic and school transport (because of the difficulty to drive and maneuver the school buses on slick roads). This is particularly true in places where snowfall is not typical but heavy accumulating snowfalls can occur. In places where snowfall is typical, such small snowfalls are rarely disruptive, because of effective snow and ice removal by municipalities, increased use of four-wheel drive and snow tires, and drivers being more used to winter conditions. Snowfalls in excess of are usually universally disruptive.
A large number of severe snowstorms, some of which were blizzards, occurred in the United States during 1888 and 1947 as well as the early and mid-1990s. The snowfall of 1947 exceeded with drifts and snow piles from plowing that reached and for months as temperatures did not rise high enough to melt the snow. The 1993 "Superstorm" manifested as a blizzard in most of the affected areas.
Severe snowstorms could be quite dangerous: a snow depth will make some unplowed roads impassable, and it is possible for cars to get stuck in the snow. Snow depth exceeding especially in southern or generally warm climates will cave the roofs of some homes and cause loss of electricity. Standing dead trees can also be brought down by the weight of the snow, especially if it is wet. Even a few inches of dry snow can form drifts many feet high under windy conditions.
Hazards from snowfall
Accumulated snow can make driving motor vehicles very hazardous. Snow on roadways reduces friction between tires and the road surface, which in turn lowers the maneuverability of a vehicle considerably. As a result, average driving speeds on public roads and highways are reduced by up to 40% while heavy snow is falling. Visibility is reduced by falling snow, and this is further exacerbated by strong winds which are commonly associated with winter storms producing heavy snowfall. In extreme cases, this may lead to prolonged whiteout conditions in which visibility is reduced to only a few feet due to falling or blowing snow. These hazards can manifest even after snowfall has ended when strong winds are present, as these winds will pick up and transport fallen snow back onto roadways and reduce visibility in the process. This can even result in blizzard conditions if winds are strong enough. Heavy snowfall can immobilize a vehicle entirely, which may be deadly depending on how long it takes rescue crews to arrive. The clogging of a vehicle's tailpipe by snow may lead to carbon monoxide buildup inside the cabin.
Depending on the temperature profile in the atmosphere, snow can be either wet or dry. Dry snow, being lighter, is transported by wind more easily and accumulates more efficiently. Wet snow is heavier due to the increased water content. Significant accumulations of heavy wet snow can cause roof damage. It also requires considerably more energy to move and this can create health problems while shoveling when combined with the harsh weather conditions. Numerous deaths as a result of heart attacks can be attributed to snow removal. Accretion of wet snow to elevated surfaces occurs when snow is "sticky" enough which can cause extensive tree and power line damage in a manner similar to ice accretion during ice storms. Power can be lost for days during a major winter storm, and this usually means the loss of heating inside buildings. Other than the obvious risk of hypothermia due to cold exposure, another deadly element associated with snowstorms is carbon monoxide poisoning which can happen anytime combustion products from generators or heating appliances are not properly vented. Partially or fully melted snow on roadways can refreeze when temperatures fall, creating black ice.
Freezing rain
Heavy showers of freezing rain are one of the most dangerous types of winter storm. They typically occur when a layer of warm air hovers over a region, but the ambient temperature a few meters above the ground is near or below , and the ground temperature is sub-freezing.
While a snowfall is somewhat manageable by the standards of the northern United States and Canada, a comparable precipitation of an ice storm can paralyze a region; driving becomes extremely hazardous, telephone and power lines are damaged, and crops may be ruined.
Notable ice storms
Notable ice storms include an El Niño-related North American ice storm of 1998 that affected much of eastern Canada, including Montreal and Ottawa, as well as upstate New York and part of New England. Three million people lost power, some for as long as six weeks. One-third of the trees in Montreal's Mount Royal park were damaged, as well as a large proportion of the sugar-producing maple trees. The amount of economic damage caused by the storm has been estimated at $3 billion Canadian.
2000 Christmas Day Ice Storm, caused devastating electrical issues in parts of Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. The city of Texarkana, Arkansas experienced the worst damage, at one point losing the ability to use telephones, electricity and running water. In some areas in Arkansas, Oklahoma, Texas and eventually Louisiana, over of ice accumulated from the freezing rain.
2002 North Carolina ice storm, resulted in massive power loss throughout much of the state, and property damage due to falling trees. Except in the mountainous western part of the state, heavy snow and icy conditions are rare in North Carolina.
2005 December Ice Storm, was another severe winter storm producing extensive ice damage across a large portion of the Southern United States on December 14 to 16. It led to power outages and at least 7 deaths.
2005 January winter storm in Kansas, had been declared a major disaster zone by President George W. Bush after an ice storm caused nearly $39 million in damages to thirty-two counties. Federal funds were provided to the counties during January 4–6, 2005 to aid the recovery process.
2009 January Central Plains and Midwest ice storm, was a crippling and historic ice storm. Most places struck by the storm, saw or more of ice accumulation, and a few inches of snow on top of it. This brought down power lines, causing some people to go without electricity for a few days, to a few weeks. In some cases, electricity was out for a month or more. At the height of the storm, more than 2 million people were without electricity.
2021 Winter Storm was the deadliest winter storm since the Blizzard of 1996 impacting most of the midwest and southeastern United States. The state of Texas gained notable publicity due to the failure of the state's power grid, causing blackouts and power outages for 7–10 days across the state
Preparing for winter storms
In countries where winter storms can occur, governments and health organizations have websites and online services with advice about how to prepare for the consequences of severe weather. Advices vary with housing standards, infrastructure and safety regulations, but some tips are the same, such as: stock up on three days of food, water, medicines and hygiene items, keep warm clothes ready, keep a flashlight and extra batteries, stay informed, help each other, do not travel unless absolutely necessary.
See also
Classifications of snow
Cold wave
Heavy snow warning
Ice storm warning
List of snowiest places in the United States by state
Severe weather terminology (United States)
Severe weather terminology (Canada)
Siberian Express
Snow emergency
Winter weather advisory
Winter storm warning
Winter storm watch
Blizzards and other storms
Great Blizzard of 1888
North American blizzard of 1947
2011 Groundhog Day blizzard
July 2007 Argentine winter storm
October 2013 North American storm complex
St. Patrick's Day Snowstorm of 1892
Winter of 2010–11 in Europe
Winter of 2010–11 in Great Britain and Ireland
References
U.S. Billion-dollar Weather and Climate Disasters
Weather For Dummies, by John D. Cox
Snow or ice weather phenomena
Storm
Weather hazards
Winter phenomena | [
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244879 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs%20Patrick%20Campbell | Mrs Patrick Campbell | Mrs Patrick Campbell (9 February 1865 – 9 April 1940), born Beatrice Rose Stella Tanner and known informally as "Mrs Pat", was an English stage actress, best known for appearing in plays by Shakespeare, Shaw and Barrie. She also toured the United States and appeared briefly in films.
Early life and marriages
Campbell was born Beatrice Rose Stella Tanner in Kensington, London, to John Tanner (1829–1895) and Maria Luigia Giovanna ("Louisa Joanna") née Romanini (1836–1908), daughter of Count Angelo Romanini. She studied for a short time at the Guildhall School of Music. In 1884 she eloped with Patrick Campbell, while pregnant with their child, Alan "Beo" Urquhart. Their second child, Stella, was born in 1886. Patrick Campbell went to Australia, and later to South Africa. He died in the Boer War in 1900.
Fourteen years later, Campbell became the second wife of George Cornwallis-West, a writer and soldier previously married to Jennie Jerome, the mother of Sir Winston Churchill. Notwithstanding her second marriage she continued to use the stage name "Mrs Patrick Campbell".
Stage career
Campbell made her professional stage debut in 1888 at the Alexandra Theatre, Liverpool, four years after her marriage to Patrick Campbell. In March 1890, she appeared in London at the Adelphi, where she afterward played again in 1891–93. She became successful after starring in Sir Arthur Wing Pinero's play, The Second Mrs Tanqueray, in 1893, at St. James's Theatre where she also appeared in 1894 in The Masqueraders. As Kate Cloud in John-a-Dreams, produced by Beerbohm Tree at the Haymarket in 1894, she had another success, and again as Agnes in The Notorious Mrs. Ebbsmith at the Garrick (1895).
Among her other performances were those in Fédora (1895), Little Eyolf (1896), and her notable performances with Forbes-Robertson at the Lyceum in London's West End in the rôles of Juliet in Romeo and Juliet, Ophelia in Hamlet, and Lady Macbeth (1895–98) in Macbeth. Once established as a major star, Campbell assisted in the early careers of some noted actors, such as Gerald Du Maurier and George Arliss.
In 1900, "Mrs Pat", having become her own Manager/Director, made her debut performance on Broadway in New York City in Heimat by Hermann Sudermann, a marked success. Subsequent appearances in New York and on tour in the US established her as a major theatrical presence there. Campbell would regularly perform on the New York stage until 1933. Other performances included roles in The Joy of Living (1902), Pelléas et Mélisande (1904; as Melisande to the Pelleas of her friend Sarah Bernhardt), Hedda Gabler (1907), Electra (1908), The Thunderbolt (1908), and Bella Donna (1911).
In 1914, she played Eliza Doolittle in the original West End production of Pygmalion which George Bernard Shaw had expressly written for her. Although forty-nine years old when she originated the role opposite the Henry Higgins of Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree, she triumphed and took the play to New York and on tour in 1915 with the much younger Philip Merivale playing Higgins. She successfully played Eliza again in a 1920 London revival of the play.
A couple of "Mrs Pat"'s later significant performances were as the title role in the 1922 West End production of Henrik Ibsen's play Hedda Gabler and Mrs. Alving in the "Ibsen Centennial" (1928) staging of Ghosts (with John Gielgud as her son Oswald). Her last major stage role was in the Broadway production of Ivor Novello's play A Party where she portrayed the cigar-smoking, pekinese wielding actress "Mrs. MacDonald" – a clear takeoff on her own well known persona – and made off with the best reviews. In her later years, Campbell made notable appearances in films, including One More River (1934), Riptide (1934), and Crime and Punishment (1935). Her tendency, however, to reject roles that could have vitally helped her career in later years caused Alexander Woollcott to declare "...she was like a sinking ship firing on the rescuers".
Relationship with George Bernard Shaw
In the late 1890s Campbell first became aware of George Bernard Shaw – the famous and feared dramatic critic for The Saturday Review – who lavishly praised her better performances and thoroughly criticised her lesser efforts. Shaw had already used her as inspiration for some of his plays before their first meeting in 1897 when he unsuccessfully tried to persuade "Mrs Pat" to play the role of Judith Anderson in the first production of his play The Devil's Disciple. Not until 1912, when they began negotiations for the London production of Pygmalion, did Shaw develop an infatuation for "Mrs Pat" that resulted in a passionate, yet unconsummated, love affair of mutual fascination and a legendary exchange of letters. It was Campbell who broke off the relationship although Shaw was about to direct her in Pygmalion. They remained friends in spite of the break-up and her subsequent marriage to George Cornwallis-West, but Shaw never again allowed her to originate any of the roles he had written with her in mind (e.g. Hesione Hushabye (Heartbreak House), the Serpent (Back to Methuselah), etc.). When Anthony Asquith was preparing to produce the 1938 film of Pygmalion, Shaw suggested Campbell for the role of Mrs Higgins but she declined.
In later years, Shaw refused to allow the impoverished Campbell to publish or sell any of their letters except in heavily edited form, for fear of upsetting his wife Charlotte Payne-Townshend and the possible harm that the letters might cause to his public image. Most of the letters were not published until 1952, two years after Shaw's death.
Famous quotes
Campbell was infamous for her sharp wit. Her best-known remark, uttered upon hearing about a male homosexual relationship, was "My dear, I don't care what they do, so long as they don't do it in the street and frighten the horses," although this remark has been attributed to others as well.
At a dinner in the United States, she was seated next to a scientist who talked incessantly to her about ants. "They even have their own police force and army", he enthused. "No navy?" she replied.
Death
Campbell died on 9 April 1940 in Pau, France, aged 75, of pneumonia. Her death was one of the few deaths of a personal nature that George Bernard Shaw ever noted in his personal diaries.
Legacy
A note book belonging to Campbell is housed at the University of Birmingham Special Collections Department. Several collections of Campbell's correspondence, including her letters to Shaw (MS Thr 372.1), are part of the Harvard Theatre Collection at Houghton Library, Harvard University. A number of her letters and her annotated script for Chester Bailey Fernald's The Moonlight Blossom are in the theatre manuscripts collection of the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin. The Ransom Center's collection of Shaw papers includes letters from Campbell, and the library includes a number of Shaw's published works from Campbell's private library.
Family
Her father John Tanner (1829–1895), a descendant of Thomas Tanner, Bishop of St Asaph, was a Consul and merchant who "managed to get through two large fortunes", in part through losses in the Indian Mutiny.
Her mother, Louisa Joanna Romanini, was one of the eight daughters of Angelo Romanini of Brescia and Rosa née Polinelli of Milan. Angelo had joined the Carbonari and, as a result, had to leave Italy. He and his family travelled over Eastern Europe aided by a firman from the Sultan of Turkey. Six of his eight daughters, all under eighteen, married Englishmen.
Her first husband Patrick Campbell (1855–1900) was the son of Patrick McMicken Campbell (1826–1896), a banker who was the Chief Manager of the Oriental Bank Corporation, and his first wife Montgomerie Anne née Kerr (1836–1869). After her death he married her cousin, Alicia Anne Kerr.
Patrick and Beatrice first met at a card party at the house of Mrs Gifford in Dulwich and eloped within four months to marry at St Helen, Bishopsgate. Patrick's health was poor and in 1887 he was ordered by his doctor to take a sea voyage. He was to stay away for six and a half years in Australia and then Mashonaland. He found some work but never sent enough back for Beatrice and the children to live on. When he returned in 1893, she saw that "his health and energies were undermined by fever, failure, and the most bitter disappointments", whereas she was by then a successful actress. In mid-March 1900, Patrick returned to South Africa to join Lord Chesham's Yeomanry. He was killed in a charge at Boshof on 5 April, the same action in which Colonel George de Villebois-Mareuil died.
Their son Alan Urquhart 'Beo' Campbell (1885–1917) became a Naval Cadet in 1898 at HMS Britannia and was about to take his naval entrance exams when his father died in 1900. He left the navy that year and went to Oxford and later worked as an actor. In 1908, on tour with his mother he met Helen Parker Bull (1885–1981). They married in 1909 in Quincy, Illinois, and divorced in 1915. He re-joined the RNVR at the outbreak of war and became a Lieutenant Commander, being awarded the Military Cross and bar. On 30 December 1917 he was killed by a shell while serving in the Royal Naval Division at La Vacquerie on the Cambrai front.
Their daughter Stella (1886-1975) also joined her mother on stage, and toured with her in the USA, but "made up her mind to marry a man [Beatrice] scarcely knew, who had lived in Africa for many years". Stella left for Kenya in early 1911 to marry
Mervyn Worcester Howard Beech (1881–1923).
In 1909, Campbell produced His Borrowed Plumes by Lady Randolph Churchill, whose husband, George Cornwallis-West, was "seriously attracted to me". They married on 6 April 1914, the day after the decree absolute of his divorce.
Filmography
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Mrs Patrick Campbell photo gallery at NYP Library
Mrs. Patrick Campbell collection at University of Victoria, Special Collections
Mrs Patrick Campbell in Pygmalion 1915
Mrs. Patrick Campbell University of Washington, Sayre collection
findagrave.com
1865 births
1940 deaths
Actresses from London
English people of Italian descent
19th-century English actresses
English stage actresses
20th-century British actresses
Vaudeville performers
People from Kensington
Deaths from pneumonia in France
20th-century English women
20th-century English people | [
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244884 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQLite | SQLite | SQLite (, ) is a database engine, written in the C language. It is not a standalone app; rather, it is a library that software developers embed in their apps. As such, it belongs to the family of embedded database. It is the most widely deployed database engine, as it is used by several of the top web browsers, operating systems, mobile phones, and other embedded systems.
SQLite has bindings to many programming languages. It generally follows PostgreSQL syntax but does not enforce type checking. This means that one can, for example, insert a string into a column defined as an integer.
History
D. Richard Hipp designed SQLite in the spring of 2000 while working for General Dynamics on contract with the United States Navy. Hipp was designing software used for a damage-control system aboard guided-missile destroyers, which originally used HP-UX with an IBM Informix database back-end. SQLite began as a Tcl extension.
The design goals of SQLite were to allow the program to be operated without installing a database management system or requiring a database administrator. Hipp based the syntax and semantics on those of PostgreSQL 6.5. In August 2000, version 1.0 of SQLite was released, with storage based on gdbm (GNU Database Manager). SQLite 2.0 replaced gdbm with a custom B-tree implementation, adding transaction capability. SQLite 3.0, partially funded by America Online, added internationalization, manifest typing, and other major improvements.
In 2011, Hipp announced his plans to add a NoSQL interface (managing documents expressed in JSON) to SQLite databases and to develop UnQLite, an embeddable document-oriented database.
SQLite is one of four formats recommended for long-term storage of datasets approved for use by the Library of Congress.
Design
Unlike client–server database management systems, the SQLite engine has no standalone processes with which the application program communicates. Instead, the SQLite library is linked in and thus becomes an integral part of the application program. Linking may be static or dynamic. The application program uses SQLite's functionality through simple function calls, which reduce latency in database access: function calls within a single process are more efficient than inter-process communication.
SQLite stores the entire database (definitions, tables, indices, and the data itself) as a single cross-platform file on a host machine. It implements this simple design by locking the entire database file during writing. SQLite read operations can be multitasked, though writes can only be performed sequentially.
Due to the server-less design, SQLite applications require less configuration than client–server databases. SQLite is called zero-conf because it does not require service management (such as startup scripts) or access control based on GRANT and passwords. Access control is handled by means of file-system permissions given to the database file itself. Databases in client–server systems use file-system permissions that give access to the database files only to the daemon process.
Another implication of the serverless design is that several processes may not be able to write to the database file. In server-based databases, several writers will all connect to the same daemon, which is able to handle its locks internally. SQLite, on the other hand, has to rely on file-system locks. It has less knowledge of the other processes that are accessing the database at the same time. Therefore, SQLite is not the preferred choice for write-intensive deployments. However, for simple queries with little concurrency, SQLite performance profits from avoiding the overhead of passing its data to another process.
SQLite uses PostgreSQL as a reference platform. "What would PostgreSQL do" is used to make sense of the SQL standard. One major deviation is that, with the exception of primary keys, SQLite does not enforce type checking; the type of a value is dynamic and not strictly constrained by the schema (although the schema will trigger a conversion when storing, if such a conversion is potentially reversible). SQLite strives to follow Postel's rule.
Features
SQLite implements most of the SQL-92 standard for SQL, but lacks some features. For example, it only partially provides triggers and cannot write to views (however, it provides INSTEAD OF triggers that provide this functionality). Its support of ALTER TABLE statements is limited.
SQLite uses an unusual type system for a SQL-compatible DBMS: instead of assigning a type to a column as in most SQL database systems, types are assigned to individual values; in language terms it is dynamically typed. Moreover, it is weakly typed in some of the same ways that Perl is: one can insert a string into an integer column (although SQLite will try to convert the string to an integer first, if the column's preferred type is integer). This adds flexibility to columns, especially when bound to a dynamically typed scripting language. However, the technique is not portable to other SQL products. A common criticism is that SQLite's type system lacks the data integrity mechanism provided by statically typed columns in other products. The SQLite web site describes a "strict affinity" mode, but this feature has not yet been added. However, it can be implemented with constraints like CHECK(typeof(x)='integer').
Tables normally include a hidden rowid index column, which gives faster access. If a database includes an Integer Primary Key column, SQLite will typically optimize it by treating it as an alias for rowid, causing the contents to be stored as a strictly typed 64-bit signed integer and changing its behavior to be somewhat like an auto-incrementing column. Future versions of SQLite may include a command to introspect whether a column has behavior like that of rowid to differentiate these columns from weakly typed, non-autoincrementing Integer Primary Keys.
SQLite with full Unicode function is optional.
Several computer processes or threads may access the same database concurrently. Several read accesses can be satisfied in parallel. A write access can only be satisfied if no other accesses are currently being serviced. Otherwise, the write access fails with an error code (or can automatically be retried until a configurable timeout expires). This concurrent access situation would change when dealing with temporary tables. This restriction is relaxed in version 3.7 when write-ahead logging (WAL) is turned on, enabling concurrent reads and writes.
Version 3.6.19 released on October 14, 2009 added support for foreign key constraints.
SQLite version 3.7.4 first saw the addition of the FTS4 (full-text search) module, which features enhancements over the older FTS3 module. FTS4 allows users to perform full-text searches on documents similar to how search engines search webpages. Version 3.8.2 added support for creating tables without rowid, which may provide space and performance improvements. Common table expressions support was added to SQLite in version 3.8.3. 3.8.11 added a newer search module called FTS5, the more radical (compared to FTS4) changes requiring a bump in version.
In 2015, with the json1 extension and new subtype interfaces, SQLite version 3.9 introduced JSON content managing.
As per version 3.33.0, the maximum supported database size is 281 TB.
Development and distribution
SQLite's code is hosted with Fossil, a distributed version control system that is itself built upon an SQLite database.
A standalone command-line program is provided in SQLite's distribution. It can be used to create a database, define tables, insert and change rows, run queries and manage an SQLite database file. It also serves as an example for writing applications that use the SQLite library.
SQLite uses automated regression testing prior to each release. Over 2 million tests are run as part of a release's verification. Starting with the August 10, 2009 release of SQLite 3.6.17, SQLite releases have 100% branch test coverage, one of the components of code coverage. The tests and test harnesses are partially public-domain and partially proprietary.
Notable uses
Operating systems
SQLite is included by default in:
Android
BlackBerry 10 OS
FreeBSD where starting with 10-RELEASE version in January 2014, it is used by the core package management system.
illumos
iPhone.
Mac OS X 10.4 onwards （Apple adopted it as an option in macOS's Core Data API from the original implementation）
Maemo
MeeGo
MorphOS since version 3.10
NetBSD
Solaris 10 where the Service Management Facility database is serialized for booting.
Symbian OS
Tizen
webOS
Middleware
ADO.NET adapter, initially developed by Robert Simpson, is maintained jointly with the SQLite developers since April 2010.
ODBC driver has been developed and is maintained separately by Christian Werner. Werner's ODBC driver is the recommended connection method for accessing SQLite from OpenOffice.org.
COM (ActiveX) wrapper making SQLite accessible on Windows to scripted languages such as JScript and VBScript. This adds SQLite database capabilities to HTML Applications (HTA).
Web browsers
The browsers Google Chrome, Opera, Safari and the Android Browser all allow for storing information in, and retrieving it from, a SQLite database within the browser, using the Web SQL Database technology, although this is rapidly becoming deprecated (namely superseded by IndexedDB). Internally, these Chromium based browsers use SQLite databases for storing configuration data like site visit history, cookies, download history etc.
Mozilla Firefox and Mozilla Thunderbird store a variety of configuration data (bookmarks, cookies, contacts etc.) in internally managed SQLite databases. Until Firefox version 57 ("Firefox Quantum"), there was a third-party add-on that used the API supporting this functionality to provide a user interface for managing arbitrary SQLite databases.
Several third-party add-ons can make use of JavaScript APIs to manage SQLite databases.
Web application frameworks
Laravel
Bugzilla
Django's default database management system
Drupal
Trac
Ruby on Rails's default database management system
web2py
Others
Adobe Systems uses SQLite as its file format in Adobe Photoshop Lightroom, a standard database in Adobe AIR, and internally within Adobe Reader.
As with most Apple software, Apple Photos uses SQLite internally.
Audacity uses SQLite as its file format, as of version 3.0.0.
Evernote uses SQLite to store its local database repository in Windows.
Skype
The Service Management Facility, used for service management within the Solaris and OpenSolaris operating systems
Flame (malware)
BMW IDrive Sat Nav system
TomTom GPS systems, for the NDS map data
Programming language support
Language bindings to SQLite for a large number of programming languages exist.
See also
Comparison of relational database management systems
List of relational database management systems
SpatiaLite
SQL compliance
References
Citations
Sources
External links
2000 software
C (programming language) libraries
Cross-platform free software
Embedded databases
Free computer libraries
Free database management systems
Public-domain software with source code
RDBMS software for Linux
Relational database management systems
Serverless database management systems
Symbian software
Public-domain software | [
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244885 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrea | Andrea | Andrea is a given name which is common worldwide for both males and females, cognate to Andreas, Andrei and Andrew.
Origin of the name
The name derives from the Greek word ἀνήρ (anēr), genitive ἀνδρός (andrós), that refers to man as opposed to woman (whereas man in the sense of human being is ἄνθρωπος, ánthropos). The original male Greek name, Andréas, represents the hypocoristic, with endearment functions, of male Greek names composed with the andr- prefix, like Androgeos (man of the earth), Androcles (man of glory), Andronikos (man of victory). The same root ἀνδρ-, andr- denoting the male gender is found e.g. in misandry (the hatred of the male sex), andrology (male physiology), androgens (male hormones) and polyandry (the practice of taking more than one husband at the same time).
In the year 2006, it was the third most popular name in Italy with 3.1% of newborns. It is one of the Italian male names ending in a, with others being Elia (Elias), Enea (Aeneas), Luca (Lucas), Mattia (Matthias), Nicola (Nicholas), Tobia (Tobias). In recent and past times it has also been used on occasion as a female name in Italy and in Spain, where it is considered the legitimate feminine form of Andrés/Andreo/Andreu (Andrew). Outside of Italy, the name is generally considered a female name.
Usage
In Czech, Slovak, Polish, Slovenian, Dutch, English, French, German, Hungarian, Scandinavian languages and Spanish, Andrea is a feminine name. Masculine forms are Andrej, Ondřej, Andrzej, Anže, Andrew, Andreas, András, Andreo, Andrés, Anders, Andries or Andre.
In Albanian Andrea is a masculine name; its native form is Ndrea.
In Romansh Andrea is also a masculine name.
In Italian, Andrea is a primarily masculine name.
In Bulgarian Andrea is used as the feminine form of "Andrei".
In Croatia, Serbia and Slovenia, Andrea is a feminine name; Andreja can be used as female name, while Andrija, Andro and Andrej are masculine forms. The only exception is Istria, where Andrea is a male name.
In Romania Andreea is a feminine name and it is written with an extra "e". However, the feminine variation Andrea is also used. Andrea as etymon means knitting needle in Romanian. Andrei is the masculine form.
Andréa is a Brazilian Portuguese form of Andrea also used in Portugal along with Andreia.
In Dutch, Andrea is used as a female name, although the variant Andrée is found in French.
In Spanish, Andrea and a variation spelled Andressa are used as female variants for Andreo and Andrés.
In Basque, Andrea and Andere exist as female names. Two etymons merge in the former: the most widespread form with a Greek root, 'man', and the Basque-Aquitanian ancient form "andere(a)", present-day "andere(a)" and "andre(a)", 'madam', 'lady' (used mainly as title, e.g. "Andramari", 'Lady/Virgin Mary'), as opposed to "jaun", 'lord'. In popular usage it can ultimately mean 'adult woman'.
In Catalan, Andrea is used as the feminine form of "Andreu".
Notable people
Women
Andrea Alföldi (born 1964), Hungarian race walker
Andrea Allan (born 1946), American actress
Andrea Anders (born 1975), American actress
Andrea Armstrong (born 1982), former American collegiate basketball player
Andrea Ávila (born 1970), Argentine long and triple jumper
Andrea Baker, American actress
Andrea Barber (born 1976), American actress
Andrea Barthwell (born 1953), American federal civil servant and Illinois political hopeful
Andrea Berg (born 1966), German singer
Andrea Berg (born 1981), German volleyball player
Andrea Borrell (born 1963), Cuban basketball player
Andrea Bowen (born 1990), American actress
Andrea Brown (born 1974), American singer
Andrea Brillantes (born 2003), Filipina actress
Andrea Canning (born 1972), Canadian-American broadcast journalist
Andrea Češková (born 1971), Czech MEP
Andrea Corr (born 1974), Irish musician
Andrea Demetriades (born 1983), Australian actress
Andrea Demirović (born 1985), Montenegrin singer
Andrea Dewar (born 1979), Canadian water polo player
Andrea Donaldson, Canada theatre director
Andrea Dworkin (1946–2005), American radical feminist and writer
Andrea Echeverri (born 1965), Colombian singer and guitarist, lead singer of the rock band Aterciopelados
Andreea Ehritt-Vanc (born 1973), Romanian tennis player
Andrea Farkas (born 1969), Hungarian handball goalkeeper
Andrea Feldman (1948-1972), American actress
Andrea Fioroni (born 1969), Argentine field hockey player
Andrea Fischer (born 1960), German politician
Andrea Ghez (born 1965), American astronomer
Andrea Glass (born 1976), German tennis player
Andrea Gibson (born 1975), spoken word artist and activist
Andrea Gyarmati (born 1954), Hungarian swimmer
Andrea Hall (born 1947), American soap opera actress
Andrea Hayes (born 1969), American backstroke swimmer
Andréa Henriques (born 1980), Brazilian water polo player
Andrea Hlaváčková (born 1986), Czech tennis player
Andrea van den Hurk (born 1979), Dutch tennis player
Andrea Immer Robinson (born 1964), Master Sommelier and Dean of Wine Studies at the French Culinary Institute
Andrea Jaeger (born 1965), American former tennis player
Andrea Jeremiah (born 1985), Indian Tamil playback singer, film actress and a model.
A. J. Cook (born 1978), Canadian actress
Andrea Jung (born 1959), business executive
Andrea Jürgens (1967–2017), German singer
Andrea King (1919–2003), American actress
Andrea Kobetić (born 1985), Croatian handball player
Andrea Koevska (born 2000), Macedonian singer and Eurovision Song Contest 2022 entrant
Andrea Komšić (born 1996), Croatian alpine skier
Andrea Koppel (born 1963), American news correspondent
Andrea Leeds (1914–1984), American actress
Andrea Lehotská (born 1981), Slovak television hostess, actress, and top model.
Andrea Lekić (born 1987), Serbian handball player
Andrea Levy (1956-2019), British author
Andrea Lewis (born 1985), Canadian actress
Andrea Libman (Born 1984), Canadian Voice Actress
Andrea Lowe (born 1975), British actress
Andrea Martin (born 1947), actress and comedian
Andrea Mayr (born 1979), Austrian long-distance runner
Andrea McArdle (born 1963), American singer and actress
Andrea Mitchell (born 1946), American news correspondent
Andrea Moody (born 1978), Canadian swimmer
Andrea Murez (born 1992), Israeli-American Olympic swimmer for Israel
Andrea Newman (1938–2019), British author
Andrea Olsen (born 1961), American politician
Andrea Petkovic (born 1987), German tennis player
Andreea Raducan (born 1983), Romanian gymnast
Andrea Rau (born 1947), German actress
Andrea Russett (born 1996), American actress
Andrea Růžičková (born 1984), Slovak actress and model
Andrea Romano (born 1955), American voice actress
Andrea Sanke, American television journalist and presenter
Andrea Shaw (born 1983), American professional bodybuilder
Andrea Suárez (born 1979), Thai singer
Andrea Temesvári (born 1966), Hungarian former tennis player
Andrea Thompson (born 1960), American actress
Andrea Tóth (born 1980), Hungarian water polo player
Andrea True (born 1943), Porn actress and singer
Andrea Wilkens (born 1984), German footballer
Andrea Yates (born 1964), American defendant in a notorious filicide case
Andrea Zollo (born 1975), American singer
Andrea Zonn (born 1969), American singer and musician
Andrea Zsadon, (born 1946) Hungarian soprano
Andrea, (born 1987), Bulgarian singer
Men
Andrea Aguyar (died 1849), Uruguayan slave turned soldier and revolutionary
Andrea Alciato (1492–1550), Italian jurist
Andrea Amati (1505–1577), luthier from Cremona, Italy, credited with making the first instruments of the violin family that are in the form we use today
Andrea Antico (c. 1480 – c. 1538) was an Istrian music printer, editor, publisher and composer of the Renaissance
Andrea Aleksi (1425–1505), Albanian architect
Andrea Ammonio (c. 1478–1517), Italian poet
Andrea Andreani (1540–1623), Italian engraver on wood
Andrea Appiani (1754–1817), Italian painter
Andrea Argoli (1570–1657), Italian mathematician and astronomer
Andrea Aromatico (born 1966), Italian historian and expert in Hermetic iconography
Andrea Bacci (born 1972), Italian race car driver
Andrea Baldini (born 1985), Italian fencer
Andrea Bargnani (born 1985), Italian basketball player
Andrea Barzagli (born 1981), Italian football player
Andrea Belli (1703–1772), Maltese architect
Andrea Bianchi (born 1925), Italian film director
Andrea Boattini (born 1969), Italian astronomer
Andrea Bocelli (born 1958), Italian singer, writer and music producer
Andrea Bogdani (1600–1683), Albanian prelate and scholar
Andrea Bonomi (1923–2003), Italian footballer
Andrea Briosco (c. 1470–1532), Italian sculptor and architect
Andrea Camilleri (born 1925), Italian writer
Andrea Casiraghi (born 1984), eldest child of Princess Caroline of Monaco
Andrea Cesalpino (1519–1603), Italian physician, philosopher and botanist
Andrea Cinciarini (born 1986), Italian basketball player
Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo (born 1925), Archbishop of Tuscania
Andrea Costa (1851–1913), Italian socialist activist
Andrea Debono (1821–1871), Maltese trader and explorer
Andrea Doria (1466–1560), Genoese condottiere and admiral
Andrea Dovizioso (born 1986), Italian motorcycle racer
Andrea Ferrara, 16th century Scottish artificer who introduced the manufacture of the high-quality steel blades bearing his name
Andrea Figallo (born 1972), Italian composer and conductor
Andrea da Firenze (?-1415), Italian composer
Andrea del Verrocchio (c. 1435–1488), Florentine sculptor
Andrea diSessa, (born 1947) American academic and epistemologist
Andrea Gabrieli (c. 1532/33-1585), Italian composer
Andrea Gioannetti (1722–1800), Italian Roman Catholic bishop and cardinal
Andrea Iannone (born 1989), Italian MotoGP driver
Andrea Kim Taegŏn (1821–1846), first Korean Catholic priest, Patron Saint of Korea for the Catholic Church
Andrea Luchesi (1741–1801), Italian composer
Andrea Mantegna (c. 1431–1506), Florentine painter
Andrea Massena (1758–1817), French military commander of Sardinian origin during the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, one of the original eighteen Marshals of the Empire created by Napoleon
Andrea Nuciforo (1964), US politician who served as Democratic State Senator (1997–2007)
Andrea Orcagna (c. 1308–1368), Florentine painter, sculptor and architect
Andrea Palladio (1508–1580), Italian architect
Andrea Pazienza (1956–1988), Italian comics artist
Andrea Pirlo (born 1979), Italian football player
Andrea Pisano (c. 1270–1348), Italian sculptor and architect
Andrea Prader (1919–2001), renowned Swiss scientist and physician, co-discoverer of the Prader-Willi syndrome
Andrea Prosperetti (born 1944), Italian physicist, member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering
Andrea Renzullo (born 1996), German singer
Andrea Sansovino (c. 1467–1529), Italian sculptor
Andrea Meldolla (1510/1515–1563), also known as Andrea Schiavone or Andrija Medulic, was a Dalmatian Renaissance painter and etcher
Andrea Solari (c. 1460–1524), Renaissance painter
Andrea Tacquet (1612–1660), Flemish mathematician and Jesuit priest whose work prepared the ground for the eventual discovery of the calculus
Andrea Tafi (fl. 1300–1325), Italian artist
Andrea Vassallo (1856–1928), Maltese architect
Andrea Vavassori (born 1995), Italian tennis player
Andrea Vesalius (1514–1564), Flemish physician, author of influential books on human anatomy and often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy
Andrea Viterbi (born 1935), birthname of Italian-American scientist and engineer Andrew Viterbi, winner of the National Medal of Science
Andrea Zanzotto (1921–2011), Italian poet
References
Sources
Scandinavian feminine given names
English feminine given names
German feminine given names
Serbian feminine given names
Spanish feminine given names
Italian unisex given names
Unisex given names
Given names of Greek language origin | [
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244890 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pat%20McDonald%20%28actress%29 | Pat McDonald (actress) | {{Infobox person
| name = Pat McDonald
| image = Number96 25.jpg
| caption = Pat McDonald pictured right with Bunney Brooke, in Number 96
| birth_name = Patricia Ethell McDonald
| birth_date =
| birth_place = Elwood, Victoria, Australia
| death_date =
| death_place = North Shore, Australia
| occupation = Actor
| years_active = 1939–1989
| spouse =
| children =
| partner = Bunney Brooke
| known for = Number 96, Sons and Daughters
| awards = 4 Logie Awards (1 Gold 1974)
}}
Patricia Ethell McDonald (1 August 1921 – 10 March 1990) was an Australian radio actor and actor of stage and television and the daughter of one of Australia's most prominent electric radio engineers and public servants, Arthur Stephen McDonald and his wife, milliner Edith Roseina Ethell. Her grandfather, bootmaker John McDonald, was born in Victoria, and married Eliza Mary Stevenson. Although she was not the first female Gold Logie winner in Australia, which was entertainer and TV host Lorrae Desmond, she was the first female character actor to win for serial Number 96.
Number 96 and Sons and Daughters
McDonald was best-known for two long-running soap opera roles. She played comical malaproping gossip Dorrie Evans in the popular serial Number 96 between 1972 and 1977 and then played Aunty Fiona Thompson in Sons and Daughters between 1981 to 1987. She was featured in both shows throughout their entire run, about five and a half years in each case. McDonald won four Logie awards, including the 1974 Gold Logie, for her work on Number 96.
Career
McDonald was born in 1921, and at the age of 18 acted in the 1939 Australian film Seven Little Australians based on the novel by English children's literary writer Ethel Turner she played the twenty-year-old stepmother Esther. She much later appeared in an episode of the 1971 police drama The Long Arm. The role in Number 96 followed; she reprised the role in the 1974 feature film version of the series. McDonald won several Logie Awards as Best Actress for playing Dorrie, and a Gold Logie for Australia's most popular female personality in 1974. After Number 96 she played a regular role in the short-lived Australian situation comedy series The Tea Ladies (1978).
One of McDonald's final TV appearances was at the Logie Awards on 17 March 1989, when she took part in a production number called "Golden Girls", which celebrated female Gold Logie winners of years past. She performed the song with Lorrae Desmond, Hazel Phillips, Denise Drysdale, Jeanne Little, and Rowena Wallace.
McDonald, apart from being a staple of film and television since the late 1930s, had also been a regular theatre performer from 1940 until 1989. Later in 1989 McDonald appeared in an episode of the hit British TV series In Sickness and in Health in which she played Raeline's mother. The episode aired in the UK in October 1989.
Personal life
McDonald was married in 1941 to Captain Peter Hendry, a son of a reverend and doctor in the Australian Army.
During the 1970s she was involved in a live-in lesbian relationship with Number 96'' co-star Bunney Brooke. The two actors openly appeared in magazine articles about the suburban Sydney home (eastern end of Fox Valley Road, Wahroonga) they shared, and they freely discussed their international summer holidays together in press articles, although the true nature of the relationship was not explicitly stated.
McDonald died after a lengthy illness of cancer of the pancreas in North Shore, Sydney, on 10 March 1990, aged 68. Her partner, actor and casting agent Bunney Brooke, died in April 2000.
Filmography
Movies
Television
References
External links
Australian film actresses
Deaths from cancer in New South Wales
Gold Logie winners
1921 births
1990 deaths
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
Australian lesbian actresses
Actresses from Melbourne
Australian stage actresses
20th-century Australian actresses
Australian soap opera actresses
20th-century LGBT people | [
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244892 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sin%C3%A9ad%20de%20Valera | Sinéad de Valera | Sinéad de Valera (; 3 June 1878 – 7 January 1975) was an Irish author of a number of children's books in both Irish and English. She was married to Taoiseach and third president of Ireland, Éamon de Valera.
Background
She was born Jane O'Flanagan in Balbriggan. Her father, Laurence, was a carpenter and was a native of Kildare who moved to Balbriggan and married a local girl, Margaret Byrne. The couple emigrated to New York City, where their daughter Mary was born in 1871. The family returned to Balbriggan in 1873, and Sinéad was born there in 1878. She trained as a teacher and worked first in Edenderry, before taking up a post at a national school in Dorset Street, Dublin in around 1901. The 1901 census records her as 'Jane Flanagan', living with her parents and three siblings at 6 Richmond Cottages in Dublin.
Marriage and children
In her spare time, she taught Irish at the Leinster College of the Gaelic League in Parnell Square. One of her Irish students was Éamon de Valera, then a teacher of mathematics. On 8 January 1910, they were married. Together they had five sons, Vivion, Éamon, Brian, Rúaidhrí and Terence (Terry), and two daughters, Máirín and Emer. On 9 February 1936, Brian, then aged twenty, was killed in a riding accident in the Phoenix Park.
Due to a combination of his imprisonment, political activities, and fundraising tours of the United States, the family saw relatively little of Éamon de Valera in the 1916 to 1923 period. He was also away from home frequently during the early years of his political career. Sinéad de Valera played little or no public role during her husband's fifty years in public life.
Literary output
Sinéad de Valera wrote thirty-one books for children, in both English and Irish.
Among her works were plays such as Cluichidhe na Gaedhilge (1935) and story collections such as The Emerald Ring and Other Irish Fairy Stories (1951), The Stolen Child and Other Stories (1961), The Four-leafed Shamrock (1964) and The Miser's Gold (1970).
Spouse of president
Her husband was inaugurated as President of Ireland on 25 June 1959, two days after retiring as Taoiseach. They immediately took up residence at Áras an Uachtaráin. She remained unconvinced about her new role but conceded that "she should be happy if only for [her husband’s] sake".
Death
Sinéad de Valera died on 7 January 1975, at the age of 96, the day before what would have been the de Valeras' sixty-fifth wedding anniversary. Éamon de Valera died just under eight months later, on 29 August 1975, aged 92. The couple are buried together, along with their son Brian, at Dublin's Glasnevin Cemetery.
References
1878 births
1975 deaths
De Valera family
Irish activists
Irish educators
Irish folklorists
Burials at Glasnevin Cemetery
People from Balbriggan
Spouses of presidents of Ireland
Spouses and partners of Taoisigh | [
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244897 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanboys%20%28film%29 | Fanboys (film) | Fanboys is a 2009 American comedy film directed by Kyle Newman and starring Sam Huntington, Chris Marquette, Dan Fogler, Jay Baruchel and Kristen Bell. It was released in the United States on February 6, 2009, and in Canada on April 3, 2009.
Plot
In 1998, Eric Bottler reunites with his old high school buddies Linus, Hutch, Windows, and Zoe at a Halloween party. Now a car salesman at his father's dealership, Bottler finds that his friends have not matured since high school, though they all still share a love of Star Wars. The gang anticipates the latest film, Episode I: The Phantom Menace. Linus proposes Bottler and he infiltrate Skywalker Ranch and steal a rough cut of the film, a childhood plan that Bottler dismisses.
The next day, Hutch and Windows meet Bottler at work and inform him that Linus is dying from cancer. The doctors estimate he has roughly four months to live; Episode I comes out in six. To make peace with his former best friend, Bottler decides to go through with their plan. On the way to meet Rogue Leader, Windows' online girlfriend, for information on getting into the Ranch, Hutch takes a detour to pick a fight with a Trekkie, Admiral Seasholtz. When the boys' van breaks down, they stumble upon a gay biker bar. After refusing to pay for their drinks, they are forced to do a striptease. When this goes wrong, they are saved by a man named "The Chief", who fixes their van after they pass out from eating guacamole laced with peyote. He gives a bag of this to Linus as a parting gift.
In Texas, Windows is horrified to find Rogue Leader is a 10-year-old girl. Her uncle, Harry Knowles, beats up Windows. After explaining their situation, Harry quizzes them to prove they are true fanboys, then gives them information on one of his contacts in Las Vegas. On their way there, they are arrested for fleeing from a police vehicle and for possession of peyote. Zoe arrives to bail them out and insists on accompanying them. Bottler is reluctant to continue when the judge relays an ultimatum from his father, but the others convince him of the importance of their quest. Once in Las Vegas, Hutch and Windows attempt to have sex with women while Bottler and Linus go to meet Harry's contact. They are shocked to find that his contact is William Shatner. As they leave, they are attacked by Seasholtz and his Trekkie friends, who were attending a Star Trek convention. Hutch and Windows flee an angry pimp after finding out that they were with escort girls, and Windows learns that Zoe is in love with him.
The group escapes their adversaries, but Linus is injured in the process. When taken to the hospital, a doctor says he must return home for the sake of his health. When the group feels the situation has become hopeless, Bottler inspires them to continue, reminding them how much Star Wars means to them. The group leaves the hospital and eventually arrive at Skywalker Ranch. Shortly after breaking into the ranch and marveling at the collection of original props and costumes, they are discovered by security guards and are caught after a brief chase. The Head of Security tells them of their impending doom when he receives a phone call from George Lucas himself. Lucas says he will drop all charges if they can prove to him that they are "fanboys". The five are individually quizzed, including questions about the opposite sex that only Zoe can answer. After the Head of Security confirms they are fanboys, Lucas drops all charges. Being aware of Linus's illness, Lucas allows him to watch the film alone while his friends wait outside. After the film ends, Bottler joins his friends around a campfire and mends his friendship with Linus. Weeks later, Linus dies of his illness.
Bottler, Windows, and Zoe emerge from their tent while waiting in line for the premiere of Episode I. Bottler has followed his and Linus's dream by becoming a comic book artist, Hutch has started his own detailing business, and Windows and Zoe are dating. Hutch arrives at the theater with beers he smuggled in, which they use to toast Linus's memory. Before the film starts, Bottler comments "What if the movie sucks?"
Cast
Jay Baruchel as Windows
Dan Fogler as Harold "Hutch" Hutchinson
Sam Huntington as Eric Bottler
Chris Marquette as Linus
Kristen Bell as Zoe
David Denman as Chaz
Christopher McDonald as Big Chuck
Billy Dee Williams as Judge Reinhold
Danny Trejo as The Chief
Ethan Suplee as Harry Knowles
Seth Rogen as Admiral Seasholtz / Alien / Roach
Isaac Kappy as Garfunkel
There are numerous cameos related to Star Wars and other science-fiction/cult-hit films including Carrie Fisher, Jason Mewes, Kevin Smith, Jaime King, Danny McBride, Ray Park, Craig Robinson, Joe Lo Truglio, Lou Taylor Pucci, Will Forte and William Shatner. In Park's role, he acts as a Skywalker Ranch security guard who says, "Time for you to get mauled, boy," as he pulls out two nightsticks in response to Windows threatening him with a toy lightsaber.
Production
Development
After George Lucas was given an advance screening of the rough cut of the film, he enjoyed it and gave it his "stamp of approval", and even offered the original Star Wars sound effects for use in the film. Filmmaker and Star Wars fan Kevin Smith also viewed an early version of the film and asked for (and was given) a cameo in the film.
The film was originally to be released on August 17, 2007 by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The film was pushed back once more to January 2008 because director Kyle Newman was given more funding to shoot additional scenes that the original budget did not include. Getting the cast back together would only be possible in September 2007, thus the film's release date had to be moved to 2008.
The film was again pushed back because the reshoots could not take place before November/December 2007. These reshoots were directed by Steven Brill and not by Newman. On January 14, The CineManiac reported that the film was being re-edited to remove the cancer plot from the film and replace much of it with raunchy, vulgar humor. Ain't It Cool News picked up the story and confirmed that the two different versions of the film (with and without the cancer subplot) were screened to different test audiences in Burbank, California in January 2008 to see which one would rate higher. As for a new release date, Newman stated in a Movie Geeks United! interview that the film would hopefully come out in April 2008. Upon hearing about the changes being made to the film, an internet campaign was begun to protest the plot changes and demand that the original version with the cancer storyline be released in theaters.
Brill retaliated in a derogatory manner, calling fans "losers" in online correspondence which ended up released to the public. In one exchange, Brill called a fan "dumb" and threatened to "hunt him down" in a profanity-laden emailed response to a letter of complaint. In an interview Newman chastised Brill's behavior, saying:
A rough cut of the full film (that included the cancer storyline) was shown in public for the first time at Star Wars Celebration Europe on July 14, 2007.
On July 9, 2008, Newman confirmed in a TheForce.net interview that the cancer plot would be included in the final cut of the film.
Newman was given just 36 hours to reassemble his film, and edit back in the key motivational cancer plotline.
The final cut of the film was screened on July 24, 2008 in San Diego at Comic-Con. It was announced there that Fanboys would be released to theaters on September 19, 2008, but soon after, the official Weinstein Company website announced that this had changed to November 26, 2008. The final release date was finally pushed to February 6, 2009.
Retrospective
In a 2018 oral history of the film, members of the cast recalled feeling frustrated over the film's reshoots, as well as the behavior of Weinstein and reshoot director Steve Brill during filming. Cline and Newman noted several of the raunchier scenes written by Adam F. Goldberg at Weinstein's request remained in the final cut, including the scene at the gay bar, which Cline found homophobic even by the standards of when the film was released.
The cast and creatives voiced interest in making a sequel to Fanboys, but Cline noted its attachment to Weinstein, Spacey, and Knowles (who had all since been accused of sexual assault) made this unlikely. Cline also expressed interest in a directors' cut of the film that reflected his and Newman's original vision.
Release
Theatrical run and box office
Fanboys was released on February 6, 2009 in eight US markets. The film expanded into 10 more cities on February 20, 2009, including a special screening in Columbus, Ohio that day, followed by a Q&A session after the film with Kyle Newman, Ernie Cline, Matt Perniciaro and Kevin Mann. According to Cline's pre-show speech, he wanted to hold a special screening with fans in his home state, since he grew up in nearby Ashland, Ohio, and the story was set in a fictional town similar to Ashland.
The film expanded its release to seven more markets on February 27, 2009, to 13 more on March 13, 2009, and an additional 9 on March 20, 2009. On April 3, 2009, it was released in Canadian theaters. The film was also released on May 7, 2009 in Denmark and showed for approximately three weeks, it was released in Germany on July 30, 2009.
Fanboys was not profitable. The film's budget was approximately $3.9 million, but the film made only $960,828.
Critical reception
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 32% based on 97 reviews and an average rating of 4.8/10. The site's consensus reads, "This undercooked, sporadically funny road movie is a sop to Star Wars fanatics, but the uninitiated will find little to enjoy." On Metacritic, the film has a rating of 45 out of 100 based on 24 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".
Roger Ebert gave the film out of 4 stars, calling it "an amiable but disjointed film that identifies too closely with its heroes. Poking a little more fun at them would have been a great idea." James Berardinelli gave it out of 4 stars, saying it was "mostly a middling road picture that doesn't do a lot more than any average, forgettable entry into the tired genre." Ben Lyons and Ben Mankiewicz of At the Movies recommended to "Skip It". Lyons said, "It was a great premise; it just unfortunately did not come together", and Mankiewicz commented that "it devolves into nothing more than a silly road trip movie."
Home media
The DVD was released on May 19, 2009, the day of the 10th anniversary of The Phantom Menace. The DVD and Blu-ray were also released in Canada on June 2, 2009.
The region 2 DVD was released on October 4, 2010.
References
External links
2009 films
2009 comedy films
2000s adventure comedy films
2000s comedy road movies
American films
American adventure comedy films
American comedy road movies
English-language films
Films scored by Mark Mothersbaugh
Films with screenplays by Ernest Cline
Films about fandom
Films set in 1998
Films set in 1999
Films set in Iowa
Films set in California
Films set in the Las Vegas Valley
Films set in Ohio
Films set in Texas
Films shot in New Mexico
Star Wars fandom
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
The Weinstein Company films | [
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244899 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Bishop | Billy Bishop | Air Marshal William Avery Bishop, (8 February 1894 – 11 September 1956) was a Canadian flying ace of the First World War. He was officially credited with 72 victories, making him the top Canadian and British Empire ace of the war, and also received a Victoria Cross. During the Second World War, Bishop was instrumental in setting up and promoting the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan.
Early life
William Avery Bishop (commonly called Billy Bishop to distinguish him from his father) was born in Owen Sound, Ontario on 8 February 1894, blond, blue-eyed, and weighing 11 pounds. He was the third of four children born to William Avery Bishop Sr. and Margaret Louisa (Green) Bishop. William Avery Bishop Sr. was a lawyer and graduate of Osgoode Hall Law School in Toronto, Ontario. He was the Registrar of Grey County; he was appointed to the post after backing the winning Liberal Party candidate in the national elections of 1896. He was consequential enough to be invited to a dinner for British dignitaries hosted by Prime Minister Sir Wilfrid Laurier.
Eldest brother Worth was ten years old when Billy arrived. His other brother, Kilbourn, was born in 1886, but died in 1893, the year before Billy's birth. Sister Louise, to whom Billy became very close, was born in 1895, a year after him.
School days
Young Billy Bishop grew up in the inland port city of Owen Sound on Georgian Bay, touted to be "the next Liverpool". He was distinguished from the other children on several counts. He spoke with a slight lisp. Also, he was the only boy in town who attended classes at Miss Pearl's Dancing School with the local girls. Add to that, his mother sent him to school in suit and tie; his schoolboy classmates scorned his formal dress and damaged his garb. Then too, he did not care for team sports like lacrosse, football, and hockey, preferring solitary sports, such as riding, swimming, or billiards at the YMCA or local pool halls. Most especially, he became a marksman. His father gave him a .22 caliber rifle for Christmas, along with a promise of 25 cents for every squirrel the youth shot. The family orchard, which had been overrun by a destructive plague of squirrels, was soon free of the beasts as the young sniper mastered the one-shot kill. Some sources insist that the young hunter learned the art of deflection shooting, the knack of leading a moving target, at this time.
Defending himself against teasing, Bishop earned the reputation of a fighter on the schoolyard, defending himself and others easily against bullies. Once, he fought seven boys, and won. And if he drew male antagonism, he had no problem attracting female company. He was slender and of average height, but undeniably handsome, with a firm jaw, full lips, and straight nose over a pencil moustache.
In the classroom, it was a different tale. Bishop was less successful at his studies; he would abandon any subject he could not easily master, and was often absent from class.
In 1910, at the age of 16, after reading a newspaper article, Bishop built a glider out of cardboard, wooden crates, bedsheets, and twine, and made an attempt to fly off the roof of his three-story house. He was dug, unharmed, out of the wreckage by his sister Louise. After she helped him hide the wreckage, she insisted he owed her a favor, and insisted he date her girlfriend Margaret Burden.
The granddaughter of Timothy Eaton, the department store magnate, Margaret Burden became friends with Louise Bishop during summer vacations to Owen Sound. Once she met Billy, they were smitten with one another, which greatly annoyed her parents.
College
On his 17th birthday, 8 February 1911, Billy Bishop applied to the Royal Military College of Canada (RMC) in Kingston, Ontario, where his brother Worth had graduated in 1903. Bishop placed 42nd of the 43 candidates admitted to the three year school. He spent a hard first year during 1911 and 1912, struggling academically. He also suffered severe hazing from seniors; RMC regulations barred him from retaliatiory fisticuffs. Then he was caught cheating on a year-end exam, and narrowly avoided expulsion. Too humiliated to return home for the summer, he stayed in Kingston and worked for Worth. Bishop was readmitted to the RMC as a second year student for the 1912-1913 term, though with an extra year's study added for him to graduate. That year, he raised his class standing to 23rd of 42 students.
During the 1913-1914 term, Bishop's class standing sagged to 33rd of 34. On 28 August 1914, he returned to RMC as a senior. After 15 of Bishop's classmates left school to serve as officers in the burgeoning war, Bishop withdrew from the RMC on 30 September 1914 with the same intention. That same day, he was commissioned into a cavalry unit, the Mississauga Horse. He journeyed to Toronto to inform Margaret Burden of his decision before reporting for duty.
First World War
Mud and manure
When The Mississauga Horse shipped out for the war, Second Lieutenant Bishop was not with them; he was in hospital with pneumonia and allergies. After recovering, he was transferred to the 7th Canadian Mounted Rifles, a mounted infantry unit, then stationed in London, Ontario, in January 1915. Bishop was placed in charge of the regimental machine guns. Popular with the enlisted men, Bishop was nicknamed "Bish" and "Billy". He excelled on the firing range. As one of his subordinates remembered:
"Bish would just riddle a target that the rest of us could barely see. The instructors would keep putting it further back, until it was just a tiny black dot, and he'd shoot it to ribbons...he put every damn' bullet on target. He never missed."
Mishap continued to dog Bishop. On 6 April 1915, a horse he was riding reared and fell on him; he was back riding a week later. At the end of the month, the bolt of a rifle he was firing blew back and whacked him on the cheekbone. Then he became so ill from an inoculation that he fell off his horse. It was during this time that Bishop slipped away to Ontario, and proposed marriage to Margaret Burden. She accepted, and they were engaged. He gave her his RMC ring as a symbol of his troth.
Bishop's unit left Canada for England on 6 June 1915 on board the requisitioned cattle ship Caledonia as part of a convoy. The voyage was poor on food was through rough seas. Most of the 240 men and 600 horses on board were seasick. From time to time, the ship's crew chucked dead horses overboard. On 21 June, near Ireland, U-boats attacked the convoy. Three ships were sunk and 300 Canadians killed, but Bishop's ship was unharmed, arriving in Plymouth harbour on 23 June.
The 7th Canadian Mounted Rifles were assigned to train at Shorncliffe Cavalry Camp. Training was in outmoded cavalry tactics. Living in tents, the Canadians suffered through sandstorms when the weather dried; usually, though, they existed in a rainy swamp of mud and horse manure. Bishop spent another spell in hospital in late July. Afterwards, during one especially mucky day, Bishop watched an aeroplane land in a nearby field. He remarked to his companion, "You don't get any mud or horseshit on you up there. If you died, it would be a clean death." Bishop decided to apply for a transfer.
Into the air
On a jaunt to London, Bishop subsequently wrangled an appointment with the Royal Flying Corps recruitment officer, Lord Hugh Cecil. When Bishop was told it would be a year before he could train as a pilot, he accepted the immediate chance to become an aerial observer. On 1 September, he reported to 21 (Training) Squadron at Netheravon for elementary air instruction. The first aircraft he trained in was the Avro 504. Having taken a month for preliminary training, on 2 October 1915 Bishop transferred to gunnery training at Dover. By the end of October, Bishop was crossing the English Channel and flying his first missions in a combat zone, directing artillery fire. On 24 November, Bishop's pilot crashed their airplane upon landing back in England. Bishop suffered a bruised foot; the pilot was also only bruised. Three days later, Bishop took a check ride in a new aircraft. When he wrote home to Margaret describing this flight, he boasted of a 300 mph (400 km) dive in an aircraft that could not have exceeded half that. Such braggadocio characterized his correspondence with her.
No. 21 Squadron was re-equipped with new Royal Aircraft Factory RE.7s. On 15 January 1916, No. 21 Squadron began its transfer to France. By 23 January, as the squadron established itself at Boisdinghem, Bishop began a three day illness. He emerged from hospital to join his squadron in adjusting to the realities of the infant military science of aerial warfare. Until this time, fliers on both sides of the conflict had been fumbling their way towards mounting firearms on aircraft. When Bishop emerged from hospital, there were already reports of German Fokker Eindecker monoplanes that could fire a machine gun through their propeller arc without striking a blade. Aim the aircraft; aim the gun. As the deadly little Fokkers slowly multiplied on the front, they became feared by the Royal Flying Corps as the Fokker Scourge. In response, the RFC quit single plane patrols, mandating two escorts for every reconnaissance aircraft. However, casualties were rare, and dismissed airily. One of Bishop's letter to his fiance mentioned that the German fliers were chivalrous; the two sides exchanged dropped messages on the occasional casualty. Bishop wrote: "It is awfully nice to be on such good terms with one's enemies, and everyone here speaks very highly of all the German flyers. They seem to all be of a fine crowd."
Meanwhile, No. 21 Squadron RFC was discovering that their underpowered RE.7s could not take flight with a bomb load, and so failed as a bomber. The awkward crew positioning also hindered its fighting ability, with the observer in front with a non-synchronized Lewis gun hemmed in by struts and bracing wires. The pilot was seated behind him, back under the upper wing.
The rest of Bishop's time as an observer was a string of mishaps. Weather aloft was arctic bitter. A three and a half hour flight on 9 February 1916 frostbit his cheek so severely it burst open and put him back under medical care. In March, he was injured in a vehicle collision. Then he was hit in the head by an aircraft cable; he spent two days unconscious. This was followed by an abscessed tooth. Once returned to duty, he whacked a knee against an aircraft's frame when his pilot pulled a hard landing.
Bishop was then granted a three-week leave to England. As he strode down the gangplank at Folkestone on 2 May 1916, he stumbled and fell onto his sore knee. Three other soldiers behind him toppled over him to compound his injury. Resolved not to miss his holiday, Bishop limped through his leave. Just before he returned to France, he turned himself in to have his knee treated at the hospital at Bryanston Square. Once hospitalized, he was informed that he would face a medical board on 26 May to determine his further fitness for service. After Bishop awakened from a nap, he found a well-dressed elderly woman at his bedside. Lady St. Helier insisted she knew his father from a reception in Canada, and thus was a family friend. Lady St. Helier was widely known for both her wide circle of influential friends, and for her charitable tendencies. The latter attribute had brought her to the hospital. Now she used her influence to remove Bishop from hospital and install him as one of her guests in her four-story mansion.
After Bishop faced a medical board, he was sent back to Canada to recuperate on home leave. In four months of aerial combat, he had not fired his machine gun at the enemy. However, he received local acclaim in Owen Sound for his service. Then too, the Burdens overcame their objections to Bishop's suit, and agreed to their daughter's official engagement. She was presented with an actual engagement ring.
Aerial combat
Bishop returned to England in September 1916, and, with the influence of St Helier, was accepted for training as a pilot at the Central Flying School at Upavon on Salisbury Plain. His first solo flight was in a Maurice Farman "Shorthorn".
In November 1916 after receiving his wings, Bishop was attached to No. 37 Squadron RFC at Sutton's Farm, Essex, flying the BE.2c. He was officially appointed to flying officer duties on 8 December 1916. Bishop disliked flying at night over London, searching for German airships, and he soon requested a transfer to France.
On 17 March 1917, Bishop arrived at 60 Squadron at Filescamp Farm near Arras, where he flew the Nieuport 17 fighter. At that time, the average life expectancy of a new pilot in that sector was 11 days, and German aces were shooting down British aircraft 5 to 1. Bishop's first patrol on 22 March was less than successful. He had trouble controlling his run-down aircraft, was nearly shot down by anti-aircraft fire, and became separated from his group. On 24 March, after crash-landing his aircraft during a practice flight in front of General John Higgins, Bishop was ordered to return to flight school at Upavon. Major Alan Scott, the new commander of 60 Squadron, convinced Higgins to let him stay until a replacement arrived.
The next day, Bishop claimed his first victory when his was one of four Nieuports that engaged three Albatros D.III Scouts near St Leger. Bishop shot down and mortally wounded a Lieutenant Theiller, but his engine failed in the process. Bishop landed in no man's land, from the German front line. After running to the Allied trenches, Bishop spent the night on the ground in a rainstorm. There Bishop wrote a letter home, starting, "I am writing this from a dugout 300 yards from our front line, after the most exciting adventure of my life." General Higgins personally congratulated Bishop and rescinded his order to return to flight school.
On 30 March 1917, Bishop was named a flight commander with a temporary promotion to captain a few days later. On 31 March, he scored his second victory. Bishop, in addition to the usual patrols with his squadron comrades, soon flew many unofficial "lone-wolf" missions deep into enemy territory, with the blessing of Major Scott. As a result, his total of enemy aircraft shot down increased rapidly. On 8 April, he scored his fifth victory and became an ace. To celebrate, Bishop's mechanic painted the aircraft's nose blue, the mark of an ace. Former 60 Squadron member Captain Albert Ball, at that time the Empire's highest scoring ace, had had a red spinner fitted.
Bishop's no-holds-barred style of flying always had him "at the front of the pack," leading his pilots into battle over hostile territory. Bishop soon realized that this could eventually see him shot down; after one patrol, a mechanic counted 210 bullet holes in his aircraft. His new method of using the surprise attack proved successful; he claimed 12 aircraft in April alone, winning the Military Cross for his participation in the Battle of Vimy Ridge. The successes of Bishop and his blue-nosed aircraft were noticed by the Germans, and they began referring to him as "Hell's Handmaiden". Ernst Udet called him "the greatest English scouting ace" and one Jasta had a bounty on his head.
On 30 April, Bishop survived an encounter with Jasta 11 and Manfred von Richthofen, the Red Baron. In May, Bishop received the Distinguished Service Order for shooting down two aircraft while being attacked by four others.
On 2 June 1917, Bishop flew a solo mission behind enemy lines to attack a German-held aerodrome, where he claimed that he shot down three aircraft that were taking off to attack him and destroyed several more on the ground. For this feat, he was awarded the Victoria Cross (VC), although it has been suggested that he may have embellished his success. His VC (awarded 30 August 1917) was one of two awarded in violation of the warrant requiring witnesses (the other being the Unknown Soldier), and since the German records have been lost and the archived papers relating to the VC were lost as well, there is no way of confirming whether there were any witnesses. It seems to have been common practice at this time to allow Bishop to claim victories without requiring confirmation or verification from other witnesses.
In July, 60 Squadron received new Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s, a faster and more powerful aircraft with better pilot visibility. In August 1917, Bishop passed the late Albert Ball in victories to become (temporarily) the highest scoring ace in the RFC and the third top ace of the war, behind only the Red Baron and René Fonck.
At the end of August 1917, Bishop was appointed as the Chief Instructor at the School of Aerial Gunnery and given the temporary rank of major.
Leave to Canada
Bishop returned home on leave to Canada in fall 1917, where he was acclaimed a hero and helped boost the morale of the Canadian public, who were growing tired of the war. On 17 October 1917, Bishop married his longtime fiancée, Margaret Eaton Burden. After the wedding, he was assigned to the British War Mission in Washington, D.C. to help the Americans build an air force. While stationed there, he wrote his autobiography entitled Winged Warfare.
Return to Europe
Upon his return to England in April 1918, Bishop was promoted to major and given command of No. 85 Squadron, the "Flying Foxes". This was a newly formed squadron, and Bishop was given the freedom to choose many of the pilots. The squadron was equipped with S.E.5a scout planes and left for Petit Synthe, France, on 22 May 1918. On 27 May, after familiarizing himself with the area and the opposition, Bishop took a solo flight to the Front. He downed a German observation plane in his first combat since August 1917, and followed with two more the next day. From 30 May to 1 June, Bishop downed six more aircraft, including German ace Paul Billik, bringing his score to 59 and reclaiming his top scoring ace title from James McCudden, who had claimed it while Bishop was in Canada, and he was now the leading Allied ace.
The Government of Canada was becoming increasingly worried about the effect on morale if Bishop were to be killed, so on 18 June he was ordered to return to England to help organize the new Canadian Flying Corps. Bishop was not pleased with the order coming so soon after his return to France. He wrote to his wife: "This is ever so annoying." The order specified that he was to leave France by noon on 19 June. On that morning, Bishop decided to fly one last solo patrol. In just 15 minutes of combat, he added another five victories to his total. He claimed to have downed two Pfalz D.IIIa scout planes, caused another two to collide with each other, and shot down a German reconnaissance aircraft.
On 5 August, Bishop was promoted to lieutenant-colonel and was given the post of "Officer Commanding-designate of the Canadian Air Force Section of the General Staff, Headquarters Overseas Military Forces of Canada." He was on board a ship returning from a reporting visit to Canada when news of the armistice arrived. Bishop was discharged from the Canadian Expeditionary Force on 31 December and returned to Canada.
By the end of the war, he had claimed some 72 air victories, including two balloons, 52 and two shared "destroyed" with 16 "out of control". Historians including Hugh Halliday and Brereton Greenhous (both of whom were official historians for the Royal Canadian Air Force) suggested that the actual total was far lower. Brereton Greenhous felt the actual total of enemy aircraft destroyed was only 27.
Post-war career
After the war, Bishop toured the principal cities in the United States and lectured on aerial warfare. He established an importing firm, Interallied Aircraft Corporation, and a short-lived passenger air service with fellow ace William Barker, but after legal and financial problems, and a serious crash, the partnership and company were dissolved. In 1921, Bishop and his family moved to Britain, where he had various business interests connected with flying. In 1928, he was the guest of honour at a gathering of German air aces in Berlin and was made an Honorary Member of the Association. In 1929 he became chairman of British Air Lines. However, the family's wealth was wiped out in the crash of 1929 and they had to move back to Canada, where he became vice-president of the McColl-Frontenac Oil Company.
Second World War
In January 1936, Bishop was appointed the first Canadian air vice-marshal. Shortly after the outbreak of war in 1939, he was promoted to the rank of Air marshal in the Royal Canadian Air Force. In January 1940 he was appointed Director of Recruiting for the Royal Canadian Air Force. He was so successful in this role that many applicants had to be turned away. Bishop created a system for training pilots across Canada and became instrumental in setting up and promoting the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan, which trained over 167,000 airmen in Canada during the Second World War. In 1942, he appeared as himself in the film Captains of the Clouds, a Hollywood tribute to the RCAF.
By 1944 the stress of the war had taken a serious toll on Bishop's health, and he resigned his post in the RCAF to return to private enterprise in Montreal, Quebec, before retiring in 1952. His son later commented that he looked 70 years old on his 50th birthday in 1944. However, Bishop remained active in the aviation world, predicting the phenomenal growth of commercial aviation postwar. His efforts to bring some organization to the nascent field led to the formation of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in Montreal. He wrote a second book at this time, Winged Peace, advocating international control of global air power.
With the outbreak of the Korean War, Bishop again offered to return to his recruitment role, but he was in poor health and was politely refused by the RCAF. He died in his sleep on 11 September 1956, at the age of 62, while wintering in Palm Beach, Florida. His funeral service was held with full Air Force Honours in Toronto, Ontario. The body was cremated and the ashes interred in the family plot in Greenwood Cemetery, Owen Sound, Ontario. A memorial service for Air Marshal Bishop was held in St Paul's Church, Bristol, England, on 19 September 1956.
Family
On 17 October 1917, at Timothy Eaton Memorial Church in Toronto he married Margaret Eaton Burden, his longtime fiancée and daughter of Mr C. E. Burden (a granddaughter of Timothy Eaton and sister of ace Henry John Burden). They had a son, William, and a daughter, Margaret.
Both of the Bishop children became aviators:
William Arthur Christian Avery Bishop (1923 London, England – 2013 Toronto) was presented with his wings by his father during the Second World War; Arthur would go on to become a Spitfire pilot and served with No. 401 Squadron RCAF in 1944. After the war, he became a journalist, advertising executive, entrepreneur and author. He married Priscilla (Cilla) Jean Aylen and had two children (Diana and William)
Margaret Marise (Jackie) Willis-O’Connor (1926 London – 2013 Ottawa) was a wireless radio operator during World War II, whom Bishop presented with a Wireless Sparks Badge in 1944.
Honours and tributes
Official citations
Bishop's decorations include the Victoria Cross, Distinguished Service Order & Bar, Military Cross, Distinguished Flying Cross, légion d'honneur and the Croix de Guerre with palm. He was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the King's Birthday Honours List of 1 June 1944.
Victoria Cross
The citation for his VC, published in The London Gazette on 11 August 1917, read:
Distinguished Flying Cross
His citation for the Distinguished Flying Cross read:
A most successful and fearless fighter in the air, whose acts of outstanding bravery have already been recognised by the awards of the Victoria Cross, Distinguished Service Order, Bar to the Distinguished Service Order, and Military Cross. For the award of the Distinguished Flying Cross now conferred upon him he has rendered signally valuable services in personally destroying twenty-five enemy machines in twelve days—five of which he destroyed on the last day of his service at the front. The total number of machines destroyed by this distinguished officer is seventy-two, and his value as a moral factor to the Royal Air Force cannot be over-estimated.
Distinguished Service Order
His citation for the Distinguished Service Order read:
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty. While in a single-seater he attacked three hostile machines, two of which he brought down, although in the meantime he was himself attacked by four other hostile machines. His courage and determination have set a fine example to others.
Distinguished Service Order Bar
His citation for the Distinguished Service Order bar read:
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty when engaging hostile aircraft. His consistent dash and great fearlessness have set a magnificent example to the pilots of his squadron. He has destroyed no less than 45 hostile machines within the past 5 months, frequently attacking enemy formations single-handed, and on all occasions displaying a fighting spirit and determination to get to close quarter with his opponents which have earned the admiration of all in contact with him.
Other tributes
Bishop also holds a number of non-military awards. In 1967, Bishop was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame. An award is also named in honour of Bishop. The Air Force Association of Canada approved the establishment of a trophy to commemorate the late Air Marshal W.A. Bishop, VC, in recognition of his "outstanding contribution to the legacy of excellence in Canadian aviation".
Billy Bishop's childhood home was re-purposed into the Billy Bishop Home and Museum in 1987. The museum is located in Owen Sound, Ontario. The museum has exhibits on the family, Bishop himself and veterans. There is a permanent exhibit with information on Bishop at the Grey Roots Museum and Archives, just south of Owen Sound.
Bishop's life has also been the subject of a number of works in media. Billy Bishop Goes to War feature film and Canadian musical, written by John MacLachlan Gray in collaboration with the actor Eric Peterson in 1978. A Hero to Me: The Billy Bishop Story – WW1 Canadian flying Ace, a documentary depicting the story of "Billy" Bishop from the perspective of his granddaughter Diana, was produced for Global Television and TVO in 2003.
In addition to television and film, Bishop has also been featured on Canadian stamps. On 12 August 1994, Canada Post issued "Billy Bishop, Air Ace" as part of the Great Canadians series. The stamps were designed by Pierre Fontaine, based on illustrations by Bernard Leduc. The 43¢ stamps are perforated 13.5 and were printed by Canadian Bank Note Company, Limited.
Several places also have honoured Bishop by bearing his namesake. Two airports in Ontario are named after Bishop. The airport in Owen Sound is officially named "Owen Sound Billy Bishop Regional Airport." Toronto's island airport was renamed Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport in 2009. Although Owen Sound's mayor questioned the change, the proposal was approved by the Toronto Port Authority on 10 November 2009. Having two airports in the province with similar names was a concern. Toronto's Pearson International Airport was originally named Bishop Field Toronto Airport Malton.
Other forms in which Bishop is memorialized includes:
"Billy Bishop Private" is a roadway on private land at Ottawa Airport, Ottawa, Ontario, where the "Billy Bishop Room" for visiting dignitaries also exists.
"Billy Bishop Way" is a street near the Downsview Airport in Toronto, Ontario.
"Billy Bishop Park" is a public park in Ottawa, created with the help of the Royal Canadian Legion Branch 638 (Kanata)
"Mount Bishop", a mountain on the Alberta – British Columbia border.
"Bishop Building", the 1st Canadian Air Division and the Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters in Winnipeg, Manitoba.
"Billy Bishop Legion Branch 176" in Vancouver, British Columbia.
"CFB Borden Billy Bishop Centre", a hazardous materials training school at CFB Borden in Ontario.
"Billy Bishop entrance" at Hamilton, Ontario's Memorial School.
"Billy Bishop Hangar" at the Brampton, Ontario Flying Club.
943 Air Marshal William Avery "Billy" Bishop VC, CB, DSO, & Bar, MC, DFC, ED (1894–1956) was added to the wall of honour at the Royal Military College of Canada in Kingston, Ontario in 2009.
Air Force Association of Canada's Air Marshal W. A. Bishop Memorial Trophy is one of the highest awards for aviation in Canada.
Sqn 167 Air Marshal Bishop Squadron, Royal Canadian Air Cadets, Owen Sound, Ontario
Bishop's former home in Ottawa, Ontario, constructed in 1905 in the Queen Anne Revival style, has been opened to the public in the annual Doors Open Ottawa showcase of buildings.
Legacy and later controversy
Bishop's life was depicted in the 1978 Canadian play Billy Bishop Goes to War. It also led indirectly to a 1983 CBC Television documentary called The Kid Who Couldn't Miss, produced by the National Film Board of Canada. The show, a "docudrama" combining known history for credibility with fictitious "mock interviews" with actors portraying Bishop and others, suggested that Bishop faked his famous attack on the German aerodrome. In one particularly contentious scene, his mechanic claims that the damage to his fighter was confined to a small circle in a non-critical area, implying that Bishop had landed his aircraft off-field, shot holes in it, and flown home with claims of combat damage.
In reality, his mechanic was his biggest supporter, and the scene was entirely fictitious. The mechanic insisted that Bishop had not fabricated the damage. Canadian authors Dan McCaffery and David Bashow also presented circumstantial evidence that Bishop did not fake the attack.
After years of controversy over Bishop's record, mainly because very few of his claimed victories were witnessed by anyone else or could be confirmed from the few surviving German records, the show led to an inquiry by the Canadian government in 1985. The Standing Senate Committee on Social Affairs, Science and Technology discredited the documentary, saying it was an unfair and inaccurate portrayal of Bishop. There is some dispute about whether Bishop or Mick Mannock had the highest score of any British Empire First World War fighter ace. The Canadian Encyclopedia states: "Investigation by a Senate sub-committee exposed a number of minor errors in this apparent 'documentary' and confirmed that statements had been wrongly attributed and incidents shifted in time for dramatic effect. However, the senators were unable to demonstrate that Bishop's claims were valid, and consequently recommended only that the film be labelled as docu-drama".
Some of Bishop's other claims have also been challenged. While combat reports and claims of both sides are littered with well-intentioned errors and accidental duplicate claims, there are two phases of Bishop's life in which German records can provide no supporting evidence. In his book on Victoria Cross airmen of the First World War, author Alex Revell quotes aviation historian Philip Markham's view about German records of the events of 2 June 1917 (the day of Bishop's VC award): "Not a shred of evidence to support Bishop's claims." Referring to Bishop's claims in early to mid-1918, Revell says another aviation historian, Ed Ferko, carried out extensive research on Germans records in 1987. Revell says that Ferko failed "to match a single victory claim made by Bishop against a known German loss for the day, time or place in question." However, distinguished First World War aviation historian Peter Kilduff says in his biography (Billy Bishop VC: Lone Wolf Hunter) that Bishop may have had as many as 21 matches in piecemeal German records. Kilduff also makes a case for the unreliability of German records. He cites examples in which masses of data were destroyed by retreating German forces and instances of the German former air ministry having been guilty of "obfuscation" in denying losses when casualties had been incurred.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Baker, David. William Avery "Billy" Bishop: The Man and the Aircraft He Flew. London: The Outline Press, 1990. .
Barker, Ralph. The Royal Flying Corps in World War I. London: Constable and Robinson, 2002. .
Bashow, Lieutenant-Colonel David. "The Incomparable Billy Bishop: The Man and the Myths." Canadian Military Journal, Volume 3, Issue 3, Autumn 2002, pp. 55–60. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
Bishop, William Avery. Winged Warfare London: Crécy Publishing, 1967 (originally published in 1918). .
Buzzell, Nora. The Register of the Victoria Cross Third Edition. Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, UK: This England, 1997. .
Franks, Norman. Sharks Among Minnows: Germany's First Fighter Pilots and the Fokker Eindecker Period, July 1915 to September 1916. London: Grub Street, 2001.
Greenhous, Brereton. "Billy Bishop – Brave Flyer, Bold Liar." Canadian Military Journal Volume 3, Issue 3, Autumn 2002, pp. 61–64. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
Greenhous, Brereton. "The Making of Billy Bishop: The First World War Exploits of Billy Bishop, VC." Toronto: Dundurn Press Ltd., 2002. .
Harvey, David. Monuments to Courage. Uckfield, UK: Naval & Military Press Ltd., 1999. .
Kilduff, Peter. Billy Bishop VC: Lone Wolf Hunter: The RAF Ace Re-examined. London:Grub Street, 2014.
McCaffrey, Dan. Billy Bishop: Canadian Hero. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company Publishers, 1988. .
Shores, Norman, L.R. Franks and Russell Guest. Above the Trenches: A Complete Record of the Fighter Aces and the Units of the British Empire Air Forces 1915–1920. London: Grub Street, 1991. .
Urwin, Gregory J.W. "The Man Without Fear: The Combat story of Lieutenant Colonel William Avery Bishop." Air Classics, Vol. 15, No. 9, September 1979.
External links
William Avery "Billy" Bishop
Air Ace William "Billy" Bishop
Air Marshal William Avery Bishop(biography & controversy discussion)
Billy Bishop Heritage Museum (Birthplace & Childhood Home)
Legion Magazine Article on Billy Bishop written by his son Arthur Bishop
Ontario Historic Plaque
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] |
244903 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gong%20Shengliang | Gong Shengliang | Pastor Gong Shengliang (龚圣亮) is the founder and leader of the South China Church, an evangelical house-church fellowship with some 50,000 members across several provinces. In December 2001, he was convicted and sentenced to death under China's anti-cult legislation. Responding to international pressure, China dropped the religious charge and the death penalty and ordered a re-trial. Pastor Gong was convicted of multiple counts of rape and given a life sentence.
Religious persecution
He was sentenced to death in 2001, but because of international pressure, the sentence was reduced to life. Some who testified against Gong later stated that they were tortured into doing so by Communist officials. Liu Xianzhi, a former leader in the South China Church, has sought asylum in the United States and gives extensive testimony on the details of Pastor Gong Shengliang's case. There are also reports that he has been beaten and mistreated in prison. Over several weeks in late May and early June 2003, it was reported that he lapsed in and out of a coma and was bleeding internally, and that he nearly died from a savage beating in prison in June 2003.
In 2013 Pastor Shengliang's daughter in an open letter to Xi Jinping, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China, asked for his help. According to her, her father had not received medical treatment over the past ten years. His condition is now life-threatening. A heart attack at the end of 2012 left him unable to walk or speak. His daughter is asking for his release to receive urgent medical treatment.
See also
List of China-related topics
List of Chinese people
External links
Amnesty International
John Mark Ministries
Chinese Embassy in the US
Gao Ying's comments on Gong Shengliang
Comments from the National Agency for Religious Affairs of China
ChinaAid.org Testimony of Liu Xianzhi
PrisonerAlert.com
Living people
Chinese dissidents
People from Xiangyang
Chinese Christian clergy
Chinese prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment
Prisoners sentenced to life imprisonment by the People's Republic of China
Chinese prisoners sentenced to death
Prisoners sentenced to death by the People's Republic of China
Year of birth missing (living people)
Chinese religious leaders | [
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244905 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lauraceae | Lauraceae | The flowering plant family Lauraceae, the laurels, includes the true laurel and its closest relatives. This family comprises about 2850 known species in about 45 genera worldwide (Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ). They are dicotyledons, and occur mainly in warm temperate and tropical regions, especially Southeast Asia and South America. Many are aromatic evergreen trees or shrubs, but some, such as Sassafras, are deciduous, or include both deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs, especially in tropical and temperate climates. The genus Cassytha is unique in the Lauraceae in that its members are parasitic vines.
Overview
The family has a worldwide distribution in tropical and warm climates. The Lauraceae are important components of tropical forests ranging from low-lying to montane. In several forested regions, Lauraceae are among the top five families in terms of the number of species present.
The Lauraceae give their name to habitats known as laurel forests, which have many trees that superficially resemble the Lauraceae, though they may belong to other plant families such as Magnoliaceae or Myrtaceae. Laurel forests of various types occur on most continents and on many major islands.
Although the taxonomy of the Lauraceae is still not settled, conservative estimates suggest some 52 genera worldwide, including 3,000 to 3,500 species. Compared to other plant families, the taxonomy of Lauraceae still is poorly understood. This is partly due to its great diversity, the difficulty of identifying the species, and partly because of inadequate investment in taxonomic work.
Recent monographs on small and medium-sized genera of Lauraceae (up to about 100 species) have revealed many new species. Similar increases in the numbers of species recognised in other larger genera are to be expected.
Description
Most of the Lauraceae are evergreen trees in habit. Exceptions include some two dozen species of Cassytha, all of which are obligately parasitic vines.
The fruits of Lauraceae are drupes, one-seeded fleshy fruit with a hard layer, the endocarp, surrounding the seed. However, the endocarp is very thin, so the fruit resemble a one-seeded berry. The fruit in some species (particularly in the genera Ocotea and Oreodaphne) are partly immersed or covered in a cup-shaped or deep thick cupule, which is formed from the tube of the calyx where the peduncle joins the fruit; this gives the fruit an appearance similar to an acorn. In some Lindera species, the fruit have a hypocarpium at the base of the fruit.
Distribution and uses
Because the family is so ancient and was so widely distributed on the Gondwana supercontinent, modern species commonly occur in relict populations isolated by geographical barriers, for instance on islands or tropical mountains. Relict forests retain endemic fauna and flora in communities of great value in inferring the palaeontological succession and climate change that followed the breakups of the supercontinents.
Many Lauraceae contain high concentrations of essential oils, some of which are valued for spices and perfumes. Within the plants, most such substances are components of irritant or toxic sap or tissues that repel or poison many herbivorous or parasitic organisms.
Some of the essential oils are valued as fragrances, such as in the traditional laurel wreath of classical antiquity, or in cabinet making, where the fragrant woods are prized for making insect-repellant furniture chests.
Some are valued in cooking, for example, bay leaves are a popular ingredient in European, American, and Asian cuisines.
Avocados are important oil-rich fruit that are cultivated in warm climates around the world.
Many species are exploited for timber.
Some species are valued as sources of medicinal material.
These genera include some of the best-known species of particular commercial value:
Cinnamomum: cinnamon, cassia and camphor laurel
Laurus: bay laurel
Persea: avocado
Loss of habitat and overexploitation for such products has put many species in danger of extinction as a result of overcutting, extensive illegal logging, and habitat conversion.
Conversely, some species, though commercially valuable in some countries, are regarded as aggressive invaders in other regions. For example, Cinnamomum camphora, though a valued ornamental and medicinal plant, is so invasive as to have been declared a weed in subtropical forested areas of South Africa.
Popular culture
A laurel wreath, a round or horseshoe-shaped wreath made of connected laurel branches and leaves, is an ancient symbol of triumph in classical Western culture originating in Greek mythology, and is associated in some countries with academic or literary achievement.
Ecology
Lauraceae flowers are protogynous, often with a complex flowering system to prevent inbreeding. The fruits are an important food source for birds, on which some Palaeognathae are highly dependent. Other birds that rely heavily on the fruit for their diets include members of the families Cotingidae, Columbidae, Trogonidae, Turdidae, and Ramphastidae, amongst others. Birds that are specialised frugivores tend to eat the whole fruit and regurgitate seeds intact, thereby releasing the seeds in favourable situations for germination (ornithochory). Some other birds that swallow the fruit pass the seed intact through their guts.
Seed dispersal of various species in the family is also carried out by monkeys, arboreal rodents, porcupines, opossums, and fishes. Hydrochory occurs in Caryodaphnopsis.
The leaves of some species in the Lauraceae have domatia in the axils of their veins. The domatia are home to certain mites. Other lauraceous species, members of the genus Pleurothyrium in particular, have a symbiotic relationship with ants that protect and defend the tree. Some Ocotea species are also used as nesting sites by ants, which may live in leaf pockets or in hollowed-out stems.
Defense mechanisms that occur among members of the Lauraceae include irritant or toxic sap or tissues that repel or poison many herbivorous organisms.
Trees of the family predominate in the world's laurel forests and cloud forests, which occur in tropical to mild temperate regions of both northern and southern hemispheres. Other members of the family however, occur pantropically in general lowland and Afromontane forest, and in Africa for example there are species endemic to countries such as Cameroon, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda and Congo. Several relict species in the Lauraceae occur in temperate areas of both hemispheres. Many botanical species in other families have similar foliage to the Lauraceae due to convergent evolution, and forests of such plants are called laurel forest. These plants are adapted to high rainfall and humidity, and have leaves with a generous layer of wax, making them glossy in appearance, and a narrow, pointed-oval shape with a 'drip tip', which permits the leaves to shed water despite the humidity, allowing transpiration to continue. Scientific names similar to Daphne (e.g., Daphnidium, Daphniphyllum) or "laurel" (e.g.,Laureliopsis, Skimmia laureola) indicate other plant families that resemble Lauraceae.
Some Lauraceae species have adapted to demanding conditions in semiarid climates, but they tend to depend on favorable edaphic conditions, for example, perennial aquifers, periodic groundwater flows, or periodically flooded forests in sand that contains hardly any nutrients. Various species have adapted to swampy conditions by growing pneumatophores, roots that grow upward, that project above the levels of periodic floods that drown competing plants which lack such adaptations.
Paleobotanists have suggested the family originated some 174±32 million years ago (Mya), while others do not believe they are older than the mid-Cretaceous. Fossil flowers attributed to this family occur in Cenomanian clays (mid-Cretaceous, 90-98 Mya) of the Eastern United States (Mauldinia mirabilis). Fossils of Lauraceae are common in the Tertiary strata of Europe and North America, but they virtually disappeared from central Europe in the Late Miocene. Because of their unusual fragility, the pollens of Lauraceae do not keep well and have been found only in relatively recent strata.
Deciduous Lauraceae lose all of their leaves for part of the year depending on variations in rainfall. The leaf loss coincides with the dry season in tropical, subtropical, and arid regions.
Laurel wilt disease, caused by the virulent fungal pathogen Raffaelea lauricola, a native of southern Asia, was found in the southeast United States in 2002. The fungus spreads between hosts via a wood-boring beetle, Xyleborus glabratus, with which it has a symbiotic relationship. Several Lauraceae species are affected. The beetle and disease are believed to have arrived in the US via infected solid wood packing material, and have since spread to several states.
Classification
Classification within the Lauraceae is not fully resolved. Multiple classification schemes based on a variety of morphological and anatomical characteristics have been proposed, but none are fully accepted. According to Judd et al. (2007), the suprageneric classification proposed by van der Werff and Richter (1996) is currently the authority. However, due to an array of molecular and embryological evidence that disagrees with the groupings, it is not fully accepted by the scientific community. Their classification is based on inflorescence structure and wood and bark anatomy. It divides Lauraceae into two subfamilies, Cassythoideae and Lauroideae. The Cassythoideae comprise a single genus, Cassytha, and are defined by their herbaceous, parasitic habit. The Lauroideae are then divided into three tribes: Laureae, Perseeae, and Cryptocaryeae.
The subfamily Cassythoideae is not fully supported. Backing has come from matK sequences of chloroplast genes while a questionable placement of Cassytha has been concluded from analysis of intergenetic spacers of chloroplast and nuclear genomes. Embryological studies also appear contradictory. One study by Heo et al. (1998) supports the subfamily. It found that Cassytha develops an ab initio cellular-type endosperm and the rest of the family (with one exception) develops a nuclear-type endosperm. Kimoto et al. (2006) suggest Cassytha should be placed in the tribe Cryptocaryeae because it shares a glandular anther tapetum and an embryo sac protruding from the nucellus with other members of the Cryptocaryeae.
The tribes Laureae and Perseeae are not well supported by any molecular or embryological studies. Sequences of the matK chloroplast gene, as well as sequences of chloroplast and nuclear genomes, reveal close relationships between the two tribes. Embryological evidence does not support a clear division between the two tribes, either. Genera such as Caryodaphnopsis and Aspidostemon that share embryological characteristics with one tribe and wood and bark characteristics or inflorescence characteristics with another tribe blur the division of these groups. All available evidence, except for inflorescence morphology and wood and bark anatomy, fails to support separate tribes Laureae and Perseeae.
The tribe Cryptocaryeae is partially supported by molecular and embryological studies. Chloroplast and nuclear genomes support a tribal grouping that contains all the genera circumscribed by van der Weff and Richter (1996), as well as three additional genera. Partial support for the tribe is also attained from the matK sequences of chloroplast genes as well as embryology.
Challenges in Lauraceae classification
The knowledge of the species comprising the Lauraceae is incomplete. In 1991, about 25-30% of neotropical Lauraceae species had not been described. In 2001, embryological studies had only been completed on individuals from 26 genera yielding a 38.9% level of knowledge, in terms of embryology, for this family. Additionally, the huge amount of variation within the family poses a major challenge for developing a reliable classification.
Phytochemistry
The adaptation of Lauraceae to new environments has followed a long evolutionary journey which has led to many specializations, including defensive or deterrent systems against other organisms.
Phytochemicals in the Lauraceae are numerous and diverse. Benzylisoquinoline alkaloids include aporphines and oxoaporphines, as well as derivatives of morphinans. Essential oils include terpenoids, benzyl benzoates, allylphenols, and propenylphenols. Lignans and neolignans are present, along with S-methyl-5-O-flavonoids, proanthocyanidins, cinnamoylamides, phenylpyrroles, styryl pyrones, polyketides (acetogenins), furanosesquiterpenes, and germacranolidous, heliangolidous, eudesmanolidous and guaianolidous sesquiterpene lactones.
Genera
Recent taxonomic revisions of the family include these genera:
These genera have traditionally been considered separate within Lauraceae, but have not been included in the most recent treatments:
References
Further reading
Lauraceae in L. Watson and M.J. Dallwitz (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants.
Meissner (né Meisner), Carl Daniel Friedrich 1864. Lauraceae (Ordo 162) in A. L. P. P. de Candolle (ed.), Prodromus Systematis Universalis Regni Vegetabilis 15(1): 1-260, Parisiis [Paris], Victoris Masson et Filii.
Nees von Esenbeck, Christian Gottfried Daniel (1836): Systema Laurinarum, Berlin, Veitii et Sociorum. Until the page 352, available, free, on pdf files in Gallica
Rohwer, Jens G. in Kubitzki, K.(Editor) 1993. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants, Vol.2: K. Kubitzki, J. G. Rohwer & V. Bittrich, 366-390.
Wagner, W. L., D. R. Herbst, and S. H. Sohmer. 1990. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawai'i. Spec. Publ. 83. University of Hawaii Press and Bishop Museum Press. Bishop Museum. 1854 pp.
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] |
244906 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRL | IRL | IRL may refer to:
Places
Republic of Ireland (ISO 3166-1 alpha-3 country code)
Irlam railway station (National Rail station code IRL), England
Organizations
International Rugby League, the governing body for the sport of rugby league
Industrial Research Limited, New Zealand
Isamaa ja Res Publica Liit (Pro Patria and Res Publica Union), an Estonian political party
Institute for Research on Learning, Palo Alto, California, US, 1986–2000
Institut Ramon Llull, promoting Catalan language and culture
Ipswich Rugby League, Australian rugby league football competition
Other uses
IRL (film), a 2013 film
Indy Racing League 1995–2013, later INDYCAR
Internet resource locator
"In real life", internet term
In Real Life (band), boy band
Inverse reinforcement learning, in machine learning
See also
In Real Life (disambiguation) | [
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244907 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Oliver%20Hazard%20Perry | USS Oliver Hazard Perry | USS Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7) was the lead ship of the of guided-missile frigates. She was named for Oliver Hazard Perry, an American naval hero who was victorious at the 1813 Battle of Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG-7) was the first ship and, as of 2019, the only ship of the U.S. Navy to bear the name (although there were five previous US Navy ships named for Oliver Hazard Perry – four named USS Perry and one named USS Commodore Perry). Oliver Hazard Perry was in service from 1977 to 1997 and was scrapped in 2005.
The class was originally intended as austere "low" category guided missile frigates (compared with the high capability ) for General Purpose and Anti-Air convoy escort. They were built under a cloud of controversy, with their very light gun armament and lack of redundancy and duplicated systems in event of ship being hit. They were regarded by the Reagan administration and Secretary John Lehman as not part of the 500 ship navy plan, but ultimately proved useful as anti-submarine ships if fitted to carry Seahawks and towed arrays and into the 21st Century as low grade patrol ships making up the numbers in a USN desperately short of escorts.
Construction and career
Oliver Hazard Perry was ordered from Bath Iron Works on 30 October 1973 as part of the FY73 program, and was laid down on 12 June 1975, launched on 25 September 1976, and commissioned on 17 December 1977. She was ordered as PFG-109 but was redesignated as FFG-7 in the 1975 fleet designation realignment on 1 June 1975, before she was laid down.
Launch incident
During her launch ceremony on 25 September 1976, the ship found herself briefly stuck on the slip-way. Film star John Wayne appeared from the crowd of watching dignitaries, climbed the launch ceremony platform, and gave the bow of the frigate – which was by this time starting to move slightly – a shove with one hand, and so John Wayne famously appeared to have 'pushed' a US warship down her slip-way.
Shock Trial Testing
Oliver Hazard Perry was one of the few lead ships to be subjected to shock trials. These series of trials conducted early in the life of the ship put this steel hull / aluminum superstructure to the test. The proximity of the tests (seen in associated pictures), caused many of the machine mounts and components to become warped or damaged. This damage created alignment problems for the engineering and combat systems teams in the years to come. The ship regularly required waivers on machine performance due to the warping of many mounting brackets. The shock tests also created cracks in the aluminum superstructure that required frequent repairs. However, this did not affect the overall readiness of the ship, nor did it prevent Oliver Hazard Perry from achieving the record for the most-ever hours put on the GE LM2500 Main Propulsion engine.
Fate
After 19.2 years of active service, Oliver Hazard Perry was decommissioned on 20 February 1997, in Mayport, FL under the last Commanding Officer, CDR Robert F. Holman, USNR. Though she was stricken on 3 May 1999, Oliver Hazard Perry was held in the museum donation category at the former Navy shipyard in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. A group had hoped to bring her to Toledo, Ohio as a museum ship and a memorial for the Battle of Lake Erie. The group was unable submit a viable financial plan together in time so the Perry was sold for scrap in December 2005.
Awards
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation
Navy E Ribbon
National Defense Service Medal
Armed Forces Expeditionary Medal
Special Operations Service Ribbon Star (1 battle star)
Gallery
References
External links
Photos of USS Oliver Hazard Perry (FFG 7)
MaritimeQuest USS Oliver Hazard Perry FFG-7 pages
1976 ships
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships built in Bath, Maine
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States | [
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244910 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josh%20Hartnett | Josh Hartnett | Joshua Daniel Hartnett (born July 21, 1978) is an American actor and producer. He first came to attention in 1997 for his role as Michael Fitzgerald in the television crime drama series Cracker. He made his feature film debut in 1998 in the slasher film Halloween H20: 20 Years Later, followed by teen roles in films such as the sci-fi horror film The Faculty (1998) and the drama The Virgin Suicides (1999). Hartnett had starring roles in the war film Pearl Harbor, the drama O, the war film Black Hawk Down (all 2001), the romantic comedy 40 Days and 40 Nights (2002), the crime thriller Lucky Number Slevin (2006), and other films.
He starred in the neo-noir crime thriller The Black Dahlia (2006). He next appeared in the drama Resurrecting the Champ (2007), the graphic novel–based vampire horror film 30 Days of Night (2007) and the neo-noir atmospheric thriller I Come with the Rain (2009). From 2014 to 2016, he starred as Ethan Chandler in the horror TV series Penny Dreadful, for which he was nominated for a Fangoria Chainsaw Award.
Early life
Hartnett was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, though some sources, he has said, erroneously give San Francisco. The son of Daniel Thomas Hartnett and Wendy Anne (née Kronstedt), he was raised by his father, a building manager, and his stepmother, Molly, an artist. Hartnett was raised Roman Catholic, attending Nativity of Our Lord Catholic School.
Career
After Hartnett graduated from Minneapolis South High School in 1996, his move to New York to attend the Conservatory of Theatre Arts & Film at SUNY Purchase did not go as well as he had hoped. At 19, Harnett moved to Los Angeles. Shortly after arriving, he caught an improbable break, landing a part in the short-lived but acclaimed drama Cracker, on ABC. Although the series was cancelled after sixteen episodes, Hartnett had made a name for himself. He then began to focus on feature film work. He performed in small plays and on national television commercials before being cast in his first feature film, playing the son of Jamie Lee Curtis' character in Halloween H20: 20 Years Later. Released on August 5, 1998, it performed well at the box office.
Hartnett developed a Hollywood film career, appearing in major films, including The Faculty, Black Hawk Down, Lucky Number Slevin and Pearl Harbor. He was originally scheduled to play the role of Tino in Deuces Wild, but dropped out to star in Pearl Harbor. In 2002, he starred in O, an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Othello set in an American high school, as Hugo, the film's version of Iago. In the early 2000s, Hartnett was approached several times to play the role of Clark Kent / Superman for a project originally helmed by Brett Ratner but always turned it down, not wanting to commit to a predicted ten-year role. Hartnett said of his decision, "It just wasn't the kind of movie I wanted to do. I turned down other superhero roles as well."
Hartnett was chosen as one of Teen People magazine's "21 Hottest Stars Under 21" in 1999, Teen People's "25 Hottest Stars under 25", and one of People magazine's "50 Most Beautiful People", both in 2002. He was also voted Bliss magazine's "3rd Sexiest Male", and in 2003 PETA named him the Sexiest Vegetarian Alive, as chosen by voters.
One of Hartnett's next films was the 2006 drama-mystery The Black Dahlia, in which he played a detective investigating the notorious real-life murder of waitress Elizabeth Short. Hartnett had been cast in the role five years before the film was produced, remaining committed to appearing in the movie because he liked the subject matter.
Among his 2007 roles were Resurrecting the Champ and the graphic novel-based 30 Days of Night, in which he played a small-town sheriff. Hartnett described the second film as "supernatural, but kind of a western". He was going to play trumpet player Chet Baker in the film The Prince of Cool, but did not agree with the producer's ideas and left the project.
In 2008, Hartnett played Charlie Babbit in the theatre adaptation of Barry Morrow's Academy Award-winning Rain Man at the Apollo Theatre in London's West End. He starred in the new campaign of the Emporio Armani fragrance, "Diamonds for Men", being featured in both print and TV ads for the fragrance, thus becoming the first male celebrity to represent Giorgio Armani Beauty.
He has been featured on many magazine covers, such as Cosmogirl, Details, Entertainment Weekly, Girlfriend, Seventeen, Vanity Fair, GQ and Vman, in addition to being in other magazines like Vogue, ELLE, People, Glamour, In Touch and InStyle.
In 2009, Hartnett produced the video clip for the rapper Kid Cudi's song "Pursuit of Happiness”.
In 2013, Hartnett was a guest of honor on Off Plus Camera.
In 2014, he was cast in the part of Ethan Chandler in the Gothic horror series Penny Dreadful, shot in locations around Dublin and Ireland. Later Hartnett's character turned out to be none other than Lawrence Talbot / the Wolfman, who had changed his name to distance himself from his family. Hartnett became the third actor to portray the Wolfman in big-budget production.
Hartnett starred in Guy Ritchie's 2021 revenge drama film Wrath of Man in a supporting role before Ritchie cast him in his upcoming film Operation Fortune: Ruse de Guerre, set to be released on March 22, 2022. In January 2022, Hartnett was cast as Ernest Lawrence in Christopher Nolan's upcoming film Oppenheimer
Activism
Hartnett has been involved in various causes. In 2007, he took time out from filming to support the green lifestyle campaign of Global Cool.
In 2011, Hartnett became one of a handful of celebrities attached to USAID and Ad Council's FWD campaign, an awareness initiative tied to that year's East Africa drought. He joined Uma Thurman, Chanel Iman and Geena Davis in TV and Internet ads to "forward the facts" about the crisis.
In 2012, Hartnett also joined Barack Obama in his campaign in Minnesota, appearing at such events as the Minnesota Greater Together Youth Summit before formally endorsing the President on the official campaign YouTube channel. He along with Minneapolis Mayor RT Rybak also appeared at the University of Minnesota's McNamara Alumni Center for an Obama Q&A in April.
Personal life
Hartnett has been in a long-term relationship with actress Tamsin Egerton since 2012. They have three children.
Regarding fame, Hartnett has said, "I know what it's like to be in that whole world. I was up there for a couple of years, and it was uncomfortable. I think trying to stay at the top is a shortcut to unhappiness." Hartnett took a break from acting, saying "I spent a bit of time really thinking about whether this was the right thing for me."
Filmography
Actor
Producer
Awards and nominations
2010: Won – Ischia International Arts Academy Acting Award / Ischia Global Film & Music Fest, Italy
2009: Won – Outstanding Environmentalist / 21st Century Leaders Awards, Qatar
2007: Won – GQ Männer des Jahres (GQ Men of the Year) / GQ magazine, Germany
2002: Won – ShoWest Award Male Star of Tomorrow / ShoWest Convention, USA
References
Further reading
External links
1978 births
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
American environmentalists
American expatriates in England
American humanitarians
American male film actors
American male stage actors
American male television actors
Film producers from Minnesota
Film producers from New York (state)
Living people
Male actors from Saint Paul, Minnesota
South High School (Minnesota) alumni
State University of New York at Purchase alumni | [
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244913 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20McInerney | USS McInerney | USS McInerney (FFG-8), is a Oliver Hazard Perry class guided-missile frigate, in service with the United States Navy from 1979 to 2010. She was then transferred to the Pakistan Navy and entered service as Alamgir (F260) in early 2011.
Construction
USS McInerney (FFG-8), formerly PF-110, was the second ship of the Oliver Hazard Perry class and was named for Vice Admiral Francis X. McInerney (1899–1956). Ordered from Bath Iron Works on 27 February 1976 as part of the U.S. fiscal year 1975 (FY75) program, McInerney was laid down on 16 January 1978, launched on 4 November 1978, and commissioned on 15 December 1979. The ship was sponsored by Joan McInerney Kelley, daughter of the late Vice Admiral Francis Xavier McInerney.
Service in United States Navy
1980s
McInerneys mission was to provide multi-threat protection for military and merchant shipping, amphibious task forces and underway replenishment groups. During her first two years of service, McInerney was the U.S. Navy test platform for the LAMPS MK-III (SH-60B helicopter) anti-submarine warfare system and the Recovery Assist, Secure, and Traverse (RAST) system. To be able to accommodate the SH-60B, McInerney was the first Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigate to receive a lengthened stern. Her efforts during this period earned her a Meritorious Unit Commendation. In 1981, McInerney appears to have been part of Destroyer Squadron 8.
McInerneys first major deployment to the Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean began in November 1982. During this deployment she embarked a LAMPS Mk-I (SH-2 Seasprite) helicopter detachment. McInerney made brief port visits to Tangiers, Morocco, and Catania, Sicily and supported the Multi-National Force in Beirut, Lebanon (earning her the Navy Expeditionary Medal). After transiting the Suez Canal, McInerney operated in the Indian Ocean and made port calls to Karachi, Pakistan, Columbo, Sri Lanka, and Mombasa, Kenya. She also crossed the equator en route to Diego Garcia. Following this deployment, McInerney operated in the Caribbean and visited Port Limon, Costa Rica and Tela, Honduras. She received the Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Citation with the Operational Distinguishing Device, for her efforts in law enforcement during this period.
In October 1984, McInerney deployed again to the Middle East in the midst of the Iran/Iraq Tanker War. She had been fitted with the Phalanx CIWS and also carried a LAMPS Mk-I (SH-2 Seasprite) helicopter detachment. During this deployment she visited ports in Djibouti, United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Palma, Spain. McInerney returned from this cruise in March 1985, and conducted law enforcement operations and other fleet exercises. In May 1986, USS McInerney began a 10-month-long overhaul (extended Selected Restricted Availability) in Boston, MA. During this yard period she received the AN/SQQ-89(V)2 Anti-Submarine Warfare Suite, fin stabilizers, and the Single Audio System. The RAST equipment was also reinstalled and made operational.
In August 1988, McInerney was underway for her third deployment— this one to the Mediterranean. This deployment was highlighted by McInerney being awarded the COMSIXTHFLT "Hook 'Em" Award for excellence in Anti-Submarine Warfare and a Meritorious Unit Commendation. On the morning of 21 December, McInerney received a distress call from the cement tanker Jenneastar, southwest of Sardinia, Italy. The crew had abandoned the ship when she began to list 25 degrees to port and started taking on water in bad weather. Ten Polish crewman and two Ghanaian stowaways were rescued and transported to Naples, Italy. McInerney returned from the Mediterranean in February 1989, and departed for the Northern Atlantic in the spring of 1989. Anti-Submarine Warfare operations led McInerney above the Arctic Circle, and McInerney returned to Mayport in May 1989.
1990s
McInerney deployed to the Middle East in January 1991 and was awarded her second "Hook 'Em" Award after a brief ASW operation in the Mediterranean Sea. McInerney then entered the Persian Gulf in support of coalition forces against Iraq. McInerney performed in every warfare area during the conflict, including convoy escort, mine warfare, anti-air and anti-surface operations. McInerney earned the Navy Unit Commendation, the Combat Action Ribbon, the National Defense Service Medal, the Southwest Asia Service Medal with Bronze Star, the Kuwait Liberation Medal (Saudi Arabia) and the Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait) for her wartime service.
The ship returned from the Middle East in July 1991 after escorting more than 50 merchant vessels through the mine-swept waters to Kuwait ports. Her continued, proven prowess earned her the Battle "E" for efficiency, and the COMNAVSURFLANT ASW Award, designating her as the top AN/SQQ-89-configured ASW platform on the East Coast. McInerneys humanitarian efforts, throughout her career, include assisting the tug Taurus in the Jacksonville Operating Area, transferring a wounded merchant seaman during the Tanker War, rescuing sailors from the sinking motor vessel Jenneastar in the Mediterranean and escorting merchant ships carrying needed supplies to the ports of Kuwait through mine-swept channels in the aftermath of Operation Desert Storm.
In 1999, McInerney participated in the UNITAS 40–99 deployment to South America UNITAS along with .
2000s
McInerney completed a highly successful SOUTHCOM Counter-Drug Operations Deployment in November 2003. The highlight of the deployment was a drug bust of an Ecuadorian fishing vessel in which nearly 10 tons of cocaine were seized. For her efforts throughout the deployment, McInerney was awarded the Humanitarian Service Medal and the Coast Guard Meritorious Unit Commendation.
On 13 September 2008, McInerney, working with Coast Guard Law Enforcement Detachment 404, intercepted a self-propelled semisubmersible carrying seven tons of cocaine off the coast of Guatemala. Four Colombian drug smugglers were captured aboard. The cargo had an estimated street value of $187 million.
On 5 October 2009, McInerney left Mayport Naval Station on its final deployment.
On 3 April 2010, an MQ-8 Fire Scout from McInerney helped to confiscate of cocaine from a speedboat.
Service in Pakistan Navy
In September 2008, the US Congress approved the transfer of the frigate to Pakistan, with a delivery date of August 2010. Citing the Foreign Assistance Act and the Arms Export Control Act, Pakistan is considered a "major non-NATO ally", able to receive older unneeded US military equipment. McInerney was decommissioned on 31 August 2010.
The 32-year-old frigate, which was renamed Alamgir, was given a US$65 million refurbishment, including anti-submarine capability paid for with foreign military aid money. Alamgir received an overhaul of almost all mechanical equipment, ranging from the overhaul of all four diesels, down to inspection and replacement of sea valves and air conditioning. A new bridge and navigational suite were installed, along with a VIP cabin and a composite dome over the overhauled AN/SQS-56 sonar array.
Pakistani personnel embarked during December 2010 and were trained to operate the vessel to the US Navy's Personnel Qualification Standard. Sea trials began in late January 2011. On 21 January, the ship collided with the pier during engine tests, resulting in damage to both the bow of the ship and pier. The goal was to sail Alamgir away on 10 February 2011. The sea trials were delayed for several weeks as repairs had to be conducted in the water due to lack of available drydock space. Ultimately, the repairs were completed on 22 February 2011 with sea trials being completed in the following weeks, departing Florida in time to reach Bermuda one month later on 24 March 2011.
On 24 March 2011, Almagir docked in the British North Atlantic territory of Bermuda.
On 18 February 2014, while operating off Oman's Masirah Island, Alamgir and the Australian frigate intercepted and boarded a dhow found to be carrying of cannabis resin.
Awards
Combat Action Ribbon
Navy Unit Commendation
Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation (1 battle star)
CG Meritorious Unit Commendation
Navy E Ribbon (6)
Navy Expeditionary Medal
National Defense Service Medal (1 battle star)
Southwest Asia Service Medal (2 battle stars)
Armed Forces Service Medal
Humanitarian Service Medal
Navy Sea Service Deployment Ribbon (4 battle stars)
CG Special Operations Service Ribbon
Kuwait Liberation Medal (Kuwait)
References
Bibliography
External links
USS McInerney official website
USS McInerney Navsource.org
USS McInerney (FFG-8) command histories – Naval History & Heritage Command: 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2004.
1978 ships
Ships built in Bath, Maine
Gulf War ships of the United States
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships transferred from the United States Navy to the Pakistan Navy
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States | [
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244917 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael%20E.%20Martinez | Rafael E. Martinez | Rafael E. Martinez (born April 26, 1950), is a Cuban-American lawyer. He is the brother of former Florida Senator Mel Martinez. Martinez was nominated in 2003 by President George W Bush to serve as a public delegate, representing the United States before the 57th United Nations General Assembly. He was confirmed by the United States Senate and served as a public delegate for that term. Mr. Martinez was the 2003 United States' candidate to serve on the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, the human rights arm of the Organization of American States. Since his candidacy was unsuccessful, as of January 2004 there was no U.S. national on the seven-member Commission for the first time since its inception in 1959.
In early 2019, Florida Governor Ron DeSantis appointed Martinez to the Greater Orlando Aviation Authority board.
Rafael is married to Becky Martinez with whom he has three children, Rebecca, Will, and Maggie.
References
American lawyers
Living people
1950 births | [
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244921 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental | Continental | Continental may refer to:
Places
Continent, the major landmasses of Earth
Continental, Arizona, a small community in Pima County, Arizona, US
Continental, Ohio, a small town in Putnam County, US
Arts and entertainment
Continental (album), an album by Saint Etienne
Continental (card game), a rummy-style card game
Continental (film), a 2013 film
Continental Singers, a Christian music organization
Companies
Continental AG, a German automotive parts and technologies manufacturer
Continental Airlines, a former American airline
Continental Electronics, an American radio transmitter manufacturer
Continental Films, a German-controlled French film company during the Nazi occupation of France
Continental Motors, Inc., a Chinese manufacturer of aircraft engines
Continental Records, a former American record company
Grupo Continental (Honduras), a group of companies in Honduras
ContiGroup Companies or Continental Grain
Continental Oil Company, the original name for ConocoPhillips
Automobile
Continental Automobile Manufacturing Company, a defunct American automobile manufacturer in New Haven, Connecticut (1907–08)
Continental Motors Company, a defunct American automobile engine manufacturer
Continental Motor Car Company, a defunct American automobile manufacturer in Springfield, Illinois (1903)
Continental Automobile Company, a defunct American automobile manufacturer in Grand Rapids, Michigan (1933–1934)
Continental Motor Car Company, a defunct American automobile manufacturer in Chicago, Illinois (1907)
Automobile models
Bentley Continental, several generations of luxury automobiles since 1952
De Vaux Continental, by the Continental-De Vaux Company
Lincoln Continental, a series of luxury cars by Lincoln
Rolls-Royce Phantom II Continental, a version of the Rolls-Royce Phantom II
Other uses
Continental (brand), a brand of foods used by Unilever in Australia
Continental (currency), paper money issued by the US government during the American Revolution
Continental, a group in the Sri Lankan grading system for the cinnamon quills
See also
Continental Army, the unified command structure of the 13 colonies fighting Great Britain during the American Revolution
Continental Can Company (1904–76), a United States metal container manufacturer
Continental climate
Continental Europe
Continental food or Continental cuisine, European/Western-style food/cuisine
Continental glacier
Continental knitting
Continental philosophy, a 20th-century school of philosophy based mostly on texts by French and German philosophers
Continental stitch or tent stitch, a needlepoint stitch worked on canvas
Continental tire, an upright, external spare tire mounted behind an automobile's trunk compartment
The Continental (disambiguation)
Hotel Continental (disambiguation)
Transcontinental (disambiguation)
Intercontinental (disambiguation) | [
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244924 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20J.%20Guiteau | Charles J. Guiteau | Charles Julius Guiteau ( ; September 8, 1841June 30, 1882) was an American writer and lawyer who assassinated James A. Garfield, president of the United States, on July 2, 1881. Guiteau falsely believed he had played a major role in Garfield's election victory, for which he should have been rewarded with a consulship. He was so offended by the Garfield administration's rejections of his applications to serve in Vienna or Paris that he decided to kill Garfield, and shot him at the Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station in Washington, D.C. Garfield died two months later from infections related to the wounds. In January 1882, Guiteau was sentenced to death for the crime, and was hanged five months later.
Early life and education
Charles J. Guiteau was born in Freeport, Illinois, the fourth of six children of Jane August ( Howe) and Luther Wilson Guiteau, whose family was of French Huguenot ancestry. He moved with his family to Ulao, Wisconsin (near current-day Grafton), in 1850 and lived there until 1855, when his mother died of postpartum psychosis. Soon after, Guiteau and his father moved back to Freeport.
Guiteau inherited $1,000 () from his grandfather as a young man and went to Ann Arbor, Michigan, to attend the University of Michigan. Due to inadequate academic preparation, he failed the entrance examinations. He crammed in French and algebra at Ann Arbor High School while receiving numerous letters from his father about his progress, but quit before completing the program. In June 1860 he joined the Oneida Community, the utopian religious sect in Oneida, New York, with which Guiteau's father already had close affiliations. According to Brian Resnick of The Atlantic, Guiteau "worshiped" the group's founder, John Humphrey Noyes, once writing that he had "perfect, entire and absolute confidence in him in all things".
Despite the "group marriage" aspects of the Oneida Community, Guiteau was generally rejected during his five years there and his name was turned into a play on words to create the nickname "Charles Gitout". He left the community twice; the first time, he went to Hoboken, New Jersey, and attempted to start a newspaper based on the Oneida religion, called The Daily Theocrat. This failed and he returned to Oneida, only to leave again and file lawsuits against Noyes, in which he demanded payment for the work he had supposedly performed on behalf of the Oneida Community. Guiteau's embarrassed father wrote letters in support of Noyes, who considered Guiteau irresponsible and insane.
Career
Guiteau worked as a clerk at a Chicago law firm and passed a cursory examination to attain admission to the bar. He was not successful as a lawyer, arguing only one case in court, and the bulk of his business was in bill collecting. In 1869 he met and married librarian Annie Bunn. She later detailed his dishonest dealings, describing how he would keep disproportionate amounts from his collections and rarely give the money to his clients.
In 1872, Guiteau and his wife moved to New York City one step ahead of bill collectors and dissatisfied clients. Guiteau took an interest in politics and identified with the Democratic Party. In the 1872 presidential election, he supported Horace Greeley, the Liberal Republican and Democratic candidate, against incumbent Republican Ulysses S. Grant. Guiteau prepared a disorganized speech in support of Greeley, which he delivered once. Greeley was badly defeated, but during the campaign Guiteau became convinced that if Greeley won, he would appoint Guiteau as minister (ambassador) to Chile. Guiteau was physically abusive with his wife; when she wanted a divorce in 1874, he obliged by having sex with a prostitute who then testified to his infidelity.
Turning back to religion, Guiteau published a book on the subject called The Truth, which was almost entirely plagiarized from the work of Noyes. By 1875, Guiteau's father had become convinced that his son was possessed by Satan. Conversely, Guiteau himself became increasingly convinced that his actions were divinely inspired, and that his destiny was to "preach a new Gospel" like Paul the Apostle. He wandered from town to town lecturing to any and all who would listen to his religious ramblings, and in December 1877 gave a lecture at the Congregational Church in Washington, D.C.
Guiteau spent the first half of 1880 in Boston, which he left owing money and under suspicion of theft. On June 11, 1880, he was a passenger on the SS Stonington when it collided with the SS Narragansett at night in heavy fog near the mouth of the Connecticut River. Stonington was able to return to port, but Narragansett burned to the waterline and sank with significant loss of life. Although none of his fellow passengers on Stonington were injured, the incident left Guiteau believing that he had been spared for a higher purpose.
Guiteau's interest then turned again to politics. During the 1880 presidential campaign, the Republican Party was largely split into factions – the Stalwarts, led by Roscoe Conkling, who supported Grant for a third term, and the Half-Breeds, who supported James G. Blaine. Guiteau decided to support the Stalwarts and wrote a speech in support of Grant called "Grant against Hancock", which he revised to "Garfield against Hancock" after Garfield (not affiliated with either faction) won the Republican nomination. Ultimately, Guiteau changed little more in the text than switching Grant's name for Garfield's. The speech was delivered at most twice, and printed copies were passed out to members of the Republican National Committee at their summer 1880 meeting in New York, but Guiteau believed himself to be largely responsible for Garfield's victory over Democrat Winfield Scott Hancock that November. He insisted he should be awarded a consulship for his supposedly vital assistance, first asking for Vienna, then deciding that he would rather have the one in Paris. Guiteau's personal requests to Garfield and his cabinet as one of many job seekers who lined up every day to see them in person were continually rejected, as were his numerous letters.
By the early days of Garfield's administration, which commenced in March 1881, Guiteau was living in Washington, D.C., destitute and forced to sneak between rooming houses without paying for his lodging and meals, and to walk around the cold, snowy city in a threadbare suit, without a coat, hat or boots. He spent his days in hotel lobbies reading discarded newspapers to keep track of the schedules of Garfield and his cabinet and making use of the hotels' complementary stationery to write letters to them pressing his claim for a consulship. In the spring, Guiteau was still in Washington, and on May 14, 1881, he once more encountered Blaine, now Secretary of State, and inquired about a consular appointment; an exasperated Blaine finally snapped, "Never speak to me again on the Paris consulship as long as you live!"
Assassination of Garfield
Guiteau considered himself a loyal Republican and a Stalwart, and his narcissistic personality convinced him that his work for the party had been critical to Garfield's election to the presidency. Later convinced that Garfield was going to destroy the Republican Party by scrapping the patronage system, and distraught after his final encounter with Blaine, he decided the only solution was to remove Garfield and elevate Vice President Chester A. Arthur, an acolyte of Senator Conkling, the Stalwart leader who managed Grant's 1880 campaign and who was not on friendly terms with Garfield.
Guiteau conceded that the president would be too strong to kill with a knife, stating, "Garfield would have crushed the life out of me with a single blow of his fist!" He settled on a gun after contemplating what weapon he would use. Guiteau felt that God told him to kill the president; he felt that such an act would be a "removal" as opposed to an assassination. He also felt that Garfield needed to be killed to rid the Republican Party of Blaine's influence. Borrowing $15 from George Maynard, a relative by marriage, Guiteau set out to purchase a revolver. He knew little about firearms, but believed he would need a large-caliber gun. While shopping at O'Meara's store in Washington, he had to choose between a .442 Webley caliber British Bulldog revolver with wooden grips or one with ivory grips. He preferred the one with the ivory handle because he thought it would look better as a museum exhibit after the assassination. Though he could not afford the extra dollar for the ivory grips, the store owner dropped the price for him. He spent the next few weeks in target practice – the recoil from the revolver almost knocked him over the first time he fired it. Guiteau's weapon was recovered after the assassination, and even photographed by the Smithsonian in the early 20th century, but it has since been lost.
On one occasion, Guiteau trailed Garfield to the since-demolished Baltimore and Potomac Railroad Station as the president was seeing his wife off to a beach resort in Long Branch, New Jersey, but he decided to postpone his plan because Garfield's wife Lucretia was in poor health and Guiteau did not want to upset her. Having been alerted to the president's schedule by a newspaper article, on July 2, 1881, he lay in wait for Garfield at the railroad station, getting his shoes shined, pacing, and engaging a cab to take him to the station later. As Garfield entered the station, looking forward to a vacation with his wife in Long Branch, Guiteau stepped forward and shot Garfield twice from behind, the second shot piercing the first lumbar vertebra but missing the spinal cord. As he surrendered to authorities, Guiteau said: "I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts. ... [Chester A.] Arthur is president now!"
After a long, painful battle with infections, possibly brought on by his doctors' poking and probing the wound with unwashed hands and non-sterilized instruments, Garfield died on September 19, eleven weeks after being shot. Most modern physicians familiar with the case state that Garfield would have easily recovered from his wounds with sterile medical care, which was common in the United States a decade later, while Candice Millard argues that Garfield would have survived Guiteau's bullet wound had his doctors simply left him alone. However, Garfield's biographer Allan Peskin stated that medical malpractice did not contribute to Garfield's death; the inevitable infection and blood poisoning that would ensue from a deep bullet wound resulted in damage to multiple organs and spinal bone fragmentation. Rutkow, a professor of surgery at the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey, has argued that starvation also played a role. Rutkow suggests "Garfield had such a nonlethal wound. In today's world, he would have gone home in a matter of two or three days." The conventional narrative regarding Garfield's post-shooting medical condition was also challenged by Theodore Pappas and Shahrzad Joharifard in a 2013 article in The American Journal of Surgery. They argued that Garfield died from a late rupture of a splenic artery pseudoaneurysm, which developed secondary to the path of the bullet adjacent to the splenic artery. They also argued that his sepsis was actually caused by post-traumatic acute acalculous cholecystitis. Based on the autopsy report, the authors speculate that his gallbladder subsequently ruptured, leading to the development of a large bile-containing abscess adjacent to the gallbladder. Pappas and Joharifard suggest this caused the septic decline in Garfield's condition that was visible starting from July 23, 1881.
Trial and execution
Once Garfield died, the government officially charged Guiteau with murder. He was formally indicted on October 14, 1881, on the charge of murder, which previously had been attempted murder after his arrest. Guiteau pleaded not guilty to the charge. The trial began in Washington, D.C., on November 17, 1881, in the Supreme Court for the District of Columbia (now the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia). The presiding judge in the case was Walter Smith Cox. Although Guiteau would insist on trying to represent himself during the entire trial, the court appointed Leigh Robinson to defend him. In less than a week of trial, Robinson retired from the case. George Scoville then became lead counsel for the defense. While Scoville's legal experience lay in land title examination, he had married Guiteau's sister and was thus obliged to defend him in court when no one else would. Wayne MacVeagh, the U.S. Attorney General, served as the chief prosecutor. MacVeagh named five lawyers to the prosecution team: George Corkhill, Walter Davidge, retired judge John K. Porter, Elihu Root, and E. B. Smith.
Guiteau's trial was one of the first high-profile cases in the United States where a defense based on a claim of temporary insanity was considered. Guiteau vehemently insisted that while he had been legally insane at the time of the shooting (because God had taken away his free will) he was not really medically insane, which was one of the major causes of the rift between him and his defense lawyers. The judge gave the jury instructions based on the M'Naghten test.
Edward Charles Spitzka, a leading alienist, testified as an expert witness. Spitzka had stated that it was clear "Guiteau is not only now insane, but that he was never anything else." While on the stand, Spitzka testified that he had "no doubt" that Guiteau was both insane and "a moral monstrosity". He came to the conclusion that Guiteau had "the insane manner" he had so often observed in asylums, adding that Guiteau was a "morbid egotist" with "a tendency to misinterpret the real affairs of life". He thought the condition to be the result of "a congenital malformation of the brain".
Corkhill, who was the District of Columbia's district attorney and on the prosecuting team, summed up the prosecution's opinion of Guiteau's insanity defense in a pre-trial press statement that also mirrored public opinion on the issue.
Guiteau became something of a media sensation during his entire trial for his bizarre behavior, which included him frequently cursing and insulting the judge, most of the witnesses, the prosecution, and even his defense team, as well as formatting his testimony in epic poems which he recited at length, and soliciting legal advice from random spectators in the audience via passed notes. He dictated an autobiography to the New York Herald, ending it with a personal ad for "a nice Christian lady under 30 years of age". He was oblivious to the American public's hatred of him, even after he was almost assassinated twice himself. He frequently smiled and waved at spectators and reporters in and out of the courtroom.
Guiteau sent a letter in which he argued that Arthur should set him free because he had just increased Arthur's salary by making him president. At one point, Guiteau argued before Cox that Garfield was killed not by the bullets but by medical malpractice, "The doctors killed Garfield, I just shot him." Throughout the trial and up until his execution, Guiteau was housed at St. Elizabeths Hospital in the southeastern quadrant of Washington, D.C. While in prison and awaiting execution, Guiteau wrote a defense of the assassination he had committed and an account of his own trial, which was published as The Truth and the Removal.
To the end, Guiteau was making plans to start a lecture tour after his perceived imminent release and to run for president himself in 1884, while at the same time continuing to delight in the media circus surrounding his trial. He was found guilty on January 25, 1882, and sentenced to death. After the guilty verdict was read, Guiteau stepped forward, despite his lawyers' efforts to tell him to be quiet, and yelled at the jury saying, "You are all low, consummate jackasses!" plus a further stream of curses and obscenities before he was taken away by guards to his cell to await execution. Guiteau appealed his conviction, but the appeal was rejected.
Twenty-nine days before his execution, Guiteau composed a lengthy poem asserting that God had commanded him to kill Garfield to prevent Blaine’s "scheming" to war with Chile and Peru. Guiteau also claimed in the poem that now-President Arthur knew the assassination had saved the United States and that Arthur's refusal to pardon him was the "basest ingratitude". He also (incorrectly) presumed that Arthur would pressure the Supreme Court into hearing his court appeal. He was hanged on June 30, 1882, in the District of Columbia, just two days before the first anniversary of the shooting. He remains the presidential assassin to survive his victim longest by far.
While being led to his execution, Guiteau was said to have continued to smile and wave at spectators and reporters. He notoriously danced his way to the gallows and shook hands with his executioner. On the scaffold, as a last request, he recited a poem called "I am Going to the Lordy", which he had written during his incarceration. He had originally requested an orchestra to play as he sang his poem, but this request was denied.
As per request with the executioner, Guiteau signaled that he was ready to die by dropping the paper. After he finished reading his poem, a black hood was placed over the smiling Guiteau's head and moments later the gallows trapdoor was sprung, the rope breaking his neck instantly with the fall. Guiteau's body was not returned to his family, as they were unable to afford a private funeral, but was instead autopsied and buried in a corner of the jailyard. Upon his autopsy it was discovered that Guiteau had the condition known as phimosis, an inability to retract the foreskin, which at the time was thought to have caused the insanity that led him to assassinate Garfield.
With tiny pieces of the hanging rope already being sold as souvenirs to a fascinated public, rumors immediately began to swirl that jail guards planned to dig up Guiteau's corpse to meet demands of this burgeoning new market. Fearing scandal, the decision was made to disinter the corpse. The body was sent to the National Museum of Health and Medicine in Maryland, which preserved Guiteau's brain as well as his enlarged spleen discovered at autopsy and bleached the skeleton. These were placed in storage by the museum. Parts of Guiteau's brain remain on display in a jar at the Mütter Museum in Philadelphia.
Psychological assessment
Allan McLane Hamilton said in 1881 that he believed that Guiteau was sane when he assassinated Garfield. An autopsy of Guiteau's brain revealed that his dura mater was abnormally thick, suggesting he may have had neurosyphillis, a disease which causes mental instability; he could have contracted syphilis from a prostitute. George Paulson, formerly the chair of neurology at the Ohio State University, disputed the neurosyphillis diagnosis, arguing that Guiteau suffered from both schizophrenia and "grandiose narcissism".
In 2014, the criminal psychologist Kent Kiehl diagnosed Guiteau as a psychopath, giving him a score of 37.5 out of 40 on the PCL-R scale.
In popular culture
The life of Guiteau, focusing on his psychological disturbances and his plan to kill Garfield, is the subject of "Portrait of an Assassin", a radio play by James Agate Jr. The play was produced as Episode 1125 of CBS Radio Mystery Theater and was first broadcast on October 8, 1980, where he was played by John Lithgow.
Guiteau is depicted in Stephen Sondheim and John Weidman's musical Assassins, wherein he mentors Sara Jane Moore, a woman who attempted to assassinate Gerald Ford. Guiteau sings parts of "I am Going to the Lordy" in the musical's song "The Ballad of Guiteau".
In the American Dad! episode "Garfield and Friends", Hayley Smith uses Guiteau's DNA to revive him and uses him like a bloodhound to track down a revived Garfield.
In the alternate history short story "I Shall Have a Flight to Glory" by Michael P. Kube-McDowell in the 1992 anthology Alternate Presidents by Mike Resnick, Guiteau and Garfield are allies against Samuel J. Tilden, who has become a tyrannical president.
Actor Will Janowitz plays Guiteau in the 2016 PBS documentary American Experience: Murder of a President.
The Ramblin' Jack Elliott song "The Death of Mister Garfield" recounts the assassination and the reactions of a fictional witness. Johnny Cash learned the song from Elliott, and later recorded a re-worked version as "Mr. Garfield".
See also
List of assassins
List of people who died by hanging
Patronage
Stalwart (politics)
References
Notes
Further reading
External links
History House's account of Guiteau's life and the assassination of Garfield, part 1, 2 and 3.
Guiteau, Convicted and in Jail, Declares He is Not a Lunatic, 1882 Original Letter Shapell Manuscript Foundation
President Garfield’s Assassin: Charles Guiteau’s Time in Washington (Ghosts of DC)
The Truth and the Removal.
Charles J. Guiteau Collection at Georgetown University Library.
Autograph album for the Charles J. Guiteau murder trial, MSS SC 3 at L. Tom Perry Special Collections, Harold B. Lee Library, Brigham Young University
1841 births
1882 deaths
19th-century American criminals
19th-century American lawyers
19th-century American poets
American male poets
Illinois lawyers
People executed by the United States federal government by hanging
Epic poets
Executed assassins
19th-century executions by the United States
People from Freeport, Illinois
People from Oneida, New York
People from Grafton, Wisconsin
Executed people from Illinois
American people convicted of murder
People convicted of murder by the United States federal government
Assassins of presidents of the United States
American assassins
Assassination of James A. Garfield
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Illinois Republicans
American people of French descent
People involved in plagiarism controversies
1881 murders in the United States
People with antisocial personality disorder
People with narcissistic personality disorder
Stalwarts (Republican Party) | [
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244925 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wadsworth%20%28FFG-9%29 | USS Wadsworth (FFG-9) | USS Wadsworth (FFG-9), third ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Commodore Alexander S. Wadsworth (1790–1851). She was the third US Navy ship named Wadsworth. She was the second "short-hull" (Flight I) OHP frigate long.
History
Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 27 February 1976 as part of the FY75 program, Wadsworth, formally PF-111, was laid down on 13 July 1977, launched on 29 July 1978, and commissioned on 28 February 1980. Wadsworth was sponsored by Mrs. Patricia P. Roberts, the great-great-great-granddaughter of Commodore Alexander S. Wadsworth. Decommissioned on 28 June 2002, Wadsworth was handed over to Poland the same day and commissioned as , after Tadeusz Kościuszko an American Revolutionary War hero in the United States and an independence hero in Poland. She was formally stricken from the Navy list on 23 July 2002.
Wadsworth portrayed in the 1990 film The Hunt for Red October along with USS Gary FFG-51.
The ship's motto was "For One's Country" and originates from the words of Captain Isaac Hull, Commanding Officer of before her August 1812 battle with HMS Guerriere. Hull said, "Men, now do your duty. Your officers cannot have entire command over you now. Each man must do all in his power for his country."
Wadsworth and her crew received Battle Effectiveness Awards for operations in 1993, 1998 and 2001.
References
External links
USS Wadsworth FFG-9 Memorial Site
navysite.de: USS Wadsworth
MaritimeQuest USS Wadsworth FFG-9 pages
Ships built in Los Angeles
1978 ships
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States | [
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] |
244931 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20people%20from%20Kansas | List of people from Kansas | The following are notable people who were either born, raised, or have lived for a significant period of time in the American state of Kansas.
Academics and Nobel Prize laureates
Milton S. Eisenhower (1899–1985), university president; Abilene
Wendell Johnson (1906–1965), psychologist and speech pathologist, author of The Monster Study; Roxbury
Jack S. Kilby (1923–2005), Nobel Prize winner in Physics; Great Bend
Solon Toothaker Kimball (1909–1982), anthropologist; Manhattan
Stanford Lehmberg (1931–2012), historian; McPherson
Norman Malcolm (1911–1990), philosopher; Selden
Deane Waldo Malott (1898–1996), president of Cornell University; Abilene
Abby Lillian Marlatt (1869–1943), home economics; Manhattan
Eric K. Meyer (born 1953), journalism professor and Pulitzer Prize nominee; Marion
M. Lee Pelton (born 1950), president of Willamette University; Wichita
John Brooks Slaughter (born 1934), college president and first African-American director of the National Science Foundation; Topeka
Vernon L. Smith (born 1927), Nobel Memorial Prize winner in Economics; Wichita
Earl Wilbur Sutherland Jr. (1915–1974), 1971 Nobel Prize winner in Physiology and Medicine; Burlingame
Donald Worster (born 1941), historian; Lawrence
Arts and literature
Artists
Nina E. Allender (1873–1957), artist and women's suffrage cartoonist; Auburn
Grace Bilger (1907–2000), artist; Olathe
Grant Bond (born 1974), artist; Kansas City
Blackbear Bosin (1921–1980), Native American artist; Wichita
Gwendolyn Elizabeth Brooks (1917–2000), poet; Topeka
Bruce Conner (1933–2008), artist; McPherson
John Steuart Curry (1897–1946), artist; Winchester
Aaron Douglas (1900–1979), artist; Topeka
Randall Duell (1903–1992), architect and art director; Russell County
Edgar Heap of Birds (born 1954), artist; Wichita
Bruce Helander (born 1947), artist; Great Bend
Elizabeth Layton (1909–1993), artist; Wellsville
Evan Lindquist (born 1936), printmaker, Artist Laureate of Arkansas; Salina
Barbara Morgan (1900–1992), photographer; Buffalo, Kansas
Gordon Parks (1912–2006), photographer and film director; Fort Scott
Birger Sandzen (1871–1954), artist, art professor at Bethany College; Lindsborg
Gary Mark Smith (born 1956), photographer, studied at University of Kansas; Wichita
W. Eugene Smith (1918–1978), photographer; Wichita
Mort Walker (1923–2018), cartoonist, creator of Beetle Bailey and Hi and Lois comic strips; El Dorado
Authors
Laura Abbot, author of Harlequin romance novels; Kansas City
Gwendolyn Brooks (1917–2000), author, poet; Topeka
William Burroughs (1914–1997), author; Lawrence
Don Coldsmith (1926–2009), author of Western fiction; Iola
Dorothy Canfield Fisher (1879–1958), author of children's books; Lawrence
Thomas Frank (born 1965), author and editor; Mission Hills
Jane Heap (1883–1964), author and publisher; Topeka
Scott Heim (born 1966), author; Hutchinson
Langston Hughes (1902–1967), author and poet; Lawrence
William Inge (1913–1973), playwright; Independence
Bill James (born 1949), author; Mayetta
Bill Martin, Jr. (1916–2004), children's author; Hiawatha
Fred Myton (1885–1955), screenwriter; Garden City
Kathy Patrick, author, founder of Pulpwood Queens Book Club; Eureka
Scott Phillips (born 1961), author; Wichita
Vance Randolph (1892–1980), folklorist; Pittsburg
Red Reeder (1902–1998), author and United States Army officer; Fort Leavenworth
Richard Rhodes (born 1937), author and historian; Kansas City
Lois Ruby, author of historic fiction; Lawrence
Damon Runyon (1880–1946), author; Manhattan
Mary Francis Shura (1923–1990), children's, romance and mystery author; Pratt
William Stafford (1914–1993), poet and pacifist; Hutchinson
Max Yoho (1934–2017), author; Colony
Dancers
Clark Tippet (1954–1992), ballet; Parsons
Musicians
Athletics
Athletes
A–F
Alvan Adams (born 1954), basketball; Lawrence
John H. Adams (1914–1995), jockey; Iola
Neil Allen (born 1958), baseball pitcher, pitching coach; Kansas City
David Arkin (born 1987), pro football player; Wichita
Elden Auker (1910–2006), baseball pitcher; Norcatur
Chase Austin (born 1989), NASCAR driver; Eudora
Ron Baker (born 1993), NBA player (New York Knicks); Utica and Scott City (born in Hays)
Thane Baker (born 1931), gold medalist at 1956 Summer Olympics, decathlon; Elkhart
Tony Barker (born 1968), football player; Wichita
Chris Barnes (born 1970), professional bowler; Topeka
James Bausch (1906–1974), gold medalist 1932 Summer Olympics; Garden Plain
Judy Bell (born 1936), member of World Golf Hall of Fame; Wichita
Matt Besler (born 1987), professional soccer player; Overland Park
B.H. Born (1932–2013), basketball player; Medicine Lodge
Clint Bowyer (born 1979), NASCAR driver; Emporia
George Brett (born 1953), baseball Hall of Famer; Mission Hills
Bryce Brown (born 1991), football player; Wichita
Orville Brown (1908–1981), pro wrestler, NWA champion; Sharon
Mildred Bliss Burke (1915–1989), wrestler, Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame; Coffeyville
Enos Cabell (born 1949), baseball player; Fort Riley
Veronica Campbell-Brown (born 1982), track and field athlete (Olympic and world champion); Great Bend
Antoine Carr (born 1961), basketball player
Willie Cauley-Stein (born 1993), professional basketball player Spearville
Larry Cheney (1886–1969), baseball pitcher; Belleville
Jack Christiansen (1928–1986), football Hall of Famer; Sublette
Tony Clark (born 1972), baseball player; Newton
Maliek Collins (born 1995), football player; Kansas City
Baron Corbin (born 1984), football player, WWE wrestler; Lenexa
Nolan Cromwell (born 1955), football player; Smith Center
Aaron Crow (born 1986), baseball player; Topeka
Glenn Cunningham (1909–1988), silver medalist, 1936 Olympic Games,1,500m run; Elkhart
Johnny Damon (born 1973), baseball player; Fort Riley
Eldon Danenhauer (1935–2021), football player; Clay Center
Darren Daulton (born 1962), baseball player; Arkansas City
Wantha Davis (1917–2012), jockey; Liberal
Joey Devine (born 1983), baseball player; Junction City
Lynn Dickey (born 1949), football player; Osawatomie
Andy Dirks (born 1986), baseball player; Burrton
Larry Drew (born 1958), basketball player and coach; Kansas City
Mark Duckens (born 1965), football player; Wichita
Brian Duensing (born 1983), baseball player; Marysville
Brody Eldridge (born 1987), football player; La Cygne
Tim Elliott (born 1986), mixed martial artist; Wichita
Maurice Evans (born 1978), basketball player; Wichita
Kyle Farnsworth (born 1976), baseball player; Wichita
Galen Fiss (1931–2006), football player; Johnson City
Adrianna Franch (born 1990), soccer player (world champion); Salina
Scott Fulhage (born 1961), football player; Beloit
G–M
Andrew Gachkar (born 1988), football player; Overland Park
Kendall Gammon (born 1968), football player; Rose Hill
Tyson Gay (born 1982), track and field athlete (world champion); Great Bend
Maurice Greene (born 1974), track and field athlete (world and Olympic champion); Kansas City
Adrian Griffin (born 1974), basketball player and coach; Wichita
Geneo Grissom (born 1992), football player; Hutchinson
Andy Gruenebaum (born 1982), soccer player
Don Gutteridge (1912–2008), baseball player and manager; Pittsburg
Joe Hastings (born 1987), football player; Wichita
Tanner Hawkinson (born 1990), football player; McPherson
Mark Haynes (born 1958), football player; Kansas City
Ben Heeney (born 1992), football player; Hutchinson
Bobby Henrich (born 1938), baseball player; Lawrence
Don Hill (1904–1967), football player; Hiawatha
Shaun Hill (born 1980), football player; Parsons
Elon Hogsett (1903–2001), baseball player; Brownell
Lionel Hollins (born 1953), basketball player and coach; Arkansas City
Scott Huffman (born 1964), pole vaulter; Quinter
Damian Johnson (born 1962), football player; Great Bend
Walter Johnson (1887–1946), baseball Hall of Famer; Humboldt
Pete Kilduff (1893–1930), baseball player; Weir
Fred Kipp (born 1931), baseball pitcher; Piqua
Tonya Knight (born 1966), IFBB professional bodybuilder; Overland Park
Laurie Koehn (born 1982), WNBA player; Moundridge
Gene Krug (born 1955), baseball player; Garden City
Adam LaRoche (born 1979), baseball player; Fort Scott
Bobby Lashley (born 1976), professional wrestler for WWE; Junction City
Shalee Lehning (born 1987), WNBA player; Sublette
Martin Lewis (born 1975), NBA basketball player; Liberal
Danny Manning (born 1966), NBA basketball player; Lawrence
Harold Manning (1909–2003), Steeplechase world record holder and Olympian; Sedgwick
Rudy May (born 1944), baseball player; Coffeyville
Jon McGraw, professional football player; Riley
Archie "Hap" McKain (1911–1985), baseball player; Delphos
Peter Mehringer (1910–1987), Olympic gold medalist wrestler, pro football player; Kinsley
Brian Moorman (born 1976), football player; Sedgwick
Mike Morin (born 1991), baseball player; Leawood
N–Z
Marcio Navarro (born 1978), professional kickboxer and mixed martial artist; Wichita
Jordy Nelson (born 1985), football player; Leonardville
Terence Newman (born 1978), football player; Salina
Nicole Ohlde (born 1982), WNBA player; Clay Center
Antonio Orozco (born 1987), professional boxer; Garden City
Victor Ortiz (born 1987), professional boxer; Garden City
Bob Orton (1929–2006), professional wrestler; Kansas City
Bob Orton, Jr. (born 1950), professional wrestler, WWE Hall of Fame; Kansas City
John Parrella (born 1969), professional football player; Topeka
Hal Patterson (1932–2011), professional football player; Larned
Jordan Phillips (born 1992), professional football player; Towanda
Joseph Randle (born 1991), professional football player; Wichita
Ronn Reynolds (born 1958), professional baseball player; Wichita
Dustin Richardson (born 1984), MLB pitcher; Newton
John Riggins (born 1949), football player, Pro Football Hall of Famer; Centralia
Brandon Rios (born 1986), professional boxer; Garden City
Lafayette Russell (1905–1978), football player, B-movie actor "Reb" Russell; Osawatomie
Johnny Rutherford (born 1938), race car driver; Coffeyville
Jim Ryun (born 1947), athlete and politician; Wichita
Barry Sanders (born 1968), football player, NFL Hall of Famer; Wichita
Melvin Sanders (born 1981), pro basketball player; Liberal
Wes Santee (1932–2010), NCAA cross country champion, track and field athlete; Ashland
Gale Sayers (1943–2020), NFL Hall of Famer; Wichita
Otto Schnellbacher (1923–2008), pro basketball and football player; Sublette
Ryan Schraeder (born 1988), professional football player; Wichita
Wayne Simien (born 1983), NCAA All-American, NBA basketball player; Leavenworth
Mark Simoneau (born 1977), professional football player; Smith Center
Marilynn Smith (1929–2019), professional golfer and LPGA co-founder; Topeka
Darren Sproles (born 1983), professional football player; Olathe
Bubba Starling (born 1992), professional baseball player; Gardner
Lee Stevens (born 1967), professional baseball player; Lawrence
Jackie Stiles (born 1978), WNBA basketball player; Claflin
Stewart "Smokey" Stover (born 1938), professional football player; McPherson
Darrell Stuckey (born 1987), professional football player; Kansas City
Tom Sturdivant (1930–2009), professional baseball player; Gordon
Steve Tasker (born 1962), NFL Pro Bowl MVP in 1993; Leoti (born in Smith Center
Luther Haden "Dummy" Taylor (1875–1958), baseball pitcher; Oskaloosa
Doug Terry (born 1968), pro football player; Liberal
Tommy Thompson (1916–1989), pro football player; Hutchinson
Blake Treinen (born 1988), professional baseball player; Osage City
Jerame Tuman (born 1976), pro football player; Liberal
Ron Warner (born 1975), professional football player; Independence
Earl Watson (born 1979), NBA basketball player; Kansas City
Tom Watson (born 1949), golfer, member of World Golf Hall of Fame; Stilwell
Mitch Webster (born 1959), MLB player; Larned
Kendra Wecker (born 1982), WNBA player; Marysville
Michael Wilhoite (born 1986), pro football player; Manhattan
Jess Willard (1881–1968), world heavyweight boxing champion, St. Clere; Pottawatomie County
Kamerion Wimbley (born 1983), professional football player; Wichita
Lynette Woodard (born 1959), basketball Hall of Famer; Wichita
Brad Ziegler (born 1979), baseball player; Pratt
John Zook (1947–2020), professional football player; Garden City
Coaches
Aviators and astronauts
Walter Herschel Beech (1891–1950), aviator and aircraft designer; Wichita
Clyde Vernon Cessna (1879–1954), aviator and aircraft designer; Rago
Amelia Earhart (1897–1937), aviator; Atchison
Joe Engle (born 1932), astronaut; Chapman
Ronald Evans (1933–1990), astronaut; St. Francis
Daniel Forbes (1920–1948), United States Army Air Corps pilot; Carbondale
Steve Hawley (born 1951), astronaut; Salina
Donald Hudson (1895–1967), World War I flying ace; Topeka
Glenn L. Martin (1886–1955), aviation pioneer; Salina
Lloyd Carlton Stearman (1898–1975), aviator and aircraft designer; Wellsford
Businesspeople and inventors
Philip Anschutz (born 1939), billionaire investor; Russell
Bion Barnett (1857–1958), co-founder of Barnett Bank; Hiawatha
Olive Ann Beech, chairwoman of Beech Aircraft Company; Wichita (born in Waverly)
Dan and Frank Carney (Dan born 1931, Frank 1938–2020), founders of Pizza Hut; Wichita
Walter Chrysler (1875–1940), founder of Chrysler Corporation; Wamego
William Coffin Coleman (1870–1957), founder of the Coleman Company; Wichita
David Dillon (born 1951), former CEO of Kroger; Hutchinson
Vic Edelbrock (1913–1962), automotive engineer; Eudora
David Green (born 1941), founder of Hobby Lobby; Emporia
James Harbord (1866–1947), president and chairman of the board of RCA; Manhattan
Hollis Dow Hedberg (1903–1988), president of Gulf Oil Company; Falun
William Wadsworth Hodkinson (1881–1971), pioneer film marketer and distributor; Independence
Carl Ice (born 1956), President of BNSF; Topeka
Omar Knedlik (1915–1989), inventor of the ICEE frozen drink; Barnes
Charles G. Koch (born 1935), CEO of Koch Industries; Wichita
David H. Koch (1940–2019), executive and politician; Wichita
Alan Mulally (born 1945), engineer, former president and CEO of the Ford Motor Company; Lawrence
Matthew K. Rose (born 1959), chairman and CEO of Burlington Northern Santa Fe Corp.; Salina
Harry F. Sinclair (1876–1956), founder of Sinclair Oil Company; Independence
Russell Stover (1888–1954), founder of Russell Stover Candies; Alton
Film, stage and television
Actors and performers
Directors
Michael Almereyda (born 1960), film director; Overland Park
Steve Balderson (born 1975), film director; Wamego
Darren Lynn Bousman (born 1979), film director; Overland Park
Chris Buck (born 1960), film director, animator; Wichita
Eric Darnell (born 1960), director, writer, songwriter, animator; Prairie Village
Randall Duell (1903–1992), art director; Russell County
Alex Graves (born 1968), television director; El Dorado
Sherman Halsey, music video and television director; Independence
Martin and Osa Johnson (1884–1937 and 1894–1953), film pioneer, explorer; Chanute
Oscar Micheaux (1893–1951), film director; Great Bend
Gordon Parks (1912–2006), film director; Fort Scott
Richard Thorpe (1896–1991), film director; Hutchinson
Public figures
Journalists
Frank Marshall Davis (1905–1987), journalist, poet, political and labor movement activist; Arkansas City
Steve Doocy (born 1956), co-host of Fox News's Fox & Friends; Abilene
Elizabeth Farnsworth (born 1943), television journalist; Topeka
William M. Gallagher (1923–1975), Pulitzer Prize-winning photojournalist; Hiawatha
Jane Grant (1892–1972), journalist who co-founded The New Yorker; Girard
E. W. Howe (1853–1937), author and newspaper editor; Atchison
Bill Kurtis (born 1940), television journalist; Independence
Jim Lehrer (1934–2020), television journalist; Wichita
Melissa McDermott (born 1960s), television news anchor for CBS's Up to the Minute; Wichita
Clementine Paddleford (1898–1967), journalist and food critic; Riley County
Eugene C. Pulliam (1889–1975), founder Central Newspapers, Inc.; Ulysses
Roy A. Roberts (1887–1967), newspaper editor; Muscotah
W. Eugene Smith (1918–1978), photojournalist; Wichita
John Cameron Swayze (1906–1995), television journalist; Wichita
Julius Wayland (1854–1912), newspaper editor, Appeal to Reason; Girard
William Allen White (1868–1944), author and newspaper editor; Emporia
Gene Wojciechowski, author, sportswriter and ESPN commentator; Salina
Politics and law
Military and national security
Religious
William Bickerton (1815–1905), founder of The Church of Jesus Christ (Bickertonite) and the Zion Valley, Kansas, colony; St. John
Charles J. Chaput (born 1944), Archbishop, Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Denver; Concordia
Sheri L. Dew (born 1953), influential Latter-day Saint spokeswoman; Ulysses
Bart D. Ehrman (born 1955), New Testament scholar; Lawrence
Jerry Johnston (born 1959), Southern Baptist Convention evangelist and pastor; Overland Park
Emil Kapaun (1916–1951), Army chaplain Korean War, posthumous Medal of Honor recipient, Catholic martyr and sainthood candidate; Pilsen
Ron Kenoly (born 1944), musical worship leader; Coffeyville
Fred Phelps (1929–2014), leader of Westboro Baptist Church; Topeka
James Reeb (1927–1965), Unitarian minister beaten to death by segregationists in Selma, Alabama, during the Civil Rights Movement; Wichita
David Laurin Ricken (born 1954), bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of Cheyenne; Dodge City
Michael Jarboe Sheehan (born 1939), Archbishop of Santa Fe; Wichita
M. Madeline Southard (1877–1967), Methodist minister and writer
John Joseph Sullivan (1920–2001), Bishop of Grand Island, Nebraska, and Kansas City-St. Joseph; Horton
Gerald B. Winrod (1900–1957), evangelical Christian and Nazi sympathizer; Wichita
Gordon Winrod (born 1926), Christian Identity minister; Hesston
Scientists and programmers
Others
Notable individuals
Notable historical figures not from Kansas but who participated in a significant event in Kansas
John Brown (1800–1859), abolitionist; Osawatomie
Buffalo Bill Cody (1846–1917), buffalo hunter and showman; Leavenworth
Wyatt Earp (1848–1929), lawman; Wichita and Dodge City
Dora Hand (1844–1878), dance hall singer, Dodge City
Wild Bill Hickok (1837–1876), lawman; Hays and Abilene
John James Ingalls (1833–1900), politician
Kris Kobach (born 1966), candidate for Governor in 2018, Kansas Secretary of State
James H. Lane (1814–1866), abolitionist, senator and union general; Lawrence
Bat Masterson (1853–1921), lawman; Dodge City
Carrie Nation (1846–1911), temperance activist; Medicine Lodge
Crime
Fictional persons
See also
Lists of people from Kansas
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244932 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Walker | Paul Walker | Paul William Walker IV (September 12, 1973 – November 30, 2013) was an American actor. He is best known for his role as Brian O'Conner in the Fast & Furious franchise.
Walker began his career as a child actor in the 1980s, gaining recognition in the 1990s after appearing in the television soap opera The Young and the Restless; he received praise for his performances in the teen comedy She's All That and the comedy-drama Varsity Blues (both 1999), and saw international fame by starring in The Fast and the Furious (2001).
Walker also starred in the commercially successful road thriller Joy Ride (2001), becoming an action star. He followed this with the box-office disappointments Into the Blue (2005) and Running Scared (2006), although he earned praise for his performance in the survival drama Eight Below, and for his portrayal of Hank Hansen in Flags of Our Fathers (both 2006). Outside of these, Walker largely appeared in low budget action films, but starred in the commercially successful heist film Takers (2010).
Walker died of injuries sustained from a single-vehicle collision on November 30, 2013, while speeding. His father and daughter filed separate wrongful death lawsuits against Porsche, which resulted in settlements. At the time of his death, Walker had not completed filming Furious 7 (2015); it was released after rewrites and stand-ins, including his brothers Cody and Caleb, filled in for Walker, while the song "See You Again" by Wiz Khalifa and Charlie Puth was commissioned as a tribute.
Early life
Walker was born on September 12, 1973 in Glendale, California. He had mostly English, as well as German, Swiss, and Irish ancestry. His mother, Cheryl (née Crabtree), was a fashion model, and his father, Paul William Walker III, was a sewer contractor and former amateur boxer, who was a two-time Golden Gloves champion. Walker's paternal grandfather, William, had a short-lived boxing career as "Irish" Billy Walker, while another raced factory cars for Ford in the 1960s.
Raised a Mormon, Walker had four younger siblings: Aimee, Ashlie, Caleb, and Cody. He spent the majority of his early life in the Sunland neighborhood of Los Angeles, and graduated from Village Christian School in 1991. Walker subsequently attended several community colleges in Southern California, majoring in marine biology.
Career
Walker began a modelling career as a toddler, starring in a television commercial for Pampers at age two. He continued to appear in commercials, most notably for Showbiz Pizza in 1984, before beginning an acting career on television that year, appearing in the teen anthology series CBS Schoolbreak Special. Walker continued to work in television until 1996, across a number of genres; he appeared in two episodes of the fantasy drama Highway to Heaven between 1984 and 1986, and secured his first leading role in 1987, appearing as Jeremy Beatty in the sitcom Throb. He continued to feature on sitcoms in the early 1990s, with guest roles in Charles in Charge, Who's the Boss?, and the short-lived What a Dummy. In 1993, he portrayed Brandon Collins on the soap opera The Young and the Restless; he and co-star Heather Tom, who played Victoria Newman, gained fame, and were nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress in a Soap Opera at the Youth in Film Awards. Walker's final television role was on Touched by an Angel, although appeared as himself, alongside his sister Ashlie, as contestants on a 1988 episode of the game show I'm Telling!, in which they finished in second place.
Walker began his film career in 1986, appearing mainly in low budget B films. His first role was in the horror comedy Monster in the Closet, and a year later, starred in The Retaliator (retroactively subtitled Programmed to Kill), a science fiction film. In 1994, he returned to film, starring in Tammy and the T-Rex, but secured his first feature film role in the comedy Meet the Deedles in 1998; although commercially and critically unsuccessful, it allowed Walker to secure supporting roles in the films Pleasantville (1998), Varsity Blues (1999), She's All That (1999), and The Skulls (2000).
In 2001, Walker's breakthrough role was starring opposite Vin Diesel in the action film The Fast and the Furious; it was commercially successful, and subsequently launched a media franchise. The film also established Walker as a film star and leading man, as his performance garnered the MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Team (shared with Diesel) in 2002. Walker starred in the critically successful thriller Joy Ride (2001), also focusing on car-related action, and reprised his role as Brian O'Conner in the 2003 sequel 2 Fast 2 Furious. After this, he starred either in low-budget or commercially unsuccessful films for a time, notably Timeline (2003) and Into the Blue (2005).
Walker portrayed Hank Hansen in Clint Eastwood's war film Flags of Our Fathers (2006) and starred in the survival drama Eight Below, both released in 2006. Eight Below garnered critical acclaim and opened in first place at the box office, grossing over US$20 million during its opening weekend. Walker then starred in the independent film The Lazarus Project, which was released on DVD on October 21, 2008.
Despite initial reluctance, Walker reprised his role as Brian O'Conner after seven years, in Fast & Furious (2009). The film became the highest-grossing film in the franchise up until that point. He then reprised his role in the fifth and sixth installments of the franchise, which were commercially successful, while his performances were praised. Walker was nominated for Choice Movie Actor – Action at the 2011 Teen Choice Awards for the former, and nominated for Choice Movie: Chemistry (with Diesel and Dwayne Johnson) and won his second MTV Movie Award for Best On-Screen Duo with Diesel for the latter. Walker also starred in the heist film Takers (2010), and returned to modelling in 2011, appearing as the face of fragrance brand Cool Water. In 2012, he founded the film production company Laguna Ridge Pictures, which signed a first-look deal with Fast & Furious distributor Universal Pictures.
After his death in 2013, four films starring Walker were released; the thriller film Hours (2013), the action film Brick Mansions (2014), itself a remake of the French film District 13 (2004). He also served as executive producer on the film Pawn Shop Chronicles (2013), while Furious 7, originally slated for release in 2014, was pushed back to recreate Walker's likeness. The filmmakers hired Peter Jackson's Weta Digital visual effects house to complete this, using existing reference materials, Walker's brothers Caleb and Cody, as well as actor John Brotherton, as stand-ins, and outtakes or older footage, to create an accurate remodel of Walker's face. The film was then released in 2015, and Walker won the award for Choice Movie Actor: Action at the 2015 Teen Choice Awards, and was nominated for Choice Movie: Chemistry (shared with Diesel, Johnson, Michelle Rodriguez, Tyrese Gibson, and Ludacris).
Walker was also set to play Agent 47 in the film adaptation Hitman: Agent 47 (2015), but died before production began. It was later revealed Walker declined the role of Superman in Superman Returns (2006), allegedly due to the "Superman curse" and the celebrity associated with the role.
Personal life
Walker was raised in a Mormon household, but later became a non-denominational Christian. He lived in Santa Barbara with his dogs. He and Rebecca Soteros, a one-time girlfriend, had a daughter named Meadow Rain Walker, who lived with her mother in Hawaii for 13 years and then moved to California to live with Walker in 2011. Her godfather is Vin Diesel, with whom Walker shared a close bond; Diesel gave him the nickname "Pablo", while Walker's mother referred to her son as Diesel's "other half". Walker was also close friends with fellow Fast & Furious co-star Tyrese Gibson. At the time of his death, Walker was dating Jasmine Pilchard-Gosnell. They began dating when she was just 16 while he was 33.
He held a brown belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu under Ricardo "Franjinha" Miller at Paragon Jiu-Jitsu and was awarded his black belt by Miller posthumously. Walker founded the humanitarian aid nonprofit charity Reach Out Worldwide (ROWW) with financial adviser Roger Rodas in response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake. He traveled to a number of disaster-stricken areas to supply aid until his death.
Walker had an interest in marine biology, and joined the board of directors of The Billfish Foundation in 2006. He fulfilled a lifelong dream by starring in the National Geographic Channel series Expedition Great White (retroactively retitled Shark Men), which premiered in June 2010. Walker spent 11 days catching and tagging seven great white sharks off the coast of Mexico. The expedition, led by Chris Fischer, founder and CEO of Fischer Productions, and Brett McBride and Michael Domeier of the Marine Conservation Science Institute, took measurements, gathered DNA samples, and fastened real-time satellite tags to the great white sharks, in order to study migratory patterns, especially those associated with mating and birthing, over a five-year period.
A car enthusiast, Walker competed in the Redline Time Attack racing series in which he raced on the AE Performance Team driving a BMW E92 M3. His car was sponsored by Etnies, Brembo Brakes, Öhlins, Volk, OS Giken, Hankook, Gintani, and Reach Out Worldwide. Walker had been preparing for an auto show prior to his death. Walker owned Always Evolving, a Valencia high-end vehicle performance shop, where Rodas, a pro-am racer, acted as CEO.
Walker also had a large car collection of about 30 cars, a portion of which he co-owned along with Rodas. The collection included (but is not limited to):
A large number of Saleen Mustangs, including a Saleen SSC (foxbody), SA10 (foxbody), 2x S281-E (SN95), S351 Speedster (SN95), and 6 others
Audi S4 (B5)
BMW M1
BMW 2002tii Touring Alpina
2x BMW E30 M3
3x BMW E36 M3 Lightweight
Chevrolet Corvette (C1)
Chevrolet Chevelle SS convertible
Ferrari 360 Challenge Stradale
Ferrari 400i
Ferrari F355 Spider Fiorano edition
Ferrari Testarossa
Ford Bronco II
Ford GT (1st gen with a Whipple supercharger producing a claimed 800 hp)
Boss 302 Mustang (1st gen)
Ford Mustang Cobra R
Ford Mustang Eleanor recreation
2012 Ford Mustang Shelby GT500
2013 Ford Mustang Shelby GT500
Lincoln Continental (4th gen) convertible
Maserati Quattroporte
Mercedes-Benz 560 SL
2009 Nissan 370Z (as seen in Fast Five)
Nissan Skyline GT-R V·Spec (R34)
Nissan Silvia (S15)
3x Porsche 911 997 GT3 RS (two orange on black, one green on black)
2x Porsche 930 Turbo (both in Guards Red)
Rolls-Royce Ghost
Saleen S7
1965 Shelby Ford Mustang GT350SR continuation car.
Toyota Supra Mk4 (targa roof, single turbocharger conversion)
Volvo P1800
In January 2020, twenty-one vehicles owned by Walker were sold for a combined $2.33 million during spirited bidding at an annual car auction in Arizona.
Death
On November 30, 2013, at about 3:30 p.m. PST, Walker, 40, and Roger Rodas, 38, left an event for Walker's charity Reach Out Worldwide for victims of Typhoon Haiyan, with Rodas driving his 2005 Porsche Carrera GT. In a speed zone on Hercules Street in Valencia, a neighborhood of Santa Clarita, California, the car crashed into a concrete lamp post and two trees, catching fire. Rodas died of multiple trauma while Walker died from the combined effects of trauma and burns. Both of their bodies were burned beyond recognition.
The curve where Walker and Rodas died is a popular spot for drifting cars. No alcohol or other drugs were found in either man's system, and neither mechanical failure nor road conditions appeared to play a role. Police found no evidence of drag racing. The investigation concluded that the car's speedbetween and and age of the tires were the primary reasons for the crash.
With Furious 7 in the middle of filming at the time of Walker's death, Universal announced an indeterminate hiatus on the production, citing a desire to speak with his family before determining what to do with the film.
Numerous friends and movie stars posted tributes to Walker on social media. His body was cremated and his ashes were buried in a non-denominational ceremony at Forest Lawn Memorial Park. His life was later chronicled in the documentary I Am Paul Walker, which was released on August 11, 2018.
Lawsuits
In December 2014, Walker's father filed a wrongful death claim against Rodas's estate seeking the return of or "a proportionate share" of revenue generated by a group of automobiles that were jointly owned by both Walker and Rodas. In September 2015, Walker's daughter filed a wrongful death lawsuit against Porsche, claiming that the Porsche Carrera GT had numerous design defects including a history of instability, and that its seat belt placement can cause harm upon impact. However, Porsche denied any wrongdoing and blamed Walker, stating: "The perils, risk, and danger were open and obvious and known to him, and he chose to conduct himself in a manner so as to expose himself to such perils, dangers, and risks, thus assuming all the risks involved in using the vehicle."
In April 2016, U.S. District Court Judge Philip S. Gutierrez ruled in favor of Porsche in a separate lawsuit filed by Rodas's widow Kristine. The ruling had no bearing on two other cases against Porsche which have been filed by Walker's father, who is also the executor of the actor's estate, and his daughter. Walker's father and daughter both reached separate out-of-court settlements with Porsche.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1973 births
2013 deaths
20th-century American male actors
21st-century American male actors
Accidental deaths in California
Activists from California
American car collectors
American Christians
American Jeet Kune Do practitioners
American humanitarians
American male child actors
American male film actors
American male models
American male soap opera actors
American male television actors
American people of English descent
American people of German descent
American people of Irish descent
American people of Swiss descent
American philanthropists
American practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Hollywood Hills)
Converts to Christianity
Deaths from fire in the United States
Former Latter Day Saints
Male actors from California
Male actors from Glendale, California
Male models from California
People awarded a black belt in Brazilian jiu-jitsu
People from Glendale, California
Racing drivers from California
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244933 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset%20stripping | Asset stripping | Asset stripping is a term used to refer to the practice of selling off a company's assets in order to improve returns for equity investors. In many cases where the term is used, a financial investor, referred to as a 'corporate raider', takes control of another company and then auctions off the acquired company's assets. The term is generally used in a pejorative sense as such activity is not considered helpful to the company.
The proceeds of the sale of assets may be used to lower the company's net debt. Alternatively, they may be used to pay a dividend to equityholders, leaving the company with lower net worth – i.e. the same level of debt but fewer assets (and weaker earnings) to support that debt. With a lower level of assets, some argue that the business is rendered less financially stable or viable. For example, the sale-and-leaseback of a building would lead to an increased rental bill for the company.
Asset stripping is a highly controversial topic within the financial world. The benefits of asset stripping generally go to the corporate raiders, who can slash the debts they may have whilst improving their net worth.
However, since asset stripping often results in thousands of employees losing their jobs without much consideration of the consequences to the affected community, the concept can be unpopular in the public sphere. One particular example of where asset stripping cost a significant number of workers their jobs was in the Fontainebleau Las Vegas LLC case. After the takeover, 433 people lost their jobs when assets were sold off and the company was stripped.
Asset stripping has been considered to be a problem in economies such as Russia or China which are making a transition to being market economies. In these situations, managers of a state-owned company have been known to sell the assets they control, leaving behind nothing but debts to the state.
History
Early innovators of asset stripping were Carl Icahn, Victor Posner, and Nelson Peltz; all of whom were investors in the 1970s and 1980s. Carl Icahn performed one of the most notorious and hostile takeovers when he acquired Trans World Airlines in 1985. Here Icahn stripped TWA of its assets, selling them individually to repay the debt assimilated during the takeover. This particular corporate raid formed the idea of selling a company's assets in order to repay debt, and eventually increase the raider's net worth.
One of the biggest corporate raids that failed to materialize was the takeover of Gulf Oil by T. Boone Pickens. In 1984, Pickens attempted to acquire Gulf Oil and sell its assets individually to gain net worth. However, the purchase would have had been severely detrimental to Chevron; a customer of Gulf Oil. Therefore, Chevron stepped-in and merged with Gulf Oil for $13.2 billion, which at that time was the biggest merger between two companies.
In 2011, BC Partners acquired Phones 4u for a fee in the region of £700 million. At this point in time Phones 4u had already entered administration and had deep financial struggles. However, this did not prevent BC Partners from taking a £223 million dividend in order to pay off some of its own debts. Under the ownership of BC Partners, Phones 4u had very little financial freedom to expand and claim back the contract of EE. In September 2014 O2, Vodafone and Three decided to withdraw the rights for Phones 4u to sell their products. Due to the already poor financial situation of Phones 4u, the company had no alternative but to sell its individual assets and close down. The net worth of Phones 4u's assets, estimated to exceed £1.4 billion, provided BC Partners with the credit to pay off some of its debts and significantly improve its net worth.
In the United Kingdom
The process of asset stripping is not an illegal practice. If a corporate raider sells the target company's assets individually and pays off its debts the financial regulators have no room for investigation. However, some firms perform the process illegally and if found guilty may incur a substantial fine or even prison.
Asset stripping by private equity firms in Europe is now regulated pursuant to the Alternative Investment Fund Managers Directive.
Phoenixing
This is one of two methods a corporate raider can use to strip assets illegally. For this method to work, the corporate raider and the targeted firm must have the same director. Assets of the targeted firm are transferred to the corporate raider to ensure they remain safe from debt collectors. This process lets the corporate raider improve their net worth while leaving liabilities with the targeted company.
Liquidation
This method acts on completely fraudulent terms, and results in a higher punishment from the Financial Conduct Authority (FCA). Here, corporate raiders take ownership of a company on hostile terms, transfer the assets to their name, and then put the dilapidated firm into liquidation. This ensures that the corporate raider improves their net worth, and has no liability to deal with the firm recently placed into liquidation.
See also
Corporate raid
Junk bond
Leveraged buyout
Tunneling (fraud)
Vulture fund
References
Business terms
Mergers and acquisitions | [
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244934 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan%20Webb | Morgan Webb | Morgan Ailis Webb (born October 5, 1978) is a former co-host and senior segment producer of the G4 show X-Play. She was previously the host of the podcast WebbAlert and a monthly columnist for the United States edition of FHM, where she contributed a monthly video game column titled "Tips from the Gaming Goddess". She began working at independent game studio Bonfire Studios in March 2017 in a production role.
Career
Born in Los Angeles, Webb attended UC Berkeley from 1996 to 2000. She developed computer skills in her free time there, and after graduating from college worked for a dot-com company as a website administrator. After the company went under during the dot-com bubble burst of 2000, her friend Catherine Schwartz got her hired at TechTV in 2001, and Webb became employed as the associate producer and web researcher for The Screen Savers. Throughout 2002 and 2003, she also regularly co-hosted TechTV's Call for Help with Chris Pirillo. In April 2003, Webb left The Screen Savers to co-host X-Play with Adam Sessler.
Webb is one of the six TechTV personalities to survive the massive layoffs resulting from the May 2004 merger of G4 and TechTV. Only Adam Sessler and Webb remained with the network after G4's change in format. After Sessler's employment was terminated in April 2012, Webb was the only original TechTV personality remaining on the network.
In August 2005, Webb became a contributing game columnist for FHM, alongside her regular hosting duties on X-Play. Her monthly column was titled "Tips from the Gaming Goddess". Readers were encouraged to email Webb their video-game-related inquiries; she would then answer one question each month. In February 2007, Webb wrote her final column for the magazine, which discontinued its U.S. publication in March. She also hosted the short-lived Free Stuff on G4.
From August 2, 2007, to January 25, 2009, Webb had a daily video blogging initiative called WebbAlert. These videos were 5 to 6 minutes in length, and each consisted of a recap of popular technology news of the day. On occasion, Webb departed from the regular news format in favor of an episode on one particular topic of interest. Examples included a recap of the annual TED Conference, a viral video special showcasing "future 'Darwin Award' winners", and tech-centric "Holiday Buyer's Guides". In January 2009, Webb suspended WebbAlert indefinitely due to issues with maintaining it on a daily basis concurrently with her hosting duties on X-Play.
On February 25, 2009, G4 announced that Webb would be the host of their new show G4 Underground, a weekly series that profiles a wide range of people and topics that are of interest to the "internet generation". It premiered March 29, 2009.
After airing more than 1300 episodes, X-Play aired its final episode on January 23, 2013.
From June 11, 2013 through June 13, 2013, Morgan co-anchored Microsoft's nightly Xbox @ E3 Live streaming event coverage on Xbox Live, reuniting her with former G4 personalities Kevin Pereira, Blair Herter, Jessica Chobot, Blair Butler and Tina Summerford.
Morgan worked as a consultant and creative advisor for Activision Blizzard, where she also produced and hosted Blizzard's now-defunct monthly World of Warcraft discussion program WoW Source.
In September of 2017, Morgan announced her employment at Bonfire Studios where she helps organize the community and other various functions.
Personal life
As an infant and small child, Webb appeared in advertisements for Gerber baby food, Kenner Toys, and an ad for McDonald's, where she recited the ingredients of the Big Mac to a game of Pat-a-cake. Though Webb's parents refused to let her watch television, she made up for it by playing video games. She began with an Atari, primarily the game Combat, but as technology progressed, The Legend of Zelda and Phantasy Star became two of her favorite games.
After Webb graduated from high school, she left home to attend UC Berkeley. There she earned a bachelor's degree in rhetoric (with a minor in Italian) in 2000.
On August 19, 2006, Webb married Rob Reid in a service at City Hall in San Francisco, California.
Webb has joined the web-series Acquisitions Incorporated in playing several Dungeons & Dragons games at live events like PAX West.
Media appearances
Throughout 2004 and beyond, Webb was featured in numerous issues of print publications. Maxim magazine spotlighted her in their July 2004 issue. FHM featured a five-page article in their November 2004 issue, and also had her listed in three consecutive years for their annual The 100 Sexiest Women in the World article: #73 in 2005, #62 in 2006, and #51 in 2007. Other magazines have featured her as well, voted "Hottest Woman of the Year" in RTD's 2006 Top 10 countdown and in an article in the fall 2006 edition of Colleges.com U Magazine.
In April 2004, Webb was in "TechTV's Sexiest Techie" poll sponsored by Playboy magazine. TechTV viewers could vote for their favorite girl via the Playboy website. Webb won the poll and was offered a nude photo shoot, but she refused, despite being "very flattered", citing her own personal reasons and her parents' objection to the idea.
Webb appeared in the music video "Strange New Element" from the band Low Water. She makes her appearance near the end of the video alongside other fellow TechTV personalities, including Catherine Schwartz, Sarah Lane, Laura Swisher, Chi-Lan Lieu, and Sumi Das. In addition to appearing in Low Water's music video, Webb is featured in the artwork of the band's album Hard Words in a Speakeasy. She additionally provided her own vocals for X-Play: The Musical, which aired in February 2007. She is a frequent guest on various talk shows, including The Tyra Banks Show (in February 2008), Chelsea Lately (in early 2009), and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon (on April 15, 2009). She was also a frequent co-host on G4's Attack of the Show!. On June 17, 2009, Webb appeared on KCRW Radio, as part of the station's Guest DJ Project.
On June 21, 2008, Webb along with her X-Play co-host Adam Sessler, participated in the 50th annual Hollywood Stars Celebrity Softball game at Dodger Stadium.
A YouTube video was posted on October 7, 2013 with Webb as the well-versed host of a "Patch 5.4 Developer Round Table" discussion with Blizzard Entertainment employees J. Allen Brack, Ion Hazzikostas, and Tom Chilton.
Webb played a minor role as Neely Lamm on the CBS TV Drama series Bull on an episode titled, "The Fall" which aired on February 7, 2017.
References
External links
Morgan Webb's X-Play Bio
1978 births
Living people
TechTV people
X-Play
University of California, Berkeley alumni
Video game critics
People from the San Francisco Bay Area
People from Los Angeles | [
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244941 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Duncan%20%28FFG-10%29 | USS Duncan (FFG-10) | The USS Duncan (FFG-10) was the fourth ship of the Oliver Hazard Perry-class of guided-missile frigates, and was named for Vice Admiral Donald B. Duncan (1896–1975). Ordered from Todd Pacific, Seattle, Washington on 27 February 1976 as part of the FY75 program, Duncan was laid down on 29 April 1977, launched on 1 March 1978, and commissioned on 15 May 1980, CDR Ross D. Barker in command.
History
Duncan, former PF-111, was sponsored by Mrs. Aniela Mateja Duncan, widow of the ship's namesake.
In December 1982, Duncan developed a fissure in her superstructure during a storm. It was a class design deficiency that occurred on other frigates.
In January 1984, Duncan was transferred to the United States Navy Reserve Fleet and Selected Reserve (SELRES) members provided for a portion of the ship's manning.
Duncan and her crew were awarded the Battle Effectiveness Award five times for 18-month time periods ranging from July 1981 to June 1983 and July 1986 to December 1990.
Duncan participated in Port of Hueneme Harbor Days in October 1992.
In March 1993, sailors aboard Duncan rescued four fisherman from Ecuador who were stranded on their disabled fishing boat in the Pacific Ocean. Duncan towed their boat to safety in Manta, Ecuador. Duncan and her crew were nominated for the Humanitarian Service Medal in March 1993, but no unit award was given.
1992 Sitka port visit
Duncan participated in Sitka, Alaska's 125th anniversary Alaska Day celebration, 18 October 1992. The port visit became notorious following allegations of sexual misconduct with minors by crew members and the event's relative proximity to the Tailhook scandal and subsequent investigation. After Duncan was decommissioned, the story re-appeared in national media in 1996, following investigative reporting by the Dayton Daily News' Russell Carollo, due to complaints that the Navy didn't adequately punish the sailors involved. A grand jury in Sitka indicted two Duncan sailors on sexual assault charges, but the cases were dismissed in January 1997 due to prosecutorial delay and the Judge's determination that the two had already been tried by the Navy. A 22-year-old Ensign had faced court martial, but pleaded down to a letter of reprimand. Later, he also received an other than honorable discharge. The second sailor, a 23-year-old enlisted man, also faced court martial, but his charges were dropped by the court's presiding officer.
Decommissioning
Duncan was decommissioned on 17 December 1994 and stricken on 5 January 1998, Duncan was sold to Turkey on 5 April 1999 for use as a parts hulk. She was the first Perry-class frigate to be decommissioned, in commission for just 14.6 years. At the time, the Soviet Union had recently collapsed and Duncan was one of the oldest, unmodified, short hulled frigates in the fleet. She lacked some of the options others in her class had been modified with. For example, as a short hull ship, she did not have SH-60 Seahawk capability and a RAST to haul down the helicopter and transport it into the hangar. She also lacked a towed array sonar (TACTAS) and the MK-92 COherent Receiver Transmitter (CORT) modification. On 4 October 2017, ex-Duncan was scuttled by the submarine TCG Sakarya on the Black Sea.
See also
Gölcük Naval Base - location of several of the ex-USN Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates in service with Turkey and one mast-less hulk, possibly ex-Duncan.
References
External links
Navsource.org - FFG-10
MaritimeQuest USS Duncan FFG-10 pages
1978 ships
Ships built in Seattle
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Ships sunk as targets
Shipwrecks in the Black Sea | [
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244943 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20Ahenakew | David Ahenakew | David Ahenakew (July 28, 1933 – March 12, 2010) was a Canadian First Nations (Cree) politician, and former National Chief of the Assembly of First Nations.
Ahenakew was born at the Sandy Lake Indian Reserve in Saskatchewan. He and his wife, Grace Ahenakew, had five children.
Military and political career
Ahenakew served in the Canadian Forces from 1951 to 1967, during which time he was stationed in Germany, Korea (during the Korean War), and Egypt. An alternate source indicates he served with the Canadian Armed Forces Engineers Corps in Canada, Egypt and Germany from 1962 to 1968 and attained the rank of Sergeant.
In 1967, upon leaving the army, Ahenakew accepted a position with the Saskatchewan government, and became active in the Federation of Saskatchewan Indian Nations (FSIN). He was elected to the position of FSIN president in 1968 (until 1979). He stated that his military experience heavily influenced his choice to pursue politics: "I could see that what was happening to our people was the same kind of exploitation and degradation I had seen in Korea and Egypt."
During his time as FSIN president he released a report entitled "Indian Education in Saskatchewan," and played a role in the founding of the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College and the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College in 1972.
He received an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from the University of Regina in 1977 and in 1978 he received the John Stratychuk award from the Saskatchewan Human Rights Association.
Ahenakew received the Order of Canada in the degree of Member in 1978. His citation read: "Member of a United Nations committee and of the World Indigenous Peoples Council. His many years of service to Indians and Métis in Saskatchewan culminated in his election as Chief of the Federation of Saskatchewan Indians, which has revolutionized Indian education in his province." He was stripped of the Order of Canada in 2005 after making controversial remarks about the Holocaust.
On March 9, 1981, he was appointed Director of the Saskatchewan Public Service Commission's Special Programs Unit.
In 1982, he was elected Chief of the Assembly of First Nations, a national representative body for Canadian aboriginals.
Controversy surrounding anti-semitic remarks
On December 13, 2002, Ahenakew gave a speech to an FSIN group, which was attended by James Parker, a reporter from the Saskatoon StarPhoenix. He made references to "goddamn immigrants" in Canada during his speech. During a question-and-answer session following his lecture, Ahenakew said that Jews were a disease in Germany and that Hitler was trying to "clean up Europe" when he "fried six million of those guys." He also stated that Israel and the United States (specifically mentioning George W. Bush) were going to start the next world war.
The Germans used to tell me, and I got to know them well because I played soccer against them and with them and so forth. But they used to tell me that you guys are blessed. What we know about the Indians in Canada. They are blessed. But that blessing is being destroyed by your immigrants that are going over there. Especially the Jews, they said. The Second World War was started by the Jews and the Third World War, whatever it is, is between Israel and the Arab countries. I was there as well. But there's going to be a war because the Israelis and the "Bushies" – you know, the bully, the bigot in the United States – tells you that if you're not with me you're against me.
After the session concluded, the StarPhoenix reporter asked him to clarify these remarks, and he explained that while serving in the army after the war, Germans had told him the Jews had provoked the war. The StarPhoenix quoted him as further saying:
The Jews damn near owned all of Germany prior to the war. That's why Hitler came in. He was going to make damn sure that the Jews didn't take over Germany, or even Europe. That's why he fried six million of those guys, you know. Jews would have owned the goddamned world. And look what they're doing now, they're killing people in Arab countries.
The reporter asked how Ahenakew could justify the Holocaust. The StarPhoenix quoted Ahenakew as replying:
How else do you get rid of a disease like that, that's going to take over, that's going to dominate?
Public reaction
The comments were first circulated in the Canadian national media several days later, and were quickly condemned as antisemitic by Jewish groups, aboriginal leaders and Canadian politicians alike. Both Perry Bellgarde, president of FSIN, and Matthew Coon Come, AFN national chief, were quick to distance themselves from Ahenakew's comments.
In June 2003, Ahenakew was formally charged by the Saskatchewan Justice Department with promoting hatred.
In an interview in the July/August 2003 edition of This Magazine, Ahenakew expressed to reporter Alex Roslin his dissatisfaction with what he called "racial control" of the media, saying that "when a group of people, a race of people, control the world media, something has to be done about it." The article also quotes claims that Ahenakew had long held racist beliefs against Jews, Blacks and other ethnic groups, and that those beliefs had been hidden from the public.
In connection with the remarks from 2002, which were recorded on tape with his knowledge, Ahenakew was later convicted in July 2005 of willfully promoting hatred against Jews. Ahenakew apologized for the remarks, saying they did not represent his beliefs and that he was "caught up in the heat of the moment. I was attempting to spark debate on what has been happening to our First Nations people." At his trial, he later recanted his apology and blamed his outburst on his diabetes, some wine and a change in medication, a defense that was rejected by the court; he was subsequently fined $1,000. Despite this, he retained his belief that the Jews started the Second World War. Jewish groups, aboriginals and politicians later called for Ahenakew's membership in the Order of Canada to be revoked. The Governor General revoked Ahenakew's membership shortly after his trial.
In June 2006, the conviction was overturned by the Saskatchewan Court of Queen's Bench on the grounds that the trial judge failed to properly take into account that the remarks were uttered in the midst of an angry confrontation with a reporter, and therefore may not have constituted a "willful" promotion of hatred. A new trial was ordered.
Second trial
Ahenakew was retried in Saskatoon in 2008. In February 2009, Saskatchewan Provincial Court Judge Wilfred Tucker acquitted Ahenakew because his statements, while "revolting, disgusting and untrue" did not show an intent to incite hatred.
Death
Following a long battle with cancer, Ahenakew died on March 12, 2010 at a hospital in Shellbrook, Saskatchewan, aged 76.
References
Further reading
Ira Robinson: David Ahenakew and his Antisemitism, in Nathan Elberg, Machla Abramovitz (eds.): Zionism. An Indigenous Struggle: Aboriginal Americans and the Jewish State. Israzine, No. 4 Vol. 49, Canadian Institute for Jewish Research, Montréal, November 2014 fulltext at Isranet
External links
David S. Koffman: Suffering & Sovereignty: Recent Canadian Jewish Interest in Indigenous Peoples and Issues. Canadian Jewish Studies - Études juives canadiennes 25, 2017, pp. 28-59
Michelle Filice, "David Ahenakew", The Canadian Encyclopedia, last edited 25 January 2016.
Judgements
June 8, 2006 Queens Bench For Saskatchewan
March 9, 2006 Queen's Bench For Saskatchewan
July 8, 2005 Provincial Court of Saskatchewan
1933 births
2010 deaths
Assembly of First Nations chiefs
Canadian military personnel of the Korean War
Deaths from cancer in Saskatchewan
Cree people
People removed from the Order of Canada
Antisemitism in Canada
People acquitted of crimes
Royal Canadian Engineers soldiers
Canadian Army soldiers | [
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244944 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardium | Pericardium | The pericardium, also called pericardial sac, is a double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels. It has two layers, an outer layer made of strong connective tissue (fibrous pericardium), and an inner layer made of serous membrane (serous pericardium). It encloses the pericardial cavity, which contains pericardial fluid, and defines the middle mediastinum. It separates the heart from interference of other structures, protects it against infection and blunt trauma, and lubricates the heart's movements.
The English name originates from the Ancient Greek prefix "peri-" (περί; "around") and the suffix "-cardion" (κάρδιον; "heart").
Anatomy
The pericardium is a tough fibroelastic sac which covers the heart from all sides except at the cardiac root (where the great vessels join the heart) and the bottom (where only the serous pericardium exists to cover the upper surface of the central tendon of diaphragm). The fibrous pericardium is semi-rigid, while the serous pericardium is quite pliable.
The same mesothelium that constitutes the serous pericardium also covers the heart as the epicardium, resulting in a continuous serous membrane invaginated onto itself as two opposing surfaces (over the fibrous pericardium and over the heart). This creates a pouch-like potential space around the heart enclosed between the two opposing serosal surfaces, known as the pericardial space or pericardial cavity, which is filled with a small amount of serous fluid to lubricate the heart's movements and cushions it from any external jerk or shock.
Fibrous
The fibrous pericardium is the outside layer of the pericardium, made up of dense and loose connective tissue. While capable of some change in shape, it is largely non-pliable, which acts to protect the heart against blunt forces and sudden pressure change from the outside. It is continuous with the outer adventitial layer of the neighboring great blood vessels, fused with the central fibrous area of the diaphragm on its posterior aspect and attached to the posterior surface of the sternum by the sternopericardial ligaments.
Serous
The serous pericardium, in turn, is divided into two parts:
The parietal serous pericardium, which lines the interior side of the superficial portion of the pericardial sac, is fused to and inseparable from the fibrous pericardium
The visceral serous pericardium, also known as the epicardium, covers the myocardium of the heart and can be considered its serosa. It is largely made of a mesothelium overlying some elastin-rich loose connective tissue. During ventricular contraction, the wave of depolarization moves from the endocardial to the epicardial surface.
Both of these layers function in lubricating the heart to prevent friction during heart activity.
The visceral serous pericardium extends to the root of the great vessels and joins the parietal serous pericardium at the anatomical base of the heart. This junction occurs at two areas: the ventricular outflow tracts where the aorta and pulmonary trunk leave the heart, and the inflow tracts where the superior/inferior vena cava and pulmonary veins enter the heart. The root of the great vessels and the associated reflections of the serous pericardium creates various smaller sacs and tunnels known as pericardial sinuses, as well as radiographically significant pericardial recesses, where pericardial fluid can pool and mimic mediastinal lymphadenopathy.
Anatomical relationships
Surrounds heart and bases of pulmonary artery and aorta.
Deep to sternum and anterior chest wall.
The right phrenic nerve passes to the right of the pericardium.
The left phrenic nerve passes over the pericardium of the left ventricle.
Pericardial arteries supply blood to the dorsal portion of the pericardium.
Function
The pericardium sets the heart in mediastinum and limits its motion, protects it from infection, lubricates it and prevents excessive dilation in cases of acute volume overload.
Clinical significance
Inflammation of the pericardium is called pericarditis. This condition typically causes chest pain that spreads to the back and is made worse by lying flat. In patients suffering with pericarditis, a pericardial friction rub can often be heard when listening to the heart with a stethoscope. Pericarditis is often caused by a viral infection (glandular fever, cytomegalovirus, or coxsackievirus), or more rarely with a bacterial infection, but may also occur following a myocardial infarction. Pericarditis is usually a short-lived condition that can be successfully treated with painkillers, anti-inflammatories, and colchicine. In some cases, pericarditis can become a long-term condition causing scarring of the pericardium which restricts the heart's movement, known as constrictive pericarditis. Constrictive pericarditis is sometimes treated by surgically removing the pericardium in a procedure called a pericardiectomy.
Fluid can build up within the pericardial space, referred to as a pericardial effusion. Pericardial effusions often occur secondary to pericarditis, kidney failure, or tumours and frequently do not cause any symptoms. Large effusions or effusions that accumulate rapidly can compress the heart and restrict diastolic ventricular filling in a condition known as cardiac tamponade, causing pulsus paradoxus and potentially fatal circulatory failure. Fluid can be removed from the pericardial space for diagnosis or to relieve tamponade using a syringe in a procedure called pericardiocentesis. For cases of recurrent pericardial effusion, an operation to create a hole between the pericardial and pleural spaces can be performed, known as a pericardial window or pericardiostomy.
The congenital absence of pericardium is rare. When it happens, it is usually occurs on the left side. Those affected usually do not have any symptoms and they are usually discovered incidentally. About 30 to 50 percent of the affected people have other heart abnormalities such as atrial septal defect, patent ductus arteriosus, bicuspid aortic valve, and lung abnormalities. On chest X–ray, the heart looks posteriorly rotated. Another feature is the sharp delineation of pulmonary artery and transverse aorta due to lung deposition between these two structures. If there is partial absence of pericardium, there will be bulge of the left atrial appendage. On CT and MRI scans, similar findings as chest X–ray can be shown. The left sided partial pericardium defect is difficult to see because even a normal pericardium is difficult to be seen on CT and MRI. A complete pericardial defect will show the heart displaced to the left with part of the lungs squeezed between inferior border of heart and diaphragm.
Additional images
References
External links
- "Mediastinum: Pericardium (pericardial sac)"
()
- "MRI of chest, lateral view"
Cardiac anatomy | [
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244953 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Write-ahead%20logging | Write-ahead logging | In computer science, write-ahead logging (WAL) is a family of techniques for providing atomicity and durability (two of the ACID properties) in database systems. The changes are first recorded in the log, which must be written to stable storage, before the changes are written to the database.
In a system using WAL, all modifications are written to a log before they are applied. Usually both redo and undo information is stored in the log.
The purpose of this can be illustrated by an example. Imagine a program that is in the middle of performing some operation when the machine it is running on loses power. Upon restart, that program might need to know whether the operation it was performing succeeded, succeeded partially, or failed. If a write-ahead log is used, the program can check this log and compare what it was supposed to be doing when it unexpectedly lost power to what was actually done. On the basis of this comparison, the program could decide to undo what it had started, complete what it had started, or keep things as they are.
WAL allows updates of a database to be done in-place. Another way to implement atomic updates is with shadow paging, which is not in-place. The main advantage of doing updates in-place is that it reduces the need to modify indexes and block lists.
ARIES is a popular algorithm in the WAL family.
Modern file systems typically use a variant of WAL for at least file system metadata; this is called journaling.
References
Database algorithms | [
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244976 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20George%20Philip%20%28FFG-12%29 | USS George Philip (FFG-12) | USS George Philip (FFG-12), sixth ship of the of guided-missile frigates, was named for Commander George Philip Jr. (1912–1945), posthumous winner of the Navy Cross for actions as commanding officer of the destroyer .
George Philip was expected to join the Portuguese Navy in 2006, together with her sister ship , but the Portuguese Navy dropped the offer and chose two Dutch s instead. George Philip was expected to join the Turkish Navy in the summer of 2008, together with her sister ship , but the Turkish Navy dropped the offer. As of May 2012, both frigates were awaiting their fates at anchor in the Sinclair Inlet off the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and Intermediate Maintenance Facility.
Namesake
George Philip Jr. was born on 14 April 1912 in Fort Pierre, South Dakota, to George Philip (18801948), a Scottish immigrant from Morayshire, Scotland and Alice Island "Isle" Waldron (18901972), of part Oglala Lakota descent and also born in Fort Pierre. He was known as Geordie. He attended the South Dakota School of Mines in Rapid City, South Dakota before his appointment to the United States Naval Academy. After completion of the course of instruction at the Naval Academy, he was commissioned an Ensign on 6 June 1935. He continued to progress in grade until his promotion to Commander on 4 September 1944. During this period he served under a variety of commands including: (1935–37), (1937–38), (1938–40), (1942-43). For his service during the Solomon Islands campaign, Philip was awarded the Silver Star Medal and O'Bannon received the Presidential Unit Citation. He then served with Operational Training Command, Pacific Fleet, San Diego, California (1943–44).
He then served as Commanding Officer of (1944–45). On 16 June 1945 while operating off Okinawa Twiggs was hit by a Japanese kamikaze aircraft. According to eyewitness Chief Machinist's mate Charles F. Schmidt, Commander Philip was last seen mortally wounded, grasping the railing of the bridge trying to stand. Philip and 151 other crewmen were killed or missing when Twiggs sank. He was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross. On 12 March 1946, Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal stated, during the presentation of the Navy Cross to his widow, Margaret Taussig-Philip:
History
Ordered from Todd Pacific Shipyards, Los Angeles Division, San Pedro, California on 27 February 1976 as part of the FY76 program, George Philip was laid down on 14 December 1977, launched on 16 December 1978, and commissioned on 10 October 1980. Decommissioned on 15 March 2003, as of June 2003 George Philip was in reserve at Naval Inactive Ships Maintenance Facility Bremerton, Washington.
1980s
George Philip was sponsored by Snow Philip-Simpson, daughter of the ship's namesake, George Philip Jr. at the ship launching on 16 December 1978. George Philip was commissioned 15 November 1980 at Todd Shipyard in San Pedro, California, Commander James L. Turnbull in command.
From November 1980 to June 1981 George Philip conducted sea trials and testing. In June 1981 the ship received the Battle "E" award for excellence.
From July 1982 to February 1983 George Philip deployed for the first time in support of battle group. On 26 November 1982 Cmdr. Donald F. Berkebile assumed command. George Philip and her crew were awarded a Battle Effectiveness Award for operations during the 18-month period from 1 January 1982 to 30 June 1983.
From September 1984 to March 1985 the ship was deployed in support of U. S. efforts to keep sea lanes open in the Persian Gulf during the height of the Iran–Iraq War. On 15 March 1985 Cmdr. Frank Harold Tryon, Jr. assumed command. In June 1985 the frigate transferred to the Naval Reserve Force (NRF). As a member of the NRF, the focus turns to the training and readiness of Selected Reservists. The ship goes from full manning to 60% manning, with the remainder made up of Reservists. From June 1985 to June 1987 engineering and weapons readiness examinations and inspections were performed along with training for helicopter pilots. On 9 May 1987 Cmdr. Thomas C. Williams, Jr. assumed command.
George Philip underwent an overhaul at Southwest Marine in San Diego, California from December 1987 to June 1989. While in overhaul the ship received major upgrades in anti-submarine warfare (ASW) capabilities among which, the ship was fitted with a Tactical Towed Array Sonar (TACTASS).
On 10 June 1989, Cmdr. Dennis Leo Ryan III assumed command. From June 1989 to May 1992 George Philip participated in extensive ASW operations and was used as a test platform for the new ASW equipment.
1990s
On 15 June 1991, Cmdr. Alfred W. Mitchell assumed command. From May to August 1992 George Philip was deployed in support of efforts to counter drug traffic from South America to the United States. In August 1992 the ship began a series of independent operations and port visits that included: San Francisco; Seattle; Vancouver, British Columbia; and Mazatlán, Mexico. On 20 February 1993, Cmdr. Harold Joseph Flammang, Jr. assumed command.
These operations lasted until July 1994 when George Philip deployed in support of efforts to counter drug traffic from South America to the United States. In October 1994 the frigate was escort to the towing of the retired submarine to Bremerton Naval Station. On 16 December 1994, Cmdr. Robert Alan Butt assumed command.
George Philip and her crew were awarded a Battle Effectiveness Award for operations in 1994, 1995 and 1996.
On 24 October 1996, Cmdr. Scott Alan Berg assumed command. In November 1997 the ship participated in the Maritime Combined Operational Training (MARCOT) Exercise in the Northern Pacific. From January to April 1998 George Philip took part in counter-narcotics operations (CNOPS) in the South Pacific. On 24 April 1998, Commander Leland Hart Sebring assumed command.
From March to October 1999 the ship was assigned to the Co-operation Afloat Readiness and Training (CARAT) Deployment. On 2 November 1999, Commander David W. Glazier assumed command.
2000s
George Philip underwent the Dry-Docking Selected Restricted Availability (DSRA 00) at Continental Marine in San Diego from January to March 2000 In April George Philip transited to Alaska. The frigate conducted port visits to Esquimalt, British Columbia and Juneau, Alaska. On 2–8 October 2000 the ship made a port visit to Ensenada, Mexico.
On 10 June 2001, Cmdr. Christopher L. Wall assumed command. George Philip was decommissioned on 15 March 2003, as of June 2003 the ship was in reserve at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard and Intermediate Maintenance Facility, Bremerton, Washington.
References
External links
MaritimeQuest USS George Philip FFG-12 pages
Ships built in Los Angeles
1978 ships
Oliver Hazard Perry-class frigates of the United States Navy
Cold War frigates and destroyer escorts of the United States | [
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244980 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromista | Chromista | Chromista is a biological kingdom consisting of single-celled and multicellular eukaryotic species that share similar features in their photosynthetic organelles (plastids). It includes all protists whose plastids contain chlorophyll c, such as some algae, diatoms, oomycetes, and protozoans. It is a polyphyletic group whose members independently arose as a separate evolutionary group from the common ancestor of all eukaryotes. As it is assumed the last common ancestor already possessed chloroplasts of red algal origin, the non-photosynthetic forms evolved from ancestors able to perform photosynthesis. Their plastids are surrounded by four membranes, and are believed to have been acquired from some red algae.
Chromista as a biological kingdom was created by British biologist Thomas Cavalier-Smith in 1981 to differentiate some protists from typical protozoans and plants. According to Cavalier-Smith, the kingdom originally included only algae, but his later analysis indicated that many protozoa also belong to the new group. As of 2018, the kingdom is as diverse as kingdoms Plantae and Animalia, consisting of eight phyla. Notable members include marine algae, potato blight, dinoflagellates, Paramecium, brain parasite (Toxoplasma) and malarial parasite (Plasmodium).
Biology
Members of Chromista are single-celled and multicellular eukaryotes having basically either or both features:
plastid(s) that contain chlorophyll c and lie within an extra (periplastid) membrane in the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (typically within the perinuclear cisterna);
cilia with tripartite or bipartite rigid tubular hairs.
Even though the kingdom includes diverse organisms from algae to malarial parasites (Plasmodium), they are genetically related and are believed to have evolved from a common ancestor with all other eukaryotes but in an independent line of evolution. As a result of evolution, many have retained their plastids and cilia, while some have lost them. Molecular evidence indicate that the plastids in chromists were derived from red algae through secondary symbiogenesis in a single event. (In contrast, plants acquired their plastids from cyanobacteria through primary symbiogenesis.) These plastids are now enclosed in two extra cell membranes, making a four-membrane envelope, as a result of which they acquired many other membrane proteins for transporting molecules in and out of the organelles. The diversity of chromists arose from degeneration, loss or replacement of the plastids in some lineages. There was also additional symbiogenesis of green algae, the genes of which are retained in some members (such as heterokonts), as well as bacterial chlorophyll (indicated by the presence of ribosomal protein L36 gene, rpl36) in haptophytes and cryptophytes.
History and groups
The name Chromista was first introduced by Cavalier-Smith in 1981; the earlier names Chromophyta, Chromobiota and Chromobionta correspond to roughly the same group.
It has been described as consisting of three different groups:
Heterokonts or stramenopiles: brown algae, diatoms, water moulds, etc.
Haptophytes
Cryptomonads
Cavalier-Smith later (in 2009) stated his reason for making a new kingdom, saying:
Since then Chromista has been defined in different ways at different times. In 2010, Cavalier-Smith himself indicated his desire to move Alveolata, Rhizaria and Heliozoa into Chromista.
Some examples of classification of the Chromista and related groups are shown below.
Chromophycées (Chadefaud, 1950)
The Chromophycées (Chadefaud, 1950), renamed Chromophycota (Chadefaud, 1960), included the current Ochrophyta (autotrophic Stramenopiles), Haptophyta (included in Chrysophyceae until Christensen, 1962), Cryptophyta, Dinophyta, Euglenophyceae and Choanoflagellida (included in Chrysophyceae until Hibberd, 1975).
Chromophyta (Christensen 1962, 1989)
The Chromophyta (Christensen 1962, 2008), defined as algae with chlorophyll c, included the current Ochrophyta (autotrophic Stramenopiles), Haptophyta, Cryptophyta, Dinophyta and Choanoflagellida. The Euglenophyceae were transferred to the Chlorophyta.
Chromophyta (Bourrelly, 1968)
The Chromophyta (Bourrelly, 1968) included the current Ochrophyta (autotrophic Stramenopiles), Haptophyta and Choanoflagellida. The Cryptophyceae and the Dinophyceae were part of Pyrrhophyta (= Dinophyta).
Chromista (Cavalier-Smith, 1981)
The Chromista (Cavalier-Smith, 1981) included the current Stramenopiles, Haptophyta and Cryptophyta.
Chromalveolata (Adl et al., 2005)
The Chromalveolata (Cavalier-Smith, 1981) included Stramenopiles, Haptophyta, Cryptophyta and Alveolata.
Classification
In his original classification in 1981, Cavalier-Smith included three phyla under Chromista:
Heterokonta
Haptophyta
Cryptomonada
In 2010, Cavalier-Smith reorganised Chromista to include SAR supergroup (such as Stramenopiles, Alveolata and Rhizaria) and Hacrobia (Haptista, Cryptista).
In 2015, he and his colleagues made a new higher-level grouping of all organisms as a revision of seven kingdoms model. In it, they classified Chromista into 2 subkingdoms and 11 phyla, namely:
Subkingdom Harosa (=Supergroup SAR)
Phylum Ciliophora
Phylum Miozoa
Phylum Bigyra
Phylum Ochrophyta
Phylum Pseudofungi (=Oomycota)
Phylum Cercozoa
Phylum Retaria
Subkingdom Hacrobia
Phylum N.N. (=nomen nominandum, name unknown)—i.e. the classes Endohelea, Picomonadea and Telonemea
Phylum Cryptista
Phylum Haptophyta
Phylum Heliozoa
Cavalier-Smith made a new analysis of Chromista in 2018 in which he classified all chromists into 8 phyla (Gyrista corresponds to the above phyla Ochrophyta and Pseudofungi, Cryptista corresponds to the above phyla Cryptista and "N.N.", Haptista corresponds to the above phyla Haptophyta and Heliozoa):
Subkingdom Harosa
Phylum Miozoa
Phylum Ciliophora
Phylum Gyrista
Phylum Bigyra
Phylum Cercozoa
Phylum Retaria
Subkingdom Hacrobia
Phylum Cryptista
Phylum Haptista
Phylogeny
Controversy
Molecular trees have had some difficulty resolving relationships between the different groups. All three may share a common ancestor with the alveolates (see chromalveolates), but there is evidence that suggests that the haptophytes and cryptomonads do not belong together with the heterokonts or the SAR clade, but may be associated with the Archaeplastida. Cryptista specifically may be sister or part of Archaeplastida.
See also
Cabozoa
Cavalier-Smith's system of classification
List of Chromista by conservation status
References
External links
UCMP: Introduction to the Chromista
Obsolete eukaryote taxa
Kingdoms (biology) | [
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244983 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simutronics | Simutronics | Simutronics is an American online games company whose products include GemStone IV and DragonRealms. It was founded in 1987 by David Whatley, with husband and wife Tom & Susan Zelinski. The company is located in St. Louis, Missouri. It became part of the Stillfront Group in 2016.
The company's flagship product is the text based game, GemStone IV, which went live in November 2003, with predecessor games running back to 1988. GemStone was originally accessed through General Electric's internet service provider GEnie, later becoming accessible through AOL, Prodigy, and CompuServe before Simutronics finally moved all their games to their own domain in 1997.
Simutronics products
Multiplayer online games
GemStone IV, Simutronics' flagship product, a text-based multiplayer fantasy game, which has seen over one million users over the years. It is the longest-lived commercial MUD game, followed by Avalon: The Legend Lives.
DragonRealms, a 1996 MUD set in GemStone Elanthia world, with popularity on online services AOL, Compuserve, and Prodigy. In comparison with GemStone, DragonRealms has more skill-based gameplay.
CyberStrike, also known as CyberStrike Classic, a graphical futuristic ship combat game. It won the first ever "Online Game of the Year" award from Computer Gaming World magazine in 1993.
Hero's Journey, an unreleased graphical MMORPG utilizing the "HeroEngine", an MMO engine developed by Simutronics for the game. The game had been in development since the late 1990s, but its release date was pushed back several times and in March 2009, all remaining developers and game masters assigned to Hero's Journey were laid off or reassigned. Hero's Journey as well as the engine behind it was sold off due to the economic decline in 2008-2009.
Dragons of Elanthia (currently in Beta), a multiplayer third-person shooter in which players select different dragons and riders, each with unique abilities, to fight each other.
Mobile games
Tiny Heroes, a tower defense game for iPhone and iPad, released in 2011
One Epic Knight, an endless runner game, released in 2012 for iOS devices and in 2013 for Android
HeroEngine
HeroEngine is a 3D game engine and server technology platform developed specifically for building MMO-style games, based around a system similar to the IFE using the Hero Script Language (HSL). Originally developed for the company's own game Hero's Journey - which never made it to the testing stage - the engine has since been licensed by other companies. Simutronics sold the HeroEngine to Idea Fabrik, Plc. on August 5, 2010.
References
Sources
External links
Simutronics company website
Play.net, Simutronics on-line games website
Simutronics profile from MobyGames
Simutronics profile from IGN
Simutronics profile from Giant Bomb
Companies based in St. Louis
Companies established in 1987
MUD organizations
Video game companies of the United States
Mobile game companies | [
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244987 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GEnie | GEnie | GEnie (General Electric Network for Information Exchange) was an online service created by a General Electric business, GEIS (now GXS), that ran from 1985 through the end of 1999. In 1994, GEnie claimed around 350,000 users. Peak simultaneous usage was around 10,000 users. It was one of the pioneering services in the field, though eventually replaced by the World Wide Web and graphics-based services, most notably AOL.
Early history
GEnie was founded by Bill Louden on October 1, 1985 and was launched as an ASCII text-based service by GE's Information Services division in October 1985, and received attention as the first serious commercial competition to CompuServe. Louden was originally CompuServe's product manager for Computing, Community (forums), Games, eCommerce, and email product lines. Louden purchased DECWAR source code and had MegaWars developed, one of the earliest multi-player online games (or MMOG), in 1985.
The service was run by General Electric Information Services (GEIS, now GXS) based in Rockville, Maryland. GEIS served a diverse set of large-scale, international, commercial network-based custom application needs, including banking, electronic data interchange and e-mail services to companies worldwide, but was able to run GEnie on their many GE Mark III time-sharing mainframe computers that otherwise would have been underutilized after normal U.S. business hours. This orientation was part of GEnie's downfall. Although it became very popular and a national force in the on-line marketplace, GEnie was not allowed to grow. GEIS executives steadfastly refused to view the service as anything but "fill in" load and would not expand the network by a single phone line, let alone expand mainframe capacity, to accommodate GEnie's growing user base. (Later, however, GE did consent to make the service available through the SprintNet time-sharing network, which had its own dial-up points of presence; an Internet-to-SprintNet gateway operated by Merit Network also made the text-based parts of the service available through telnet.)
The initial price for connection, at both 300 bits per second and the then-high-speed 1,200 bits per second, was $5–6 per hour during "non-prime-time" hours (evenings and weekends) and $36 an hour (to discourage daytime use) otherwise, later adjusted to $6 per hour and $18 per hour, respectively. A speed of 2,400 bit/s was also available at a premium. Later, GEnie developed the Star*Services package, soon renamed Genie*Basic after Prodigy threatened a trademark lawsuit over the use of the word "Star". It offered a set of "unlimited use" features for $4.95 per month. Other services cost extra, mirroring the tiered service model popular at the time.
GEnie's forums were called RoundTables (RTs), and each, as well as other internal services, had a page number associated with it, akin to a Web address today; typing "m 1335", for instance, would bring you to the GemStone III game page. The service included RTs, games, mail and shopping. For some time, GEnie published a bimonthly print magazine, LiveWire. GEnie's early chat room was called the LiveWire CB Simulator, after the citizens' band radios popular at the time.
Games
GEnie had a reputation for being the home of excellent online text games, similar to the "doorway" games on bulletin board systems but often massively multiplayer. Also, there were graphical games using then-state-of-the-art non-textured 3D graphics on PCs with VGA displays. Top titles included:
Kesmai's Air Warrior (3D graphics)
Simutronics's GemStone, later GemStone III
AUSI's Dragon's Gate
Simutronics' CyberStrike (3D graphics—later spun off and expanded into the stand-alone CyberStrike 2, with textured 3D graphics, lighting effects, etc.)
Kesmai's Multiplayer BattleTech: EGA
Other major titles included:
AUSI's Galaxy II
NTN Trivia
Kesmai's Stellar Warrior—GEnie's first multiplayer online game
Kesmai's Stellar Emperor—the GEnie version of Kesmai's Compuserve game MegaWars III
J. Weaver Jr.'s RSCARDS
Jim Dunnigan's Hundred Years' War
Simutronics' DragonRealms
Simutronics' Orb Wars
Federation II
Simutronics' Modus Operandi
A-Maze-ing
Diplomacy Online
Holtzman and Kershenblatt's Castlequest (credited to publisher Bob Maples)
RoundTables
A RoundTable on GEnie was a discussion area containing a message board ("BBS"), a chatroom ("RealTime Conference" or RTC) and a Library for permanent files. They were part of an online community culture that predated the Internet's emergence as a mass medium, which also included such separate entities as CompuServe forums, Usenet newsgroups and email mailing lists.
Most RoundTables were actually operated not by GEnie employees but by independent contractors working from home, which was standard practice for online services at the time. The contractors received royalties on time spent in their forums. In the most popular forums, this revenue stream was often substantial enough to hire one or two part-time or full-time staffers. Many RoundTables also had a number of unpaid assistants, working for a "free flag" (which granted them free access to that RoundTable) or an "internal account" (which granted free access to all of the service).
Rise and fall
By May 1986 GEnie claimed to have 12,000 subscribers, up from 3,000 in February. Although it for years was the second-largest service provider after CompuServe, GEnie failed to keep up when Prodigy and America Online produced graphics-based online services that drew the masses. Programs such as Aladdin, which had been developed earlier by an independent developer and eventually supported by GEnie, helped many of the newcomers who came to GEnie from Prodigy and AOL adjust; these were the equivalent of modern-day email programs and newsreaders, incorporating a more user-friendly interface which automated message and mail downloading and posting.
In addition, GEnie took its time developing an Internet e-mail gateway, which opened on July 1, 1993.
GE sold GEnie in 1996 to Yovelle, which was later taken over by IDT Corp. IDT attempted to transition GEnie (now without the all-uppercase "GE") to an Internet service provider, but ultimately failed. IDT also funded the development of a GUI for the text-based service; this client was actually released, but the service did not survive long enough for it to become popular.
Visitors to GEnie dropped with the growth of other online services and fell dramatically following a very sudden change in the fee structure in 1996. The users were notified with only 12 hours' notice that all Basic (flat-rate) services would cease to exist, while prices of the other services would rise dramatically. By the final year, insiders reported fewer than 10,000 total users.
On December 4, 1999, it was announced that GEnie would close for good on December 27 due to the year 2000 problem. Remaining users gathered in chat areas of the few RoundTables remaining to say goodbye. But GEnie did not close for four more days, and a dwindling number watched at the close of each day. The RoundTables and all areas of GEnie, except the Top page, became unavailable slightly before midnight on December 30, 1999.
Legacy
Several books, TV shows, films and other projects had their genesis and inspiration on GEnie. One example is the Babylon 5 television show, created by J. Michael Straczynski, which was first announced publicly in GEnie's Science Fiction RoundTables. The SFRTs served as the show's first online "home" and were the source of many in-jokes and references throughout its run.
Bill Louden, the original creator of GEnie, formed a group of investors to buy the Delphi online service from News Corp, where he led the transition of the service from text-only to the Web (and from a pay-per-hour to an advertising-supported revenue model).
Notable users
Many well-known personalities were early adopters of the online medium, and were a prominent presence on GEnie, either active in one of its RoundTables, or frequent public participants in GEnie's CB Chat.
Tom Clancy, author, participated in the chat area and he played games such as GemStone II with his children.
Peter David, self-styled "writer of stuff", such as comic books, television and film novelizations, screenwriting and many original novels and short stories
Cory Doctorow, co-author of the Boing Boing blog and science fiction novelist, was active on GEnie's Science Fiction RoundTable
Damon Knight, author, founder of Science Fiction Writers of America, SFWA Grand Master
Wayne Knight, actor (Seinfeld, Jurassic Park), was an occasional visitor to the ShowBiz RT
Michael Okuda, Star Trek graphics designer frequented the SFRT
Richard Pini, husband of Wendy Pini, and editor/publisher of her cult favorite fantasy (with SF elements) comic book series ElfQuest.
Daniel Pinkwater, frequent presence in Writer's Ink
Jerry Pournelle, science fiction author and political commentator, had his own RoundTable.
J. Michael Straczynski, television writer, producer and creator of Babylon 5
Wil Wheaton, current "geek author" and actor (Wesley in Star Trek: The Next Generation), was a frequent presence in the chat area, and often visited the Sports RoundTable.
The Science Fiction RoundTable (SFRT) became the official online forum of the Science Fiction Writers of America (SFWA), which led a number of science fiction writers to join GEnie. Besides those already mentioned, they included Dafydd ab Hugh, John Barnes, Keith DeCandido, Steven Brust, Michael A. Burstein, Debra Doyle, Neil Gaiman, Joe Haldeman, Katharine Kerr, Michael Kube-McDowell, Paul Levinson, George R.R. Martin, Rich Normandie, Raven Oak, Mike Resnick, Robert J. Sawyer, J. Neil Schulman, Josepha Sherman, Susan Shwartz, Martha Soukup, Michael Swanwick, Judith Tarr, Harry Turtledove, Lawrence Watt-Evans, Leslie What, and Jane Yolen. Occasional but less frequent visitors included K. W. Jeter and Ken Grimwood. Science fiction editors Gardner Dozois, Scott Edelman, Peter Heck, Tappan King, Beth Meacham, Patrick Nielsen Hayden, Teresa Nielsen Hayden, Sheila Finch and Dean Wesley Smith were also frequent participants.
See also
Kelton Flinn, co-Founder of Kesmai
Mark Jacobs (game designer), Founder of AUSI
References
Further reading
External links
I Dream of GEnie: forum discussion and memories of past GEnie members
GEnie Commodore File Library
GEnie TI-99/4A and Geneve File Library
MultiPlayer BattleTech: EGA Roundtable Archive
Genie and the SFRTs are closed
Last night of the SFRTs
Internet Starter Kit for Macintosh: GEnie
Review: GEnie
Thinkquest Timeline of game history
Simutronics timeline maintained by Simutronics' Elonka Dunin
Tom Mostellor. "Genie and CompuServe Offer Die-Hard Adventure Fans Wide New On-line Worlds"
Online Games White Paper, 2002, compiled by the IGDA Online Games Committee
Computer-related introductions in 1985
General Electric
Pre–World Wide Web online services | [
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244992 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycete | Oomycete | Oomycota forms a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms, called oomycetes (). They are filamentous and heterotrophic, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction of an oospore is the result of contact between hyphae of male antheridia and female oogonia; these spores can overwinter and are known as resting spores. Asexual reproduction involves the formation of chlamydospores and sporangia, producing motile zoospores. Oomycetes occupy both saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles, and include some of the most notorious pathogens of plants, causing devastating diseases such as late blight of potato and sudden oak death. One oomycete, the mycoparasite Pythium oligandrum, is used for biocontrol, attacking plant pathogenic fungi. The oomycetes are also often referred to as water molds (or water moulds), although the water-preferring nature which led to that name is not true of most species, which are terrestrial pathogens.
Oomycetes were originally grouped with fungi due to similarities in morphology and lifestyle. However, molecular and phylogenetic studies revealed significant differences between fungi and oomycetes which means the latter are now grouped with the stramenopiles (which include some types of algae). The Oomycota have a very sparse fossil record; a possible oomycete has been described from Cretaceous amber.
Etymology
Oomycota comes from the Greek ωόν (oon, 'egg') and μύκητας (mykitas, 'fungus'), referring to the large round oogonia, structures containing the female gametes, that are characteristic of the oomycetes.
The name "water mold" refers to their earlier classification as fungi and their preference for conditions of high humidity and running surface water, which is characteristic for the basal taxa of the oomycetes.
Morphology
The oomycetes rarely have septa (see hypha), and if they do, they are scarce, appearing at the bases of sporangia, and sometimes in older parts of the filaments. Some are unicellular, while others are filamentous and branching.
Classification
Previously the group was arranged into six orders.
The Saprolegniales are the most widespread. Many break down decaying matter; others are parasites.
The Leptomitales have wall thickenings that give their continuous cell body the appearance of septation. They bear chitin and often reproduce asexually.
The Rhipidiales use rhizoids to attach their thallus to the bed of stagnant or polluted water bodies.
The Albuginales are considered by some authors to be a family (Albuginaceae) within the Peronosporales, although it has been shown that they are phylogenetically distinct from this order.
The Peronosporales too are mainly saprophytic or parasitic on plants, and have an aseptate, branching form. Many of the most damaging agricultural parasites belong to this order.
The Lagenidiales are the most primitive; some are filamentous, others unicellular; they are generally parasitic.
However more recently this has been expanded considerably.
Anisolpidiales Dick 2001
Anisolpidiaceae Karling 1943
Lagenismatales Dick 2001
Lagenismataceae Dick 1995
Salilagenidiales Dick 2001
Salilagenidiaceae Dick 1995
Rozellopsidales Dick 2001
Rozellopsidaceae Dick 1995
Pseudosphaeritaceae Dick 1995
Ectrogellales
Ectrogellaceae
Haptoglossales
Haptoglossaceae
Eurychasmales
Eurychasmataceae Petersen 1905
Haliphthorales
Haliphthoraceae Vishniac 1958
Olpidiopsidales
Sirolpidiaceae Cejp 1959
Pontismataceae Petersen 1909
Olpidiopsidaceae Cejp 1959
Atkinsiellales
Atkinisellaceae
Crypticolaceae Dick 1995
Saprolegniales
Achlyaceae
Verrucalvaceae Dick 1984
Saprolegniaceae Warm. 1884 [Leptolegniaceae]
Leptomitales
Leptomitaceae Kuetz. 1843 [Apodachlyellaceae Dick 1986]
Leptolegniellaceae Dick 1971 [Ducellieriaceae Dick 1995]
Rhipidiales
Rhipidiaceae Cejp 1959
Albuginales
Albuginaceae Schroet. 1893
Peronosporales [Pythiales; Sclerosporales; Lagenidiales]
Salisapiliaceae
Pythiaceae Schroet. 1893 [Pythiogetonaceae; Lagenaceae Dick 1994; Lagenidiaceae; Peronophythoraceae; Myzocytiopsidaceae Dick 1995]
Peronosporaceae Warm. 1884 [Sclerosporaceae Dick 1984]
Phylogenetic relationships
Internal
External
This group was originally classified among the fungi (the name "oomycota" means "egg fungus") and later treated as protists, based on general morphology and lifestyle. A cladistic analysis based on modern discoveries about the biology of these organisms supports a relatively close relationship with some photosynthetic organisms, such as brown algae and diatoms. A common taxonomic classification based on these data, places the class Oomycota along with other classes such as Phaeophyceae (brown algae) within the phylum Heterokonta.
This relationship is supported by a number of observed differences between the characteristics of oomycetes and fungi. For instance, the cell walls of oomycetes are composed of cellulose rather than chitin and generally do not have septations. Also, in the vegetative state they have diploid nuclei, whereas fungi have haploid nuclei. Most oomycetes produce self-motile zoospores with two flagella. One flagellum has a "whiplash" morphology, and the other a branched "tinsel" morphology. The "tinsel" flagellum is unique to the Kingdom Heterokonta. Spores of the few fungal groups which retain flagella (such as the Chytridiomycetes) have only one whiplash flagellum. Oomycota and fungi have different metabolic pathways for synthesizing lysine and have a number of enzymes that differ. The ultrastructure is also different, with oomycota having tubular mitochondrial cristae and fungi having flattened cristae.
In spite of this, many species of oomycetes are still described or listed as types of fungi and may sometimes be referred to as pseudofungi, or lower fungi.
Biology
Reproduction
Most of the oomycetes produce two distinct types of spores. The main dispersive spores are asexual, self-motile spores called zoospores, which are capable of chemotaxis (movement toward or away from a chemical signal, such as those released by potential food sources) in surface water (including precipitation on plant surfaces). A few oomycetes produce aerial asexual spores that are distributed by wind. They also produce sexual spores, called oospores, that are translucent, double-walled, spherical structures used to survive adverse environmental conditions.
Ecology and pathogenicity
Many oomycetes species are economically important, aggressive algae and plant pathogens. Some species can cause disease in fish, and at least one is a pathogen of mammals. The majority of the plant pathogenic species can be classified into four groups, although more exist.
The Phytophthora group is a paraphyletic genus that causes diseases such as dieback, late blight in potatoes (the cause of the Great Famine of the 1840s that ravaged Ireland and other parts of Europe), sudden oak death, rhododendron root rot, and ink disease in the European chestnut
The paraphyletic Pythium group is more prevalent than Phytophthora and individual species have larger host ranges, although usually causing less damage. Pythium damping off is a very common problem in greenhouses, where the organism kills newly emerged seedlings. Mycoparasitic members of this group (e.g. P. oligandrum) parasitize other oomycetes and fungi, and have been employed as biocontrol agents. One Pythium species, Pythium insidiosum, also causes Pythiosis in mammals.
The third group are the downy mildews, which are easily identifiable by the appearance of white, brownish or olive "mildew" on the leaf undersides (although this group can be confused with the unrelated fungal powdery mildews).
The fourth group are the white blister rusts, Albuginales, which cause white blister disease on a variety of flowering plants. White blister rusts sporulate beneath the epidermis of their hosts, causing spore-filled blisters on stems, leaves and the inflorescence. The Albuginales are currently divided into three genera, Albugo parasitic predominantly to Brassicales, Pustula, parasitic predominantly to Asterales, and Wilsoniana, predominantly parasitic to Caryophyllales. Like the downy mildews, the white blister rusts are obligate biotrophs, which means that they are unable to survive without the presence of a living host.
References
External links
Description of The Phylum Oomycota – Systematic Biology
Introduction to the Oomycota – University of California Museum of Paleontology (UCMP)
Genome sequence and analysis of the Irish potato famine pathogen Phytophthora infestans | [
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244999 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20crew | Road crew | The road crew (or roadies) are the technicians or support personnel who travel with a band on tour, usually in sleeper buses, and handle every part of the concert productions except actually performing the music with the musicians. This catch-all term covers many people: tour managers, production managers, stage managers, front of house and monitor engineers, lighting directors, lighting designers, lighting techs, guitar techs, bass techs, drum techs, keyboard techs, pyrotechnicians, security/bodyguards, truck drivers, merchandise crew, and caterers, among others.
Road crew appearances
The road crew are generally uncredited, though many bands take care to thank their crew in album sleeve liner notes. In some cases, roadies have stepped in to help out with playing onstage.
On June 12, 1993, while performing "Bullet in the Head" in Reykjavik, Iceland, Rage Against the Machine guitarist Tom Morello and bassist Tim Commerford switched out with their guitar and bass technicians, respectively.
The Doobie Brothers' lighting roadie, Bobby LaKind, eventually became a full member of the band. After observing LaKind goofing around on the congas after a concert, the band took notice of his talent and asked him to join as a sideman for studio sessions in 1976. He became a full member in 1979 and performed as a vocalist, songwriter, percussionist and backup drummer for live shows.
Pink Floyd listed theirs on the rear sleeve of Ummagumma and recorded them speaking on The Dark Side of the Moon. A roadie also delivered the spoken part of the studio version of the song "Sheep", on the Animals album. They had also written a song called "Alan's Psychedelic Breakfast" about a roadie, appearing on their 1970 album Atom Heart Mother.
Bruce Berry was a professional roadie for the members of Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, both as a group and individually. He died of a heroin overdose on June 4, 1973 and is immortalized in the lyrics of the title track of the album Tonight's the Night by Neil Young:
Bruce Berry was a working man He used to load that Econoline van...
Pantera, Motörhead and Godsmack even go so far as to feature their crew in their tour videos, and Motörhead wrote the song "(We Are) The Road Crew" about their crew.
Exceptionally, in the former Manu Chao band Mano Negra, the roadies were included as a part of the band when they signed for Virgin.
Todd Rundgren and Roger Powell invited roadie Jan Michael Alejandro to play piano with them, Ringo Starr and Bill Wyman on a live broadcast of the Jerry Lewis Telethon in Las Vegas. It was viewed by 33 million people. He also worked the last Led Zeppelin concert in Knebworth 1979, and he was one of the roadies that Jackson Browne wrote about on the Running on Empty Tour. Jan owns Jan-Al Cases with his partner Muffie Alejandro.
Jackson Browne on his 1977 tour, "Running on Empty", wrote his famous song "The Load-Out" (usually heard in a live version hybrid with a cover of the Maurice Williams tune "Stay") in order to honor his roadies.
Perry Bamonte was a long-serving guitar tech for The Cure, before filling in on keyboards during the final leg of the Disintegration tour after Roger O'Donnell's departure in 1991. He went on to play guitar and keyboards on four Cure albums, including major hit Wish.
Coldplay's video Life in Technicolor ii features roadie puppets four times: picking up the cymbal dropped by the drummer, operating the rope that widens the stage, moving a ramp onstage and operating the sound mixer.
Tupac Shakur joined Digital Underground as a roadie, backup singer and dancer in 1990, and appeared with the band in the film Nothing but Trouble to begin his rapping career.
U2's "One Tree Hill" on the album The Joshua Tree is dedicated to Greg Carroll, who was a stagehand in New Zealand. He joined The Unforgettable Fire tour, and after the tour he stayed in Ireland and became Bono's personal assistant.
Stuart Morgan, Adam Clayton's bass tech, filled in for the U2 bassist for a concert in Sydney in 1993.
James Hetfield of Metallica has been—at least twice—temporarily replaced in his guitar duties by his roadie John Marshall during his various injuries (such as breaking his arm while skateboarding and after suffering severe burns after standing over a pyrotechnical device).
Tenacious D wrote the song “Roadie” on their 2012 Rize of the Fenix album to pay homage to their road crew. A video for the song featured Danny McBride as a stereotypical, long hair, black leather wearing roadie who grew jealous of the band as he watched their success from the sidelines.
Violinist Lindsey Stirling starts off her show by introducing every crew member. Moreover, she records videos of interactions within the tour crew and puts them on YouTube.
A picture of The Allman Brothers Band roadies appears on the back cover of their At Fillmore East album.
In 2015, Built to Spill roadies Jason Albertini and Stephen Gere became the bassist and drummer, respectively, on the album Untethered Moon.
Kasabian's 2017 album For Crying Out Loud features their roadie Rick Graham on the front cover.
Other careers
A number of roadies have gone on to join bands and write music.
Greg Page was a roadie for The Cockroaches before band member Anthony Field asked him to join him in attending Macquarie University to become preschool teachers. They both ended up starting The Wiggles alongside band member Jeff Fatt and fellow student Murray Cook after submitting an album of children's music.
David Gilmour was a roadie for Pink Floyd before Nick Mason asked him if he would be interested in joining the band as a guitarist.
Krist Novoselic was a roadie for the Melvins before forming Nirvana with Kurt Cobain.
Joey DeMaio of Manowar was a pyro-tech for Black Sabbath during their Heaven and Hell tour.
Frank Bello was a roadie and guitar technician for Anthrax before replacing Dan Lilker on Anthrax's second album Spreading the Disease.
Kliph Scurlock of The Flaming Lips was originally a roadie for the band before being asked to join the band as a drummer on tours.
Rick Biddulph was a roadie for Hatfield and the North and National Health and then went on to play in several bands with members of those bands
Noel Gallagher was a roadie for Inspiral Carpets before he joined Oasis.
Gene Hoglan was a light technician for Slayer during their early days.
Lemmy was a roadie for Jimi Hendrix before joining Hawkwind, and later forming Motörhead.
Hoxton Tom McCourt was a roadie for Menace and the Cockney Rejects before starting his own band the 4-Skins.
Bob Bryar, of the New Jersey rock band My Chemical Romance, was a sound tech before the band asked him to play drums for them, following the departure of their original drummer.
Billy Howerdel worked as guitar tech and Pro Tools engineer for the band Tool before he started A Perfect Circle which featured Maynard James Keenan as band member.
Jon Walker, of Panic! at the Disco, was a guitar tech for Chicago band The Academy Is... before Panic! at the Disco asked him to be their bass player.
Henry Rollins, of Black Flag and Rollins Band fame, was a roadie for The Teen Idles, the band that would eventually become Minor Threat before singing with both bands.
Jello Biafra worked as a roadie for The Ravers (later known as The Nails) before forming the Dead Kennedys with guitarist East Bay Ray
Ben Shepherd was a roadie for Nirvana before joining the band Soundgarden.
Kyo was a roadie for Kiyoharu before forming the band Dir En Grey.
Steve "Mugger" Corbin was a roadie for Black Flag before becoming frontman for The Nig-Heist.
Billy Powell was a roadie for Lynyrd Skynyrd until he joined the band as piano player.
Nate Novarro, was a drum tech for the band Armor For Sleep, until he was asked to join Cobra Starship as their drummer.
Ben Carr was a roadie for the Mighty Mighty Bosstones and became a part of the group when a venue refused his entry on account of being underage.
Larry E. Williams was a roadie for Neil Diamond before writing Let Your Love Flow.
John Lang was a roadie for the Los Angeles nightclub band Andy Hardy, pop singer Andy Gibb, and pop bands Pages and Mr. Mister, before writing the lyrics to "Broken Wings" and "Kyrie." He went on to become the founder (along with drummer Russell Battelene and guitarist David Battelene) and the lead singer/songwriter/roadie for the New York-based rock band Djinn.
Joe Leeway worked as a roadie for the British group Thompson Twins before officially joining the lineup.
Megadeth has had two instances where roadies have replaced members to become official members themselves: Chuck Behler was originally the drum tech for Gar Samuelson only to replace Gar who was fired. Some time later, Chuck's drum tech, Nick Menza took over on drums when he too was fired.
Andreas Kisser, of Sepultura was a guitar tech for the founding vocalist and guitarist Max Cavalera until he was asked to join the band as their lead guitarist replacing previous guitarist, Jairo Guedes.
Rob Aston, aka Skinhead Rob, of the Transplants and Expensive Taste was a roadie for Rancid until Tim Armstrong noticed him for his hip-hop vocalist and song-writing talent and they went on to form the Transplants.
Gary Holt was the guitar tech for Kirk Hammett when he was in Exodus.
Rob Cannavino used to be Bobby Gustafson's guitar technician before he replaced him.
Richey Edwards was a roadie for the Manic Street Preachers before joining them.
Before joining Bloodbath and Katatonia, Per Eriksson was the guitar tech for both bands.
Ronnie Rush, a DJ in California was as a roadie for Hamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds, he wrote a book about his adventures.
See also
Bandboy
Groupie
Apple scruffs
Road manager
Notes
Occupations in music | [
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245007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fina%20Air | Fina Air | Fina Air was an airline based in San Juan, Puerto Rico named after Josefina Canto who was the mother of Lazaro Canto. It operated charter flights to the Dominican Republic from Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan, Rafael Hernández Airport in Aguadilla and Eugenio María de Hostos Airport in Mayagüez. The airline has now ceased operations.
History
The airline was established in 2003 by Lazaro Canto (Founder and Chief Executive). In the June 7 edition of the newspaper El Vocero, the management of Fina Air announced that the airline would begin flying on July 15, 2003, connecting San Juan and Mayagüez with six Dominican Republic destinations. The airline planned to expand to other countries within the Caribbean by 2005 and acquire jet aircraft. The July 15 date, however, was later changed to October 2. The 2005 expectations for acquiring jets and opening new routes were never met.
Services
Apart from operating regularly scheduled services from Aguadilla, they also rented airplanes to United States immigration services, to return illegal immigrants from the Dominican Republic back home.
Fina Air was partnered with the U.S. group called Viva Airlines. The people involved left a list of unpaid debts, lawsuits, and unhappy investors after the death of Chief Executive Officer Lazaro Canto.
Fleet
The Fina Air fleet of 3 Saab 340 aircraft have been purchased by an aircraft leasing company and were later operated by RegionsAir as Continental Connection, flying out of Cleveland. The airline did try to purchase 2 McDonnell Douglas DC-9-30 aircraft but the purchase was cancelled. After several flights cancelled from July to August 2005, the airline Fina Air conducted an activity in the Dominican Republic to compensate customers affected in the months of December and January, which granted money in cash awards and added works of art by members of the Oro Sólido music band and by Johnny Ventura, all customers signed documents stating that they were pleased with the agreed compensation.
One of Fina Air's SAAB 340 airplanes later crashed in Argentina, as Sol Líneas Aéreas Flight 5428.
Livery
Because Puerto Rico is politically a part of the United States, Fina Air (not to be confused with the cargo airline Fine Air), had the American flag painted on their planes' fuselages. However, most of Fina Air planes carried the colors of the Puerto Rican flag.
Defunct airlines of Puerto Rico
Airlines established in 2003
Airlines of Puerto Rico | [
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] |
245021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message%20delivery%20agent | Message delivery agent | A message delivery agent (MDA), or mail delivery agent, is a computer software component that is responsible for the delivery of e-mail messages to a local recipient's mailbox. It is also called a local delivery agent (LDA).
Within the Internet mail architecture, local message delivery is achieved through a process of handling messages from the message transfer agent, and storing mail into the recipient's environment (typically a mailbox).
Implementation
Many mail handling software products bundle multiple message delivery agents with the message transfer agent component, providing for site customization of the specifics of mail delivery to a user.
Unix
On Unix-like systems, procmail and maildrop are the most popular MDAs. The Local Mail Transfer Protocol (LMTP) is a protocol that is frequently implemented by network-aware MDAs.
Invocation
The mail delivery agent is generally not started from the command line, but is usually invoked by mail delivery subsystems, such as a mail transport agent, or a mail retrieval agent.
List of MDA software for Unix-like platforms
Cyrus IMAP - A mail server suite that includes a mail delivery agent
dovecot - A mail server suite that includes a mail delivery agent
fetchmail - Primarily a Mail retrieval agent (MRA)
getmail - simpler, more secure, modern fetchmail alternative
fdm — modern replacement for both fetchmail and procmail from the author of tmux
maildrop or courier-maildrop - traditional procmail replacement, part of Courier Mail Server, but can also be used with other mail servers
procmail - obsolete since it is unmaintained; old, but still used
bin/mail, the MDA part of Sendmail - Sendmail is one of the oldest email packages
Sieve mail filtering language - a standardised mail filtering language; also, a modern replacement for procmail from the GNU Mailutils package
See also
Message transfer agent (MTA)
Mail retrieval agent (MRA)
Message submission agent (MSA)
Message user agent (MUA) a.k.a. email client
E-mail agent (infrastructure) (MxA)
References | [
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245022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dick%20Francis | Dick Francis | Richard Stanley Francis (31 October 1920 – 14 February 2010) was a British steeplechase jockey and crime writer whose novels centre on horse racing in England.
After wartime service in the RAF, Francis became a full-time jump-jockey, winning over 350 races and becoming champion jockey of the British National Hunt. He came to further prominence in 1956 as jockey to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, riding her horse Devon Loch which fell when close to winning the Grand National. Francis retired from the turf and became a journalist and novelist.
Many of his novels deal with crime in the horse-racing world, with some of the criminals being outwardly respectable figures. The stories are narrated by the main character, often a jockey, but sometimes a trainer, an owner, a bookie, or someone in a different profession, peripherally linked to racing. This person always faces great obstacles, often including physical injury. More than forty of these novels became international best-sellers.
Personal life
Francis was born in Coedcanlas, Pembrokeshire, Wales. Some sources report his birthplace as the inland town of Lawrenny, but at least two of his obituaries stated his birthplace as the coastal town of Tenby. His autobiography says that he was born at his maternal grandparents' farm at Coedcanlas on the estuary of the River Cleddau, roughly a mile north-west of Lawrenny. His mother had likely returned to her parents' home to give birth, as was the custom. He was the son of a jockey and stable manager and his wife. Francis grew up in Maidenhead in Berkshire, England. He left school at 15 without any qualifications, intending to become a jockey; by the time he was 18, in 1938, he also was training horses.
In October 1945, he met Mary Margaret Brenchley (17 June 1924 – 30 September 2000) at a cousin's wedding. In most interviews, they commented that it was love at first sight. (Francis has some of his characters fall similarly in love within moments of meeting, as in the novels Flying Finish, Knockdown, and The Edge.) Their families were not entirely happy with their engagement, but the couple married in June 1947 in London. She had graduated with a degree in English and French from London University at the age of 19, was an assistant stage manager, and later worked as a publisher's reader. She also became a pilot, and her experience of flying contributed to many novels, including Flying Finish, Rat Race, and Second Wind. She contracted polio while pregnant with their first child. (Francis drew from this in his novel Forfeit, which he named as one of his favorites.) They had two sons, Merrick (born 1950) and Felix (born 1953).
For nearly 30 years, Francis lived in Blewbury in Berkshire (now in Oxfordshire). In the 1980s, he and his wife moved to Florida in the United States. In 1992, they moved to the Cayman Islands, where Mary died of a heart attack in 2000. In 2006, Francis had a heart bypass operation; in 2007 his right foot was amputated. He died of natural causes on 14 February 2010 at his Caribbean home in Grand Cayman, survived by both sons.
Second World War
During the Second World War, Francis volunteered, hoping to join the cavalry. Instead, he served in the Royal Air Force, initially as a member of ground crew and later piloting fighter and bomber aircraft, including the Spitfire and Hurricane fighters, and the Wellington and Lancaster bombers. He received an emergency commission as a pilot officer on 29 July 1944, and was promoted war-substantive flying officer on 29 January 1945. Much of his six-year service career was spent in Africa.
Horse racing career
After leaving the RAF in 1946, Francis became a highly successful jockey, reaching celebrity status in the world of British National Hunt racing. He won over 350 races, becoming champion jockey in the 1953–54 season.
Shortly after becoming a professional, he was offered the prestige job of first jockey to Vivian Smith, Lord Bicester.
From 1953 to 1957, Francis was jockey to Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother. His best remembered moment as a jockey came while riding the Queen Mother's horse, Devon Loch, in the 1956 Grand National, when the horse inexplicably fell when close to winning the race. Decades later, Francis considered losing that race his greatest regret and called it "a disaster of massive proportions".
Francis suffered racing injuries, being first hospitalized from riding at the age of 12 when a pony fell on him and broke his jaw and nose. He drew from this career resulting in broken bones and damaged organs for his novels, in which his characters suffer the same. In 1957, after Francis suffered another serious fall, the Queen Mother's adviser, Lord Abergavenny, advised him that she wanted him to retire from racing for her.
Contributions to racing
In 1983, the Grand National at Aintree Racecourse in England "stood at the brink of extinction," according to The Philadelphia Inquirer. News reporter Don Clippinger wrote,
"Britain's Jockey Club negotiated a $14 million deal to buy the land and save the race forever. The only problem was that the Jockey Club did not have $14 million, so two prominent racing personalities—Lord Derby and novelist Dick Francis—were selected to raise the money in a worldwide campaign". Other philanthropists, including Charles C. Fenwick Jr., who rode Ben Nevis to victory in the 1980 Grand National, and Paul Mellon, an American breeder and racing enthusiast, also contributed to saving the race.
Writing career
Francis wrote more than 40 international best-sellers. His first book was his autobiography The Sport of Queens (1957); he was offered the aid of a ghostwriter but rejected the idea. The book's success led to his becoming the racing correspondent for London's Sunday Express newspaper, and he continued in that job for 16 years.
He set his first thriller, Dead Cert, published in 1962, in the world of horse racing, establishing a specialized niche for his work. Subsequently he regularly produced a novel a year for the next 38 years, missing only 1998 (during which he published a short-story collection). Although all his books were set against a similar background, his male protagonists held a variety of jobs, including artist (In the Frame and To the Hilt), investigator for the Jockey Club (Slay-Ride and The Edge), pilot (Rat Race and Flying Finish), and wine merchant (Proof). All the novels are narrated by the hero, who in the course of the story learns that he is more resourceful, brave, tricky, than he had thought, and usually finds a certain salvation for himself as well as bestowing it on others. Details of other people's occupations fascinated Francis, and he explores the workings of such fields as photography, accountancy, the gemstone trade, and restaurant service on transcontinental trains—but always in the interest of the plot. Dysfunctional families were a subject which he also exploited (Reflex, a baleful grandmother; Hot Money, a multi-millionaire father and serial ex-husband; Decider, the related co-owners of a racecourse).
Francis rarely re-used his lead characters. Only two heroes were used more than once; injured ex-jockey turned one-armed private investigator Sid Halley (Odds Against, Whip Hand, Come to Grief, Under Orders, also in Refusal by Felix Francis after his father's death) and Kit Fielding (Break In and Bolt).
According to a columnist for the Houston Chronicle, Francis "writes believable fairy tales for adults—ones in which the actors are better than we are but are believable enough to make us wonder if indeed we could not one day manage to emulate them."
Writing routine
Francis described a typical year of research and writing to an interviewer in 1989:
In January, he sits down to write, staring down the barrel of a deadline. "My publisher comes over in mid-May to collect the manuscript," he says, "and it's got to be done."The book's publication takes place in England in September. American publication in past years has been in February, although his next book, Straight, is set to be published in November. Once the manuscript is out of his hands, he takes the summer off, while percolating the plot of his next book. Research on the next book begins in late summer and continues through the autumn, while he's gearing up for his promotional tour for the just-published book. Come January, he sits down to write again.He doesn't like book tours. He is not one for revelations, major life changes, and intimacies with strange interviewers, and he says he gets tired of answering the same questions again and again.He shuns the lecture circuit. He'd prefer to let his novels and his sales volume speak for themselves... And though he doesn't love the act of writing [and] could easily retire, he finds himself planning his new book as each summer ends.He says, "Each one, you think to yourself, 'This is the last one,' but then, by September, you're starting again. If you've got money, and you're just having fun, people think you're a useless character."Or, as independently wealthy Tor Kelsey says in The Edge, explaining why he works for a minuscule salary: "I work... because I like it, I'm not all that bad at what I do, really, and it's useful, and I'm not terribly good at twiddling my thumbs."
Collaboration
Francis collaborated extensively in his fiction with his wife, Mary, until her death. Learning this was a surprise to some readers and reviewers. He credited her with being a great researcher for the novels. In 1981, Don Clippinger interviewed the Francises for The Philadelphia Inquirer and wrote,
"When Dick Francis sits down each January to begin writing another of his popular mystery-adventure novels, it is almost a certain bet that his wife, Mary, has developed a new avocation... For instance, in Rat Race, [the protagonist] operated an air-taxi service that specialized in carrying jockeys, trainers and owners to distant race courses. Before that book came out in 1970, Mrs. Francis obtained a pilot's license and was operating an air-taxi service of her own. Francis' newest novel, Reflex, is built around photography, and sure enough, Mary Francis has become accomplished behind the camera and in the darkroom... And, in their condominium, they have set up the subject of his 20th novel [Twice Shy] – a computer. While he is touring the country, she is working on new computer programs."
According to journalist Mary Amoroso, "Mary does much of the research: She went so far as to learn to fly a plane for Flying Finish. She also edits his manuscripts, and serves as sounding board for plot line and character development. Says Francis, 'At least the research keeps her from going out shopping.'" Francis told interviewers Jean Swanson and Dean James,
Francis's manager (and co-author of his later books) was his son Felix, who left his post as teacher of A-Level Physics at Bloxham School in Oxfordshire in order to work for his father. Felix was the inspiration behind a leading character, a marksman and physics teacher, in the novel Twice Shy. The older son, Merrick, was a racehorse trainer and later ran his own horse transport business, which inspired the novel Driving Force.
Father and son collaborated on four novels. Since his father's death, Felix has carried on to publish novels with his father's name in the title, including a return for Sid Halley (Dick Francis's Refusal, 2013).
Honours
Francis is the only three-time recipient of the Mystery Writers of America's Edgar Award for Best Novel, winning for Forfeit in 1970, Whip Hand in 1981, and Come To Grief in 1996. Britain's Crime Writers Association awarded him its Gold Dagger Award for fiction in 1979 and the Cartier Diamond Dagger Lifetime Achievement Award in 1989. He was granted another Lifetime Achievement Award. Tufts University awarded him an honorary doctorate in 1991.
In 1996 he was given the Mystery Writers of America Grand Master Award, the highest honour bestowed by the MWA. In 2000, he was granted the Malice Domestic Award for Lifetime Achievement. He was created an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1983 and promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 2000.
Amoroso wrote in 1989, "And yet he has a keen sense of the evanescence of literary endeavors. 'Whole months of work can be gone in four hours,' he says ruefully. 'People say they can't put my books down, and so they read them in one sitting of four hours.' Francis has been long accustomed to celebrity as a British sports star, but today he is a worldwide phenomenon, having been published in 22 languages. In Australia, he is recognized in restaurants, from his book-jacket picture. He and Mary will see people reading the novels on planes and trains."
Francis was elected in 1999 a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature.
Adaptations
Film and television
His first novel, Dead Cert, was adapted as a film under the same title in 1974. Directed by Tony Richardson, it starred Scott Antony, Judi Dench and Michael Williams. It was adapted again as Favorit (a Soviet made-for-television movie) in 1976.
Francis's protagonist Sid Halley was featured in six TV movies made for the program The Dick Francis Thriller: The Racing Game (1979–1980), starring Mike Gwilym as Halley and Mick Ford as his partner, Chico Barnes. The first of the episodes, Odds Against, used a Francis title; the others were created for the program.
Three TV films of 1989 were adaptations of Bloodsport, In the Frame, and Twice Shy, all starring Ian McShane as protagonist David Cleveland, a character used only once by Francis, in the novel Slay-Ride.
BBC Radio
Bonecrack, starring Francis Matthews as Neil Griffon and Caroline Blakiston as Maggie Lake
Enquiry, starring Tony Osoba, Robert Lang and Bill Nighy
Proof starring Nigel Havers as Tony Beach
Whip Hand, starring Mick Ford as Sid Halley and Kim Durham as Chico Barnes, with Alan Devereux, David Vann, Patricia Gallimore and Terry Molloy
Rat Race, starring Hywel Bennett as Matt Shore and Helena Breck as Nancy
Bolt, starring Eric Allan as Kit Fielding and Sian Phillips as Princess Casilia
Video Game
High Stakes was adapted into a text adventure game by Mindscape for MS-DOS and Apple II.
Bibliography
See also
John Francome
References
Further reading
External links
Discussing the end of his writing.
1920 births
2010 deaths
20th-century English novelists
21st-century British novelists
Agatha Award winners
British mystery writers
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Members of the Detection Club
Cartier Diamond Dagger winners
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Edgar Award winners
English crime fiction writers
English expatriates in the United States
British Champion jumps jockeys
English jockeys
Royal Air Force pilots of World War II
British World War II fighter pilots
British World War II bomber pilots
People educated at Summer Fields School
People from Maidenhead
People from Blewbury
English expatriates in the Cayman Islands
Royal Air Force officers | [
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245025 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxomitron | Proxomitron | Proxomitron, the Universal Web Filter, is a filtering web proxy written by Scott R. Lemmon. This program was originally designed to run under Windows 95. All future development of the program was ceased in 2003 just one year before its author's death on 1 May 2004; even so, Proxomitron is still viable and used on modern Windows platforms such as Vista and Windows 10.
Premise
The program is generally used to block pop-ups and banners, to remove embedded sounds and animation from web pages, to alter or block JavaScript, and to modify the appearance and content of web pages.
Overview
Properly configured, Proxomitron intercepts HTTP traffic between the user's browser and web servers. The program is capable of altering web page content by removing or adding text. Additionally, it can add, modify, or delete HTTP message headers, be configured to block connections or redirect requests based on the web page address, and be configured to route connections through a remote proxy. The user can monitor connections and filter activations, if desired.
Program operation is dictated through the use of a configuration file containing specialized filters which can be written, edited, deleted, enabled or disabled by the user via the program's graphical user interface. (Third-party filters can also be imported, or "merged," into the configuration.) The filters utilize a "matching" language similar to the standard regular expressions used in text editing. Additional files, such as "blocklists" and SSL DLLs, can extend filtering capabilities.
Use of the program requires knowledge of the Proxomitron scripting language, and some familiarity with at least one of HTTP, HTML, JavaScript, and CSS. The scripting interface was not designed to be user-friendly. Because of these complications, the program can be difficult to customize for novice or non-technical users. A default set of filters is included with the program; advanced filters and filter sets written by experienced users are also available online. (See external links.)
Features
The following items are the basic applications and features of the program:
Filter page content
Using the scripting language, filters are prepared with editing commands to match and replace text in the downloaded page. Specific pages can be targeted for filtering by matching the page's URL with a specified pattern.
Filter HTTP headers
Separate filters for incoming and outgoing HTTP headers can be used to modify the values of existing headers, add new headers, or delete headers. One example of such usage would be for cookie management.
Variables
Filters can use local variables (per filter) or global variables (available to all filters per request) to capture/store text for further test matching, to reinsert content into a new location, or to write content to lists. Preset variables are also available, e.g., the page's URL.
Special commands
A number of special commands are available for use by filters or in URLs; e.g., a filter-based command can check if the user presses a particular key, or a URL-embedded command can direct Proxomitron to filter a local file.
Create lists for filters
Text files (known as "blocklists") can be used as sources for patterns for filter matches.
Create standard lists
Text files (known as "logfiles") can be used by filters to append captured data to a list.
Create session lists
Memory-only text files can be generated and used by filters to build temporary blocklists, or permanent blocklists can be configured to only allow filters to add memory-only "session" data.
Insert files
Local text files containing plain text, HTML snippits, css, or scripts can be independently retrieved and written into the web page by filters.
Reroute traffic
Filters can redirect requests to different web pages or to local files, either by sending the new location as a directive to the browser or by "transparently" connecting to the new location directly.
View traffic between server and browser
The log window permits the user to see the HTTP traffic between the browser and server. This can (optionally) include any POSTed data.
Provide alerts
Filters can be configured to have Proxomitron generate its own alert or confirmation popup containing user-supplied text.
Uncompress data on the fly
With the ZLIB library, the Proxomitron can uncompress GZIP compressed data streams and filter pages delivered in compressed modes.
Filter "secure" channels
With libraries to provide the SSL routines, the Proxomitron can filter secure, encoded streams. Since this forces the proxy to act as a "man in the middle", this should not be used in most cases.
Chain to remote proxies
Proxomitron can test remote proxies, maintain a list of proxies to utilize, and be configured to rotate the remote proxy connections.
Run program or URL
Proxomitron can be configured to launch an external program or URL (as specified in the program settings) upon startup, or on demand via the Launch icon or a menu option. Launching programs and URLs from filters can also be accomplished through the use of an undocumented $EXEC command.
Change interface textures
The user can select bitmap images (referred to as "textures") for tiling interface backgrounds and button and tab faces, or simply disable this feature. An internal set of default bitmaps (admittedly "psychedelic") are included with the program.
Debug
A special viewing of the page source showing which filters matched what page content can be sent to the browser for debugging purposes. A test window is also available from the filter editor dialogs for testing matches and checking filter efficiency.
License
The program was distributed under a "ShonenWare" license. Under the license it was free to use. Lemmon would consider users purchasing and listening to a Shonen Knife CD would be sufficient to register that user.
History
The first public release of Proxomitron (Naoko 2) was in 1999 as a download via Simtel.
Releases that followed were all named "Naoko" (for Naoko Yamano) followed by a release number. (Release versions were 3, 3(b), 4.0, 4.1, 4.2, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5.)
The May 2003 release of Naoko 4.5 was followed very quickly by the removal of the program's web site and Lemmon's declared termination of continued development of Proxomitron. A subsequent release, however, was made in June 2003, primarily to revert a new behavior related to remote proxy connections that had been designed into the May version.
After the release of Naoko 4.5 (June), development was permanently discontinued and the official site had the message:
This reads in Japanese and translates to "it went out" or "gone." The original home webpage is no longer accessible. Lemmon's mirror redirect was changed to display a different final message from the author a short time later.
The author, Scott R. Lemmon, died 1 May 2004 at age of 36.
Current status
As this was a closed-source project, Proxomitron is no longer being maintained or developed; however, the Proxomitron program is still functional, and there is a community of users who provide support for it through electronic forums. Filters, filter sets, compatible DLLs and other files, and GUI patches to restyle and/or update Proxomitron's graphical user interface are also being provided by users.
Many current browsers do contain features similar to those provided by Proxomitron filters – blocking advertisements and pop-ups, for example. Other browser features or add-ons, such as Greasemonkey for Firefox and user stylesheets for Firefox and other browsers via the Stylish addon, also allow for local modification of web pages.
See also
Privoxy
iMacros
References
External links
Proxy servers | [
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245041 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Caribbean%20music%20genres | List of Caribbean music genres | Caribbean music genres are diverse. They are each syntheses of African, European, Indian and Indigenous influences, largely created by descendants of African slaves (see Afro-Caribbean music), along with contributions from other communities (such as Indo-Caribbean music). Some of the styles to gain wide popularity outside the Caribbean include, bachata, merenque, palo, mombo, denbo, baithak gana, bouyon, cadence-lypso, calypso, chutney, chutney-soca, compas, dancehall, jing ping, parang, pichakaree, punta, ragga, reggae, reggaeton, salsa, soca, and zouk. Caribbean music is also related to Central American and South American music.
The history of Caribbean music originates from the history of the Caribbean itself. That history is one of the native land invaded by outsiders; violence, slavery, and even genocide factor in.
Following Christopher Columbus' 1492 landing, Spain claimed the entire region as its own. That didn't sit well with either the natives or Spain's European neighbors; within a few years, bloody battles raged across the islands of the Caribbean, fought by Spain, France, England, Denmark, and the Netherlands. All these battles (and diseases brought from Europe) decimated the native tribes, with entire cultures wiped out.
Thus the Caribbean was colonized as part of the various European empires. Native cultures were further eroded when the Europeans imported African slaves to work the sugar and coffee plantations on their island colonies. In many cases, native cultures (and native musics) were replaced by those imported from Africa and Europe.
At this point, whatever common Caribbean culture existed was splintered. Each of the European powers had imposed its own culture on the islands they had claimed. In the late 20th century, many Caribbean islands gained independence from colonial rule but the European influences can still be heard in the music of each subtly different culture.
Island-specific culture also informs the music of the Caribbean. Every island has its distinct musical styles, all inspired, to one degree or another, by the music brought over from the African slaves. As such, most Caribbean music, however unique to its own island culture, includes elements of African music - heavy use of percussion, complex rhythmic patterns, and call-and-response vocals. In many cases, the difference between one style and another comes down to the rhythms utilized in each music; every island has its own rhythmic sensibilities.
The complex deep origins of Caribbean music are best understood with a knowledge of Western Hemisphere colonial immigration patterns, human trafficking patterns, the resulting melting pot of people each of its nations and territories, and thus resulting influx of original musical influences. Colonial Caribbean ancestors were predominantly from West Africa, West Europe, and India. In the 20th and 21st centuries immigrants have also come from Taiwan, China, Indonesia/Java, and the Middle East. Neighboring Latin American and North American (particularly hip hop and pop music) countries have also naturally influenced Caribbean culture and vice versa. While there are musical commonalities among Caribbean nations and territories, the variation in immigration patterns and colonial hegemony tend to parallel the variations in musical influence. Language barriers (Spanish, Portuguese, English, Hindustani, Tamil, Telugu, Arabic, Chinese, Hebrew, Yiddish, Yoruba, African languages, Indian languages, Amerindian languages, French, Indonesian, Javanese, and Dutch) are one of the strongest influences.
Divisions between Caribbean music genres are not always well-defined, because many of these genres share common relations, instrumentation and have influenced each other in many ways and directions. For example, the Jamaican mento style has a long history of conflation with Trinidadian calypso. Elements of calypso have come to be used in mento, and vice versa, while their origins lie in the Afro-Caribbean culture, each uniquely characterized by influences from the Shango and Shouters religions of Trinidad and the Kumina spiritual tradition of Jamaica. Music from the Spanish-speaking areas of the Caribbean are classified as tropical music in the Latin music industry.
Antigua and Barbuda
Benna
Benna is an uptempo Antiguan folk song, also spelled bennah and known as ditti. It is characterized by lyrics that focus on scandalous gossip, performed in a call and response style. It has also been a means of folk communication, spreading news and political commentary across the island. Other genres include:
Extempo
Iron Band
Pan music
Soca
Bahamas
Goombay
Junkanoo
Rake-and-scrape
Bahamian Rhyming Spiritual
Barbados
Folk
Tuk
Spouge
Fling
Calypso jazz
Iron Band
Ragga Soca
Reggae
Soca
Bashment Soca
Belize
Punta
Punta rock
Chumba
Fedu
Brukdown
Reggae
Dancehall
Cumbia
Bachata
Colombia
Berroche
Bullerengue
Champeta
Chandé
Chalupa
Cumbia
Cumbión
Fandango
Garabato
Grito e' monte
Guacherna
Guaracha
Jalao
Lumbalú
Mapalé
Merecumbé
Millo
Parrandín
Paseaito
Perillero
Porro
Salsa
Son Faroto
Son de Negro
Son Sabanero
Son Palenquero
Tambora (Golpe de tambora)
Terapia
Zafra
Vallenato y sus aires:
Paseo
Son
Merengue
Puya
Tambora
Abambucao
Romanza vallenata
Piqueria
Calipso
Foxtrot
Mazurka
Mento
ModeUp
Dancehall
Pasillo Isleño
Polka
Praise Hymn
Quadrille
Reggae
Schottis
Socca
Ska
Vals isleño
Zouk
Cuba
Abwe
Afro-Cuban jazz
Areito
Bakosó
Batá and yuka
Batá-rumba
Bembe
Boogaloo
Bolero
Chachachá
Changui
Charanga
Conga
Columbia
Comparsa
Criolla
Cuban hip hop
Cuban jazz
Cubatón
Danzón
Danzonete
Dengue
Descarga
Filín
Folk
Guaguanco
Guajira
Guaracha
Guarapachangueo
Habanera
Latin Jazz
Mambo
Mozambique
Nueva trova
Paca
Pachanga
Pilón
Pregón
Punto guajiro
Reggae en Español
Rock
Rumba
Salsa
Son
Son-batá
Songo
Son Montuno
Timba
Trova
Tumba francesa
UPA
Yambú
Dominica
Chanté mas
Chanté mas (masquerade song) is a tradition from the music of Dominica, based in Carnival celebrations and performed by groups of masquerading partygoers. They use the call-and-response format, and lyrics are often light-hearted insulting, and discuss local scandals and rumors. Other genres include:
Bélé
Calypso music
Bouyon music
Cadence-lypso
Jing-Ping
Kadans
Mini-jazz
Quadrille
Zouk
soca music
Dominican Republic
Bachata
Gaga
Bolero
Latin Rap
Merengue
Perico Ripiao
Pambiche
Palo music
Dembow
Sarandunga
Yuca
Tumba
Zapateo
Carabiné
Merengue House
Salsa
Mangulina
Son
Salve
Trapchata
Zarambo
Dominican Rock
Latin Jazz
Dutch West Indies
Bari is a festival, dance, drum and song type from the Dutch Antillean island of Bonaire. It is led by a single singer, who improvises. Lyrics often concern local figures and events of importance.
Quimbe is a topical song form from the Dutch Antillean St Maarten. It traditionally accompanies the ponum dance and drumming, but is now often performed without accompaniment. Lyrics include gossip, news and social criticism, and use clever puns and rhymes. Performance is often competitive in nature.
Tumba is a style of Curaçao music, strongly African in origin, despite the name's origin in a 17th-century Spanish dance. Traditional tumba is characterized by scandalous, gossiping and accusatory lyrics, but modern tumba often eschews such topics. It is well known abroad, and dates to the early 19th century. It is now a part of the Carnival Road March.
Other genres include:
Latin Rap
Ritmo Kombiná
Tambú
Seú
Wals
Zumbi
Guadeloupe
Balakadri
Biguine vidé
Bouyon gwada
Cadence-lypso
Gwo ka
Hip hop
Kadans
Mini-jazz
Zouk
Guyana
Shanto is a form of Guyanese music, related to both calypso and mento, and became a major part of early popular music through its use in Guyanese vaudeville shows; songs are topical and light-hearted, often accompanied by a guitar. Other genres include:
Chutney
Chutney Soca
Dancehall
Calypso
Haiti
Compas / kompa
Compas, short for compas direct, is the modern méringue (mereng in creole) that was popularized in the mid-1950s by the sax and guitar player Nemours Jean-Baptiste. His méringue soon became popular throughout the Antilles, especially in Martinique and Guadeloupe. Webert Sicot and Nemours Jean-Baptiste became the two leaders in the group. Sicot then left and formed a new group and an intense rivalry developed, though they remained good friends. To differentiate himself from Nemours, Sicot called his modern méringue, Cadence rampa.
In Creole, it is spelled as konpa dirèk or simply konpa. It is commonly spelled as it is pronounced as kompa.
Méringue
Evolving in Haiti during the mid-1800s, the Haitian méringue (known as the mereng in creole) is regarded as the oldest surviving form of its kind performed today and is its national symbol. According to Jean Fouchard, mereng evolved from the fusion of slave music genres (such as the chica and calenda) with ballroom forms related to the French-Haitian contredanse (kontradans in creole). Mereng's name, he says, derives from the mouringue music of the Bara, a tribe of Madagascar. That few Malagasies came to the Americas casts doubt on this etymology, but it is significant because it emphasizes what Fouchard (and most Haitians) consider the African-derived nature of their music and national identity. Méringue has lost popularity to konpa.
Mizik rasin
Mizik rasin is a musical movement that began in Haïti in 1987 when musicians began combining elements of traditional Haitian Vodou ceremonial and folkloric music with rock and roll. This style of modern music reaching back to the roots of Vodou tradition came to be called mizik rasin ("roots music") in Haitian Creole or musique racine in French. In context, the movement is often referred to simply as rasin or racine.
Starting in the late 1970s (with discontent surrounding the increasing opulence of the Duvalier dictatorship), youth from Port-au-Prince (and to a lesser extent Cap-Haïtien and other urban areas) began experimenting with new types of life. François Duvalier's appropriation of Vodou images as a terror technique, the increase in U.S. assembly and large-scale export agriculture, the popularity of disco, and Jean-Claude Duvalier's appreciation of konpa and chanson française disillusioned many youth and love.
To question the dictatorship's notion of "the Haitian nation" (and thus the dictatorship itself), several men began trying a new way of living, embodied in the Sanba Movement. They drew upon global trends in black power, Bob Marley, "Hippie"-dom, as well as prominently from rural life in Haiti. They dressed in the traditional blue denim (karoko) of peasants, eschewed the commercialized and processed life offered by global capitalism, and celebrated the values of communal living. Later, they adopted matted hair which resembled dreadlocks, but identified the style as something which existed in Haiti with the term cheve simbi, referring to water spirits.
In the 1990s, commercial success came to the musical genre that came to be known as mizik rasin, or "roots music". Musicians like Boukman Eksperyans, and Boukan Ginen, and to a lesser extent RAM, incorporated reggae, rock and funk rhythms into traditional forms and instrumentation, including rara, music from kanaval, or traditional spiritual music from the rural hamlets called lakous, like Lakou Souvnans, Lakou Badjo, Lakou Soukri, or Lakou Dereyal.
Twoubadou
Twoubadou is another form of folk music played by peripatetic troubadours playing some combination of acoustic, guitar, beat box and accordion instruments singing ballads of Haitian, French or Caribbean origin. It is in some ways similar to Son Cubano from Cuba as a result of Haitian migrant laborers who went to work on Cuban sugar plantations at the turn of the century. Musicians perform at the Port-au-Prince International Airport and also at bars and restaurants in Pétion-Ville.
Other
Cadence rampa (kadans)
Coumbite (kombite)
Haitian Gospel
Haitian hip hop (rap kreyòl)
Haitian rock (rock kreyòl)
Kontradans
Mini-jazz
Rabòday
Rara
Rara tech
Vodou drumming
Zouk
Bachata
Honduras
The music of Honduras is varied. Punta is the main "ritmo" of Honduras, with similar sounds such as Caribbean salsa, merengue, reggae, reggaeton, And kompa all widely heard especially in the North, to Mexican rancheras heard in the interior rural part of the country. Honduras' capital Tegucigalpa is an important center for modern Honduran music, and is home to the College for Fine Arts.
Folk music is played with guitar, marimba and other instruments. Popular folk songs include La ceiba and Candú.
Other genres include:
Reggaeton
Rock
Garifuna music
Bachata
Matamuerte
Classical music
Merengue
Hip Hop
Pop Latino
Cumbia
Salsa
Spanish rock
Jamaica
Reggae is a music genre first developed in Jamaica in the late 1960s. While sometimes used in a broader sense to refer to most types of Jamaican music, the term reggae more properly denotes a particular music style that originated following on the development of ska and rocksteady.
Ska is a music genre that originated in Jamaica in the late 1950s, and was the precursor to rocksteady and reggae. Ska combined elements of Caribbean mento and calypso with American jazz and rhythm and blues. It is characterized by a walking bass line accented with rhythms on the upbeat.
Mento is a form of Jamaican folk music that uses topical lyrics with a humorous slant, commenting on poverty and other social issues. Sexual innuendos are also common. Mento was strongly influenced by calypso, the musical traditions of the Kumina religion and Cuban music. During the mid-20th century, mento was conflated with calypso, and mento was frequently referred to as calypso, kalypso and mento calypso; mento singers frequently used calypso songs and techniques.
Other genres include:
Dancehall
Dub
Kumina
Lovers rock
Nyabinghi
Ragga
Rocksteady
Roots reggae
Soca music
Martinique
Bèlè (Bel Air)
Biguine
Chouval bwa
Hip hop
Jump up
Kadans
Mini-jazz
Quadrille
Zouk
Mazouk (Mazurka)
Puerto Rico
Aguinaldo
Balada
Boogaloo
Bomba
Danza
Décima
Guaracha
Latin hip hop
Latin house
Latin trap
Plena
Reggae en Español
Reggaeton
Salsa
Salsa romántica
Spanish dancehall
Seis
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Big Drum
Calypso
Soca
Steelpan
Stringband music
Saint Lucia
Jwé is a kind of rural music from Saint Lucia, performed informally at wakes, beach parties, full moon gatherings and other events, including débòt dances. Jwé uses raunchy lyrics and innuendos to show off verbal skills, and to express political and comedic commentaries on current events and well-known individuals. One well-known technique that has entered Lucian culture is lang dévivé, which is when the singer says the opposite of his true meaning. Other genres include:
Calypso
Extempo
Kont
Soca
Zouk
Dancehall
Dub
Reggae
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Big Drum is a style found in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines and elsewhere in the Windward Islands, especially Carriacou. It is accompanied by drums traditionally made from tree trunks, though rum kegs are now more common. Satirical and political lyrics are common, performed by a female singer called a chantwell and accompanied by colorfully costumed dancers. Big Drum is performed at celebrations like weddings and the launchings of new boats. Chutney-soca is another genre.
Suriname
Kaseko is a music genre that originated in Suriname. The term Kaseko is probably derived from the French expression casser le corps (break the body), which was used during slavery to indicate a very swift dance. It is a fusion of numerous popular and folk styles. It is rhythmically complex, with percussion instruments including skratji (a very large bass drum). Songs are typically call-and-response.
Other genres include:
Baithak Gana
Indo-Caribbean
Aleke
Kawina
Trinidad and Tobago
Calypso
Calypso is a Trinidadian music, which traditionally uses a slow tempo to accompany vocalist-composers, or calypsonians. Songs are often improvised and humorous, with sexual innuendo, political and social commentary, and picong, a style of lyricism that teases people in a light-hearted way. Calypso is competitively performed in calypso tents at Carnival. Calypso uses rhythms derived from West Africa, with cut time, and features dance as an important component. Calypso's roots were frequently ascribed to the Bahamas, Jamaica, Bermuda or the Virgin Islands. Calypso can be traced back to at least 1859, when a visiting ornithologist in Trinidad ascribed calypso's origins in British ballads. While calypso has a diverse heritage, calypso became a distinct genre when it developed in Trinidad. The word caliso refers to topical songs in the dialect of Saint Lucia, and may be linguistically related to the word calypso.
Cariso
Cariso is a kind of Trinidadian folk music, and an important ancestor of calypso music. It is lyrically topical, and frequently sarcastic or mocking in the picong tradition, and is sung primarily in French creole by singers called chantwells. Cariso may come from carieto, a Carib word meaning joyous song, and can also be used synonymously with careso.
Chutney
Chutney is a form indigenous to the southern Caribbean, popular in Guyana, Trinidad, Jamaica and Suriname. It derives elements from traditional Indian music and popular Trinidadian Soca music.
Soca
Soca is a style of Caribbean music originating in Trinidad and Tobago.
Soca originally combined the melodic lilting sound of calypso with insistent cadence percussion (which is often electronic in recent music), and Indian musical instruments—particularly the dholak, tabla and dhantal—as demonstrated in Shorty's classic compositions "Ïndrani" and "Shanti Om". During the 80's, the influence of zouk as popularized by the French Antillean band Kassav' had a major impact on the development of modern soca music.
Other
Afrosoca
Chut-kai-pang
Chutney-soca
Caribbean pop
Gospelypso
Indo-Caribbean
Kaiso
Pan music
Parang
Pichakaree
Rapso
Yahdees
Venezuela
Musica llanera
Merengue
Gaita
Tambores
Virgin Islands
Careso
Careso is a Virgin Islander song form, which is now entirely performed for special holiday and appreciation or education events, by folkloric ensembles. It is similar to quelbe in some ways, but has more sustained syllables, a more African melodic style and an all female, call and response format with lyrics that function as news and gossip communicator, also commemorating and celebrating historical events.
Other
Scratch band
Bamboula
Masquerade music
Quelbe
Quelbe is a form of Virgin Islander folk music that originated on St. Croix, now most commonly performed by groups called scratch bands. Traditionally, however, quelbe was performed informally by solo singers at festivals and other celebrations. Hidden meanings and sexual innuendos were common, and lyrics focused on political events like boycotts.
Yucatán, Mexico
Bolero
Chachachá
Conga
Criolla
Danzón
Guaracha
Mambo
Marimba
Salsa
Son
Troval
Cumbia
References
External links
The Diaz Ayala Cuban and Latin American Popular Music Collection http://latinpop.fiu.edu/
Brill, Mark. Music of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2nd Edition, 2018. Taylor & Francis
Caribbean
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] |
245060 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Roman%20cognomina | List of Roman cognomina |
This is a list of Roman cognomina.
A
Abercius,
Abito,
Abundantius,
Abundius,
Abundus,
Aburianus,
Acacius,
Acaunus,
Acceptus,
Achaicus,
Acidinus,
Acilianus,
Aculeo,
Acutianus,
Acutus,
Adauctus,
Adelphius,
Adiutor,
Adranos,
Adventus,
Aeacus,
Aebutus,
Aedesius,
Aelianus,
Aemilianus,
Aeserninus,
Aetius,
Afer,
Africanus,
Afrinus,
Agaptus,
Agatopus,
Agelastus,
Agorix,
Agricola,
Agrippa,
Agrippianus,
Agrippinillus,
Agrippinus,
Ahala,
Ahenobarbus,
Albanianus,
Albanus,
Albillus,
Albinianus,
Albinius,
Albinus,
Albucillus,
Albucius,
Albus,
Alcimus,
Alethius,
Alienus,
Allectus,
Aluredes,
Alypius,
Amabilis,
Amandianus,
Amandinus,
Amandus,
Amantillus,
Amantius,
Amarantus,
Amator,
Amatus,
Ambrosius,
Ambustus (associated with gens Fabia),
Amor,
Amphion,
Ampliatus,
Anatolius,
Andronicus,
Angelus,
Annaeanus,
Annianus,
Anniolus,
Antias,
Antius,
Antiquus,
Antistianus,
Antonianus,
Antonillus,
Antoninus,
Anulinus,
Anullinus,
Apelles,
Apellinus,
Aper,
Apollinaris,
Apollonarius,
Apollonius,
Appianillus,
Appianus,
Appuleianus,
Aprilis,
Aprillus,
Aprinus,
Apronianus,
Apronillus,
Apuleianus,
Aquila,
Aquilianus,
Aquilinus,
Aquillianus,
Arator,
Aratus,
Arcadius,
Arcanus,
Arcavius,
Archarius,
Arius,
Armiger,
Arminus,
Arnobius,
Arpagius,
Arrianus,
Arruntianus,
Arruntius,
Artorianus,
Arulenus,
Arvina,
Asellio,
Asellus,
Asiaticus,
Asina,
Asinianus,
Asper,
Asprenas,
Asprenus,
Assanius,
Atianus,
Atilianus,
Atratinus,
Attianus,
Attianillus,
Atticianus,
Atticillus,
Atticinus,
Atticus,
Attilianus,
Auctillus,
Auctus,
Audaios,
Audax,
Audens,
Aufidianus,
Augendus,
Augur,
Augurinus,
Augurius,
Augustalis,
Augustanus,
Augustinus,
Augustus,
Aurelianus,
Aurelius,
Aureolus,
Aurunculeianus,
Auruncus,
Ausonius,
Auspex,
Auspicatus,
Auxentius,
Auxientius,
Auxilius,
Avienus,
Aviola,
Avitianus,
Avitillus,
Avitus,
Axilla
B
Baebianus,
Balbillus,
Balbinus,
Balbus,
Bambalio,
Bamballio,
Banquerius,
Barba,
Barbarus,
Barbatus,
Barbillus,
Barbula,
Baro,
Bassianus,
Bassinus,
Bassus,
Bato,
Belenus,
Belisarius,
Beatus,
Bellator,
Bellicianus,
Bellicus,
Bellus,
Benedictus,
Benignus,
Bestia,
Betto,
Bibaculus,
Bibulus,
Bitucus,
Blaesillus,
Blaesus,
Blandinus,
Blandus,
Blasius,
Blossianus,
Bodenius,
Boethius,
Boetius,
Bolanus,
Bonifatius,
Bonosus,
Bonus,
Bradua,
Briccius,
Bricius,
Briktius,
Britannicus,
Britius,
Brixius,
Brocchillus,
Brocchus,
Bromidus,
Bruccius,
Brucetus,
Bruscius,
Bruttianus,
Brutus,
Bubo,
Bubulcus,
Buca,
Buccio,
Bulbus,
Bulla,
Burcanius,
Burrus,
Buteo
C
Caecilianus,
Caecina,
Caecinianus,
Caedicianus,
Caelianus,
Caelimontanus (associated with Gens Verginia),
Caelinus,
Caecus,
Caelestinus,
Caelestius,
Caelianus,
Caelinus,
Caelistis,
Caepio,
Caerellius,
Caesar,
Caesennianus,
Caesianus,
Caesonianus,
Caesoninus,
Caianillus,
Caianus,
Calacicus,
Calamus,
Calaritanus,
Calatinus,
Calavianus,
Caldus,
Calenus,
Calerus,
Caletus,
Calidianus,
Callidianus,
Callisunus,
Calogerus,
Calpurnianus,
Calpurnis,
Calvinus,
Calvisianus,
Calvus,
Camerinus,
Camerius,
Camillus,
Campanianus,
Campanus,
Campester,
Candidianus,
Candidillus,
Candidinus,
Candidus,
Canianus,
Canidianus,
Canina,
Caninianus,
Cantaber,
Capella,
Capito,
Capitolinus,
Caprarius,
Capreorus,
Caracturus,
Carantus,
Carbo,
Carinus,
Carius,
Carnifex,
Carus,
Carvilianus,
Casca,
Cassianillus,
Cassianus,
Castinus,
Castorius,
Castus,
Catianus,
Catilina,
Cato,
Catonius,
Cattianus,
Catullinus,
Catullus,
Catulus,
Catus,
Caudex,
Caudinus,
Celatus,
Celer,
Celerianus,
Celerinus,
Celsillus,
Celsinillus,
Celsinus,
Celsus,
Cenaeus,
Cencius,
Censor,
Censorinillus,
Censorinus,
Censorius,
Centumalus,
Cerialis,
Cerinthus,
Certinus,
Certus,
Cerularius,
Cervianus,
Cervidus,
Cethegus,
Chlorus,
Christianus,
Cicatricula,
Cicero,
Cico,
Cicurinus,
Cicurius,
Cimber,
Cincinnatus,
Cinna,
Cinnianus,
Cita,
Cittinus,
Civilis,
Clarentius,
Clarianus,
Clarus,
Classicianus,
Classicus,
Claudianus,
Claudillus,
Claudus,
Clemens,
Clementianus,
Clementillus,
Clementinus,
Clodianus,
Clodus,
Cocceianus,
Cocles,
Coelianus,
Coelinus,
Cogitatus,
Colias,
Collatinus,
Colonus,
Columbanus,
Columella,
Coma,
Comes,
Comitianus,
Comitinus,
Commidius,
Commidus,
Commius,
Commodus,
Concessianus,
Concessus,
Congrio,
Constans,
Constantillus,
Constantinus,
Constantius,
Coranus,
Corbulo,
Corculum,
Cordillus,
Cordus,
Coriolanus,
Cornelianus,
Cornicen,
Cornix,
Cornutus,
Corvinus,
Corvus,
Cosmas,
Cossus,
Cotentinus,
Cotta,
Crassillus,
Crassus,
Cremutius,
Crescens,
Crescentianus,
Crescentillus,
Crescentinus,
Crescentius,
Creticus,
Crispianus,
Crispinianus,
Crispinillus,
Crispinus,
Crispus,
Crito,
Crotilo,
Crus,
Cucuphas,
Culleolus,
Cullio,
Cumanus,
Cunctator,
Cunobarrus,
Cupitianus,
Cupitus,
Curianus,
Curio,
Cursor,
Curtianus,
Curvus,
Cyprianus,
Cyricus
D
Dacianus,
Dacicus,
Dacius,
Dalmaticus,
Dalmatius,
Dama,
Damascius,
Damasippus,
Damasus,
Damianus,
Dannicus,
Dardanius,
Dardanus,
Dativus,
Datus,
Decianus,
Deciminus,
Decimus,
Decmitius,
Decoratus,
Densus,
Dentatus,
Denter,
Dento,
Desideratus,
Desiderius,
Dexion,
Dexippus,
Dexter,
Dextrianus,
Diadematus,
Dianilla,
Didianus,
Didicus,
Didymus,
Dido,
Dignillus,
Dignissimus,
Dignus,
Dio,
Diocletianus,
Dioscourides,
Disertus,
Dives,
Docilinus,
Docilus,
Dolabella,
Dolens,
Dominicus,
Domitianus,
Domitillus,
Donatianus,
Donatillus,
Donatus,
Donicus,
Dorotheus,
Dorso,
Dorsuo,
Draco,
Drusillus,
Drusus,
Dubitatius,
Duilianus,
Dulcitius,
Durio,
Durus,
Duvianus
E
Eborius,
Eburnus,
Ecdicius,
Eclectus,
Efficax,
Egbuttius,
Egnatianus,
Egnatillus,
Elerius,
Eliphas,
Elpidius,
Elvorix,
Emeritus,
Encratis,
Ennecus,
Ennodius,
Eonus,
Eparchius,
Epidianus,
Epimachus,
Epiphanius,
Epolonius,
Erasinus,
Esdras,
Esquilinus,
Equinus,
Etruscillus,
Etruscus,
Eucherius,
Eudomius,
Eudoxius,
Eugenius,
Eugenus,
Eulogius,
Eumenius,
Eunapius,
Euphemius,
Eurysaces,
Eustachius,
Eustacius,
Eustathius,
Eustochius,
Eutherius,
Evodius,
Excingus,
Exoratus,
Exsupereus,
Extricatus,
Exuperans,
Exuperantius,
Exuperatus,
Exupereus,
Exuperius
F
Faber,
Fabianus,
Fabiolus,
Fabricianus,
Fabullianus,
Fabullus,
Facilis,
Facundinus,
Facundus,
Fadus,
Fagus,
Falco,
Falconillus,
Falx,
Fama,
Familiaris,
Fastidius,
Farus,
Fatalis,
Faustillus,
Faustinianus,
Faustinus,
Faustus,
Faventinus,
Favonianus,
Favorinus,
Felicianus,
Felicissimus,
Feliсitas,
Feliсius,
Felissimus,
Felix,
Ferentinus,
Ferox,
Ferreolus,
Festianus,
Festivus,
Festus,
Fidelis,
Fidenas,
Fidus,
Figulus,
Fimbria,
Fimus,
Firmianus,
Firmillus,
Firminianus,
Firminillus,
Firminus,
Firmus,
Flaccianus,
Flaccillus,
Flaccinator,
Flaccinus,
Flaccus,
Flamen,
Flaminianus,
Flaminillus,
Flamininus,
Flamma,
Flavianillus,
Flavianus,
Flavillus,
Flavinus,
Flavus,
Florens,
Florentianus,
Florentillus,
Florentinus,
Florentius,
Florianus,
Floridus,
Florillus,
Florinus,
Florus,
Fonteianus,
Forianus,
Fortis,
Fortunatianus,
Fortunatus,
Fraucus,
Frequens,
Frequentianus,
Frequentillus,
Frequentinus,
Frigidianus,
Frontalis,
Frontillus,
Frontinianus,
Frontinus,
Fronto,
Frontonianus,
Frontonillus,
Fructuosus,
Fructus,
Frugi,
Frugius,
Frumentius,
Fufianus,
Fulgentius,
Fullo,
Fullofaudes,
Fulvianillus,
Fulvianus,
Fulvillus,
Fulvus,
Fundanus,
Furianus,
Fuscianillus,
Fuscianus,
Fuscillus,
Fuscinillus,
Fuscinus,
Fuscus,
Fusus
G
Gabinianus,
Gabinillus,
Gabinus,
Gaetulicus,
Gaianillus,
Gaianus,
Gala,
Galarius,
Galba,
Galenus,
Galerus,
Gallicanus,
Gallicus,
Gallienus,
Gallio,
Gallus,
Galvisius,
Garilianus,
Garrulus,
Gaudens,
Gaudentianus,
Gaudentius,
Gavianus,
Gavros,
Gelasius,
Gellianus,
Gemellianus,
Gemellinus,
Gemellus,
Geminianus,
Geminus,
Generidus,
Genesius,
Genialis,
Gennadius,
Gentilis,
Germanicus,
Germanus,
Jovinianus,
Geta,
Getha,
Glabrio,
Globulus,
Gluvias,
Glycia,
Gordianus,
Gordio,
Gorgonius,
Gracchanus,
Gracchus,
Gracilis,
Graecinus,
Granianus,
Granillus,
Gratianus,
Gratidianus,
Gratillus,
Gratinianus,
Gratinus,
Gratus,
Grattianus,
Gregorius,
Grumio,
Gryllus,
Grypus,
Gualterus,
Gurges,
Graecus
H
Habitus,
Hadrianus,
Hardalio,
Hasta,
Helvianus,
Hemina,
Herculanus,
Herculius,
Herennianus,
Herennius,
Herenus,
Herma,
Hermias,
Hermina,
Hesychius,
Hiberus,
Hibrida,
Hilarianus,
Hilarillus,
Hilarinus,
Hilario,
Hilaris,
Hilarius,
Hilarus,
Hipparchus,
Hirpinius,
Hirrus,
Homullus,
Honoratianus,
Honoratus,
Honorinus,
Horatianus,
Horatius,
Hortensianus,
Hortensis,
Hortensus,
Hostilianus,
Humilus,
Hybrida
I
Iacomus,
Ianuarius,
Iavolenus,
Imbrex,
Imperiosus,
Impetratus,
Indaletius,
Indus,
Ingeniosus,
Ingenuillis,
Ingenuus,
Ingenvinus,
Innocens,
Inregillensis,
Iocundus,
Iovianus,
Iovinianus,
Iovinus,
Iovius,
Irenaeus,
Isatis,
Isauricus,
Isaurus,
Isidorus,
Ismarus,
Italicus,
Iuba,
Iucundianus,
Iucundillus,
Iucundinus,
Iucundus,
Iulianus,
Iulillus,
Iuliolus,
Iulius,
Iulus,
Iuncinus,
Iuncus,
Iunianus,
Iunillus,
Iunior,
Iustianus,
Iustillus,
Iustinianus,
Iustinus,
Iustus,
Iuvenalis,
Iuvenis,
Iuventianus,
Iuventinus,
Iynx
L
Labienus,
Labeo,
Laberianus,
Lactantius,
Lactuca,
Lacticinus,
Laeca,
Laelianus,
Laenas,
Laetillus,
Laetinianus,
Laetus,
Laevillus,
Laevinus,
Laevus,
Lamia,
Lanatus,
Larcianus,
Lartianus,
Largus,
Lateranus,
Latinus,
Latro,
Laurentinus,
Laurentius,
Laurinus,
Laurus,
Leddicus,
Lentullus,
Lentulus,
Leo,
Leontius,
Lepidianus,
Lepidillus,
Lepidinus,
Lepidus,
Lepontus,
Leporinus,
Lepos,
Libanius,
Liberalis,
Liberius,
Libo,
Licinianus,
Licinus,
Ligur,
Ligus,
Ligustinus,
Limetanus,
Linus,
Litorius,
Littera,
Litumaris,
Livianus,
Livigenus,
Livillus,
Lollianus,
Longillus,
Longinianus,
Longinillus,
Longinus,
Longus,
Lovernianus,
Lovernius,
Lucanus,
Lucianus,
Lucidus,
Lucifer,
Lucilianus,
Lucillianus,
Lucillus,
Lucinus,
Luciolus,
Lucretianus,
Luctacus,
Lucullus,
Lunaris,
Luonercus,
Lupercillus,
Lupercus,
Lupicinus,
Lupinus,
Lupulus,
Lupus,
Lurco,
Lurio,
Luscinus,
Luscus,
Lusianus,
Lustricus,
Lutatianus,
Lycaeus
M
Maccalus,
Macer,
Macerinus,
Macrinianus,
Macrinillus,
Macrinus,
Macro,
Macrobius,
Mactator,
Maecenus,
Maecianus,
Magnentius,
Magnianus,
Magnillus,
Magnus,
Magunnus,
Maior,
Maius,
Malchus,
Malleolus,
Mallianus,
Mallus,
Maltinus,
Maluginensis,
Mamercinus,
Mamercus,
Mamertinus,
Mamilianus,
Mamma,
Mammula,
Mancinus,
Manilianus,
Manlianus,
Mansuetus,
Marcallas,
Marcellianus,
Marcellinus,
Marcellus,
Marcialis,
Marcianus,
Margarita,
Marianillus,
Marianus,
Marinianus,
Marinus,
Maritialis,
Maritimus,
Marius,
Maro,
Marsallas,
Marsicus,
Marsus,
Marsyas,
Martialis,
Martianus,
Martinianus,
Martinus,
Martius,
Martyrius,
Marullinus,
Marullus,
Masavo,
Masculus,
Materninus,
Maternus,
Matho,
Maturinus,
Maturus,
Mauricius,
Maurinus,
Mauritius,
Maurus,
Maxentius,
Maximianus,
Maximillianus,
Maximillus,
Maximinus,
Maximus,
Medullinus,
Megellus,
Meletius,
Melissus,
Melito,
Melitus,
Mellitus,
Melus,
Meminianus,
Memmianus,
Memor,
Mento,
Mercator,
Mercurialis,
Mercurinus,
Merenda,
Merula,
Messala,
Messalinus,
Messianus,
Messor,
Metellinus,
Metellus,
Metilianus,
Metunus,
Micianus,
Mico,
Milo,
Milonius,
Minervalis,
Minervinus,
Minianus,
Minicianus,
Minucianus,
Moderatillus,
Moderatus,
Modestinus,
Modestus,
Modianus,
Molacus,
Momus,
Montanillus,
Montanus,
Mordanticus,
Mucianus,
Mugillanus,
Munatianus,
Muncius,
Murena,
Mus,
Musa,
Musca,
Musicus,
Mutilus
N
Nabor,
Naevianus,
Naevolus,
Narcissus,
Narses,
Nasica,
Naso,
Natalianus,
Natalinus,
Natalis,
Natalius,
Natta,
Nepos,
Nepotianus,
Naucratius,
Nazarius,
Nectaridus,
Nelius,
Nemesianus,
Nemnogenus,
Neneus,
Nennius,
Nepos,
Nepotillus,
Neptunalis,
Nero,
Nertomarus,
Nerva,
Nicasius,
Nicetius,
Nigellus,
Niger,
Nigidianus,
Nigrianus,
Nigrinus,
Ninnianus,
Niraemius,
Nobilior,
Noctua,
Nolus,
Nonianus,
Norbanianus,
Noricus,
Noster,
Novanus,
Novation,
Novellianus,
Novellus,
Novianus,
Numerianus,
Nummus,
Numonis
O
Obsequens,
Oceanus,
Ocella,
Octavillus,
Octobrianus,
Oculatus,
Ofella,
Olennius,
Olympicus,
Opilio,
Opimianus,
Opis,
Oppianicus,
Oppianus,
Optatillus,
Optatus,
Ordius,
Orestes,
Orestillus,
Orientalis,
Orientius,
Orissus,
Orontius,
Ostorianus,
Otacilianus,
Otho,
Ovidus
P
Pacatianus,
Pacatus,
Pachomius,
Pacilus,
Pacuvianus,
Paenula,
Paetillus,
Paetinus,
Paetus,
Palicanus,
Palma,
Pammachius,
Pamphilius,
Panaetius,
Pansa,
Pantensus,
Pantera,
Panthera,
Papianus,
Papinianus,
Papirianus,
Papus,
Paratus,
Pardus,
Parmensis,
Parnesius,
Pastor,
Paterculus,
Paternianus,
Paternus,
Patiens,
Patricius,
Paulinus,
Paullinus,
Paullus/Paulus,
Pavo,
Pelagius,
Pennus,
Pera,
Peregrinus,
Perennis,
Perpetuus,
Persicus,
Pertacus,
Pertinax,
Pervincianus,
Pervincus,
Petasius,
Peticus,
Petilianus,
Petillianus,
Petro,
Petronax,
Petronianus,
Petronillus,
Petronius,
Petrus,
Philippus,
Philo,
Philus,
Photius,
Picens (associated with gens Herennia),
Pictor,
Pilatus,
Pilus,
Pinarianus,
Pinnus,
Piso,
Pitio,
Pius,
Placidianus,
Placidinus,
Placidus,
Plancianus,
Plancinus,
Plancus,
Planta,
Plautianus,
Plautillus,
Plautinus,
Plautis,
Plautus,
Pleminianus,
Plinianus,
Plotianus,
Plotillus,
Plotinus,
Plotus,
Pollianus,
Pollienus,
Pollio,
Pollus/Polus,
Polybius,
Pompeianus,
Pompilianus,
Pompolussa,
Pomponianus,
Pomponillus,
Pontianus,
Ponticillus,
Ponticus,
Poplicola,
Porcellus,
Porcianus,
Porcina,
Porcus,
Porphyrius,
Posca,
Postumianus,
Postuminus,
Postumus,
Potens,
Potentinus,
Potestas,
Potitianus,
Potitus,
Praenestinus,
Praesens,
Praetextatus,
Praetextus,
Prilidianus,
Primanus,
Primianus,
Primillus,
Primulus,
Primus,
Priscianus,
Priscillianus,
Priscillus,
Priscinus,
Priscus,
Privatus,
Privernas,
Probatus,
Probianus,
Probillus,
Probinus,
Probus,
Processus,
Proceus,
Proclus,
Proculianus,
Proculinus,
Proculus,
Procus,
Procyon,
Promptus,
Prontinus,
Profuturus,
Propertius,
Propinquus,
Prosperus,
Protacius,
Proteus,
Protus,
Provincialis,
Proximillus,
Proximus,
Prudens,
Prudentillus,
Publianus,
Publicianus,
Publicola,
Publicus,
Publilianus,
Pudens,
Pudentianus,
Pudentillus,
Pudentius,
Pulcher,
Pulcherius,
Pulex,
Pullus,
Pulvillus,
Pupianus,
Pupus,
Purpureo,
Pusinnus,
Pusio,
Pustula
Q
Quadratillus,
Quadratus,
Quartillus,
Quartinus,
Quarto,
Quartus,
Quietus,
Quintianus,
Quintilianus,
Quintillanius,
Quintillus,
Quintinus,
Quintus,
Quiricus,
Quirinalis,
Quirinus
R
Rabirianus,
Raeticus,
Ramio,
Ravilla,
Rebilus,
Reburrinus,
Reburrus,
Receptus,
Rectus,
Regillensis,
Regillianus,
Regillus,
Reginus,
Regulianus,
Regulus,
Remigius,
Remus,
Renatus,
Repentinus,
Respectillus,
Respectus,
Restitutus,
Rex,
Rhesus,
Ripanus,
Robustus,
Rogatianus,
Rogatillus,
Rogatus,
Rogelius,
Romanillus,
Romanus,
Romulianus,
Romulus,
Roscianus,
Rufianus,
Rufillus,
Rufinianus,
Rufinillus,
Rufinus,
Rufrianus,
Rufus,
Ruga,
Rullianus,
Rullus,
Ruricius,
Rusca,
Ruso,
Russus,
Rusticus,
Rutilianus,
Rutilus
S
Sabaco,
Sabellius,
Sabinianus,
Sabinillus,
Sabinus,
Saccus,
Sacerdos,
Saenus,
Salinator,
Sallustianus,
Salonianus,
Saloninus,
Salvianus,
Salvillus,
Salvinus,
Sanctinus,
Sanctus,
Sandilianus,
Sanga,
Sarimarcus,
Saserna,
Satullus,
Saturnalis,
Saturninus,
Saunio,
Saverrio,
Saxo,
Scaeva,
Scaevola,
Scapula,
Scaro,
Scarpus,
Scato,
Scaurus,
Schlerus,
Scipio,
Scribonianus,
Scrofa,
Sebastianus,
Secundianus,
Secundillus,
Secundinus,
Secundus,
Securus,
Sedatus,
Sedulus,
Segestes,
Seianus,
Sempronianus,
Senator,
Seneca,
Senecianus,
Senecio,
Senilianus,
Senilis,
Senna,
Senopianus,
Septimianus,
Septimillus,
Septimus,
Serapion,
Serenus,
Sergianus,
Sergillus,
Seronatus,
Serranus,
Sertorianus,
Servanus,
Servatius,
Servilianus,
Sestianus,
Sestinus,
Severlinus,
Severianus,
Severillus,
Severinus,
Severus,
Seuso,
Sextianus,
Sextilianus,
Sextillianus,
Sextillus,
Sextinus,
Sextus,
Siculus,
Sidonius,
Sigilis,
Silanus,
Silianus,
Silo,
Silus,
Silvanus,
Silvester,
Silvianus,
Silvillus,
Silvinus,
Silvius,
Similis,
Simo,
Simplex,
Simplicianus,
Simplicius,
Siricius,
Siricus,
Sisenna,
Sisinnius,
Sita,
Solinus,
Sollemnis,
Solon,
Solus,
Sophus,
Soranus,
Sorex,
Sorio,
Sospes,
Sotericus,
Sparsus,
Spartacus,
Spectatillus,
Spectatus,
Spendius,
Speratus,
Spinther,
Spurinna,
Squillus,
Statius,
Stellio,
Stilo,
Stichus,
Stolo,
Strabo,
Structus,
Suavis,
Subulo,
Suburanus,
Successianus,
Successus,
Sudrenus,
Sulca,
Sulinus,
Sulla,
Sulpicianus,
Super,
Superbus,
Superianus,
Superstes,
Superus,
Sura,
Surdus,
Surinus,
Surius,
Surus,
Symmachus,
Symphorianus,
Synistor,
Synnodus,
Syriacus
T
Tacitianus,
Tacitus,
Taenaris,
Tancinus,
Tanicus,
Tantalus,
Tarcisius,
Tarquinianus,
Tatianus,
Taurillus,
Taurinus,
Taurus,
Tegula,
Telesinus,
Tenax,
Terentianus,
Terentillus,
Tertianus,
Tertinus,
Tertiolus,
Tertius,
Tertullianus,
Tertullus,
Tetricus,
Tettianus,
Thrasea,
Thurinus,
Tiberianus,
Tiberillus,
Tiberinus,
Tibullus,
Tiburs,
Tiro,
Titianus,
Titillus,
Titinianus,
Titiolus,
Torquatus,
Toxotius,
Traianus,
Trailus,
Tranio,
Tranquillinus,
Tranquillus,
Trebellianus,
Trebonianus,
Tremerus,
Tremorinus,
Tremulus,
Trenico,
Triarius,
Tricipitinus,
Trifer,
Trigeminus,
Trimalchio,
Trinus,
Trio,
Trogus,
Trypho,
Tubero,
Tubertus,
Tubulus,
Tuccianus,
Tuditanus,
Tullianus,
Turbo,
Turibius,
Turpilianus,
Turpilinus,
Turrinus,
Tuscillus,
Tuscus,
Tuticanus,
Tutor
U
Ulpianus,
Ulpiolus,
Umbrianus,
Umbrinus,
Ummidianus,
Urbanillus,
Urbanus,
Urbicus,
Urgulanianus,
Urgulanillus,
Ursianus,
Ursinianus,
Ursillus,
Ursinus,
Ursulus,
Ursus,
Uticensis
V
Vala,
Valens,
Valentianus,
Valentillus,
Valentinian,
Valentinus,
Valerianus,
Valerillus,
Valgus (associated with Gens Quinctia),
Varialus,
Varianus,
Varro,
Varus,
Vatia,
Vaticanus,
Vatinianus,
Vedrix,
Vegetus,
Vejento,
Velocianus,
Velox,
Venantianus,
Venantius,
Venator,
Venter,
Venustinus,
Venustus,
Verax,
Verecundus,
Vergilianus,
Verginianus,
Verinus,
Verissimus,
Verres,
Verrucosus,
Verullus,
Verus,
Vespa,
Vespasianus,
Vespillo,
Vestinus,
Vetranio,
Vettianus,
Vettillus,
Vettonianus,
Veturianus,
Vetus,
Viator,
Vibennis,
Vibianus,
Vibidianus,
Vibillus,
Vibulanus,
Vicanus,
Victor,
Victorianus,
Victoricus )disambiguation)Victoricus,
Victorinus,
Victorius,
Victricius,
Vigilantius,
Vincentius,
Vindex,
Vindicianus,
Vinicianus,
Vipsanianus,
Virgilianus,
Virginianus,
Viridio,
Virilis,
Viscellinus,
Vitalianus,
Vitalinus,
Vitalis,
Vitellianus,
Vitulus,
Vitus,
Vivianus,
Vocula,
Volumnianus,
Volusianus,
Volusus,
Vopiscus,
Vulso
Z
Zeno,
Zenodotus,
Zethos,
Zosimus,
Zoticus
See also
Roman Empire
Roman naming conventions
Naming conventions for women in ancient Rome
Roman Republic
List of Roman imperial victory titles
List of Roman nomina
List of Roman praenomina
Roman tribe
References
Names cognomina | [
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245067 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars%2C%20Incorporated | Mars, Incorporated | Mars, Incorporated is an American multinational manufacturer of confectionery, pet food, and other food products and a provider of animal care services, with US$40 billion in annual sales in 2020. It was ranked as the 6th largest privately held company in the United States by Forbes. Headquartered in McLean, Virginia, United States, the company is entirely owned by the Mars family. Mars operates in four business segments around the world: Mars Wrigley Confectionery (headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, with US headquarters in Hackettstown and Newark, New Jersey), Petcare (Zaventem, Belgium; Poncitlán and Jalisco, Mexico; Querétaro, Mexico), Food (Rancho Dominguez, California), and MARS Edge (Germantown, Maryland), the company's life sciences division.
History
Mars is a company known for the confectionery items that it creates, such as Mars bars, Milky Way bars, M&M's, Skittles, Snickers, and Twix. They also produce non-confectionery snacks, such as Combos, and other foods, including Ben's Original, and pasta sauce brand Dolmio, as well as pet foods, such as Pedigree, Whiskas, Nutro and Royal Canin brands.
Orbit gum is among the most popular brands, managed by the Mars subsidiary brand Wrigley. During World War II, Wrigley was selling their eponymous gum only to soldiers, while Orbit was sold to the public. Though abandoned shortly after the war, about 30 years later Orbit made a comeback in America during the chewing gum craze.
Franklin Clarence Mars, whose mother taught him to hand dip candy, sold candy by age 19. He started the Mars Candy Factory in 1911 with Ethel V. Mars, his second wife, in Tacoma, Washington. This factory produced and sold fresh candy wholesale, but ultimately the venture failed because there was a better established business, Brown & Haley, also operating in Tacoma. By 1920, Mars had returned to his home state, Minnesota, where the earliest incarnation of the present day Mars company was founded that year as Mar-O-Bar Co., in Minneapolis and later incorporated there as Mars, Incorporated.
Forrest Mars, Sr., son of Frank and his first wife, Veronica, was inspired by a popular type of milkshake in 1923, to introduce the Milky Way bar, advertised as a "chocolate malted milk in a candy bar", which became the best-selling candy bar. In 1929, Frank moved the company to Bakersfield, California and started full production in a plant which still exists today. In 1930, Frank Mars created the Snickers bar and first sold it in US markets. In 1932, Mars introduced the 3 Musketeers bar. The same year, Forrest started Mars Limited in the United Kingdom and launched the Mars bar.
Mars moved its headquarters to McLean, Virginia, in 1984. It is still a family business owned by the Mars family. The company is famous for its secrecy. A 1993 Washington Post Magazine article was a rare raising of the veil, as the reporter was able to see the "M"s being applied to the M&M's, something that "no out-sider had ever before been invited to observe". In 1999, for example, the company did not acknowledge that Forrest Mars, Sr. had died or that he had worked for the company.
Mars' purchase of Doane Petcare Company in June 2007 significantly increased Mars' position in the U.S. dry pet food category. In addition to these businesses, Mars also operates a chain of premium chocolate shops called Ethel M Chocolates. These shops are an outgrowth of the Ethel M premium chocolate business that Forrest Mars started in Las Vegas in 1980, when he became bored with retirement.
In 2008, Mars and theBelGroup has conducted research study which resulted in resurrecting the famous Mars slogan “Work, Rest & Play”.
Packaged and led global launch of Mars Refuel Sports drink. Initiated and implemented sponsorship programme “The Mars Refuel Drink Fund”.
On April 28, 2008, Mars, Incorporated, together with Berkshire Hathaway Incorporated, announced the buyout of Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company, the world's largest chewing gum producer, for $23 billion in an all-cash deal. The two companies together generate sales in excess of $30 billion.
The company published its Principles in Action communication in September 2011. This communication outlines the history of Mars, its legacy as a business committed to its Five Principles, and the company's goal of putting its Principles into action to make a difference to people and the planet through performance. Encompassing themes of Health and Nutrition, Supply Chain, Operations, Products, and Working at Mars, the Principles in Action communication outlines Mars Incorporated's targets, progress, and ongoing challenges. It also describes its businesses, including Petcare, Chocolate, Wrigley, Food, Drinks, Symbioscience.
The company spent more than $1.8 million on lobbying during 2008, almost all of it at Patton Boggs, where it has long been one of the largest lobbying clients. Mars also spent $10,000 at Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom. In 2009, Mars also hired Ernst & Young to lobby on corporate and international tax issues, including issues related to tax changes proposed by the Obama administration. The company spent another $1,655,000 that year.
In 2014, Mars opened a new $270 million chocolate plant in Topeka, Kansas, the first new plant in the US in 35 years.
In 2016, Mars announced the merger of its chocolate and Wrigley segments to form a new subsidiary, appropriately called Mars Wrigley Confectionery.
In 2017, the company's confectionery segment announced a return to its roots, and opened a new office in Newark, New Jersey.
In May 2020, Mars filed a lawsuit against JAB Holding over claims that Jacek Szarzynski, a former JAB Holding executive stole various confidential documents and passed them to the owner of Pret A Manger and Panera Bread. According to the lawsuit, over 6,000 Mars internal documents, including detailed financial results, strategic planning documents, and potential acquisition targets, were illegally downloaded.
In the United States, the company has 22 manufacturing facilities in Hackettstown, New Jersey; Albany, Georgia; Burr Ridge, Illinois; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Chicago, Illinois; and Mattoon, Illinois; Cleveland, Tennessee; Chattanooga, Tennessee; Columbia, South Carolina; Columbus, Ohio; Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania; Greenville, Mississippi; Greenville and Waco, Texas; Henderson and Reno, Nevada; Fort Smith, Arkansas; Joplin, Missouri; Kansas City, Missouri; Miami, Oklahoma; and Galena, Kansas. Their newest facility is situated in Topeka, Kansas. Their Canadian facilities are located in Bolton and Newmarket, Ontario.
In November 2020, Mars acquired full ownership of snack food company Kind North America for $5 billion.
Mars Food UK Limited
Mars Food UK Limited is the name of the United Kingdom branch of Mars, Inc. The company is based in Slough, England. Mars brands manufactured for the United Kingdom market but not for the United States include Tunes.
In 1932, Forrest Mars, Sr., opened what was then Mars (Europe) headquarters, and remains Mars (UK) headquarters in Slough, Berkshire on the then-new Slough Trading Estate, after a disagreement with his father, Franklin Clarence Mars. In this factory, he produced the first Mars bar, based on the American Milky Way.
Many brands first created and sold in the United Kingdom were later introduced in the United States, including Starburst (original UK brand name Opal Fruits) and Skittles. The brands Twix and Topic were UK based.
Milky Way in Europe and worldwide is known as the 3 Musketeers in America. Similarly, the Snickers bar was previously marketed in Ireland and the United Kingdom as Marathon until 1990; in the UK, France, Germany and the Netherlands, also until 1990; Galaxy in the Middle East is known as Dove in America and worldwide; and Starburst was known in the UK and Ireland as Opal Fruits until 1998. Chocolate and peanut M&M's were introduced in 1990.
Mars Drinks UK
Mars Drinks UK, the beverages division of Mars Limited, operates from Basingstoke in Hampshire and specializes in office vending machines. Mars Drinks UK comprises the FLAVIA and KLIX brands which offer branded drinks such as the Starburst Orange Drink, the Maltesers Hot Chocolate and the Galaxy drinks.
Mars Drinks also produces coffee and the equipment used to make it. In 1982 FLAVIA was created out of the high demand for coffee in the United Kingdom. Initially marketed as Dimension 3 until 1989, FLAVIA was introduced in France and Germany in 1986 and Japan in 1992 then brought to the United States in 1996 and to Canada in 1997. Other products such as cappuccino were introduced in 2002 and tea in 2004.
In 2018, the Drinks division was sold to Lavazza.
Mars Petcare
Forrest Mars started the pet food industry in Europe, and his Mars Candy Company bought Kal Kan. Forrest Mars changed the name of Kal Kan dog food to Pedigree, and Kal Kan cat food to Whiskas. As of 1991, Mars controlled 60 percent of the pet food market, both in volume and value. Whiskas was the number one brand. As of 1994, Mars was the leading pet food company worldwide with $4 billion in sales.
In February 2003, Mars acquired Aquarium Pharmaceuticals, Inc. (API, incorporated in 1964) and in 2007 it was renamed Mars Fishcare, Inc. The company manufactures and supplies home aquarium and pond products. Mars Fishcare brands include: Aquarium Pharmaceuticals (API), RENA, AQUARIAN, and PondCare.
The company introduced a genetic test for dogs using cheek swabs to identify breed breakdown, trait tests and health risks in 2007 known as Wisdom Panel. In 2018, Mars Petcare acquired Genoscoper Laboratories, a Finnish animal molecular diagnostics company, "to form the basis for future practical applications in enabling precision healthcare for pets" under its genetic testing unit, Wisdom Health. Wisdom Panel DNA testing expanded to include cats in mid 2021.
In Australia, the division operates three sites that are located in Wodonga, Victoria (established in 1967 for manufacture of wet pet food); Bathurst, New South Wales (established in the 1980s for manufacture of dry pet food); and Brisbane, Queensland (for manufacture of birdcare products).
Mars Petcare manufactures the 'Trill" birdseed range.
Mars Veterinary Health
In 2007, Mars, Incorporated purchased a significant stake in the Banfield Pet Hospital chain.
In October 2015, BluePearl Veterinary Partners was acquired by Mars Petcare division. This acquisition resulted in Mars Petcare becoming the largest pet nutrition and veterinary care provider in the world.
In January 2017, Mars Veterinary Health North America announced the US$7.7 billion acquisition of Los Angeles-based animal hospital chain VCA Inc.
In June 2018, Mars Veterinary Health International and Diagnostics acquired the Linnaeus Group consolidating its position as a leading veterinary provider in the United Kingdom.
Factories
In 1963, a large factory was opened in Veghel in the Netherlands. This factory has currently the biggest production volume of Mars factories and is one of the biggest chocolate factories in the world. Most confectionery products for Europe were produced in Slough and Veghel. The two factories in Slough were located on Liverpool Road and Dundee Road; the one on Liverpool Road closed in 2007, with Twix production moving to the Netherlands and Starburst production moving to the Czech Republic.
The major production plant for Mars confectionery products in Australia is in Ballarat, Victoria.
There is one factory outside of Hershey, Pennsylvania. It is located in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania.
The factory in Chicago, Illinois, has its own commuter rail station, simply named Mars.
Consumer relations
Opposition to labeling of genetically engineered ingredients in California
Throughout 2012, Mars contributed $376,650 to a $46 million political campaign known as "The Coalition Against The Costly Food Labeling Proposition, sponsored by Farmers and Food Producers". This organization was set up to oppose "Proposition 37", demanding mandatory labeling of foods containing genetically modified ingredients.
Removal of artificial ingredients to food portfolio
In February 2016, Mars stated that it would no longer be using artificial colors in each of its candy products. The company announced that more than 50 of its products would be affected in commitment effort to align with the changing preferences of consumers. The company along with more than 12 others has recently pledged to remove artificial colors from its products. While it has been said that the use of artificial colors in candy, and other products do not pose a threat to human health outright, the preference of natural ingredients by consumers has grown substantially.
The company was not the first to recently announce that it would be changing the use of artificial flavors in its products. In 2015, food giant, General Mills proposed an initiative that noted that all of the artificial ingredients it was using in its products would be dropped by 2017. This meant a reformulation of many of the cereals, with alternatives that were more suitable to the palates of humans. A key aspect in that proposed initiative was that the cereal, Trix, would no longer have the blue and green colors forming a new iteration of the cereal.
There have been two different arguments presented about the use of artificial colors in foods. Many studies have shown that their use in food could be linked to illnesses such as ADHD and cancer. There has seemed to be an issue with the use of red 40, yellow 3, yellow 5 and yellow 6 and how they bind to the DNA in humans. Other additives such as Blue 2 have been linked to the cause of brain tumors in rodents and, in 1981, Green 3 was found to be a direct link to bladder cancer. Given the fact that the company will be replacing the artificial dyes in its products, the company has also said that consumers should prepare themselves for the transition process in terms of special packaging and colors being used as to indicate that the changes have taken place. It has been said that the company is not likely to stop using coloring entirely, but that the use of artificial coloring will be going away.
Instead Mars will use natural colors like turmeric in India.
Criticism
Animal vs vegetable ingredients
From May 1, 2007, many Mars products made in the UK became unsuitable for vegetarians. The company announced that it would be using whey made with animal rennet (material from a calf's stomach lining, and a byproduct of veal), instead of using rennet made by microorganisms, in products including Mars, Twix, Snickers, Maltesers, Bounty, Minstrels and Milky Way. The response from many consumers, particularly the Vegetarian Society's request for UK vegetarians to register their protests with Mars, generated extensive press and caused the company to abandon the plans shortly thereafter. Mars switched to all-vegetarian sources in the UK.
Unethical treatment of animals
In 2007, Mars came under criticism from People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) for funding laboratory experiments on mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits, which the group alleges are inhumane and in violation of the company's own policies prohibiting experiments on animals.
One study was conducted in collaboration with the Salk Institute regarding angiogenesis and spatial memory, in which mice were given an ad-lib diet that included epicatechin, plant-derived flavonoid. One of the experiments involved groups of control and experimental animals, the latter of which were housed individually in cages that included a running wheel for optional exercise for two hours a day. The former, also housed individually, did not have access to a running wheel. Another experiment was the classical spatial memory assay, the Morris water maze, in which experimenters had mice swim in water mixed with white paint that concealed the water depth. The study, which Mars contends was legally required in order for the company to make flavonoid-related health claims, showed that the inclusion of epicatechin in the diet improved memory and angiogenesis, more so if coupled with exercise.
Child labor and slave labor
Mars has been criticized for buying cocoa beans from West African farmers who reportedly use unpaid or poorly paid child laborers. In 2009, Mars announced that the company would work towards only purchasing cocoa from suppliers who meet environmental, labor, and production standards. TransFair USA, an organization which certifies products as Fair Trade, applauded the move and expressed hope that it would include a provision for fair wages for laborers and farmers. In 2010, Mars Inc. received the U.S. Secretary of State's Award for Corporate Excellence. In April 2010, Mars launched the MyCocoaPaper initiative, which claims to provide economic opportunities to women and families in Indonesia by making paper products out of cocoa bark and recycled office paper.
In 2011, Mars and Fairtrade International announced an agreement to introduce the first Fairtrade labeled Mars product and to work together to enable farmers to have sustainable livelihoods and substantially increased productivity. The first Mars product to carry the Fairtrade mark was Maltesers, which appeared in stores in 2012 in the UK and Ireland.
In 2019, Mars announced that they couldn't guarantee that their chocolate products were free from child slave labor, as they could trace only 24% of their purchasing back to the farm level. The Washington Post noted that the commitment taken in 2001 to eradicate such practices within 4 years had not been kept, neither at the due deadline of 2005, nor within the revised deadlines of 2008 and 2010, and that the result was not likely to be achieved for 2020 either.
In 2021, Mars was named in a class action lawsuit filed by eight former child slaves from Mali who alleged that the company aided and abetted their enslavement on cocoa plantations in Ivory Coast. The suit accused Mars (along with Nestlé, Cargill, Barry Callebaut, Olam International, The Hershey Company, and Mondelez International) of knowingly engaging in forced labor, and the plaintiffs sought damages for unjust enrichment, negligent supervision, and intentional infliction of emotional distress.
Deforestation in African national parks
In September 2017, an investigation conducted by NGO Mighty Earth found that a large amount of the cocoa used in chocolate produced by Mars and other major chocolate companies was grown illegally in national parks and other protected areas in Ivory Coast and Ghana. The countries are the world's two largest cocoa producers.
The report documents show, in several national parks and other protected areas, 90% or more of the land mass has been converted to cocoa. Less than four percent of Ivory Coast remains densely forested, and the chocolate companies' laissez-faire approach to sourcing has driven extensive deforestation in Ghana as well. In Ivory Coast, deforestation has pushed chimpanzees into just a few small pockets, and reduced the country's elephant population from several hundred thousand to about 200–400.
Products
Many Mars products are household, famous-name brands. Some of these product lines are manufactured by Mars; others are manufactured by The Wrigley Company.
Original food products
3 Musketeers
Ben's Original
Bounty
Celebrations
Cirku
CocoaVia
Combos
Dolmio
Dove
Ebly
Ethel M
FLAVIA
Fling
Flyte
Forever Yours
Galaxy
Galaxy Bubbles
Galaxy Minstrels
goodnessKNOWS
Kudos
M-Azing
M&M's
Maltesers
Marathon
Mars
Masterfoods
Milky Way
Munch
Promite
Revels
Seeds of Change
Snickers
Topic
Tracker
Treets
Chocolates Turín (Mexico)
Twix
Confectionery products manufactured by The Wrigley Company
5 (gum)
Airwaves
Alpine
Altoids
Big Red
Bubble Tape
Doublemint
Eclipse
Eclipse Ice
Excel
Extra
Freedent
Hubba Bubba
Juicy Fruit
Life Savers
Lockets
Orbit
Ouch!
Rondo
Skittles
Spearmint
Starburst
Surpass
Tunes
Winterfresh
Wrigley's
Products for pet consumption
ADVANCE (Australia and New Zealand only)
Aquarium Pharmaceuticals
Buckeye Nutrition
Cesar
Chappi
Crave
Dreamies/Catisfactions
Dine (Australia and New Zealand version of Sheba)
Exelcat
Eukanuba
Exelpet
Frolic
The Goodlife Recipe
Good-o
Greenies
Iams
James Wellbeloved
Kit-e-Kat
My Dog
Natura
Nutro Products
Optimum
Pedigree
Pill Pockets
Royal Canin
Schmackos
Sheba
Teasers
Techni-Cal
Temptations
Trill
Whiskas
Winergy
Discontinued product lines
AquaDrops
Banjo Candy Bar
Bisc &
Bliss Candy Bar
Cookies &
Pacers
PB Max
Royals
Spangles
Summit Cookie Bars
Veterinary services
Mars Veterinary Health North America
Banfield Pet Hospital – 1,054 sites
BluePearl Veterinary Partners – 61 sites
Pet Partners – 86 sites
VCA Animal Hospitals – 917 sites
Mars Veterinary Health International
AniCura – 280 sites
Antech Diagnostics / Sound
Asia Veterinary Diagnostics
Linnaeus Veterinary Group – 148 sites
Mount Pleasant Veterinary Group
Veterinary Emergency & Specialty (VES) Hospital Singapore
VSH Hong Kong
Awards and honors
The company was named by Fortune magazine as one of the top 100 companies to work for in 2013, citing the example that employees of the pet food division can take their dogs to work.
The company has made donations to Elizabethtown College, which includes a room sponsored by them and a weekly executive lecture series.
See also
Big Chocolate
List of food companies
Veterinary companies of the United Kingdom
References
Further reading
Stephen Beckett, Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use, Fourth Edition, Wiley-Blackwell, 2008 .
External links
Symbioscience
Masterfoods (archived)
Cocoa Sustainability Initiative (archived)
1911 establishments in Washington (state)
American chocolate companies
Animal food manufacturers
Companies based in McLean, Virginia
Confectionery companies of the United States
Family-owned companies of the United States
Food and drink companies established in 1911
Food manufacturers of the United States
Manufacturing companies based in Virginia
Mars family
Multinational companies headquartered in the United States
Multinational food companies
Privately held companies based in Virginia
Snack food manufacturers of the United States
Veterinary companies of the United States | [
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245069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casio | Casio | is a Japanese multinational electronics manufacturing corporation headquartered in Shibuya, Tokyo, Japan. Its products include calculators, mobile phones, digital cameras, electronic musical instruments, and analogue and digital watches. It was founded in 1946, and in 1957 introduced the world's first entirely electric compact calculator. It was an early digital camera innovator, and during the 1980s and 1990s, the company developed numerous affordable home electronic keyboards for musicians along with introducing the world's first mass-produced digital watches.
History
Casio was established as Kashio Seisakujo in April 1946 by Tadao Kashio (樫尾忠雄 1917–1993), an engineer specializing in fabrication technology. Kashio's first major product was the yubiwa pipe, a finger ring that would hold a cigarette, allowing the wearer to smoke the cigarette down to its nub while also leaving the wearer's hands free. Japan was impoverished immediately following World War II, so cigarettes were valuable, and the invention was a success.
After seeing the electric calculators at the first Business Show in Ginza, Tokyo in 1949, Kashio and his younger brothers (Toshio, Kazuo, and Yukio) used their profits from the yubiwa pipe to develop their calculators. Most of the calculators at that time worked using gears and could be operated by hand using a crank or using a motor (see adding machine).
Toshio possessed some knowledge of electronics and set out to make a calculator using solenoids. After dozens of prototypes were tested, the desk-sized calculator was finished in 1954 and was Japan's first electro-mechanical calculator. One of the central and more important innovations of the calculator was its adoption of the 10-key number pad; at that time other calculators were using a "full keypad", which meant that each place in the number (1s, 10s, 100s, etc ...) had nine keys. Another distinguishing innovation was the use of a single display window instead of the three display windows (one for each argument and one for the answer) used in other calculators.
Casio Computer Co., Ltd. was formed in June 1957. That year, Casio released the Model 14-A, sold for 485,000 yen, the world's first all-electric compact calculator, which was based on relay technology.
In the 1980s, Casio's budget electronic instruments and its line of affordable home electronic musical keyboard instruments became popular. The company also became well known for the wide variety and innovation of its wristwatches. It was one of the earliest manufacturers of quartz watches, both digital and analog. It also began selling calculator watches during this time. Casio also introduced one of the first watches that could display the time in many different time zones of the world and with features like recording temperature, atmospheric-pressure and altitude. In the later years, Casio's wristwatches were fitted with receivers to synchronise with radio towers around the world and Global Positioning System for timekeeping accuracy.
A number of notable digital camera innovations have also been made by Casio, including the QV-10, the first consumer digital camera with a liquid-crystal display (LCD) on the back (developed by a team led by Hiroyuki Suetaka in 1995), the first consumer three-megapixel camera, the first true ultra-compact model, and the first digital camera to incorporate ceramic lens technology, using Lumicera.
Price fixing
In July 2019, the company's UK arm, Casio Electronics Co. Ltd, was fined £3.7 million after admitting resale price maintenance (a form of price-fixing) on their line of digital keyboards and digital pianos between 2013 and 2018, in breach of the United Kingdom's Competition Act 1998.
Products
Casio's products include watches, calculators, electronic keyboards and other digital products such as digital cameras (Exilim series), film cameras, cash registers, laptops and sub-notebook computers, mobile phones, PDAs (E-Data Bank), electronic dictionaries, digital diaries (early PDAs), electronic games, computer printers, clocks, and portable televisions.
In the 1970s and 80s, Casio was best known for its electronic (including scientific) calculators, electronic musical instruments and affordable digital watches incorporating innovative technology. Today, Casio is most commonly known for making durable and reliable electronic products. The G-Shock range of shock-resistant watches is also very popular, with the original 1983 G-Shock DW-5000C being highly sought-after by collectors. The scientific calculators made by Casio especially the CLASSWIZ series of calculators are known for being affordable while incorporating a host of functions as compared to their competitors.
Casio also makes products for local markets, including "Prayer Compass" watch series designed to help Muslims pray on time and in the right direction.
Calculators
Scientific calculators
Casio calculators include:
Graphing
FX-9860G / GII / SD
FX-9860G Slim
ClassPad 300 Plus / 330
ClassPad II fx-CP400
fx-CG10 / 20 / 50
fx-CG500
Algebra FX 2.0 Plus
FX 1.0 Plus
CFX-9850GC Plus
CFX-9850GB Plus
CFX-9800G
fx-9750G Plus / GII
fx-8500G, 8000G
fx-7500G, 7400G Plus / GII
fx-7000G (ca. 1985)
VI-9850GB Plus
RM 7000/9000
Programming
fx-5800P, 3950P, fx-3650P, 50F Plus (2000s)
fx-4500PA, 4500P
fx-5500LA, 5500L
fx-3900PV, 3900P (1990s)
fx-4800P
fx-3600P (1980s)
fx-4000P, 3500P, 3800P, fx-5000F, 50F (late 1980s)
FX-850P
FX-702P (ca. 1981)
FX-603P, FX-602P (1981)
fx-180P, 390PV (Program) (early 1980s), fx-180PV,
FX-502P, 501P (ca. 1979)
Professional
fx-FD10 Pro (2014) (Surveying calculator for civil engineering)
V.P.A.M. (See: Casio V.P.A.M. calculators)
CLASSWIZ (High-resolution Natural Textbook Display)
"Natural V.P.A.M."
"Natural Display"
S-V.P.A.M. / Two-line, Multi-replay
LCD (One-line)
fx-65 (True fraction) (mid 1990s)
fx-95 (equation) (mid 1990s)
fx-991D, 570D, 115D, 100D (early-mid 1990s)
fx-82D, 250D, 82LB, 82SUPER, 82SX, 82SOLAR (early 1990s)
fx-992V, 992VB, 991V, 115V, 85V; fx-991H, 911H (early 1990s)
fx-991N, 911N, 115N, 85N; fx-250C, fx-570C (late 1980s)
fx-991M, 115M, 85M; fx-451M,(mid-late 1980s)
fx-650M; fx-580; fx-100C, 82C (mid-late 1980s)
fx-570, 100, 350, 77 (early-mid 1980s)
fx-82, 82B, 82L, fx-58 (early 1980s)
fx-2000, 2200, 2500, fx-48(late 1970s)
VFD (Digitron) display
fx-1, 2, 3 (desk); fx-10 (handheld) (early-mid 1970s), used MSI (medium scale integration)
fx-11, 15, 20, 101, 17, 19, 102, 1000, PRO fx-1, PRO-101, (mid-1970s)
fx-21, 29, 31, 39, 120, 140 (mid-late 1970s)
fx-201P, 202P (Program) (mid 1970s)
Basic calculators
LCD display
Desk calculators
DS-3TS, DH-160, DV-220, DJ-240D, DJ-120D, MJ-120D, MW-8V (2000s)
Pocket calculators
JS-140TVS, NJ-120D, SL-1000TW, HL-122TV (2000s)
HL-810 (1985)
SL-800 (FILM CARD) (1983)
LC-78 (MINI-CARD) (1978)
Printing calculators
HR-100TM, DR-210TM (2000s)
VFD (Digitron) / LED display
Desktop calculators
AL-1000 (1967)
Pocket calculators (1970s)
CM-601 (MINI) (1973)
CM-606 (Personal MINI)
CP-801B (POCKET-MINI) (1975)
101-MR
Y-811 (Memory-8R)
AL-8 (with fraction input)
H-813 (Personal M-1)
CQ-1 (with clock function)
Watches
Casio watches include:
G-Shock
Master of G
Baby-G
MT-G
Lineage
Oceanus
Edifice
Wave Ceptor
Databank
Sheen
Youth Series
Classic
W-96H
W-210H
W-213H
W-216H
W-218H
W-800H
F-201WA
HDD-600G
F-200W
World time
AE-500W
AE-1000W
AE-1100W
AE-1200WH
AE-1400WH
AE-2000W
AE-2100W
AE-3000W
Multiple timers
AE-1300W
Stopwatch lap memory
W-734
Vibration alarm
W-735H
W-736H
Prayer compass
CPA-100
CPW-500HD
Pro-Trek
PRG-60-T
PRG-240
PRG-600
PRW-6100Y-1DR
WSD-F200-RG
Classic - Digital
F-91W
A158W
A159W
A168W
A700W
A178W
LA680
B640
W59
Classic - Analogue
MDV Series
MTP Series
MRW Series
MQ Series
Ana-Digi - Analogue and Digital
ABK 'Twincept' Series
ABX 'Twincept' Series
AQ Series
AW Series
Touchscreen - Digital
TC Series
VDB Series
Musical instruments
Electronic Musical Instruments (Casiotone keyboards, Privia, Celviano, etc.)
Keyboards
Casiotone
Original Casiotone (1980-1983)
CT Series (1984-2000)
ToneBank CT Series (late 1980s-1990s)
CTK/WK Series Standard (1990–present)
CTK/WK Series High-Grade (2003–2018, superseded by CT-X Series)
CT-X Series (2018–present)
CT-S Series (2019-present)
CZ Series synthesizers
FZ-1 Sampling Synthesizer
M Series mini keyboards
PT-80 (monophonic, eight patches, mid-1980s)
PD-Synthesizer
VL 1 Synthesizer
LK Series Key Lighting (1997–present)
XW Synthesizers (2013)
SA Series (mini keyboards)
MZ-X performance arrangers (2016–present)
Other instruments
DG-20 electronic guitar (1987)
DH Digital Horns
Digital Pianos
Privia PX (2005–present)
Privia Pro Stage (2012–present)
Privia Slim Series (2019)
Celviano (2007–present)
Celviano Hybrid/Grand Hybrid (2015)
CDP Compact Series (2008–present)
MIDI sound modules
CSM-1, CSM-10P, GZ-50M
Other
Gallery
See also
Casio graphic calculators
References
External links
Casio Worldwide
Casio Watches
1957 establishments in Japan
Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange
Computer companies established in 1957
Defense companies of Japan
Electronic calculator companies
Electronics companies established in 1957
Electronics companies of Japan
Japanese brands
Mobile phone manufacturers
Audio equipment manufacturers of Japan
Multinational companies headquartered in Japan
Photography companies of Japan
Piano manufacturing companies
Point of sale companies
Synthesizer manufacturing companies
Watch brands
Watch manufacturing companies of Japan
Watchmaking conglomerates
Wearable computers
Musical instrument manufacturing companies of Japan | [
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245071 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tullia%20gens | Tullia gens | The gens Tullia was a family at ancient Rome, with both patrician and plebeian branches. The first of this gens to obtain the consulship was Manius Tullius Longus in 500 BC, but the most illustrious of the family was Marcus Tullius Cicero, the statesman, orator, and scholar of the first century BC. The earliest of the Tullii who appear in history were patrician, but all of the Tullii mentioned in later times were plebeian, and some of them were descended from freedmen. The English form Tully, often found in older works, especially in reference to Cicero, is now considered antiquated.
Origin
The nomen Tullius is a patronymic surname, derived from the old Latin praenomen Tullus, probably from a root meaning to support, bear, or help. The Tullii of the Republic sometimes claimed descent from Servius Tullius, the sixth King of Rome, who according to some traditions was the son of Servius Tullius, a prince of Corniculum who was slain in battle against the Romans under Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth Roman king. However, the Roman historians report that the Tullii were one of the Alban noble families that came to Rome after the destruction of their city during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, the third King of Rome. This would probably make the Tullii one of the gentes minores, the lesser patrician houses of the Republic.
Praenomina
The main praenomina used by the Tullii were Marcus and Lucius. To these, the Tullii Cicerones added Quintus. Manius is found only among the patrician Tullii at the beginning of the Republic, and there are individual instances of Sextus and Tiberius.
Branches and cognomina
The patrician Tullii bore the cognomen Longus, tall, but only one of them appears in history. The notable plebeian families bore the surnames Decula and Cicero. The latter, among the most famous of Roman cognomina, belongs to a common class of surnames derived from familiar objects. This family came from Arpinum, the inhabitants of which were granted Roman citizenship in 188 BC. Plutarch reports that the surname was given to an ancestor of the orator, who had a cleft in the tip of his nose in the shape of a chickpea, or cicer. At the beginning of his career, Cicero was urged to adopt a more auspicious surname, but he declined, stating that he would make the name famous. Most other surnames found with the Tullii of the Republic belonged to freedmen, but a number of the family bore no cognomen.
Members
Early Tullii
Servius Tullius, according to one tradition, the prince of Corniculum, husband of Ocrisia, and father of Servius Tullius, the sixth King of Rome, fell in battle when Corniculum was taken by Lucius Tarquinius Priscus.
Servius Tullius Ser. f., the sixth King of Rome, traditionally reigned from 578 to 534 BC. He is said to have defeated Veii, enlarged the sacred boundary of Rome, and enclosed the city with a stone wall, established the Temple of Diana, and an alliance with the Latins, and undertook significant reforms of the Roman constitution, establishing the Comitia Centuriata and the Servian tribes.
Marcus Tullius, a duumvir sacris faciundis in the reign of Tarquinius Superbus, the seventh and last King of Rome, was paid by a certain Petronius Sabinus to allow him to copy one of the Sibylline books. The king punished Tullius by having him sewn into a leather sack, and cast into the sea.
Manius Tullius Longus, consul in 500 BC, besieged the city of Fidenae when its inhabitants revolted, but withdrew his army when the Fidenates sought to negotiate a peace. He and his colleague then suppressed a conspiracy to restore the Tarquins. While opening the Ludi Romani, Tullius was badly injured when he fell from his chariot. He died three days later.
Manius Tullius Tolerinus, according to Festus, one of several persons burned at the Circus Maximus in 486 BC, possibly on the charge of conspiring with Spurius Cassius Vecellinus.
Attius Tullius, a leader of the Volscians early in the fifth century BC, who gave shelter to Gaius Marcius Coriolanus following his exile from Rome, and encouraged him to take up arms against the Romans.
Sextus Tullius, a centurion primus pilus in 358 BC, sought permission from the dictator Gaius Sulpicius Peticus to engage the Gauls in battle. He and his colleagues fought with conspicuous bravery. His martial prowess was displayed again in the following year, when he served under the consul Gaius Marcius Rutilus at Privernum.
Tullii Cicerones
Marcus Tullius Cicero, grandfather of the orator, was one of the leading men of Arpinum. In 115 BC, the consul Marcus Aemilius Scaurus complimented him on his industry and foresight when he and his brother-in-law, Marcus Gratidius, petitioned on behalf of their city for the right to vote by ballot.
Marcus Tullius M. f. Cicero, father of the orator Cicero, was a learned man of literary interests, and moved to Rome in order to provide the best of education for his sons. He kept company with the leading orators and jurists of his day, and died in 64 BC, the year his son was elected consul.
Lucius Tullius M. f. Cicero, uncle of the orator, was a close friend of Marcus Antonius, the orator, with whom he traveled to Cilicia during the latter's government there. He provided his nephew with regular correspondence for a number of years.
Marcus Tullius M. f. M. n. Cicero, the orator, was consul in 63 BC, when he suppressed the conspiracy of Catiline, although he was later exiled for having put the conspirators to death without a trial. After his recall, he generally opposed the first triumvirate, and Caesar in particular, although Caesar deeply admired him, and gladly pardoned him for siding with his enemies. He played no part in Caesar's assassination, but was widely viewed as sympathetic to the murderers, and placed himself in opposition to the second triumvirate, by which he was proscribed and put to death. Cicero was the most eminent of the Roman orators, and one of the leading scholars of Roman history and institutions. His vast body of surviving speeches, treatises, and correspondence forms one of the most important sources of Roman history.
Quintus Tullius M. f. M. n. Cicero, the younger brother of Cicero, was praetor in 62 BC, and subsequently governor of Asia. He was one of Caesar's generals during the Gallic Wars, but later supported Pompeius during the Civil War. After Caesar's murder, he was proscribed and put to death by the triumvirs.
Lucius Tullius L. f. M. n. Cicero, the cousin and close friend of the orator, whom he accompanied to Athens in 79 BC, and assisted during the trial of Verres. The people of Syracuse honoured him for his efforts on their behalf. Marcus was deeply aggrieved when Lucius died in 68, while still a young man.
Tullia M. f. M. n., or Tulliola, the beloved daughter of Cicero, married first Gaius Calpurnius Piso Frugi, who died in 57 BC, then briefly to Furius Crassipes, whom she divorced, then in 50 to Publius Cornelius Dolabella, by whom she had two sons; one who died in infancy, and another, Lentulus, who probably died in childhood. Tullia and Dolabella were divorced before the birth of their second son, and she died shortly afterward, to her father's great sorrow.
Quintus Tullius Q. f. M. n. Cicero, son of Quintus Cicero, attempted to hide his father from the triumvirs, and was tortured, then put to death along with his father, who gave himself up in the hope of saving his son.
Marcus Tullius M. f. M. n. Cicero, son of the orator, joined the liberatores, Brutus and Cassius after the murder of his father and uncle in the proscription of the triumvirs. He obtained the pardon of Octavian after the Battle of Philippi, and later took his side against Mark Antony. He was consul in 30 BC.
Others
Marcus Tullius Decula, consul in 81 BC, during the dictatorship of Sulla.
Marcus Tullius, claimed that his neighbor, Publius Fabius, with whom he was engaged in a property dispute, had murdered several of his slaves. Cicero spoke on his behalf in a partially-preserved speech. He does not seem to be identified with any of the other Marci Tullii known from this period of history.
Lucius Tullius, an eques, was leader of those who collected the taxes from the scriptura, the cattle grazed upon public land, in Sicily in the time of Verres.
Lucius Tullius, a friend of Titus Pomponius Atticus, served as a legate under Cicero during his government of Cilicia. Cicero did not consider his performance adequate.
Marcus Tullius M. l. Tiro, a scribe and freedman of Cicero, became a notable author in his own right. He wrote on the Latin language, and a life of Cicero, which has been lost; he may have been the chief compiler and preserver of Cicero's correspondence. He was credited with inventing a variety of shorthand, and to have lived to the age of one hundred.
Marcus Tullius M. f. Laurea, apparently the same man as Laurea Tullius, a freedman of Cicero, who was known for his elegiac poetry, and several epigrams that have survived to the modern day.
Tullius Rufus, a partisan of Pompeius, who was killed at the Battle of Thapsus in 46 BC. He had been quaestor, but the year is uncertain.
Tiberius Tullius, a partisan of Pompeius during the war in Spain, in 45 BC.
Tullius Bassus, or possibly Julius Bassus, a writer on medicine and botany, perhaps belonging to the early first century.
Lucius Tullius Montanus, a companion of the younger Marcus Tullius Cicero on his journey to Athens in 45 BC.
Lucius Tullius Cimber, a misreading of Lucius Tillius Cimber, one of Caesar's assassins.
Tullius Senecio, one of Nero's friends, who joined in the Pisonian conspiracy, and was forced to take his own life after his participation was discovered.
Tullius Flavianus, a cavalry commander serving under Quintus Petillius Cerialis during the civil war between Vitellius and Vespasian. He was captured by Vitellius while fighting in the neighborhood of Rome.
Tullius Valentinus, one of the leaders of the Treveri in AD 70, during the Batavian Rebellion. He joined with Julius Tutor in opposing Quintus Petillius Cerialis, and put to death the legates of two legions that had surrendered to Julius Classicus, but was captured by Cerealis at Rigodulum, and was sent to Mucianus and Domitian, by whom he was put to death.
Publius Tullius Varro, consul suffectus in April of AD 127.
Tullius Geminus, a poet whose epigrams are preserved in the Greek Anthology. The surviving examples describe works of art, and display a number of affectations. A few epigrams attributed solely to Tullius might have been authored by either Tullius Geminus or Marcus Tullius Laurea.
See also
List of Roman gentes
Notes
References
Bibliography
Marcus Tullius Cicero, Brutus, De Finibus Bonorum et Malorum, De Lege Agraria contra Rullum, De Legibus, De Officiis, De Oratore, De Republica, Epistulae ad Atticum, Epistulae ad Familiares, In Verrem, Tusculanae Quaestiones.
Gaius Julius Caesar (attributed), De Bello Hispaniensis (On the War in Spain).
Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Romaike Archaiologia (Roman Antiquities).
Titus Livius (Livy), History of Rome.
Publius Ovidius Naso (Ovid), Fasti.
Marcus Manilius, Astronomica.
Valerius Maximus, Factorum ac Dictorum Memorabilium (Memorable Facts and Sayings).
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger), Epistulae Morales ad Lucilium (Moral Letters to Lucilius).
Gaius Plinius Secundus (Pliny the Elder), Historia Naturalis (Natural History).
Marcus Valerius Martialis (Martial), Epigrammata (Epigrams).
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, Annales, Historiae.
Plutarchus, Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans.
Lucius Annaeus Florus, Epitome de T. Livio Bellorum Omnium Annorum DCC (Epitome of Livy: All the Wars of Seven Hundred Years).
Appianus Alexandrinus (Appian), Bellum Civile (The Civil War).
Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae (Attic Nights).
Festus, Breviarum Rerum Gestarum Populi Romani (Summary of the History of the Roman People).
Caelius Aurelianus, Celerum Passionum, or De Morbis Acutis (translation of Soranus of Ephesus, On Acute Diseases).
Joannes Zonaras, Epitome Historiarum (Epitome of History).
Johann Albert Fabricius, Bibliotheca Graeca, sive Notitia Scriptorum Veterum Graecorum (The Greek Library, or Knowledge of Ancient Greek Writers), Christian Liebezeit & Theodor Christoph Felginer, Hamburg (1718).
Pieter Burmann, Anthologia Latina (Latin Anthology), ed. Wernsdorf, (1759–1778).
Analecta Veterum Poetarum Graecorum (Fragments by Ancient Greek Poets), Richard François Philippe Brunck, ed., Bauer and Treuttel, Strasbourg (1772–1776).
Anthologia Graeca sive Poetarum Graecorum Lusus, ex Recensione Brunckii (The Greek Anthology, or Works of the Greek Poets, or the Collection of Brunck), Friedrich Jacobs, ed., Dyck, Leipzig (1794).
Johann Caspar von Orelli, Onomasticon Tullianum, Orell Füssli, Zürich (1826–1838).
Barthold Georg Niebuhr, The History of Rome, Julius Charles Hare and Connop Thirlwall, trans., John Smith, Cambridge (1828).
Wilhelm Drumann, Geschichte Roms in seinem Übergang von der republikanischen zur monarchischen Verfassung, oder: Pompeius, Caesar, Cicero und ihre Zeitgenossen, Königsberg (1834–1844).
Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, William Smith, ed., Little, Brown and Company, Boston (1849).
George Davis Chase, "The Origin of Roman Praenomina", in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, vol. VIII, pp. 103–184 (1897).
T.P. Wiseman, "Legendary Genealogies in Late-Republican Rome," in Greece & Rome, vol. 21 (1974).
Werner Eck, "Hadrische Konsuln Neue Zeugnisse aus Militärdiplomen" (Hadrianic Consuls: New Evidence from Military Diplomas), in Chiron, vol. 32 (2002).
Roman gentes | [
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245073 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20School%20of%20Night | The School of Night | The School of Night is a modern name for a group of men centred on Sir Walter Raleigh that was once referred to in 1592 as the "School of Atheism". The group supposedly included poets and scientists Christopher Marlowe, George Chapman, Matthew Roydon and Thomas Harriot.
There is no firm evidence that all of these men were known to each other, but speculation about their connections features prominently in some writing about the Elizabethan era.
Name
Raleigh was first named as the centre of the "School of Atheism" by the Jesuit priest Robert Persons in 1592. "School of Night", however, is a modern appellation: the theory that this purported school was a clandestine intellectual coterie was launched by Arthur Acheson on textual grounds, in his Shakespeare and the Rival Poet (1903). The new name is a reference to a passage in Act IV, scene 3 of Shakespeare's Love's Labours Lost, in which the King of Navarre says "Black is the badge of hell / The hue of dungeons and the school of night." Acheson's proposal was endorsed by notable editors John Dover Wilson and Arthur Quiller Couch in their 1923 edition of Love's Labours Lost. There are, however, at least two other recorded renderings of the line, one reading "suit of night" and the other as "scowl of night".
The context of the lines has nothing to do with cabals: the King is simply mocking the black hair of Rosaline, his friend Berowne's lover. John Kerrigan explains that the line is perfectly straightforward as it stands, a riposte to Berowne's praise of his dark-haired mistress as "fair", and any attempts to load it with topical significance are misleading; the simple meaning of "black is the school where night learns to be black" is all that is required.
In 1936 Frances Yates found an unpublished essay on scholarship by the Earl of Northumberland, an associate of Raleigh and supposed member of the movement, and interpreted the earl's mockery of the "precious affectations" found among scholars as inspiring the key celibacy theme of the play. The supposition is discounted as fanciful by some, but nonetheless received acceptance by some prominent commentators of the time.
Atheism
It is alleged that each of these men studied science, philosophy, and religion, and all were suspected of atheism. Atheism at that time was a charge nearly the equivalent of treason, since the English monarch after Henry VIII's reforms was the head of the Church of England, and to be against the church was, ipso facto, to be against the monarch. However, it was also a name for anarchy, and was a charge frequently brought against the politically troublesome. Richard Baines, an anti-Catholic spy for her Majesty's Privy Council, whose "task was presumably to provide his masters with what they required", charged in an unsworn deposition that he had heard from another that Marlowe had "read the Atheist lecture to Sr. Walter Raleigh [and] others". This tale of hearsay, from a paid informer, failed to substantiate the charges of atheism against the group, but it did include a promise of more evidence to be revealed at a later date.
In culture
Since the early 1990s (by which point the School of Night hypothesis had fallen out of mainstream academic favour), the School of Night has frequently been represented in fiction.
A play titled The School of Night, by Peter Whelan, dealing with the relationship between Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, was presented by the Royal Shakespeare Company at The Other Place theatre in November 1992. The School of Night also figures prominently in novels: The Scholars of Night (1988) by John M. Ford, a Cold War thriller involving an undiscovered Christopher Marlowe play; A Dead Man in Deptford (1993) by Anthony Burgess; Veronica (1996) by Nicholas Christopher; The School of Night (2001) by Alan Wall, a story of a present-day researcher who becomes obsessed by connections between Shakespeare's plays and members of the "school"; The School of Night (2010) by Louis Bayard; and Shadow of Night (2012) by Deborah Harkness.
The School of Night is also the name of a group of actors and improvisers inspired by the original group and brought together under the auspices of the celebrated theatrical maverick Ken Campbell. The idea is that this group of poets, playwrights, scientists and thinkers might have collectively written the plays attributed to the Bard. The modern-day School of Night shows feature improvisation in the style of poets and playwrights suggested by the audience, and generally includes the creation (or in the jargon of the show 'channeling') of a lost Shakespearean masterpiece.
References
Conspiracy theories
Secret societies in the United Kingdom
Elizabethan era
English Renaissance | [
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245075 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bettina%20Welch | Bettina Welch | Bettina Catherine Welch (1922 – 5 March 1993) was a New Zealand-born Australia-based actress, primarily in radio and theatre and of the latter in television roles. She was best known for her role in television soap opera Number 96 as Maggie Cameron, a scheming businesswoman and fashion editor.
The series creator and writer David Sale, stated she was the first major bitch on television, long before Alexis Carrington (Joan Collins)
Early life and training
Welch was born Auckland, New Zealand. Welch started her acting career aged 18 in 1940 when she arrived in Sydney from New Zealand with her parents on holiday. In Sydney she won a competition that led to her being trained by J. C. Williamson's theatre company, and she also began acting on Australian radio. Her training with J. C. Williamson led to a succession of theatre roles with the company. She married Dermot Patrick O'Brien on 20th February 1945 at St Clanice's Catholic Church, Rushcutters Bay, New South Wales.
Theatre career
When British actor Robert Morley conducted an Australian theatre tour in 1949 she played his young mistress in his co-scripted play Edward, My Son.
Her other stage roles include Australian productions of Harvey with Joe E. Brown, Simon and Laura and The Deep Blue Sea with Googie Withers and John McCallum, the lead role opposite Emrys Jones in Double Image, and a featured role with Sir Robert Helpmann in Nude with Violin by Noël Coward.
Welch appeared as the enchantress Morgan le Fey in J. C. Williamson's production of Camelot in the early 1960s, a role she played for two and a half years. She subsequently took one of the lead roles in four-handed comedy Any Wednesday, appeared in productions of There's A Girl In My Soup, and The Band Wagon. The nurse in Loot, by Joe Orton featured in A Delicate Balance, playing Julia by Edward Albee and took the lead role in a production of Frederick Knott's Wait Until Dark, a role for which she was critically acclaimed.
Welch played in Melbourne and Sydney in Hal Porter's Australian play Eden House. She had a major role in the Sydney Theatre Company's season of the Stephen Sondheim musical, A Little Night Music" at the Sydney Opera House in 1990.
Television roles
Through the 1960s she also had guest roles in Australian television drama series. In the late 1960s she appeared in the Crawford Productions adventure series Hunter (1967), and played various guest roles in the top-rated Crawford Productions police dramas Homicide and Division 4.
In 1971 Welch appeared in an episode of popular situation comedy series The Group. After that show's writer David Sale, who had earlier been impressed by the performance she gave in the Australian Broadcasting Corporation-Artransa Films science fiction children's series Phoenix 5 (1970), saw her in the relatively minor role in The Group, he promised to write something especially for her next time. When he created Number 96 he kept his word, creating the role of corrupt businesswoman and fashion editor Maggie Cameron for her.
Number 96
Appearing in Number 96 from its inception in March 1972, Welch's character Maggie emerged as a popular bitch-figure in the top-rated serial.
Welch says she partly based her characterisation of Maggie on the Mrs Robinson character played by Anne Bancroft in feature film The Graduate.
In 1973 Welch left Number 96 temporarily to again act on stage opposite Robert Morley, this time in How the Other Half Loves. She returned to the series after that, and also reprised the role in the feature film version of Number 96 released in 1974.
In 1975 Number 96 suffered a drop in ratings so a bomb storyline was developed as a dramatic way to write out several characters. The story went to air in September, and Maggie was revealed to have been the person who planted the bomb and her character written out the series by being sent to prison. Welch returned for a guest appearance in 1976 when Maggie's trial was shown, and she appeared in the show's final episode in 1977 where it was explained that Maggie had been released from prison.
Other television roles
After Number 96 Welch continued to make guest appearances in Australian television series, including roles in Glenview High (1977), The Outsiders (1977), Young Ramsay (1978), and in legal drama Case for the Defence (1978). Through the 1980s Welch played small featured roles in several Australian television movies and feature films, including Undercover (1983), and guest starred in two episodes of A Country Practice. She died in 1993 in Australia, aged 71.
References
External links
1922 births
1993 deaths
Australian stage actresses
Australian television actresses
20th-century Australian actresses
New Zealand emigrants to Australia | [
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245077 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoilus | Zoilus | Zoilus ( Zoilos; c. 400320 BC) was a Greek grammarian, Cynic philosopher, and literary critic from Amphipolis in Eastern Macedonia, then known as Thrace. He took the name Homeromastix (Ὁμηρομάστιξ "Homer whipper"; gen.: Ὁμηρομάστιγος) later in life.
Biography
According to Vitruvius (vii., preface), Zoilus lived during the age of Ptolemy Philadelphus, by whom he was crucified as the punishment of his criticisms on the king; but this account should probably be rejected as a fiction based on Zoilus' reputation. Vitruvius goes on to state that Zoilus also may have been stoned at Chios or thrown alive upon a funeral pyre at Smyrna. Either way Vitruvius felt it was just as well since he deserved to be dead for slandering an author who could not defend himself. Zoilus appears to have been at one time a follower of Isocrates, but subsequently a pupil of Polycrates, whom he heard at Athens, where he was a teacher of rhetoric.
Zoilus was chiefly known for the acerbity of his attacks on Homer, chiefly directed against the fabulous element in the Homeric poems. Zoilus also wrote responses to works by Isocrates and Plato, who had attacked the style of Lysias of which he approved.
However, the Homeric Question led to his name becoming a byword for harsh and malignant criticism: in antiquity he gained the name "Homeromastix", "scourge of Homer"; in the modern period, Cervantes calls Zoilus a "slanderer" in the preface to Don Quixote and there is also a (now disused) proverb, "Every poet has his Zoilus." Since his writings do not survive, it is impossible to know whether this caricature is justified.
See also
Zoilism
-mastix
Notes
References
Ancient Library
Ancient Greek grammarians
Homeric scholars
Cynic philosophers
Ancient Amphipolitans
4th-century BC Greek people
400s BC births
320 BC deaths
Executed philosophers
Metic philosophers in Classical Athens
Philosophers of ancient Macedonia | [
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245080 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buran | Buran | Buran may refer to:
Places
Buran, Ardabil, a village in Ardabil Province, Iran
Buran, Mazandaran, a village in Mazandaran Province, Iran
Buraan, a town in the northern Sanaag region of Somalia
Other uses
Buran (spacecraft), the Soviet counterpart of the space shuttle
Buran programme, the Soviet space shuttle project
Buran (wind), a wind that blows across eastern Asia
Boran, queen of Iran from 629 to 632
Buran bint al-Hasan ibn Sahl, consort of Abbasid caliph al-Ma'mun
RSS-40 Buran, a Soviet cruise missile
Buran eavesdropping device
See also
Burang (disambiguation)
Burren (disambiguation) | [
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245083 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao%20Pi | Cao Pi | Cao Pi () ( – 29 June 226), courtesy name Zihuan, was the first emperor of the state of Cao Wei in the Three Kingdoms period of China. He was the second son of Cao Cao, a warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty, but the eldest son among all the children born to Cao Cao by his concubine (later wife), Lady Bian. According to some historical records, he was often in the presence of court officials in order to gain their support. He was mostly in charge of defence at the start of his career. After the defeat of Cao Cao's rival Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu, he took Yuan Xi's widow, Lady Zhen, as a concubine, but in 221 Lady Zhen died and Guo Nüwang became empress.
On 25 November 220, Cao Pi forced Emperor Xian, the last ruler of the Eastern Han dynasty, to abdicate in his favour, after which on 11 December 220 he proclaimed himself emperor and established the state of Cao Wei. Cao Pi continued the wars against the states of Shu Han and Eastern Wu, founded by his father's rivals Liu Bei and Sun Quan respectively, but did not make significant territorial gain in the battles. Unlike his father, Cao Pi concentrated most of his efforts on internal administration rather than on waging wars against his rivals. During his reign, he formally established Chen Qun's nine-rank system as the base for civil service nomination, which drew many talents into his government. On the other hand, he drastically reduced the power of princes, stripping off their power to oppose him, but at the same time, rendering them unable to assist the emperor if a crisis arose within the state. After Cao Pi's death, his successor Cao Rui granted him the posthumous name "Emperor Wen" and the temple name "Shizu".
Cao Pi was also an accomplished poet and scholar, just like his father Cao Cao and his younger brother Cao Zhi. He wrote Yan Ge Xing (), the first Chinese poem in the style of seven syllables per line (). He also wrote over a hundred articles on various subjects.
Early life and career
Cao Pi was the eldest son of Cao Cao and his concubine Lady Bian, but he was the second among all of Cao Cao's sons. (The first was Cao Ang) At the time of Cao Pi's birth, Cao Cao was a mid-level officer in the imperial guards in the capital Luoyang, with no hint that he would go on to the great campaigns he eventually carried out after the collapse of the imperial government in 190. Cao Pi was recorded as excellent swordsman as he studied martial arts from Shi E, a gentleman of the household from the "Rapid as Tigers" () division of the imperial guards. In the period after 190 when Cao Cao was constantly waging war against other rival warlords, it is not known where Cao Pi and Lady Bian were, or what they did. The lone reference to Cao Pi during this period was in 204, when he took Yuan Xi's widow Lady Zhen as his wife.
Succession struggle with Cao Zhi
The next immediate reference to Cao Pi's activities was in 211, when he was appointed General of the Household for All Purposes () and Vice Imperial Chancellor (). This position placed him second to his father, who was then Imperial Chancellor () and the de facto head of government in China. The eldest of all of Cao Cao's sons, Cao Ang, had died early, so Cao Pi was regarded as the eldest among all his father's sons. Besides, Cao Pi's mother had also become Cao Cao's official spouse after Cao Cao's first wife Lady Ding was deposed. Cao Pi thus became the presumptive heir to his father.
However, Cao Pi's status as heir was not immediately made legal, and for years there were lingering doubts on whom Cao Cao intended to make heir. Cao Cao greatly favoured Cao Zhi (his third son with Lady Bian), who was known for his literary talents. Both Cao Pi and Cao Zhi were talented poets, but Cao Zhi was more highly regarded as a poet and speaker. By 215, the brothers appeared to be in harmony with each other, but each had his own group of supporters and close associates engaging the other side in clandestine rivalry. Initially, Cao Zhi's party appeared to be prevailing, and in 216 they were successful in falsely accusing two officials supporting Cao Pi – Cui Yan and Mao Jie. Cui Yan was executed, while Mao Jie was deposed. However, the situation shifted after Cao Cao received advice from his strategist Jia Xu, who concluded that changing the general rules of succession (primogeniture) would be disruptive – using Yuan Shao and Liu Biao as negative examples. Cao Pi was also fostering his image among the people and created the sense that Cao Zhi was wasteful and lacking actual talent in governance. In 217, Cao Cao, who had received the title of a vassal king – King of Wei () – from Emperor Xian (whom he still paid nominal allegiance to), finally declared Cao Pi as his heir apparent (). Cao Pi would remain as such until his father's death in 220.
As King of Wei
Cao Cao died in the spring of 220 in Luoyang. Even though Cao Pi had been his father's heir apparent for several years, there was initially some confusion as to what would happen next. The apprehension was particularly heightened when, after Cao Cao's death, the Qingzhou Corps under the general Zang Ba suddenly deserted, leaving Luoyang and returning home. Besides, Cao Pi's younger brother Cao Zhang (also born to Lady Bian) had arrived in Luoyang in a hurry, resulting in rumours that he was intending to seize power from his elder brother. Upon hearing these news at Cao Cao's headquarters at Ye, Cao Pi hastily declared himself the new King of Wei and issued an edict in the name of his mother Queen Dowager Bian, before receiving an official confirmation from Emperor Xian, to whom he still nominally paid allegiance. After Cao Pi's self-declaration, neither Cao Zhang nor any other individual took action against him. Cao Pi then ordered his brothers, including Cao Zhang and Cao Zhi, to return to their respective fiefs. With the help of Jiang Ji, the political situation soon stabilised.
As emperor of Cao Wei
Succeeding Emperor Xian
In the winter of 220, Cao Pi made his move for the imperial throne, strongly suggesting to Emperor Xian that he should yield the throne. Emperor Xian did so, and Cao Pi formally declined three times (a model that would be followed by future usurpers in Chinese history), and then finally accepted, establishing the state of Cao Wei. This event marked the official end of the Han dynasty and the beginning of the Three Kingdoms period. The dethroned Emperor Xian was granted the title "Duke of Shanyang" (). Cao Pi granted posthumous titles of emperors to his grandfather Cao Song and his father Cao Cao , while his mother Queen Dowager Bian became empress dowager. He also moved the imperial capital from Xuchang to Luoyang.
Military failures against Sun Quan
After news of Cao Pi's ascension (and an accompanying false rumour that Cao Pi had executed Emperor Xian) arrived in Liu Bei's domain of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), Liu Bei also declared himself emperor in 221, establishing the state of Shu Han. Sun Quan, who controlled the vast majority of southeastern and southern China, did not take any affirmative steps one way or another, leaving his options open.
An armed conflict between Liu Bei and Sun Quan quickly materialised, because in late 219 Sun Quan had sent his general Lü Meng to invade Jing Province and seize the territories from Liu Bei, which resulted in the death of Liu's general Guan Yu. To avoid having to fight on two fronts, Sun Quan formally paid allegiance to Cao Pi, expressing his willingness to become a vassal under Wei. Cao Pi's strategist Liu Ye suggested to reject and instead attack Sun Quan on a second front. This would effectively partition Sun Quan's domain with Shu, and would eventually allow Cao Pi to destroy Shu as well. Cao Pi declined this suggestion, in a fateful choice that most historians believe doomed his empire to ruling only northern and central China; such an opportunity would not come again. Indeed, against Liu Ye's advice, Cao Pi granted Sun Quan the title "King of Wu" () and the nine bestowments.
Sun Quan's submission did not last long. After Sun Quan's forces, under the command of Lu Xun, defeated Shu forces at the Battle of Xiaoting in 222, Sun Quan began to distance himself from Wei. When Cao Pi demanded that Sun Quan send his heir apparent, Sun Deng, to Luoyang as a hostage, Sun Quan refused and formally broke ties with Wei. Cao Pi personally led an expedition against Sun Quan, and in response, Sun Quan declared independence from Wei, establishing the state of Eastern Wu (but he continued ruling as "King of Wu" and did not declare himself emperor until 229). By this time, having defeated Shu, the Wu forces enjoyed high morale and effective leadership from Sun Quan, Lu Xun and a number of other capable generals. Cao Pi's forces were not able to make significant advances against them despite several large-scale attacks in the next few years. The division of the former Han Empire into three states has become firmly established, particularly after Liu Bei's death in 223. The Shu chancellor Zhuge Liang, serving as regent for Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan, re-established the alliance with Wu, resulting in Wei having to defend itself on two fronts and unable to conquer either. Exasperated, Cao Pi made a famous comment in 225 that "Heaven created the Yangtze River to divide the north and the south."
Domestic matters
Cao Pi was generally viewed as a competent, but unspectacular, administrator of his empire. He commissioned a number of capable officials to be in charge of various affairs of the empire, employing his father's general guidelines of valuing abilities over heritage. However, he was not open to criticism, and officials who dared to criticise him were often demoted and, on rare occasions, put to death.
Treatment of princes
Since Cao Pi was still fearful and resentful of Cao Zhi, he soon had the latter's fief reduced in size and had a number of his associates executed. Ding Yi, who was chief among Cao Zhi's strategists, had his whole clan exterminated as a result of assisting the latter in the past. Cao Pi's younger brother, Cao Xiong, was also said to have committed suicide out of fears for his brother. In summary, under regulations established by Cao Pi, not only were the Wei princes (unlike princes of the Han dynasty) distanced from central politics, they also had minimal authority even in their own principalities and were restricted in many ways, particularly in the use of military force.
Treatment of officials
Cao Pi was recorded to frequently ridicule his subordinates. For example, Yu Jin was captured by Liu Bei's general Guan Yu at the Battle of Fancheng in 219, and was later taken back to Wu and detained there after the Wu invasion of Jing Province. Yu Jin was allowed to return to Wei after Wu briefly became a vassal state under Wei in 221. Cao Pi reinstated Yu Jin as General Who Pacifies the Borders () and announced that he would send Yu Jin back to Eastern Wu – where he had been imprisoned – as an envoy. However, before Yu Jin's departure, he was instructed to travel to Ye to pay his respects at Cao Cao's tomb. When Yu Jin arrived, he found that the emperor had commissioned artists to paint, in his father's tomb, scenes of the Battle of Fancheng. These scenes showed Yu Jin begging for his life to be spared and succumbing to the victorious Guan Yu, while his subordinate Pang De was shown dying an honourable death by resisting the invading forces to his last breath. Upon seeing the vivid mural, Yu Jin was so filled with regret and shame that he fell ill and soon died. Cao Pi further gave the deceased Yu Jin a negative-sounding posthumous title, "Marquis Li" (), for people to remember the latter as the "stony marquis (or vicious marquis)". Wang Zhong, a general who followed Cao Cao for many years, was also a subject of ridicule by Cao Pi.
Succession issues and death
An immediate issue after Cao Pi became emperor in 220 was who the empress would be. Lady Zhen was his wife. Cao Pi summoned Lady Zhen to Luoyang, but Lady Zhen refused because of her poor health. In 221 Lady Zhen died and the position of empress went to Guo Nüwang.
Guo Nüwang did not bear Cao Pi any children. Cao Rui was the eldest of Cao Pi's sons, but because of his mother's death, he was not instated as the crown prince. Instead, Cao Rui was appointed "Prince of Pingyuan" after his father's ascension to the throne. Cao Pi did not appear to have seriously considered any other son as heir. (It might have been because the other sons were all significantly younger, although their ages were not recorded in history.) In the summer of 226, when Cao Pi was seriously ill, he finally named Cao Rui as his crown prince. On his deathbed, he entrusted Cao Rui to the care of Cao Zhen, Chen Qun and Sima Yi. Following his father's death, Cao Rui ascended the throne at the age of 21.
Family
Consorts and Issue:
Empress Wenzhao, of the Zhen clan (; 183–221)
Cao Rui, Emperor Ming (; 204–239), first son
Princess Dongxiang ()
Empress Wende, of the Guo clan (; 184–235)
Guiren, of the Li clan ()
Cao Xie, Prince Ai of Zan ()
Shuyuan, of the Pan clan ()
Cao Rui, Prince Wen'an (; d. 233)
Shuyuan, of the Zhu clan ()
Cao Jian, Prince Huai of Dongwuyang (; d. 225/226)
Zhaoyi, of the Qiu clan ()
Cao Lin, Prince Ding of Donghai (; d. 251)
Lady, of the Xu clan ()
Cao Li, Prince Liang (; 208–229)
Lady, of the Su clan ()
Cao Yong, Prince Luyang (; died 229)
Lady, of the Zhang clan ()
Cao Gong, Prince Dao of Qinghe (; d. 223)
Lady, of the Song clan ()
Cao Yan, Prince Ai of Guangping (; d. 223)
Unknown
Cao Jie ()
Ancestry
In popular culture
How Cao Pi became an emperor portrayed in "Secret of the Three Kingdoms"
Cao Pi appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series. He also appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms series.
Yu Bin portrayed Cao Pi in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms.
See also
Cao Wei family trees
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
References
External links
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
187 births
226 deaths
Family of Cao Cao
3rd-century Chinese monarchs
Cao Wei emperors
Cao Wei poets
Han dynasty poets
3rd-century Chinese poets
People from Bozhou
Poets from Anhui
Usurpers
Founding monarchs | [
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245084 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund%20Beaufort%20%28died%201471%29 | Edmund Beaufort (died 1471) | Edmund Beaufort (c. 1438 – 6 May 1471), styled 4th Duke of Somerset, 6th Earl of Somerset, 3rd Marquess of Dorset, 3rd Earl of Dorset, was an English nobleman, and a military commander during the Wars of the Roses, in which he supported the Lancastrian king Henry VI.
Life
Edmund Beaufort, born about 1438, was the second son of Edmund Beaufort, 2nd Duke of Somerset by his wife Eleanor de Beauchamp, a daughter of Richard Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick and widow of Thomas de Roos, 14th Baron Roos of Hamlake. His elder brother was Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset (26 January 1436 – 15 May 1464).
After the defeat of the Lancastrians in 1461, Edmund was brought up in France with his younger brother John Beaufort, Marquess of Dorset, and on the execution of his elder brother Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset after the Battle of Hexham in 1464, Edmund is said to have succeeded as 4th Duke of Somerset by Lancastrians in February 1471, though his brother's attainder was never reversed, and his titles remained forfeit. In a proclamation dated 27 April 1471 Edmund is spoken of as "Edmund Beaufort, calling himself duke of Somerset".
In October 1470 Beaufort returned from France when King Edward IV was driven from the throne after Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick's defection and alliance with Queen Margaret and the restoration of King Henry VI, who was the first monarch ousted by the family feud, and whom due to occasional insanity she assisted in his duties, Somerset was unenthusiastic over the reconciliation and made little effort to co-operate. In fact his failure to hold London against Edward IV was a decisive moment, leading to the Battle of Barnet (14 April 1471) and the death of Warwick. Some sources say he was present at Barnet, but this is an error.
Fleeing west towards Wales to seek help from Jasper Tudor, but halted by the Yorkist army at the Battle of Tewkesbury (4 May 1471), he commanded the van of the Lancastrian army at the battle. His position was almost unassailable, but under the pressure of Edward's Flemish handgunners, once the battle began Beaufort moved down from the heights and attacked Edward IV's right flank. He was assailed by both the king and Richard, Duke of Gloucester, and was soon put to flight, his conduct having practically decided the battle in favour of the Yorkists.
After the defeat, Somerset and other Lancastrian leaders took refuge in Tewkesbury Abbey, but they were forced from sanctuary two days later. They were tried and executed immediately, at the Cross in the centre of Tewkesbury, on Monday 6 May 1471. He was buried on the south side of Tewkesbury Abbey, under an arch. His younger brother John had been killed during the battle, and as both died unmarried, "the house of Beaufort and all the honours to which they were entitled became extinct".
The murder shortly thereafter of Henry VI left Edmund's 1st cousin, Lady Margaret Beaufort, and her son, Henry Tudor, as the senior representatives of the House of Lancaster.
Ancestry
Notes
References
Attribution
Endnotes:
Arrivall of Edward IV and Warkworth's Chron. (Camden Soc.)
Hall's Chronicle
Polydore Vergil
Cal. Patent Polls
Stubbs's Const. Hist. iii. 208, 210
Ramsay's Lancaster and York, ii. 380-2
Doyle's Official Baronage
G. E. Cokayne's Complete Peerage
Notes and Queries, 4th ser. xii. 29, 276.
1430s births
1471 deaths
Edmund Beaufort, 4th Duke of Somerset
203
People of the Wars of the Roses
People executed under the Yorkists
Executed English people
Burials at Tewkesbury Abbey | [
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245085 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Young%20Doctors | The Young Doctors | The Young Doctors is an Australian early-evening soap opera originally broadcast on the Nine Network and produced by the Reg Grundy Organisation, it aired from Monday, 8 November 1976 until Wednesday, 30 March 1983.
The series is set in the fictional Albert Memorial Hospital and is primarily concerned with romances between younger members of the hospital staff, rather than typical medical issues and procedures.
The program was shown in exported internationally including throughout the United Kingdom, North America, Canada, Netherlands and also in France, Spain and New Zealand.
Series history
The series produced by the Grundy Organisation was created and devised by Alan Coleman with Reg Watson acting as Executive Producer.
Watson had been the Producer of the British TV soap opera Crossroads from 1964 to 1973 and he moved back to Australia to help set up a new drama department within the Reg Grundy Organisation, which at the time, was better known for its game and quiz shows. With Coleman producing, as well as Watson's experience of making fast-turnaround, 5-days a week serial drama, The Young Doctors became the third soap opera produced by the Reg Grundy Organisation following the Seven Network's serials 'Class of 74 / 75 , and Until Tomorrow, which screened briefly in 1975.The Young Doctors began in November 1976, a week earlier than another new soap opera on Nine, The Sullivans, which was produced for the network by Crawford Productions. The Nine Network made it clear only one of the series would be commissioned beyond the initial 13-week production run (approximately 65 episodes).The Sullivans, which had a 3 times greater budget, after the trial period emerged as the critical success, so The Young Doctors was cancelled.
Fans however lobbied the Nine Network, who then reversed their decision and by popular demand The Young Doctors continued in its daily 6.00 pm slot and had a successful run of six and a half years, making it one of Australia's longest running and popular serials of the time.
Later years
The Young Doctors long-serving cast members began to leave, so during the final season in 1982–83, many new characters were added in an attempt to modernise and refresh the long-running serial.
Producer and co-creator Alan Coleman also left in early 1982, and was replaced by Sue Masters twelve months before the series finished production in late November 1982. Masters went on to produce Grundy's replacement medical soap, Starting Out, for Nine, and then Grundy's stablemate, Prisoner, from 1983.
Several cast members after the series ended production went on to have leading roles in cult series Prisoner including Judy McBurney, Genevieve Lemon, Babs McMillan, Tottie Goldsmith and Peter Bensley
The advent of one-day cricket led to Nine Network moving the show around the schedules. The loss of several popular cast members also contributed to a sharp decline in ratings, and as a consequence of this, the series was moved to a mid-afternoon timeslot and then cancelled in late 1982.
When the series ended after 1397 episodes, it held the record of Australia's longest-running commercial television drama serial, which was previously held by Number 96. This was later surpassed by A Country Practice and then Neighbours, which is currently the longest-running Australian drama serial. The Young Doctors also holds the distinction, rare among long-running Australian dramas, of having never won any sort of television award.The Young Doctors final episode aired on Nine Network on 30 March 1983 at 14:30, and, coincidentally, The Sullivans had also ended just two weeks earlier.
Stories and settings
Albert Memorial Hospital
Despite the medical setting, medical procedures rarely featured in storylines, with most of the stories and plots focusing more on the personal life, romances and dramas of the staff. All scenes were played out in the various sets forming the Albert Memorial Hospital. A memorial plaque situated on the wall of the studio set of the hospital's exterior stated the hospital opened in 1889 and it is also established early in the series that the Albert Memorial is located in a Sydney district, with Sydney generically referred to as 'the City'.
A "real life" Albert Memorial Hospital, commonly referred to as the A. M. Hospital was located in Wollongong, and commenced operation in 1864. It closed when the Wollongong Hospital opened in 1907.
The most regularly seen set was the large hospital entrance lobby containing a reception desk, refreshments kiosk, a lift and stairs to the upper floors, and swinging double-doors that led into the casualty department. Various wards, offices, theatres and small medicine labs all saw an equal amount of romantic and dramatic action over the years. Alan Coleman revealed on a DVD release of the series that the various 'flats' used as sets were simply re-dressed with different hospital equipment and furniture giving the Albert Memorial a sense of monotony often associated with clinical, hospital environments.
Later in The Young Doctors run, location shooting became more frequent and viewers saw more of the hospital's exterior and grounds. Scenes filmed outside the hospital now showed modern, 1960s era buildings, presumably extensions to the original Victorian hospital. Exterior shots were filmed at the real life Royal North Shore Hospital and the former Greenwich Hospital, Sydney, New South Wales, which was used for later exterior shots. There was also a Chapel located in the hospital grounds which was filmed on a few occasions, most notably when Julie Holland was shot at the altar on her Wedding day to dashing Doctor Russell Edwards. With location shooting so rare, a trip to Melbourne for a travelogue-style Wedding and tour of the city was an extravagant way to celebrate Liz Kennedy's marriage to Doctor John Forrest in 1981.
Bunny's Place
There was also a local bar Bunny's Place which was another venue for the staff to mingle. The bar was originally owned by, and named after, Bunny Howard, played by comedian, Ugly Dave Gray, who was killed off in an early episode. Bunny's Place was said to be situated on the opposite side of the busy main road to the hospital. After Bunny died, Edna Curtis (Vivienne Benson-Young) ran the bar for a while, until Anne-Marie Austin (Judi Connelli) took over a year later. Although the bar's exterior was never shown on-screen, its interior regularly featured in every episode for the duration of the 6 and a half-year series, appearing in both the first and final episodes.
Cast and characters
Early characters
The Young Doctors had a relatively high turnover of young cast playing the doctors and nurses whom featured alongside a more stable roster of longer-running elder cast members. The serial also featured many well-known Australian actors appearing in their earliest roles.
The original "young doctors", joining the Albert Memorial in the first episode, were Doctor Gail Henderson, played by actress Peta Toppano. She went onto appear in the first season of Prisoner in 1979, and later, Return to Eden in 1986. Appearing alongside her was future singer, songwriter, and music producer Mark Holden who played pin-up Doctor Greg Mason for 6 months before his music career took off. There was also hospital lothario Doctor Craig Rothwell, played by John Walton, who appeared in the first scene of the pilot episode, drinking champagne on a theatre ward stretcher, with a suitably pretty young nurse by his side. Completing the first year interns were kind and conscientious Doctor Jim Howard (John Dommett), and finally, Doctor Grahame Steele (Tim Page), who went on to marry sister Eve Turner (Anne Lucas) in the serial's first wedding - the first of many.
Also appearing during the first year was the famous 1970s pin-up icon, Abigail, who completed two stints in the series during 1977 as Hilary Templeton, the assertive secretary to playboy tennis superstar, Phillip Winter (Noel Trevarthen), and later returning as pop star Georgie Saint's manager. She would go on to play tragic-heroine Caroline Morrell in Sons and Daughters the following decade.
Cornelia Frances
Particularly popular during the early years was Cornelia Frances who played sternly efficient Sister Grace Scott, later Matron. The character was regularly seen irate and disciplining the young nurses in her charge. She was also central to one of The Young Doctors most famous cliffhangers when Sister Scott accidentally plummeted down an empty lift shaft and broke her leg. Frances told Australia's TV Times magazine in 1977; “Sister Scott is no bitch. She’s quite humane but is frightened to show warmth.” She would go on to play equally formidable characters; first as Barbara Hamilton in Sons and Daughters from 1982 to 1986, and then Morag Bellingham in numerous stints on Home and Away between 1988 and 2017.
Gwen Plumb
Another star cast member was Gwen Plumb, a recipient of the British Empire Medal and AM recipient for her service to the arts and communities service, who portrayed gossipy kiosk lady Ada Simmonds for the length of the series, appearing from episode 1 (Ada did not appear in pilot episodes A+B).
Chris King
Ada was very close to Dennis Jamison, the hyperactive hospital orderly, played for six years by Chris King who became a big hit with viewers.
Joanne Samuel
Actress Joanne Samuel was another fan-favourite as Nurse Jill Gordon. The actress was written out of The Young Doctors by Alan Coleman to allow Samuel the golden opportunity to star in the film Mad Max alongside Mel Gibson in 1979. The film is now widely considered an enduring example of classic Australian cinema.
Rebecca Gilling and Alan Dale
Rebecca Gilling, who later became an international star due to her iconic role as Stephanie Harper in the hugely successful series Return to Eden, spent three years in The Young Doctors as Liz Kennedy. Her character memorably progressed from a first year Nurse to a fully qualified Psychologist before being fatally electrocuted by a faulty lamp on her Wedding night to Doctor John Forrest, an early role for Alan Dale, who later became a star of Neighbours for eight years as Jim Robinson, before going on to appear in many successful U.S drama series and films.
Jackie Woodburne Neighbours current longest running actress, Jackie Woodburne, who has played wise and enduring Susan Kennedy for over 27 years, was tragic young Nurse Maggie Gordon in The Young Doctors during 1980–81.
Paula Duncan
Paula Duncan, the sister of actress Carmen Duncan, left her role in The Young Doctors to join Crawford's soap, Cop Shop. Duncan would star in this series for its entire run from 1977 to 1984 as Detective Danni Francis. In 1985, she was cast in a 'Special Guest Role' during the first year of Neighbours when it originally aired on Seven Network. Following this, Duncan joined Network Ten's Prisoner for its final season in 1986 as regular character Lorelei Wilkinson, and it was then another starring role in Grundy's replacement soap for Prisoner on Network Ten, Richmond Hill, in 1988 as Janet Bryant.
A prolific soap star, more guest stints followed, including Home and Away in 1989, Paradise Beach in 1993, Breakers in 1997, and a return to Neighbours in a different role during 2011.
Michael Beecher and Alfred Sandor
The Albert Memorial hospital's suave superintendent, Doctor Brian Denham, was played by former male-model Michael Beecher for almost the entire run, leaving shortly before the series ended. Similarly, Alfred Sandor who played charming surgeon Doctor Raymond Shaw, was forced to leave due to ill health, and his last appearance was just a month before the final episode.
Final cast
Staying on until the very end of the series was Gwen Plumb as Ada Simmonds; Lyn James, who played Doctor Denham's faithful secretary, Helen Gordon, also appeared for the duration of the series, alongside Tim Page, who played grumpy but highly efficient, Dr. Grahame Steele.
Susanne Stuart, a real-life nursing sister who helped the actors on-set with basic first-aid to add to the series authenticity, was originally seen in very early episodes as a non-speaking Sister, quietly filing patient records or answering the telephone in the background - however, her role was gradually expanded (her first brief speaking part was during episode 32), and she became Sister Suzanne Gibbs, becoming a regular until the end, along with Judy McBurney, as Nurse Tania Livingstone, who'd first appeared in episode 64.
Cultural impact
Although The Young Doctors was obviously low-budget and the limitations of the fast-turnaround production schedule sometimes crept into the programme, it was immensely popular during the late 1970s in Australia. One highlight episode of this period was the Wedding Day of Tania (Judy McBurney) to Tony Garcia (Tony Alvarez) in March 1978. The producers splashed out on an OB unit, and a rare church wedding took place with the wedding photos gracing all of the week's TV magazine covers. In a 2006 interview, Judy McBurney, who played Tania, commented; "I thought Young Doctors was a beautiful show. I felt it was innocent, sweet, and a good show...and I think that's why people remember it".
One of the programmes most popular doctors was Ben Fielding, played by Eric Oldfield. He was also Male Model of the Year in 1977 and became the second man to appear naked in a centre spread for Cleo magazine whilst appearing in the show. The actor fondly recalls the photo shoot on a reunion documentary available on both the Umbrella and ViaVision DVD releases, where he describes the pictures as "taboo" because "it wasn't acceptable back then for men to be taking all their clothes off". Oldfield also commented that the pictures have since garnered a popular cult following amongst gay men.
Another notable actor, a very young Russell Crowe, appeared in his first acting role in The Young Doctors. In an episode originally aired in 1977, appropriately, he played a young boy called Russell.
During the 1970s, a number of actors appearing in the show also had singing careers, preempting a similar fad for "singing soap stars" a decade later with another Grundy soap opera, Neighbours. Early episodes featured singers including Jewel Blanch, Mark Hembrow, Bartholomew John, Mark Holden and Judi Connelli. Possibly due to the fast production schedule, and filming six months in advance of transmission dates, contemporary cultural references are rare in The Young Doctors, however, in a very early 1977 episode, Sister Gibbs briskly remarks; "...casualty is busier than an ABBA concert today". The reference to ABBA is likely due to the fact that their 1977 film, Abba: The Movie, was at the same time being produced by Reg Grundy Productions.
Also extremely popular in the United Kingdom, the success of The Young Doctors here is notable because it didn't air in Britain contemporaneously with Australian broadcasts. Most ITV regions did not start showing it until after it had ended in Australia in March 1983. It therefore looked somewhat dated compared with more recent Australian serials that were airing at the same time (namely, Sons and Daughters), nevertheless, it became so popular, a fan club was formed, which was active for several years well into the 1990s.
Even with the strong ratings, magazine covers, fan clubs, VHS and DVD campaigns, The Young Doctors holds the rare distinction for a long-running series to never have won any kind of Award. It was not short of Nominations however, and in the 1978 Australian Film and Television Awards, The Young Doctors was nominated for Best Drama; Tim Page was nominated for Best Actor in a TV Series; Joanne Samuel was nominated for Best Actress in a TV series; and up for Gold Sammys were Cornelia Frances and Delvene Delaney. The following year at the 1979 Australian Film and Television Awards, The Young Doctors was again nominated for Best Drama; Peter Lochran was nominated for Best Actor in a TV Series; and up for Gold Sammys were Diana McLean, Peter Lochran and Joanne Samuel. Cornelia Frances noted on the audio commentary for episode 325 on the 2008 Umbrella DVD release, Classic Cliffhangers, that she lost out on the Logie Award for Best Actress for two consecutive years to Lorraine Bayly, who played Grace Sullivan in The Sullivans, which also beat The Young Doctors as Best Drama in 1978, 1979 and 1980.
Regular Cast
There was consistently a core cast of 16 regular characters in The Young Doctors, with all cast members contracted to appear in three out of a block of five episodes each week. Sometimes, a regular character would not be seen on-screen for several weeks and there is an obvious rotation of recurring characters whom came and went as script requirements permitted. More often than not, a departing regular character would simply disappear from the screen, but their presence in the serial would be maintained by regular scripted references to the character being elsewhere in the hospital, or, as Cornelia Frances described it, "stuck in a cupboard for weeks", but, always off screen.
Doctors
Sisters
Nurses
Hospital Staff
Other cast and characters
Laura Denham – Joanna Moore•Smith (1976–77) Original cast, recurring 1979-80 'Bunny' Howard – Ugly Dave Gray (1976) Original cast, to episode 43 Edna Curtis – Vivienne Benson-Young (1976–77) Original cast Roger Gordon - Ric Herbert (recurring, 1976–78)
Frank Curtis - Iain Finlay (1976)
Toby Denham – Greg Kelly (1976–77)
Abbie Singleton - Jewel Blanch (1976)
Maureen Howard - Virginia Rudeno (1976–77)
Ric Martin – Gerry Sont (1976)
Rosalie Parker – Carol Raye (1976–77)
Arthur Simmonds – Willie Fennell (recurring, 1976–78)
Dot Warner - Shirley Cameron (1977)
Russell – Russell Crowe (1977)
Hilary Templeton – Abigail (1977, 1978)
Philip Winter – Noel Trevarthen (1977)
Georgie Saint – Mark Hembrow (1977, 1979)
Milt Baxter - Mark Hashfield (1977)
Sir Thomas Kendall - James Condon (1977)
Mrs Nielsen - June Salter (1977)
Irene Hardy - Anne Semler (1977)
Glenda Stacey - Julieanne Newbould (1977)
Ben Stone - John Jarratt (1977)
Anne-Marie Austin – Judi Connelli (1977–78)
Sandy Pearce – Anna Hruby (1977–78)
Rene Brooks – Moya O'Sullivan (1977)
Clarrie Baker - Tony Adams (1977)
Vicky Clayton - Bronwen Samuel (1977)
Cora Clayton - Tina Grenville (1977)
Erika Hoffman – Karen Petersen (1978–1980)
Amelia Frost – Enid Lorimer (1978)
Roxanne Moore - Harriet Littlesmith (1978)
Moira Callaghan – Hilda Scurr (1978)
Edward Gordon – Brian Harrison (1978–9)
Deirdre Snape - Elizabeth Kemp (1979)
Kevin McAllister – Vincent Ball (1979)
David McAllister – Simon Burke 1979
Roland Perry – Wallas Eaton (1979–80)
Lois Norton – Penne Hackforth-Jones (1979)
Mrs Newman – June Collis (1979, 1981)
Ken Hansen – Joe Hasham (1979)
Steve Newman – Kit Taylor (1979, 1981–2)
Sylvia Marcus – Carmen Duncan (1979)
Sophie Bertram – Betty Lucas (1979)
Douglas Kennedy – Bill Kerr (1980)
Rachel Thorpe – Ros Wood (1980)
Hazel Kennedy – Jessica Noad (1980)
Arthur Shepherd – Ron Shand (1981)
Pippa Blake – Benita Collings (1982)
Mrs Wilson – Mary Ward (1982)
Opening and closing themeThe Young Doctors has a memorable and distinctive instrumental theme tune, highly evocative of the era. The theme was composed by Alan Olivan and Brian King and played by The Executives, the band also making a cameo appearance performing the tune at Bunny's at the end of an early episode.
There were two versions of the opening theme; the first was used from the pilot episode, through to early 1978. It is a fast-paced arrangement with the accompanying visuals of the main cast cleverly edited with quick-cut synchronisation to the beat. With its distinctive horn section, thumping piano and dramatic drum snares, this theme is heavily influenced by the disco sound of the era.
The second version was introduced along with a brand new opening sequence focusing on the main cast performing an operation in the hospital theatre. A new intro gives way to a re-recording of the established signature tune. In 1980 an ambulance siren is heard at the start of the opening theme, replaced by a beeping heart monitor effect in 1982, which was used until the final episode in 1983.
There were four versions of the closing theme. The first was a distinctive disco arrangement, with the cast shown dancing to it in the first version of the opening titles, and although the end theme was in the same style, it was played at a much slower pace. During 1977, the closing sequence was shortened and a slightly faster arrangement of this closing theme was used. This was replaced by the probably most remembered and longest running closing theme which first aired in 1978 and was still being used to close the final few episodes in 1983. It is an extended, but slower, version of the new opening theme, and it includes a distinctive guitar bridge section, and is the only version of the theme that featured a dramatic piano and trumpet staccato intro. This one minute theme is used on episodes where cast, all crew, and sponsors are all credited. It is also included on two compilation albums: Australian TV's Greatest Hits released by Silva Screen Records in 1988, and TV Tunes, released by K-Tel in 1989.
The third version is a 30-second, shorter arrangement of the second theme, however, it completely removes the intro and starts directly at the signature trumpet section, features a slightly different electric guitar solo, and has a much shorter, punchier ending. This theme was used when the credits contained only cast and sponsorship slides and not the crew.
The second and third theme tunes were used interchangeably in 1978-79 episodes, but it wasn't used in 1980 or 1981, presumably due to the running time of the episodes, and the number of sponsorship slides being shown. These advertisements would be removed from international episodes thus reducing the run time of the closing credits considerably; this meant viewers of episodes edited outside Australia seldom, if ever, heard any of these theme tunes played out in full at the end of an episode, although the third, shorter version would air on very rare occasions.
The fourth version was used on the credits for the final episode only and was a suitably slow and sombre arrangement reflecting the end of the series. This slow version had previously been used as incidental music and the ending bars were often used as a "sting" at commercial break points in the later episodes.
International success
The relatively long-running serial also achieved modest international cult success, particularly in the United Kingdom, where it was broadcast on the ITV network. It also aired in New Zealand, France and Spain.
UK broadcasts
In the United Kingdom the programme was acquired by 13 of the 14 weekday members of the ITV Network. Scottish Television never purchased the series, although Grampian Television and Border Television did. Most of the ITV regions screened The Young Doctors at their own regional pace, starting in January 1982.
Central Television pioneered the programme in a Tuesday and Thursday 12:30 slot from Tuesday, 2 January 1982, but during the year, moved to Monday and Tuesdays at 15:45, sharing the slot with the then seasonal Scottish soap opera, Take the High Road, which had started in 1980. In January 1983, episodes increased to daily at 15:30 until Sons and Daughters began in February. These two serials then shared this timeslot for well over four years, with The Young Doctors always airing on Mondays and Tuesdays. This continued until September 1987 when a revamp of ITV's daytime schedule saw Central return the programme to 12:00 noon, and then 12:35, thus allowing both The Young Doctors and Sons and Daughters to increase to four or five episodes a week in their revised respective slots. Following the end of Sons and Daughters in December 1988, The Young Doctors returned to 15:30 during Christmas week, and usually aired Tuesday to Friday until Families began in April 1990, which took the Monday and Tuesday 15:30 slot. The Young Doctors was finally moved to 14:50-15:20, Monday to Thursday later in 1990, and finished Tuesday, 18 August 1992, the first ITV region to complete all of the series.
HTV started the series on Tuesday, 4 January 1983 and continued regularly twice weekly. Initially broadcast Mondays and Fridays at 17:15-17:45, it was soon moved to 15:30-16:00 on Mondays and Tuesdays and finished on 18 April 1994.
Granada Television and Border Television both broadcast three weekly episodes, and screened The Young Doctors Wednesday to Friday. Both regions overtook Central for several years, however, they ultimately finished the series after Central at Easter 1993 at 15:20.
Anglia Television started on 3 September 1984, going out Mondays and Tuesdays at 15:30 until 17 April 1990; then changed to Wednesdays and Thursdays from 25 April 1990. It was then moved to Thursdays and Fridays from Friday 6 July 1990 and an additional Wednesday episode returns in January 1991. Then Mondays to Fridays from January 1992 and finally, Thursdays and Fridays at 13:55 until Friday, 2 June 1995.
Thames Television and LWT in London started screening the series initially at 17:15 on Thursdays and Fridays from 23 June 1983 until 1 September 1984, before switching the series to 15:30 slot, to allow Blockbusters the slot. From this point onwards, only Thames broadcast the series. When Carlton Television took over in January 1993, the series was dropped for 6 months to allow backlog of Blockbusters episodes to be aired, The Young Doctors returned daily on 7 June 1993 concluding the programme as an 80minute special from 13:55 on Friday 30 December 1994.
Grampian Television started on Monday, 14 November 1983, increased to 4 episode per week by 1991, and finished Friday, 30 September 1994.
Television South (TVS) started on Monday 9 April 1984 broadcasting Mondays and Tuesdays 15:30; In May switched; Mondays to Wednesdays 17:15 for summer 1984; then Thursdays and Fridays 15:30 from early September 1984; then Mondays to Wednesdays from January 1985 until Wednesday 2 September 1987; then Wednesdays and Thursdays at 12:00 noon; then Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays used from 4 January 1988 15.30; then Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays from 25 April 1990. TVS lost their franchise at the end of 1992 but their successor, Meridian Television continued to show the series (more information on the timeslot required) and completed the run on 8 July 1993.
Tyne Tees Television began the series Monday, 1 October 1984 and aired Mondays and Tuesdays 15:30 until 17 April 1990. It was then moved to Tuesdays and Wednesdays at 14:00 from 25 April 1990. From Thursday, 3 January 1991 moves to 15:20 Thursdays and Fridays. A Wednesday episode was added from 23 January 1991, and then from January 1992, it is broadcast Mondays to Fridays at 15:20. From Monday 4 January 1993 Tyne Tees and Yorkshire screened the programme daily at 15:20. From January 1994 until the end in December of that year, this changed to Monday – Thursday at 14.50.
TSW Started the series on 1 April 1985, Monday and Fridays at 17:15 until 8 July, when it was moved to 15.30 slot. On 17 October 1988, the series moves to 12:30 on Mondays and Wednesdays but due to network programming resulted in the series becoming weekly during 1989/1990, but returned to twice a week by the end 1990. Westcountry Television took over in 1993, and continued twice a week until early 1994 when it was increased to three times a week until 20 December 1995 when episode 1101 was broadcast. The series was not completed.
Years after most of the other regions Yorkshire Television started the series in June 1988, going out five times a week, reducing to three times a week from January 1989. In January 1993, they had to skip 215 episodes to enable them to catch up to Tyne Tees Television, as from January 1993, both regions screened exactly the same material. It aired daily at 15:20, until January 1994 when the Friday episode was dropped until the series ended on Thursday 15 December 1994.
The Young Doctors was also aired on Sky Channel. On Monday, 6 February 1989, the first episode was broadcast 17:00–17:30. From 6 July 1989, it was moved to 15.15–15.45 (to make way for Sky Star Search which took the 17:00–18:00 slot). 256 episodes were broadcast in these slots.
In February 1990, now called Sky One, the channel dropped another Australian soap, The Sullivans, from their mid-morning schedule, so from 5 February 1990, The Young Doctors rewound back to the first episode (due to almost catching up with some ITV regions, and having overtaken ITV Yorkshire), and it was aired now 10:30-11:00. Sky One eventually cancelled The Young Doctors just over two years later, at episode 589, which aired Friday, 29 May 1992.
New Zealand broadcasts
In New Zealand The Young Doctors was aired on TV2. On Monday, 22 February 1982, the first episode was broadcast at 5.30pm. From 19 July 1982, it was moved to the 6pm slot. To make way for Sons and Daughters, the series was moved from 6pm to a 'double episode' format at 6.30pm on a Tuesday and Wednesday evening from 11 February 1986. It reverted to half hour, weekday episodes in the 5.15pm slot from 4 August until 12 December 1986, and then to double episodes in the 5.05-5.55pm slot from 15 December 1986 until 6 February 1987. From 9 February 1987, the series was moved to TV One and reverted to half hour episodes at 5.15pm. The final episode was broadcast on Wednesday 27 May 1987.
Remake
In November 2007, the Nine Network announced plans to remake the series in conjunction with FremantleMedia. Originally, it was set to be broadcast in 2008 but due to script delays, the premiere date had been pushed back to 2009. The remake was set to be named Young Doctors'' (minus "The"). However, at the end of 2008, the Nine Network officially passed on the idea. The network decided against the remake, instead, confirming a second series of the popular Australian drama Underbelly. FremantleMedia is currently searching for another television station to contract the programme.
Home media
Selected episodes of the serial were released on DVD in October 2006, under the title of The Best Romances. A second set of selected episodes, under the title of Classic Cliffhangers, was released in February 2008. In 1994, prior to the DVDs, a VHS was edited in the UK by "NTV entertainment" collecting episodes A, B (pilots) & 1.
On 16 June 2021, ViaVision Entertainment released the first 250 episodes of the series in a 35 disc set which consisted of all episodes screened in 1976 and 1977.
References
External links
Aussie Soap Archive: The Young Doctors — Overview and Review
Documentary celebrating 30 year anniversary, with cast interviews
The Young Doctors at the National Film and Sound Archive
Australian television soap operas
Australian medical television series
Nine Network original programming
Television series produced by The Reg Grundy Organisation
1976 Australian television series debuts
1983 Australian television series endings
Television shows set in Sydney
English-language television shows | [
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245086 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang%20Gai | Huang Gai | Huang Gai () ( 180s–210s), courtesy name Gongfu, was a military general who served under the warlord Sun Quan during the late Eastern Han dynasty of China. He previously served under Sun Quan's predecessors – Sun Jian (Sun Quan's father) and Sun Ce (Sun Quan's elder brother).
Early life
Huang Gai was from Quanling County (), Lingling Commandery (), which is present-day Lingling District, Yongzhou, Hunan. He was a descendant of Huang Zilian (), a former Administrator of Nanyang Commandery. Huang Gai's grandfather moved from Nanyang to Lingling and had remained there since. Huang Gai was orphaned at a young age and he experienced hardships in his early days. However, he had high ambitions and, despite being poor, he worked hard and read books and studied military arts on his own.
Early career and service under Sun Jian and Sun Ce
Huang Gai later became a minor official in the local commandery office before he was nominated as a xiaolian and employed as an assistant in the office of one of the Three Ducal Ministers. Around the 180s, when the warlord Sun Jian was raising a militia to help government forces suppress the Yellow Turban Rebellion, Huang Gai responded to the call and became one of Sun Jian's subordinates. Huang Gai accompanied Sun Jian in attacking bandits in the region and also participated in the campaign against Dong Zhuo under Sun Jian's banner. Huang Gai was later appointed as a Major of Separate Command (). After Sun Jian's death in 191, Huang Gai continued to serve under Sun Jian's eldest son, Sun Ce, and later under Sun Quan, Sun Ce's younger brother. He was involved in Sun Ce's conquests in the Jiangdong region.
Service under Sun Quan
Maintaining peace and stability within Wu
When Sun Quan was in control of the Wu territories, the lands were not very peaceful as the Shanyue tribes in the region often raided counties and caused much trouble. Huang Gai was sent to pacify the Shanyue. Once, Huang Gai was assigned to oversee Shicheng County and he knew that the local officials did not follow the laws and were difficult to control. After entering the county office, he chose two officers to be his assistants and ordered them to manage the office. He also gave instructions for all the officers to abide by rules and regulations and perform their duties well. The two officers were afraid of Huang Gai so they put in full effort in their work. However, as time passed, they realised that Huang Gai did not inspect their work, so they became lax and reverted to their old ways. Huang Gai was actually aware of what was going on. He invited all the local officials to attend a banquet later and exposed the two officers' misdeeds in front of everyone. The officers were frightened and started begging for their lives, but Huang Gai still executed them. This incident shocked everyone in the county. Huang Gai was later reassigned to be the Chief of Chungu County (春穀縣; northwest of present-day Fanchang County, Anhui) and the Prefect of Xunyang County (尋陽縣; southwest of present-day Huangmei County, Hubei). The nine counties under his governorship were peaceful and stable. Huang Gai was subsequently promoted to Commandant of Danyang Commandery (丹楊郡; around present-day Nanjing, Jiangsu). He helped the poor and earned the respect of the Shanyue.
Battle of Red Cliffs
In the winter of 208-209, Huang Gai fought in the Battle of Red Cliffs against Cao Cao's forces. He was a subordinate of Zhou Yu, who was the frontline commander of Sun Quan's forces in that battle. Huang Gai told Zhou Yu: "The enemy are superior in numbers in comparison with our side. I fear that we cannot last long. However, I observe that Cao Cao's ships are linked to each other. We can destroy them by fire." Huang Gai then prepared about ten mengchongs and doujians (鬬艦; a type of warship) and filled them with the ingredients necessary for starting a fire. He then wrote a letter to Cao Cao, pretending that he wanted to surrender and defect to Cao Cao's side. Cao Cao told Huang Gai's messenger: "I only fear that this is a trick. However, if what Huang Gai said is true, I will reward him handsomely."
Huang Gai also prepared some zouges (走舸; a smaller type of boat), which would follow behind the mengchongs and doujians, and his small fleet sailed towards Cao Cao's base. The wind was blowing strongly from the southeast. When Huang Gai's fleet reached the middle of the river, the ships all raised their sails, and Huang Gai lifted a torch and instructed his men to shout "We surrender!" Cao Cao's troops came out of the camp to look and they said Huang Gai was coming to join them. When Huang Gai was about 20 li away from the enemy base, he ordered his men to set the ships on fire and they boarded the smaller boats behind. As the wind was very strong, the flaming ships sailed towards Cao Cao's warships at fast speed and caused them to catch fire as well. Cao Cao's ships were all burnt down and the flames also spread quickly to his camps on land. Zhou Yu then ordered an attack on Cao Cao's base and scored a major victory. Cao Cao retreated north with his surviving troops after his defeat.
Huang Gai was hit by a stray arrow during the battle and fell into the river. He was saved by Zhou Yu’s men, who did not recognise him and left him on a toilet seat. When Han Dang passed by, Huang Gai managed to call out to him. Han Dang recognised Huang Gai's voice so he rushed towards him. With tears in his eyes, Han Dang helped Huang Gai remove his clothing so that the wound can be treated, and Huang Gai survived.
Later career and death
Huang Gai was promoted to General of the Household of Martial Edge (). When the tribal people in Wuling Commandery (武陵郡; around present-day Changde, Hunan) started a rebellion, Huang Gai was appointed as the Administrator of Wuling and was sent to quell the uprising. At that time, there were only 500 troops in the commandery and they were heavily outnumbered by the rebels. However, Huang Gai ordered the city gates to be opened, and when about half of the rebel army had entered, he launched an assault on them, killing hundreds of enemies while the surviving ones fled. Huang Gai later succeeded in pacifying the rebellion over the following three months by targeting the rebel chiefs and pardoning the rebels who surrendered. By summer, all the tribal chiefs had submitted to Huang Gai. Peace was restored in Wuling.
Later, when Huang Gai received news that Yiyang County was under attack by bandits, he led his forces to fight the bandits and succeeded in restoring peace in the region. Huang Gai was subsequently promoted to Lieutenant-General (). He died in office while serving as the Administrator of Wuling Commandery.
Huang Bing
In 229, after Sun Quan declared himself emperor and established the state of Eastern Wu, he granted the title of a Secondary Marquis () to Huang Gai's son, Huang Bing (), in recognition of Huang Gai's contributions.
Appraisal
Huang Gai was described as having a stern and serious appearance, and was known to be a good disciplinarian. Every time he went into battle, the men under him would compete fiercely to earn the top credit. Huang Gai was also known to be just and decisive when he handled cases in court and he never had any lapses. After his death, he was fondly remembered by the people of Wu, and they even created portraits of him and worshipped him.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Huang Gai is a minor character in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, which romanticises the historical events before and during the Three Kingdoms period. He appears mainly in the chapters covering the events leading to the Battle of Red Cliffs. His most significant moment in the novel is a fictional episode in which he proposes a "self-torture ruse" () to win Cao Cao's trust so that Zhou Yu's fire attack plan can be carried out. Huang Gai has a secret conversation with Zhou Yu one night and suggests his plan. The following morning, when Zhou Yu calls for an assembly of the officers to discuss their battle plans, Huang Gai pretends to openly challenge and insult Zhou Yu. Zhou Yu pretends to be furious and he orders Huang Gai to be executed, but with some intervention from Gan Ning and others, he spares Huang Gai's life and has him severely flogged. Huang Gai then writes a letter to Cao Cao, expressing his willingness to defect over to Cao Cao's side because he is unhappy with Zhou Yu. Cai Zhong and Cai He, two spies planted by Cao Cao in Zhou Yu's camp, confirm Huang Gai's account that he was flogged on Zhou Yu's order because of an argument. Kan Ze later helps to convince Cao Cao that Huang Gai's defection is genuine, even though Cao initially saw through the ruse. Huang Gai then arranges with Cao Cao that on a certain night, he would sail across the river over to Cao's camp. That night, Huang Gai uses the opportunity to launch the fire attack, sparking off the Battle of Red Cliffs.
In popular culture
Huang Gai appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.
He is portrayed by Liu Kui in the 2010 Chinese television series Three Kingdoms.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
References
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
2nd-century births
3rd-century deaths
Sun Ce and associates
Generals under Sun Quan
Politicians from Yongzhou
Han dynasty politicians from Hunan
Officials under Sun Quan
Political office-holders in Hunan
Han dynasty generals from Hunan | [
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245089 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldenkrais%20Method | Feldenkrais Method | The Feldenkrais Method is a type of exercise therapy devised by Israeli Moshé Feldenkrais (1904–1984) during the mid-20th century. The method is claimed to reorganize connections between the brain and body and so improve body movement and psychological state.
There is no good medical evidence that the Feldenkrais method confers any health benefits. It is not known if it is safe or cost-effective, but researchers do not believe it poses serious risks.
Description
The Feldenkrais Method is a type of alternative exercise therapy that proponents claim can repair impaired connections between the motor cortex and the body, so benefiting the quality of body movement and improving wellbeing. The Feldenkrais Guild of North America claims that the Feldenkrais method allows people to "rediscover [their] innate capacity for graceful, efficient movement" and that "These improvements will often generalize to enhance functioning in other aspects of [their] life". Proponents claim that the Feldenkrais Method can benefit people with a number of medical conditions, including children with autism, and people with multiple sclerosis. Though no studies in which participants were clearly identified as having an autism spectrum disorder or developmental disabilities have been presented to back this claims.
In a session, a Feldenkrais practitioner directs attention to habitual movement patterns that are thought to be inefficient or strained, and attempts to teach new patterns using gentle, slow, repeated movements. Slow repetition is believed to be necessary to impart a new habit and allow it to begin to feel normal. These movements may be passive (performed by the practitioner on the recipient's body) or active (performed by the recipient). The recipient is fully clothed.
Effectiveness and reception
In 2015, the Australian Government's Department of Health published the results of a review of alternative therapies that sought to determine if any were suitable for being covered by health insurance; the Feldenkrais Method was one of 17 therapies evaluated for which no clear evidence of effectiveness was found. Accordingly in 2017 the Australian government identified the Feldenkrais Method as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would "ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence".
The Feldenkrais Method is promoted with anecdotal claims it can help children with autism and other developmental disorders, but such claims are not backed by reputable supporting evidence.
There is limited evidence that workplace-based use of the Feldenkrais Method may help aid rehabilitation of people with upper limb complaints.
David Gorski has written that the Method bears similarities to faith healing, is like "glorified yoga", and that it "borders on quackery". Quackwatch places the Feldenkrais Method on its list of "Unnaturalistic methods".
History
Similar to some other somatic methods, such as those started by F. Matthias Alexander, Elsa Gindler, and Gerda Alexander, the Feldenkrais Method originated in the efforts of its founder to work with his own bodily problem. In the case of Moshé Feldenkrais, it was a chronically injured knee.
Feldenkrais first injured his knee while playing soccer in British-controlled Palestine in the 1920s. He reinjured it while negotiating the slippery decks of submarines while working as a scientist at the British Naval station at Fairlie, Scotland during the Second World War.
By that time Feldenkrais was a judo teacher and had mostly completed the work toward a D.Sc. under the guidance of Nobel laureate Frédéric Joliot-Curie. Facing the prospect of a surgery that could leave him with a life-long limp, Feldenkrais decided to apply the knowledge gained from his study of physics, engineering, and martial arts to an intensive self-study of his own movement habits. When his work provided him with relief, allowing him to avoid the knee surgery, he began exploring the methods he developed on himself with a small group of people at Fairlie, including scientific colleague John Desmond Bernal and John Boyd-Orr, Nobel laureate and first president of the World Academy of Art and Science.
After serving as head of electronic engineering for the Israeli Army in newly formed Israel from 1951 to 1953, Feldenkrais devoted the rest of his life, from age 50 onward, to developing and teaching self-awareness through movement lessons.
From the 1950s till his death in 1984, he taught continuously in his home city of Tel Aviv. Feldenkrais gained recognition in part through media accounts of his work with prominent individuals, including Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion. Beginning in the late 1950s, Feldenkrais made trips to teach in Europe and America. Several hundred people became certified Feldenkrais practitioners through trainings he held in San Francisco from 1975 to 1978 and in Amherst, Massachusetts, from 1980 to 1984. Anticipating the need for an institutional structure to carry on his teaching, he helped found the Feldenkrais Guild of North America in 1977.
Feldenkrais developed the conceptual framework of his method in part through the publication of six books, beginning with Body and Mature Behavior (1949) and ending with the posthumously published The Potent Self (1985).
Since Feldenkrais' death, the international Feldenkrais community has used a guild structure to regulate its activity, with training accreditation boards in the Americas, Europe, and Australasia overseeing guilds and associations in eighteen member countries. The Feldenkrais Journal, the annual publication of the Feldenkrais Guild of North America, serves as a forum for the Feldenkrais community to discuss the method and its applications.
Influences
The development of the Feldenkrais Method was influenced by Moshe Feldenkrais's involvement in the martial arts. After meeting Kano Jigoro, the founder of Judo, while living in Paris in the 1930s, Feldenkrais transitioned to that practice. One of the main influences of judo on the Feldenkrais Method is the differentiation between rote exercise and attentive movement: "the methods of physical exercise in vogue ... exert only the muscles without any other goal, and one needs much will to bind oneself unfailingly to one of these methods", wrote Feldenkrais in 1952. "Judo is very different, each movement has a specific goal which is reached after a precise and supple execution." Before he focused on the creation of his own method, Feldenkrais influenced the teaching of martial arts in Western Europe through the publication of five books on jiujitsu and judo, as well as teaching at practice centers in France and Great Britain.
Feldenkrais was born into an Hasidic family and community, and he acknowledged the influence of Hasidic Judaism on his method. In David Kaetz's biography, Making Connections: Roots and Resonance in the Life of Moshe Feldenkrais (2007), he argues many lines of influence can be found between the Judaism of Feldenkrais's upbringing and the Feldenkrais Method – for instance, the use of paradox as a pedagogical tool. Feldenkrais also acknowledged the influence of the Russian spiritualist George Gurdjieff on his work, in particular Gurdjieff's teachings on automatism and freedom in embodiment.
Feldenkrais earned his doctorate in a program at the Sorbonne intended to bridge theoretical physics and industrial engineering. Mark Reese, another biographer of the teacher, says that Feldenkrais brought this emphasis on practical scientific inquiry to the understanding of embodiment expressed through his method:
Feldenkrais was critical of the appropriation of the term 'energy' to express immeasurable phenomena or to label experiences that people had trouble describing ... He was impatient when someone invoked energy in pseudoscientific 'explanations' that masked a lack of understanding. In such cases he urged skepticism and scientific discourse. He encouraged empirical and phenomenological narratives that could lead to insights.
Feldenkrais incorporated the views of other scientists into his teaching; for instance, he asked questions of both the neurosurgeon Karl H. Pribram and the cyberneticist Heinz von Foerster at trainings in San Francisco in the mid-1970s. Cybernetics, also known as dynamic systems theory, continued to influence the Feldenkrais Method in the 1990s through the work of human development researcher Esther Thelen:1535.
References
Alternative medicine
Mind–body interventions
Physical exercise
Postural awareness techniques
Somatics | [
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245090 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Froot%20Loops | Froot Loops | Froot Loops is a brand of sweetened, fruit-flavored breakfast cereal produced by Kellogg's and sold in many countries. The cereal pieces are ring-shaped (hence "loops") and come in a variety of bright colors and a blend of fruit flavors (hence "froot", a cacography of fruit). However, there is no actual fruit in Froot Loops and they are all the same flavor.
History
Kellogg's introduced Froot Loops in 1963. Originally, there were only red, orange and yellow loops, but green, blue and purple were added during the 1990s. Different methods of production are used in the UK where, due to the lack of natural colorings for yellow, red and blue, Froot Loops are purple, green and orange, and the loops are also larger in size. Although the marketing side of Kellogg's misleadingly sold the idea that each individual loop color was a different flavor, Kellogg's has acknowledged that all share the same fruit-blend flavor.
Mascot
Toucan Sam has been the mascot of Froot Loops since its first appearance. Toucan Sam is a blue anthropomorphic toucan; the colors of his bill correspond to the three original Froot Loop colors. While toucans have a sense of smell, as most other birds, he is portrayed as having an uncanny ability to smell Froot Loops from great distances and locates a concealed bowl of the cereal while intoning "Follow my nose! It always knows!" or "Follow my nose! For the fruity taste that shows!"
Toucan Sam was first voiced by voice actor Mel Blanc, originally beginning with an "American accent" and later changing to a "British accent".
Varieties
Kellogg's made several varieties of snack foods, including snack bags called Snack Ums. Snack Ums were similar to the cereal but larger. Their slogan was "Super-sized bites with deliciously intense natural fruit flavors" and "Flavor Bursting!" Froot Loops-branding by Kellogg's was also used with the Froot Loops cereal bar.
In the middle of 2012, Kellogg's introduced Froot Loops to the UK market for a limited time with only the secondary colors (orange, green, and purple), as natural color substitutes for red, yellow, and blue could not be found. The recipe also differed from the US version. Kellogg's stated that "due to European legislation we have been unable to produce Froot Loops to the same specifications as the US product. The formulations are different, including sugar and salt levels and the UK version has been produced with natural food additives and flavorings which will account for the differences in appearance and taste between the two products." The UK Froot Loops are also larger in size compared with their American counterparts, and due to the different method of formulation, are a much coarser cereal. In September 2015, Kellogg's removed Froot Loops from the UK market due to a lack of demand for the cereal, although in 2017, a special Unicorn Froot Loops limited edition was released in the UK. As of 2019, special limited edition Unicorn Froot Loops, Mermaid Froot Loops, and Baby Shark Froot Loops cereals have been made available.
Froot Loops Bloopers
In February 2015, a spinoff cereal called Froot Loops Bloopers was sold and was promoted by licensing a unique Angry Birds Space episode.
Froot Loops Mini Donuts
In 2018, Carl's Jr. and Hardee's began selling Froot Loops Mini Donuts.
Sponsorships
Dragon Tales
Sagwa, the Chinese Siamese Cat
References
External links
Kellogg's corporate Froot Loops site: includes package information and nutrition facts.
Kellogg's cereals
Products introduced in 1963 | [
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245092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucius%20Opimius | Lucius Opimius | Lucius Opimius was a Roman politician who held the consulship in 121 BC, in which capacity and year he ordered the execution of 3,000 supporters of popular leader Gaius Gracchus without trial, using as pretext the state of emergency declared after Gracchus's recent and turbulent death.
Biography
He is first mentioned for crushing the revolt of the town of Fregellae in 125 BC. He was elected consul in 121 BC with Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, and while Fabius was campaigning in Gaul, he took part in perhaps the most decisive event of Roman history to that point.
When Gaius Gracchus and M. Fulvius Flaccus were defeated for re-election by Opimius and Fabius, Gracchus organized a mass protest on the Aventine Hill. Alarmed by this action, the Senate passed the motion senatus consultum ultimum, which Opimius understood as an order to suppress their activities by any means necessary—including force. He gathered an armed force of Senators and their supporters, and confronted Gracchus and his followers, an act which quickly became a pitched battle inside the city of Rome. Gracchus, Flaccus, and many of their followers were slain in this conflict, and after clearing the streets of his opponents, Opimius established a quaestio or tribunal that condemned to death 3,000 people accused of being supporters of Gracchus.
Opimius was prosecuted for these violent actions in 120 BC, but Carbo won his acquittal. Opimius' victory established the senatus consultum ultimum in Roman constitutional practice, providing a limitless tool that the various Roman factions used against each other in the following years as the Republic slipped increasingly into violence and civil war.
In 116 BC, Opimius headed a commission that divided Numidia between Jugurtha and his brother Adherbal. Suspecting that the commission had been influenced by bribes from Jugurtha, its members were later investigated by a tribunal that censured their conduct. Humiliated, Opimius went into exile in Dyrrhachium, where he later died.
References
Ancient Roman generals
2nd-century BC Roman consuls
Ancient Roman exiles
Opimii
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245093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%20Chao | Ma Chao | Ma Chao () (176–222), courtesy name Mengqi, was a Chinese military general and warlord who lived in the late Eastern Han dynasty and early Three Kingdoms period of China. A descendant of the general Ma Yuan, Ma Chao was the eldest son of Ma Teng, a prominent warlord in Liang Province (covering parts of northwestern China). In 211, he formed a coalition with Han Sui and other northwestern warlords and revolted against the Han central government, which was led by the warlord Cao Cao. The coalition broke up after losing the Battle of Tong Pass against Cao Cao's forces. Ma Chao initially retreated, but later returned to attack and seize control of Liang Province by killing the provincial inspector Wei Kang and forcing Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. About a year after Ma Chao started his uprising, Emperor Xian issued an imperial decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's family members, who were in Ye city at the time. In the meantime, Wei Kang's subordinates, led by Zhao Ang, Yang Fu and others, rebelled against Ma Chao and forced him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao retreated to Hanzhong Commandery, where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu, and returned to attack Liang Province but was ultimately defeated and driven back. Ma Chao took shelter under Zhang Lu for a while until around 214, when he heard that the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing) with Yi Province's governor, Liu Zhang. He defected to Liu Bei's side and assisted Liu Bei in capturing Yi Province from Liu Zhang. Ma Chao had served as a general under Liu Bei since then and participated in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219. He died in 222.
Historians and Ma Chao's contemporaries have a generally negative view of him. Apart from committing treason against the Han government under Cao Cao's control, Ma Chao was also notorious for committing a number of acts of cruelty: he betrayed his father when he persuaded Han Sui to join him in his rebellion; he abandoned his wife and son when he defected from Zhang Lu to Liu Bei; he killed Jiang Xu's mother in cold blood after she scolded him; he murdered Zhao Ang and Wang Yi's son after they rebelled against him and forced him out of Liang Province.
In the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Ma Chao is romanticised as a heroic warrior and one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei. In the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, have been significantly modified for dramatic effect. For example, in the novel he started the Battle of Tong Pass to take revenge against Cao Cao for murdering his family, but historically he waged war against Cao Cao first, and then his family members were implicated and executed about one year later. In the novel, he also engaged Xu Chu and Zhang Fei in one-on-one duels at the Battle of Tong Pass and Battle of Jiameng Pass respectively, but historically the duels never took place and the Battle of Jiameng Pass is actually a fictional battle.
Family background
Ma Chao was from Maoling County (茂陵縣), Youfufeng Commandery (右扶風郡), which is located northeast of present-day Xingping, Shaanxi. He was the eldest son of Ma Teng, who descended from Ma Yuan, a general who lived in the early Eastern Han dynasty. Ma Teng's father, Ma Ping (馬平), whose courtesy name was Zishuo (子碩), served as a military officer in Tianshui Commandery (天水郡) during the reign of Emperor Huan. After losing his post, Ma Ping went to live among the Qiang tribes in the region, married a Qiang woman and had a son, Ma Teng. Ma Teng, along with Han Sui and others, were warlords who held considerable influence in Liang Province (covering parts of present-day Shaanxi and Gansu) towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty and were reluctant to submit to Han rule. In 192, Ma Teng accepted the appointment of General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) from the Han imperial court and garrisoned his army at Mei County (郿縣). However, he rebelled against the Han dynasty later and attacked the city of Chang'an but failed to conquer it so he retreated back to Liang Province.
Early career
In 197, the warlord Cao Cao – who had become the de facto head of the Han central government – placed Zhong Yao, the Colonel-Director of Retainers (司隷校尉), in charge of guarding the Guanzhong region. Zhong Yao wrote to Ma Teng and Han Sui, explaining to them the benefits of submitting to the Han court and the negative consequences of not doing so. When Cao Cao became the Imperial Chancellor (丞相), he wanted to recruit Ma Chao to serve in the Han government, but Ma refused.
In 202, when Cao Cao was on a series of campaigns to unify northern China after his victory over Yuan Shao at the Battle of Guandu two years earlier, he ordered Zhong Yao to attack Yuan's allies Gao Gan and Guo Yuan in Pingyang (平陽; in present-day Linfen, Shanxi). Ma Teng sent Ma Chao to assist Zhong Yao. Ma Chao served as an Assistant Officer Who Supervises the Army (督軍從事) under Zhong Yao. During the battle, he was hit by a stray arrow in the foot, but he wrapped his foot in a pouch and continued fighting. His subordinate Pang De slew Guo Yuan and they defeated the enemy.
Ma Teng got into conflict with Han Sui later, so he requested to leave Liang Province and work in the capital. He was granted permission and appointed as the Minister of the Guards (衞尉) by the Han court. Ma Chao was appointed as a Lieutenant-General (偏將軍), made a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯), and placed in charge of his father's troops in Liang Province. Ma Chao's younger brothers Ma Xiu (馬休) and Ma Tie (馬鐵) were appointed as a Commandant of Equipage (奉車都尉) and a Commandant of Iron Cavalry (鐵騎都尉) respectively, and were ordered to bring all their family members with them to Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei). Only Ma Chao remained behind in Liang Province.
Uprising against the Han dynasty
Battle of Tong Pass
In 211, Cao Cao sent Zhong Yao and Xiahou Yuan to lead an army to attack Zhang Lu in Hanzhong Commandery. They were due to pass through the Guanzhong region along the way. Ma Chao suspected that Cao Cao was planning to attack him, so he contacted Han Sui to form an alliance. He told Han Sui, "Previously, Zhong Yao ordered me to harm you. Now, I know that the people from Guandong (east of Tong Pass) cannot be trusted. Now, I abandon my father, and I'm willing to acknowledge you as my father. You should also abandon your son, and treat me like your son." Han Sui's subordinate, Yan Xing, urged his superior not to cooperate with Ma Chao but Han still agreed to the alliance. Ma Chao also contacted Yang Qiu, Li Kan (李堪), Cheng Yi (成宜), Hou Xuan (侯選), Cheng Yin (程銀), Zhang Heng (張橫), Liang Xing (梁興), Ma Wan (馬玩) and others, and they formed a 100,000 strong coalition army to attack Tong Pass (present-day Tongguan County, Shaanxi). Liu Zhang, the governor of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), wanted to marry his daughter to Ma Chao to build ties with Ma, but Wang Shang (王商), a commandery administrator under Liu Zhang, opposed the idea and said that Ma Chao was courageous but inhumane and untrustworthy.
Cao Cao led an army to Tong Pass to attack Ma Chao and the coalition, resulting in the Battle of Tong Pass. After both sides clashed in a few engagements, Cao Cao had talks with Ma Chao and Han Sui. Ma Chao relied on his great strength and secretly harboured the intention of dashing forth and capturing Cao Cao when they met. However, he did not dare to make his move when Xu Chu, one of Cao Cao's close aides, glared at him. Cao Cao later followed Jia Xu's strategy to sow discord between Ma Chao and Han Sui and make them become suspicious of each other. Taking advantage of the hostility between Ma Chao and Han Sui, Cao Cao launched an attack on the northwestern warlords and defeated them.
Earlier on, when Cao Cao's forces were at Puban (蒲阪; east of present-day Dali County, Shaanxi) and were planning to cross the Wei River and head west, Ma Chao told Han Sui, "We should resist them at the north of the Wei River. Within 20 days, their supply stores on the east of the river will be depleted, after which they will definitely retreat." However, Han Sui rejected his idea and said, "We should send our forces to engage the enemy on the river. Isn't this more direct?" When Cao Cao heard of Ma Chao's plan, he remarked, "If the young horse doesn't die, I can't have a proper burial place."
Battles in Guanzhong
Ma Chao retreated further west after his defeat at Tong Pass. Cao Cao pursued him to Anding (安定; around present-day Pingliang, Gansu) but gave up on the pursuit and headed east after receiving news about unrest in northern China. Yang Fu warned Cao Cao, "Ma Chao has the courage of Han Xin and Ying Bu, and both the Qiang and Rong peoples deeply respect him. If we retreat now and don't station defences here, we'll forfeit all the territories in this area." After Cao Cao left, as Yang Fu predicted, Ma Chao led the various tribes in the region to attack the commanderies and counties in Guanzhong, while the people responded to his call and joined him in the revolt. Ma Chao killed Wei Kang, the Inspector (刺史) of Liang Province, and seized control of Liang Province's capital Jicheng (兾城; in present-day Gangu County, Gansu) and forced Wei Kang's subordinates to submit to him. He then appointed himself General Who Attacks the West (征西將軍) and Governor (牧) of Bing Province, and took charge of military affairs in Liang Province.
While Ma Chao besieged Wei Kang, Xiahou Yuan wanted to lead reinforcements to help him but arrived too late as Ji had already fallen to Ma Chao. Xiahou Yuan and his army had travelled more than 200 li on their way to Ji when they fell into an ambush set up by Ma Chao. Xiahou Yuan lost the battle and decided to withdraw his troops when he heard that the Di tribes in Qian County () had started a rebellion.
Wei Kang's former subordinates – Yang Fu, Jiang Xu, Liang Kuan (梁寬), Zhao Qu (趙衢) and others – were unhappy with Ma Chao so they plotted to get rid of him. Yang Fu and Jiang Xu rebelled against Ma Chao in Lucheng (鹵城; in present-day southeastern Gansu), while the others in Jicheng pretended to urge Ma to suppress the revolt. Ma Chao followed their advice and led an army to attack Lucheng but could not conquer the city. When he returned to Jicheng, he saw that Liang Kuan and Zhao Qu had closed the city gates and barred him from entering. Zhao Qu and the others also killed Ma Chao's wife and child(ren) in Jicheng.
In the summer of 212, about a year after Ma Chao rebelled against the Han imperial court, Emperor Xian issued a decree ordering the execution of Ma Chao's father Ma Teng and the rest of his family who were with him at the time in Ye (in present-day Handan, Hebei).
Ma Chao fled to Hanzhong, where he borrowed troops from the warlord Zhang Lu, and returned to attack those who drove him out of Guanzhong. He besieged Jiang Xu, Zhao Ang and their allies at Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu) for about 30 days until reinforcements led by Cao Cao's generals Xiahou Yuan and Zhang He showed up and lifted the siege.
Service under Zhang Lu
Ma Chao returned to Hanzhong Commandery after his defeat at Mount Qi and sought shelter under Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu planned to marry his daughter to Ma Chao, but one of Zhang's aides advised him against it, saying, "If a person can't even love his family and relatives, can he still love others?" Zhang Lu then aborted his plan.
On one New Year's Day, a relative of Ma Chao who had also escaped to Hanzhong came to visit him. Ma Chao beat his chest, coughed blood, and said to his relative, "A big family with over a hundred members all sharing the same fate in one day. Now, are there only the two of us to give greetings to each other?"
Ma Chao constantly asked Zhang Lu to give him some troops to attack Liang Province. Zhang Lu agreed, but Ma Chao failed to make any gains from the campaign. Yang Bai (楊白), an officer under Zhang Lu, was jealous of Ma Chao's ability and wanted to harm him. When Ma Chao heard about it, he escaped from Wudu (武都; around present-day Longnan, Gansu) and went to live with the Di people around the area.
Service under Liu Bei
Around 214, the warlord Liu Bei was fighting for control over Yi Province with the provincial governor Liu Zhang. Ma Chao distrusted Zhang Lu and felt that he was not capable of great achievements, so he planned to defect to Liu Bei. When he heard that Liu Bei was besieging Liu Zhang in Chengdu (Yi Province's capital), he wrote a secret letter to Liu Bei, expressing his desire to serve the latter. Liu Bei was pleased to receive Ma Chao's letter and he exclaimed, "Yi Province is mine." He then sent Li Hui to meet Ma Chao and provide supplies and additional troops to Ma, after which Ma led his forces to the north of Chengdu and joined the siege. When the people of Chengdu saw Ma Chao and his troops below the city walls, they were greatly demoralized and fearful. Within ten days of Ma Chao's arrival, Liu Zhang gave up resistance and surrendered to Liu Bei.
After occupying Yi Province, Liu Bei appointed Ma Chao as General Who Pacifies the West (平西將軍) and put him in charge of Linju (臨沮; northeast of present-day Yuan'an County, Hubei). Liu Bei defeated Cao Cao in the Hanzhong Campaign in 219 and declared himself "King of Hanzhong" (漢中王), after which he appointed Ma Chao as General of the Left (左將軍).
In 221, Liu Bei declared himself emperor and established the state of Shu Han. He appointed Ma Chao as General of Agile Cavalry (驃騎將軍) and Governor (牧) of Liang Province. Ma Chao was enfeoffed as the Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯). Liu Bei's imperial edict to Ma Chao was as follows:
Peng Yang's case
When Peng Yang, an official under Liu Bei, was about to leave Chengdu to assume his new appointment in Jiangyang, he visited Ma Chao and told him: "You are outside while I am inside. The Empire can be pacified." Ma Chao had recently joined Liu Bei's forces and he was often fearful that he would get into trouble. After hearing what Peng Yang told him, he was shocked as he thought that Peng Yang was asking him to participate in a coup d'état against Liu Bei. However, he remained silent and did not respond. After Peng Yang left, Ma Chao secretly reported him and caused him to be arrested and executed.
Conflict with Guan Yu and Zhang Fei
The Shanyang Gong Zaiji (山陽公載記; Records of the Duke of Shanyang), by Yue Zi (樂資), recorded an incident as follows:
Pei Songzhi, who annotated Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, disputed the Shanyang Gong Zaiji account as untruthful and nonsensical. He commented as follows:
Death
Ma Chao died in 222 at the age of 47 (by East Asian age reckoning). His cause of death was not recorded in history. Before his death, he wrote to Liu Bei: "Over 200 members of my family were killed by Cao Cao. I only have my cousin Ma Dai left with me. He will be the one to continue my family line. I entrust him to Your Majesty's care. That is all I have to say." In October or November 260, Liu Bei's son and successor, Liu Shan, granted Ma Chao the posthumous title "Marquis Wei" (威侯).
Family and relatives
Ma Chao's title, Marquis of Tai District (斄鄉侯), was inherited by his son, Ma Cheng (馬承). Ma Chao's daughter married Liu Bei's son Liu Li (劉理), the Prince of Anping (安平王).
Ma Chao had at least two spouses. The first was Lady Yang (楊氏), who was with him when he seized control of Liang Province after the Battle of Tong Pass. She probably bore Ma Chao at least one child, because the Sanguozhi mentioned that Zhao Qu (趙衢), Yin Feng (尹奉) and others killed Ma's family (wife and child(ren)) when they rebelled against him and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao had a second wife, Lady Dong (董氏), who bore him a son, Ma Qiu (馬秋). When Ma Chao escaped from Zhang Lu and defected to Liu Bei, he left them behind in Hanzhong Commandery. Zhang Lu was later defeated by Cao Cao, to whom he surrendered. Cao Cao gave Lady Dong to Yan Pu (閻圃), a former adviser to Zhang Lu, and gave Ma Qiu to Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu personally killed Ma Qiu. It is not known who the mother(s) of Ma Chao's two other children (Ma Cheng and the daughter) were, but she (or they) was probably neither Lady Yang nor Lady Dong.
Ma Chao's younger cousin, Ma Dai, served as a general in Shu Han. His highest appointment was General Who Pacifies the North (平北將軍) and he was also enfeoffed as the Marquis of Chencang (陳倉侯).
Ma Ying-jeou, the President of Taiwan from 2008 to 2016, is an alleged descendant of Ma Chao. Researchers purportedly visited the old residence of Ma's father, Ma Ho-ling, in Kaiyun Town, Hengshan County, Hunan, where they discovered a genealogy book stating that Ma descended from Ma Chao.
Appraisal
Ma Chao was known for his exceptional strength and for the great admiration he possessed among the ethnic tribes of the North. Chen Shou, who wrote Ma Chao's biography in the Sanguozhi, commented on him as such: "Ma Chao relied solely on his Róng/戎 (martial prowess) and his own valor yet caused the extermination of his entire clan. What a great pity! However, he was able to break free from danger and finally reach peace, did all of his actions led him to a better fate?"
Guan Yu once wrote to Zhuge Liang to ask who could compete with Ma Chao when he heard that Ma had recently joined Liu Bei's forces. Zhuge Liang replied, "Mengqi is proficient in both civil and military affairs. He is fierce and mighty, and a hero of his time. He is comparable to Qing Bu and Peng Yue. He can compete with Yide, but is not as good as the peerless beard."
Yang Fu, one of the officials who opposed Ma Chao in Liang Province, once visited his colleague and relative Jiang Xu and Jiang Xu's mother. He lamented about Ma Chao's murder of Wei Kang and forceful occupation of Liang Province: "[...] Ma Chao betrayed his father, rebelled against the Emperor, and massacred the officers in our province. [...] Ma Chao is strong but iniquitous. He is morally weak and susceptible to temptation and trickery." Yang Fu, Jiang Xu and several others later plotted against Ma Chao and drove him out of Liang Province. Ma Chao fought his way into Licheng (歷城) and captured Jiang Xu's mother. She scolded him, "You're an unfilial son who betrays his own father and a treacherous villain who murders his superior. Heaven and Earth will not forgive you. You should die immediately. How dare you look at me straight in the eye!" Ma Chao was furious and he killed her.
Yang Xi wrote an appraisal on Ma Chao as follows: "Ma Chao rose up, formed alliances, started an uprising in the Three Qins, and conquered the river and Tong Pass. He rebelled against the imperial court, regardless of whether his followers agreed or disagreed with him. In doing so, he provided an opportunity for the enemy to sow discord between him and his men, resulting in the destruction of his family and forces. He defied morals and ethics, and ended up having to rely on dragons and phoenixes."
The Jin dynasty historian Sun Sheng compared Ma Chao's betrayal of his father Ma Teng to other historical examples of extreme cruelty and inhumaneness, including: the conflict between the Zhou dynasty and the vassal state of Zheng in 720 BCE; in 203 BCE, after Xiang Yu captured Liu Bang's father and threatened to boil him alive if Liu Bang did not surrender, Liu Bang asked Xiang Yu to share a bowl of his father's flesh with him.
In Romance of the Three Kingdoms
Ma Chao is featured as a prominent character in some chapters in the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms. However, in the novel, the descriptions of his character and personality, as well as the order of some events involving him, had been modified to very large extents for dramatic effect. In the novel, he was nicknamed "Ma Chao the Splendid" for his elaborate armour and grand skill as a warrior, and was one of the Five Tiger Generals under Liu Bei.
Ma Chao is introduced in Chapter 10, where he participates in a campaign led by his father and Han Sui against Li Jue and Guo Si in Chang'an in 192, during which he slays the enemy officers Wang Fang (王方) and Li Meng (李蒙). He does not reappear until Chapter 57, in which he suggests to his father that he could lead the army against Cao Cao at Xuchang in 211 to follow Emperor Xian's orders to slay Cao Cao, but his father tells him to remain in Liang Province and command the Qiang troops there. After his father is killed by Cao Cao, Ma Chao, Han Sui and another eight officers fight against Cao Cao at the Battle of Tong Pass, during which Ma Chao fights with Cao Cao's generals Xu Chu, Yu Jin, Cao Hong and Zhang He, and slays Li Tong. Later, Cao Cao's strategist, Jia Xu, suggests to Cao Cao to send a letter containing errors and markings (making it seem as though the recipient has something to hide) to Han Sui to make Ma Chao falsely believe that Han Sui is maintaining secret contact with Cao Cao. Ma Chao gradually becomes more suspicious of Han Sui, who also has the intention of defecting to Cao Cao's side after learning that Ma Chao no longer trusts him. Han Sui manages to escape when Ma Chao tries to kill him, but his left hand is cut off by Ma during the fight. Ma Chao is eventually defeated by Cao Cao's forces, but manages to escape and find shelter among the Qiang tribes.
Ma Chao later joins forces with Zhang Lu to attack Cao Cao, but fails to make any significant gains. Zhang Lu, who distrusts Ma Chao, sends Yang Bo to spy on Ma, but Yang Bo is later killed. Ma Chao then helps Liu Zhang, the governor of Yi Province, deal with an invasion on Yi Province by Liu Bei. He duels with Liu Bei's sworn brother, Zhang Fei, at the Battle of Jiameng Pass. Later, he is convinced by Li Hui to defect to Liu Bei, who accepts him and makes him a general. He fights for Liu Bei in the Hanzhong Campaign and is later posted to Xiping, where he defends Liu Bei's strongholds from the Xianbei chieftain Kebineng.
Although Ma Chao historically died in 222, in the novel, he is mentioned to be still alive during Zhuge Liang's southern campaign against the Nanman and is in charge of guarding Hanzhong from possible attacks by the state of Cao Wei. He died of illness after Zhuge Liang returned from the campaign. Zhuge Liang tells Zhao Yun that Ma Chao's death felt like the loss of an arm to him.
In popular culture
Ma is sometimes venerated as a door god in Chinese and Taoist temples in Hebei and Henan, usually in partnership with Ma Dai or Zhao Yun.
Ma Chao appears in Koei's Romance of the Three Kingdoms strategy game series.
Ma Chao appears as a playable character in Koei's Dynasty Warriors and Warriors Orochi video game series.
In the collectible card game Magic: The Gathering, there is a card named "Ma Chao, Western Warrior" in the Portal Three Kingdoms set.
See also
Lists of people of the Three Kingdoms
Notes
References
Citations from the Sanguozhi
Citations from annotations to the Sanguozhi
Citations from the Houhanshu
Other citations
Bibliography
Chen, Shou (3rd century). Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi).
Fan, Ye (5th century). Book of the Later Han (Houhanshu).
Luo, Guanzhong (14th century). Romance of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguo Yanyi).
Pei, Songzhi (5th century). Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms (Sanguozhi zhu).
Sima, Guang (1084). Zizhi Tongjian.
176 births
222 deaths
Chinese duellists
Chinese gods
Deified Chinese people
Generals under Liu Bei
Han dynasty generals from Shaanxi
Ma Teng and associates
Shu Han generals
Zhang Lu and associates | [
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245104 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaius%20Gracchus | Gaius Gracchus | Gaius Sempronius Gracchus ( – 121 BC) was a reformist Roman politician in the 2nd century BC. He is most famous for his tribunate for the years 123 and 122 BC, in which he proposed a wide set of laws, including laws to establish colonies outside of Italy, engage in further land reform, reform the judicial system, and create a subsidised grain supply for Rome.
The year after his tribunate, his political enemies used political unrest – which he and his political allies had caused – as an excuse to declare martial law and march on his supporters, leading to his death. After his death, his political allies were purged in a series of trials, but most of his legislation was undisturbed.
His brother was the reformer Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus. Both were the sons of the Gracchus who was consul in 177 and 163 BC.
Background
Gaius Gracchus was born into a very well-connected political family. His father, Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, was a very successful politician of the 2nd century BC: he served in the consulships for 177 and 163 BC, and was elected censor in 169. He also had celebrated two triumphs during the 170s, one for the victorious establishment of a twenty-year-long peace in Spain.
His mother was Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus, a noble woman who was a major influence on the Gracchi. As a widow, she refused the marriage proposal of Ptolemy VIII, the king of Egypt, preferring to devote her life to the upbringing of her sons.
Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius' elder brother, had through his marriage aligned the family with the Claudii Pulchri, despite his maternal connections to the Cornelii Scipiones, as the two families had a historic rivalry. It can be supposed, however, that both the Gracchi brothers would have come into contact with powerful members both families.
Early political career
Gaius Gracchus served in the Roman army under Scipio Aemilianus during the campaign against Numantia starting in 133 BC. He may have held the military tribunate during his service there. During his elder brother Tiberius' tribunate, he started his political career with election as a commissioner in the Gracchan land commission to distribute public land poor families.
In 126 BC, he supported Marcus Fulvius Flaccus' political programme. While in Rome, he opposed a proposed tribunician law to prohibit non-citizens from settling in Roman towns and evict those who had done so. He then left as quaestor to the Roman province of Sardinia to fight the rebels there under Lucius Aurelius Orestes.
During a harsh winter, Gracchus' was successful in procuring supplies from the Sardinians for the hard-pressed Roman troops. Orestes' command in Sardinia was prorogued for a second time, extending it to the point where Gaius wanted to leave to continue his career. Plutarch reports, probably based on Gracchus' own statements, that the reason for his commander's prorogation was because the senate wanted to keep him away from Rome, an allegation which is "patently absurd": the reason for the prorogation was almost certainly because Orestes' campaign was not complete and Orestes wanted to win his triumph.
Gracchus, regardless, quit Sardinia and returned to the city early, without the permission of his commander. After his return, he was also interrogated by the censors on why he had quit his post: in response, he pleaded that he had already served longer than most, that he had a right to return after one year, and that his good character and services were more than sufficient: in effect, he "pleaded his right to be released as justification for releasing himself". He was later accused of aiding in an Italian revolt at Fregellae that had occurred in 125 BC, but was successful in rebutting the charges; well known to the people, he stood for election as tribune and won.
Tribunate
Gaius was elected as one of the tribunes of the plebs for 123 BC. He embarked on an aggressive legislative programme immediately, aiming very broadly to appeal to many interest groups along with a "rousing style of public speaking that made him the greatest [Roman orator] between Cato the censor and Cicero".
Gaius also changed how speeches were delivered from the rostra. Formerly, when a speaker delivered a speech in the forum, he turned his face to the right in the direction of the curia, the senate house, and the Comitium. Instead, Gaius would turn his face to the left, toward the direction of the Forum proper, effectively turning his back on the Senate.
First tribunate (123 BC)
In his first year, as one of the tribunes for 123 BC, he proposed two initial measures: (1) a bill to prohibit any magistrate deposed by the people from standing again for office and (2) a law to reaffirm appeal to the people in capital cases which made transgressing magistrates liable for prosecution. the first of which prohibited a magistrate who had been deposed by the people from holding office a second time. The first bill was withdrawn at the request of his mother, Cornelia. Courts with capital punishment, not set up by the people, were now declared illegal ex post facto which saw the former consul for 132 BC, Publius Popillius Laenas, driven into exile.
He then proposed a grain law establishing a maximum price of six and a third asses for a modius of grain and re-enacted Tiberius' law on agricultural land redistribution. The subsidised grain would be bought when prices were low and stored in public granaries; the price itself was "probably a little below the price fetched by wheat immediately after the harvest". His elder brother's lex agraria had been successful: Gracchan boundary stones are found all over southern Italy, and suggest distribution some 1.3 million jugera (or 3 268 square kilometres) of land, accommodating somewhere between 70 and 130 thousand settlers. The contents of Gaius' further land reform are less clear: "the sources are rather vague about the agrarian activities of Gaius". Mommsen asserted that he revitalised the commission by transferring to it jurisdiction over land disputes from the consuls, but there is no explicit evidence of this. The new law did clarify which land could be redistributed, however, and after his first year as tribune there are boundary stones (cippi) showing that he was successful in redistributing land around Apulia.
He also probably carried laws authorising new Roman colonies at Scolacium and Tarentum. His novel policy of establishing colonies outside of Italy made him "apparently the first to realise that the amount of land in Italy was insufficient to provide for all inhabitants of the peninsula".
The legislative programme also included a law, the lex militaris, to provide soldiers' clothing from the public treasury and prohibit conscription of men below the age of seventeen. While the conscription age limit had already been previous law, "it is commonly said that Gracchus [included] this provision because [of] recent cases of persons below the minimum age being conscripted" but this is rejected as implausible. The law more likely simply restated the conditions of military service.
This was followed by a law to establish farming tithes in Asia, "which in effect handed [the people of the province] over to the large corporations of tax farmers", to shore support support among the equestrians. A further bill to incorporate either 300 or 600 equestrians into the senate was probably ineffectual.
He also proposed a law, the lex Sempronia de provinciis consularibus, for the senate to assign consular provinces before elections to the consulship. He also made such senatorial assignments immune from tribunician veto; Ernst Badian notes "this law shows how far he was from being a 'democrat'". The purpose of the lex de provinciis consularibus was to prevent sitting consuls from using their positions in the electoral comitia to influence provincial assignments improperly. In general, his reforms were addressing major issues in administration. At the same time, he was a "proud aristocrat" and left the senate in charge of directing policy and execution thereof by magistrates, under more stringent checks by the people and anti-corruption laws. The ultimate result of his laws, however, was to set up the equestrian publicani as "a new exploiting class, not restrained by a tradition of service or accountability at law", which did not become clear for a generation. Further legislation included some laws establishing new customs duties.
At the elections of 123 BC, according to Plutarch, Gaius did not stand for election at all. Rather, the tribes elected him spontaneously, with the election ratified by the presiding magistrate. Re-election might not have suited his plans – Gaius was needed in Africa to supervise construction of a colony at Carthage – but he was returned to the tribunate with friends: Marcus Fulvius Flaccus would be one of this tribunician colleagues and Gaius Fannius would be consul.
Second tribunate (122 BC)
Either after re-election to a second tribunate or during the second tribunate itself, he passed a law to transfer the jury pool on corruption courts (quaestio de repetundis) to the equestrians. This law, however, "merely reallocated influence from one section of the elite to another" and "did not 'democratise' [the repetundae court] merely hand[ing] control to non-senatorial members of the elite". This law also substantially changed Roman criminal procedure by allowing the allies to prosecute (both directly and through an intermediary) ex-magistrates for corruption.
The difficulty of finding enough land in Italy for resettlement – as taking land from the Italian allies was politically impossible as it would have "wrought serious damage to their interests" – led Gaius and his allies to pursue both Italian and foreign colonisation programmes. An ally of Gaius Graccus', Gaius Rubrius, as part of the Gracchan programme, successfully carried a law to establish a colony at Carthage. One of the other tribunes in this year, Marcus Livius Drusus, countered Gaius and Rubrius' programme by proposing twelve colonies of three thousand needy families each, with allotments of land free from rent. Drusus' proposals passed also, but "came to nothing"; regardless, the passage led to establishment of a series of three-man boards to manage the various colonisation programmes. Supposedly, these proposals from Livius Drusus were brought at the prompting of the senate, which sought to find someone else to rival Gracchus' popularity.
Gaius also proposed, in probably two citizenship bills, giving citizenship to the Latins and Latin rights to Italian allies. Gaius' rationale may have been related to the land reform measures:
The first bill, to give citizenship to the Latins, was vetoed by Drusus and the latter bill on Latin rights for the Italians may have also given them full citizenship rights but, although Fannius was an ally of Gracchus', he opposed the second bill. Drusus countered Gaius' Italian citizenship bill with a much less extensive bill to exempt them from scourging, which passed. Fannius, for his part, was able to mobilise opposition to extending citizenship by convincing the people that extending citizenship would require them to share their privileges. A fragment of Fannius' speech survives:
The issue persisted through the end of the year to the consular elections, when Fannius promulgated an edict expelling Italians from Rome, which was opposed by an edict of Gaius' which allegedly promised tribunician protection for any Italians who remained (but was, in the event unfulfilled).
He also proposed a bill to have the centuries (the Roman voting blocs) vote in a random order rather than in traditional order where the richest centuries voted first. Changing the order to random would not have changed the overweighting of the rich in the Roman comitia, but would have ensured "the chances of those who drew their support from the poorer citizens would not be prejudiced". There is, however, no evidence that this bill passed.
During his second tribunate, he left the city – perhaps sanctioned by the senate – to supervise the foundation of the colony at Carthage, which supposedly was plagued with bad omens. The citizenship bills' failure, however, revealed his waning popularity, and he was defeated when standing for re-election to a third consecutive tribunate.
Outbreak of violence
In the new year, some of Gaius' and his allies' legislative programme came under attack. One of the tribunes for 121 BC, Minucius Rufus, wished to repeal the lex Rubiria authorising the construction of the colony at Carthage. When an attendant jeered at Gracchus and his entourage during a sacrifice and was stabbed to death with styluses, the consul Lucius Opimius summoned a meeting of the senate, which Gracchus and his ally – Marcus Fulvius Flaccus – did not attend.
At the senate meeting, the senate moved the senatus consultum ultimum and urged Opimius to attack Gracchus and his allies. In response, Gracchus and Flaccus armed their followers and seized the temple of Diana on the Aventine hill. Opimius called out the militia, along with some Cretan mercenary archers, and ordered the two to submit themselves to the judgement of the senate. Then, he marched into the Aventine with his forces, promising the weight of Gaius' head in gold. Flaccus and his sons were killed, Gracchus was either killed or committed suicide after fleeing across the river Tiber.
Aftermath
In the aftermath of Gaius' death, a judicial inquiry was established to try Gracchan supporters. Apparently, "many were executed after a brief investigation without the formalities of trial", with an extensive purge reportedly of thousands. Plutarch also reports that Gaius, Flaccus, and others' estates were confiscated, along with the dowry of his widow, Licinia; Plutarch, however, is likely wrong in this matter; it is more likely that only their houses were demolished, with their estates passing thence to their heirs.
Opimius was not entirely unreflective of his actions. Following the strife,
Many in Rome, however, did not share his religious pretensions: according to Plutarch, one night an inscription was carved that read "this temple of Concord is the work of mad Discord". The events of this year also spilled into the next year. When Opimius gave up his consulship, he was prosecuted by Publius Decius one of the plebeian tribunes for 120 BC on charges of violating the lex Sempronia which Gaius had passed that prohibited the execution of Roman citizens without appeal to the people. Opimius, however, was able to successfully defend himself by pointing to the senatus consultum ultimum and claiming that his opponents did not deserve treatment akin to that of Roman citizens; his successful defence enabled such senatorial decrees to be used as "carte blanche for the most brutal reprisals". The use of force itself, furthermore, set a precedent "suggest[ing] violence as the logical and more effective alternative to political engagement, negotiation, and compromise".
Gaius' legislation, however, mostly survived, revealing again that "it was no longer a specific issue that mattered so much as the urgent necessity to triumph over rivals". While the African colonies law was repealed, a new agrarian law continued distribution of territories around Carthage to the poor, and colonial schemes in Italy survived with minor changes. The matter of citizenship for the Italians, however, was not reintroduced for some thirty years. As a whole, "the aristocracy's reaction resembled that of a general dealing with a mutiny, who accedes to most of the demands but executes the ringleaders to preserve discipline". Overseas colonial projects also did not end, just a few years later, a bill was carried in defiance of the senate establishing a colony at Narbonne.
Only in 111 BC, some ten years later, was the Gracchan land commission disestablished by another lex agraria (sometimes called the lex Thoria but attribution is disputed), not because of plutocratic influence, but because the job of distributing public lands was complete. All public land distributed or otherwise confirmed under the Gracchan land reform laws was confirmed and fully privatised. By this point, practically the only remaining ager publicus was common pastureland or land under long-term leases, land which could not be distributed.
Gaius Gracchus' subsidised grain law also survived past this death. It was repealed only in the last decade of the century, by a Marcus Octavius who was tribune some time between 122 and 104, but was quickly revived by Lucius Appuleius Saturninus.
See also
Gracchi brothers
Tiberius Gracchus, his brother
Notes
References
External links
154 BC births
121 BC deaths
2nd-century BC Romans
Ancient Roman politicians who committed suicide
Characters in Book VI of the Aeneid
Populares
Reformers
Roman quaestors
Sempronii
Social reformers
Tribunes of the plebs | [
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245107 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago%20Sun-Times | Chicago Sun-Times | The Chicago Sun-Times is a daily newspaper published in Chicago, Illinois, United States. It is the flagship paper of Chicago Public Media, and has the second largest circulation among Chicago newspapers, after the Chicago Tribune. The modern paper grew out of the 1948 merger of the Chicago Sun and the Chicago Daily Times. Journalists at the paper have received eight Pulitzer prizes, mostly in the 1970s; one recipient was film critic Roger Ebert (1975), who worked at the paper from 1967 until his death in 2013. Ownership of the paper has changed hands numerous times, including twice in the late 2010s.
History
The Chicago Sun-Times claims to be the oldest continuously published daily newspaper in the city. That claim is based on the 1844 founding of the Chicago Daily Journal, which was also the first newspaper to publish the rumor, now believed false, that a cow owned by Catherine O'Leary was responsible for the Chicago fire. The Evening Journal, whose West Side building at 17–19 S. Canal was undamaged, gave the Chicago Tribune a temporary home until it could rebuild. Though the assets of the Journal were sold to the Chicago Daily News in 1929, its last owner Samuel Emory Thomason also immediately launched the tabloid Chicago Daily Illustrated Times.
The modern paper grew out of the 1948 merger of the Chicago Sun, founded by Marshall Field III on December 4, 1941, and the Chicago Daily Times (which had dropped the "Illustrated" from its title). The newspaper was owned by Field Enterprises, controlled by the Marshall Field family, which acquired the afternoon Chicago Daily News in 1959 and launched WFLD television in 1966. When the Daily News ended its run in 1978, much of its staff, including Pulitzer Prize-winning columnist Mike Royko, were moved to the Sun-Times. During the Field period, the newspaper had a populist, progressive character that leaned Democratic but was independent of the city's Democratic establishment. Although the graphic style was urban tabloid, the paper was well regarded for journalistic quality and did not rely on sensational front-page stories. It typically ran articles from The Washington Post/Los Angeles Times wire service.
The 1940s, 1950s and 1960s
Among the most prominent members of the newspaper's staff was cartoonist Jacob Burck, who was hired by the Chicago Times in 1938, won a Pulitzer Prize in 1941 and continued with the paper after it became the Sun-Times, drawing nearly 10,000 cartoons over a 44-year career.
The advice column "Ask Ann Landers" debuted in 1943. Ann Landers was the pseudonym of staff writer Ruth Crowley, who answered readers' letters until 1955. Eppie Lederer, sister of "Dear Abby" columnist Abigail van Buren, assumed the role thereafter as Ann Landers.
"Kup's Column", written by Irv Kupcinet, also made its first appearance in 1943.
Jack Olsen joined the Sun-Times as editor-in-chief in 1954, before moving on to Time and Sports Illustrated magazines and authoring true-crime books. Hired as literary editor in 1955 was Hoke Norris, who also covered the civil-rights movement for the Sun-Times.
Jerome Holtzman became a member of the Chicago Sun sports department after first being a copy boy for the Daily News in the 1940s. He and Edgar Munzel, another longtime sportswriter for the paper, both would end up honored by the Baseball Hall of Fame.
Famed for his World War II exploits, two-time Pulitzer Prize-winning cartoonist Bill Mauldin made the Sun-Times his home base in 1962. The following year, Mauldin drew one of his most renowned illustrations, depicting a mourning statue of Abraham Lincoln after the November 1963 assassination of John F. Kennedy.
Two years out of college, Roger Ebert became a staff writer in 1966, and a year later was named Sun-Timess film critic. He continued in this role for the remainder of his life.
The 1970s
In 1975, a new sports editor at the Sun-Times, Lewis Grizzard, spiked some columns written by sportswriter Lacy J. Banks and took away a column Banks had been writing, prompting Banks to tell a friend at the Chicago Defender that Grizzard was a racist. After the friend wrote a story about it, Grizzard fired Banks. With that, the editorial employees union intervened, a federal arbitrator ruled for Banks, and 13 months later he got his job back.
A 25-part series on the Mirage Tavern, a saloon on Wells Street bought and operated by the Sun-Times in 1977, exposed a pattern of civic corruption and bribery, as city officials were investigated and photographed without their knowledge. The articles received considerable publicity and acclaim, but a nomination for the Pulitzer Prize met resistance from some who believed the Mirage series represented a form of entrapment.
In March 1978, the venerable afternoon publication the Chicago Daily News, sister paper of the Sun-Times, went out of business. The two newspapers shared the same ownership and office building. James F. Hoge, Jr., editor and publisher of the Daily News, assumed the same positions at the Sun-Times, which also retained a number of the Daily Newss editorial personnel.
The 1980s
In 1980, the Sun-Times hired syndicated TV columnist Gary Deeb away from the rival Chicago Tribune. Deeb then left the Sun-Times in the spring of 1983 to try his hand at TV. He joined Chicago's WLS-TV in September 1983.
In July 1981, prominent Sun-Times investigative reporter Pam Zekman, who had been part of a Pulitzer Prize-winning team with the Chicago Tribune in 1976, announced she was leaving the Sun-Times to join WBBM-TV in Chicago in August 1981 as chief of its new investigative unit. "Salary wasn't a factor," she told the Tribune. "The station showed a commitment to investigative journalism. It was something I wanted to try."
Pete Souza left the Sun-Times in 1983 to become official White House photographer for President Ronald Reagan until his second term's end in 1989. Souza returned to that position to be the official photographer for President Barack Obama.
Baseball writer Jerome Holtzman defected from the Sun-Times to the Tribune in late 1981, while Mike Downey also left Sun-Times sports in September 1981 to be a columnist at the Detroit Free Press.
In January 1984, noted Sun-Times business reporter James Warren quit to join the rival Chicago Tribune. He became the Tribunes Washington bureau chief and later its managing editor for features.
In 1984, Field Enterprises co-owners, half-brothers Marshall Field V and Ted Field, sold the paper to Rupert Murdoch's News Corporation, and the paper's style changed abruptly to mirror that of its suitemate, the New York Post. Its front pages tended more to the sensational, while its political stance shifted markedly to the right. This was in the era that the Chicago Tribune had begun softening its traditionally staunchly Republican editorial line, blurring the city's clear division between the two newspapers' politics. This shift was made all but official when Mike Royko defected to the Tribune.
Roger Ebert later reflected on the incident with disdain, stating in his blog,
Murdoch sold the paper in 1986 (to buy its former sister television station WFLD to launch the Fox network) for $145 million in cash in a leveraged buyout to an investor group led by the paper's publisher, Robert E. Page, and the New York investment firm Adler & Shaykin.
In 1984, Roger Simon, who had been a Sun-Times columnist for a decade, quit to join The Baltimore Sun, where he worked until 1995. Simon quit the paper because of Murdoch's purchase of it. Beginning in October 1984, Simon's columns from Baltimore began appearing in the rival Chicago Tribune.
In December 1986, the Sun-Times hired high-profile gossip columnist Michael Sneed away from the rival Chicago Tribune, where she had been co-authoring the Tribunes own "Inc." gossip column with Kathy O'Malley. On December 3, 1986, O'Malley led off the Tribunes "Inc." column with the heading "The Last to Know Dept." and writing, "Dontcha just hate it when you write a gossip column and people think you know all the news about what's going on and your partner gets a new job and your column still has her name on it on the very same day that her new employer announces that she's going to work for him? Yeah, INC. just hates it when that happens."
In February 1987, the popular syndicated advice column "Ask Ann Landers" (commonly known as the "Ann Landers" column and written at that point by Eppie Lederer) left the Sun-Times after 31 years to jump to the rival Chicago Tribune, effective March 15, 1987. The move sparked a nationwide hunt for a new advice columnist for the Sun-Times. After more than 12,000 responses from people aged 4 to 85, the paper ultimately hired two: Jeffrey Zaslow, then a 28-year-old Wall Street Journal reporter, and Diane Crowley, a 47-year-old lawyer, teacher and daughter of Ruth Crowley, who had been the original Ann Landers columnist from 1943 until 1955. Crowley left to return to the practice of law in 1993 and the paper decided not to renew Zaslow's contract in 2001.
By the summer of 1988, Page and Adler & Shaykin managing partner Leonard P. Shaykin had developed a conflict, and in August 1988, Page resigned as publisher and president and sold his interest in the paper to his fellow investors.
The 1990s
In mid-1991, veteran crime reporter Art Petacque, who had won a Pulitzer Prize in 1974, left the paper. Almost ten years later, Dennis Britton, who had been the paper's editor at the time of Petacque's retirement, told the Chicago Reader that Petacque's departure, which was described at the time as a retirement, was involuntary. "I had problems with some of the ways Art pursued his job," Britton told the Reader.
In September 1992, Bill Zwecker joined the Sun-Times as a gossip columnist from the troubled Lerner Newspapers suburban weekly newspaper chain, where he had written the "VIPeople" column.
In September 1992, Sun-Times sports clerk Peter Anding was arrested in the Sun-Times newsroom and held without bond after confessing to using his position to set up sexual encounters for male high school athletes. Anding was charged with aggravated criminal sexual assault and possession of child pornography. In September 1993, Anding pleaded guilty to arranging and videotaping sexual encounters with several teenage boys and fondling others. He was sentenced to 40 years in prison.
In 1993, the Sun-Times fired photographer Bob Black without severance for dozens of unauthorized uses of the company's Federal Express account and outside photo lab, going back more than three years and costing the company more than $1,400. In February 1994, however, Black rejoined the paper's payroll after an arbitrator agreed with the paper's union that dismissal was too severe a penalty. At the same time, the arbitrator declined to award Black back pay.
In 1993, longtime Sun-Times reporter Larry Weintraub retired after 35 years at the paper. Weintraub had been best known for his "Weintraub's World" column, in which he worked a job and wrote about the experience. Weintraub died in 2001 at age 69.
In February 1994, the Adler & Shaykin investor group sold the Sun-Times to Hollinger Inc. for about $180 million. Hollinger was controlled, indirectly, by Canadian-born businessman Conrad Black. After Black and his associate David Radler were indicted for skimming money from Hollinger International, through retaining noncompete payments from the sale of Hollinger newspapers, they were removed from the board, and Hollinger International was renamed the Sun-Times Media Group.
In 1994, noted reporter M.W. Newman retired from the Sun-Times around the age of 77. Newman, who died of lung cancer in 2001, had been with the Sun-Times since the Chicago Daily News closed in 1978 and had focused his efforts on urban reporting. Among other things, Newman had been known for coining the term "Big John" to describe the John Hancock Center and the expression "Fortress Illini" for the concrete structures and plazas at the University of Illinois at Chicago.
On March 23, 1995, the Sun-Times announced that beginning April 2, 1995, veteran Sports Illustrated writer Rick Telander would join the paper and write four columns a week.
On March 24, 1995, the Sun-Times published an editorial by Mark Hornung, then the Sun-Times''' editorial page editor, that plagiarized a Washington Post editorial that had appeared in that paper the day before. Hornung attributed the plagiarism to writer's block, deadline pressures and the demands of other duties. He resigned as editorial page editor, but remained with the paper, shifting to its business side and working first as director of distribution and then as vice president of circulation. In 2002, Hornung became president and publisher of Midwest Suburban Publishing, which was a company owned by then-Sun Times parent company Hollinger International. In June 2004, Hollinger International placed Hornung on administrative leave just two weeks after Hollinger revealed that the paper's sales figures had been inflated for several years. Hornung resigned from the company four days later.
On May 17, 1995, the Sun-Times food section published a bogus letter from a reader named "Olga Fokyercelf" that Chicago Tribune columnist (and former Sun-Times columnist) Mike Royko called "an imaginative prank" in a column. In that same column, Royko criticized the paper's food writer, who edited the readers' column at the time, Olivia Wu, for not following better quality control. The Wall Street Journal then criticized Royko with an article of its own, titled, "Has a Curmudgeon Turned Into a Bully? Some Now Think So...Picking on a Food Writer." Although the Sun-Times began hiring a freelancer to edit the space and look for double entendres, another one made it into the same column on July 26, 1995, when the section published a letter from a "Phil McCraken." "This one was a little more subtle," a reporter outside the food department told the Chicago Reader.
In 1998, the Sun-Times demoted longtime TV critic Lon Grahnke, shifting him to covering education. Grahnke, who died in 2006 at age 56 of Alzheimer's disease, remained with the paper until 2001, when he retired following an extended medical leave.
The 2000s
In 2000, the Sun-Times new editors, Michael Cooke and John Cruickshank, tapped longtime staff reporter Mark Brown, who had considered himself an investigative reporter, to write a column that would anchor page two of the paper.
In 2000, longtime investigative reporter Charles Nicodemus retired from the paper at age 69 and died in 2008 at age 77.
In 2001, Sun-Times investigative reporter Chuck Neubauer quit the paper to join the Los Angeles Times' Washington bureau. Neubauer and Brown had initiated the investigation into U.S. Rep. Dan Rostenkowski that uncovered a variety of misdeeds that ultimately had led to Rostenkowski's indictment, conviction and imprisonment.
In April 2001, Sun-Times architecture critic Lee Bey quit to join the administration of then-Chicago Mayor Richard M. Daley as Daley's deputy mayoral chief of staff, responsible for downtown planning, rewriting the city's zoning code and affordable housing issues.
In April 2001, longtime Sun-Times horse-racing writer Dave Feldman died at age 85 while still on the payroll.
In 2002, with Kuczmarski & Associates, the Chicago Sun-Times co-founded the Chicago Innovation Awards.
In May 2002, Sun-Times editors Joycelyn Winnecke and Bill Adee, who were then husband and wife, both quit on the same day to join the rival Chicago Tribune. Winnecke had been the Sun-Times managing editor, and she left for a new post, associate managing editor for national news, while Adee, who had been the Sun-Times sports editor for nine years, became the Tribunes sports editor/news.
In October 2003, famed Sun-Times gossip columnist Irv Kupcinet began including the name of his longtime assistant of nearly 34 years, Stella Foster, as the coauthor of his column. After Kupcinet died the following month at age 91, the Sun-Times kept Foster on and gave her the sole byline on the column, which became known as "Stella's Column." Foster retired from the newspaper in 2012.
In 2004, the Sun-Times was censured by the Audit Bureau of Circulations for misrepresenting its circulation figures.
In February 2004, longtime Sun-Times political columnist Steve Neal died at his home in Hinsdale, Illinois, at age 54, of an apparent suicide.
In August 2004, longtime Chicago broadcast journalist Carol Marin began writing regular columns in the Sun-Times, mostly on political issues.
In March 2005, the Chicago Tribune hired away television critic Phil Rosenthal to become its media columnist. He eventually was replaced as TV critic by Doug Elfman.
On September 28, 2005, Sun-Times columnist and editorial board member Neil Steinberg was arrested in his home in Northbrook, Illinois and charged with domestic battery and with interfering with the reporting of domestic battery. With that, Steinberg, who had been at the Sun-Times since 1987, entered a treatment facility for alcohol abuse. On November 23, 2005, Cook County prosecutors dropped the charges against Steinberg after his wife said she no longer feared for her safety. On November 28, 2005, Steinberg returned to the Sun-Times pages after going through a 28-day rehabilitation program at a nearby hospital, and he gave readers his version of the events that led to his arrest: "I got drunk and slapped my wife during an argument." Steinberg also reported that he and his wife were "on the mend," and that he was working toward sobriety.
In the spring of 2006, a variety of longtime Sun-Times writers and columnists took buyouts, including sports columnist Ron Rapoport, sports reporter Joe Goddard, society and gardening columnist Mary Cameron Frey, book editor Henry Kisor, page designer Roy Moody and photographer Bob Black. Classical music critic Wynne Delacoma also took a buyout, and left the paper later.
In August 2006, the Sun-Times fired longtime Chicago Cubs beat writer Mike Kiley. Then-Sun-Times sports editor Stu Courtney told the Tribune that the dismissal of Kiley, who had joined the Sun-Times from the Tribune in 1996, was a "personnel matter I can't comment on." The Tribunes Teddy Greenstein called Kiley "a fierce competitor."
In February 2007, noted Sun-Times columnist Debra Pickett quit upon returning from maternity leave. The reasons for her departure were differences with her editors over where her column appeared and the sorts of assignments being handed to her.
On July 10, 2007, newly appointed Editorial Page Editor Cheryl Reed announced: "We [the Chicago Sun-Times editorial page] are returning to our liberal, working-class roots, a position that pits us squarely opposite the Chicago Tribune—that Republican, George Bush—touting paper over on moneyed Michigan Avenue."
In January 2008, the Sun-Times underwent two rounds of layoffs. In its first round, the Sun-Times fired editorial board members Michael Gillis, Michelle Stevens and Lloyd Sachs, along with Sunday editor Marcia Frellick and assistant managing editor Avis Weathersbee.
On February 4, 2008, Editorial Page Editor Cheryl Reed resigned saying in a front-page Chicago Tribune story that she was "deeply troubled" that the paper's presidential primary endorsements of Barack Obama and John McCain were subjected to "wholesale rewrites" by editorial board outsiders. Cyrus Freidheim Jr., in his role as Sun-Times publisher, issued a statement reassuring staff that the endorsements didn't change and that the rewrites only "deepened and strengthened the messages."
Later that month, the Sun-Times underwent more staff reductions, laying off columnist Esther Cepeda, religion reporter Susan Hogan/Albach, TV critic Doug Elfman, real estate editor Sally Duros, and onetime editor Garry Steckles, while giving buyouts to assistant city editors Robert C. Herguth and Nancy Moffett, environmental reporter Jim Ritter, copy editors Chris Whitehead and Bob Mutter, editorial columnist Steve Huntley (who remained with the paper as a freelance columnist), and special Barack Obama correspondent Jennifer Hunter. Also taking a buyout was longtime health and technology reporter Howard Wolinsky. Two other staffers, business editor Dan Miller and deputy metro editor Phyllis Gilchrist, resigned. Reporter Kara Spak initially was reported to have been laid off, but she wound up staying with the paper.
In August 2008, high-profile sports columnist Jay Mariotti resigned from the Sun-Times after concluding that the future of sports journalism was online.
In October 2008, the Sun-Times gave buyouts to noted TV/radio writer Robert Feder (a blogger with Time Out Chicago and then an independent writer on Chicago media) and longtime auto writer Dan Jedlicka. The paper also laid off two members of its editorial board: Teresa Puente and Deborah Douglas.
In November 2008, the Sun-Times dropped its "Quick Takes" column, which Sun-Times columnist Zay N. Smith had written since 1995. Smith wrote the column from home, and the Sun-Times discontinued the column and informed Smith that it needed him back in the newsroom as a general assignment reporter. The paper's union complained, noting that Smith had permanent physical disabilities that made it difficult for him to be mobile. Smith later left the paper.
In March 2009, sports columnist Greg Couch left the Sun-Times after 12 years to join AOL Sports.
On March 31, 2009, the newspaper filed for bankruptcy protection.
On October 9, 2009, the Sun Times unions agreed to concessions paving the way for Jim Tyree to buy the newspaper and its 50 suburban newspapers. Of the $25 million purchase price, $5 million was in cash, with the other $20 million to help pay off past debts.
In November 2009, Sun-Times sports editor Stu Courtney quit to join the rival Chicago Tribunes Chicago Breaking Sports website.
In December 2009, the Sun-Times hired sports columnist Rick Morrissey away from the rival Chicago Tribune.
The 2010s
In April 2010, longtime Sun-Times pop music critic Jim DeRogatis resigned from the paper to join the faculty of Columbia College Chicago and to begin blogging at Vocalo.org.
In June 2010, the Sun-Times laid off a group of editorial employees, including longtime sports media columnist Jim O'Donnell and features writer Delia O'Hara.
In October 2010, the Sun-Times laid off longtime sports columnist Carol Slezak, who by that point had shifted to feature reporting.
At the end of June 2010, longtime Sun-Times sportswriter Len Ziehm, who covered many sports but largely focused on golf, retired after 41 years at the paper.
Sun-Times Media group chairman James C. Tyree died under sudden circumstances in March 2011. Jeremy Halbreich, chief executive, said that Tyree's will be greatly missed and that his death will make no changes in the media company's strategy.
Also in March 2011, the Sun-Times laid off six editorial reporters and writers: high school sports reporter Steve Tucker, reporter Misha Davenport, general assignment reporter Cheryl Jackson, media and marketing columnist Lewis Lazare, feature writer Celeste Busk and sportswriter John Jackson.
In May 2011, the Sun-Times laid off real estate writer Bill Cunniff, features reporter Jeff Johnson and gaming writer John Grochowski, along with graphic designer Char Searl.
In June 2011, the Sun-Times fired longtime TV critic Paige Wiser after she admitted to fabricating portions of a review of a Glee Live! In Concert! performance. She admitted to attending much of the concert but leaving early to tend to her children. The paper eventually tapped longtime travel writer Lori Rackl to replace Wiser as TV critic.
The Sun-Times announced in July 2011 that it would close its printing plant on Ashland Avenue in Chicago—eliminating 400 printing jobs—and would outsource the printing of the newspaper to the rival Chicago Tribune. The move was estimated to save $10 million a year. The Sun-Times already had been distributed by the Tribune since 2007.
In August 2011, the Sun-Times laid off three more reporters and writers: sportswriter Mike Mulligan, "Quick Hits" sports columnist Elliott Harris and photographer Keith Hale.
In September 2011, the Sun-Times fired longtime restaurant reviewer (and freelancer) Pat Bruno.
In October 2011, the Sun-Times discontinued the longtime comic strip Drabble (syndicated by Newspaper Enterprise Association), which the paper had run since the strip's inception in 1979. The comic strip was the victim of a reduced page size.
At the end of May 2013, the publication's photography department was dissolved as part of a restructuring that involves the use of freelance photographers and non-photographer journalists to provide visual content. Under the terms of a settlement with the paper's union, the Sun-Times reinstated four of those photographers as multimedia journalists in March 2014: Rich Chapman, Brian Jackson, Al Podgorski and Michael Schmidt.
In March 2014, pop culture reporter Dave Hoekstra left the Sun-Times in a buyout after 29 years with the paper. Concurrent with Hoekstra's departure, the company also laid off two Sun-Times editorial assistants, two editors at the SouthtownStar, a community editor at the Post-Tribune of Northwest Indiana and a weekend editor/designer at the company's west suburban newspaper group.
In March 2016, Shia Kapos signed on to bring her Taking Names column to the Sun-Times. She had been writing the gossip column since 2007 for Crain's Business.
On July 13, 2017, it was reported that a consortium consisting of private investors and the Chicago Federation of Labor led by businessman and former Chicago alderman Edwin Eisendrath through his company ST Acquisition Holdings, had acquired the paper and its parent company, Sun-Times Media Group, from then-owner Wrapports, beating out Chicago-based publishing company Tronc (formerly Tribune Publishing Company) for ownership.
In March 2019, a new ownership group took over and took control of the Sun-Times from the previous union ownership. The group, Sun-Times Investment Holdings LLC, was backed by prominent Chicago investors Michael Sacks and Rocky Wirtz.
The 2020s
On January 30, 2022, the Sun Times became not-for-profit when it was formally merged into the nonprofit Chicago Public Media, longtime owner of the city's National Public Radio affiliate WBEZ. A nonbinding agreement for the deal had been announced in September 2021, and the board of Chicago Public Media had signalled its approval on January 18, 2022. The final arrangement was backed with $61 million from several philanthropic organizations.
Awards and notable stories
Journalists at the Sun-Times have won eight Pulitzer Prizes.
1970: Tom Fitzpatrick, General Reporting
1971: Jack Dykinga, Feature Photography
1973: Ron Powers, Criticism
1974: Art Petacque, Hugh Hough, General Reporting
1975: Roger Ebert, Criticism
1982: John H. White, Feature Photography
1989: Jack Higgins, Editorial Cartooning
2011: Frank Main, Mark Konkol and John J. Kim, Local Reporting
Doug Moench was nominated for a Chicago Newspaper Guild Award in 1972 for his stream-of-consciousness story on violence in the Chicago subway system. In 1978, the newspaper conducted the Mirage Tavern investigation, in which undercover reporters operated a bar and caught city officials taking bribes on camera.
In January 2004, after a six-month investigation written by Tim Novak and Steve Warmbir, the paper broke the story of the Hired Truck Program scandal. After a Sun-Times article by Michael Sneed erroneously identified the perpetrator of the April 16, 2007 Virginia Tech massacre as an unnamed Chinese national, the People's Republic of China criticized the Chicago Sun-Times for publishing what it called "irresponsible reports." The newspaper later silently withdrew the story without making any apologies or excuses.
Staff
The Sun-Times' best-known writer was film critic Roger Ebert, who died in April, 2013. Chicago columnist Mike Royko, previously of the defunct Chicago Daily News, came to the paper in 1978 but left for the Chicago Tribune in 1984 when the Sun-Times was purchased by Rupert Murdoch's News Corp. Irv Kupcinet's daily column was a fixture from 1943 until his death in 2003. It was also the home base of famed cartoonist Bill Mauldin from 1962 to 1991, as well as advice columnist Ann Landers and the Washington veteran Robert Novak for many years. Lisa Myers, the Senior Investigative Correspondent for NBC News, was the publication's Washington correspondent from 1977 to 1979. Author Charles Dickinson worked as a copy editor for the publication from 1983 to 1989.
The newspaper gave a start in journalism to columnist Bob Greene, while other notable writers such as Mary Mitchell, Richard Roeper, Gary Houston, Michael Sneed, Mark Brown, Neil Steinberg, sportswriters Rick Telander and Rick Morrissey, theater critic Hedy Weiss, Carol Marin, Pulitzer Prize-winning reporters Frank Main and Mark Konkol, and technology expert Andy Ihnatko have written for the Sun-Times. As of October 2013, Lynn Sweet is the Washington Bureau Chief and Pulitzer Prize-winner Jack Higgins is the publication's editorial cartoonist.
John Cruickshank became the publisher in 2003 after David Radler, and on September 19, 2007, announced he was resigning to head the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's news division.
On May 30, 2013, the Sun-Times laid off the vast majority of its photography staff as part of a change in its structure, opting instead to use photos and video shot by reporters, as well as content from freelancers, instead. Two staff photographers remained after the restructure: Rich Hein was named Photo Editor and Jessica Koscielniak, who was hired in January 2013, became the newspapers' only multimedia reporter. Among those photographers who were laid off was Pulitzer Prize winning photographer John White. In an official statement, the newspaper explained: "The Sun-Times business is changing rapidly and our audiences are consistently seeking more video content with their news. We have made great progress in meeting this demand and are focused on bolstering our reporting capabilities with video and other multimedia elements."
Early Edition
The paper was featured in the CBS show Early Edition, where the lead character mysteriously receives each Chicago Sun-Times'' newspaper the day before it is actually published.
Gallery
Logos
References
External links
Chicago Sun-Times website
Chicago Sun-Times and Field Enterprises records at the Newberry Library
Field Enterprises records at The Newberry
Newspapers published in Chicago
Publications established in 1948
Pulitzer Prize-winning newspapers
Daily newspapers published in the United States
Nonprofit newspapers | [
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245119 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf%20herring | Wolf herring | The wolf herrings are a family (Chirocentridae) of two marine species of ray-finned fish related to the herrings.
Both species have elongated bodies and jaws with long sharp teeth that facilitate their ravenous appetites, mostly for other fish. Both species reach a length of 1 m. They have silvery sides and bluish backs.
They are commercially fished, and marketed fresh or frozen.
Species
Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskål, 1775) - Dorab wolf-herring, found in warm coastal waters from the Red Sea to Japan and Australia
Chirocentrus nudus Swainson, 1839 - whitefin wolf-herring, found in a similar range (This species is difficult to distinguish from C. dorab; the former has a black mark on its dorsal fin. This species is also known to eat crabs in addition to its usual diet of smaller fish.)
References
Fish of the Indian Ocean
Extant Eocene first appearances
Taxa named by Georges Cuvier | [
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245121 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Grey%2C%201st%20Marquess%20of%20Dorset | Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset | Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, 1st Earl of Huntingdon, 7th Baron Ferrers of Groby, (145520 September 1501) was an English nobleman, courtier and the eldest son of Elizabeth Woodville and her first husband Sir John Grey of Groby. Her second marriage to King Edward IV made her Queen of England, thus elevating Grey's status at court and in the realm as the stepson of the King. Through his mother's assiduous endeavours, he made two materially advantageous marriages to wealthy heiresses, the King's niece Anne Holland and Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington. By the latter he had 14 children.
Family
Thomas Grey was born in 1455 close to the Palace of Westminster, near the City of London. He was the elder son of John Grey (c.1432-1461) of Groby in Leicestershire, by his wife Elizabeth Woodville, who later became queen consort to King Edward IV.
Career
His mother endeavoured to improve his estates by the conventional methods of their class and time, through his marriages and purchase of wardships. He also found favour with Edward, fighting in the Battle of Tewkesbury in 1471. Grey became Lord Harington and Bonville by right of his second wife Cecily Bonville. In 1475 he was created marquess of Dorset, and he was also a knight of the Garter and a privy councillor.
On the death of his stepfather, Edward IV, Grey proved unable to maintain his family's position. It was not possible to arrange a Woodville regency. Internal fighting, particularly the long-established battle for ascendancy in Leicestershire between the Grey and Hastings families, was now on the national stage. Richard III came to the throne when the sons of Edward IV's bastardy was declared; the Grey family was aligned with Edward.
On 25 June 1483, an assembly of Parliament declared Richard III to be the legitimate king, and Thomas's uncle, Anthony Woodville, 2nd Earl Rivers, and brother, Richard Grey, were executed. Later in the summer, learning of the apparent murder of both his young half-brothers, Grey joined the Duke of Buckingham's rebellion against Richard III. When the rebellion failed he fled to Brittany to join Henry Tudor, who pledged to marry Grey's half-sister Elizabeth of York and heal the division between the Yorkists and the Lancastrians.
However, just before Henry and the Lancastrian army left to launch their ultimately successful invasion of England in August 1485, Grey heard rumours from England that his mother had come to terms with Richard III, and he was persuaded to desert Henry Tudor. He was intercepted at Compiègne on his way to England, and played no part in the invasion or subsequent overthrow of Richard III. Grey was instead confined to Paris, as security for the repayment of a loan made to Henry Tudor by the French government, unable to return home until Henry VII was safely installed as king of England.
Thereafter Henry VII took good care to keep his half-brother-in-law under control and Grey was not permitted to recover his former influence, although his attainder was reversed. Thomas Grey was confined in the Tower in 1487 during Lambert Simnel's rising and not released until after the House of Tudor victory in the Battle of Stoke Field. Though he accompanied the King on his expedition to France in 1492, he was obliged to commit himself in writing to ensure he did not commit treason. He was permitted to assist in suppression of the Cornish rising in 1497.
Thomas Grey, Marquess of Dorset, died in London on 20 September 1501, aged about 46, and was buried in the collegiate church of Astley, Warwickshire. His widow married Grey's cousin, Henry Stafford, later Earl of Wiltshire.
Marriages and issue
His mother sought to make provision for him by marriage to wealthy heiresses. He married firstly, at Greenwich in October 1466, Lady Anne Holland (1461c. 1474), the only daughter of Henry Holland, 3rd Duke of Exeter, and Anne of York. His mother-in-law was the second child and eldest surviving daughter of Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York, and Cecily Neville, thus sister to his mother's second husband King Edward IV.
After Anne Holland died young without issue, Thomas married secondly, by papal dispensation 5 September 1474, Cecily Bonville, 7th Baroness Harington of Aldingham and 2nd Baroness Bonville, the wealthiest heiress in England. Cecily Bonville, born in 1461, was the daughter and heiress of William Bonville, 6th Baron Harington, by his wife Katherine Neville, daughter of Richard Neville, 5th Earl of Salisbury. Katherine was sister to the late Earl of Warwick and thus aunt to his daughters.
By his second wife Grey had seven sons and seven daughters:
Lord Edward Grey, eldest son and heir, who predeceased his father, and was buried in the church of St Clement Danes, London. He married Anne (née Jerningham), daughter of Sir Edward Jerningham (died 6 January 1515) of Somerleyton, Suffolk, by Margaret Bedingfield (died 24 March 1504), by whom he had no issue. After his death she remarried four times, firstly to a husband surnamed Berkeley; secondly to Henry Barley (died 12 November 1529) of Albury, Hertfordshire; thirdly to Sir Robert Drury; and fourthly to Sir Edmund Walsingham.
Anthony Grey, who predeceased his father.
Thomas Grey, 2nd Marquess of Dorset (22 June 147722 June 1530), who married firstly Eleanor St John, by whom he had no issue, and secondly Margaret Wotton, widow of William Medley, esquire, and daughter of Sir Robert Wotton by Anne Belknap, daughter of Henry Belknap esquire, by whom he had four sons, including Henry Grey, 1st Duke of Suffolk, father of Lady Jane Grey, and four daughters.
Sir Richard Grey, who married Florence Pudsey. He is mentioned in the will of his brother, Sir John Grey.
Sir John Grey, who married firstly Elizabeth Catesby, widow of Roger Wake (died 16 May 1504) of Blisworth, Northamptonshire, and daughter of Sir William Catesby, and secondly Anne Barley or Barlee (died 1557 or 1558), widow of Sir Robert Sheffield of Butterwick, Lincolnshire, Speaker of the House of Commons. Grey apparently had no issue by either of his wives, as his will dated 3 March 1523 makes no mention of children. After Grey's death his widow, Anne, married Sir Richard Clement (d.1538) of Ightham Mote, Kent.
Leonard Grey, 1st Viscount Grane (c. 149028 June 1541), According to Richardson, Grey married firstly Elizabeth Arundel, widow of Sir Giles Daubeney, and secondly Eleanor Sutton, daughter of Edward Sutton, 2nd Baron Dudley by Cecily Willoughby, daughter and coheiress of Sir William Willoughby; however according to Lyons it is unclear whether Grey ever married. He is mentioned in the will of his brother, Sir John Grey. He served as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
George Grey, in holy orders. He is mentioned in the will of his brother, Sir John Grey.
Cecily Grey (died 28 April 1554), who married John Sutton, 3rd Baron Dudley.
Bridget Grey, believed to have died young.
Dorothy Grey (1480–1552), who married firstly Robert Willoughby, 2nd Baron Willoughby de Broke, by whom she had issue, and secondly William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy.
Elizabeth Grey, who married Gerald FitzGerald, 9th Earl of Kildare.
Margaret Grey, who married Richard Wake, esquire, She is mentioned, as 'Margaret Grey', in the will of her brother, Sir John Grey.
Eleanor Grey (or "Elizabeth") Grey (died by December 1503) who married, as his first wife, Sir John Arundell (1474–1545) of Lanherne, Cornwall, Receiver General of the Duchy of Cornwall and "the most important man in the county".
Mary Grey (149322 February 1538), who married Walter Devereux, 1st Viscount Hereford.
Titles
Lord Astley, from 1461, inherited on the death of his father
Earl of Huntingdon, 1471–1475, created for him but after acquiring the next it was surrendered to the King so the King might be able to give it to the Earl of Pembroke whose title the King wanted for his own son
Lord Harington and Bonville in right of his (second) wife, from 1474, his wife being unable to sit in Parliament
Marquess of Dorset, from 1475, created for Thomas Grey 14 May 1475 (Whitsunday) in place of the re-possessed earldom of Huntingdon
Lord Ferrers of Groby, from 1483, inherited on the death of his grandmother Elizabeth Ferrers.
Attainted 1484 following the bid to oust Richard III
After reversal of his attainder by Henry VII, styled himself marquess of Dorset, lord Ferrers of Groby, Bonville, and Harington
Arms
The arms of the head of the Grey family are blazoned Barry of six argent and azure in chief three torteaux gules.
Notes
References
A Genealogical History of the Dormant, Abeyant, Forfeited, and Extinct Peerages of the British Empire by Sir Bernard Burke, 1866
External links
Depictions in fiction
Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset, is depicted in:
Shakespeare's Richard III
The novel The Sunne in Splendour by Sharon Kay Penman
1455 births
1501 deaths
Thomas Grey, 1st Marquess of Dorset
Knights of the Garter
Marquesses of Dorset
Thomas
15th-century English nobility
16th-century English nobility
Earls of Huntingdon
People from Groby | [
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245134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Brymer | Jack Brymer | John Alexander Brymer OBE (27 January 191515 September 2003) was an English clarinettist. The Times called him "the leading clarinettist of his generation, perhaps of the century". He was largely self-taught as a player, and he performed as an amateur before being invited by Sir Thomas Beecham to join the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in 1947. He remained with the orchestra until 1963, two years after Beecham's death.
Brymer later played in the BBC Symphony and London Symphony Orchestras. He was also associated with several chamber music ensembles, and maintained a lifelong pleasure in playing jazz. He held professorships during most of the period from 1950 to 1993, first at the Royal Academy of Music, then at the Royal Military School of Music, and finally at the Guildhall School of Music. He was a frequent broadcaster, both as a player and a presenter, and made recordings of solo works and with orchestras and smaller ensembles. He published two volumes of memoirs and a book about the clarinet.
Biography
Early years
Brymer was born in South Shields, County Durham, in the North East of England, the son of John Alexander Brymer, a builder, and his wife, Mary, née Dixon. Brymer senior played the clarinet, and his son started to attempt to play the instrument at the age of four. He had no formal instruction as a clarinettist, but discovered music and worked out an instrumental technique for himself. The Guardian wrote of him, "Struggling with an inadequate instrument (a sharp-pitch A clarinet with a bit sawn off in the school woodwork room) and playing in local bands and amateur orchestras with people much older than himself, he learned his craft in the most practical way." While still a boy he encountered, and appreciated, a wide range of musical styles from jazz and light music to brass-bands and circuses. He later insisted that all these genres had been of great value to him professionally.
Brymer was educated at Westoe Secondary School, South Shields, excelling at rugby football. He hankered after a musical career, but as a profile in The Gramophone put it, "The virtual collapse of the orchestral profession when sound entered the cinema, and musicians were thrown out of work by the hundred turned his thoughts elsewhere." From 1933 Brymer trained at Goldsmiths College, London University as a generalist teacher. He joined the teaching staff of Heath Clark School, Croydon, and in his spare time played in amateur musical ensembles. Among his fellow students at the college, and later his colleague in the amateur groups, was a string player, Joan Richardson. They married in 1939 when they were both 24. There was one son of the marriage.
Although he had no formal tuition as a clarinettist, Brymer maintained that nobody was entirely self-taught: "I learnt from everyone I heard play. Frederick Thurston and Reginald Kell unwittingly betrayed their methods to me, but I also decided that I wanted to play in certain ways that they had never done. The ability to play the clarinet is the ability to overcome the imperfections of the instrument. There's no such thing as a perfect clarinet, never was and never will be." Other clarinettists whose technique Brymer observed and learned from were Charles Draper and Haydn Draper. Brymer wrote of his predecessors, "They would have been astounded at the things they taught me, without a penny piece changing hands."
During the Second World War Brymer served in the Royal Air Force. After his basic training he was promoted to corporal and posted to Morecambe on the north west coast of England as a physical training instructor. When not on RAF duty he frequently played in the Morecambe Central Pier dance band dressed in his corporal's uniform. Among those he met in the Air Force was the horn player, Dennis Brain, who admired Brymer's playing, and who later had a decisive influence on his career.
Royal Philharmonic
In 1946, Sir Thomas Beecham founded the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. Among his principal players were Kell and Brain. The following year Kell announced his forthcoming resignation, and Brain suggested to Beecham that Brymer would be a suitable replacement. Brymer had returned to his teaching post after being demobilised from the RAF, and was incredulous at receiving a telephone call from Beecham inviting him to audition. Brymer's first reaction was to think it was a practical joke, with one of his musical friends impersonating Beecham's familiar lordly drawl. Having realised that it was indeed Beecham calling, Brymer accepted the invitation to audition. Having heard him play, Beecham appointed him to succeed Kell. His first appearance with the orchestra was in EMI's Abbey Road Studios, recording Richard Strauss's Ein Heldenleben. Brymer recalled "an old man in a raincoat leaning over my shoulder to mark the part of his Heldenleben – Richard Strauss in the last year of his life". Many years later Brymer crossed swords with the conductor, Norman Del Mar over interpreting Strauss. A historian of the London Symphony Orchestra wrote, "Rehearsing Don Quixote, Del Mar had the temerity to admonish Brymer for playing a phrase too loudly: 'Just a memory, Jack, just a memory,' Del Mar called out. 'Why are you playing it mezzo-forte?' 'Because Strauss told me to,' Brymer retorted. 'And I'm surprised that you don't remember, Norman, because you were playing second horn at the time.'"
The Times said of Brymer in this period, "After his appointment to the RPO in 1947, the balding, affable Brymer was certainly Great Britain's pre-eminent clarinettist, … whose mellifluous playing style and unruffled platform manner charmed even those usually impervious to classical music." In the RPO, Brymer joined Beecham's starry line-up of wind players, Terence MacDonagh (oboe), Gerald Jackson (flute) and Gwydion Brooke (bassoon); collectively they became known to colleagues and audiences as "the Royal Family". A clarinettist of a later generation, Alan Hacker, wrote that the sound produced by Brymer and his colleagues was "expressive and instantly recognisable, even in just one solo note." With Beecham and the RPO, Brymer made the first of his three recordings of Mozart's Clarinet Concerto in 1958. When the recording was reissued on compact disc in 2001, The American Record Guide said,
BBC, LSO, chamber music and jazz
After Beecham's death in 1961 Brymer and other members of the RPO including MacDonagh became unhappy about the management of the RPO. The BBC's controller of music, William Glock, invited Brymer and MacDonagh to move to the BBC Symphony Orchestra. Brymer was the orchestra's co-principal clarinettist from 1963 to 1971. He also began to play more often in chamber music. When Pierre Boulez became chief conductor of the BBC SO in 1971, the sound he sought from his players, "avant garde, harsher, more cutting in its edge", did not appeal to Brymer. He accepted an invitation to join the London Symphony Orchestra as co-principal with Gervase de Peyer. An example of Brymer's sound in his LSO years can be heard in a 1972 recording of Rachmaninoff's Symphony No 2, conducted by André Previn. In The Gramophone, Edward Greenfield wrote of Brymer's "distinctively refined tone-colour … breathtakingly expressive" in the slow movement.
In the classical chamber repertory, Brymer was associated with several groups. At various times in his career he was a founder-member of the Wigmore Ensemble, the Prometheus Ensemble and the London Baroque Ensemble. He was director of the London Wind Soloists, and a member of the Tuckwell Wind Quartet and the Robles Ensemble. Throughout his career Brymer enjoyed an interest in mainstream jazz. He performed as a soloist with many of the leading British and American jazz players of the post-war decades. When the RPO was in New Orleans on an American tour, Brymer improvised with local jazz stars, including Alphonse Picou.
Teaching, recording, broadcasting and later years
As a teacher, Brymer was professor at the Royal Academy of Music (1950–58), the Royal Military School of Music at Kneller Hall (1969–73), and the Guildhall School of Music (1981–93). Among his pupils at the Royal Academy was Alan Hacker, who like many players of the generation after Brymer was less attracted by the rich sound developed by Brymer, favouring instead more radical techniques propounded by Bruno Bartolozzi, and playing styles harking back to an earlier, less mellifluous, style of playing.
During his career Brymer made gramophone recordings of all Mozart's works for wind solo and ensemble. Several works were written for him, including Three Pieces and a Clarinet Quintet by Cecil Armstrong Gibbs; Roundelay by Alan Richardson; and a Clarinet Concerto by Guy Woolfenden. Brymer was also a well-known broadcaster. His biographer, Raymond Holden, writes, "his easy manner before the microphone meant that the radio programmes that he presented for the BBC, such as 'At Home', were popular favourites".
The LSO paid Brymer the unusual tribute of mounting a special concert to mark his 70th birthday, and another to mark his 75th. By the time of the latter he had retired from full-time orchestral playing, but he continued to perform, and played at a concert given by the English Chamber Orchestra to mark his 80th birthday, at which he played Mozart's Clarinet Concerto and Clarinet Quintet, and Weber's Clarinet Concerto No 1.
Brymer's last public concert was on 18 July 1997 at the Wigmore Hall in London where he performed Mozart's Clarinet Quintet with the Gabrieli Quartet. Before the performance, Brymer told the audience that the Quintet held a special importance for him and he thought it appropriate that this music should mark his farewell to the concert platform.
Brymer died in Redhill, Surrey at the age of 88. His ashes were interred a short distance away in the churchyard of St Peter's, Limpsfield, close to the grave of Beecham.
Publications
Books
(also published in French and German editions)
Video
Notes
References
External links
An interview with Jack Brymer recorded in 1992 - a British Library sound recording
1915 births
2003 deaths
Academics of the Royal Academy of Music
BBC Symphony Orchestra
British clarinetists
British classical clarinetists
London Symphony Orchestra players
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People from South Shields
20th-century classical musicians | [
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245137 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20the%20Earth%20to%20the%20Moon | From the Earth to the Moon | From the Earth to the Moon: A Direct Route in 97 Hours, 20 Minutes () is an 1865 novel by Jules Verne. It tells the story of the Baltimore Gun Club, a post-American Civil War society of weapons enthusiasts, and their attempts to build an enormous Columbiad space gun and launch three people—the Gun Club's president, his Philadelphian armor-making rival, and a French poet—in a projectile with the goal of a Moon landing. Five years later, Verne wrote a sequel called Around the Moon.
The story is also notable in that Verne attempted to do some rough calculations as to the requirements for the cannon and in that, considering the comparative lack of empirical data on the subject at the time, some of his figures are remarkably accurate. However, his scenario turned out to be impractical for safe human space travel since a much longer barrel would have been required to reach escape velocity while limiting acceleration to survivable limits for the passengers.
The character of Michel Ardan, the French member of the party in the novel, was inspired by the real-life photographer Félix Nadar.
Plot
The story opens some time after the end of the American Civil War. The Baltimore Gun Club, a society dedicated to the design of weapons of all kinds (especially cannons), comes together when Impey Barbicane, its president, calls them to support his latest idea. He's done some calculations, and believes that they could construct a cannon capable of shooting a projectile to the Moon. After receiving the support of his companions, another meeting is held to decide the place from which the projectile will be fired, the dimensions and materials of both the cannon and the projectile, and which kind of powder they are to use.
An old enemy of Barbicane, a Captain Nicholl of Philadelphia, designer of plate armor, declares that the entire enterprise is absurd and makes a series of bets with Barbicane, each of them of increasing amount, over the impossibility of such feat.
The first obstacle, enough money to construct the giant cannon (and against which Nicholl has bet $1,000), is raised from a number of countries in America and Europe. Notably, the U.S. donates four million dollars, whilst England, at first, does not give anything. In the end, nearly five and a half million dollars are raised, which ensures the financial feasibility of the project.
Stone's Hill in "Tampa Town", Florida is chosen as the site for the cannon's construction. The Gun Club travels there and begins construction of the Columbiad cannon, which requires the excavation of a and circular hole, which is completed in the nick of time, but a surprise awaits Barbicane: Michel Ardan, a French adventurer, plans to travel to the moon aboard the projectile.
During a meeting between Ardan, the Gun Club, and the inhabitants of Florida, Nicholl appears and challenges Barbicane to a duel. The duel is stopped when Ardan—having been warned by J. T. Maston, secretary of the Gun Club—meets the rivals in the forest where they have agreed to duel. Meanwhile, Barbicane finds the solution to the problem of surviving the incredible acceleration that the explosion would cause. Ardan suggests that Barbicane and Nicholl travel with him in the projectile, and his proposition is accepted.
In the end, the projectile is successfully launched, but the destinies of the three astronauts are left inconclusive. The sequel, Around the Moon, deals with what happens to the three men during their voyage from the Earth to the Moon.
Influence on popular culture
The novel was adapted as the opera Le voyage dans la lune in 1875, with music by Jacques Offenbach.
In 1880 The Pall Mall Gazette described Verne’s Columbiad as a ‘space-ship’ - the first recorded use of this term in history.
In H. G. Wells' 1901 novel The First Men in the Moon (also relating to the first voyagers to the Moon) the protagonist, Mr. Bedford, mentions Verne's novel to his companion, Professor Cavor, who replies (in a possible dig at Verne) that he does not know what Bedford is referring to. Verne returned the dig later when he pointed out that he used gun cotton to send his men to the Moon, an actual substance. "Can Mr. Wells show me some 'cavourite'?", he asked archly.
The novel (along with Wells' The First Men in the Moon) inspired the first science fiction film, A Trip to the Moon, made in 1902 by Georges Méliès. In 1958, another film adaptation of this story was released, titled From the Earth to the Moon. It was one of the last films made under the RKO Pictures banner. The story also became the basis for the very loose adaptation Jules Verne's Rocket to the Moon (1967), a caper-style British comedy starring Burl Ives and Terry-Thomas. The 1961 Czechoslovak film The Fabulous Baron Munchausen combines characters and plot elements from the Verne novel with those of the stories of Baron Munchausen and Cyrano de Bergerac.
In 1889 Verne wrote a second sequel to the novel, The Purchase of the North Pole, which has the Gun Club members (led by J. T. Maston) plan to use the Columbiad to alter the tilt of the Earth to enable the mineral wealth of the Arctic region to be put within reach of exploitation.
In March 1953, the Gilberton Company published a comic-book adaptation of From the Earth to the Moon as issue No. 105 in its Classics Illustrated series. An unidentified scriptwriter combined Verne's From the Earth to the Moon with the sequel, Around the Moon. Gilberton art director Alex A. Blum supplied both the cover painting and the 44 pages of interior art. The title went through twelve printings between 1953 and 1971.
During their return journey from the Moon, the crew of Apollo 11 made reference to Jules Verne's book during a TV broadcast on 23 July. The mission's commander, astronaut Neil Armstrong, said, "A hundred years ago, Jules Verne wrote a book about a voyage to the Moon. His spaceship, Columbia , took off from Florida and landed in the Pacific Ocean after completing a trip to the Moon. It seems appropriate to us to share with you some of the reflections of the crew as the modern-day Columbia completes its rendezvous with the planet Earth and the same Pacific Ocean tomorrow."
In Back to the Future Part III, Clara Clayton in 1885 asks Emmett Brown if he believes mankind will ever "travel to the Moon the way we travel across the country on trains." Being from the future, Brown already knows that doesn't happen for another 84 years, but he affirms they will while inadvertently quoting a passage of From the Earth to the Moon. Clara calls him out on this, and it's from this encounter that the pair discovers their mutual love of Jules Verne novels.
The novel and its sequel were the inspiration for the 2005 point-and-click adventure computer game Voyage: Inspired by Jules Verne.
In the 2010 The Quantum Thief trilogy, the protagonist enters an uneasy alliance with the "Gun Club zoku", who specialize in military weaponry, and in The Causal Angel (2014) after escaping Earth using a nuclear powered space gun, sells the "Verne gun bullet" to them as a unique collectible item; author Hannu Rajaniemi is a fan of Verne.
The Japanese anime adaption of the Space Brothers (2012-2014) opening for episodes 39-51 ("Small World" by Fujifabric) was a parody of the story, even ending with the cover of an early English translation.
The Japanese otome visual novel, Code: Realize- Guardian of Rebirth (2014), features a datable engineer named Impey Barbicane. Impey's goal is to build the technology to reach the moon, reflecting the story of the novel.
In season two of The Umbrella Academy (TV series), the character Ray gives Allison a copy of the book as an anniversary gift. Later she leaves a note for him in the same copy of the book.
Disneyland Paris
The first incarnation of the roller coaster Space Mountain in Disneyland Paris, named Space Mountain: De la Terre à la Lune, was based loosely on this novel. The attraction opened in 1995. The attraction's exterior was designed using a Verne era retro-futuristic influence. Elements of the ambiance include rivet and boiler plate effect and the "Columbiad," which recoils with a bang and produces smoke as each car passes, giving riders the perception of being shot into space. During 2005, the ride was refurbished and renamed Space Mountain: Mission 2 as part of the Happiest Celebration on Earth. The ride no longer features elements of the original storyline from the novel.
In 1995 the BBC made a documentary about the creation of Space Mountain, called Shoot For The Moon. The 44-minute program followed Tim Delaney and his team in bringing the book From the Earth to the Moon by Jules Verne to life. The program shows the development of the attraction, from conception to construction to testing the final attraction. The documentary, originally broadcast on BBC Two in the United Kingdom, was also aired on other channels in many countries.
Project Epicus version
In 2013, a new film version of the story was announced, under the banner of Project Epicus—a film project—with the full blessing of Jules Verne's great-grandson Jean Verne that began production in 2017.
See also
Around the Moon (1870 sequel)
The First Men in the Moon, 1901 novel by H.G. Wells
Apollo 8
Apollo 11
Verneshot
Moon in science fiction
Amédée Guillemin
Apollo command and service module, the US lunar spacecraft whose dimensions were "predicted" by Verne's novel
Project HARP
Project A119
References
External links
—This is the original translation of Mercier and King published by Sampson Low et al. in 1873 and deletes about 20% of the original French text, along with numerous other errors.
—Gut. text #83 in HTML format with original illustrations.
—This the version of both parts of Earth to the Moon and Round the Moon as published by Ward Lock in London in 1877. The translation is more complete than the Mercier version, but still has flaws, referring to the space capsule as a "bullet".
, an analysis and comparison to Apollo.
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1865 French novels
1865 science fiction novels
Fictional rivalries
French novels adapted into films
French science fiction novels
French novels adapted into television shows
Novels by Jules Verne
Novels set in Florida
Novels set on the Moon
Space exploration novels
Science fiction novels adapted into films | [
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245138 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loess | Loess | Loess (, ; from ) is a clastic, predominantly silt-sized sediment that is formed by the accumulation of wind-blown dust. Ten percent of Earth's land area is covered by loess or similar deposits.
Loess is a periglacial or aeolian (windborne) sediment, defined as an accumulation of 20% or less of clay and a balance of roughly equal parts sand and silt (with a typical grain size from 20 to 50 micrometers), often loosely cemented by calcium carbonate. It is usually homogeneous and highly porous and is traversed by vertical capillaries that permit the sediment to fracture and form vertical bluffs.
Properties
Loess is homogeneous, porous, friable, pale yellow or buff, slightly coherent, typically non-stratified and often calcareous. Loess grains are angular, with little polishing or rounding, and composed of crystals of quartz, feldspar, mica and other minerals. Loess can be described as a rich, dust-like soil.
Loess deposits may become very thick, more than a hundred meters in areas of Northwestern China and tens of meters in parts of the Midwestern United States. Loess generally occurs as a blanket deposit that covers areas of hundreds of square kilometers. The deposits are often tens of meters thick. Loess often stands in either steep or vertical faces. Because the grains are angular, loess will often stand in banks for many years without slumping. This soil has a characteristic called vertical cleavage which makes it easily excavated to form cave dwellings, a popular method of making human habitations in some parts of China. Loess will erode very readily.
In several areas of the world, loess ridges have formed that are aligned with the prevailing winds during the last glacial maximum. These are called "paha ridges" in America and "greda ridges" in Europe. The form of these loess dunes has been explained by a combination of wind and tundra conditions.
Etymology
The word loess, with connotations of origin by wind-deposited accumulation, came into English from German Löss, which can be traced back to Swiss German and is cognate with the English word loose and the German word los. It was first applied to Rhine River valley loess about 1821.
History of research
The term "Löß" was first described in Central Europe by Karl Cäsar von Leonhard (1823–1824) who reported yellowish brown, silty deposits along the Rhine valley near Heidelberg. Charles Lyell (1834) brought this term into widespread usage by observing similarities between loess and loess derivatives along the loess bluffs in the Rhine and Mississippi. At that time it was thought that the yellowish brown silt-rich sediment was of fluvial origin being deposited by the large rivers. It was not until the end of the 19th century that the aeolian origin of loess was recognized (Virlet D'Aoust 1857), especially the convincing observations of loess in China by Ferdinand von Richthofen (1878). A tremendous number of papers have been published since then, focusing on the formation of loess and on loess/paleosol (older soil buried under deposits) sequences as archives of climate and environment change. These water conservation works were carried out extensively in China and the research of loess in China has been continued since 1954. (Liu TS, Loess and the environment)
Much effort was put into the setting up of regional and local loess stratigraphies and their correlation (Kukla 1970, 1975, 1977). But even the chronostratigraphical position of the last interglacial soil correlating to marine isotope substage 5e has been a matter of debate, owing to the lack of robust and reliable numerical dating, as summarized for example in Zöller et al. (1994) and Frechen, Horváth & Gábris (1997) for the Austrian and Hungarian loess stratigraphy, respectively.
Since the 1980s, thermoluminescence (TL), optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and infrared stimulated luminescence (IRSL) dating are available providing the possibility for dating the time of loess (dust) deposition, i.e. the time elapsed since the last exposure of the mineral grains to daylight. During the past decade, luminescence dating has significantly improved by new methodological improvements, especially the development of single aliquot regenerative (SAR) protocols (Murray & Wintle 2000) resulting in reliable ages (or age estimates) with an accuracy of up to 5 and 10% for the last glacial record. More recently, luminescence dating has also become a robust dating technique for penultimate and antepenultimate glacial loess (e.g. Thiel et al. 2011, Schmidt et al. 2011) allowing for a reliable correlation of loess/palaeosol sequences for at least the last two interglacial/glacial cycles throughout Europe and the Northern Hemisphere (Frechen 2011). Furthermore, the numerical dating provides the basis for quantitative loess research applying more sophisticated methods to determine and understand high-resolution proxy data, such as the palaeodust content of the atmosphere, variations of the atmospheric circulation patterns and wind systems, palaeoprecipitation and palaeotemperature.
Besides luminescence dating methods, the use of radiocarbon dating in loess has increased during the past decades. Advances in methods of analyses, instrumentation and refinements to the radiocarbon calibration curve have enabled to obtain reliable ages from loess deposits for the last 40-45 ka. However, the use of this method relies on finding suitable in situ organic material in deposits such as charcoal, seeds, earthworm granules or snail shells.
Formation
According to Pye (1995), four fundamental requirements are necessary for the formation of loess: a dust source, adequate wind energy to transport the dust, a suitable accumulation area, and a sufficient amount of time.
Periglacial loess
Periglacial (glacial) loess is derived from the floodplains of glacial braided rivers that carried large volumes of glacial meltwater and sediments from the annual melting of continental icesheets and mountain icecaps during the spring and summer. During the autumn and winter, when melting of the icesheets and icecaps ceased, the flow of meltwater down these rivers either ceased or was greatly reduced. As a consequence, large parts of the formerly submerged and unvegetated floodplains of these braided rivers dried out and were exposed to the wind. Because these floodplains consist of sediment containing a high content of glacially ground flour-like silt and clay, they were highly susceptible to winnowing of their silts and clays by the wind. Once entrained by the wind, particles were then deposited downwind. The loess deposits found along both sides of the Mississippi River Alluvial Valley are a classic example of periglacial loess.
During the Quaternary, loess and loess-like sediments were formed in periglacial environments on mid-continental shield areas in Europe and Siberia, on the margins of high mountain ranges like in Tajikistan and on semi-arid margins of some lowland deserts like in China.
In England, periglacial loess is also known as brickearth.
Non-glacial
Non-glacial loess can originate from deserts, dune fields, playa lakes, and volcanic ash.
Some types of nonglacial loess are:
Desert loess produced by aeolian attrition of quartz grains;
Volcanic loess in Ecuador and Argentina;
Tropical loess in Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay;
Gypsum loess in Spain;
Trade wind loess in Venezuela and Brazil;
Anticyclonic loess in Argentina.
The thick Chinese loess deposits are non-glacial loess having been blown in from deserts in northern China. The loess covering the Great Plains of Nebraska, Kansas, and Colorado is considered to be non-glacial desert loess. Non-glacial desert loess is also found in Australia and Africa.
Fertility
Loess tends to develop into very rich soils. Under appropriate climatic conditions, it is some of the most agriculturally productive terrain in the world.
Soils underlain by loess tend to be excessively drained. The fine grains weather rapidly due to their large surface area, making soils derived from loess rich. One theory states that the fertility of loess soils is due largely to cation exchange capacity (the ability of plants to absorb nutrients from the soil) and porosity (the air-filled space in the soil). The fertility of loess is not due to organic matter content, which tends to be rather low, unlike tropical soils which derive their fertility almost wholly from organic matter.
Even well managed loess farmland can experience dramatic erosion of well over 2.5 kg /m2 per year. In China the loess deposits which give the Yellow River its color have been farmed and have produced phenomenal yields for over one thousand years. Winds pick up loess particles, contributing to the Asian Dust pollution problem. The largest deposit of loess in the United States, the Loess Hills along the border of Iowa and Nebraska, has survived intensive farming and poor farming practices. For almost 150 years, this loess deposit was farmed with mouldboard ploughs and fall tilled, both intensely erosive. At times it suffered erosion rates of over 10 kilograms per square meter per year. Today this loess deposit is worked as low till or no till in all areas and is aggressively terraced.
Large areas of loess deposits and soils
Central Asia
From southern Tajikistan up to Almaty, Kazakhstan, spans an area of multiple loess deposits.
East Asia
China
The Loess Plateau (), also known as the Huangtu Plateau, is a plateau that covers an area of some 640,000 km2 around the upper and middle reaches of China's Yellow River. The Yellow River was so named because the loess forming its banks gave a yellowish tint to the water. The soil of this region has been called the "most highly erodible soil on earth". The Loess Plateau and its dusty soil cover almost all of Shanxi, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces, the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and parts of others.
Europe
Loess deposits of varying thickness (decimeter to several tens of meters) are widely distributed over the European continent. The northern European loess belt stretches from southern England and northern France to Germany, Poland and the southern Ukraine and deposits are characterized by strong influences of periglacial conditions. South-eastern European loess is mainly deposited in plateau-like situations in the Danube basins, likely derived from the Danube River system. In south-western Europe, relocated loess derivatives are mostly restricted to the Ebro Valley and central Spain.
North America
United States
The Loess Hills of Iowa owe their fertility to the prairie topsoils built by 10,000 years of post-glacial accumulation of organic-rich humus as a consequence of a persistent grassland biome. When the valuable A-horizon topsoil is eroded or degraded, the underlying loess soil is infertile, and requires the addition of fertilizer in order to support agriculture.
The loess along the Mississippi River near Vicksburg, Mississippi, consist of three layers. The Peoria Loess, Sicily Island Loess, and Crowley's Ridge Loess accumulated at different periods of time during the Pleistocene. Ancient soils, called paleosols, have developed in the top of the Sicily Island Loess and Crowley's Ridge Loess. The lowermost loess, the Crowley's Ridge Loess, accumulated during the late Illinoian Stage. The middle loess, Sicily Island Loess, accumulated during early Wisconsin Stage. The uppermost loess, the Peoria Loess, in which the modern soil has developed, accumulated during the late Wisconsin Stage. Animal remains include terrestrial gastropods and mastodons.
Oceania
New Zealand
Extensive areas of loess occur in New Zealand including the Canterbury Plains and on the Banks Peninsula. The basis of loess stratigraphy was introduced by John Hardcastle in 1890.
South America
Argentina
Much of Argentina is covered by loess. Two areas of loess are usually distinguished in Argentina: the neotropical loess north of latitude 30° S and the pampean loess.
The neotropical loess is made of silt or silty clay. Relative to the pampean loess the neotropical loess is poor in quartz and calcium carbonate. The source region for this loess is thought by some scientists to be areas of fluvio-glacial deposits the Andean foothills formed by the Patagonian Ice Sheet. Other researchers stress the importance of volcanic material in the neotropical loess.
The pampean loess is sandy or made of silty sand.
See also
– North German loess regions
– South German loess regions
References
Attribution
This article incorporates CC-BY-3.0 text from the reference "Loess in Europe: Guest Editorial".
Further reading
Smalley, I. J. (editor) 1975. Loess Lithology & Genesis. Benchmark Geology 26. Dowden, Hutchinson & Ross 454pp.
Smalley, I. J. 1980. Loess: A Partial Bibliography. Geobooks/Elsevier. . 103pp.
Rozycki, S. Z. 1991. Loess and Loess-like Deposits. Ossolineum Wroclaw . 187pp.
External links
2006, The Secret of China’s Vast Loess Plateau Suburban Emergency Management Project, Chicago, Illinois.
2007, New European Loess Map. Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, Leipzig, Germany.
Glacial Deposits: Loess and Till. Illinois State Museum, Springfield, Illinois.
Briedis. C.A., 2006, Loess Thickness Map (of Illinois). Illinois State Geological Survey, Champaign, Illinois.
The Bibliography of Aeolian Research
Heinrich, P.V., 2008, Loess map of Louisiana., Public Information Series. no. 12, Louisiana Geological Survey, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Prior, J.C., and D.J. Quade, nd, The Loess Hills: A Geologic View. Iowa Geological Survey, Department of Natural Resources, Iowa City, Iowa.
U.S. Geological Survey, 1999, Geology of the Loess Hills, Iowa
U.S. Geological Survey, 2006, Eolian History of North America Why is loess important to study?
The Loess Hills of Western Iowa
The Loess Hills of Roztocze in Poland
Pedology
Glaciology
Sedimentary rocks
Sediments
Types of soil
Aeolian landforms | [
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245146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bowfin | Bowfin | The bowfin (Amia calva) is a bony fish, native to North America. Common names include mudfish, mud pike, dogfish, grindle, grinnel, swamp trout, and choupique. It is regarded a relict, being the sole surviving species of the Halecomorphi, a group of fish that first appeared during the Early Triassic, around 250 million years ago. The bowfin is often considered a "primitive fish" because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors. The closest living relatives of bowfins are gars, with the two groups being united in the clade Holostei.
Bowfins are demersal freshwater piscivores, commonly found throughout much of the eastern United States, and in southern Ontario and Quebec. Fossil deposits indicate Amiiformes were once widespread in both freshwater and marine environments across North and South America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Now, their range is limited to much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada, including the drainage basins of the Mississippi River, Great Lakes, and various rivers exiting in the Eastern Seaboard or Gulf of Mexico. Their preferred habitat includes vegetated sloughs, lowland rivers and lakes, swamps, and backwater areas; they are also occasionally found in brackish water. They are stalking, ambush predators known to move into the shallows at night to prey on fish and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish, mollusks, and aquatic insects.
Like gars, bowfin are bimodal breathers – they have the capacity to breathe both water and air. Their gills exchange gases in the water allowing them to breathe, but they also have a gas bladder that serves to maintain buoyancy, and also allows them to breathe air by means of a small pneumatic duct connected from the foregut to the gas bladder. They can break the surface to gulp air, which allows them to survive conditions of aquatic hypoxia that would be lethal to most other species.
Morphology
The typical length of a bowfin is ; females typically grow to , males to . They can reach in length, and weigh . Young of the year typically grow to by October. Females tend to grow larger than males.
The body of the bowfin is elongated and cylindrical, with the sides and back olive to brown in color, often with vertical bars, and dark reticulations, or camouflaged pattern. The dorsal fin has horizontal bars, and the caudal fin has irregular vertical bars. The underside is white or cream, and the paired fins and anal fin are bright green. During larval stage, hatchlings from about total length are black and tadpole-like in appearance. At approximately total length they have been described as looking like miniature placoderms. They grow quickly, and typically leave the nest within 4 to 6 weeks after hatching. Young males have a black eyespot on the base of the tail (caudal peduncle) that is commonly encircled by an orange-yellowish border while the female's is black, if present at all. It is thought the purpose of the eyespot is to confuse predators, deflecting attacks away from the head of the fish to its tail, which affords the bowfin an opportunity to escape predation. The bowfin is so named for its long, undulating dorsal fin consisting of 145 to 250 rays, and running from the middle of the back to the base of the tail.
The skull of the bowfin is made of two layers of skull, the dermatocranium and the chondrocranium. The chondrocranium layer cannot be seen because it is located below the dermal bones. The bowfin skull is made up of 28 fused bones, which compose the dermatocranium. The roof of the mouth is made up of three bones, the ectopterygoid, the palantine, and the vomer. The teeth are on two bones, the premaxillae and the maxillae. Another three bones make up the lower jaw the dentary, the angular, and the surangular. The cranial surface of the skull is made up of the nasals, the antorbital, the lacrimal, the parietal, the intertemporal, the post parietal, the supratemporal, the extra scapular, the post temporal, and the opercular. The entirety of the skull is attached to the girdle through another set of bones.
Bowfin are often referred to as "living fossils", or "primitive fish" because they retained some of the primitive characters common to their ancestors, including a modified (rounded externally) heterocercal caudal fin, a highly vascularized gas bladder lung, vestiges of a spiral valve, and a bony gular plate. The bony gular plate is located underneath the head on the exterior of the lower jaw between the two sides of the lower jaw bone. Other distinguishing characteristics include long, sharp teeth, and two protruding tube-like nostrils. Unlike all of the most primitive actinopterygians, the scales of bowfin differ in that they are not ganoid scales, rather they are large, single-layered cycloid scales closer in similarity to more derived teleosts.
Fish similar in appearance
Northern snakeheads (Channa argus) are commonly mistaken for bowfin because of similarities in appearance, most noticeably their elongated, cylindrical shape, and long dorsal fin that runs along their backs. Northern snakeheads are piscivorous fish native to the rivers and estuaries of China, Russia, and Korea. However, unlike bowfin which are native to North America, the northern snakehead is considered an invasive species and environmentally harmful. Some contrasting differences in bowfin include a black eyespot on their caudal peduncle, a tan and olive coloration, a shorter anal fin, a more rounded head, and an upper jaw that is longer than its lower jaw. Another noticeable difference is that bowfin scales do not continue uniformly from their body to their head. Bowfin heads are smooth and free of scales, whereas the northern snakehead has scales that uniformly continue from their body through to their head.
The burbot, a predatory fish native to streams and lakes of North America and Eurasia, is also commonly mistaken for bowfin. Burbots can be distinguished by their flat head and chin barbel, long anal fin, and pelvic fins situated beneath the pectoral fins.
Bowfin body-shape evolution and development
The first fish lacked jaws and used negative pressure to suck their food in through their mouths. The jaw in the bowfin is a result of their evolutionary need to be able to catch and eat bigger and more nutritious prey. As a result of being able to gather more nutrients, Bowfin are able to live a more active lifestyle. The jaw of a bowfin has several contributions. The maxilla and premaxilla are fused and the posterior chondrocranium articulates with the vertebra which allows the jaw freedom to rotate. The suspensorium includes several bones and articulates with the snout, brain case, and the mandible. When the jaw opens epaxial muscles lift the chondrocranium which is attached to the upper jaw, and adductor muscles close the lower jaw. This ability to open and close the jaw allows the bowfin to become more of a predator, in that it can catch bigger prey and be able to mechanical catch, and digest it.
The vertebral column in bowfin is ossified and in comparison to earlier fish, the centra are the major support for the body, whereas in earlier fish the notochord was the main form of support. Neural spines and ribs provide additional support and help stabilize unpaired fins. In bowfin neural spines and ribs also increase in prominence, an evolutionary aspect that helps them stabilize unpaired fins. The evolution of the vertebral column allows the bowfin to withstand lateral bending that puts the column under compression without breaking. This, in turn, allows the bowfin to have more controlled and powerful movements, in comparison to fish that had only a notochord. The bowfin has a rounded heterocercal tail that resembles a homocercal tail. This type of tail gives the body a streamlined shape which allows the bowfin to improve its swimming ability by reducing drag. These types of tails are common in fish with gas bladders, because the bladder supplies the fish with natural buoyancy.
The bowfin is an actinopterygii which means that the pectoral girdle is partly endochondral but mostly dermal bone. In this group of fish the fins function to maneuver, brake, and for slight positional adjustments. The pectoral girdle of the bowfin has six parts. The post temporal, supracleithrum, postcleithrum, cleithrum, scapulacoracoid, and the clavicle make up the pectoral girdle. The pectoral girdle is attached to the skull. The pectoral girdle is made of mostly dermal and some endochondral bone. The paired pectoral and pelvic fins of fish are homologous with the limbs of tetrapods.
Physiology
Bowfin, like other physostomes such as bichirs (Polypteridae), gars (Lepisosteidae), and the lungfish (Dipnoi), are capable of bimodal respiration. They can extract oxygen from the water when breathing through their gills, and can also break the water's surface to breathe or gulp air through a small pneumatic duct connected from their foregut to the gas bladder. When performing low-level physical activity, bowfin obtain more than half of their oxygen from breathing air. Bowfin have two distinct air-breathing mechanisms used to ventilate the gas bladder. Air breathing type I is consistent with the action of exhale / inhale exchange, stimulated by either air or water hypoxia, to regulate gas exchange; type II air breaths are inhalation alone, which is believed to regulate gas bladder volume, to control buoyancy. Bimodal respiration helps bowfin survive and maintain their metabolic rate in hypoxic conditions. The rate of air breathing is higher in darkness, when the fish is more active.
Bowfin blood can adapt to warm, acidic waters. The fish becomes inactive in waters below ; at this temperature they breathe almost no air; however, with increasing temperature their air breathing increases. Their preferred temperature range is between , with the temperature of maximum activity. Air breathing is at a maximum in the range . Bowfin do not use central chemoreceptor regulation for respiration control. Experiments manipulating the oxygen content, carbon dioxide content, and pH of bowfin extradural fluid did not affect breathing rate, heart rate, or blood pressure pointing to a lack of central chemoreceptor regulation. Instead, bowfin respiratory patterns respond to water oxygen content and water temperature, as water temperatures play a role in oxygen content. In the lab, bowfin showed an increase in the breathing rate when the temperatures were raised above 10°C. Bowfin also showed an increase in breathing rate when exposed to lower oxygen levels in the water.
Herpetologist W.T. Neill reported in 1950 that he unearthed a bowfin aestivating in a chamber below the ground surface, in diameter, from a river. It was further noted that flood levels had previously reached the area, and receded. It is not unusual for riverine species like bowfin to move into backwaters with flood currents, and become trapped when water levels recede. While aestivation is anecdotally documented by multiple researchers, laboratory experiments have suggested instead that bowfin are physiologically incapable of surviving more than three to five days of air exposure. However, no field manipulation has been performed. Regardless of the lack of evidence confirming the bowfin's ability to aestivate, it has been noted that bowfin can survive prolonged conditions of exposure to air because they have the ability to breathe air. Their gill filaments and lamellae are rigid in structure which helps prevent the lamellae from collapsing and aids gas exchange even during air exposure.
Evolution and phylogeny
Competing hypotheses and debates continue over the evolution of Amia and relatives, including their relationship among basal extant teleosts, and organization of clades. Bowfin are the last remaining member of Halecomorphi, a group that includes many extinct species in several families. Halecomorphs were generally accepted as the sister group to Teleostei but not without question. While a halecostome pattern of neopterygian clades was produced in morphology-based analyses of extant actinopterygians, a different result was produced with fossil taxa which showed a monophyletic Holostei. Monophyletic Holostei were also recovered by at least two nuclear gene analyses, in an independent study of fossil and extant fish, and in an analysis of ultraconserved genomic elements.
The extant ray-finned fish of the subclass Actinopterygii include 42 orders, 431 families and over 23,000 species. They are currently classified into two infraclasses, Chondrostei (holosteans) and Neopterygii (teleost fishes). Sturgeons, paddlefish, bichirs and reed fish compose the thirty-eight species of chondrosteans, and are considered relict species. Included in the over 23,000 species of neopterygians are eight relict species comprising gars and the bowfin.
Infraclass Neopterygii
Neopterygians are the second major occurrence in the evolution of ray-finned fish and today include the majority of modern bony fish. They are distinguished from their earlier ancestors by major changes to the jaws, shape of the skull, and tail. They are divided into three divisions:
Division 1. Order Lepisosteiformes – the relict gars which include extant species of gars that first appeared in the Cretaceous.
Division 2. Order Amiiformes – the relict bowfin, (halecomorphids), the only extant species in the order Amiiformes which date back to the Triassic period.
Division 3. Division Teleostei – the stem group of Teleostei from which modern fish arose, including most of the bony fish we are familiar with today.
Species
The following is a species list
Genome evolution
The bowfin genome contains an intact ParaHox gene cluster, similar to the bichir and to most other vertebrates. This is in contrast, however, with teleost fish, which have a fragmented ParaHox cluster, probably because of a whole genome duplication event in their lineage. The presence of an intact ParaHox gene cluster suggests that bowfin ancestors separated from other fish before the last common ancestor of all teleosts appeared. Bowfin are thus possibly a better model to study vertebrate genome organization than common teleost model organisms such as zebrafish.
Feeding behavior
Bowfin are stalking, ambush predators that customarily move into the shallows at night to prey on fish, and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish, mollusks, and aquatic insects. Young bowfin feed mostly on small crustaceans, while adults are mostly piscivorous, but also known to be opportunistic. Bowfin are remarkably agile, can move quickly through the water, and they have a voracious appetite. Their undulating dorsal fin propels them silently through the water while stalking their prey. The attack is straightforward and swift with a movement that lasts approximately 0.075 seconds. There were also some studies regarding the capacity of the bowfin to survive without food. In 1916, A female bowfin was starved for twenty months. It was the longest period that any vertebrate had been without food, as far the writer was aware during the observation. Some independent studies focus on the bowfin's ability to use organic material as a source of food and studied the structure of the gill raker. They concluded that it did not benefit from the organic material in the water because the gill rakers were short with blunt processes and a short space between them. Even bacteria could enter and exit through the gill easily. Its structure alone indicated that the Amia don't use microorganisms as a source of food.
Distribution and habitat
Fossil deposits indicate amiiforms included freshwater and marine species that were once widely distributed in North America, South America, Eurasia and Africa. Today, bowfin (Amia calva) are the only remaining species in the order Amiiformes; they are demersal freshwater piscivores, and their range is restricted to freshwater environments in North America, including much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada from the St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain drainage of southern Ontario and Quebec westward around the Great Lakes in southern Ontario into Minnesota. Historically, their distribution in North America included the drainage basins of the Mississippi River from Quebec to northern Minnesota, the St. Lawrence-Great Lakes, including Georgian Bay, Lake Nipissing and Simcoe, Ontario, south to the Gulf of Mexico; Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain from the Susquehanna River drainage in southeastern Pennsylvania to the Colorado River in Texas.
Stocking
Research from the late 1800s to the 1980s suggests a trend of intentional stockings of non-indigenous fish into ponds, lakes and rivers in the United States. At that time, little was known about environmental impacts, or long-term effects of new species establishment and spread as a result of "fish rescue and transfer" efforts, or the importance of nongame fish to the ecological balance of aquatic ecosystems. Introductions of bowfin to areas they were considered a non-indigenous species included various lakes, rivers and drainages in Connecticut, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. Many of the introductions were intentional stockings by various resource management; however, there is no way to positively determine distribution resulting from flood transfers, or other inadvertent migrations. Bowfin are typically piscivorous, but as an introduced species are capable of being voracious predators that pose a threat to native fish and their prey.
Preferred habitat
Bowfin prefer vegetated sloughs, lowland rivers and lakes, swamps, backwater areas, and are occasionally found in brackish water. They are well camouflaged, and not easy to spot in slow water with abundant vegetation. They often seek shelter under roots, and submerged logs. Oxygen-poor environments can be tolerated because of their ability to breathe air.
Life cycle
Bowfin spawn in the spring or early summer, typically between April and June, more commonly at night in abundantly vegetated, clear shallow water in weed beds over sand bars, and also under stumps, logs, and bushes.
Optimum temperatures for nesting and spawning range between . The males construct circular nests in fibrous root mats, clearing away leaves and stems. Depending on the density of surrounding vegetation there may be a tunnel-like entrance at one side. The diameter of the nests commonly range between , at a water depth of .
During spawning season, the fins and underside of male bowfin often change in color to a bright lime green. The courtship/spawning sequence lasts one to three hours, and can repeat up to five times. Courtship begins when a female approaches the nest. The ritual consists of intermittent nose bites, nudges, and chasing behavior by the male until the female becomes receptive, at which time the pair lie side by side in the nest. She deposits her eggs while he shakes his fins in a vibratory movement, and releases his milt for fertilization to occur. A male often has eggs from more than one female in his nest, and a single female often spawns in several nests.
Females vacate the nest after spawning, leaving the male behind to protect the eggs during the eight to ten days of incubation. A nest may contain 2,000 to 5,000 eggs, possibly more. Fecundity is usually related to size of the fish, so it isn't unusual for the roe of a large gravid female to contain over 55,000 eggs. Bowfin eggs are adhesive, and will attach to aquatic vegetation, roots, gravel, and sand. After hatching, larval bowfin do not swim actively in search of food. During the seven to nine days required for yolk-sac absorption, they attach to vegetation by means of an adhesive organ on their snout, and remain protected by the parent male bowfin. Bowfin aggressively protect their spawn from the first day of incubation to a month or so after the eggs have hatched. When the fry are able to swim and forage on their own, they will form a school and leave the nest accompanied by the parent male bowfin who slowly circles them to prevent separation.
Bowfin reach sexually maturity at two to three years of age. They can live ten to twelve years in the wild, and 30 years in captivity. Females are longer-lived than males.
Diseases
A common parasite of bowfin is the anchor worm (Lernaea). These small crustaceans infest the skin and bases of fins, with consequences ranging from slowed growth to death. The mollusk Megalonaias gigantea lays eggs in the bowfin gills, that are then externally fertilized by sperm passing in the water flow. The small glochidia larvae then hatch and develop in the gill tubes.
Bowfin with liver cancer and with fatal leukemia have been reported.
Utilization
As a sport fish, bowfin are not considered desirable to many anglers. They were once considered a nuisance fish by anglers and early biologists who believed the bowfin's predatory nature was harmful to sport fish populations. As a result, efforts were taken to reduce their numbers. Research has since proven otherwise, and that knowledge together with a better understanding of maintaining overall balance of ecosystems, regulations were introduced to help protect and maintain viable populations of bowfin. Bowfin are strong fighters, a prized trait in game fish. However, they do have a jaw full of sharp teeth which requires careful handling. The current tackle record is
Bowfin were once considered to have little commercial value because of its poor-tasting meat which has been referred to as "soft, bland-tasting and of poor texture". However, it is considered quite palatable if cleaned properly and smoked, or prepared fried, blackened, used in courtbouillion, or in fishballs or fishcakes. Over the years, global efforts have imposed strict regulations on the international trade of caviar, particularly on the harvest of sturgeons from the Caspian Sea where the highly prized caviar from the beluga sturgeon originates. The bans imposed on Caspian sturgeons have created lucrative markets for affordable substitutes in the United States including paddlefish, bowfin, and various species of sturgeon. In Louisiana, bowfin are harvested in the wild, and cultured commercially in hatcheries for their meat and roe. The roe is processed into caviar, and sold as "Cajun caviar", or marketed under the trade name "Choupiquet Royale".
Accumulation of toxic substances
In some areas of the United States where aquatic environments have tested positive for elevated levels of toxins, such as mercury, arsenic, chromium, and copper, there are posted signs with warnings about the consumption of fish caught in those areas. Concentration of mercury biomagnifies as it passes up the food chain from organisms on lower trophic levels to apex predators. It bioaccumulates in the tissues of larger, long-lived predatory fish. When compared to smaller, short-lived fish, bowfin tend to concentrate mercury at higher levels thereby making them less safe for human consumption.
See also
Snakehead (fish)
References
Further reading
External links
MN DNR
Bowfin Anglers' Group
FishBase info for Amiidae
Bowfin info by Brent Courchene
Amiiformes
Fish of North America
North America
Fish of the Great Lakes
Freshwater fish of the Southeastern United States
Articles containing video clips
Fish described in 1766 | [
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] |
245147 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiiformes | Amiiformes | The Amiiformes order of fish has only one extant species, the bowfin (Amia calva). These Amiiformes are found in the freshwater systems of North America, in the United States and parts of southern Canada. They live in freshwater streams, rivers, and swamps.
Bowfins are not on the endangered list. They have the ability to go to the surface to breathe air if the water level is too low. Characteristics of Amiiformes are a cylindrical body with a long dorsal fin, single gular plate, heterocercal caudal fin, 10 to 13 flattened branchiostegal rays, maxilla included in gape, and prominent ocellus near upper base of caudal fin.
Evolution and diversity
The extinct species of the Amiiformes can be found as fossils in Asia and Europe, but the bowfin is the last living species in the order. Amiiformes is therefore the last surviving order of Halecomorphi, the clade to which the bowfin and its fossil relatives belong. Other orders, such as the Parasemionotiformes, are all extinct.
Halecomorphs, and its sister group Ginglymodi, belong to Holostei. Holosteans are the sister group of teleosteans, the group to which nearly all (i.e., 96%) living fishes belong to. Holosteans and Teleosts form a clade called Neopterygii. The following cladogram summarizes the evolutionary relationships of living and fossil Halecomorphs, and other neopterygians.
Amiiformes likely originated in the western Tethys Ocean, in what is now Europe. The oldest member of the Amiiformes is Caturus heterurus from the lower Lias (Sinemurian) of England. Amiiformes had spread to North America and Africa by the end of the Middle Jurassic, reaching an apex of diversity during the Early Cretaceous, during the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic, the group declined until only a single species, the bowfin remained.
Taxonomy
Order Amiiformes Hay 1929
Genus †Guizhouamia Liu, Yin & Wang 2002
Genus †Stromerichthys Weiler 1935
Superfamily †Caturoidea
Family †Liodesmidae Jordan 1905
Genus †Paraliodesmus Dunkle 1969
Genus †Liodesmus Wagner 1859 [Lophiurus Vetter 1881]
Family †Caturidae Owen 1860 corrig.
Genus ?†Allolepidotus (Deecke 1889) [Heterolepidotus (Allolepidotus) Deecke 1889; Plesiolepidotus Schlosser 1923]
Genus ?†Catutoichthys Gouiric-Cavalli 2016
Genus ?†Ditaxiodus Owen 1866
Genus ?†Eoeugnathus Brough 1939
Genus ?†Guizhoueugnathus Liu 2004
Genus ?†Harpactira Egerton 1876 [Harpactes Egerton 1876 non Swainson 1833 non Templeton 1834 non Menetries 1848]
Genus ?†Plesiofuro Su 1993
Genus ?†Sinoeugnathus Su 1959
Genus ?†Thlattodus Owen 1866
Genus ?†Xingyia Liu et al. 2003
Genus †Amblysemius Agassiz 1844
Genus †Caturus Agassiz 1834 [Uraeus Agassiz 1832 non Wagler 1830; Strobilodusss Wagner 1851; Endactis Egerton 1858 non Rafinesque 1820; Conodus Woodward 1895 non Gervais 1869; Conodus Agassiz 1841 nomen nudum]
Genus †Furo Gistl 1848 [Eugnathus Agassiz 1844 non Schönherr 1833; Eugnathus Agassiz 1836 nomen nudum; Isopholis Zittel 1887]
Genus †Heterolepidotus Egerton 1872 [Eulepidotus Egerton 1868 non Herrich-Schaeffer 1850-1856; Brachyichthys Winkler 1862]
Genus †Neorhombolepis Woodward 1888
Genus †Osteorachis Egerton 1868
Genus †Otomitla Felix 1891
Superfamily Amioidea Bonaparte 1838
Genus ?†Amiidarum Lange 1968 [Otolith]
Genus ?†Ferganamia Kaznyshkin 1990
Genus ?†Lehmanamia Casier 1966
Family Sinamiidae Berg, 1940
Genus †Siamamia Cavin, Suteethorn, Buffetaut, Claude, Cuny, Le Loeuff and Tong 2007
Genus †Sinamia Stensiö, 1935
Family Amiidae Bonaparte 1837
Subfamily Amiinae Bonaparte 1837 sensu Grande & Bemis 1998
Genus Amia Linnaeus 1766 non Browne 1756 ex Browne 1789 non Gronow 1763 ex Gray 1854 non Meuschen 1781; Amiatus Rafinesque 1815; Hypamia (Leidy 1873); Amia (Hypamia) Leidy 1873; Kindleia Jordan 1927; Protamia (Leidy 1873); Amia (Protamia) Leidy 1873; Stylomyleodon Russell 1928]
Genus †Cyclurus Agassiz 1839 [Notaeus Agassiz 1843]
Genus †Pseudamiatus Whitley 1954 [Pseudamia Lehman 1951 non Bleeker 1865]
Subfamily †Amiopsinae Grande and Bemis 1998
Genus †Amiopsis Kner 1863 [Urocles]
Subfamily †Solnhofenamiinae Grande and Bemis 1998
Genus †Solnhofenamia Grande and Bemis 1998 (type)
Subfamily †Vidalamiinae Grande and Bemis 1998
Tribe †Calamopleurini Grande and Bemis 1998
Genus †Calamopleurus Agassiz 1841 [Enneles Jordan & Branner 1908]
Genus †Maliamia Patterson and Longbottom 1989
Tribe †Vidalamiini Grande and Bemis 1998
Genus †Melvius Bryant 1987
Genus †Pachyamia Chalifa and Tchernov 1982
Genus †Vidalamia White and Moy-Thomas 1941 [Vidalia le Sauvage1903 non Robineau-Desvoidy 1830 non Lamouroux ex Agardh 1863]
Genus †Nipponamia Yabumoto 1994
References
External links
Articles which contain graphical timelines
Ray-finned fish orders | [
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245149 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daqin%20Pagoda | Daqin Pagoda | The Daqin Pagoda () is a Buddhist pagoda in Zhouzhi County of Xi'an (formerly Chang'an), Shaanxi Province, China, located about two kilometres to the west of Louguantai temple. The pagoda has been claimed as a Nestorian Christian church from the Tang Dynasty.
Etymology
Daqin is the ancient Chinese name for the Roman Empire or, depending on context, the Near East, especially Syria.
History
The Daqin Pagoda is first attested in 1064, when the Chinese poet Su Shi visited it and wrote a well-known poem about it, "Daqin Temple". His younger brother Su Zhe also wrote an "echoing" poem referring to the monks at the temple. An earthquake severely damaged the pagoda in 1556 and it was finally abandoned. Due to the earthquake, many of the underground chambers of the complex are no longer reachable.
Features
The seven-storeyed octagonal brick pagoda is about 32 meters high. Each side of the first storey measures 4.3 meters.
Speculation about Christianity
The Daqin Pagoda was visited by Assyrian Church of the East Bishop Mar Awa Royel in 2012 as part of a follow-up visit to China in 2010, upon invitation from the Jingjiao Fellowship and director Mr. David Tam.
In 2001 the pagoda was claimed by Martin Palmer, the translator of several popular books on Sinology, including Zhuangzi and I Ching, as a form of Christianity from the Tang Dynasty, in his controversial book The Jesus Sutras. According to Palmer, the church and the monastery were built in 640 by early Nestorian missionaries. Daqin is the name for the Roman Empire in the early Chinese language documents of the 1st and 2nd centuries,
by the mid-9th century it was also used to refer to the mission churches of the Syriac Christians.
Supporters of Palmer's claims have drawn attention to details which suggest that the monastery was earlier a Christian church, including a supposed depiction of Jonah at the walls of Nineveh, a nativity scene (depiction of the birth of Jesus) and Syriac graffiti. The east-facing orientation of the complex is also advanced as evidence of its Christian origin since Chinese Daoist and Buddhist temple complexes face north or south.
As a potential stimulus to the district's tourist trade, Palmer's claims have been given wide publicity by the local authorities but have also received approbation by Chinese academics. The exterior of the pagoda and its surroundings were featured in the first episode of the 2009 BBC program A History of Christianity. The program also featured an interview with Palmer by the presenter Professor Diarmaid MacCulloch.
Despite the publicity they have received, Palmer's claims are controversial, and have been dismissed by Michael Keevak, the author of The Story of a Stele, and by David Wilmshurst, the author of The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East.
See also
Nestorian Stele
Church of the East in China
Jingjiao Documents
Daqin
References
Citations
Sources
Keevak, Michael, The Story of a Stele: China's Nestorian Monument and Its Reception in the West, 1625-1916 (Hong Kong, 2008).
Palmer, Martin, The Jesus Sutras: Discovering the Lost Scrolls of Taoist Christianity (New York, 2001).
Wilmshurst, David, The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East (London, 2011).
External links
Did Christianity Reach China In the First Century?
Orthodox article on site
Churches in Xi'an
Pagodas in China
Church of the East in China
7th-century churches
Tang dynasty architecture
Major National Historical and Cultural Sites in Shaanxi | [
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245153 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellation | Appellation | An appellation is a legally defined and protected geographical indication primarily used to identify where the grapes for a wine were grown, although other types of food often have appellations as well. Restrictions other than geographical boundaries, such as what grapes may be grown, maximum grape yields, alcohol level, and other quality factors may also apply before an appellation name may legally appear on a wine bottle label. The rules that govern appellations are dependent on the country in which the wine was produced.
History
The tradition of wine appellation is very old. The oldest references are to be found in the Bible, where wine of Samaria, wine of Carmel, wine of Jezreel, or wine of Helbon are mentioned. This tradition of appellation continued throughout the Antiquity and the Middle Ages, though without any officially sanctioned rules. Historically, the world's first exclusive (protected) vineyard zone was introduced in Chianti, Italy in 1716 and the first wine classification system in Tokaj-Hegyalja, Hungary, in 1730.
Europe
France
In 1935, the Institut National des Appellations d'Origine (INAO), a branch of the French Ministry of Agriculture, was created to manage wine-processing in France. In the Rhone wine region Baron Pierre Le Roy Boiseaumarié, a lawyer and winegrower from Châteauneuf-du-Pape, obtained legal recognition of the Côtes du Rhône appellation of origin in 1937. The AOC seal, or Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée, was created and mandated by French laws in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s.
Before 1935, despite the fact that the INAO was yet to be created, champagne enjoyed an appellation control by virtue of legal protection as part of the Treaty of Madrid. The treaty stated that only sparkling wine produced in Champagne and adhering to the standards defined for that name as an Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée could be called champagne. This right was reaffirmed in the Treaty of Versailles after World War I.
Germany
Germany is unusual among wine-producing countries in that its most prestigious classifications, the various grades of Prädikatswein, are based on the ripeness of the grapes, though their geographical origins are also legally defined. Thus Germany's geographical classification, Qualitätswein bestimmter Anbaugebiete (QbA), is akin to France's defunct Vin Délimité de Qualité Superieure, which has been subsumed into the current Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée system.
Georgia
Georgia has nineteen registered wine appellations.
Hungary
Historically, the world's first vineyard classification system was introduced in Tokaj-Hegyalja, Hungary, in 1730.
Vineyards were classified into three categories depending on the soil, sun exposure, and potential to develop Botrytis cinerea. The subdivisions were: first-class, second-class and third-class wines. A decree by the Habsburg crown in 1757 established a closed production district in Tokaj. The classification system was completed by the national censuses of 1765 and 1772.
Italy
Italy's first origin classification system was introduced in Tuscany in 1716 for delimiting Chianti production. After the unification of Italy several attempts were made to introduce some kind of protection for wine appellations, to no avail. Only in 1963 the "Denominazione di origine controllata" law was approved, starting with 1967 vintage.
Portugal
The world's third-oldest appellation control, after Chianti and Tokaj, was introduced in Portugal in 1756, pertaining to port wine, which was produced in the region of the Douro valley.
Spain
Some Spanish wines were already famous or even regulated (Rioja: 1925; Sherry: 1933) when the market started being regulated. It was not until 1980 that legislation on denominación de origen was stablished, following the French scheme with more tiers of classification and prompted by the impending accession to the European Union.
North America
Canada
Canadian wine appellations are regulated by the Vintners Quality Alliance system. The system covers the provinces of British Columbia and Ontario.
British Columbia is divided into four "Designated Viticultural Areas" ("DVAs"): Okanagan Valley, Vancouver Island, Fraser Valley, and the Similkameen Valley. Ontario includes three DVAs: Niagara Peninsula, Lake Erie North Shore, and Prince Edward County.
On June 11, 2012, Nova Scotia launched its first appellation, Tidal Bay.
United States
The American Viticultural Area ("AVA") is for the United States. The only requirement to use an AVA name on the wine label is that 85% of the wine must have come from grapes grown within the geographical AVA boundaries. The first AVA was in Augusta, Missouri, in 1980. The approval of the Augusta AVA was based largely on its long historical relationship with wine in the United States. The Augusta wine-growing area is a plot of land along the Missouri River, which moderates temperature and provides an appropriate climate for growing grapes.
States or counties can also be used in lieu of an AVA to designate the origin of a wine, provided that 75% of the grapes used in the wine are grown in the state or county listed on the label.
List of appellations
European Union: Protected Designation of Origin
Austria: Districtus Austriae Controllatus
Cyprus: Ελεγχόμενη Ονομασία Προέλευσης
France: Appellation d'origine contrôlée
Germany: German wine classification
Greece: ονομασία προελεύσεως ελεγχομένη
Italy: Denominazione di Origine Controllata
Luxembourg: Appellation contrôlée
Portugal: Denominação de Origem Controlada
Romania: Denumire de Origine Controlată
Spain: Denominación de origen protegida
Switzerland: Appellation d'origine contrôlée
Australia: Australian Geographical Indications
Argentina: Denominación de origen - see also:Argentine wine
Canada: Vintners Quality Alliance
Brazil: Denominação de Origem
Chile: see Chilean wine
South Africa: Wine of Origin
United Kingdom: Protected Denomination of Origin
United States: American Viticultural Area
See also
Protected Designation of Origin
Terroir
Notes and references
External links
Appellation America Wine Portal. Information about recognized wine appellations in the United States and Canada.
Wine terminology | [
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245156 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milesians%20%28Irish%29 | Milesians (Irish) | In the Lebor Gabála Érenn, a medieval Irish Christian pseudo-history, the Milesians () are the final race to settle in Ireland. They represent the Irish people. The Milesians are Gaels who sail to Ireland from Iberia (Hispania) after spending hundreds of years travelling the earth. When they land in Ireland they contend with the Tuatha Dé Danann, who represent the Irish pantheon of gods. The two groups agree to divide Ireland between them: the Milesians take the world above, while the Tuath Dé take the world below (i.e. the Otherworld).
Whether the word "Milesians" came before or after the name Míl Espáine, which is the Irish form of the Latin Miles Hispaniae ("Soldier of Hispania") is uncertain. Joseph Lennon writes that "no Irish-language cognate of the word exists." and that "the word Milesian is not used to refer to the Irish with any regularity until the eighteenth century..."
Scholars believe that the tale is mostly an invention of medieval Christian writers.
Myth
The Lebor Gabála, which was compiled in the 11th century AD by an anonymous writer, purports to be a history of Ireland and the Irish (the Gaels). It tells us that all mankind is descended from Adam through the sons of Noah, and that a Scythian king named Fénius Farsaid (descendant of Noah's son Japheth) is the forebear of the Gaels. Fénius, a prince of Scythia, is described as one of 72 chieftains who built the Tower of Babel. His son Nel weds Scota, daughter of an Egyptian pharaoh, and they have a son named Goídel Glas. Goídel crafts the Goidelic (Gaelic) language from the original 72 languages that arose after the confusion of tongues. Goídel's offspring, the Goidels (Gaels), leave Egypt at the same time as the Israelites (the Exodus) and settle in Scythia. After some time they leave Scythia and spend 440 years wandering the Earth, undergoing a series of trials and tribulations akin to those of the Israelites, who spent 40 years wandering in the wilderness. Eventually, they reach Hispania by sea and conquer it. There, Goídel's descendant Breogán founds a city called Brigantia, and builds a tower from the top of which his son Íth glimpses Ireland. Brigantia refers to Corunna in modern-day Galicia, in Spain, (which was then known as Brigantium) and Breogán's tower is likely based on the Tower of Hercules, which was built at Corunna by the Romans.
Íth sails to the island with a group of men. He is welcomed by its three kings: Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine. These three are members of the Tuatha Dé Danann, who ruled Ireland at the time. Evidence suggests that Tuath Dé were the main pagan gods of Ireland. Íth is then killed by unnamed attackers and his men return to Iberia. The eight sons of Íth's brother Míl Espáine (whose given name was Galam), lead an invasion force to avenge his death and take Ireland. After they land, they fight against the Tuath Dé and make for Tara, the royal capital. On the way, they are met on three mountains by Banba, Fódla and Ériu – the wives of Ireland's three kings. They are believed to have been a trio of land goddesses. Each woman says that the Gaels will have good fortune if they name the land after her. One of the Gaels, Amergin, promises that it shall be so. At Tara, they meet the three kings, who defend their claim to the joint kingship of the land. They ask that there be a three-day truce, during which the Gaels must stay a distance of nine waves from land. The Gaels agree, but once their ships are nine waves from Ireland, the Tuath Dé conjure up a great wind that prevents them sailing back to land. However, Amergin calms the wind by reciting a verse. The surviving ships return to land and the two groups agree to divide Ireland between them. The Gaels take the world above, while the Tuath Dé take the world below (i.e. the Otherworld) and enter the sídhe, the ancient burial mounds that dot the Irish landscape. Amergin divides the kingship between Éremon, who rules the northern half of Ireland, and Éber Finn, who rules the southern half. This division of the land was probably invented by the writers to explain and justify the 7th/8th-century division between the royal capitals of Tara and Cashel. The Lebor Gabála then traces Ireland's dynasties back to Milesian Gaels such as Éremon and Éber. Modern scholars, however, believe that these were fictional characters and that the writers were attempting to give the medieval dynasties more legitimacy.
The Historia Brittonum—which was written before the Lebor Gabála—gives another account of the Milesians. It says that "three sons of a Spanish soldier" sailed from Iberia to Ireland with thirty ships, each carrying thirty wives. They see a glass tower in the middle of the sea with men on top of it, but the men do not answer their calls. The Milesians set out to take the tower, but when they reach it, all but one of their ships are sunk by a great wave. Only one ship makes it to land, and its passengers are the ancestors of all the Irish. In the Lebor Gabála, it is the earlier Nemedians who are drowned while trying to take a tower.
Analysis
Modern scholars believe that the tale is mostly an invention of medieval Irish Christian writers. They sought to link the Irish to people and events from the Old Testament, to liken the Irish to the Israelites, and to reconcile native pagan myth with Christianity. They were inspired by other medieval Christian pseudo-histories, such as Galician cleric Paulus Orosius's History Against the Pagans, Saint Jerome's Chronicle, and the works of Isidore.
The claim that the Irish Gaels came from the Iberian region of Galicia may be based on three things. The first is the coincidental similarity of the names Iberia/Hiberia and Hibernia and the names Galicia and Gael. Medieval pseudo-historians made similar claims about other nations based only on their names. The second is Isidore of Seville describing Iberia as the "mother[land] of the races". Isidore's works were a major source of inspiration for the writers of the Lebor Gabála. The third is Orosius describing Ireland as lying "between Iberia and Britain". The Roman historian Tacitus also thought that Ireland lay between Iberia and Britain. John Carey notes that if Iberia was thought to be the part of mainland Europe nearest to Ireland, it would be natural "to see it as the source of arrivals from overseas".
However, recent DNA analysis shows that modern-day Irish are closely related to northern Iberians. Haplogroup analysis demonstrates significant overlap in male-line founder populations in these areas. Archeological evidence also shows some evidence for Iberian to Irish migration based on the Bell-Beaker culture, which arrived in northern Iberia several hundred years before arriving in Ireland, and which some have associated as potentially related to proto-Celtic expansion.
The names of some of the Milesians were based on the names of the Gaels themselves: Goidel Glas (from Goídel), Fenius (from Féni), Scota (from Scoti), Éber (from Hiberni), Éremon and Ír (from Éire).
Legacy
Professor Dáithí Ó hÓgain writes that the "account of how the sons of Míl took Ireland was a literary fabrication, but it was accepted as conventional history by poets and scholars down until the 19th century". For centuries, the legend was used in Ireland to win and secure dynastic and political legitimacy. For example, in his Two bokes of the histories of Ireland (1571), Edmund Campion tried to use the myth to establish an ancient right of the British monarch to rule Ireland. In A View of the Present State of Ireland, Edmund Spenser accepted and rejected various parts of the myth both to denigrate the Irish of his day and to justify English colonisation of Ireland in the 1590s (at the height of the Anglo-Spanish war).
The myth was cited during the Contention of the bards, which lasted from 1616 to 1624. During this period poets from the north and south of the island extolled the merits of the dynasties that gave them patronage, and attacked the dynasties from the other half of the island.
Geoffrey Keating's Foras Feasa ar Éirinn (written c.1634) used the myth to promote the legitimacy of the Stuart claim to royal authority in Ireland (related to the origin of the Lia Fáil), demonstrating that Charles I was descended, through Brian Boru, Éber and Galamh, from Noah and, ultimately, from Adam.
In the early modern period many Irishmen and women fled to Spain as a result of political and military turmoil in their homeland. The belief that the Gaelic Irish were descended from Míl Espáine and his Spanish followers was current in Spain as well as Ireland, and as a result the Irish in Spain were given all the rights and privileges due to Spanish subjects, such as automatic citizenship granted to Irish Catholics who made it to Spanish territory.
Among the many theories of Stone of Scone origins, Medieval Scottish lawyer Baldred Bisset put forward the theory it was transported from ancient Egypt via the Iberia peninsula or Celtiberia to Ireland by the daughter of an Egyptian Pharaoh Scota, who was also the wife of Goídel Glas, an ancestor of the Milesians. The stone has been associated to Lia Fail of the Hill of Tara, which was used as an Irish High Kings' Inauguration Stone. According to Bisset, Scota along with a band of Irish warriors later invaded Scotland taking her Royal seat with her. Ultimately it was confiscated by King Edward I of England through conquest.
See also
Gallaeci
Footnotes
Mythological cycle
Mythological peoples | [
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245159 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor%20%28star%29 | Castor (star) | Castor is the second-brightest object in the zodiac constellation of Gemini and one of the brightest stars in the night sky. It has the Bayer designation α Geminorum, which is Latinised to Alpha Geminorum and abbreviated Alpha Gem or α Gem. It appears singular to the naked eye, but it is actually a sextuple star system organized into three binary pairs, made up of the stars Castor Aa, Castor Ab, Castor Ba, Castor Bb, Castor Ca, and Castor Cb. Although it is the 'α' (alpha) member of the constellation, it is fainter than 'β' (beta) Geminorum, Pollux.
Stellar system
Hierarchy of orbits in the Castor system
Castor is a multiple star system made up of six individual stars; there are three visual components, all of which are spectroscopic binaries. Appearing to the naked eye as a single star, Castor was first recorded as a double star in 1718 by James Pound, but it may have been resolved into at least two sources of light by Cassini as early as 1678. The separation between Castor A and Castor B has increased from about 2″ (2 arcseconds of angular measurement) in 1970 to about 6″ in 2017. These two binary pairs have magnitudes of 1.9 and 3.0.
Castor Aa and Ba both have orbits of a few days with a much fainter companion.
Castor C, or YY Geminorum, was discovered to vary in brightness with a regular period. It is an eclipsing binary with additional variations due to areas of different brightness on the surface of one or both stars, as well as irregular flares. The Castor C components orbit in less than a day. Castor C is believed to be in orbit around Castor AB, but with an extremely long period of several thousand years. It is 73″ distant from the bright components.
The combined apparent magnitude of all six stars is +1.58.
Physical properties
Castor is 51 light-years away from Earth, determined from its large annual parallax.
The two brightest stars are both A-class main-sequence stars, more massive and brighter than the Sun. The properties of their red dwarf companions are difficult to determine, but are both thought to have less than half the mass of the Sun.
Castor B is an Am star, with particularly strong spectral lines of certain metals.
Castor C is a variable star, classified as a BY Draconis type. BY Draconis variables are cool dwarf stars which vary as they rotate due to starspots or other variations in their photospheres. The two red dwarfs of Castor C are almost identical, with masses around and luminosities less than 10% of the Sun.
All the red dwarfs in the Castor system have emissions lines in their spectra, and all are flare stars.
Etymology and culture
α Geminorum (Latinised to Alpha Geminorum) is the star system's Bayer designation.
Castor and Pollux are the two "heavenly twin" stars that give the constellation Gemini (meaning twins in Latin) its name. The name Castor refers specifically to Castor, one of the twin sons of Zeus and Leda in Greek and Roman mythology.
The star was annotated by the Arabic description Al-Ras al-Taum al-Muqadim, which translates as the head of the foremost twin. In the catalogue of stars in the Calendarium of Al Achsasi Al Mouakket, this star was designated Aoul al Dzira, which was translated into Latin as Prima Brachii, meaning the first in the paw.
In Chinese, (), meaning North River, refers to an asterism consisting of Castor, ρ Geminorum, and Pollux. Consequently, Castor itself is known as (, .)
In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN's first bulletin of July 2016 included a table of the first two batches of names approved by the WGSN; which included Castor for the star α Geminorum Aa.
Castor C also has the variable star designation YY Geminorum.
Long-exposure observation
Stars that can set (not in a circumpolar constellation for the viewer) culminate at midnight – noticeable where viewed away from any polar region experiencing midnight sun – when at opposition, meaning they can be viewed from dusk until dawn. This applies to α Geminorum on 14 January, in the current astronomical epoch.
Half of the year from this date, 14 July, the star will be at conjunction above or below, the sun – apart by the star's declination (angle set out in table, right). The nearby days and months have most of the star's risen time being during daylight.
See also
List of brightest stars
List of nearest bright stars
Historical brightest stars
References
External links
Geminorum, Alpha
Geminorum, 66
Flare stars
Gemini (constellation)
060178 9
036850
2891
6
M-type main-sequence stars
A-type main-sequence stars
Castor
Castor Moving Group
BD+32 1581
BY Draconis variables
Geminorum, YY | [
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245160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khafre | Khafre | Khafre (also read as Khafra and Khephren or Chephren) was an ancient Egyptian king (pharaoh) of the 4th Dynasty during the Old Kingdom. He was the son of Khufu and the successor of Djedefre. According to the ancient historian Manetho, Khafre was followed by king Bikheris, but according to archaeological evidence he was instead followed by king Menkaure. Khafre was the builder of the second largest pyramid of Giza. The view held by modern Egyptology at large continues to be that the Great Sphinx was built in approximately 2500 BC for Khafre. Not much is known about Khafre, except from the historical reports of Herodotus, writing 2,000 years after his life.
Family
Khafre was a son of king Khufu and the brother and successor of Djedefre. Khafre is thought by some to be the son of Queen Meritites I due to an inscription where he is said to honor her memory.
Kings-wife, his beloved, devoted to Horus, Mertitytes.
King's-wife, his beloved, Mertitytes; beloved of the Favorite of
the Two Goddesses; she who says anything whatsoever and it is done
for her. Great in the favor of Snefr[u] ; great in the favor
of Khuf[u], devoted to Horus, honored under Khafre. Merti[tyt]es.[Breasted; Ancient Records]
Others argue that the inscription just suggests that this queen died during the reign of Khafre. Khafre may be a son of Queen Henutsen instead.
Khafre had several wives and he had at least 12 sons and 3 or 4 daughters.
Queen Meresankh III was the daughter of Kawab and Hetepheres II and thus a niece of Khafre. She was the mother of Khafre's sons Nebemakhet, Duaenre, Niuserre and Khentetka, and a daughter named Shepsetkau.
Queen Khamerernebty I was the mother of Menkaure and his principal queen Khamerernebty II.
Hekenuhedjet was a wife of Khafre. She is mentioned in the tomb of her son Sekhemkare.
Persenet may have been a wife of Khafre based on the location of her tomb. She was the mother of Nikaure.
Other children of Khafre are known, but no mothers have been identified. Further sons include Ankhmare, Akhre, Iunmin, and Iunre. Two more daughters named Rekhetre and Hemetre are known as well.
Reign
There is no agreement on the date of his reign. Some authors say it was between 2558 BC and 2532 BC. While the Turin King List length for his reign is blank, and Manetho exaggerates his reign as 66 years, most scholars believe it was between 24 and 26 years, based upon the date of the Will of Prince Nekure which was carved on the walls of this Prince's mastaba tomb. The will is dated anonymously to the Year of the 12th Count and is assumed to belong to Khufu since Nekure was his son. Khafre's highest year date is the "Year of the 13th occurrence" which is a painted date on the back of a casing stone belonging to mastaba G 7650. This would imply a reign of 24–25 years for this king if the cattle count was biannual during the Fourth Dynasty.
Pyramid complex
Khafre built the second-largest pyramid at Giza. The Egyptian name of the pyramid was Wer(en)-Khafre which means "Khafre is Great".
The pyramid has a subsidiary pyramid, labeled GII a. It is not clear who was buried there. Sealings have been found of a King's eldest son of his body etc. and the Horus name of Khafre.
Valley Temple
The valley temple of Khafre was located closer to the Nile and would have stood right next to the Sphinx temple. Inscriptions from the entrance way have been found which mention Hathor and Bubastis. Blocks have been found showing the partial remains of an inscription with the Horus name of Khafre (Weser-ib). Mariette discovered statues of Khafre in 1860. Several were found in a well in the floor and were headless. But other complete statues were found as well.
Mortuary Temple
The mortuary temple was located very close to the pyramid. From the mortuary temple come fragments of maceheads inscribed with Khafre's name as well as some stone vessels.
Great Sphinx and Sphinx temple
The sphinx is said to date to the time of Khafre. This is supported by the proximity of the sphinx to Khafre's pyramid temple complex, and a certain resemblance (despite damage) to the facial structure seen in his statues. The Great Sphinx of Giza may have been carved out as a guardian of Khafre's pyramid, and as a symbol of royal power. It became deified during the time of the New Kingdom.
Khafre in ancient Greek traditions
The ancient Egyptian historian Manetho called Khafre “Sûphis II.” and credited him with a rulership of 66 years, but didn't make any further comments about him.
The ancient Greek historians Diodorus and Herodotus instead depicted Khafre as a cruel tyrant: writing 2,000 years after his time that Khafre (whom they both called "Khêphren") followed his father Khêops on the throne, after the megalomaniac despot had died. Then Herodotus and Diodorus say that Khafre ruled for 56 years and that the Egyptians had to suffer under him like under his father before. Since Khufu was said to have ruled for 50 years, the authors claim that the Egyptians had to suffer under both kings for 106 years altogether.
But then they describe a king Menkaure (whom they call "Mykerînós") as the follower of Khafre and that this king was the counterpart of his two predecessors: Herodotus describes Menkaure as being saddened and disappointed about Khufu's and Khafre's cruelty and that Menkaure brought peace and piety back to Egypt.
Modern Egyptologists evaluate Herodotus's and Diodorus's stories as some sort of defamation, based on both authors' contemporary philosophy. Oversized tombs such as the Giza pyramids must have appalled the Greeks, and even the later priests of the New Kingdom because they surely remembered the heretic pharaoh Akhenaten and his megalomaniacal building projects. This extremely negative picture was obviously projected onto Khafre and his daunting pyramid. This view was possibly promoted by the fact that during Khafre's lifetime the authority to give permission for the creation of oversized statues made of precious stone and for their display in open places in public was restricted to the king only. In their eras, the Greek authors and mortuary priests and temple priests couldn't explain the impressive monuments and statues of Khafre as anything other than the result of a megalomaniacal character. These views and resulting stories were avidly snapped up by the Greek historians and so they made their also negative evaluations about Khafre, since scandalous stories were easier to sell to the public than positive (and therefore boring) tales.
Of all the rulers of the Old Kingdom, Khafre is evidenced by the greatest number of statues. Almost all of them come from Giza, partly from the official necropolis there, but mainly from the area around the temple complexes of the Khafre pyramid. In a large hall of the valley temple, 23 depressions have been made in the ground, in which originally life-size statues stood. One of these depressions is wider than the others, there may have been two statues here. It has been suggested that these 24 statues are related to the hours of the day. All of these statues were removed from their location at some point after the reign of Khafre. Auguste Mariette found nine of them during excavations in 1860 (Inv.No. CG 9 to CG 17)[21] and fragments of a tenth (CG 378) [22] in a pit within the valley temple. These statues are now in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo .
References
Further reading
James H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt, Part I, §§ 192, (1906) on 'The Will of Nekure'.
External links
Khefren (Khafre)
Read more and view photos and video of the Pyramid of Khafre at Talking Pyramids
26th-century BC Pharaohs
Pharaohs of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
3rd-millennium BC births
3rd-millennium BC deaths
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
Place of birth unknown | [
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245163 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ereshkigal | Ereshkigal | In Mesopotamian mythology, Ereshkigal ( , lit. "Queen of the Great Earth") was the goddess of Kur, the land of the dead or underworld in Sumerian mythology. In later myths, she was said to rule Irkalla alongside her husband Nergal. Sometimes her name is given as Irkalla, similar to the way the name Hades was used in Greek mythology for both the underworld and its ruler, and sometimes it is given as Ninkigal, lit. "Lady of the Great Earth".
Ereshkigal was only one of multiple deities regarded as rulers of the underworld in Mesopotamia. The main temple dedicated to her was located in Kutha, a city originally associated with Nergal, and her cult had a very limited scope. No personal names with "Ereshkigal" as a theophoric element are known.
In the ancient Sumerian poem Inanna's Descent to the Underworld, Ereshkigal is described as Inanna's older sister. However, they weren't commonly associated with each other.
The two main myths involving Ereshkigal are the story of Inanna's descent into the Underworld and the story of Ereshkigal's marriage to the god Nergal. Other myths also associate her with gods such as Ninazu, originally regarded as her husband but later as a son, and Ningishzida.
Mythology
In Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal was the queen of the underworld. Some researchers believe that Ninazu originally fulfilled this function, with Ereshkigal only becoming a significant ruler of the land of the dead in Sumerian imagination at a later point in time. However, beliefs related to this sphere were somewhat amorphous, and it's possible there was initially no single universally-agreed-upon version of relevant mythical and cultic concepts, with various deities, both male and female, ruling over the underworld in the belief systems of various areas and time periods.
In later Babylonian god lists Ereshkigal held a senior status among the underworld deities, ruling over the category of so-called "transtigridian snake gods"(such as Ninazu, Tishpak, Ishtaran and the Elamite god Inshushinak, in Mesopotamia known almost exclusively in the afterlife context), while Nergal who fulfilled analogous functions in the north in Sumerian times had an entourage of minor war gods and disease demons instead. The idea of Nergal and Ereshkigal as a couple likely developed out of a need to reconcile the two traditions.
Ereshkigal's sukkal (vizier or messenger) was Namtar.
While obscure in cultic texts, Ereshkigal was prominent in mythical literature. Examples of myths where she plays an important role include:
Inanna's Descent into the underworld
In this poem, the goddess Inanna descends into the underworld, apparently seeking to extend her powers there. Ereshkigal is described as being Inanna's older sister. When Neti, the gatekeeper of the underworld, informs Ereshkigal that Inanna is at the gates and demanding to be let in, Ereshkigal responds by ordering Neti to bolt the seven gates of the underworld and to open each separately, but only after Inanna has removed one article of clothing.
Inanna proceeds through each gate, removing one article of clothing at each gate, and also loses her magic items to a nymph over the course of the journey. Finally, once she has gone through all seven gates, she finds herself naked and powerless, standing before the throne of Ereshkigal. The seven judges of the underworld judge Inanna and declare her to be guilty. Inanna is struck dead and her corpse is hung on a hook in the underworld for everyone to see.
Inanna's minister, Ninshubur, however, pleads with various gods and finally Enki agrees to rescue Inanna from the underworld. Enki sends two sexless beings down to the underworld to revive Inanna with the food and water of life. These beings escort Inanna up from the underworld, but a horde of angry demons follow Inanna, demanding to take someone else down to the underworld as Inanna's replacement. They initially want it to be Ninshubur, but Inanna rebukes this order, stating that she won't hand over a loyal subordinate to them. However, when she discovers that her husband, Dumuzid, has not mourned her death, she becomes ireful towards him and orders the demons to take him as her replacement. Diane Wolkstein argued that Inanna and Ereshkigal represent polar opposites: Inanna is the queen of heaven, but Ereshkigal is the queen of Irkalla.
Marriage to Nergal
This myth tells the story of the origin of Ereshkigal's marriage to Nergal. Two versions are known, though they differ only in details related to the motivation of the deities involved and both the plot structure and ultimate outcome are the same.
Once, the gods held a banquet that Ereshkigal, as queen of the underworld, could not come up to attend. Kaka, one of the messengers of Anu (analogous to Papsukkal or Ninshubur) invited her to send a messenger, and she sent her vizier Namtar in her place. He was treated well by most, the exception being Nergal, who treated Namtar with disrespect. As a result of this, Ereshkigal demanded Nergal to be sent to the underworld to atone. In one version, she planned to kill Nergal upon arrival in the underworld, but this detail is absent from the other versions.
Nergal travels under the advice of Ea, who warns him not to sit, eat, drink or wash while in the underworld, as well as not to have sex with Ereshkigal. At his advice Nergal travels to the underworld along with 14 demons. When he arrives, the gatekeeper Neti gets orders from Ereshkigal to allow him through the seven gates, stripping him of everything before arriving in the throne room, but at each gate, Nergal posts two demons.
Although Nergal has no problem with respecting all the other warnings, the god succumbs to the temptation and lies with the goddess for six days. At the seventh, he escapes back to the upper world, which makes Ereshkigal upset. Namtar is then sent to bring Nergal back, but Ea disguises Nergal as a lesser god and Namtar is fooled. Ereshkigal ultimately realizes the deception and demands Nergal to return again, threatening to open the gates of the underworld and allow the spirits of the dead to swarm the world of the living if her demands are ignored. The gods agree to hand Nergal over to her again.
In the same version in which Ereshkigal planned to kill Nergal, when he gets to the throne he knocks over Namtar and drags Ereshkigal to the floor. He is about to kill her with his ax when she pleads for her life; she promises to be his wife and to share her power with him. He consents. However, Nergal must still leave the underworld for six months, so Ereshkigal gives him back his demons and allows him to traverse the upper world for that time, after which he returns to her.
In the other version, known from two copies, the myth has a less violent ending: according to Assyriologist Alhena Gadotti, "the two deities seem to reunite and live happily ever after," and the myth concludes with the line "they impetuously entered the bedchamber."
In both versions, Nergal ends up becoming a king of the underworld, ruling alongside Ereshkigal.
Ningishzida's journey to the nether world
Ereshkigal is mentioned near the end of this composition. The vegetation god Ningishzida presumably has to descend to her kingdom each year.
The underworld vision of an Assyrian prince
Ereshkigal is listed alongside other underworld deities. Nergal is described as her husband in this text.
Family
In some versions of the myths, Ereshkigal rules the Underworld by herself, but in other versions of the myths, she rules alongside a husband subordinate to her named Gugalana. Gugalana had no fixed identity. In Inanna's descent he dies before the events of the myth; in some inscriptions he's the father of Ninazu; eventually this name became a title of Nergal as well.
In Sumerian mythology, Ereshkigal is the mother of the goddess Nungal. In a fragmentary text translated by Jeremiah Peterson Nungal appears alongside Ereshkigal and the healing goddess Nintinugga.
In one late magical text her son with Enlil was her vizier Namtar.
Syncretism
The Hurrian underworld goddess Allani was conflated with Ereshkigal in Mesopotamia, and with Sun goddess of the Earth among the Hittites and Luwians. While Allani was originally introduced in Mesopotamia as an independent figure, receiving offerings in Ur during Shulgi's reign under the name Allatum (alongside other foreign deities such as Ishara and Belet Nagar), she gradually became little more than a title of Ereshkigal.
The Hattian death god Lelwani, originally described as a male deity with the masculine title of katte(king), started to be viewed as a goddess instead due to conflation with Allani and Ereshkigal.
Ereshkigal's name in Greek magical texts
In later times, the Greeks appear to have applied the name Ereshkigal (Ερεσχιγαλ) to their own goddess Hecate. In the heading of a spell in the Michigan Magical Papyrus, which has been dated to the late third or early fourth century A.D. (and as such was written after the art of reading cuneiform texts was lost), Hecate is referred to as "Hecate Ereschkigal" and is invoked using magical words and gestures to alleviate the caster's fear of punishment in the afterlife. Further study of Greek texts which mention the name of Ereshkigal revealed none feature motifs of Mesopotamian origin in any meaningful capacity, the symbols used are ones associated with Hecate rather than Ereshkigal, the use of Ereshkigal's name served no purpose other than "furnishing the Greek Netherworld goddess with a mysterious-sounding, foreign name," and that the people who "composed, transmitted and used these texts had either little interest in or little knowledge of (or both) the Mesopotamian traditions associated with Ereškigal."
Obsolete theories
In his 1944 book, Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Third Millennium B.C. Samuel Noah Kramer proposed that, according to the introductory passage of the ancient Sumerian epic poem, "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld," Ereshkigal was forcibly abducted, taken down to the Underworld by the Kur, and was forced to become queen of the Underworld against her will. In order to avenge the abduction of Ereshkigal, Enki, the god of water, set out in a boat to slay the Kur. The Kur defends itself by pelting Enki with rocks of many sizes and by sending the waves beneath Enki's boat to attack Enki. The poem never actually explains who the ultimate victor of the battle is, but it is implied that Enki wins. Samuel Noah Kramer relates this myth to the ancient Greek myth of the abduction of Persephone, asserting that the Greek story is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian story.
This view, and even the idea of Kur being a single well defined monster rather than a vague term referring to mountains, foreign lands or the underworld, are not supported by modern scholars. The passage in mention is interpreted as Enlil and Anu assigning a dowry to Ereshkigal.
See also
Allani
Ghosts in Mesopotamian religions
Lelwani
Sun goddess of the Earth
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
External links
Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses: Ereškigal (goddess)
"Inana's descent to the nether world" - from The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature by the Oriental Institute of the University of Oxford
Mesopotamian goddesses
Death goddesses
Underworld goddesses
Mythological queens
Magic goddesses
Mesopotamian underworld | [
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245165 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%20order%20%28religious%20society%29 | Military order (religious society) | A military order () is a Christian religious society of knights. The original military orders were the Knights Templar, the Knights Hospitaller, the Order of Saint James, the Order of Calatrava, and the Teutonic Knights. They arose in the Middle Ages in association with the Crusades, both in the Holy Land and in the Iberian peninsula; their members being dedicated to the protection of pilgrims and the defence of the Crusader states. They are the predecessors of chivalric orders.
Most members of military orders were laymen who took religious vows, such as of poverty, chastity, and obedience, according to monastic ideals. The orders owned houses called commanderies all across Europe and had a hierarchical structure of leadership with the grand master at the top.
The Knights Templar, the largest and most influential of the military orders, was suppressed in the early fourteenth century; only a handful of orders were established and recognized afterwards. However, some persisted longer in their original functions, such as the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and the Order of Saint John, the respective Catholic and Protestant successors of the Knights Hospitaller. Those military orders that survive today have evolved into purely honorific or ceremonial orders or else into charitable foundations.
History
In 1053, for the Battle of Civitate, the Knights of Saint Peter () was founded as a militia by Pope Leo IX to counter the Normans.
In response to the Islamic conquests of the former Byzantine Empire, numerous Catholic military orders were set up following the First Crusade. The founding of such orders suited the Catholic church's plan of channeling the devotion of the European nobility toward achieving the Church's temporal goals, and it also complemented the Peace and Truce of God. The foundation of the Knights Templar in 1118 provided the first in a series of tightly organized military forces for the purpose of opposing Islamic conquests in the Holy Land and in the Iberian Peninsula — see the Reconquista — as well as Islamic invaders and pagan tribes in Eastern Europe which were perceived as threats to the Church's supremacy.
The first secularized military order was the Order of Saint George, founded in 1326 by King Charles I of Hungary, through which he made all the Hungarian nobility swear loyalty to him. Shortly thereafter, the Order of the "Knights of the Band" was founded in 1332 by King Alfonso XI of Castile. Both orders existed only for about a century.
Purpose
The original features of the military orders were the combination of religious and military ways of life. Some of them, like the Knights Hospitaller, the Knights of Saint Thomas, and the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus also had charitable purposes and cared for the sick and poor. However, they were not purely male institutions, as nuns could attach themselves as convents of the orders. One significant feature of the military orders was that clerical brothers could be subordinate to non-ordained brethren.
In 1818, the orientalist Joseph von Hammer compared the Catholic military orders, in particular the Knights Templar, to certain Islamic models such as the Muslim sect of Assassins. In 1820, José Antonio Conde suggested they were modeled on the ribat, a fortified religious institution which brought together a religious or hospital way of life with fighting the enemies of Islam. However popular such views may have become, others have criticized this view, suggesting there were no such ribats around Outremer until after the military orders had been founded.
The role and function of the military orders extended beyond their military exploits in the Holy Land, Prussia, and the Baltics. In fact, they had extensive holdings and staff throughout Western Europe. The majority were laymen. They provided a conduit for cultural and technical innovation, such as the introduction of fulling into England by the Knights Hospitaller, and the banking facilities of the Knights Templar.
Northern crusades
In 1147 Bernard of Clairvaux persuaded Pope Eugenius III that the Germans' and Danes' conflict with the pagan Wends was a holy war analogous to the Reconquista; he urged a crusade until all heathens were baptised or killed. The new crusaders' motivation was primarily economic: the acquisition of new arable lands and serfs; the control of Baltic trade routes; and the abolishment of the Novgorodian merchants' monopoly of the fur trade. From the early 13thcentury the military orders provided garrisons in the Baltic and defended the German commercial centre, Riga. The Livonian Brothers of the Sword and the Order of Dobrzyń were established by local bishops. The Sword Brothers were notorious for cruelty to pagans and converts alike. The Teutonic Knights were founded during the 1190s in Palestine, but their strong links to Germany diverted efforts from the Holy Land to the Baltic. Between 1229 and 1290, the Teutonic Knights absorbed both the Brothers of the Sword and the Order of Dobrzyń, subjugated most of the Baltic tribes and established a ruthless and exploitative monastic state. The Knights invited foreign nobility to join their regular Reisen, or raids, against the last unconquered Baltic people, the Lithuanians. These were fashionable events of chivalric entertainment among young aristocrats. Jogaila, Grand Prince of Lithuania, converted to Catholicism and married Queen Jadwiga of Poland resulting in a united Polish–Lithuanian army routing the Knights at Tannenberg in 1410. The Knights' state survived, from 1466 under Polish suzerainty. Prussia was transformed into a secular duchy in 1525, and Livonia in 1562.
List of military orders
These are military orders listed chronologically according to their dates of foundation and extinction, sometimes approximate due to scarce sources, and/or repeated suppressions by Papal or royal authorities. Presently active institutions are listed in consideration with their legitimacy according to the International Commission on Orders of Chivalry.
They are divided into international and national according to their adherence, mission, and enrollment, disregarding the extent of eventual gradual geographical distribution outside of their region of concern.
International
National
Other
Chivalric and/or military orders that could qualify depending on definition.
Confraternity of Belchite, "experimental" confraternity of knights founded in 1122 by King Alfonso the Battler of Aragon
Order of Saint Blaise, founded in the 12th century in Armenia to defend the country against the attacks of the Muslims
Knights of the Band, early honorific military order founded c. 1330 by King Alfonso XI of Castile
Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, military order founded in 1350 by Duke Amadeus VI, Count of Savoy, the first called the Order of the True Lover's Knots in memory of a bracelet of hair presented to the founder by a lady, but upon the election of Amadeus VIII to the pontificate in 1439, it changed its name for that of the Annunciation of angel Gabriel
Order of the Dove, short-lived (one year) and controversial order founded in 1379 by King Juan I of Castile
Order of Saint Anthony (Bavaria), Bavarian military order founded in 1382 by Duke Albert I, Duke of Bavaria
Military Order of Cross-bearers with the Red Star on a Blue Field, hospitaller and/military order active from the 12th century until suppressed in 1656 by Pope Alexander VII.
Order of Saint Hubert, early honorific military order founded in 1444 or 1445 by Gerhard VII, Duke of Jülich-Berg
Blood of Jesus Christ (military order), founded in Mantua, Italy, by Vincenzo I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, approved on 25 May 1608 by Pope Paul V
, founded in 1261 by King Ferdinand III of Castile
Modern development
A few of the institutions survived into honorific and/or charitable organizations, including the papal orders of knighthood.
While other contemporary Catholic societies may share some military organizational features and ideology, such as the Society of Jesus, they differ from the medieval military orders in the absence of military purposes or potential.
Modern orders may still be founded explicitly as a military order; the Military Order of Loyalty () was founded in 1946 by the Spanish protectorate in Morocco. Awarded to both Spanish and Moroccan military officers and soldiers, the single-class order was abolished in 1956.
See also
Spanish knights orders
Chivalric order
Order (honour)
Warrior monk
References
Bibliography
Nicholson, Helen J. The Knights Hospitaller (2001).
Riley-Smith, Jonathan. Hospitallers: The History of the Order of St John (1999).
Morten, Nicholas Edward. The Teutonic Knights in the Holy Land 1190-1291 (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2009)
Forey, Alan John. The Military Orders: From the Twelfth to the Early Fourteenth Centuries. *(Basingstoke: Macmillan Education, 1992) | [
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245170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humphrey%20Stafford%2C%201st%20Duke%20of%20Buckingham | Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham | Humphrey Stafford, 1st Duke of Buckingham, 6th Earl of Stafford, 7th Baron Stafford, (December 1402 – 10 July 1460) of Stafford Castle in Staffordshire, was an English nobleman and a military commander in the Hundred Years' War and the Wars of the Roses. Through his mother he had royal descent from King Edward III, his great-grandfather, and from his father, he inherited, at an early age, the earldom of Stafford. By his marriage to a daughter of Ralph, Earl of Westmorland, Humphrey was related to the powerful Neville family and to many of the leading aristocratic houses of the time. He joined the English campaign in France with King Henry V in 1420 and following Henry V's death two years later he became a councillor for the new king, the nine-month-old Henry VI. Stafford acted as a peacemaker during the partisan, factional politics of the 1430s, when Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, vied with Cardinal Beaufort for political supremacy. Stafford also took part in the eventual arrest of Gloucester in 1447.
Stafford returned to the French campaign during the 1430s and for his loyalty and years of service, he was elevated from Earl of Stafford to Duke of Buckingham. Around the same time, his mother died. As much of his estate—as her dower—had previously been in her hands, Humphrey went from having a reduced income in his early years to being one of the wealthiest and most powerful landowners in England. His lands stretched across much of the country, ranging from East Anglia to the Welsh border. Being such an important figure in the localities was not without its dangers and for some time he feuded violently with Sir Thomas Malory in the Midlands.
After returning from France, Stafford remained in England for the rest of his life, serving King Henry. He acted as the King's bodyguard and chief negotiator during Jack Cade's Rebellion of 1450, helping to suppress it. When the King's cousin, Richard, Duke of York, rebelled two years later, Stafford investigated York's followers. In 1453, the King became ill and sank into a catatonic state; law and order broke down further and when civil war began in 1455, Stafford fought for the King in the First Battle of St Albans which began the Wars of the Roses. Both were captured by the Yorkists and Stafford spent most of his final years attempting to mediate between the Yorkist and Lancastrian factions, the latter by now headed by Henry's wife, Margaret of Anjou. Partly due to a feud with a leading Yorkist—Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick—Stafford eventually declared for King Henry and the Duke of York was defeated in 1459, driving York into exile. When the rebels returned the following year they attacked the royal army at Northampton. Acting as the King's personal guard in the ensuing struggle, Stafford was killed and the King was again taken prisoner. Stafford's eldest son had died of plague two years earlier and the Buckingham dukedom descended to Stafford's five-year-old grandson, Henry, a ward of the King until he came of age in 1473.
Background and youth
Humphrey Stafford was born in Stafford sometime in December 1402. He was the only son of Edmund Stafford, 5th Earl of Stafford, and Anne of Gloucester, who was the daughter of Edward III's youngest son Thomas of Woodstock. This gave Humphrey royal descent, and made him a second cousin to the then king, Henry IV.
On 21 July 1403, when Humphrey was less than a year old, his father was killed fighting for Henry IV against the rebel Henry Hotspur at the Battle of Shrewsbury. Humphrey became 6th Earl of Stafford. With the earldom came a large estate with land in more than a dozen counties. Through her previous marriage to Edmund's older brother, Thomas, his mother accumulated two dowries, each comprising a third of the Stafford estates. She occupied these lands for the next twenty years, and Humphrey received a reduced income of less than £1,260 a year until he came of age. As his mother could not, by law, be his guardian, Humphrey became a royal ward and was put under the guardianship of Henry IV's queen, Joan of Navarre. His minority lasted for the next twenty years.
Early career
Although Stafford received a reduced inheritance, as the historian Carol Rawcliffe has put it, "fortunes were still to be made in the French wars". Stafford assumed the profession of arms. He fought with Henry V during the 1420 campaign in France and was knighted on 22 April the following year. On 31 August 1422, while campaigning, Henry V contracted dysentery and died. Stafford was present at his death and joined the entourage that returned to England with the royal corpse. When Stafford was later asked by the royal council if the King had left any final instructions regarding the governance of Normandy, he claimed that he had been too upset at the time to be able to remember. Stafford was still a minor, but parliament soon granted him livery of his father's estate, allowing him full possession. The grant was based on Stafford's claim that the King had orally promised him this before dying. The grant did not require him to pay a fee into the Exchequer, as was normal.
The new king, Henry VI, was still only a baby, so the lords decided that the dead King's brothers—John, Duke of Bedford and Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester—would have to be prominent in this minority government. Bedford, it was decided, would rule as regent in France, while Gloucester would be chief councillor (although not protector) in England. Stafford became a member of the new royal council on its formation. It first met in November 1422 and Stafford was to be an assiduous attender for the next three years. Gloucester repeatedly claimed the title of Protector based on his relationship to the dead King. By 1424, the rivalry between him and his uncle Henry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester—as de facto head of council—had become outright conflict. Although Stafford seems to have personally favoured the interests of Gloucester in the latter's struggle for supremacy over Beaufort, Stafford attempted to be a moderating influence. For example, in October 1425, the Archbishop of Canterbury, the Portuguese Duke of Coimbra and Stafford helped to negotiate an end to a burst of violence that had erupted in London between followers of the two rivals. In 1428, when Gloucester again demanded an increase in his power, Stafford was one of the councillors who personally signed a strong statement to the effect that Gloucester's position had been formulated six years earlier, would not change now, and that in any case the King would attain his majority within a few years. Stafford was also chosen by the council to inform Beaufort—now a Cardinal—that he was to absent himself from Windsor until it was decided if he could carry out his traditional duty of Prelate to the Order of the Garter now that the Pope had promoted him.
Stafford was made a Knight of the Order of the Garter in April 1429. The following year, he travelled to France with the King for Henry's French coronation, escorting him through the war-torn countryside. The Earl was appointed Lieutenant-General of Normandy, Governor of Paris, and Constable of France over the course of his next two years of service there. Apart from one occasion in November 1430 when he and Thomas Beaufort, Duke of Exeter took the English army to support Philip, Duke of Burgundy, Stafford's primary military role at this time was defending Paris and its environs. He also attended the interrogation of Joan of Arc in Rouen in 1431; at some point during these proceedings, a contemporary alleged, Stafford attempted to stab her and had to be physically restrained.
On 11 October 1431 the King created Stafford Count of Perche, which was a province in English-occupied Normandy ; he was to hold the title until the English finally withdrew from Normandy in 1450. The county was valued at 800 marks per annum, although the historian Michael Jones has suggested that due to the war, in real terms "the amount of revenue that could be extracted ... must have been considerably lower". Since Perche was a frontier region, in a state of almost constant conflict, whatever income the estate generated was immediately re-invested in its defence.
In England, the King's minority ended in 1436. In preparation for his personal rule, the council reorganised Henry's Lancastrian estates to be under the control of local magnates. This gave Stafford responsibility for much of the north Midlands, which was the largest single area of the duchy to be delegated among the nobility. This put the royal affinity—those men retained directly by the Crown to provide a direct link between the King and the localities—at his command.
Estates
The centrepiece of Stafford's estates, and his own caput, was Stafford Castle. Here he maintained a permanent staff of at least forty people, as well as a large stable, and it was especially well-placed for recruiting retainers in the Welsh Marches, Staffordshire, and Cheshire. He also had manor houses at Writtle and Maxstoke, which he had purchased as part of most of the estates of John, Lord Clinton. Writtle was particularly favoured by the Earl, and they were both useful when the royal court was in Coventry. Likewise, he made his base at Tonbridge Castle when he was acting as Warden of the Cinque Ports or on commission in Kent. His Marcher castles—Caus, Hay, Huntingdon, and Bronllys—had, by the 1450s, generally fallen into disrepair, and his other border castles, such as Brecon and Newport, he rarely used. Stafford's Thornbury manor was convenient for Bristol and was a stopping point to and from London.
Stafford's mother's death in 1438 transformed his fiscal position. He now received the remainder of his father's estates—worth about £1,500—and his mother's half of the de Bohun inheritance, which was worth another £1,200. The latter also included the earldom of Buckingham, worth £1,000 on its own; Stafford had become one of the greatest landowners in England overnight. "His landed resources matched his titles", explained Albert Compton-Reves, scattered as they were throughout England, Wales and Ireland, with only the King and Richard, Duke of York wealthier. One assessment of his estates suggests that, by the late 1440s, his income was over £5,000 per annum, and K. B. McFarlane estimated Stafford's total potential income from land to have been £6,300 gross annually, at its peak between 1447 and 1448. On the other hand, the actual yield may have been lower; around £3,700: rents, for example, were often difficult to collect. Even a lord of the status of Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick, owed Stafford over £100 in unpaid rent for the manor of Drayton Bassett in 1458. In the 1440s and 1450s, Stafford's Welsh estates were particularly notable for both their rent arrears and public disorder. Further—and like most nobles of the period—he substantially overspent, possibly, says Harriss, by as much as £300 a year. His treasurer, William Wistowe, when rendering his accounts for the years 1452–1453, noted that Stafford was owed £730 by his reckoning, some debts being 20 years old. Despite this, says Woolgar, "there [is] no suggestion that [Stafford] found it difficult to obtain cash or goods".
Affinity and problems in the localities
In the late medieval period, all great lords created an affinity between themselves and groups of supporters, who often lived and travelled with them for purposes of mutual benefit and defence, and Humphrey Stafford was no exception. These men were generally his estate tenants, who could be called upon when necessary for soldiering, as well as other duties, and were often retained by indenture. In the late 1440s his immediate affinity was at least ten knights and twenty-seven esquires, mainly drawn from Cheshire. By the 1450s—a period beginning with political tension and ending with civil war—Stafford retained men specifically "to sojourn and ride" with him. His affinity was probably composed along the lines laid out by royal ordinance at the time which dictated the nobility should be accompanied by no more than 240 men, including "forty gentlemen, eighty yeomen and a variety of lesser individuals", suggested T. B. Pugh, although in peacetime Stafford would have required far fewer. It was directly due to the political climate that this increased, especially after 1457. Stafford's household more generally has been estimated at around 150 people by about 1450, and it has been estimated that maintaining both his affinity and household cost him over £900 a year.Along with Richard Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, Stafford was the major magnatial influence in Warwickshire, so when Warwick left for a lengthy tour of duty in France, in 1437, Stafford became the centre of regional power stretching from Warwickshire to Derbyshire. He was sufficiently involved in the royal court and government that he was often unable to attend to the needs of his region. This caused him local difficulties; on 5May 1430 a Leicestershire manor of Stafford's was attacked and he faced problems in Derbyshire in the 1440s, although there, Helen Castor has said, Stafford "made no attempt to restore peace, nor made any attempt to intervene at all". Stafford also had major estates on the Welsh Marches. This area was prone to regular lawlessness and particularly occupied his time as a royal justice.
One of the best-known disputes Stafford had with his local gentry was in his Midlands heartlands. This was with Sir Thomas Malory. On 4 January 1450, Malory, with twenty-six other armed men, waited for Stafford near Coombe Abbey woods—near the Stafford's Newbold estate—intending to ambush him. Stafford fought back, repelling Malory's small force with sixty yeomenry. In another episode, Malory stole deer from the earl's park at Caludon. Stafford personally arrested Malory on 25 July 1451. The Earl also ended up in a dispute with William Ferrers of Staffordshire, even though the region was the centre of Stafford's authority and where he may have expected to be strongest. Ferrers had recently been appointed to the county King's Bench and attempted to assert political control over the county as a result. Following Cade's rebellion in 1450, Stafford's park at Penshurst was attacked by local men whom the historian Ralph Griffiths describes as "concealing their faces with long beards and charcoal-blackened faces, calling themselves servants of the queen of the fairies". Towards the end of the decade, not only was he unable to prevent feuding amongst the local gentry, but his own affinity was in discord. This may in part be due to the fact that at this time he was not spending much of his time in the Midlands, preferring to stay close to London and the King, dwelling either at his manors of Tonbridge or Writtle.
Later career
In July 1436, Stafford, accompanied by Gloucester, the Duke of Norfolk, and the Earls of Huntingdon, Warwick, Devon, and Ormond, returned to France again with an army of nearly 8,000 men. Although the expedition's purpose was to end the siege of Calais by Philip, Duke of Burgundy, the Burgundians had withdrawn before they arrived, leaving behind a quantity of cannon for the English to seize. Subsequent peace talks in France occupied Stafford throughout 1439, and in 1442 he was appointed Captain of Calais and the Risbanke fort, and was indented to serve for the next decade. Before his departure for Calais in September 1442, the garrison had revolted and seized the Staple's wool in lieu of unpaid wages. Stafford received a pledge from the council that if such a situation arose again during his tenure, he would not be held responsible. In light of the secrecy that cloaked Stafford's appointment in 1442, suggests David Grummitt, it is possible that the revolt had actually been staged by his servants to ensure that Stafford "had entry [to Calais] on favourable terms". Stafford himself emphasised the need to restore order there in his original application for the office. He also received another important allowance, being granted permission to export gold and jewels (up to the value of £5,000 per trip) for his use in France, even though the export of bullion was illegal at the time. He served the full term of his appointment as Calais captain, leaving office in 1451.
Around 1435, Stafford was granted the Honour of Tutbury, which he held until 1443. Then, says Griffiths, Buckingham proceeded to transfer it to one of his councillor's sons. Other offices he held around this time included Seneschal of Halton from 1439, and Lieutenant of the Marches from 1442 to 1451. Stafford became less active on the council around the same time. He became Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports, Constable of Dover Castle and Constable of Queenborough, on the Isle of Sheppey, in 1450. He again represented the Crown during further peace talks with the French in 1445 and 1446.
In the event, Stafford rarely visited Calais. Factional strife had continued intermittently between Beaufort and Gloucester, and Stafford—who had also been appointed Constable of England—was by now firmly in the Beaufort camp. In 1442, he had been on the committee that investigated and convicted Gloucester's wife, Eleanor Cobham, of witchcraft, and five years later he arrested the Duke at Bury St Edmunds on 18 February 1447 for treason. Like many others, Stafford profited substantially from Gloucester's fall: when the latter's estates were divided up, the "major prizes" went to the court nobility.
In September 1444, as reward for his loyal and continuous service to the Crown, he was created Duke of Buckingham. By then he was already describing himself as "the Right Mighty Prince Humphrey Earl of Buckingham, Hereford, Stafford, Northampton and Perche, Lord of Brecknock and Holdernesse". Three years later he was granted precedence over all English dukes not of royal blood. Despite his income and titles he was consistently heavily out of pocket. Although rarely in Calais, he was responsible for ensuring the garrison was paid, and it has been estimated that when he resigned and returned from the post in 1450, he was owed over £19,000 in back wages. This was such a large amount that he was granted the wool trade tax from the port of Sandwich, Kent, until it was paid off. His other public offices also forced him to spend over his annual income, and he had household costs of over £2,000. He was also a substantial creditor to the government, which was perennially short of cash.
With the outbreak of Jack Cade's rebellion, Buckingham summoned about seventy of his tenants from Staffordshire to accompany him while he was in London in May 1450. He was one of the lords commissioned to arrest the rebels as part of a forceful government response on 6 June 1450, and he acted as a negotiator with the insurgents at Blackheath ten days later. The promises that Buckingham made on behalf of the government were not kept, and Cade's army invaded London. After the eventual defeat of the rebellion, Buckingham headed an investigatory commission designed to pacify rebellious Kent, and in November that year he rode noisily through London—with a retinue of around 1,500 armed men—with the King and other peers, in a demonstration of royal authority intended to deter potential troublemakers in the future. Following the rebellion, Buckingham and his retinue often acted as a bodyguard to the King.
Wars of the Roses
In 1451, the King's favourite, Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, replaced the Duke of Suffolk as the King's chief councillor, and Buckingham supported Somerset's government. At the same time, he tried to maintain peace between Somerset and York, who by now was Somerset's bitter enemy. When York rebelled in 1452 and confronted the King with a large army at Dartford, Buckingham was again a voice of compromise, and, since he had contributed heavily towards the size of the King's army, his voice was heeded. Buckingham took part in a peace commission on 14 February that month in Devon, which prevented Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon from joining York at Dartford. A year later, in August 1453, King Henry became ill, and slipped into a catatonic state; government slowly broke down. At Christmas, Buckingham personally presented the King's son—the newly born Edward, Prince of Wales—to the King. But Henry remained unable to respond. Buckingham took part in the council meeting which resulted in the arrest and subsequent year-long imprisonment of the Duke of Somerset. In the February 1454 parliament Buckingham was appointed Steward of England, although Griffiths called this position "largely honorific". This parliament also appointed York as Protector of the Realm from 27 March 1454. Buckingham supported York's protectorate, attending York's councils more frequently than most of his fellow councillors. The King recovered his health in January 1455, and, soon after, Somerset was released—or may have escaped—from the Tower. A contemporary commented how Buckingham "straungely conveied" Somerset from prison, but it is uncertain whether this was as a result of the King ordering his release or whether Somerset escaped with Buckingham's connivance. Buckingham may well by now have been expecting war to break out, because the same year he ordered the purchase of 2,000 cognizances—his personal badge of the 'Stafford knot'—even though strictly the distribution of livery was illegal.
Battle of St Albans
Following the King's recovery, York was either dismissed from or resigned his protectorship, and together with his Neville allies, withdrew from London to their northern estates. Somerset—in charge of government once again—summoned a Great Council to meet in Leicester on 22 May 1455. The Yorkists believed they would be arrested or attainted at this meeting. As a result, they gathered a small force and marched south. The King, with a smaller force that nonetheless included important nobles such as Somerset, Northumberland, Clifford and Buckingham and his son Humphrey, Earl of Stafford, was likewise marching from Westminster to Leicester, and in the early morning of 22 May, royal scouts reported the Yorkists as being only a few hours away. Buckingham urged that they push on to St Albans—so that the King might dine—which was not particularly easy to defend. Buckingham also assumed that York would want to parley before launching an assault on the King, as he had in 1452. The decision to head for the town and not make a stand straight away may have been a tactical error; the contemporary Short English Chronicle describes how the Lancastrians "strongly barred and arrayed for defence" immediately after they arrived.
The King was lodged in the town and York, with the Earls of Salisbury and Warwick, encamped to the south. Negotiations commenced immediately. York demanded that Somerset be released into his custody, and the King replaced Somerset as Lord High Constable with Buckingham, making Somerset subordinate. In that capacity, Buckingham became the King's personal negotiator—Armstrong suggests because he was well known to be able to "concede but not capitulate"—and received and responded to the Yorkists' messengers. His strategy was to play for time, both to prepare the town's defences and to await the arrival of loyalist bishops, who could be counted on to bring the moral authority of the church to bear on the Yorkists. Buckingham received at least three Yorkist embassies, but the King—or Buckingham—refused to give in to the main Yorkist demand, that Somerset be surrendered to them. Buckingham may have hoped that repeated negotiations would deplete the Yorkists' zest for battle, and delay long enough for reinforcements to arrive. Buckingham made what John Gillingham described as an "insidiously tempting suggestion" that the Yorkists mull over the King's responses in Hatfield or Barnet overnight. Buckingham's confidence in how reasonable the Yorkists would be was misplaced.
The Yorkists realised what Buckingham—"prevaricating with courtesy", says Armstrong—was trying to do and battle commenced while negotiations were still taking place: Richard, Earl of Warwick, launched a surprise attack at around ten o'clock in the morning. Buckingham commanded the King's army of 2,500 men, although his coordination of the town's defence was problematic, giving the initiative to the Yorkists. Although the defences that Buckingham had organised successfully checked the Yorkists' initial advance, Warwick took his force through gardens and houses to attack the Lancastrians in the rear. The battle was soon over, and had lasted between half an hour and an hour with only about 50 casualties. They included senior Lancastrian captains: Somerset, the Earl of Northumberland and Lord Clifford had all been killed. Buckingham himself was wounded three times in the face by arrows—and sought sanctuary in the abbey. His son appears to have been badly wounded. A chronicler reported that some Yorkist soldiers, intent on looting, entered the abbey to kill Buckingham, but that the Duke was saved by York's personal intervention. In any case, says Harriss, Buckingham was probably captured with the King, although he was still able to reward ninety of his retainers from Kent, Sussex and Surrey. It is not known for certain whether these men had actually fought with him at St Albans; as K. B. McFarlane points out, many retinues did not arrive in time to fight.
Last years
York now had the political upper hand, made himself Constable of England and kept the King as a prisoner, returning to the role of Protector when Henry became ill again. Buckingham swore to "draw the lyne" with York, and supported his second protectorate, although losing Queen Margaret's favour as a result. A contemporary wrote that in April 1456 the Duke returned to his Writtle manor, not looking "well plesid". Buckingham played an important role at the October 1456 Great Council in Leicester. Here, with other lords, he tried to persuade the King to impose a settlement, and at the same time declared that anyone who resorted to violence would receive "ther deserte"—which included any who attacked York.
In 1459, with other lords, he renewed his oath of loyalty to the King and Prince of Wales. Until this point he had been a voice of restraint within the King's faction. But he had been restored to the Queen's favour that year and—as she was the de facto leader of the party—his realignment was decisive enough that it ultimately hastened the outbreak of hostilities again. Buckingham may also have been partially motivated by financial needs, and encouraged to do so by those retainers reliant on him. He had a bigger retinue than almost any other noble in England and was still the only one who could match York in power and income. This was demonstrated at the Battle of Ludford Bridge in October 1459, where his army played a decisive part in the defeat of the Yorkist forces. Following their defeat, York and the Neville earls fled Ludlow and went into exile; York to Ireland, the earls to Calais. They were attainted at the Coventry parliament later that year, and their estates distributed amongst the Crown's supporters. Buckingham was rewarded by the King with extensive grants from the estates of Sir William Oldhall, worth about £800 per annum. With York in exile, Buckingham was granted custody of York's wife, Cecily, Duchess of York, whom, a chronicler reports, he treated harshly in her captivity.
Death at Northampton
From the moment the Duke of York and the Neville earls left England it was obvious to the government that they would return; the only question was when. After a series of false alarms in early 1460, they eventually did so in June, landing at Sandwich, Kent. They immediately marched on, and entered London; the King, with Buckingham and other lords, was in Coventry, and on hearing of the earls' arrival, moved the court to Northampton. The Yorkists left London and marched to the King; they were accompanied by the Papal legate Francesco Coppini. In the lead up to the Battle of Northampton, the Earls of Warwick and March sent envoys to negotiate, but Buckingham—once again the King's chief negotiator, and backed by his son-in-law, John Talbot and Lords Beaumont and Egremont—was no longer conciliatory. Buckingham denied the Yorkists' envoys' repeated requests for an audience with Henry, denouncing the earls: "the Earl of Warwick shall not come to the King's presence and if he comes he shall die". Buckingham condemned the bishops who had accompanied the Yorkist army as well, telling them that they were not men of peace, but men of war, and there could now be no peace with Warwick. Personal animosity as much as political judgment was responsible for Buckingham's attitude, possibly, suggests Rawcliffe, the result of Warwick's earlier rent evasion. Buckingham's influential voice was chief among those demanding a military response to Warwick and March; the Duke may also have misinterpreted the Yorkists' requests to negotiate as a sign of weakness, seeing the coming battle as an opportunity to settle scores with Warwick. But Buckingham misjudged both the size of the Yorkist army—which outnumbered that of the King—and the loyalty of the Lancastrian army. Whatever plans Buckingham had, says Carol Rawcliffe, they "ended abruptly" on the battlefield.
Buckingham's men dug in outside Northampton's southern walls, and fortified behind a tributary of the River Nene, close to Delapré Abbey. Battle was joined early on 10 July 1460. Although it was expected to be a drawn-out affair—due to the near-impregnability of the royal position—it was shortened considerably when Lord Grey of Ruthin turned traitor to the King. Grey "welcomed the Yorkists over the barricades" on the Lancastrian wing and ordered his men to lay down arms, allowing the Yorkists access to the King's camp. Within half an hour, the battle was over. By 2:00pm, Buckingham, the Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Egremont and Viscount Beaumont, had all been killed by a force of Kentishmen. The Duke was buried shortly after at Grey Friars Abbey in Northampton.
Buckingham had named his wife Anne sole executrix of his will. She was instructed to provide 200 marks to any clergy who attended his funeral, the remainder being distributed as poor relief. She was also to organise the establishment of two chantries in his memory, and, says Barbara Harriss, he left "exceedingly elaborate" instructions for the augmentation of Pleshy college.
Aftermath
Michael Hicks has noted that Buckingham was one of the few Lancastrian loyalists who was never accused by the Yorkists of being an "evil councillor", even though he was—in Hicks's words—"the substance and perhaps the steel within the ruling regime". Although Buckingham was not attainted when the Duke of York's son, the Earl of March, took the throne as King Edward IV in 1461, Buckingham's grandson Henry became a royal ward, which gave the King control of the Stafford estates during the young duke's minority. Henry Stafford entered into his estates in 1473 but was executed by Edward's brother Richard—by then King, and against whom Henry had rebelled—in November 1483.
Character
Humphrey Stafford has been described as something of a hothead in his youth, and later in life he was a staunch anti-Lollard. Lustig suggests that it was probably in connection to this that Sir Thomas Malory attempted his assassination around 1450—if indeed he did, as the charge was never proved. Buckingham did not lack the traits traditionally expected of the nobility in this period of the time, particularly, in dispute resolution, that of resorting to violence as a first rather than last resort. For instance, in September 1429, following an altercation with his brother-in-law the Earl of Huntingdon, he arrived at parliament fully armed. On the other hand, he was also a literary patron: Lord Scrope presented him with a copy of Christine de Pizan's Epistle of Othea, demonstrating his position as a "powerful and potentially powerful patron", and its dedicatory verse to Buckingham is particularly laudatory. On Buckingham's estates—especially on the Welsh marches—he has been described as a "harsh and exacting landlord" in the lengths he went to in maximising his income. He was also competent in his land deals, and seems never—unlike some contemporaries—to have had to sell land to stay solvent.
B. J. Harris noted that, although he died a staunch Lancastrian, he never showed any personal dislike of York in the 1450s, and that his personal motivation throughout the decade was loyalty to the Crown and keeping the peace between his peers. Rawcliffe has suggested that although he was inevitably going to be involved in the high politics of the day, Buckingham "lacked the necessary qualities ever to become a great statesman or leader ... [he] was in many ways an unimaginative and unlikeable man". On the latter quality, Rawcliffe points to his reputation as a harsh taskmaster on his estates and his "offensive behaviour" towards Joan of Arc. Further, she says, his political judgement could be clouded by his attitude. His temper, she says, was "ungovernable".
Family
Humphrey Stafford married Lady Anne Neville, daughter of Ralph Neville, Earl of Westmorland and Lady Joan Beaufort (Westmorland's second wife), at some point before 18 October 1424. Anne Neville was a literary patron in her own right, also receiving a dedication in a copy of Scrope's translated Othea. On her death in 1480, she left many books in her will. Scholars generally agree that Buckingham and Anne had twelve children, consisting of seven sons and five daughters. Sources conflict over the precise details of the Staffords' progeny. The antiquarian I. W. Dunham, writing in 1907, listed them as Humphrey, Henry, John, Anne (married Aubrey de Vere), Joana (married Viscount Beaumont before 1461), Elizabeth, Margaret (born about 1435, married Robert Dinham), and Katherine (married John Talbot, the future 3rd Earl of Shrewsbury, before 1467). James Tait lists the daughters as Anne, Joanna, Elizabeth, Margaret and Catherine and suggests that Elizabeth and Margaret never married. Rawcliffe gives the following as dates of birth and death for three of the daughters: Anne, 1446–1472; Joan, 1442–1484; and Katherine, 1437–1476. Edward and the twins, George and William, died young. The seventh son has gone unremarked in the sources.The marriages Buckingham arranged for his children were structured around strengthening his ties to the Lancastrian royal family. Of particular importance were the marriages of two of his sons, Humphrey and Henry. They married into the Beaufort family, which was descended from the illegitimate children of John of Gaunt and thus of royal blood. There was also, about 1450, discussion regarding a proposal for one of Buckingham's daughters to marry the Dauphin of France (subsequently Louis XI). Had it proceeded, it would have again linked the French Crown with the Lancastrian regime.
Buckingham's eldest son, Humphrey, married Margaret Beaufort. She was the daughter of Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Eleanor Beauchamp. Margaret and Humphrey's son was Buckingham's eventual heir. A second link to the Beaufort family was between Buckingham's second son, Sir Henry Stafford (c. 1425–1471), who became the third husband of Lady Margaret Beaufort, daughter of John Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, and Margaret Beauchamp. Margaret Beaufort had previously been married to Edmund Tudor, the eldest half-brother of Henry VI, and had given birth to the future King Henry VII two months after Edmund's death. She and Henry were childless. Buckingham's third surviving son, John (died 8 May 1473) married Constance Green of Drayton, who had previously been the duke's ward. Humphrey Stafford assigned them the manor of Newton Blossomville at the time of their marriage. John was created Earl of Wiltshire in 1470.
Buckingham arranged good but costly marriages for three of his daughters. Anne married Aubrey de Vere, son of John de Vere, Earl of Oxford. Their 1452 marriage cost Buckingham 2,300 marks; he was slow to pay, and still owed Oxford over £440 seven years later. In 1452, Joan married William Beaumont, heir of Viscount Beaumont. Katherine married John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, six years later. Buckingham had apparently promised to give them £1,000 but died before acting on the promise.
Cultural references and portrayals
Buckingham was depicted, during his son's lifetime, "mounted in battle array"—showing him during the 1436 campaign against Burgundy—in the pictorial genealogy, the Beauchamp Pageant.
Timothy J. Lustig has suggested that Thomas Malory, in his Morte d'Arthur, based his character Gawaine on Buckingham. Lustig suggests that Malory may have viewed the Duke as being "peacemaker and warlord, warrior and judge"—qualities which the writer also ascribed to his Arthurian character. Buckingham appears in Shakespeare's Henry VI, Part 2 (c. 1591), in which his character conspires in the downfall and disgrace of Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester.
According to Martin Wiggins of the Shakespeare Institute, Buckingham may be the eponymous character of the early-17th-century play, Duke Humphrey, which is now lost. However, the lost play could instead have been about the equally eventful career of Prince Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester (1390–1447), the youngest son of Henry IV of England.
Notes
References
Bibliography
1402 births
1460 deaths
People from Stafford
Knights of the Garter
Lord High Constables of England
01
Lords Warden of the Cinque Ports
People of the Hundred Years' War
People of the Wars of the Roses
English military personnel killed in action
Earls of Stafford
Earls of Hereford
Earls of Northampton
Counts of Perche
15th-century English people
Constables of France
Humphrey | [
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245173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Sphinx%20of%20Giza | Great Sphinx of Giza | The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx of Giza, Great Sphinx or just the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a reclining sphinx, a mythical creature with the head of a man, and the body of a lion. Facing directly from west to east, it stands on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza, Egypt. The face of the Sphinx appears to represent the pharaoh Khafre.
Cut from the bedrock, the original shape of the Sphinx has been restored with layers of limestone blocks. It measures long from paw to tail, high from the base to the top of the head and wide at its rear haunches. Its nose was broken off for unknown reasons between the 3rd and 10th centuries AD.
The Sphinx is the oldest known monumental sculpture in Egypt and one of the most recognisable statues in the world. The archaeological evidence suggests that it was created by ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom during the reign of Khafre ().
Names
The original name the Old Kingdom creators gave the Sphinx is unknown, as the Sphinx temple, enclosure and possibly the Sphinx itself was not completed at the time, thus cultural material was limited. In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx was revered as the solar deity Hor-em-akhet (; Hellenized: Harmachis), and the pharaoh Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) specifically referred to it as such in his Dream Stele.
The commonly used name "Sphinx" was given to it in classical antiquity, about 2,000 years after the commonly accepted date of its construction by reference to a Greek mythological beast with the head of a woman, a falcon, a cat, or a sheep and the body of a lion with the wings of an eagle. (although, like most Egyptian sphinxes, the Great Sphinx has a man's head and no wings). The English word sphinx comes from the ancient Greek Σφίγξ (transliterated: ) apparently from the verb σφίγγω (transliterated: / ), after the Greek sphinx who strangled anyone who failed to answer her riddle.
Medieval Arab writers, including al-Maqrīzī, call the Sphinx by an Arabized Coptic name Belhib () and Belhawiyya (), which in turn comes from , a name of the Canaanite god Hauron with whom the Sphinx was identified. The modern Egyptian Arabic name is أبو الهول (ʼabu alhōl / ʼabu alhawl , "The Terrifying One"; literally "Father of Dread") which is a phono-semantic matching of the Coptic name.
History
Old Kingdom
The Sphinx is a monolith carved from the bedrock of the plateau, which also served as the quarry for the pyramids and other monuments in the area. Egyptian geologist Farouk El-Baz has suggested that the head of the Sphinx may have been carved first, out of a natural yardang, i.e. a ridge of bedrock that had been sculpted by the wind. These can sometimes achieve shapes which resemble animals. El-Baz suggests that the "moat" or "ditch" around the Sphinx may have been quarried out later to allow for the creation of the full body of the sculpture.
The archaeological evidence suggests that the Great Sphinx was created around 2500 BC for the pharaoh Khafre, the builder of the Second Pyramid at Giza.
The stones cut from around the Sphinx' body were used to construct a temple in front of it, however neither the enclosure nor the temple were ever completed, and the relative scarcity of Old Kingdom cultural material suggests that a Sphinx cult was not established at the time.
Selim Hassan, writing in 1949 on recent excavations of the Sphinx enclosure, made note of this circumstance:
In order to construct the temple, the northern perimeter-wall of the Khafre Valley Temple had to be deconstructed, hence it follows that the Khafre funerary complex preceded the creation of the Sphinx and its temple. Furthermore, the angle and location of the south wall of the enclosure suggests the causeway connecting Khafre's Pyramid and Valley Temple already existed before the Sphinx was planned. The lower base level of the Sphinx temple also indicates that it doesn't pre-date the Valley Temple.
New Kingdom
Some time around the First Intermediate Period, the Giza Necropolis was abandoned, and drifting sand eventually buried the Sphinx up to its shoulders. The first documented attempt at an excavation dates to , when the young Thutmose IV (1401–1391 or 1397–1388 BC) gathered a team and, after much effort, managed to dig out the front paws, between which he erected a shrine that housed the Dream Stele, an inscribed granite slab (possibly a repurposed door lintel from one of Khafre's temples). When the stele was discovered, its lines of text were already damaged and incomplete. An excerpt reads:
The Dream Stele associates the Sphinx with Khafre, however this part of the text is not entirely intact:
Egyptologist Thomas Young, finding the Khaf hieroglyphs in a damaged cartouche used to surround a royal name, inserted the glyph ra to complete Khafre's name. When the Stele was re-excavated in 1925, the lines of text referring to Khaf flaked off and were destroyed.
Later, Ramesses II the Great (1279–1213 BC) may have undertaken a second excavation.
In the New Kingdom, the Sphinx became more specifically associated with the sun god Hor-em-akhet (Hellenized: Harmachis) or "Horus-at-the-Horizon". Pharaoh Amenhotep II (1427–1401 or 1397 BC) built a temple to the northeast of the Sphinx nearly 1000 years after its construction and dedicated it to the cult of Hor-em-akhet.
Graeco-Roman Period
In Graeco-Roman times, Giza had become a tourist destination—the monuments were regarded as antiquities—and some Roman Emperors visited the Sphinx out of curiosity, and for political reasons.
The Sphinx was cleared of sand again in the first century AD in honor of Emperor Nero and the Governor of Egypt Tiberius Claudius Balbilus. A monumental stairway—more than wide—was erected, leading to a pavement in front of the paws of the Sphinx. At the top of the stairs, a podium was positioned that allowed view into the Sphinx sanctuary. Further back, another podium neighbored several more steps. The stairway was dismantled during the 1931–32 excavations by Émile Baraize.
Pliny the Elder describes the face of the Sphinx being colored red and gives measurements for the statue:
A stela dated to 166 AD commemorates the restoration of the retaining walls surrounding the Sphinx. The last Emperor connected with the monument is Septimius Severus, around 200 AD. With the downfall of Roman power, the Sphinx was once more engulfed by the sands.
Middle Ages
Some ancient non-Egyptians saw it as a likeliness of the god Horon. The cult of the Sphinx continued into medieval times. The Sabians of Harran saw it as the burial place of Hermes Trismegistus. Arab authors described the Sphinx as a talisman which guarded the area from the desert. Al-Maqrizi describes it as the "talisman of the Nile" of which the locals believed the flood cycle depended upon. Muhammad al-Idrisi stated that those wishing to obtain bureaucratic positions in the Egyptian government gave incense offering to the monument.
European travellers
In the last 700 years, there has been a proliferation of travellers and reports from Lower Egypt, unlike Upper Egypt, which was seldom reported from prior to the mid-18th century. Alexandria, Rosetta, Damietta, Cairo and the Giza Pyramids are described repeatedly, but not necessarily comprehensively. Many accounts were published and widely read. These include those of George Sandys, André Thévet, Athanasius Kircher, Balthasar de Monconys, Jean de Thévenot, John Greaves, Johann Michael Vansleb, Benoît de Maillet, Cornelis de Bruijn, Paul Lucas, Richard Pococke, Frederic Louis Norden and others. But there is an even larger set of lesser known people who wrote obscure and little-read works, sometimes only unpublished manuscripts in libraries or private collections, including Henry Castela, Hans Ludwig von Lichtenstein, Michael Heberer von Bretten, Wilhelm von Boldensele, Pierre Belon du Mans, Vincent Stochove, Christophe Harant, Gilles Fermanel, Robert Fauvel, Jean Palerne Foresien, Willian Lithgow, Joos van Ghistele, etc.
Over the centuries, writers and scholars have recorded their impressions and reactions upon seeing the Sphinx. The vast majority were concerned with a general description, often including a mixture of science, romance and mystique. A typical description of the Sphinx by tourists and leisure travelers throughout the 19th and 20th century was made by John Lawson Stoddard:
From the 16th century far into the 19th century, observers repeatedly noted that the Sphinx has the face, neck and breast of a woman. Examples included Johannes Helferich (1579), George Sandys (1615), Johann Michael Vansleb (1677), Benoît de Maillet (1735) and Elliot Warburton (1844).
Most early Western images were book illustrations in print form, elaborated by a professional engraver from either previous images available or some original drawing or sketch supplied by an author, and usually now lost. Seven years after visiting Giza, André Thévet (Cosmographie de Levant, 1556) described the Sphinx as "the head of a colossus, caused to be made by Isis, daughter of Inachus, then so beloved of Jupiter". He, or his artist and engraver, pictured it as a curly-haired monster with a grassy dog collar. Athanasius Kircher (who never visited Egypt) depicted the Sphinx as a Roman statue, reflecting his ability to conceptualize (Turris Babel, 1679). Johannes Helferich's (1579) Sphinx is a pinched-face, round-breasted woman with a straight haired wig; the only edge over Thévet is that the hair suggests the flaring lappets of the headdress. George Sandys stated that the Sphinx was a harlot; Balthasar de Monconys interpreted the headdress as a kind of hairnet, while François de La Boullaye-Le Gouz's Sphinx had a rounded hairdo with bulky collar.
Richard Pococke's Sphinx was an adoption of Cornelis de Bruijn's drawing of 1698, featuring only minor changes, but is closer to the actual appearance of the Sphinx than anything previous. The print versions of Norden's careful drawings for his Voyage d'Egypte et de Nubie, 1755 are the first to clearly show that the nose was missing. However, from the time of the Napoleonic invasion of Egypt onwards, a number of accurate images were widely available in Europe, and copied by others.
Modern excavations
In 1817, the first modern archaeological dig, supervised by the Italian Giovanni Battista Caviglia, uncovered the Sphinx's chest completely.
One of the people working on clearing the sands from around the Great Sphinx was Eugène Grébaut, a French Director of the Antiquities Service.
Opinions of early Egyptologists
Prior to thorough excavations and evaluation of the evidence that was yet to be unearthed, Egyptologists and excavators were of divided opinion regarding the age of the Sphinx and the associated temples.
In 1857, Auguste Mariette, founder of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, unearthed the much later Inventory Stela (estimated to be from the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, c. 664–525 BC), which tells how Khufu came upon the Sphinx, already buried in sand. Although certain tracts on the Stela are likely accurate, this passage is contradicted by archaeological evidence, thus considered to be Late Period historical revisionism, a purposeful fake, created by the local priests as an attempt to imbue the contemporary Isis temple with an ancient history it never had. Such acts became common when religious institutions such as temples, shrines and priests' domains were fighting for political attention and for financial and economic donations.
Flinders Petrie wrote in 1883 regarding the state of opinion of the age of the Khafre Valley Temple, and by extension the Sphinx: "The date of the Granite Temple has been so positively asserted to be earlier than the fourth dynasty, that it may seem rash to dispute the point. Recent discoveries, however, strongly show that it was really not built before the reign of Khafre, in the fourth dynasty."
Gaston Maspero, the French Egyptologist and second director of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, conducted a survey of the Sphinx in 1886. He concluded that because the Dream Stela showed the cartouche of Khafre in line 13, it was he who was responsible for the excavation and therefore the Sphinx must predate Khafre and his predecessors—possibly Fourth Dynasty, . Maspero believed the Sphinx to be "the most ancient monument in Egypt".
Ludwig Borchardt attributed the Sphinx to the Middle Kingdom, arguing that the particular features seen on the Sphinx are unique to the 12th dynasty and that the Sphinx resembles Amenemhat III.
James Henry Breasted reserved his opinion on the matter.
E. A. Wallis Budge agreed that the Sphinx predated Khafre's reign, writing in The Gods of the Egyptians (1904): "This marvelous object [the Great Sphinx] was in existence in the days of Khafre, or Khephren, and it is probable that it is a very great deal older than his reign and that it dates from the end of the archaic period []."
Selim Hassan reasoned that the Sphinx was erected after the completion of the Khafre pyramid complex.
Recent restorations
In 1931, engineers of the Egyptian government repaired the head of the Sphinx. Part of its headdress had fallen off in 1926 due to erosion, which had also cut deeply into its neck. This questionable repair was by the addition of a concrete collar between the headdress and the neck, creating an altered profile. Many renovations to the stone base and raw rock body were done in the 1980s, and then redone in the 1990s.
Degradation and violation
The nummulitic limestone of the area consists of layers which offer differing resistance to erosion (mostly caused by wind and windblown sand), leading to the uneven degradation apparent in the Sphinx's body. The lowest part of the body, including the legs, is solid rock. The body of the animal up to its neck is fashioned from softer layers that have suffered considerable disintegration. The layer in which the head was sculpted is much harder.
A number of "dead-end" shafts are known to exist within and below the body of the Great Sphinx, most likely dug by treasure hunters and tomb robbers.
Missing nose
Examination of the Sphinx's face shows that long rods or chisels were hammered into the nose area, one down from the bridge and another beneath the nostril, then used to pry the nose off towards the south, resulting in the one-metre wide nose still being lost to date. Mark Lehner, who performed an archaeological study, concluded that it was intentionally broken with instruments at an unknown time between the 3rd and 10th centuries AD.
Drawings of the Sphinx by Frederic Louis Norden in 1737 show the nose missing. Many folk tales exist regarding the destruction of its nose, aiming to provide an answer as to where it went or what happened to it. One tale erroneously attributes it to cannonballs fired by the army of Napoleon Bonaparte. Other tales ascribe it to being the work of Mamluks. Since the 10th century, some Arab authors have claimed it to be a result of iconoclastic attacks.
The Arab historian al-Maqrīzī, writing in the 15th century, attributes the loss of the nose to Muhammad Sa'im al-Dahr, a Sufi Muslim from the khanqah of Sa'id al-Su'ada in 1378, who found the local peasants making offerings to the Sphinx in the hope of increasing their harvest and therefore defaced the Sphinx in an act of iconoclasm. According to al-Maqrīzī, many people living in the area believed that the increased sand covering the Giza Plateau was retribution for al-Dahr's act of defacement. Ibn Qadi Shuhba mentions his name as Muhammad ibn Sadiq ibn al-Muhammad al-Tibrizi al-Masri, who died in 1384. He attributed the desecration of the sphinxes of Qanatir al-Siba built by the sultan Baybars to him, and also said he might have desecrated the Great Sphinx. Al-Minufi stated that the Alexandrian Crusade in 1365 was divine punishment for a Sufi sheikh of the khanqah of Sa'id breaking off the nose.
Beard
In addition to the lost nose, a ceremonial pharaonic beard is thought to have been attached, although this may have been added in later periods after the original construction. Egyptologist Vassil Dobrev has suggested that had the beard been an original part of the Sphinx, it would have damaged the chin of the statue upon falling. The lack of visible damage supports his theory that the beard was a later addition.
Residues of red pigment are visible on areas of the Sphinx's face and traces of yellow and blue pigment have also been found elsewhere on the Sphinx, leading Mark Lehner to suggest that the monument "was once decked out in gaudy comic book colours". However, as with the case of many ancient monuments, the pigments and colours have since deteriorated, resulting in the yellow/beige appearance it has today.
Holes and tunnels
Hole in the Sphinx's head
Johann Helffrich visited the Sphinx during his travels in 1565-66. He describes that a priest went into (sic) the head of the Sphinx, and when he spoke it was as if the Sphinx itself was speaking.
Many New Kingdom stelae depict the Sphinx wearing a crown. If it in fact existed, the hole could have been the anchoring point for it.
Émile Baraize closed the hole with a metal hatch in 1926.
Perring's Hole
Howard Vyse directed Perring in 1837 to drill a tunnel in the back of the Sphinx, just behind the head. The boring rods became stuck at a depth of , Attempts to blast the rods free caused further damage. The hole was cleared in 1978. Among the rubble was a fragment of the Sphinx's nemes headdress.
Major fissure
A major natural fissure in the bedrock cuts through the waist of the Sphinx, first excavated by Auguste Mariette in 1853.
At the top of the back it measures up to in width. Baraize, in 1926, sealed the sides and roofed it with iron bars, limestone and cement, and installed an iron trap door at the top. The sides of the fissure might have been artificially squared, however the bottom is irregular bedrock, about above the outside floor. A very narrow crack continues deeper.
Rump passage
In 1926 the Sphinx was cleared of sand under direction of Baraize, which revealed an opening to a tunnel at floor-level at the north side of the rump. It was subsequently closed by masonry veneer and nearly forgotten.
More than fifty years later, the existence of the passage was recalled by three elderly men who had worked during the clearing as basket carriers. This led to the rediscovery and excavation of the rump passage, in 1980.
The passage consists of an upper and a lower section, which are angled roughly 90 degrees to each other:
The upper part ascends to a height of above the ground-floor at a northwest direction. It runs between masonry veneer and the core body of the Sphinx and ends in a niche wide and high. The ceiling of the niche consists of modern cement, which likely spilled down from the filling of the gap between masonry and core bedrock, some above.
The lower part descends steeply into the bedrock toward northeast, for a distance of approximately and a depth of . It terminated in a cul-de-sac pit at groundwater level. At the entrance it is wide, narrowing to about towards the end. Among the sand and stone fragments, a piece of tin foil and the base of a modern ceramic water jar was found. The clogged bottom contained modern fill. Among it, more tin foil, modern cement and a pair of shoes.
It is possible that the entire passage was cut top down, beginning high up on the rump,and that the current access point at floor-level was made at a later date.
Vyse noted in his diary (February 27 and 28, 1837) that he was "boring" near the tail, which indicates him as the creator of the passage, as no other tunnel has been identified at this location. Another interpretation is that the shaft is of ancient origin, perhaps an exploratory tunnel or an unfinished tomb shaft.
Niche in northern flank
A 1925 photograph shows a man standing below floor level in a niche in the Sphinx's core body. It was closed during the 1925-6 restorations.
Gap under southern large masonry box
Another hole might have been at floor level in the large masonry box on the south side of the Sphinx.
Space behind Dream Stele
The space behind the Dream Stele, between the paws of the Sphinx, was covered by an iron beam and cement roof, which was fitted with an iron trap door.
Keyhole Shaft
At the ledge of the Sphinx enclosure, a square shaft is located opposite the northern hind paw. It was cleared during excavation in 1978 by Hawass and measures and about deep. Lehner interprets the shaft to be an unfinished tomb and named it "Keyhole Shaft", because a cuttings in the ledge above the shaft is shaped like the lower part of a keyhole, upside down.
Pseudohistory
Numerous ideas have been suggested to explain or reinterpret the origin and identity of the Sphinx, that lack sufficient evidential support and/or are contradicted by such, and are therefore considered part of pseudohistory and pseudoarchaeology.
Ancient Astronauts/Atlantis
The Sphinx is oriented from west to east, towards the rising sun, in accordance with the ancient Egyptian solar cult. The Orion correlation theory posits that it was instead aligned to face the constellation of Leo during the vernal equinox around 10,500 BC. The idea is considered pseudoarchaeology by academia, because no textual or archaeological evidence supports this to be the reason for the orientation of the Sphinx.
The Sphinx water erosion hypothesis contends that the main type of weathering evident on the enclosure walls of the Great Sphinx could only have been caused by prolonged and extensive rainfall, and must therefore predate the time of the pharaoh Khafre. The hypothesis was championed by René Schwaller de Lubicz, John Anthony West, and geologist Robert M. Schoch. The theory is considered pseudoarchaeology by mainstream scholarship due to archaeological, climatological and geological evidence to the contrary.
There is a long history of speculation about hidden chambers beneath the Sphinx, by esoteric figures such as H. Spencer Lewis. Edgar Cayce specifically predicted in the 1930s that a "Hall of Records", containing knowledge from Atlantis, would be discovered under the Sphinx in 1998. His prediction fueled much of the fringe speculation that surrounded the Sphinx in the 1990s, which lost momentum when the hall was not found when predicted.
Author Robert K. G. Temple proposes that the Sphinx was originally a statue of the jackal god Anubis, the god of funerals, and that its face was recarved in the likeness of a Middle Kingdom pharaoh, Amenemhet II. Temple bases his identification on the style of the eye make-up and style of the pleats on the headdress.
Racial characteristics
Until the early 20th century, it was suggested that the face of the Sphinx had "Negroid" characteristics, as part of now outdated historical race concepts.
Gallery
See also
Sphinx of Memphis
Sphinx of Taharqo
African lions in culture
Lion (heraldry)
List of colossal sculpture in situ
List of tallest statues
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Riddle of the Sphinx
Egyptian and Greek Sphinxes
Egypt—The Lost Civilization Theory
The Sphinx's Nose
What happened to the Sphinx's nose?
Sphinx photo gallery
Al Maqrizi's account
The Age of the Sphinx by Brian Dunning
Buildings and structures completed in the 27th century BC
Colossal statues in Egypt
Giza Governorate
Giza Plateau
Monoliths
Art of ancient Egypt
Sculptures of ancient Egypt
Khafre
3rd-millennium BC establishments in Egypt
Limestone statues
Tourist attractions in Egypt
Sculptures of lions
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245174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geothermal%20areas%20of%20Yellowstone | Geothermal areas of Yellowstone | The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as hot springs, mud pots, and fumaroles. The number of thermal features in Yellowstone is estimated at 10,000. A study that was completed in 2011 found that a total of 1,283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone, 465 of which are active during an average year. These are distributed among nine geyser basins, with a few geysers found in smaller thermal areas throughout the Park. The number of geysers in each geyser basin are as follows: Upper Geyser Basin (410), Midway Geyser Basin (59), Lower Geyser Basin (283), Norris Geyser Basin (193), West Thumb Geyser Basin (84), Gibbon Geyser Basin (24), Lone Star Geyser Basin (21), Shoshone Geyser Basin (107), Heart Lake Geyser Basin (69), other areas (33). Although famous large geysers like Old Faithful are part of the total, most of Yellowstone's geysers are small, erupting to only a foot or two. The hydrothermal system that supplies the geysers with hot water sits within an ancient active caldera. Many of the thermal features in Yellowstone build up sinter, geyserite, or travertine deposits around and within them.
The various geyser basins are located where rainwater and snowmelt can percolate into the ground, get indirectly superheated by the underlying Yellowstone hotspot, and then erupt at the surface as geysers, hot springs, and fumaroles. Thus flat-bottomed valleys between ancient lava flows and glacial moraines are where most of the large geothermal areas are located. Smaller geothermal areas can be found where fault lines reach the surface, in places along the circular fracture zone around the caldera, and at the base of slopes that collect excess groundwater. Due to the Yellowstone Plateau's high elevation the average boiling temperature at Yellowstone's geyser basins is 199 °F (93 °C). When properly confined and close to the surface it can periodically release some of the built-up pressure in eruptions of hot water and steam that can reach up to 390 feet (120 m) into the air (see Steamboat Geyser, the world's tallest geyser). Water erupting from Yellowstone's geysers is superheated above that boiling point to an average of 204 °F (95.5 °C) as it leaves the vent. The water cools significantly while airborne and is no longer scalding hot by the time it strikes the ground, nearby boardwalks, or even spectators. Because of the high temperatures of the water in the features it is important that spectators remain on the boardwalks and designated trails. Several deaths have occurred in the park as a result of falls into hot springs.
Prehistoric Native American artifacts have been found at Mammoth Hot Springs and other geothermal areas in Yellowstone. Some accounts state that the early people used hot water from the geothermal features for bathing and cooking. In the 19th century Father Pierre-Jean De Smet reported that natives he interviewed thought that geyser eruptions were "the result of combat between the infernal spirits". The Lewis and Clark Expedition traveled north of the Yellowstone area in 1806. Local natives that they came upon seldom dared to enter what we now know is the caldera because of frequent loud noises that sounded like thunder and the belief that the spirits that possessed the area did not like human intrusion into their realm. The first white man known to travel into the caldera and see the geothermal features was John Colter, who had left the Lewis and Clark Expedition. He described what he saw as "hot spring brimstone". Beaver trapper Joseph Meek recounted in 1830 that the steam rising from the various geyser basins reminded him of smoke coming from industrial smokestacks on a cold winter morning in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In the 1850s famed trapper Jim Bridger called it "the place where Hell bubbled up".
Types of features found in the park
The heat that drives geothermal activity in the Yellowstone area comes from brine (salty water) that is below the surface. This is actually below the solid volcanic rock and sediment that extends to a depth of 3,000 to 6,000 feet (900 to 1,800 m) and is inside the hot but mostly solid part of the pluton that contains Yellowstone's magma chamber. Hot springs and mudpots dot the landscape between the geyser basin and Shoshone Lake.
Hot Spring Basin is located 15 miles (24 km) north-northeast of Fishing Bridge and has one of Yellowstone's largest collections of hot springs and fumaroles. The geothermal features there release large amounts of sulfur. This makes water from the springs so acidic that it has dissolved holes in the pants of people who sit on wet ground and causes mounds of sulfur three feet (1 m) high to develop around fumaroles. The very hot acidic water and steam have also created voids in the ground that are only covered by a thin crust.
Mammoth Hot Springs
Mammoth Hot Springs is a large complex of hot springs on a hill of travertine in Yellowstone National Park adjacent to Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. It was created over thousands of years as hot water from the spring cooled and deposited calcium carbonate (over two tons flow into Mammoth each day in a solution). Because of the huge amount of geothermal vents, travertine flourishes. Although these springs lie outside the caldera boundary, their energy has been attributed to the same magmatic system that fuels other Yellowstone geothermal areas.
Mud Volcano and Sulphur Caldron
The thermal features at Mud Volcano and Sulphur Caldron are primarily mud pots and fumaroles because the area is situated on a perched water system with little water available. Fumaroles or "steam vents" occur when the ground water boils away faster than it can be recharged. Also, the vapors are rich in sulfuric acid that leaches the rock, breaking it down into clay. Because no water washes away the acid or leached rock, it remains as sticky clay to form a mud pot. Hydrogen sulfide gas is present deep in the earth at Mud Volcano and is oxidized to sulfuric acid by microbial activity, which dissolves the surface soils to create pools and cones of clay and mud. Along with hydrogen sulfide, steam, carbon dioxide, and other gases explode through the layers of mud.
A series of shallow earthquakes associated with the volcanic activity in Yellowstone struck this area in 1978. Soil temperatures increased to nearly 200 °F (93 °C). The slope between Sizzling Basin and Mud Geyser, once covered with green grass and trees, became a barren landscape of fallen trees known as "the cooking hillside".
See also
Mud volcano
List of Yellowstone geothermal features
Hydrothermal explosion
References
Bryan, T. Scott (1995). The Geysers of Yellowstone. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.
Harris, Ann G.; Tuttle, Esther; and Tuttle, Sherwood D. (1995). Geology of national parks: fifth edition. Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing.
Notes
External links
West Thumb Ranger Station, East of Old Faithful & north of Grant Village on Grand Loop Road, West Thumb, Teton, WY at the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS)
West Thumb Hamilton's Store, General Store, 300' east of Grand Loop Road & 150' northwest of Ranger Station, West Thumb, Teton, WY at HABS, also , , , , , , and
Geysers of Wyoming
Hot springs of Wyoming
Volcanism of Wyoming
Landforms of Yellowstone National Park
Historic American Buildings Survey in Wyoming
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245179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth%20Hot%20Springs | Mammoth Hot Springs | Mammoth Hot Springs is a large complex of hot springs on a hill of travertine in Yellowstone National Park adjacent to Fort Yellowstone and the Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District. It was created over thousands of years as hot water from the spring cooled and deposited calcium carbonate (over two tons flow into Mammoth each day in a solution). Because of the huge amount of geothermal vents, travertine flourishes. Although these springs lie outside the caldera boundary, their energy has been attributed to the same magmatic system that fuels other Yellowstone geothermal areas.
The hot water that feeds Mammoth comes from Norris Geyser Basin after traveling underground via a fault line that runs through limestone and roughly parallel to the Norris-to-Mammoth road. The limestone from rock formations along the fault is the source of the calcium carbonate. Shallow circulation along this corridor allows Norris's superheated water to slightly cool before surfacing at Mammoth, generally at about . Algae living in the warm pools have tinted the travertine shades of brown, orange, red, and green.
Thermal activity here is extensive both over time and distance. The thermal flows show much variability with some variations taking place over periods ranging from decades to days. Terrace Mountain at Mammoth Hot Springs is the largest known carbonate-depositing spring in the world. The most famous feature at the springs is the Minerva Terrace, a series of travertine terraces. The terraces have been deposited by the spring over many years but, due to recent minor earthquake activity, the spring vent has shifted, rendering the terraces dry.
The Mammoth Terraces extend all the way from the hillside, across the Parade Ground, and down to Boiling River. The Mammoth Hotel, as well as all of Fort Yellowstone, is built upon an old terrace formation known as Hotel Terrace. There was some concern when construction began in 1891 on the fort site that the hollow ground would not support the weight of the buildings. Several large sink holes (fenced off) can be seen out on the Parade Ground. This area has been thermally active for several thousand years.
The Mammoth area exhibits much evidence of glacial activity from the Pinedale Glaciation. The summit of Terrace Mountain is covered with glacial till, thereby dating the travertine formation there to earlier than the end of the Pinedale Glaciation. Several thermal kames, including Capitol Hill and Dude Hill, are major features of the Mammoth Village area. Ice-marginal stream beds are in evidence in the small, narrow valleys where Floating Island Lake and Phantom Lake are found. In Gardner Canyon one can see the old, sorted gravel bed of the Gardner River covered by unsorted glacial till.
Individually named thermal features
Angel Spring 1
Angel Spring 2
Angel Spring 3
Aphrodite Terrace
Baby Terrace
Bath Lake
Blue Springs
Canary Spring
Cavern Terrace
Cedar Tree Spring
Cheops Mound
Cleopatra Terrace
Cupid Spring
Dedolph Spring-a
Dedolph Spring-b
Dedolph Spring-c
Devil's Kitchen Springs (The Sodas)
Devils Thumb (Hot Spring)|Devils Thumb
Fan Spring
Fissure Ridge
Glen Springs
Highland Terrace
Hymen Terrace
Ladies' Lake
Liberty Cap
Little Burper
Little Joker
Little Lucifer
Main Springs and Terrace
Marble Terrace
Minerva Terrace
Mound Terrace
Naid Spring
Narrow Gauge Terrace
New Blue Spring
New Highland Terrace
New Pallette Springs
Opal Terrace (across the road from Liberty Cap)
Orange Mound Spring
Painted Pool
Palette Spring
Paperpicker Spring
Poison Cave
Poison Spring (Gaseous Hot Spring)
Prospect Springs and Terrace
Pulpit Terrace
Rath Spring and Terrace
Reservoir Springs
River Styx-a
River Styx-b
Sidewalk Spring
Soda Spring (Bargar-Allen & Day)
Squirrel Springs and Squirrel Ridge
Sulphur Pits
Sulphur Spring
Tangerine Spring
The Buttress
The Esplanade (Hot Spring)|The Esplanade
The Grottos
Trail Springs
White Elephant Back Terrace
See also
Geothermal areas of Yellowstone
References
Geothermal features of Yellowstone National Park
Geothermal features of Park County, Wyoming
Hot springs of Wyoming | [
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245180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilmun | Dilmun | Dilmun, or Telmun, (Sumerian: , later 𒉌𒌇(𒆠), ni.tukki = DILMUNki; ) was an ancient East Semitic-speaking civilization in Eastern Arabia mentioned from the 3rd millennium BC onwards.
Based on contextual evidence, it was located in the Persian Gulf, on a trade route between Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilisation, close to the sea and to artesian springs. A number of scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of modern Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. Dilmun encompassed Bahrain, Kuwait, and the eastern portion regions of Saudi Arabia. This area is certainly what is meant by references to "Dilmun" among the lands conquered by King Sargon II and his descendants.
The great commercial and trading connections between Mesopotamia and Dilmun were strong and profound to the point where Dilmun was a central figure to the Sumerian creation myth. Dilmun was described in the saga of Enki and Ninhursag as pre-existing in paradisiacal state, where predators do not kill, pain and diseases are absent, and people do not get old.
Dilmun was an important trading centre. At the height of its power, it controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. According to some modern theories, the Sumerians regarded Dilmun as a sacred place, but that is never stated in any known ancient text. Dilmun was mentioned by the Mesopotamians as a trade partner, a source of copper, and a trade entrepôt.
The Sumerian tale of the garden paradise of Dilmun may have been an inspiration for the Garden of Eden story.
History
Dilmun was an important trading center from the late fourth millennium to 800 BC. At the height of its power, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. Dilmun was very prosperous during the first 300 years of the second millennium. Dilmun was conquered by the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365-1050 BC), and its
commercial power began to decline between 1000 BC and 800 BC because piracy flourished in the Persian Gulf. In the 8th and 7th centuries BC the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC) conquered Dilmun, and in the 6th century BC the Neo-Babylonian Empire, and later the Persian Empire, ruled Dilmun.
The Dilmun civilization was the centre of commercial activities linking traditional agriculture of the land—then utterly fertile due to artesian wells that have dried since, and due to a much wetter climate—with maritime trade between diverse regions such as the Indus Valley and Mesopotamia in its early stage and later between China and the Mediterranean. The Dilmun civilization is mentioned first in Sumerian cuneiform clay tablets dated to the late third millennium BC, found in the temple of goddess Inanna, in the city of Uruk. The adjective Dilmun is used to describe a type of axe and one specific official; in addition there are lists of rations of wool issued to people connected with Dilmun.
One of the earliest inscriptions mentioning Dilmun is that of king Ur-Nanshe of Lagash (c. 2300 BC) found in a door-socket: "The ships of Dilmun brought him wood as tribute from foreign lands."
Kingdom of Dilmun
From about 2050 BC onward Dilmun seems to had its heyday. Modern Qal'at al-Bahrain was most likely the capital. From texts found at Isin it becomes clear that Dilmun became an independent kingdom free from Mesopotamian rule. Royal gifts to Dilmun are mentioned. Contacts with the Amorite state of Mari in the northern Levant are attested. In about this time the largest royal burial mounds were erected. From about 1780 BC come several inscriptions on stone vessels naming two kings of Dilmun. King Yagli-El and his father Rimum. The inscriptions were found in huge tumuli evidently the burial places of these kings. Rimum was already known to archaeology from the Durand Stone, discovered in 1879.
From about 1720 BC a decline is visible. Many settlements were no longer used and the building of royal mounts stopped. The Barbar Temple fell into ruins. From about 1650 BC there is recovering period detectable. New royal burial mounts were built and at Qal'at al-Bahrain there is evidence for increased building activity. To this period belongs a further inscription on a seal found at Failaka and preserving a king's name. The short text readsː [La]'ù-la Panipa, daughter of Sumu-lěl, the servant of Inzak of Akarum. Sumu-lěl was evidently a third king of Dilmun belonging to about this period. Servant of Inzak of Akarum was the king's title in Dilmun. The names of these later rulers are Amoritic.
Dilmun under foreign rule
It seems that Dilmun was after 1500 BC under the rule of the Akkadian speaking Mesopotamian Sealand Dynasty. The Sealand-Dynasty king Ea-gamil is mentioned in a text found at Qal'at al-Bahrain. Ea-gamil was the last ruler of the Sealand Dynasty. After his reign Dilmun came under the rule of the Babylonian Kassite dynasty, as they also took over the Sealand Dynasty area.
Dilmun was mentioned in two letters dated to the reign of Burna-Buriash II (c. 1370 BC) recovered from Nippur, during the Kassite dynasty of Babylon. These letters were from a provincial official, Ilī-ippašra, in Dilmun to his friend Enlil-kidinni, the governor of Nippur. The names referred to are Akkadian. These letters and other documents, hint at an administrative relationship between Dilmun and Babylon at that time. Following the collapse of the Kassite dynasty in 1595 BC, Mesopotamian documents make no mention of Dilmun until Assyrian inscriptions dated from 1250 BC to 1050 BC which proclaimed Assyrian kings to be rulers of Dilmun and Meluhha, as well as Lower Sea and Upper Sea. Assyrian inscriptions recorded tribute from Dilmun.
There are other Assyrian inscriptions during the first millennium BC indicating Assyrian sovereignty over Dilmun. One of the early sites discovered in Bahrain suggests that Sennacherib, king of Assyria (707–681 BC), attacked northeast Arabia and captured the Bahraini islands. The most recent reference to Dilmun came during the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Neo-Babylonian administrative records, dated 567 BC, stated that Dilmun was controlled by the king of Babylon. The name of Dilmun fell from use after the collapse of Babylon in 538 BC, with the area henceforth identified as Tylos during the Hellenistic period.
The "Persian Gulf" types of circular, stamped (rather than rolled) seals known from Dilmun, that appear at Lothal in Gujarat, India, and Failaka, as well as in Mesopotamia, are convincing corroboration of the long-distance sea trade. What the commerce consisted of is less known: timber and precious woods, ivory, lapis lazuli, gold, and luxury goods such as carnelian and glazed stone beads, pearls from the Persian Gulf, shell and bone inlays, were among the goods sent to Mesopotamia in exchange for silver, tin, woolen textiles, olive oil and grains.
Copper ingots from Oman and bitumen which occurred naturally in Mesopotamia may have been exchanged for cotton textiles and domestic fowl, major products of the Indus region that are not native to Mesopotamia. Instances of all of these trade goods have been found. The importance of this trade is shown by the fact that the weights and measures used at Dilmun were in fact identical to those used by the Indus, and were not those used in Southern Mesopotamia.
In regard to copper mining and smelting, the Umm al-Nar Culture and Dalma in the United Arab Emirates, and Ibri in Oman were particularly important.
Some Meluhhan vessels may have sailed directly to Mesopotamian ports, but by the Isin-Larsa Period, Dilmun monopolized the trade. The Bahrain National Museum assesses that its "Golden Age" lasted ca. 2200–1600 BC. Discoveries of ruins under the Persian Gulf may be of Dilmun.
People, language and religion
The population used cuneiform to write in the Akkadian language, and, like the Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Eblaites of Mesopotamia, spoke an East Semitic language that was either an Akkadian dialect or one close to it, rather than a Central Semitic language such as the much later appearing Arabs spoke, and its known rulers had East Semitic names. Dilmun's main deity was named Inzak and his spouse was Panipa.
Mythology
In the early epic Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, the main events, which center on Enmerkar's construction of the ziggurats in Uruk and Eridu, are described as taking place at a time "before Dilmun had yet been settled".
Dilmun, sometimes described as "the place where the sun rises" and "the Land of the Living", is the scene of some versions of the Sumerian creation myth, and the place where the deified Sumerian hero of the flood, Utnapishtim (Ziusudra), was taken by the gods to live forever. Thorkild Jacobsen's translation of the Eridu Genesis calls it "Mount Dilmun" which he locates as a "faraway, half-mythical place".
Dilmun is also described in the epic story of Enki and Ninhursag as the site at which the Creation occurred. The later Babylonian Enuma Elish, speaks of the creation site as the place where the mixture of salt water, personified as Tiamat met and mingled with the fresh water of Abzu. Bahrain in Arabic means "the twin waters", where the fresh water of the Arabian aquifer mingles with the salt waters of the Persian Gulf. The promise of Enki to Ninhursag, the Earth Mother:
For Dilmun, the land of my lady's heart, I will create long waterways, rivers and canals, whereby water will flow to quench the thirst of all beings and bring abundance to all that lives.
Ninlil, the Sumerian goddess of air and south wind had her home in Dilmun.
However, it is also speculated that Gilgamesh had to pass through Mount Mashu to reach Dilmun in the Epic of Gilgamesh, which is usually identified with the whole of the parallel Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges, with the narrow gap between these mountains constituting the tunnel.
Location of Dilmun
In 1987, Theresa Howard-Carter proposed that Dilmun of this era might be a still unidentified tell near the Arvand Rud (Shatt al-Arab in Arabic) between modern-day Quanah and Basra in modern-day Iraq. In favor of Howard-Carter's proposal, it has been noted that this area does lie to the east of Sumer ("where the sun rises"), and the riverbank where Dilmun's maidens would have been accosted aligns with the Shat al-Arab which is in the midst of marshes. The "mouth of the rivers" where Dilmun was said to lie is for her the union of the Tigris and Euphrates at Qurnah.
As of 2021, archaeologists have failed to find a site in existence during the time from 3300 BC (Uruk IV) to 556 BC (Neo-Babylonian Era), when Dilmun appears in texts. According to Hojlund, no settlements exist in the Gulf littoral dating to 3300–2000 BC.
Garden of Eden theory
In 1922, Eduard Glaser proposed that the Garden of Eden was located in Eastern Arabia within the Dilmun civilization. Scholar Juris Zarins also believes that the Garden of Eden was situated in Dilmun at the head of the Persian Gulf, where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers run into the sea, from his research on this area using information from many different sources, including Landsat images from space. In this theory, the Bible's Gihon would correspond with the Karun in Iran, and the Pishon River would correspond to the Wadi Al-Batin river system that once drained the now dry, but once quite fertile central part of the Arabian Peninsula.
Known rulers
Only a few rulers of the Dilmun kingdom are known:
Ziusudra (27th century BC)
Rimun (c. 1780 BC)
Yagli-El, son of Rimun
Sumu-lěl (c. 1650 BC)
Usiananuri, grandfather of Uballissu-Marduk (precise dates unknown)
Ilī-ippašra (contemporary with Burnaburiash II and Kurigalzu II)
Operi (c. 710 BC)
Hundaru I (c. 650 BC)
Qena (c. 680–c. 670 BC)
Hundaru II (706–685 BC)
See also
Dilmun Burial Mounds
Gerrha
History of Bahrain
History of Kuwait
DHL International Aviation ME, a cargo airline using “Dilmun” as radio call sign
Bahrain National Museum
Kuwait National Museum
Gilgamesh
Uruk
References
External links
Indus Valley—Mesopotamian trade passing through Dilmun
Lost ancient civilisation's ruins lie beneath Gulf, says boffin
Bahrain National Museum's hall of Dilmun
Dilmun Site Al-Khidr, Failaka Island, State of Kuwait
Greek inscriptions found on Bahrein (a pdf-file)
Dilmun Calendar Theory Backed, Gulf Daily News, 11 July 2006
Sumer
Bronze Age countries in Asia
Civilizations
History of the Arabian Peninsula
History of Saudi Arabia
History of Bahrain
History of Kuwait
History of the Persian Gulf
Archaeological sites in Bahrain
Archaeological sites in Kuwait
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245181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travertine | Travertine | Travertine ( ) is a form of terrestrial limestone deposited around mineral springs, especially hot springs. Travertine often has a fibrous or concentric appearance and exists in white, tan, cream-colored, and even rusty varieties. It is formed by a process of rapid precipitation of calcium carbonate, often at the mouth of a hot spring or in a limestone cave. In the latter, it can form stalactites, stalagmites, and other speleothems. It is frequently used in Italy and elsewhere as a building material.
Similar (but softer and extremely porous) deposits formed from ambient-temperature water are known as tufa.
Definition
Travertine is a sedimentary rock formed by the chemical precipitation of calcium carbonate minerals from fresh water, typically in springs, rivers, and lakes; that is, from surface and ground waters. In the broadest sense, travertine includes deposits in both hot and cold springs, including the porous, spongy rock known as tufa, and also the cave features known as speleothems (which include stalactites and stalagmites). Calcrete, which is calcium minerals deposited as a horizon in the soil profile, is not considered a form of travertine.
However, travertine is often defined in a more narrow sense as dense rock, sometimes massive but more commonly banded or with a fibrous internal structure, deposited in hot springs. In this more narrow sense, travertine is distinct from speleothems and tufa. Travertine is sometimes also defined by its mode of origin, as rock formed by inorganic precipitation of calcium carbonate minerals onto a surface following exchange of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and groundwater. Calcrete, lake marls, and lake reefs are excluded from this definition, but both speleothems and tufa are included.
Fresh travertines vary widely in their porosity, from about 10% to 70%. However, ancient travertines may have a porosity as low as 2% due to crystallization of secondary calcite in the original pore spaces, while some of the fresh aragonite travertine at Mammoth Hot Springs has a porosity greater than 80%. A porosity of about 50% is typical for cold spring travertine while hot spring travertines have a mean porosity of about 26%. Speleothems have low porosities of less than 15%.
Landforms
Travertine forms distinctive landforms:
Spring mounds are domes of travertine ranging in height from less than a meter to over surrounding a spring orifice. Because the spring orifice is above ground level, the formation of terrestrial mounds requires either an artesian spring or a geyser. Travertine mounds also are found under water, often in saline lakes.
Fissure ridges form from spring discharge along joints or faults. These can be over in height and in length. These generally show signs of progressive widening of the fissure, balanced by deposition of travertine on the fissure wall.
Cascade deposits are formed by a series of waterfalls.
Dam deposits are similar to cascades, but have localized vertical buildup of travertine that creates a pond or lake behind the travertine buildup.
Travertine forms various kinds of fluvial and lake deposits.
Paludal (marsh) deposits are shallow accumulations in poorly drained areas.
Speleothems are the characteristic "formations" of caves.
Etymology
The word 'travertine' is derived from the Italian travertino, itself a derivation of the Latin tiburtinus meaning 'of Tibur' (now known as Tivoli, near Rome, Italy).
Geochemistry
The formation of travertine begins when groundwater () containing an elevated concentration of dissolved carbon dioxide () comes in contact with limestone or other rock containing calcium carbonate (). The dissolved carbon dioxide acts as a weak acid, carbonic acid, which dissolves some of the limestone as soluble calcium bicarbonate ():
This is a reversible reaction, meaning that as the concentration of dissolved calcium bicarbonate builds up, the calcium bicarbonate begins to revert to calcium carbonate, water, and carbon dioxide. So long as there is nowhere for the carbon dioxide to go, an equilibrium is reached where dissolution of calcium carbonate is balanced by precipitation of calcium carbonate.
If the groundwater moves into an environment with a lower concentration of carbon dioxide (as measured by its partial pressure, pCO2), some of the carbon dioxide will escape into the environment, disturbing the equilibrium and allowing net precipitation of calcium carbonate to take place:
The calcium carbonate most readily precipitates onto solid surfaces bathed by the groundwater, eventually building up thick deposits of travertine. Because of the role of in dissolving and transporting calcium carbonate, it is sometimes described as the carrier CO2 or simply as the carrier.
The most important sources of elevated carbon dioxide concentration in groundwater are soil and volcanic activity. Water passing through soil picks up carbon dioxide from plant roots and decaying organic matter. This is described as meteoric carrier and the travertine formed by this mechanism as meteogene travertine. This is the principal mechanism for formation of speleothems. Groundwater with an enhanced concentration of absorbed from soil infiltrates underlying limestone, dissolving some of the limestone. When this groundwater then emerges into a cave with a lower concentration of , some of the escapes, allowing calcium carbonate to precipitate and build up stalactites, stalagmites, and other speleotherms.
Volcanic activity is the source of carbon dioxide in groundwater that emerges from hot springs. When the water reaches the mouth of the spring, it rapidly loses carbon dioxide to the open air and precipitates calcium carbonate around the spring mouth. Travertine formed this way is described as thermogene travertine. This can form spectacular deposits of travertine, such as those of Pamukkale or Mammoth Hot Springs. The carbon dioxide may come from sources deep in the Earth, such as metamorphism of deeply buried rock. The carbon dioxide is carried towards the surface by magma and is a major component of volcanic gases. However, carbon dioxide may also be generated by heating of solid rock close to the surface by shallow magma bodies, through thermal decomposition of organic matter or by reactions of quartz or other silica minerals with carbonate minerals.
Precipitation may be enhanced by factors leading to a reduction in pCO2, for example increased air-water interactions at waterfalls may be important, as may photosynthesis.
Rarely, travertine may form from highly alkaline water containing dissolved calcium hydroxide () produced during serpentinization of ultramafic rock. When this alkaline water reaches the surface, it absorbs carbon dioxide from the air to precipitate calcium carbonate:
While water carbonated by volcanic activity is usually associated with hot springs, such water occasionally cools to near ambient temperature before emerging at the surface. Likewise, water carbonated by passage through soil will occasionally have circulated to sufficient depths that it is quite warm when it reemerges at the surface. Water carbonated by volcanic activity will nonetheless tend to have a higher content of dissolved calcium bicarbonate and will generally be more enriched in the heavier 13C isotope.
Both of the major calcium carbonate minerals, calcite and aragonite, are found in hot spring travertines; aragonite is preferentially precipitated when temperatures are hot, while calcite dominates when temperatures are cooler. When pure and fine, travertine is white, but often it is brown to yellow due to impurities.
Occurrence
Travertine is found in hundreds of locations around the world. Only a sampling of notable occurrences are listed here.
Travertine is found at Tivoli, east of Rome, where the travertine has been mined for at least two thousand years. The travertine here was deposited in a body in area and thick along a north-trending fault near the dormant Colli Albani volcano. The Guidonia quarry is also located in this deposit of travertine. The ancient name for this stone was lapis tiburtinus, meaning tibur stone, which was gradually corrupted to travertino (travertine). Detailed studies of the Tivoli and Guidonia travertine deposits revealed diurnal and annual rhythmic banding and laminae, which have potential use in geochronology. Deposits of travertine are found in about 100 other locations in Italy, including Rapalino near Pisa. The port of Paestum was built on a sheet of tufa.
Cascades of natural lakes formed behind travertine dams can be seen in Pamukkale, Turkey, which is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Other places with such cascades include Huanglong in Sichuan Province of China (another UNESCO World Heritage Site), the Mammoth Hot Springs in the US, Egerszalók in Hungary, Mahallat, Abbass Abad, Atash Kooh, and Badab-e Surt in Iran, Band-i-Amir in Afghanistan, Lagunas de Ruidera, Spain, Hierve el Agua, Oaxaca, Mexico and Semuc Champey, Guatemala.
In Central Europe's last post-glacial palaeoclimatic optimum (Atlantic Period, 8000–5000 BC), huge deposits of tufa formed from karst springs. On a smaller scale, these karst processes are still working. Important geotopes are found at the Swabian Alb, mainly in valleys at the foremost northwest ridge of the cuesta; in many valleys of the eroded periphery of the karstic Franconian Jura; and at the northern Alpine foothills.
Travertine has formed sixteen huge, natural dams in a valley in Croatia known as Plitvice Lakes National Park. Clinging to moss and rocks in the water, the travertine has built up over several millennia to form waterfalls up to in height.
In the US, the most well-known place for travertine formation is Yellowstone National Park, where the geothermal areas are rich in travertine deposits. Wyoming also has travertines in Hot Springs State Park in Thermopolis. Oklahoma has two parks dedicated to this natural wonder. Turner Falls, the tallest waterfall in Oklahoma, is a cascade of spring water flowing over a travertine cave. Honey Creek feeds this waterfall and creates miles of travertine shelves both up and downstream. Many small waterfalls upstream in the dense woods repeat the travertine-formation effect. The city of Davis now owns thousands of acres of this land and has made it a tourist attraction. Another travertine resource is in Sulphur, Oklahoma, east of Turner Falls. Travertine Creek flows through a spring-water nature preserve within the boundaries of the Chickasaw National Recreation Area.
In Texas, the city of Austin and its surrounding "Hill Country" to the south is built on limestone. The area has many travertine formations, such as those found at Gorman Falls within Colorado Bend State Park.
Hanging Lake in Glenwood Canyon in Colorado was formed by travertine dams across a spring-fed stream. Travertine beds in the area are as much as thick. Rifle Falls State Park in Colorado features a triple waterfall over a travertine dam.
The Soda Dam hot spring system of the Jemez Mountains of New Mexico have been intensively investigated because of its connection to the geothermal system of the Valles caldera. Here hot groundwater from the caldera has moved along the Jemez fault, and mixed with cooler groundwater before emerging at the surface. Radiometric dating of the travertines show that deposition began almost immediately after the Valles caldera eruption, and that the area is now experiencing a further episode of deposition that began 5000 years ago. A new species of the extremophile green alga Scenedesmus was first isolated from the travertine of Soda Dam.
In Arizona, on the south side of the Grand Canyon there is the Havasupai Reservation. Flowing through it is Havasu Creek, which has extensive travertine deposits. Three major waterfalls, Navajo Falls, Havasu Falls, and Mooney Falls, are all located downstream from the town of Supai. There are numerous smaller cataracts formed by travertine dams. These features are located about from Supai Village (on the floor of the canyon), and are accessible by foot or horseback.
In Iceland, the Hvanná river, located at the north flank of the Eyjafjallajökull, was heavily charged with CO2 following the 2010 eruptions. Travertine precipitated along the river.
In North East Sulawesi, Indonesia is the Wawolesea Karst. A notable feature of this area is a pond several meters from the beach, formed by a salty, hot water fountain extant since the Neogene period.
Uses
Travertine is often used as a building material. It typically lacks planes of weakness, and its high porosity makes it light in weight for its strength, gives it good thermal and acoustic insulating properties, and makes it relatively easy to work. Dense travertine makes excellent decorative stone when polished.
The Romans mined deposits of travertine for building temples, monuments, aqueducts, bath complexes, and amphitheaters such as the Colosseum, the largest building in the world constructed mostly of travertine. In Italy, well-known travertine quarries exist in Tivoli and Guidonia Montecelio, where the most important quarries since Ancient Roman times can be found. The Tivoli quarries supplied the travertine from which Gian Lorenzo Bernini selected material from which to build the famous Colonnade of St. Peter's Square in Rome (colonnato di Piazza S. Pietro) in 1656–1667. Michelangelo also chose travertine as the material for the external ribs of the dome of St Peter's Basilica. Travertine from Trivoli was used in the sculpting of the majority of the Trevi Fountain in Rome during the Baroque period.
Travertine regained popularity as a building material in the Middle Ages. The central German town of Bad Langensalza has an extant medieval old town built almost entirely of local travertine. Twentieth century buildings using travertine extensively include the Sacré-Cœur Basilica in Paris, the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California, and Shell-Haus in Berlin. The travertine used in the Getty Center and Shell-Haus constructions was imported from Tivoli and Guidonia.
Travertine is one of several natural stones that are used for paving patios and garden paths. It is sometimes known as travertine limestone or travertine marble; these are the same stone, although travertine is classified properly as a type of limestone, not marble. The stone is characterised by pitted holes and troughs in its surface. Although these troughs occur naturally, they suggest signs of considerable wear and tear over time. It can also be polished to a smooth, shiny finish, and comes in a variety of colors from grey to coral-red. Travertine is also available in tile sizes for floor installations.
Travertine is one of the most frequently used stones in modern architecture. It is commonly used for indoor home/business flooring, outdoor patio flooring, spa walls and ceilings, façades, and wall cladding. The lobby walls of the modernist Willis Tower (1970) (formerly Sears Tower) in Chicago are made of travertine. Architect Welton Becket frequently incorporated travertine into many of his projects. The Ronald Reagan UCLA Medical Center is clad with over 3 million pounds (about 1360 tonnes) of Ambra Light travertine from the Tivoli quarries. Architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe used travertine in several of his major works, including the Toronto-Dominion Centre, S.R. Crown Hall, the Farnsworth House and the Barcelona Pavilion.
The New Mexico State Capitol has its rotunda finished with travertine mined from a deposit west of Belen, New Mexico. Stone from this quarry is also used in buildings at the University of New Mexico.
Supply
Until the 1980s, Italy had a near-monopoly on the world travertine market; now significant supplies are quarried in Turkey, Mexico, China, Peru, and Spain. US imports of travertine in 2019 were 17,808 metric tons, of which 12,804 were from Turkey.
See also
– see the variety called "onyx-marble", actually a travertine
References
Sources
External links
Minerals.net Aragonite
Travertine Frequently Asked Questions
Travertine FAQ
Calcium minerals
Limestone
Springs (hydrology) | [
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245184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallu | Gallu | In Sumerian and ancient Mesopotamian religion, gallûs (also called gallas; Akkadian gallû < Sumerian ) were great demons or devils of the ancient Mesopotamian Underworld.
Role in mythology
Gallu demons hauled unfortunate victims off to the underworld. They were one of seven devils (or "the offspring of hell") of Babylonian theology that could be appeased by the sacrifice of a lamb at their altars.
The goddess Inanna was pursued by gallu demons after being escorted from the Underworld by Galatura and Kuryara. In the Descent, it is stated that said demons “know no food, know no drink, eat no flour offering, drink no libation. They never enjoy the pleasures of marital embrace, never have any sweet children to kiss. They snatch the son from a man’s knee. They make the bride leave the house of her father in law”. An especially fierce gallu demon, the monstrous Asag, was slain by Ninurta using the enchanted mace Sharur.
Other uses
The word gallu may also refer to a human adversary, one that is dangerous and implacable.
See also
Ancient Mesopotamian religion
Babylonian religion
Sumerian religion
Asag/Asakku
Ḫulbazizi
Utukku
Ghoul
References
Mesopotamian demons
Mesopotamian underworld
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245185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobog | Chernobog | Chernobog (, lit. "Black God", reconstructed as , from *čьrnъ ("black") + *bogъ ("god")) is the god of bad fate worshipped by the Polabian Slavs. He is first mentioned by Helmold in the Chronica Slavorum. The authenticity of the cult of the Chernobog, as well as of the Belobog reproduced by analogy to him, is controversial among scholars. Nevertheless, Chernobog is one of the most popular Slavic gods in the world.
Sources
Chronica Slavorum
The twelfth century German monk and chronicler Helmold, who accompanied the Christianization missions to the Elbe Slavs, describes in his Chronicle of the Slavs the cult of Chernobog:
Later sources
The next sources that speak of Chernobog and/or Bialobog appear only in the 16th century. Around 1530, a Dominican monk from Pirna, Johan Lindner, recalls the gods in his compilation. Although he lived in or near the Lusatian region, he probably only used written sources and monastic stories, and not field research, which quickly made his work unbelievable by many historians, including Georg Fabricius and Petrus Albinus. They believed that although his sources were numerous and varied, he used them uncritically. At the end of the 17th century, also mentioned the Chernobog in his list of the Lusatian gods. This information is also considered unbelievable because it came into being late, when the Lusatian paganism was probably completely extinct and about half of the gods he mentioned are of Prussian origin.
In 1538, the Pomeranian chronicler Thomas Kantzow in his Chronicle of Pomerania wrote:
Then Sebastian Münster, in Cosmographiae universalis of 1550, describes the harvest ritual associated with Svetovit and continues: "In general they (the Rugians) worshipped two gods, namely Belbuck and Zernebuck, as if a white and a black god, a good and an evil genius, God and Satan, as the source of good and evil, according to the error of the Manichaeans". The works of Kantzov and Münster are probably independent of each other (various forms of recording the name of the Belebog, the Chronicle of Pomerania was first published, but it was not published until the 19th century), but they use a common source, which, according to Miroslava Znayenko, could be the archive of the Abbey of , where the Belebog was forged. Daniel Cramer, a theologian and professor from Szczecin, probably held in his hands a copy of a chronicle from this archive or saw a quote from it, because in his Pommerisches Kirchen-Chronicon he probably paraphrased a part of it:
Chernobog also appears in the anonymous History of Caminensis as the god of the Vandals, which is based on a piece by Münster (both works speak of the "error of the Manichaeans"). Chernobog also appears in other, later, minor texts.
Interpretations
There is no consensus among researchers on the authenticity of the cult of Chernobog and Belebog. Some researchers believe that both gods are Helmold's invention, some assume the possibility of the existence of these gods, some assume that Chernobog and Belebog are nicknames for other gods. According to Aleksander Gieysztor and Andrzej Szyjewski, Chernobog is rather a hypostasis of evil, a renamed chart, bies (demons), or a bad dola.
Some authors attempted to prove the cult of the Chernobog by means of the names of the mountains of Czorneboh and Bieleboh in Upper Lusatia, where the gods were supposed to be worshipped, but the names were most likely created in modern times because of the popularity of the gods in the culture of the region.
When considering the authenticity of the god, the names of the villages that are supposed to refer to the Chernobog, e.g. the village of Černobož’e in Russia or the village of Černobožna in Ukraine, as well as the neighboring villages Černíkovice and in the Czech Republic are also mentioned as arguments.
Henryk Łowmiński recognized that the Chernoglav, mentioned in the Icelandic Knýtlinga saga, is the "cemetery transformation of the Chernobog". Yaroslav Gorbachov believes that the third credible potential source (after the Chronica Slavorum and the Knýtlinga saga) is Al-Masudi's The Meadows of Gold, but he is not sure about the credibility of this work. It describes an idol on the Black Mountain temple with black animals and people with black skin:
Chernobog in popular culture
Film and television
As Chernabog, he appears in many Disney productions:
Fantasia (1940) – appears in the segment Night on Bald Mountain based on the work of Mussorgsky. Walt Disney called Chernabog "The Devil himself". In 2015 a full-length live-action adaptation based on this segment was announced.
The Reluctant Dragon (1941) – the statue of Chernabog in the shop
Michael & Mickey (1991) – short film; Chernabog appears in the cinema
Fantasia 2000 (1999) – continuation of the 1940 film; Chernabog appears in references to the first film
Mickey's House of Villains (2003) – as a guest along with other Disney villains
Mickey Mouse (since 2013) – in the episode "Touchdown and Out" as Mickey Mouse opponent. In the episode "The Scariest Story Ever: A Mickey Mouse Halloween Spooktacular!" visible in the background during the introductory subtitles
The Sorcerer's Apprentice (2010) – the film is based on the Fantasia of 1940; at an early stage of production, his participation in the film was considered, but it was eventually abandoned in order to present it in a possible continuation of the film. Gargoyle, which is sometimes seen in the company of an antagonist, resembles Chernabog
Once Upon a Time (2011-2018) – appears in "Darkness on the Edge of Town" episode
As Czernobog:
American Gods (2017) – television series adaptation of the Neil Gaiman novel; one of the Slavic gods, played by Peter Stormare
As Chernobog:
The Witcher (2021) - television series adaptation of the Andrzej Sapkowski series of novels; one of the monsters is "a some kind of chernobog" as quoted by Geralt of Rivia.
As Crnobog:
Law & Order: Organized Crime (2022) - in the episode "Nemesis" (S2E10) as the name of a black-hat hacker collective.
Video games
City of Heroes (2004-2012) – as a unique villain leader of 'The Skulls' street gang and drug kingpin in the finale of The Superadine Ring story arc.
Shin Megami Tensei (1992) – as a summonable demon with a scythe, as well as a skeletal figure wielding a sword surrounded by mushrooms
Blood (1997) – Tchernobog is the primary antagonist, being depicted as a "bloodied, horned Dark God of monstrous appearance", who controls the cult known as "the Cabal"
Shadow Hearts (2001) - Czernobog is the highest-level dark elemental with whom the protagonist can fuse.
Crusader Kings II (2012) – In expansions, Monks and Mystics, when a player plays as a pagan Slavic ruler, a Chernobog appears as a "Satanic" god, worshipped by a "Cold Bloods" sect
Final Fantasy XIV (2013) – Chernobog is a top-class monster that appears as a mission for head hunters
Shin Megami Tensei IV (2013)
GTA Online (2013) – HVY Chernobog is an armed military vehicle
Smite (2014) – as a playable character added in the May 2018 update. He is also the first god of the Slavic pantheon in this game
The Shrouded Isle (2017) – The Chernobog god is worshipped by the villagers, who offer him sacrifices of people
Boss Rush Mythology (2020) - Chernobog is the 18th boss of the game.
Arknights (2020) - Chernobog is a city of Ursus, a fictional version of the Russian Empire, which a portion of the main storyline took place in.
Disney:
Kingdom Hearts (2002) – as a boss during the End of the World
Kingdom Hearts 3D: Dream Drop Distance (2012)
Epic Mickey 2: The Power of Two (2012) – Chernobog appears on two transition levels related to the Night on Bald Mountain
Books and comics
Walter Scott: Ivanhoe (1820) – Zernebock is presented as the god of the ancient Saxons
Neil Gaiman: American Gods (2001) – as a Slavic god of death, uses a hammer to kill
Heirs of Alexandria series (od 2002) – as an antagonist
S. M. Stirling: The Peshawar Lancers (2002) – the action takes place in 2025, 147 years after the meteorite rain that destroyed the Earth. The Russians, believing that God and Jesus abandoned the world, began to worship Chernobog
Charles Stross: The Laundry Files (od 2004)
The Kingdom Keepers (od 2005) – a series of books for children; Chernobog is the leader of villains
Naomi Novik: Spinning Silver (2018) – is portrayed as a demon of fire and consumption, is a main antagonist of the novel.
Chernobog appears as the god of chaos, darkness, and night in the Balto-Slavic pantheon of the Marvel universe. He is a member of Winter Guard, a group of Russian superheroes.
Chernabog appears in the Illona Andrews - Magic Series.
Richard Kadrey: Aloha From Hell (2011) - Chernabog (spelled "Chernovog") is represented as the fallen angel tasked with running a part of Tartarus, as god's punishment for starting a second rebellion in heaven.
Chernobog appears in Creepypasta story 'Eyeless Jack' created by La Mishi Mishi in response to a picture posted on 4chan by user Arnon. Though it is not the original story created, it is definitely the more popular story.
SCP-6198 is the designated item number for Chernobog within the SCP Foundation.
Other media
Modest Mussorgsky: Night on Bald Mountain. In this symphonic poem, the Chernobog is presented as a winged demon calling the souls of the dead.
See also
Veles
Nyja
Notes
References
Slavic gods
Chaos gods
Underworld gods
Death gods
Night gods
Evil deities | [
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245186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deletion%20%28genetics%29 | Deletion (genetics) | In genetics, a deletion (also called gene deletion, deficiency, or deletion mutation) (sign: Δ) is a mutation (a genetic aberration) in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is left out during DNA replication. Any number of nucleotides can be deleted, from a single base to an entire piece of chromosome.
The smallest single base deletion mutations occur by a single base flipping in the template DNA, followed by template DNA strand slippage, within the DNA polymerase active site.
Deletions can be caused by errors in chromosomal crossover during meiosis, which causes several serious genetic diseases. Deletions that do not occur in multiples of three bases can cause a frameshift by changing the 3-nucleotide protein reading frame of the genetic sequence. Deletions are representative of eukaryotic organisms, including humans and not in prokaryotic organisms, such as bacteria.
Causes
Causes include the following:
Losses from translocation
Chromosomal crossovers within a chromosomal inversion
Unequal crossing over
Breaking without rejoining
For synapsis to occur between a chromosome with a large intercalary deficiency and a normal complete homolog, the unpaired region of the normal homolog must loop out of the linear structure into a deletion or compensation loop.
Types
Types of deletion include the following:
Terminal deletion – a deletion that occurs towards the end of a chromosome.
Intercalary/interstitial deletion – a deletion that occurs from the interior of a chromosome.
Microdeletion – a relatively small amount of deletion (up to 5Mb that could include a dozen genes).
Micro-deletion is usually found in children with physical abnormalities. A large amount of deletion would result in immediate abortion (miscarriage).
Effects
Small deletions are less likely to be fatal; large deletions are usually fatal – there are always variations based on which genes are lost. Some medium-sized deletions lead to recognizable human disorders, e.g. Williams syndrome.
Deletion of a number of pairs that is not evenly divisible by three will lead to a frameshift mutation, causing all of the codons occurring after the deletion to be read incorrectly during translation, producing a severely altered and potentially nonfunctional protein. In contrast, a deletion that is evenly divisible by three is called an in-frame deletion.
Deletions are responsible for an array of genetic disorders, including some cases of male infertility, two thirds of cases of Duchenne muscular dystrophy, and two thirds of cases of cystic fibrosis (those caused by ΔF508). Deletion of part of the short arm of chromosome 5 results in Cri du chat syndrome. Deletions in the SMN-encoding gene cause spinal muscular atrophy, the most common genetic cause of infant death.
Microdeletions are associated with many different conditions, including Angelman Syndrome, Prader-Willi Syndrome, and DiGeorge Syndrome. Some syndromes, including Angelman syndrome and Prader-Willi syndrome, are associated with both microdeletions and genomic imprinting, meaning that same microdeletion can cause two different syndromes depending on which parent the deletion came from.
Recent work suggests that some deletions of highly conserved sequences (CONDELs) may be responsible for the evolutionary differences present among closely related species. Such deletions in humans, referred to as hCONDELs, may be responsible for the anatomical and behavioral differences between humans, chimpanzees and other varieties of mammals like ape or monkeys.
Recent comprehensive patient-level classification and quantification of driver events in TCGA cohorts revealed that there are on average 12 driver events per tumor, of which 2.1 are deletions of tumor suppressors.
Detection
The introduction of molecular techniques in conjunction with classical cytogenetic methods has in recent years greatly improved the diagnostic potential for chromosomal abnormalities. In particular, microarray-comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) based on the use of BAC clones promises a sensitive strategy for the detection of DNA copy-number changes on a genome-wide scale. The resolution of detection could be as high as >30,000 "bands" and the size of chromosomal deletion detected could as small as 5–20 kb in length. Other computation methods were selected to discover DNA sequencing deletion errors such as end-sequence profiling.
See also
Indel
Chromosome abnormalities
Null allele
List of genetic disorders
Medical genetics
Microdeletion syndrome
Chromosomal deletion syndrome
Insertion (genetics)
References
Modification of genetic information
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